Full text of "The Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information"

THE 



ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771. 

SECOND ten 17771784. 

THIRD eighteen 17881797. 

FOURTH twenty 1801 1810. 

FIFTH twenty 18151817. 

SIXTH twenty 18231824. 

SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842. 

EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860. 

NINTH , twenty-five 18751889. 

TENTH ninth edition and eleven 

supplementary volumes, 1902 1903. 

ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911. 



COPYRIGHT 

in all countries subscribing to the 
Bern Convention 

by 
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS 

of the 
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE 



All rights reserved 



THE 



ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 



DICTIONARY 



OF 



ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL 

INFORMATION 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME I 

A to ANDROPHAGI 




Cambridge, England: 

at the University Press 

New York, 35 West 32nd Street 
1910 



NR 



Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, 

by 
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company 



DEDICATED BY PERMISSION 



TO 



HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH 

KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS 

EMPEROR OF INDIA 

AND TO 

WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



1970 



PREFATORY NOTE 

THE Encyclopedia Britannica, of which the Eleventh Edition is now issued by the 
University of Cambridge, has a history extending over 140 years. The First Edition, 
in three quarto volumes, was issued in weekly numbers (price 6d. each) from 1768 to 
1771 by "a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland." The proprietors were Colin MacFarquhar, an 
Edinburgh printer, and Andrew Bell, the principal Scottish engraver of that day. It seems that 
MacFarquhar, a man of wide knowledge and excellent judgment, was the real originator of the 
work, though his want of capital prevented his undertaking it by himself. The work was edited 
and in great part written by William Smellie, another Edinburgh printer, who was bold enough 
to undertake "fifteen capital sciences" for his own share. The numerous plates were engraved 
by Bell so admirably that some of them have been reproduced in every edition down to the 
present one. 

The plan of the work differed from all preceding "dictionaries of arts and sciences," as 
encyclopaedias were usually called until then in Great Britain; it combined the plan of Dennis de 
Coetlogon (1745) with that in common use on the one hand keeping important subjects together, 
and on the other facilitating reference by numerous and short separate articles arranged in 
alphabetical order. Though the infant Encyclopedia Britannica omitted the whole field of history 
and biography as beneath the dignity of encyclopaedias, it speedily acquired sufficient popularity to 
justify the preparation of a new edition on a much larger scale. The decision to include history 
and biography caused the secession of Smellie; but MacFarquhar himself edited the work, with 
the assistance of James Tytler, famous as the first Scottish aeronaut, and for the first time produced 
an encyclopaedia which covered the whole field of human knowledge. This Second Edition was 
issued in numbers from June 1777 to September 1784, and was afterwards bound up in ten quarto 
volumes, containing (8595 pages and 340 plates) more than three times as much material as the 
First Edition. 

These earliest editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica consisted mainly of what may be 
described as compilation; like all their predecessors, from the time of Alsted to that of Ephraim 
Chambers, they had been put together by one or two men who were still able to take the whole of 
human knowledge for their province. It was with the Third Edition that the plan of drawing on 
specialist learning, which has since given the Encyclopedia Britannica its high reputation, was first 
adopted. This edition, which was begun in 1788 and completed, in eighteen volumes, in 1797, was 
edited by MacFarquhar until his death in 1793, when about two-thirds of the work were completed. 
Bell, the surviving proprietor, then appointed George Gleig afterwards Bishop of Brechin as 

vii 



viii PREFATORY NOTE 

editor, and it was he who enlisted the assistance, as contributors, of the most eminent men of science 
then living in Scotland. Professors Robison, Thomas Thomson and Playfair were the most 
notable of these new specialist contributors, and a Supplement in two volumes was issued in 1801 
to allow them to extend their work to those earlier letters of the alphabet which had already been 
issued by MacFarquhar. It was their labours which first gave the Encyclopedia Britannica its 
pre-eminent standing among works of reference, and prepared the way for it to become, as a later 
editor claimed, not merely a register but an instrument of research, since thereafter the leading 
specialists in all departments were invited to contribute their unpublished results to its pages. 

In the Fourth Edition, published by Andrew Bell in twenty volumes from 1 80 1 to 1810, the 
principle of specialist contributions was considerably extended, but it was only brought to such 
degree of perfection as was possible at the time by Archibald Constable, "the great Napoleon of the 
realms of print," who purchased the copyright of the Encyclopedia Britannica soon after Bell's death 
in 1809. Constable lavished his energy and his money on the famous "Supplement to the Fourth, 
Fifth and Sixth Editions," which in 1813 he commissioned Macvey Napier to edit. It was with 
the appearance of this Supplement that the Encyclopedia Britannica ceased to be a purely Scottish 
undertaking, and blossomed out into that great cosmopolitan or international enterprise which it has 
since become. The most eminent writers, scholars and men of science in England and on the 
continent of Europe, as well as in Scotland itself, were enlisted in the work: Sir Walter Scott, 
Jeffrey, Leslie, Playfair and Sir Humphry Davy, Dugald Stewart who received the then unpre- 
cedented sum of .1000 for a single contribution Ricardo, Malthus and Thomas Young, with 
foreign men of science like Arago and Biot. From this time onward, indeed, a list of the 
contributors to successive editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica would be a list of the most 
eminent British and American writers and thinkers of each generation; the work had become the 
product of the organized co-operation of acknowledged leaders of the world's thought in every 
department of human knowledge. For this advance the credit is mainly due to Constable. 

The Fifth and Sixth Editions, each in twenty volumes, issued by Constable between 1815 and 
1824, were practically reprints of the Fourth, the Supplement issued in six volumes from 1816 to 
1824 being considered adequate to supply their deficiencies. The Seventh Edition, edited by 
Macvey Napier on the same lines as the Supplement, of which it incorporated a great part, was 
brought out by a new publisher, Adam Black, who had bought the copyright on Constable's failure. 
This edition was issued from 183010 1842, and was comprised in twenty-one volumes, which included 
a general index to the whole work. The Eighth Edition, under the editorship of T. Stewart Traill, 
was issued by the firm of A. & C. Black, from 1853 to 1860, in twenty-one volumes, with a separate 
index volume. 

The Ninth Edition was then undertaken by the same firm on a scale which Adam Black con- 
sidered so hazardous that he refused to have any part in the undertaking, and he accordingly 
advertised his retirement from the firm. This Edition began to appear in 1875, under the editor- 
ship of Thomas Spencer Baynes, and was completed in 1889 by William Robertson Smith. It 
consisted of twenty-four volumes, containing 21,572 pages and 302 plates, with a separate index 
volume. Adam Black's prognostications of failure were signally falsified by the success of the work, 
of which nearly half a million sets including American pirated and mutilated editions were 
ultimately sold. The great possibilities of popularity for the Encyclopedia Britannica in Great 



PREFATORY NOTE ix 

Britain were only realized, however, when in 1898 The Times undertook to sell a verbatim reprint of 
the Ninth Edition at about half the price originally asked for it by the publishers. The success of 
this reprint led to the publication by The Times in 1902 of an elaborate supplement in eleven New 
Volumes (one containing new maps and one a comprehensive index to the whole work), constituting, 
with the previous twenty-four volumes, the Tenth Edition. The Eleventh Edition, which super- 
sedes both Ninth and Tenth, and represents in an entirely new and original form a fresh survey 
of the whole field of human thought and achievement, written by some 1500 eminent specialists 
drawn from nearly every country of the civilized world, incorporating the results of research and the 
progress of events up to the middle of 1910, is now published by the University of Cambridge, 
where it is hoped that the Encyclopedia Britannica has at length found a permanent home. 

It will be seen from this brief survey of the history of the Encyclopedia Britannica that, while 
the literary and scholarly success of the work has been uniform and continuous, its commercial 
career has naturally been subject to vicissitudes. Six different publishing firms have been at 
various times associated, with its production; and the increasing magnitude of the work, con- 
sequent on the steady growth of knowledge, made this wellnigh inevitable. The Encyclopedia 
Britannica has to-day become something more than a commercial venture, or even a national 
enterprise. It is a vast cosmopolitan work of learning, which can find no home so appropriate 
as an ancient university. 

The present publication of the new Encyclopedia Britannica by the University of Cambridge 
is a natural step in the evolution of the university as an educational institution and a home 
of research. The medieval University of Cambridge began its educational labours as an 
institution intended almost exclusively for the instruction of the clergy, to whose needs its 
system of studies was necessarily in a large measure accommodated. The Revival of Learning, 
the Renaissance and the Reformation widened its sphere of intellectual work and its interests, 
as well as its actual curriculum. The igth century saw the complete abolition of the 
various tests which formerly shut the gates of the English universities against a large part of 
the people. The early establishment in Cambridge of special colleges for women was also a 
sign of expanding activities. About the same time the University Extension movement, first 
advocated at Cambridge in 1871 on the ground that the ancient universities were not mere 
clusters of private establishments but national institutions, led to a wider conception of the 
possibilities of utilizing the intellectual resources of the universities for the general diffusion of 
knowledge and culture; and the system of Local Examinations brought the university into close 
contact with secondary education throughout the country. But the public to which the University 
of Cambridge thus appealed, though wider than that of the college lecture-rooms, was still 
necessarily limited. Practically it is only through the medium of the University Press that 
Cambridge can enter into and maintain direct relations with the whole of the English-speaking 
world. The present time seems appropriate for an effort towards thus signally extending the 
intellectual and educational influence of the university. 

To this end, the University of Cambridge has undertaken the publication of the Encyclopedia 
Britannica, and now issues the Eleventh Edition of that work. These twenty-eight volumes and 
index aim at achieving the high ambition of bringing all extant knowledge within the reach of 
every class of readers. While the work, in its present form, is to some extent based on the 



x PREFATORY NOTE 

preceding edition, the whole field has been re-surveyed with the guidance of the most eminent 
specialists. The editors early decided that the new edition should be planned and written as a 
whole, and refused to content themselves with the old-fashioned plan of regarding each volume as a 
separate unit, to be compiled and published by itself. They were thus able to arrange their material 
so as to give an organic unity to the whole work and to place all the various subjects under 
their natural headings, in the form which experience has shown to be the most convenient for 
a work of universal reference. An important consequence of this method of editing is that the 
twenty-eight volumes are now ready for publication at the same time, and that the complete work 
can be offered to the public in its entirety. Although the work has been reduced to the smallest 
compass consistent with lucidity bibliographies of all subjects which call for assistance of this 
nature being provided in aid of more detailed study the aim throughout has been to maintain the 
highest standard of scholarly authority, and to provide a thorough elucidation of important scientific 
problems for which the modern inquirer has no adequate text-books. This Eleventh Edition 
of the Encyclopedia Britannica is now, therefore, offered to the public by the University of 
Cambridge in the hope and belief that it will be found to be a trustworthy guide to sound learning, 
and an instrument of culture of world-wide influence. 

CAMBRIDGE, 

November I, 



EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

IN the Prefatory Note the history of the production of the successive editions of the Encyclopedia 
Britannica has been briefly told; and elsewhere in these volumes, under the heading of 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA (vol. ix. p. 369), an account is given in greater detail of the particular form of 
literature to which that name applies. It is no longer necessary, as was done in some of the 
earlier editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, to defend in a Preface the main principle of the system 
by which subjects are divided for treatment on a dictionary plan under the headings most directly 
suggesting explanation or discussion. The convenience of an arrangement of material 
based on a single alphabetization of subject words and proper names has established of the book 
itself in the common sense of mankind, and in recent years has led to the multiplication 
of analogous works of reference. There are, however, certain points in the execution of the Eleventh 
Edition to which, in a preliminary survey, attention may profitably be drawn. 

The Eleventh Edition and its Predecessors. 

It is important to deal first with the relationship of the Eleventh Edition to its predecessors. In 
addition to providing a digest of general information, such as is required in a reference-book pure and 

simple, the object of the Encyclopedia Britannica has always been to give reasoned dis- 

..,,.. . A Debt to earlier 

cussions on all the great questions of practical or speculative interest, presenting the e< ji tions 

results of accumulated knowledge and original inquiry in the form of articles which are 
themselves authoritative contributions to the literature of their subjects, adapted for the purpose of 
systematic reading and study. In this way its successive editions have been among the actual sources 
through which progressive improvements have been attained in the exposition of many important branches 
of learning. The Ninth Edition in particular, to which the Eleventh is the lineal successor for the 

name of the Tenth was used only to indicate the incorporation of supplementary vol- 

...-,-...,. r u 11 j *r. Their special 

umes which left the main fabric untouched was universally recognized as giving me . 

most scholarly contemporary expression to this constructive ideal. The reputation thus 
gained by the Encyclopedia Britannica as a comprehensive embodiment of accurate scholarship 
the word being used here for authoritative exposition in all departments of knowledge carries with 
it a responsibility which can only be fulfilled by periodical revision in the light of later research. Yet 
in any complete new edition, and certainly in that which is here presented, due acknowledgment 
must be made to the impulse given by those who kept the sacred fire burning in earlier days. In this 
respect, if a special debt is owing to the editors of the Ninth Edition, and particularly to the great 
services of Robertson Smith, it must not be forgotten that long before their time the Encyclopedia 
Britannica had enlisted among its contributors many eminent writers, whose articles, substantially car- 
ried forward at each revision, became closely associated with the name and tradition of the work. 1 To 

1 In earlier days the reverence due to deceased authority was perhaps carried to extreme lengths. The following footnote, attached in the 
Eighth Edition to Sir Walter Scott's article DRAMA, may be cited: "It is proper to state here . . . that this article is reprinted as it originally 
appeared in the supplement to the fourth, fifth and sixth editions of this work without any of those adaptations which the course of time and change 

xi 



xii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

preserve the continuity of its historic associations, so far as might be consistent with the public interest, 
and with what was due to progress in knowledge, was one of the first duties of those responsible for a 
new edition; and just as the Ninth Edition carried forward, with notable additions or substitutions, work 
contributed to the Eighth and earlier editions, so it provided matter for utilization in the Eleventh, which 
in its turn had to accommodate the new knowledge of a later generation. 

In considering the treatment, however, of the mass of material thus handed down, the editor of the 
Eleventh Edition had an entirely new situation to deal with. It is necessary here to explain why it is 
that the Eleventh Edition is much more than a revision is, indeed, a new edifice as com- 
pared with the structure of the Ninth Edition. In the whole architecture of the latter 
there was a serious flaw, due to no want of ability in editors or contributors, but to the 
conditions imposed upon them in the system of publication. 

The economic and mechanical obstacles to the production of a great encyclopaedia otherwise than 
in a series of volumes separately issued at intervals during a number of years were formerly considered 
prohibitive. Thus the Ninth Edition, the first volume of which was published in 1875 
m and the twenty-fifth in 1889, was incomplete for some sixteen years after its real incep- 
tion. Not only does such a long interval between the start and the finish involve the 
possibility of a change in editorial direction and conception such as happened in 1881 when Spencer 
Baynes was compelled by ill-health to hand over the reins to Robertson Smith; but even if the same 
editorial policy remained to dominate the work, the continual progress of time was constantly chang- 
ing the conditions under which it was exercised. With such a system of publication an encyclopaedia 
can have no proper unity of conception or uniformity of treatment. It cannot be planned from 
the beginning so as to present at its completion a satisfactory synoptic view of any department of 
knowledge. The historical record is restricted by the accident of the dates at which the separate vol- 
umes are published, in such a way that the facts included in one volume may contradict those in 
another. Individual volumes, the contents of which are arbitrarily determined by the alphabetical 
order of headings, may indeed be abreast of the learning and accomplishments of their day, but 
each time a later volume appears the circumstances have altered, and there is every 

Defect of chance that some integral portion of what had previously been published may be 

division under . ... . _, ., . .. /*.!. -NT- ^ T-J^- c ^i 

different dates stultified. Those who were responsible for the execution of the Ninth Edition of the 

Encyclopedia Britannica did their best under an impossible system. They made it a 
collection of detached monographs of the highest authority and value. In their day the demand of a 
modern public for "up-to-date-ness" had not come into existence, and it seemed perfectly reason- 
able in 1879 to bring the article on the history of England no further than the accession of Queen Victoria. 
But it was not their failure to appreciate the importance of dealing with the latest events in history that 
made so much of the Ninth Edition useless in preparing its successor. When only this was in question, 
later history could be added. It was the fact that, owing to its system of publication, its arrangement 
was not encyclopaedic, and that in preparing an edition which for the first time had the advantage of being 
systematic in the distribution of its material, there was no way of adapting to its needs what had been 
written originally on a faulty principle. 

Until the year 1902, when, within nine months, nine supplementary volumes of text were issued 
by The Times, no publisher had cared or dared to attempt to produce at one time the whole of any 

work of similar magnitude. It was the regular practice to issue volume by volume. 
^h'dn I* 1 "* On this svstem the P ublic has been furnished with the Oxford New English Diction- 
employed. ar y ( st ^ incomplete in 1910, though work had begun in the early 'sixties and the first 

volume appeared in 1888) and with the Dictionary of National Biography, while the French 
La Grande Encyclopedic, which took even longer than the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica 
to complete, was coming out in its thirty-one volumes between 1885 and 1902. But the proof obtained 
in 1902 of the practicability of simultaneous production in the case of the supplementary volumes which 

of circumstances render necessary in ordinary cases. We have deemed this homage due to the genius and fame of the illustrious author, whose 
splendid view of the origin and progress of the dramatic art we have accordingly presented to the reader exactly as it proceeded from his own hand, 
leaving every contemporaneous allusion and illustration untouched." It may be remarked that this footnote, which was reprinted from the Seventh 
Edition, was itself carried forward without being brought up to date, apparently in the same spirit; and in another footnote, also reprinted from the 
Seventh Edition, a reference is made to allusions "on p. 147," which were indeed on p. 147 of the Seventh Edition, but are on p. 137 of the Eighth! 



EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xiii 

converted the Ninth into the Tenth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, made it imperative to 
extend this limited experiment to the making of an entirely new edition. By this means a 
new value might be given to a work which aimed not merely at providing a storehouse of 
facts, but expounding all knowledge as part of an ordered system. For the problem here was 
bound up with the question of the date of publication to a unique degree. In some other 
sorts of book the fact that successive volumes appear at certain intervals of time only affects 
the convenience of the purchaser as, for instance, in the case of the Cambridge Modern History; 
the various volumes do not cover the same field or touch the same materials. But in an ency- 
clopaedia it is only the alphabetization of the headings which causes them to fall in distinct volumes, 
and the accident of position separates the treatment of the same or closely related subjects in 
such a way that, if they are discussed from the point of view of widely different dates, the 
organic unity of the work is entirely lost. Thanks to the enterprising provision of capital, and 
the co-operation of a far-sighted business management, it was possible to start 
the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica with the 
knowledge that it would be published as a whole at one date. The separate volumes, such a wor i f ^ 
whatever their number, would no longer represent so many lapses of time and so many 
distinct units in executive conception, but merely mechanical divisions for convenience in handling. 
And arrangements were made so that the printing of the whole edition should eventually take hardly 
more time than had been required for the printing and correcting of a single volume under the 
old system. 

The opportunity thus provided was in many ways more appropriate to the making of an 
entirely new work than to the revision of an old one. For the Ninth Edition was wanting in pre- 
cisely that character of interdependence in all its parts which could now be given 
to the various related articles. Moreover, experience had shown that, as compared . 
with other encyclopaedias of less ambitious scope, not intended for systematic study n ss/6/e. 
or continuous reading, its arrangement as a work of reference had defects which 
resulted in some injustice being done to its merits as a series of individual contributions to 
learning. There was no reason why both these purposes should not be served, and attention 
be paid to distributing the material under the much larger number of headings which are required 
for rapid and easy reference, when once it was possible to ignore the particular order in which the 
subjects were treated. Since none of the work was printed or published until the whole of it 
was ready, new headings could always be introduced with their appropriate matter, according as 
the examination of what was written under another heading revealed omissions which showed 
that some related subject required explanation on its own account, or according as the progress 
of time up to the year of publication involved the emergence of new issues, to which previously 
no separate reference would have been expected. The execution of the Eleventh Edition, planned 
on uniform lines as a single organism, and thus admitting of continual improvement in detail, 
irrespectively of the distribution of matter under this or that letter of the alphabet, could proceed 
in all its parts pari passu, the various articles being kept open for revision or rewriting, so as to 
represent the collective knowledge and the contemporary standpoint of the date at which the whole 
was issued. 

This new design involved the maintenance, during all the years of preparation, of an active collabora- 
tion among a vast body of contributors. The formal structure of the Ninth Edition necessarily dis- 
appeared, leaving only its component parts as building material for incorporation in the 
new edifice to such degree as examination might prove its adaptability. The site in this "T^ 
case the whole field of knowledge was mapped out afresh under the advice of special- 
ist departmental advisers, who, in providing for the occupation of the different 
areas, co-operated with a central editorial staff, comprising many members, each of whom was responsi- 
ble to the Editor-in-Chief for a particular section of the work. In this manner what, it is hoped, is a 
more complete articulation of subjects was effected, while co-operation between the contributors who 
dealt with each homogeneous department of knowledge was combined with the concentration in editorial 
direction, which alone could make the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica an organic unit. 



xiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

The result of the new survey was a distribution of material under a far larger number of headings than 
had been included in the Ninth Edition some 40,000 instead of some 17,000; and the method of simul- 
taneous construction enabled the co-ordination which is of such peculiar importance hi 
.. a work of reference to be applied systematically by the editorial staff. The authority 

which attaches to the names of individual contributors remains, as before, an important 
feature of the Eleventh Edition, but by these means, it is hoped, the authority which attaches to the 
Encyclopaedia Britannica itself is more firmly established. When Robertson Smith finally wrote his 
preface to the Index volume of the Ninth Edition, he said: "The use of initials (as signatures to articles) 
was not designed to lighten the responsibility of the editors. No editor can possess the knowledge 
which would enable him to control the work of his contributors in all the subjects treated 
/ th it ^ m ^ e ^cyetoaKa, but no effort has been spared on the part of the editorial staff to 
secure the accuracy and sufficiency of every contribution, and to prevent those repeti- 
tions and inconcinnities which necessarily occur where each contributor is absolutely and solely re- 
sponsible for the articles which bear his name." The principle here enunciated, which represents the 
tradition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the matter of the correct relationship between editors and 
contributors, and the responsibility attaching to individual signatures, has been adopted hi the 
Eleventh Edition, but with all the advantages resulting alike from simultaneous production and 
from the fact that the Editor-in-Chief was assisted by a much larger staff, working under conditions 
which enabled the editorial control to be effective to a degree unattainable under the earlier 
system. In concert with the numerous eminent writers whose signatures give individual inter- 
est and weight to their contributions, the whole work and not only the unsigned articles, 
fo^reference" >man y ^ Wfl i cn indeed have equally high authority behind them passed through the 
detailed scrutiny of the editorial staff, whose duty it was to see that it provided what 
those who used any part of the book could reasonably expect to find, to remedy those "inconcinnities" 
to which Robertson Smith alluded, and to secure the accuracy in the use of names, the inclusion of dates, 
and similar minutia, which is essential in a work of reference. 

A great deal of the older fabric was obviously incompatible with the new scheme of treatment; but, 

where possible, those earlier contributions have been preserved which are of the nature of classics in the 

world of letters. By a selective process which, it is believed, gives new value to the old 

material ' material by the revision, at the hands of their own authors or of later authorities, of 

such articles or portions of articles as were found to fit accurately into their several places 

or by the inclusion under other headings of a consideration of controverted questions on which the 

writers may have taken a strong personal view, itself of historical interest their retention has been effected 

so as to conform to the ideal of making the work as a whole representative of the best thought of a later 

day. 

Questions of Formal Arrangement. 

Both hi the addition of new words for new. subjects, and in the employment of different words 
for old subjects, the progress of the world demands a reconsideration from time to time of the 

headings under which its accumulated experiences can best be presented in a work which 
. ,. employs the dictionary plan as a key to its contents. No little trouble was therefore 

expended, in planning the Eleventh Edition, on the attempt to suit the word to the sub- 
ject in the way most likely to be generally useful for reference. While the selection has at times been, 
of necessity, somewhat arbitrary, it has been guided from first to last by an endeavour to follow the 
natural mental processes of the average educated reader. But it was impossible to interpret what 

is "natural" in this connexion without consideration for the advances which have 

been made hi terminological accuracy, alike in the technicalities of science and 
and common J ' 

sense. m "** f rms * language adopted by precise writers, whose usage has become or 

is rapidly becoming part of the common stock. The practice of modern schools 

and the vocabulary of a modern curriculum, as well as the predominating example of expert 



EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xv 

authorities, impose themselves gradually on the public mind, and constitute new conventions which 
are widely assimilated. In forecasting what would be for the convenience of a new generation of 
readers, it has seemed best to aim at adopting the nearest approach to correct modern terminology, 
while avoiding mere pedantry on the one hand, and on the other a useless abandonment of well- 
established English custom. 

It is easier, however, to lay down principles than to carry them out consistently in face of the ob- 
stinacy of the materials with which one is dealing in an encyclopaedia which attempts to combine accu- 
rate scholarship with general utility and convenience. In the case of biographical articles, _. , 
for instance, it was decided that the proper headings were the names by which the in- 
dividuals concerned are in fact commonly known. Thus "George Sand" is now dealt with under her 
pen-name (SAND, GEORGE) and not under that of Madame Dudevant; "George Eliot" is no longer hid- 
den away under her married name of Mrs Cross; and "Mark Twain" is taken as the permanent name 
by which the world will know Mr Clemens. But it is not only in the case of pseudonyms that there 
is. a difficulty in deciding upon the heading which is most appropriate. In variance with 
the practice of the Dictionary of National Biography, all articles on titled persons are here et J^" t f 
arranged under the title headings and not the family names. In principle it is believed 
that this is much the more convenient system, for in most cases the public (especially outside the British 
Islands) does not know what the family name of an English peer may be. Moreover, the system adopted 
by the Dictionary of National Biography sacrifices a very important feature in connexion with these bio- 
graphical articles, namely, the history of the title itself, which has often passed through several families 
and can only be conveniently followed when all the holders are kept together. As a rule, this system 
of putting peers under the headings of their titles agrees with the principle of adopting the names by 
which people actually are called; but sometimes it is too glaringly otherwise. Nobody would think of 
looking for Francis Bacon under the heading of Viscount St Albans, or for Horace Walpole under that 
of Earl of Orford. In such cases what is believed to be the natural expectation of readers has 
been consulted. The exceptional use, however, of the family name as a heading for persons of title has 
been reserved strictly for what may be regarded as settled conventions, and where reasonably possi- 
ble the rule has been followed; thus Harley and St John are dealt with as Earl of Oxford and Viscount 
Bolingbroke respectively. On the other hand, when a celebrity is commonly known, not under his 
family name but under a title which eventually was changed for a different one of higher rank, the more 
convenient arrangement has seemed to be notwithstanding general usage to associate the article with 
the higher title, and so to bring it into connexion with the historical peerage. Thus the account of the 
statesman commonly called by his earlier title of Earl of Danby is deliberately placed 
under his later title of Duke of Leeds, and that of Lord Castlereagh under Marquess of Use of the 
Londonderry. If the result of such exceptions to the rule might seem to be that in cer- 
tain cases a reader would not know where to turn, the answer is that a reference to the Index, where cross- 
references are given, will decide. In the text of the work, although a great deal has been done to refer 
a reader from one article to another, mere cross-references such as " Oanby, Earl of; see LEEDS, DUKE 
or" are not included as distinct entries; it was found that the number of such headings would 
be very large, and they would only have duplicated the proper function of the Index, which 
now acts in this respect as the real guide to the contents and should be regarded as an integral part of 
the work. 

The reference just made to the Dictionary of National Biography may here be supplemented by a 
few words as to the British biographies in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. The 
whole standard of biographical writing of this kind has undoubtedly been raised by the labours of Sir 
Leslie Stephen, Dr Sidney Lee, and their collaborators, in the compilation of that invaluable work; and 
no subsequent publication could fail to profit, both by the scholarly example there set, 

and by the results of the original research embodied in it. But in the corresponding Progress in 

,. , . ,, , ,. . treatment of 

articles in the hncydopodia Bntanmca advantage has been taken of the opportunity for biography. 

further research and the incorporation of later information, and they represent an in- 
dependent study, the details of which sometimes differ from what is given in the Dictionary, but must 
not for that reason be thought in haste to be incorrect. Allowance being made for a somewhat different 



xvi EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

standard in the selection of individuals for separate biographies, and for the briefer treatment, the at- 
tempt has been made to carry even a step forward the ideals of the Dictionary in regard to accuracy of 
detail and critical judgment. This has largely been made possible by the existence of the Dictionary, 
but the original work done in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the same field- 
drawing as it can upon a number of biographical articles, already classics, hi its earlier editions gives 

it an independent authority even in the sphere of British national biography. More- 
character over ' ^ e mc l us i n o * biographies of eminent persons who died after the Dictionary was 

supplemented in 1901, and of others still living in 1910, results hi a considerable extension 
of the biographical area, even as regards individuals of British nationality hi the narrowest sense. The 
articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica, however, are of course not limited to personages of the British 
Islands. Not only are biographies here included of the great men and women of French, German, 
Italian, Belgian, Dutch, Russian, Scandinavian, Japanese, and other foreign nationalities, as well as 
of those of the ancient world, but the same standard of selection has been applied to American and 
British Colonial biography as to English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish. Indeed the Encyclopedia Bri- 
tannica may now claim for the first time to supply a really adequate Dictionary of American National 
Biography, covering all those with whom the citizens of the United States are nationally concerned. 
It thus completes its representation of the English-speaking peoples, to all of whom English 
history, even in its narrower sense, is a common heritage, and in its evolution a common ex- 
ample. 

Another form of the terminological problem, to which reference was made above, is found in 
the transliteration of foreign names, and the conversion of the names of foreign places and countries 

into English equivalents. As regards the latter, there is no English standard which can 
sa ^ to ^ e un ^ versa ^> though in particular cases there is a convention which it would 
names. aDSUr d to attempt to displace for any reason of supposed superior accuracy. It would 

be pragmatical hi the extreme to force upon the English-speaking world a system of call- 
ing all foreign places by their local names, even though it might be thought that each nationality had 
a right to settle the nomenclature of its country and the towns or districts within it. In general the 
English conventions must stand. One of these days the world may agree that an international nomen- 
clature is desirable and feasible, but not yet; and the country which its own citizens call Deutschland 
and the French I'Allemagne still remains Germany to those who use the English language. Similarly 

Cologne (Koln), Florence (Firenze), or Vienna (Wien) are bound to retain their English 
CU bl names m an English book. But all cases are not so simple. The world abounds hi less 

important places, for which the English names have no standardized spelling; different 
English newspapers on a single day, or a single newspaper at intervals of a few weeks or months, give 
them several varieties of form ; and in Asia or Africa the latest explorer always seems to have a preference 
for a new one which is unlike that adopted by rival geographers. When the Eleventh Edition of the 
Encyclopedia Britannica was started, the suggestion was made that the Royal Geographical Society 
of London the premier geographical society of the world might co-operate hi an attempt to secure 

the adoption of a standard English geographical and topographical nomenclature. The 
art/ lar Society, indeed, has a system of its own which to some extent aims at fulfilling this require- 
ment, though it has failed to impose it upon general use; but unfortunately the Society's 
system breaks down by admitting a considerable number of exceptions and by failing to settle a very 
large number of cases which really themselves constitute the difficulty. The co-operation of the Royal 
Geographical Society for the purpose of enabling the Encyclopedia Britannica to give prominent literary 
expression to an authoritative spelling for every place-name included within its articles or maps was 
found to be impracticable; and it was therefore necessary for the Eleventh Edition to adopt a consistent 
spelling which would represent its own judgment and authority. It is hoped that by degrees this spell- 
ing may recommend itself in other quarters. Where reasonably possible, the local spelling popularized 
by the usage of post-offices or railways has been preferred to any purely philological system of trans- 
literation, but there are numerous cases where even this test of public convenience breaks down and some 
form of Anglicization becomes essential to an English gazetteer having an organic unity of its own. Apart 
from the continuance of English conventions which appeared sufficiently crystallized, the most authori- 



EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xvii 

tative spelling of the foreign name has been given its simplest English transliteration, preference being 
given, in cases of doubt, to the form, for instance in African countries, adopted by the European na- 
ion in possession or control. In the absence of any central authority or international . 
agreement, the result is occasionally different in some slight degree from any common 
nglish variant, but this cannot well be helped when English variants are so capricious, and none per- 
istent; and the names selected are those which for purposes of reference combine the most accuracy with 
he least disturbance of familiar usage. Thus the German African colony of Kamerun is here called 
Cameroon, an English form which follows the common practice of English transliteration in regard 
\.o its initial letter, but departs, in deference to the German official nomenclature, from the older 
English Cameroons, a plural no longer justifiable, although most English newspapers and maps still 
perpetuate it. 

In the case of personal names, wherever an English spelling has become sufficiently established 
both in literature and in popular usage it has been retained, irrespectively of any strict linguistic value. 
Foreign names in English shape really become English words, and they are so treated 
here; e.g. Alcibiades (not Alkibiades), Juggernaut (not Jagganath). But discrimination 
as to where convenience rather than philological correctness should rule has been made / an g uages , 
all the more difficult, especially with names representing Arabic or other Oriental 
originals, by the strong views of individual scholars, who from time to time attempt in their own writ- 
ings to impose their own transliterations upon others, in the face of well-established convention. In 
the course of the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, various eminent 
Arabic scholars have given strong expression to their view as to the English form of the name of the 
Prophet of Islam, preference being given to that of Muhammad. But the old form Mahomet is a well- 
established English equivalent; and it is here retained for convenience in identification where the 
Prophet himself is referred to, the form Mahommed being generally used in distinction for other per- 
sons of this name. Purists may be dissatisfied with this concession to popular usage; our choice is, we 
believe, in the interest of the general public. If only the "correct" forms of many Oriental names had 
been employed, they would be unrecognizable except to scholars. On the other hand, while the retention 
of Mahomet is a typical instance of the preference given to a vernacular spelling when there is one, and 
customary forms are adopted for Arabic and other names in the headings and for ordinary use through- 
out the work, in every case the more accurate scientific spelling is also given in the appropriate article. 
While deference has naturally been paid to the opinion of individual scholars, as far as possible, in connex- 
ion with articles contributed by them, uniformity throughout the work (a necessity for the purpose of 
Index-making, if for no other) has been secured by transliterating on the basis of schemes which have 
been specially prepared for each language ; for this purpose the best linguistic opinions have been consulted, 
but due weight has been given to intelligibility on the part of a public already more or less accustomed 
to a stereotyped spelling. In the case of Babylonian names, a section of the general article BABYLONIA 
is specially devoted to an elucidation of the divergences between the renderings given by individual 
Assyriologists. 

While the Encyclopedia Britannica has aimed, in this matter of local and personal nomenclature, 
at conciliating the opinion of scholars with public usage and convenience, and the present edition 
makes an attempt to solve the problem on reasonable lines, it should be understood 
that the whole question of the uniform representation in English of foreign place and 
personal names is still in a highly unsatisfactory condition. Scholars will never get 
the public to adopt the very peculiar renderings, obscured by complicated accents, which do service in 
purely learned circles and have a scientific justification as part of a quasi-mathematical device for accurate 
pronunciation. Any attempt to transliterate into English on a phonetic basis has, moreover, a radical 
weakness which is too often ignored. So long as pronunciation is not itself standardized, and so long 
as the human ear does not uniformly carry to a standardized human brain the sound that is uniformly 
pronounced and it will be long before these conditions can be fulfilled even a phonetic system of spell- 
ing must adopt some convention; and in that case it is surely best, if a well-recognized convention already 
exists and is in use among the public at large, to adopt it rather than to invent a new one. The point 
is, indeed, of more than formal importance. So long as scholars and the public are at issue on the very 



xviii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

essentials of the comprehension of scholarly books, which are made unreadable by the use of diacritical 

signs and unpronounceable spellings, culture cannot advance except within the narrowest of sects. 

This incompatibility is bad for the public, but it is also bad for scholarship. While the general reader 

is repelled, the Orientalist is neglected, to the loss of both. This criticism, which sub- 

m ~ stantially applies to many other formal aspects of modern learning, may be unwelcome 

to the professors, but it is the result of an extended experience in the attempt to bring 

accurate knowledge into digestible shape for the wide public for whom the Encyclopaedia Britannica is 

intended. It is indeed partly because of the tendency of modern science and modern scholarship 

to put the artificial obstacles of a technical jargon in the path of people even of fairly high 

education, that it becomes imperative to bring both parties upon a common ground, where the 

world at large may discover the meaning of the learned research to which otherwise it is apt to 

be a stranger. 

With regard to the various departments of natural science, there was a tendency in previous 
editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica to make inclusive treatises of the longer articles, and 
to incorporate under the one general heading of the science itself matter which 
would more naturally form a separate, if subordinate, subject. An attempt has now 
been made to arrange the material rather according to the heading under which, in an 
encyclopaedia, students would expect to find it. In any text-book on Light, for instance, the 
technical aspects of aberration, refraction, reflection, interference, phosphorescence, &c., would be 
discussed concurrently as part of the whole science, in so many chapters of a continuous treatise. 
But each such chapter or subdivision in a treatise becomes in an encyclopaedia arranged on the 
dictionary plan, matter to be explained where the appropriate word occurs in the alpha- 
betical order of headings. Under the name of the common subject of the science as a 
encyclopaedia . , ., , . , , 

method. whole, its history and general aspects are discussed, but the details concerned with the 

separate scientific questions which fall within its subject-matter on each of which often 
a single specialist has unique authority are relegated to distinct articles, to the headings of which 
the general account becomes, if required, a key or pointer. This arrangement of the scientific 
material a general article acting as pointer to subsidiary articles, and the latter relieving the 
general account of details which would overload it has been adopted throughout the Eleventh 
Edition; and in the result it is believed that a more complete and at the same time more 
authoritative survey has been attained, within the limits possible to such a work, than ever 
before. The single-treatise plan, which was characteristic of the Ninth Edition, is not only 
cumbrous in a work of reference, but lent itself to the omission altogether, under the general 
heading, of specific issues which consequently received no proper treatment at all 
T , anywhere in the book; whereas the dictionary plan, by automatically providing 

^ S//I^/C ... ,, , _ 1.1 i " r 

treatise. headings throughout the work, under which, where appropriate, articles of more or 

less length may be put, enables every subject to be treated, comprehensively or in 
detail, yet as part of an organic whole, by means of careful articulation adapted to the requirements of 
an intelligent reader. 

In preparing the Eleventh Edition a useful check on the possibility of such accidental omissions 

as are apt to occur when the treatise plan is pursued, was provided by the decision, arrived at 

independently of any question of subdivision, to revert more closely to the original 

headings form of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and to make separate headings of any words 

which, purely as words, had any substantial interest either for historical or philological 

reasons, or as requiring explanation even for English-speaking readers. 1 The labours of Sir James 

Murray and his colleagues on the Oxford New English Dictionary, which has only become accessible 

since the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was published, have enabled a precise 

examination to be made of all the possible headings of this kind. Such words, or groups of words, 

together with proper names, personal, geographical, zoological, etc., obviously exhaust the headings 

1 Though, in pursuance of the ideal of making the whole book self-explanatory, a great many purely technical terms have been given their 
interpretation only in the course of the article on the science or art in which they are used, even these are included, with the correct references, among 
the headings in the Index. Similarly, biographical accounts are given of far more persons than have separate biographies. The Index in all such 
cases must be consulted, whether for word or name. 



EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xix 

under which the subject matter of an encyclopaedia can be subdivided; and thus the dictionary plan, 
combined with a complete logical analysis of the contents of the various arts and sciences, forms a 
comprehensive basis for ensuring that no question of any substantial interest can be omitted. As 
a rule the headings suggested by a logical subdivision of subject, as approved by the professional 
<)r scientific expert, follow the usage of words which is natural to any one speaking the 

English language; but where, owing to the existence of some accepted terminology in Im P ortance of 
,. , ,. , . . ' ., , , ,,. ,. J , terminological 

any particular line of inquiry, it departs from this ordinary usage, the dictionary plan accuracy , 

still enables a cross-reference to guide the reader, and at the same time to impart instruc- 
tion in the history or technical niceties of a vocabulary which is daily outgrowing the range even of the 
educated classes. It is highly and increasingly important that mere words should be correctly evaluated, 
and connected with the facts for which properly they stand. 

Some Points as to Substance. 

In considering the substance, rather than the form, of the Eleventh Edition, it may be remarked 
first that, as a work of reference no less than as a work for reading and study, its preparation has 
been dominated throughout by the historical point of view. Any account which 
purports to describe what actually goes on to-day, whether hi the realm of mind or in ,. * \ff '/"' , 
that of matter, is inevitably subject to change as years or even months pass by; but 
what has been, if accurately recorded, remains permanently true as such. In the larger sense the 
historian has here to deal not only with ancient and modern political history, as ordinarily under- 
stood, but with past doings in every field, and thus with the steps by which existing conditions have 
been reached. Geography and exploration, religion and philosophy, pure and applied science, art 
and literature, commerce and industry, law and economics, war and peace, sport and games, all 
subjects are treated in these volumes not only on their merits, but as in continual evolution, the 
successive stages in which are of intrinsic interest on their own account, but also throw light on what 
goes before and after. The whole range of history, thus considered, has, however, been immensely 
widened in the Eleventh Edition as compared with the Ninth. The record of the past, thrown farther 
and farther back by the triumphs of modern archaeology, is limited on its nearer confines only 
by the date at which the Encyclopedia Britannica is published. Any contemporary description is 
indeed liable to become inadequate almost as soon as it is in the hands of the reader; but the 
available resources have >been utilized here to the utmost, so that the salient facts up to the autumn 
of the year 1910 might be included throughout, not merely as isolated events, but as part of a con- 
sistent whole, conceived in the spirit of the historian. Thus only can the fleeting present be 
true to its relation with later developments, which it is no part of the task of an encyclopaedia 
to prophesy. 

In this connexion it is advisable to explain that while the most recent statistics have been 
incorporated when they really represented conditions of historic value, the notion that economic 
development can be truly shown merely by giving statistics for the last year available 
is entirely false, and for this reason in many cases there has been no attempt merely statistics. 
to be "up-to-date" by inserting them. Statistics are used here as an illustration of 
the substantial existing conditions and of real progress. For the statistics of one year, and especially 
for those of the latest year, the inquirer must necessarily go to annual publications, not to an 
encyclopaedia which attempts to show the representative conditions of abiding importance. In such 
a work statistics are only one useful method of expressing historic evolution; their value varies con- 
siderably according to the nature of the subject dealt with; and the figures of the year which by 
accident is the last before publication would often be entirely misleading, owing to their being 
subject to some purely temporary influence. In general, far less tabular matter has been included 
in the Eleventh Edition than in the Ninth. Where it is used, it is not as a substitute for descriptive 
accounts, which can put the facts in readable form much better, but more appropriately as showing 
concisely and clearly the differences between the conditions at different periods. As years pass by, 



xx EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

and new statistics on all subjects become accessible, those which have been given here for their 
historical value are, as such, unaffected by the lapse of time; but if they had been slavishly inserted 
simply because they were the latest in the series of years immediately preceding publication, their 
precarious connexion with any continuous evolution would soon have made them futile. So much 
has been done in the Eleventh Edition to bring the record of events, whether in political history or 
in other articles, down to the latest available date, and thus to complete the picture of the world as 
it was in 1910, that it is necessary to deprecate any misconception which might otherwise arise from 
the fact that statistics are inserted not as events in themselves this they may or may not be, 
according to the subject-matter but as a method of expressing the substantial results of human 
activity; for that purpose they must be given comparatively, selected as representative, and weighed 
hi the balance of the judicious historian. 

While every individual article in an encyclopaedia which aims at authoritative exposition must 
be informed by the spirit of history, it is no less essential that the spirit of science should move over 

, ,, the construction of the work as a whole. Whatever may be the deficiencies of its 
The spirit of . 

science execution, the Eleventh Edition has at any rate this advantage to those who use it, 

that the method of simultaneous preparation, already referred to, has enabled every 
subject to be treated systematically. Not only in the case of "science" itself, but in history, law, or 
any other kind of knowledge, its contributors were all assisting to carry out a preconcerted scheme, 
each aware of the relation of his or her contribution to others in the same field; and the inter- 
dependence of the related parts must be remembered by any reader who desires to do justice to the 
treatment of any large subject. Cross-references and other indications in the text are guides to the 
system employed, which are supplemented in greater detail by the elaborate Index. But the 
scientific spirit not only affects the scheme of construction as a whole: it has modified the individual 
treatment. Attention may perhaps be drawn to two particular points in this connexion, the 
increased employment of the comparative method, and the attempt to treat opinion and controversy 
objectively, without partisanship or sectarianism. 

The title of the Encyclopaedia Britannica has never meant that it is restricted in its accounts of 
natural science, law, religion, art, or other subjects, to what goes on in the British dominions; but a 

considerable extension has been given in the Eleventh Edition to the amount of 
The compara- . ...... -r, 

tive method, information it contains concerning the corresponding activities m other countries. By 

approaching each subject, as far as possible, on its merits, the contributors in every 
department aim at appraising the achievements of civilization from whatever source they have 
arisen, and at the same time, by inserting special sections on different countries when this course is 
appropriate, they show the variations in practice under different systems of government or custom. But 
the subjects are not only arranged comparatively in this sense : new branches of study have arisen which 
are of chief importance mainly for the results attained by the comparative method. The impetus given 
to comparative sociology by Herbert Spencer, the modern interest in comparative law, religion, 
folklore, anthropology, psychology and philology, have resulted in the accumulation of a mass of detail 
which it becomes the task of an encyclopaedia produced on the plan of organized co-operation to reduce 
to manageable proportions and intelligible perspective. Comparative bibliography, so much fostered 
of late years by the growth of great library organizations, undergoes in its turn the same process; and 
expert selection makes the references to the best books a guide to the student without overwhelming 
him. To deal here with all the lines of new research which have benefited by the comparative method in 
recent years would trench unnecessarily upon the scope of the contents of the work, where sufficient 
is already written. One illustration must suffice of a science in which the new treatment affects both 
the substance and the form of the articles in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Com- 
parative Anatomy, as a branch of Zoology, can no longer be scientifically separated from Human Anatomy. 
The various parts of the human body are therefore systematically treated under separate headings, 
in connexion not only with the arts of medicine and surgery, which depend on a knowledge of each 
particular structure, but with the corresponding features in the rest of the animal kingdom, the study 
of which continually leads to a better understanding of the human organism. Thus comparative anatomy 
and human anatomy take their places, with physiology and pathology, as interdependent and inter- 



EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxi 

connected branches of the wider science of Zoology, in which all the lines of experimental inquiry and 
progressive knowledge lead up to a more efficient service of man and society. 

In stating "the position taken by the Encyclopedia Britannica in relation to the active con- 
troversies of the time," Spencer Baynes, in his Preface to the first volume of the Ninth Edition 
(1875), referred to the conflict of opinion then raging in regard to religion and 
science. "In this conflict," he said, "a work like the Encyclopaedia is not called upon . 
to take any direct part. It has to do with knowledge, rather than opinion, and to 
deal with all subjects from a critical and historical rather than a dogmatic point of view. It cannot 
be the organ of any sect or party in science, religion or philosophy." The same policy has in- 
spired the Eleventh Edition. The Encyclopedia Britannica itself has no side or party; it attempts 
to give representation to all parties, sects and sides. In a work indeed which deals with opinion and 
controversy at all, it is manifestly impossible for criticism to be colourless; its value as a source of 
authoritative exposition would be very different from what it is if individual contributors were 
iot able to state their views fully and fearlessly. But every effort has been made to obtain, impar- 
tially, such statements of doctrine and belief in matters of religion and similar questions as are sat- 
sfactory to those who hold them, and to deal with these questions, so far' as criticism is concerned, in 
such a way that the controversial points may be understood and appreciated, without prejudice to the 
argument. The easy way to what is sometimes considered impartiality is to leave controversy out 
altogether; that would be to avoid responsibility at the cost of perpetuating ignorance, for it is 
only in the light of the controversies about them that the importance of these questions of doctrine 
and opinion can be realized. The object of the present work is to furnish accounts of all sub- 
jects which shall really explain their meaning to those who desire accurate information. Amid 
the variety of beliefs which are held with sincere conviction by one set of people or another, 
impartiality does not consist in concealing criticism, or in withholding the knowledge of divergent 
opinion, but in an attitude of scientific respect which is precise in stating a belief in the terms, 
and according to the interpretation, accepted by those who hold it. In order to give the fullest 
expression to this objective treatment of questions which in their essence are dogmatic, con- 
tributors of all shades of opinion have co-operated in the work of the Eleventh Edition of the 
Encyclopedia Britannica. They have been selected as representative after the most careful con- 
sideration and under the highest sense of editorial responsibility. The proportion of space devoted 
to these subjects is necessarily large, because they bulk largely in the minds of thinking people; 
and while they are treated more comprehensively than before, individual judgments as to their relative 
claims may naturally vary. The general estimates which prevail among the countries which repre- 
sent Western civilization are, however, in practical agreement on this point, and this consensus 
is the only ultimate criterion. In one respect the Eleventh Edition is fortunate in the time 
of its appearance. Since the completion of the Ninth Edition the controversies which at that 
time raged round the application of historical and scientific criticism to religion have become less 
acute, and an objective statement of the problems, for instance, connected with the literary 
history of the Bible is now less encumbered with the doubts as to the effect on personal religion 
which formerly prevailed. Science and theology have learnt to dwell together; and a reverent 
attitude towards religion, and indeed towards all the great religions, may be combined, 
without arriere-pensee, with a scientific comparative study of the phenomena of their institutions and 
development. 

Modern scientific progress has naturally affected other aspects of the Eleventh Edition no less 
than the literary text; and a word may be added here as to the illustrations and maps. Photography 
and reproductive processes generally now combine to enable much more to be done than was 
possible a generation ago to assist verbal explanations and descriptions by an appeal to the eye, 
and to make this appeal scientifically accurate both in form and colour- The older pictorial material 
in the Ninth Edition has undergone the same critical survey as the text; and a 
large proportion of what now appears in the Eleventh Edition is not only new, but illustration 
represents more adequately the modern principles of the art of illustration. The 
microscope on the one hand, and the museum on the other, have become in an increasing degree the 



xxii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

instruments for attaining a scientific presentment in pictorial form of the realities of science and art. 
Whether for elucidating the technicalities of zoology or engineering machinery, or for showing concrete 
examples of ancient or modern statuary or painting, the draughtsman or the photographer has 
co-operated in the Eleventh Edition with the writers of the various articles, so that as far as possible 
their work may be accurately illustrated, in the correct sense, as distinct from any object of 
beautifying the book itself by pictures which might merely be interesting on their own account. 
Similarly the maps are not collected in an atlas, but accompany the topographical articles to which 
they are appropriate. Whether plate-maps or text-maps, they were all laid out with the scope, 
orthographical system, and other requirements of the text in view; either the cartographers have 
worked with the text before them often representing new geographical authority on the part of 
the contributors or they have been directed by the geographical department of the editorial staff 
as to the sources on which they should draw; and the maps have been indexed as an atlas is, so that 
any topographical article not accompanied by a map has its appropriate map-reference in the general 
index. The more important coloured maps have been specially prepared by Messrs Justus Perthes 
of Gotha, the publishers of Stieler's Atlas, which in some instances has served as their basis; and the others 
have been made under the direction of Mr Emery Walker of London, in collaboration with the editorial 
staff. Mr Emery Walker's great knowledge and experience in the work of illustration has throughout 
been put ungrudgingly at the service of the Eleventh Edition. 

Conclusion. 

In expressing, on behalf of the editorial staff and the publishers, their indebtedness to the large 
number of contributors who have assisted in carrying the work to its completion, the Editor would be 
glad to refer to many individuals among the eminent writers who have given of their best. But the 
list is so long that he must content himself with a word of general thanks. It is more important to 
give public credit here to those who, without actually being members of the editorial staff, have taken 
an intimate part with them in planning and organizing the Eleventh Edition. It was necessary for 
the Editor to be able to rely on authoritative specialists for advice and guidance in regard to particular 
sciences. Foremost among these stand the subjects of Zoology and Botany, which were under 
the charge respectively of Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary of the Zoological Society of London, and 
Dr A. B. Rendle, Keeper of the department of Botany, British Museum. Dr Chalmers Mitchell's 
Advisers on assistance in regard to Zoology extended also to the connected aspects of Comparative 
special Anatomy (in association with Mr F. G. Parsons), Physiology and Palaeontology. The 

subjects. whole field of Biology was covered by the joint labours of Dr Chalmers Mitchell and 

Dr Rendle; and their supervision, in all stages of the work, gave unity to the co-operation of the numer- 
ous contributors of zoological and botanical articles. The treatment of Geology was planned by Mr H. 
B. Woodward; and with him were associated Dr J. A. Howe, who took charge of the department of 
Topographical Geology, Dr J. S. Flett, who covered that of Petrology, and Mr L. J. Spencer and Mr 
F. W. Rudler, who dealt comprehensively with Mineralogy and Crystallography. The late Dr Simon 
Newcomb planned and largely helped to carry out the articles dealing with Astronomy. Prof. J. A. 
Fleming acted in a similar capacity as regards Electricity and Magnetism. Prof. Hugh Callendar was 
responsible for the treatment of Heat; Prof. Poynting for that of Sound; and the late Prof. C. J. Joly, 
Royal Astronomer in Ireland, planned the articles dealing with Light and Optics. On literary subjects the 
Editor had the sympathetic collaboration of Mr Edmund Gosse, Librarian to the House of Lords; and 
Mr Marion H. Spielmann, on artistic subjects, also gave valuable help. 

Among those whose association with the editorial staff was particularly close were the Rev. E. 
M. Walker of Oxford, as regards subjects of ancient Greek history; Mr Stanley Cook of Cambridge, 
who was the Editor's chief adviser on questions of Old Testament criticism and Semitic learning 
generally; Dr T. Ashby, Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome, who dealt with 
Italian topography and art; and Mr Israel Abrahams, who was consulted on Jewish subjects. 
Dr Peter Giles of Cambridge undertook the survey of Comparative Philology, and Sir Thomas 



EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxiii 

Barclay that of International Law. Others who gave valuable advice and assistance in regard to 
their various subjects were Lord Rayleigh and Mr W. C. D. Whetham (Physical Science), Sir 
Archibald Geikie (Geology), Sir E. Maunde Thompson (Palaeography and Bibliology), Mr J. H. 
Round (History and Genealogy), Mr Phene Spiers (Architecture), Mr W. Burton (Ceramics), Mr 
T. M. Young of Manchester (Textile Industries), Prof. W. E. Dalby (Engineering), Dr G. A. 
Grierson (Indian Languages), the Rev. G. W. Thatcher (Arabic), Mr H. Stuart Jones (Roman 
History and Art), Dr D. G. Hogarth and Prof. Ernest Gardner (Hellenic Archaeology), the late Dr 
W. Fream (Agriculture), Mr W. F. Sheppard (Mathematics), Mr Arthur H. Smith (Classical Art), 
Dr Postgate (Latin Literature), Mr Fitzmaurice Kelly (Spanish Literature), Prof. J. G. Robertson 
(German Literature), Mr J. S. Cotton (India), Mr Edmund Owen (Surgery), Mr Donald Tovey (Music), 
Prof. H. M. Howe of Columbia University (Mining), Prof. W. M. Davis and Prof. D. W. Johnson of 
Harvard (American Physiography). 

These names may be some indication of the amount of expert assistance and advice on which the 
editorial staff were able to draw, first when they were engaged in making preparations for the Eleventh 
Edition, then in organizing the whole body of contributors, and finally in combining 
their united resources in revising the work so as to present it in the finished state in which SU pp 0r t. 
it is given to the public. Constituting as they did a college of research, a centre which 
drew to itself constant suggestions from all who were interested in the dissemination of accurate 
information, its members had the advantage of communication with many other leaders of opinion, 
to whose help, whether in Europe or America, it is impossible to do adequate justice here. The 
interest shown in the undertaking may be illustrated by the fact that his late Majesty King Edward VII. 
graciously permitted his own unique collection of British and foreign orders to be used for the purpose 
of making the coloured plates which accompany the article KNIGHTHOOD. Makers of history like Lord 
Cromer and Sir George Goldie added their authority to the work by assisting its contributors, even while 
not becoming contributors themselves. Custodians of official records, presidents and secretaries of 
institutions, societies and colleges, relatives or descendants of the subjects of biographies, governmental 
or municipal officers, librarians, divines, editors, manufacturers, from many such quarters answers 
have been freely given to applications for information which is now embodied in the Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 

In the principal Assistant-Editor, Mr Walter Alison Phillips, the Editor had throughout as his 
chief ally a scholarly historian of wide interests and great literary capacity. Prof. J. T. Shotwell, 
of Columbia University, U.S.A., in the earlier years of preparation, acted as joint _. _. 
Assistant-Editor; and Mr Ronald McNeill did important work as additional Assistant- 
Editor while the later stages were in progress. To Mr Charles Crawford Whinery was entrusted the 
direction of a separate office in New York for the purpose of dealing with American contributors and 
with articles on American subjects; to his loyal and efficient co-operation, both on the special subjects 
assigned to the American office, and in the final revision of the whole work, too high a tribute cannot 
be paid. The other principal members of the editorial staff in London, responsible for different depart- 
ments, were Mr J. Malcolm Mitchell, Dr T. A. Ingram, Mr H. M. Ross, Mr Charles Everitt, Mr O. J. R. 
Howarth, Mr F. R. Cana, Mr C. O. Weatherly, Mr J. H. Freese, Mr K. G. Jayne, Mr Roland Truslove, 
Mr C. F. Atkinson, Mr A. W. Holland, the Rev. A. J. Grieve, Mr. W. E. Garrett Fisher and Mr Arthur 
B. Atkins, to the last of whom, as private secretary to the Editor-in-Chief, the present writer owes a 
special debt of gratitude for unfailing assistance in dealing with all the problems of editorial control. 
On the New York staff Mr Whinery had the efficient help of Mr R. Webster, Dr N. D. Mereness, Dr 
F. S. Philbrick, Dr W. K. Boyd, Dr W. O. Scroggs, Mr W. T. Arndt, Mr W. L. Corbin and Mr G. Gladden. 

A word must be added concerning a somewhat original feature in the editorial mechanism, the 
Indexing department. This department was organized from the first so that it might serve a double 
purpose. By indexing the articles as they came in, preparation could gradually be The j ndex 
made for compiling the Index which would eventually be published; and as the reference- 
cards gradually accumulated under systematic index-headings, the comparison of work done by different 
writers might assist the editing of the text itself by discovering inconsistencies or inaccuracies in points 
of detail or suggesting the incorporation of additional material. The text of the Eleventh Edition owes 



xxiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 

much in this way to suggestions originating among the staff of ladies concerned, among whom particular 
mention may be made of Miss Griffiths, Miss Tyler, and Miss Edmonds. The actual Index, as published, 
represents a concentration and sifting of the work of the Indexing department ; and in order to put it into 
shape a further stage in the organization was necessary, which was carried through under the able direction 
of Miss Janet Hogarth. The completion of the Index volume, which all those who wish to make full use 
of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica should regard as the real guide to its contents, 
brought finally into play all parts of the editorial machinery which had been engaged in the making of 
the work itself, a vast engine of co-operative effort, dedicated to the service of the public. 

HUGH CHISHOLM. 

LONDON, 

December 10, 1910. 



INITIALS USED IN VOLUME I. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL 
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE 
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. 



A. A. R.* 

A. C. L. 
A. D. 
A. E. S. 

A. F. B. 
A. F. P. 

A. Gir. 

A. G. H. 
A. H. J. G. 

A. J. B. 
A. J. G. 

A. Mw. 

A. M. C. 
A. M. Cl. 



C. E.* 



C. F. A. 



ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J 

Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin H Airy. 
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. L 

SIR ALFRED COMYN LYALL, K.C.B. f Abdur Rahman; 

See the biographical article: LYALL, SIR A. C. L Afghanistan: History. 

AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. / Addison (in part). 

See the biographical article : DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. 

ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 

Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology in Cam- "i Acanthocephala. 
bridge University. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. 

ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f Alpaca. 

Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. \ 

ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. f 

Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford ; Professor of English History in the University -j Aconcio. 
of London. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901. I 

ARTHUR GIRAULT. 

Professor of Political Economy at the University of Poitiers. Member of the "j Algeria: History. 
International Colonial Institute. Author of Principes de colonisation (1907-1908). L 



A. G. HADCOCK (late R.A.) 

Manager of the Gun Department, Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 



J Ammunition (in part). 



ABEL HENDY JONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). ,. 

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's H Agrarian Laws {in part), 
College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law, &c. 

ALFRED JOSHUA BUTLER, M.A., D.LITT. J* Abyssinian Church. 

Fellow and Bursar of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of Eton College. L 

REV. ALEXANDER J. GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Adoptianism; Alford; 

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent"! Ai CAn \j . Amhrnea Q* 
College, Bradford. I A1SOp ' V '' Ambrose ' st - 

ALLAN MAWER M.A. J JEthelflaed; JEthelred L; 

Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- -j jpth-ietan- ZFthliPirri 
Tyne; formerly Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 

AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Algol. 

See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ 

AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). f 

Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of 4 Agrarian Laws (m part). 

Roman History, 133-70 B.C. 



. Acclimatization. 



ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
See the biographical article : WALLACE, A. R. 

ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A., LL.D. (Glasgow). f .. 

Fellow of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford; formerly Reader in Greek, Oxford Uni- H Aeschylus. 
versity. 

ARTHUR WILLEY, D.Sc., F.R.S. J Amphioxus. 

Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon. 



ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. 

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. 

BUDGETT MEAKIN (d. 1906). 

Author of The Moors; The Land of the Moors; The Moorish Empire; &c. 

CHARLES BEMONT, D. is L., LITT.D. (Oxon.). 
See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. 

CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. 

Magdalen College, Oxford. 

'CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. 



L 

/Aberdeen, 4th Earl of. 

L 

J Almohades (in part); 
\ Almoravides (in part). 



; Agenais. 



f Algebra: History. 

\ 

Alexandria: Battle. 



. 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 1 American Civil War; 
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [Ammunition (in part). 

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume. 

xxv 



xxvi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

C. F. R. CHARLES F. RICHARDSON, PH.D. f Alcott, A. B.; 

Professor of English, Dartmouth College, U.S.A. \ Alcott L M 

C. L. H. CALDWELL LIPSETT. J _ 

Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India. 1 Amdi; Agra. 

C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. i 

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J ., , - c 

potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1 Aiexana r 01 bervia. 
1902-1903. [ 

C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. I" 

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -j Alcuin. 
tudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. 

C. PI. REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. f 

Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Life and Times of Alfred the < Alfred the Great. 
Great; &c. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. 

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr. 

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of J Andrew of Lonejumeau 
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1 
Author oi'Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. [ 

C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f jt ne lred II 

King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. 1 

C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f , . 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. \ Advertisement (in part). 

D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r Abu Hanifa; 

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. | Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. 



D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. 



Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. 
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899- 
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at 



Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. 

Amasia; Anazarbus. 



D. H. DAVID HANNAY. 



Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, . 
1217-1688 ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. 



Adalia; Adana; Aegean 
Civilization; Aintab; Aleppo; 
Alexandria; Alexandretta; 
Alexandria Troas; 



Abbadides; Abd-Ar-Rahman; 
Admiral; Agreda; 
Almogavares; Almohades; 
Almoravides; Alphonso; 
America: History; 
American War of Inde- 
pendence: Naval Operations; 
American War of 1812. 

D. M. REV. D. MEIKLEJOHN. J Adams, John Couch. 

D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. r ., ,,, T ... 

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. j Alexander, w. L., Alion, H. 

D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. 

Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign J AlexanQ "> OI 
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Author of Russia. \ Alexander III., of Russia. 

E. B.* ERNEST C. F. BABELON. f 

Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Dcpt. of Medals and Antiquities -! Africa, Roman, 
at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. 

E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. 

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly-^ Amalric. 
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. 

E. Ch. EDWARD CHANNING, PH.D. f Adams Jonn ; 

Professor of History, Harvard University. 1 Adams, John Qumcy; 

L Adams, Samuel. 
E. C. B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lrrr. r 

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. 1 Acoemetl. 

E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. f Aasen; Almqvist; 

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. J. Anacreontics; 

Andersen, Hans Christian. 
E. Gr. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. l .u,,,. -.,..,. 

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. J . 

~] Aegina. 
E> He - EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. ; .f,:. . /- , nt .i,,, Tf fn . 

Librarian to Royal Geographical Society, London. Author of Geography of Africa ; &c i of/. { t P y> ' 

E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. ' } ****&>& 

Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow, Pembroke College, Cam- J Alani 

bridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography. 

E. J. R. EMANUEL JOSEPH RISTORI, PH.D., Assoc.M.lNST.C.E. ' f 

Member of Council, Institute of Metals. 4 Aluminium. 

E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. 

Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. S Aegina: History. 

E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. 



Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Abdomen; 

Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, "1 AhspAi<!' Adfltiniik 

Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. 






INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. 

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester ; J Alcoforado. 

Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- 
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. 

E. R. B. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. 4 Alexander the Great. 

New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus. 

E. Tn. REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON (d. 1907). /Acolyte; 

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. \ Allen, William. 

E. V. REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895). / Abbey; 

Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England. I Abbot. 

E. W.* EDGAR WHITAKER (d. 1905). i Ahmed Veflk 

Formerly Times correspondent at Constantinople. t " 

F. A. E. FRED. A. EATON / Academy, Royal. 

Secretary to the Royal Academy. L 

F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). f Ablution; Agape; 

Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy, -j Anabaptists; 
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. I Ancestor-Worship. 

F. Fn. FRANK FINN, F.Z.S. f Acclimatization 

Late Assistant Director of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. \ 

,, . r .ffithelbald; .ffithelberht; 

F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. J j^thelfrith' JEthelred- 

Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. 

> .ffithelwuli; Alamanni. 



F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F^R.ANTHROP.INST. 

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital knd the London School of Medicine for Worne -! Alimentary Canal; 



Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on 
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, -j ' 
Formerly Hunteriari Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Anatomy. 

F. H. Ne. FRANCIS HENRY NEVILLE, M.A., F.R.S. f 

Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Physics and Chemistry. \ Alloys (in part). 

F. y. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. [ .. c imhfi i. 

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo- < * *"* e '' 

logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. [ Akhmim; Amasis; Ammon. 

Abyssinia: Geography; 

Africa: Geography, History (in 
part) ; Albert Edward Nyanza 
(in part) ; Albert Nyanza (in 



F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. 



Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. 



F. S. FRANCIS STORR. j Academ ie S . 



part); Alexandria (in part); 
Algeria: Geography. 

Editor of the Journal of Education (London). Officier d'Academie (Paris). \ 

F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS. r 

Accountant-General of the Army, 1898-1904. Editor of " Great Writers " Series. *! About. 

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r Agate; Alabaster; 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J Alexandrite; 
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Amber' Amethyst 

G.* COUNT ALBERT EDWARD WILFRED GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. f . 

A.D.M.O., War Office; Colonel, Grenadier Guards. Mission to Abyssinia, 1897. \ Abyssinia: History. 

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. 

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J AlyteS. 
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. [ 

G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. f 

Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of -I Ahom. 
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. 

G. Br. REV. GEORGE BRYCE, D.D., LL.D. 

Head of Faculty of Science, and Lecturer in Biology and Geology in Manitoba -| Alberta. 
University, 1891-1904. Vice-President of Royal Society, Canada, 1908. 

G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S. 

Formerly Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales. Sometime { Algebra: Special. 
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. 

G. C. R. GEORGE CROOM ROBERTSON. r Abelard (in part). 

See the biographical article : ROBERTSON, G. C. \ 

G. E. C. COLONEL GEORGE EARL CHURCH. f Amazon. 

See the biographical article: CHURCH, G. E. \ 

G. E. W. GEORGE EDWARD WOODBERRY, Litt.D., LL.D. f 

Professor of Comparative Literature at Columbia University, 1891-1904. Author of -| American Literature. 
Edgar Allan Poe; Makers of Literature; America in Literature; &c. 

G. F. B. G. F BARWICK. J Alfred> Duke of Saxe-Coburg; 

Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British i Alice Grand-Duchess Of Hesse. 

G. L. GEORGE LUNGE, PH.D. (Breslau), HON. DR!NG. (Karlsruhe). /Alkali Manufacture. 

See the biographical article: LUNGE, G. \ 



xxviii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

G. P. M. GEORGE PERCIVAL MUDGE, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S. I" 

Lecturer on Biology, London Hospital Medical College, and London School of -| Albino. 
Medicine for Women. 

G. W. B. GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, A.M., Ph.D. f 

Professor of History of Greece and Rome in Columbia University, New York. 1 Ampmetyony. 
Author of The Roman Assemblies; &c. 

' Abu-l-'ala; Abu-l-'Atahiya; 



G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. 

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old - 
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. 



Abulfaraj; Abulfeda; 
Abu-1-Qasim; Abu Nuwas; 
Abu Tammam; Abu Ubaida; 



Akhtal: Alqama Ibn 'Abada; 
Amru'-ul-Qais. 
H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Agassiz, J. L. R. 
President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. 

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. [Acton Lord- A?nn<itiitan- 

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of H A]h " / t"" [ , ' 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the loth edition. B "> ra B tonsort. 

H. C. C. HERBERT CHALLICE CROUCH, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. J 

Anaesthetist and Teacher of Anaesthetics at St Thomas's, Samaritan and French ~{ Anaesthesia. 
Hospitals, London. L 

H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. f 

Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of the Times Engineering -j Alchemy. 
Supplement. Author of British Railways. 

H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. /AH... 

Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; &c. \ A1Dan y Countess 01. 

H. P. J.* HENRY PHELPS JOHNSTON. f American War of Independ- 

Author of Royalist History of the Revolution ; The Yorktown Campaign; &c. I ence: Land Operations. 

H. R. H.* H. R. HAXTON. -j Advertisement. 

H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G. J" ., , . 

Member for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of The Call to Arms. \ Ammunition: Small Arms. 

H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f 

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at -| Amphitheatre. 
Rome, 1903-1905. Author of The Roman Empire. 

H. V. K. CAPTAIN HOWARD V. KNOX, M.A. f . 

Exeter College, Oxford. { U I K Flora and Fauna. 

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f nji,..,. .,,,, . ., 

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895-1902. \ a 

H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. c 

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester, i Anah. 

H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. r , 

Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. j Amedeo, Ferdmando, of Savoy. 

H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K. C.S.I. 

See the biographical article: YULE, Sir H. \ Afghanistan: History. 

J. A. Ba. J. ARTHUR BARRETT, LL.B. f Admiralty Jurisdiction: 

New York Bar, 1880. U.S. Supreme Court Bar, 1901. |_ United States. 

J. A. E. JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E. 

Director of (British) Naval Education, 1903. Hon. Fellow of King's College, J .. _ 
Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University 1 Air-Engine. 
of Cambridge, 1890-1903. 

J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r 

Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of A 
University College,' London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and "] Am P er Der - 
University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Currents. [ 

J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f 

Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London. \ Albian. 

J. B. B. JOHN BAGNELL BURY, LiTT.D., LL.D. f AI.-!,., T * n i 

See the biographical article: BURY, J. B. \ " 

J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Albania- 

Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Officer of the Order of J . , 
St Alexander of Bulgaria. \ Alexander of Bulgaria. 

J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. f 

Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University, N.Y. Took part in the < Akkad. 
Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. L 

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LiTT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r Acosta, J. de; 

Fellow of the British Academy. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Alarcon J R de* 
Literature in the University of Liverpool. Norman MacColl Lecturer in the 4 .. 
University of Cambridge. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Alarcon > r - A - ae '> 
Author of A History of Spanish Literature. I Aleman; Amadis de Gaula. 

J. F. R. JAMES FORD RHODES, LL.D. f ., r _ 

See the biographical article: RHODES, J. FORD. \ Aaa ns> * ' 

J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. 

Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. ~\ Ancyra. 
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. L 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



XXIX 



J. G. Gr. 
J. G. Sc. 
J. H. P. 

J. H. R. 
I. 

J.L.* 

J. L. M. 

J. M. M. 

J. P.-B. 
J. P. Pe. 

J. R. C. 

J. R. D. 
J.S. 
J. S. P. 

J. S. K. 
J. T. Be. 
J. T. C. 

J. T. S.* 
J. V. B. 
Jno. W. 

J. W. D. 
K. S. 
L. D.* 

L. J. S. 
L.V.* 



JOHN G. GRIFFITHS. J Accountants. 

Fellow and late President, Institute of Chartered Accountants. L 

SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C I.E. j Akyab. 

Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; &c. (. 

JOHN HENRY POYNTING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J . 

Mason Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science, Birmingham 1 ACOUStlCS. 

University. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M. A., LL.D. (Edin.). J AhBV __. B . Ailk 

Author of Feudal England ; Peerage and Pedigree ; &c. I ADe y al 

JULES ISAAC. J AmhnUo r H' 

Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons, France. \ AD lse > u - a 

SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S. f 

Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in J Aether 
Cambridge University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Author of Aether and 
Matter; &c. 

JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly J Amathus. 
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of 
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford. 

JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London i Anaxagoras (in part). 
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 

JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST J Adam, Robert. 

Editor of the Guardian (London). 

JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. 

Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Anbar 
the University of Pennsylvania. In charge of the University Expedition to Baby- | 
Ionia, 1 888-1 895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I 

JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. 

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of and S Absorption of Light. 
edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. I 



COLONEL JOHN RICHARD DODD, M.D., F.R.C.S., R.A.M.C. 
Administrative Medical Officer of Cork Military District. 

JAMES SULLY, LL.D. 

See the biographical article: SULLY, J. 



Ambulance. 



Aesthetics. 



Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Agglomerate; 

Amphibolite; Andesite. 



JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. 

Petrographer to the Geological Survey, 
burgh University. 

JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). f 

Sec. Royal Geog. Soc. Hon. Memb. Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, -< Abbadie; Africa: History. 
&c. Editor of Statesman's year-book. Editor of the Geographical Journal. \_ 

JOHN T. BEALBY. 

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly editor of the Scottish Geographical -j Altai. 
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. L 



Formerly Fellow of J A np i, nvv 
History " ^ iTn,'. 1 finc v y- 



Uni- 



I 

\ Abelard (in part). 

/Acts of the Apostles. 



JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. 

Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. 

University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 

versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. 

JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. 

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. 

J. VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. 

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. 

JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. f 

Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for 
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Alien; 
1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict 1 Allegiance. 
of Laws: Chapters on the Principles of International Law, part i. " Peace," part ii. 
War." 

CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. 

Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. 

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. 

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra ; &c. 

Louis MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. 

See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. 

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER. 

Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex 
College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. 

LUIGI YILLARI. 

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in 
east of Europe; Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and 
Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. 



Anchor. 

r Accordion; Aeolian Harp; 
\ Alpenhorn. 

J Adrian I., II., III.; 

I. Alexander I., II. (popes). 

(Albite; Alunite; 
Amblygonite; Ampibole; 
Analcite; Anatase; 
Andalusite. 

(Accoramboni; 
Alexander VI. (pope); 
Amari. 



XXX 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



M. Br. 

M. G. 



M. 6. D. 

M. Ha. 
M. H. C. 

M. Ja. 
M. M. Bh. 
M. N. T. 

H. 0. B. C. 
M. P.* 
N. V. 

0. E. 

0. H.* 
0. T. M. 

P. A. 

P. A. A. 
P. A. G. 

P. A. K. 
P. A. M. 

P. C. H. 

P. C. Y. 
P.GI. 



MARGARET BRYANT. 



/Alexander the Great: 

I Legends. 

MOSES GASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). r 

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist 
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By- I 
z. inline Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. 1 
Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular 
Literature; The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. 

RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G. C.S.I., F.R.S. (1829- f 
1906). M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India, 
1868-1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of J Amnthill Rarnn 
Madras, 1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. 1 
President of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European 
Politics; Notes from a Diary; &c. I 

MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S. f 

Professor of Zoology in University College, Cork. Formerly Professor of Natural -\ Amoeba. 
History in Queen's College, Cork, and Fellow of the Royal University of Ireland. L 

MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, M.A., K.C., D.C.L. 

President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General j 

Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated < "Alabama" Arbitration. 

Council of Law _Rep9rting. Chairman of Quarter Sessions, Westmorland. 



Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. 

MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D. 

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. 
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. 



Author of j Adad - 



SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGREE, K.C.I.E. (" 

Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. (C.) Bethnal Green, North-East, 1895-1906. -< A S a 
Author of Small History of the East India Company. 

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. c 

Fellow and Lecturer of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Greek) Agesilaus; 
Epigraphy. ^ Corresponding Member of the German Imperial Archaeological 1 Agis. 



Lecturer in Greek 



Institute. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. 

MAX OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. 

Reader in Ancient History at London University. 
Birmingham University, 1905-1908. 

LEON JACQUES MAXLME PRINET. 

Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of 
France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). 

JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. 

Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist 
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Socie'tS de 1'Histoire de 
France, and of the Soci6t< de 1'Ecole de Charles. 



Acarnania; Achaean League; 
at | Actium; Aetolia; Ambracia. 

Albret; 

Alencon, Counts of. 

Ailly; 

Alexander V. (pope). 



S. OTTO EPPENSTEIN, PH.D. 

Member of Scientific Staff at Zeiss's optical works, Jena. 
Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrnmenie nach Abbe. 



Editor of 2nd ed. of \ Aberration. 



OTTO HEHNER, PH.D. 

Formerly President of the Society of Analytical Chemists. 

OTIS TUFTON MASON (d. 1908). 

Curator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum, Washington, 1884-1908. 
Authorof Woman's Sharein Primitive Culture ; Primitive Traveland Transportation ; &c. 

PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. 

Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, 

Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les hSterodoxes latines au debut du XIII' siecle. 
PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., D.JURIS. 

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. 
P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. 

Editor of Country Life. Author of The Rural Exodus: the Problem of the Village and 

the Town. 



Adulteration. 

America: Ethnology and 
Archaeology. 

Alain de Lille; 

Albigenses. 

Alsace-Lorraine. 



Allotments. 



C Altai ; Amur : 
| Anarchism. 



District ; 



PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. 

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. 

PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, D.Sc., F.R.S., LATE MAJOR R.A. 

Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint General Secretary I Ateebraic Forms 
British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, Ordnance College. President 1 *orms. 

of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896. 

PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r 

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demonstrator Abiogenesis ; Actinozoa ; 

in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891 Alimpntarv 

Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1 ? . /. 

1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- I m l Ma *** P art >- 

1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. 

PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. 
Magdalen College, Oxford. 

PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D. 

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University 
Reader in Comparative Philology. 



1 



| Aberdeen, 1st Earl of; 
\Allestree, R. 

A ; Accent ; 
Alphabet. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



XXXI 



P. La. 

R. A. S. M. 
R. K. D. 

R. L.* 
R. N. B. 

R. P. S. 

R. S. C. 
R. Tr. 
R. V. H. 
W. P. 
S. A. C. 

S. E. B. 
T.As. 

T. A. I. 
T. A. J. 

T. H. 
T. H. H. 
T. H. H.* 

T. K. C. 
T. W. R. D. 

V. B. L. 



PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. 

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J AIDS' Ceoloev 
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 
Trilobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. 



ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. 
Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund. 



Acre; Ai; Altar. 



SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. 

Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum ; -i. Aleock Sir R. 
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and 
Literature of China ; &c. 

RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., [ Amblvpoda- 

Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; \ . . 

The Deer of all Lands ; The Game A nimals of Africa ; &c. I Aneylopoda. 



ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). 

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political 
History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15131900 ; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 
1725 ; Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706, &c. 



Aagesen; Absalon; 
Adolphus Frederick; 
Alexander Nevsky; 
Alexius Mikhailovich; 
Alexius Petrovich; 
Alin; Andrassy, Count; 
Andrew II. of Hungary. 

Aisle. 



R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. 

Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's . 
College, London. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of 
Architecture: East and West; &c. 

ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., LiTT.D. J . 

Professor of Latin, Victoria University of Manchester; formerly Professor of Latin j Aequi. 
in University College, Cardiff. 

ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A. 

Dean, Fellow and Lecturer, Worcester College, Oxford. Formerly Scholar of ] Agriculture (in part). 
Christ Church, Oxford. 

ADMIRAL SIR RICHARD VESEY HAMILTON, G.C.B. f Admiralty Administration 

Senior Naval Lord of Admiralty, 1889-1891. President, Royal Naval College, 1 (British) 
Greenwich, 1891-1894. 

REGINALD W. PHILLIPS, D.Sc., F.L.S. f 

Professor of Botany in the University College of North Wales. Author of Morpho- "j Algae. 
logy of the Algae, &c. I 



Aaron; Abimelech; 
Abraham; Ahab; 
Amalekites; 
Ammonites. 



STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. 

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, 
Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. 
Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. 
Author of Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. 

SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D. [" 

Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in the University of Yale. I American Law 
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Errors, Connecticut. President of the Inter- 1 
national Law Association. President of the American Historical Association. I 

THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), F.S.A. I" Adr j a ' Aemilia ,y ia ;, 

Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo- J Agrlgentum; Alba Fucens; 
logy at Rome. Alba Longa; Aletrium; 

I Anagnia; Ancona. 

THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. 
Trinity College, Dublin. 



Affiliation. 



T. ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. 

Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- 
logical Society. 

THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., D.LiTT. 

See the biographical article : HODGKIN, T. 

THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, F.R.S. 

See the biographical article : HUXLEY, THOMAS H. 

COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. (" 
Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Author of The Indian 



Ababda; 

Africa: Ethnology. 

Alaric. 
-j Amphibia (in part). 



Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; India; Tibet; &c. 

REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.D. 
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. 

T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. 

Professor of Comparative Religion in Manchester University. 
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secre 
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c. 

VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. 

Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, 
to the Corporation of the City of London. 



Afghan Turkestan. 



- Adam; Amos. 



President of the Pali 
Secretary and Librarian of Royal 1 



A bhidhamma 



Ananda. 



Chief Superintendent Gas Examiner J Acetylene. 



SIR JOSEPH WALTON (d. IQIO). 

'Formerly Judge of the King's Bench Div. 
Bar, 1899. 



Chairman of the General Council of the -j Affreightment. 



XXX11 
W. A. B. C. 

W A. P. 

W. Ba. 
W. C. R.-A. 
W. E. G. 

W. FT. 
W. F. Sh. 

W. G.* 
W. G. F. P. 

W. Hi. 
W. M. D. 

W. M. F. P. 
W. M. R. 
W. 0. B. 

W. Ri. 

W. S. 

W. T. S. 
W. W. 
W. W. F.* 

W. W. R.* 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Pn. (Bern). 
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Projessor of English History ,_St JDavid's 



Aar; Aarau; Aargau; Adda; 
Adige; Albula Pass; Alp; 

the T*ddi; 'Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in 

History, &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c. L Altdorf. 

f Abbot; Aix-la-Chapelle: 
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Congresses; 

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,-! Alexander I. of Russia* 

f\v(/\rA Anfhr*r rtf A//i//*r*. 7?r/iVw> ' rr 

All, of lannma; Alliance; 
I Ambassador. 



College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of*. 

,1 _ wf&jj. f*~fi~ i- r*-:-u u. r>..ij- *~ c.,..'* -/,..,./. TI.~ A ij*~ ;., A;,,f*,~ *~j ; i Aipes lYianunies; Alps; 



Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; 



Abenezra. 



WILLIAM BACKER, PH.D. 

Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Buda-Pest. 

SIR WILLIAM CHANDLER ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
See the biographical article: ROBERTS-AUSTEN, SIR W. C 

SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. 

Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, I Albert Edward Nyanza; 
Egypt. Under- Secretary of State for Public Works. Adviser to the Ministry of 1 Albert Nyanza (in part). 
Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L 

WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.S. (d. 1907). 
Author of Handbook of Agriculture. 

WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A. 

Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. 
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884. 

WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. 



-I Alloys (in part). 



-j Agriculture (in part). 



Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -< Algebra. 



H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; 
Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coalmining ; &c. 



I ifrina- 

- ' 



- - 

[ Algeria: Geology. 



SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. 

Judge of the King's Bench Div. President of International Law Associa^n, 1905. J Admiralty, High Court of; 
Author of Book of Church Law. Edited 2nd ed. of Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law, "l Admiralty Jurisdiction. 
and 3rd ed. of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law. 



WALTER HIBBERT, A.M.I. C.E., F.I.C., F.C.S. 

Lecturer on Physics and Electro-Technology, Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. 

WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. 

Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical 

Geography. Author of Physical Geography; &c. 
WILLIAM M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D., PH.D. 

See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. F. 

WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. 

See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. 

VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A. 

Archdeacon of Birmingham. Formerly Tutor of Christ Church. Oxford, 1884-1891, 
and Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 18911900. 

WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LITT.D. 

Disney Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton Reader in 
Classics. Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. 
President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age 
of Greece, &c. 

WILLIAM SPALDING. 

See the biographical article: SPALDING, W. 

REAR-ADMIRAL W. T. SAMPSON, LL.D. 

See the biographical article: SAMPSON, W. T. 

WILLIAM WALLACE. 

See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). 

WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. 

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub- Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, 
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans. 

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D. 

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. 



J Accumulator, 

J America: Physical Geography. 

J Abydos. 

j Andrea del Sarto. 



I Absolution. 

J Achaeans. 

J Addison (in part). 

f Admiralty Administration 
\ (United States). 

\ Anaxagoras (in part). 

Ambarvalia. 

r Adrian IV., V., VI.; 

J Alexander III., IV., VII., VIII.; 

i, Ancyra, Synod of. 



PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES 



Abbreviation. 

Acid. 

Aconite. 

Addison's Disease. 

Adoption. 

Advocate. 

Advowson. 



Aeronautics. 

Aerotherapeutics. 

Agapemonites. 

Age. 

Alabama. 

Alaska. 

Alb. 



Albumin. 

Alcohol. 

Alcohols. 

Aldehydes. 

Alexandrian School. 

Alhambra. 



Alimony. 

Alismaceae. 

Almanac. 

Aloe. 

Alum. 

Amazons. 



Ambo. 

Ammonia. 

Amsterdam. 

Ana. 

Andaman Islands. 

Andes. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC A 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME I 



A This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in the 
Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants. 
In Phoenician, a, like, the symbols for e and for o, did 
not represent a vowel, but a breathing ; the vowels 
originally were not represented by any symbol. When the 
alphabet was adopted by the Greeks it was not very well fitted 
to represent the sounds of their language. The breathings 
which were not required in Greek were accordingly employed 
to represent some of the vowel sounds, other vowels, like i and u, 
being represented by an adaptation of the symbols for the 
semi-vowels y and w. The Phoenician name, which must have 
corresponded closely to the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by 
the Greeks in the form Alpha (a\<j>a). The earliest authority 
for this, as for the names of the other Greek letters, is the 
grammatical drama (ypannariKri Qeupia) of Callias, an earlier 
contemporary of Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, 
containing the names of all the Greek letters, are preserved in 
Athenaeus x. 453 d. 

The form of the letter has varied considerably. In the earliest 
of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions (the oldest 
Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest Aramaic from the 
8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th or 7th century B.C.) A rests 
upon its side thus ^ \ <. In the Greek alphabet of later times 
it generally resembles the modern capital letter, but many local 
varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by 
the angle at which the cross line is set ^ /\ fa /) P|, &c. From 
the Greeks of the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans 
and from them has passed to the other nations of western 
Europe. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription 

I found in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that 
on a golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET), 
the letters are still identical in form with those of the western 
Greeks. Latin develops early various forms, which are compara- 
tively rare in Greek, as /^, or unknown, as ^. Except possibly 
Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy did not borrow their alphabet 
directly from the western Greeks as the Romans did, but received 
it at second hand through the Etruscans. In Oscan, where the 
writing of early inscriptions is no less careful than in Latin, the 
A takes the form fQ, to which the nearest parallels are found 
in north Greece (Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only 
sporadically). 



i. i 



In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the 
short sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte (i); 
English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding precisely 
to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be ascertained, was 
a mid-back-wide sound, according to the terminology of H. 
Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107). Throughout the history 
of Greek the short sound remained practically unchanged. On 
the other hand, the long sound of a in the Attic and Ionic dialects 
passed into an open e-sound, which in the Ionic alphabet was 
represented by the same symbol as the original e-sound (see 
ALPHABET : Greek). The vowel sounds vary from language to 
language, and the a symbol has, in consequence, to represent 
in many cases sounds which are not identical with the Greek a 
whether long or short, and also to represent several different 
vowel sounds in the same language. Thus the New English 
Dictionary distinguishes about twelve separate vowel sounds, 
which are represented by a in English. In general it may be 
said that the chief changes which affect the a-sound in different 
languages arise from (i) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing 
from a sound produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced 
farther forward. The rounding is often produced by combination 
with rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the 
rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into the 
formation of the vowel sound. Rounding has also been produced 
by a following /-sound, as in the English fall, small, bald, &c. 
(see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 2nd ed., 906, 784). 
The effect of fronting is seen in the Ionic and Attic dialects of 
Greek, where the original name of the Medes, Madoi, with a. 
in the first syllable (which survives in Cyprian Greek as MaSot), 
is changed into Medoi (Mi?5ot), with an open e-sound instead 
of the earlier a. In the later history of Greek this sound 
is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with i (as in 
English seed). The first part of the process has been almost 
repeated by literary English, a (ah) passing into e (eh), though 
in present-day pronunciation the sound has developed further 
into a diphthongal ei except before r, as in hare (Sweet, 
op. cit. 783). 

In English a represents unaccented forms of several words, 
e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and of various prefixes the history of 
which is given in detail in the New English Dictionary (Oxford, 
1888), vol, i.,p.,4. , . (P. Gi.) 

5 



AA AAR 



As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions and for 
various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in music, for the first 
of the seven dominical letters (this use is derived from its being 
the first of the litter -ae nundinales at Rome), and generally as 
a sign of priority. 

In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal 
affirmative proposition in the general form " all x is y." The 
letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular affirm- 
ative " some x is y," the universal negative " no x is y," and 
the particular negative " some x is not y." The use of these 
letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two Latin 
verbs A/Irmo (or AIo), "I assert," and nEgO, "I deny." 
The use of the symbols dates from the i3th century, though 
some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. A is 
also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.). 

In Shipping, Ai is a symbol used to denote quality of con- 
struction and material. In the various shipping registers ships 
are classed and given a rating after an official examination, and 
assigned a classification mark, which appears in addition to 
other particulars in those registers after the name of the ship. 
See SHIPBUILDING. It is popularly used to indicate the highest 
degree of excellence. 

AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers. The 
word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to the Latin 
aqua, water (cf. Ger. -ach; Scand. a, aa, pronounced o). The 
following are the more important streams of this name: 
Two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of 
Riga, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the 
north of France, falling into the sea below Gravelines, and navi- 
gable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the can- 
tons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes 
Baldegger and Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the 
Westphalian Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the 
Werre at Herford, the Miinster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and 
others. 

AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated 
for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted 
his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war, in 
which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he 
became professor of jurisprudence at the university of Copen- 
hagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for 
drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation 
law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member 
of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university that he 
won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical works may be 
mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, 
Bemaerkinger om Reltigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871- 
1872); Fortegnelse over Relssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, 
Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was Hall's suc- 
cessor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this 
department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils 
were profoundly impressed by his exhaustive examination of 
the sources, his energetic demonstration of his subject and his 
stringent search after truth. His noble, imposing, and yet most 
amiable personality won for him, moreover, universal affection 
and respect. 

See C. F. Bricka, Dansk.Biog. Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); 
Samlade Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 
1863). (R. N. B.) 

AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani names 
for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifolia, plants exten- 
sively cultivated in India on account of the reddish dye-stuff 
which their roots contain. The name is also applied to the dye, 
but the common trade name is Suranji. Its properties are due to 
the presence of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is com- 
pounded from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthra- 
quinone. 

AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop, 
and chief town of the amt (county) of its name, on the south bank 
of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the Cattegat. 
Pop. (1901) 31,457- The situation is typical of the north of 
Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into aij irregular 



lake, with low, marshy shores and many islands. North-west is 
the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the mirage is seen in summer. 
South-east lies the similar Lille Vildmose. A railway connects 
Aalborg with Hjorring, Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north, 
and with Aarhus and the lines from Germany to the south. The 
harbouris good and safe, though difficult of access. Aalborg is a 
growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and 
fish. An old castle and some picturesque houses of the I7th cen- 
tury remain. The Budolphi church dates mostly from the mid- 
dle of the 1 8th century, while the Frue church was partially burnt 
in 1894, but the foundation of both is of the I4th century or 
earlier. There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art 
and antiquities. On the north side of the fjord is Norre Sundby, 
connected with Aalborg by a pontoon and also by an iron rail- 
way bridge, one of the finest engineering works in the kingdom. 
Aalborg received town -privileges in 1342, and the bishopric dates 
from 1554. 

AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, 
pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian 
Alps, about 50 m. E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway com- 
munication with Ulm and Cannstatt. Pop. 10,000. Woollen 
and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and 
tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. 
There are several schools and churches, and a statue of the poet 
Christian Schubart. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 to 
1802, when it was annexed to Wiirttemberg. 

AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 
145 m. N. by E. from Bergen. Pop. (1900) 11,672. It occupies 
two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and Norvo, which 
enclose the picturesque harbour. Founded in 1824, it is the 
principal shipping-place of Sondmore district, and one of the chief 
stations of the herring fishery. Aalesund is adjacent to the 
Jb'rund and Geiranger fjords, frequented by tourists. From Oje 
at the head of Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nord- 
fjord, and from Merok on Geiranger another strikes inland to 
Otta, on the railway to Lillehammer and Christiania. Aalesund 
is a port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle and 
Hamburg, and Trondhjem. A little to the south of the town are 
the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the founder, in the pth 
century, of the dynasty of the dukes of Normandy. On the 23rd 
of January 1904, Aalesund was the scene of one of the most 
terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns, 
built largely of wood, have been subject. Practically the whole 
town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population 
had to leave the place in the night at the notice of a few minutes. 
Hardly any lives were lost, but the sufferings of the people were 
so terrible that assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom, 
and by the German government, while the British government 
also offered it. 

AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman, 
was born at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government 
official. Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after 
reaching manhood, he became successively secretary of the Em- 
bassy in Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under 
Reshid Pasha. In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand 
vizier, but after a short time retired into private life. During the 
Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio of 
foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, and in this 
capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of Vienna. Again 
becoming in that year grand vizier, an office he filled no less than 
five times, he represented Turkey at the congress of Paris in 1856. 
In 1867 he was appointed regent of Turkey during the sultan's 
visit to the Paris Exhibition. Aali Pasha was one of the most zeal- 
ous advocates of the introduction of Western reforms under the 
sultans Abdul Mejid and Abdul Aziz. A scholar and a linguist, 
he was a match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against 
whom he successfully defended the interests of his country. He 
died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871. 

AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both rises 
and ends entirely within Switzerland. Its total length (including 
all bends) from its source to its junction with the Rhine is about 
181 m., during which distance it descends 5135 ft., while its 



AARAU AARHUS 



drainage area is 6804 sq. m. It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in 
the canton of Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass. It runs E. to the 
Grimsel Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, form- 
ing on the way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), 
past Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet 
by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a plain. 
A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands into the lake of 
Brienz, where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of that 
lake it receives its first important affluent, the Liitschine (left), 
and then runs across the swampy plain of the Bodeli, between 
Interlaken (left) and Unterseen (right), before again expanding in 
order to form the Lake of Thun. Near the west end of that lake 
it receives on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined 
by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and 
then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is built. 
It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly direction, 
but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) turns N. till near 
Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the Hagneck Canal into the 
Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of which it issues through the 
Nidau Canal and then runs E. to Biiren. Henceforth its course is 
N.E. for a long distance, past Soleure (below which the Grosse 
Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the 
Wigger, right), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the 
Suhr on the right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in 
on the right. A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first 
the Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or 
Linth (right). It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an 
affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume when 
they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 1900 
it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly 
Protestants. It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the right 
bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range of the 
Jura. It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31 m. N.W. 
of Zurich. It is a well-built modern town, with no remarkable 
features about it. In the Industrial Museum there is (besides 
collections of various kinds) some good painted glass of the i6th 
century, taken from the neighbouring Benedictine monastery 
of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 1841 the monks are now 
quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in Tirol). The cantonal library 
contains many works relating to Swiss history and many MSS. 
coming from the suppressed Argovian monasteries. There are 
many industries in the town, especially silk-ribbon weaving, 
foundries, andjactories for the manufacture of cutlery and scien- 
tific instruments. The popular novelist and historian, Heinrich 
Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of his life here, and a bronze 
statue has been erected to his memory. Aarau is an important 
military centre. The slopes of the Jura are covered with vine- 
yards. Aarau, an ancient fortress, was taken by the Bernese in 
1415, and in 1798 became for a time the capital of the Helvetic 
republic. Eight miles by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths 
of Schinznach, just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, 
the original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARD-VARK (meaning " earth-pig "), the Dutch name for the 
mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see EDEN- 
TATA). Several species have been named. Among them is the 
typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from South Africa, 
and the northern aard-vark (0. aethiopicus) of north-eastern 
Africa, extending into Egypt. In form these animals are some- 
what pig-like; the body is stout, with arched back; the limbs 
are short and stout, armed with strong, blunt claws; the ears 
disproportionately long; and the tail very thick at the base and 
tapering gradually. The greatly elongated head is set on a short 
thick neck, and at the extremity of the snout is a disk in which 
the nostrils open. The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with 
a long extensile tongue. The measurements of a female, taken in 
the flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 175 in. ; but a large indi- 
vidual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all. In colour the Cape aard-vark 
is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty and allowing the 
skin to show; the northern aard-vark has a still thinner coat, and 
is further distinguished by the shorter tail and longer head and 
ears. These animals are of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and 



generally to be found near ant-hills. The strong claws make a 
hole in the side of the ant-hill, and the insects are collected on 
the extensile tongue. Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but 
the flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. 

AARD-WOLF (earth- wolf), a South and East African carni- 
vorous mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a 
small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharper 
ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the neck 
and back. It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and feeds on 
decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites. 

AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss 
cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.), 
whence its name. Its total area is 541-9 sq. m., of which 517-9 
sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 172 sq. m. 
and vineyards 8-2 sq. m.). It is one of the least mountainous 
Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of 
the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The 
surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts 
and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered 
mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. It contains the famous hot 
sulphur springs of Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rhein- 
felden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg 
the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are 
the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden 
(with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman 
settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch]. The total population in 
1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but 
numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990 
Jews. The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while other im- 
portant towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 inhabitants), 
Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 inhabitants), 
Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 inhabitants). 
Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, straw-plaiting, 
tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and salmon-fishing in the 
Rhine being among the chief industries. As this region was, up 
to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg power, we find here many 
historical old castles (e.g. Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and 
former monasteries (e.g. Wettingen, Muri), founded by that 
family, but suppressed in 1841, this act of violence being one of 
the main causes of the civil war called the " Sonderbund War," in 
1847 in Switzerland. The cantonal constitution dates mainly 
from 1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council of 
five members is made by a direct vote of the people. The legisla- 
ture consists of members elected in the proportion of one to every 
i zoo inhabitants. The "obligatory referendum" exists in the 
case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the right of " initiative " 
in proposing bills or alterations in the cantonal constitution. 
The canton sends 10 members'to the federal Nationalrat, being 
one for every 20,000, while the two Slander ate are (since 1904) 
elected by a direct vote of the people. The canton is divided into 
eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes. 

In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the 
Swiss Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen, 
Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts, named 
the Freie Amter or " free bailiwicks " (Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, 
and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, were ruled as " subject 
lands" by all or certain of the Confederates. In 1798 the Bernese 
bit became the canton of Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the re- 
mainder forming the canton of Baden. In 1803, the two halves (plus 
the Frick glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic) 
were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then ad- 
mitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. 

See also Argoria (published by the Cantonal Historical Society), 
Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 2 vols., 
St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische Slrohindustrie, 
Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt. Burganlagen und Wehrbauten 
d. Kant. Argau (fine illustrated work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols., 
1904-1906; W. Merz and F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d. Kant. 
Argau, 3 vols., Aarau, 1898-1905; J. Miiller, Der Aargau, 2. vols., 
Zurich, 1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthiimer, Aarau, 1877; 
E. Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the east 
coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; the second 
largest town in the kingdom, and capital of the ami (county) of 
Aarhus. Pop. (1901) 51,814. The district is low-lying, fertile 
and well wooded. The town is the junction of railways from all 



AARON AASEN 



parts of the country. The harbour is good and safe, and agricul- 
tural produce is exported, while coal and iron are among the 
chief imports. The cathedral of the I3th century (extensively 
restored) is the largest church in Denmark. There is a museum of 
art and antiquities. To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a pictur- 
esque region extends west from the railway junction of Skander- 
borg, including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa, 
the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding 500 ft. 
in the Himmelbjerg. The railway traverses this pleasant district 
of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern town having one of 
the most attractive situations in the kingdom. The bishopric of 
Aarhus dates at least from 951. 

AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish priest- 
hood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites out of 
Egypt (see EXODUS ; MOSES) . The greater part of his life-history 
is preserved in late Biblical narratives, which carry back exist- 
ing conditions and beliefs to the time of the Exodus, and find 
a precedent for contemporary hierarchical institutions in the 
events of that period. Although Aaron was said to have been 
sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) to meet Moses at the " mount of God " 
(Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he plays onlya secondary part in the incidents 
at Pharaoh's court. After the "exodus" from Egypt a striking 
account is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to 
him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount 
(Ex. xxiv. i seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the side 
of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working rod, 
enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16). Hur and 
Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when Moses and Joshua 
ascended the mount to receive the Tables of the Law (xxiv. 
12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the prolonged absence 
of their leader, demanded a god, it was at the instigation of Aaron 
that the golden calf was made (see CALF, GOLDEN). This was 
regarded as an act of apostasy which, according to one tradition, 
led to the consecration of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his 
life (cp. Deut. ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account 
of the preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a 
series of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii. 
seq.). Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been 
originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. com- 
pared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some obscure 
offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were prohibited 
from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.). In what way they 
had not "sanctified" (an allusion in the Hebrew to Kadesh 
" holy ") Yahweh is quite uncertain, and it would appear that it 
was for a similar offence that the sons of Aaron mentioned above 
also met their death (Lev. x. 3 ; cp. Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). 
Aaron is said to have died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor ; 
the latter is an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. 
xx. 23, xxxiii. 37 ; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently 
not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the traditional 
scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7). 

Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to have 
arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a place for 
Aaron in certain incidents. In the account of the contention 
between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), Aaron occupies 
only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful whether he 
was originally mentioned in the older surviving narratives. It 
is at least remarkable that he is only thrice mentioned in Deuter- 
onomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The post-exilic narratives give 
him a greater share in the plagues of Egypt, represent him as 
high-priest, and confirm his position by the miraculous budding 
of his rod alone of all the rods of the other tribes (Num. xvii. ; for 
parallels see Gray, comm. ad loc., p. 217). The latter story illus- 
trates the growth of the older exodus-tradition along with the 
development of priestly ritual : the old account of Korah's 
revolt against the authority of Moses has been expanded, and 
now describes (a) the divine prerogatives of the Levites in 
general, and (6) the confirmation of the superior privileges of the 
Aaronites against the rest of the Levites, a development which 
can scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.). 

Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality known 
after the grandson as the " hill of Phinehas " (Josh. xxiv. 33). Little 



historical information has been preserved of either. The name 
Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) is better known as that of 
a son of Eli, a member of the priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is 
only another form of Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is 
said to have belonged. The close relation between Aaronite and 
Levitical names and those of clans related to Moses is very note- 
worthy, and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's 
sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (l Chron. iv. 17) 
with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In view 
of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of interpreting 
the details sketched above, the recovery of the historical Aaron 
is a work of peculiar intricacy. He may well have been the tradi- 
tional head of the priesthood, and R. H. Kennett has argued in 
favour of the view that he was the founder of the cult at Bethel 
(Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the 
Mosaite founder of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, 
which still remains quite obscure; and unless Aaron (Aharon) is 
based upon Aron, " ark " (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. N. Land), 
it must be placed in a line with the other un-Hebraic and difficult 
names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, apparently, of 
South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin. 

For the literature and a general account of the Jewish priesthood, 
see the articles LEVITES and PRIEST. (S. A. C.) 

AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall 
flowering plants (" hag taper," " golden rod," &c.). In archi- 
tecture the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting 
leaves, or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the 
Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8). 

AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a cele- 
brated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces. His 
talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van 
Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a 
diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France. 
He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the twelve 
years' truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having displeased the 
French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt 
in 1616. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his 
former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect his ruin. 
He was one of the packed court of judges who in 1619 condemned 
the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder 
a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards be- 
came the confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange, 
and afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their 
conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on 
special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and dis- 
played so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu ranked 
him among the three greatest politicians of his time. 

AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and lexico- 
grapher, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore, Norway, on 
the sth of August 1813. His father, a small peasant-farmer 
named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farm- 
work, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and 
when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his 
native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of H. C. Thore- 
sen, the husband of the eminent writer Magdalene Thoresen, in 
Hero, and here he picked up the elements of Latin. Gradually, 
and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young 
peasant became master of many languages, and began the 
scientific study of their structure. About 1841 he had freed 
himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy 
his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore; 
his first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in the 
Sondmore language ( 1 843) . His remarkable abilities now attracted 
general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies un- 
disturbed. His Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects (1848) was the 
result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of 
the country. Aasen's famous Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects 
appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication 
dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Nor- 
wegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the 
different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite 
folke-maal for Norway. With certain modifications, the most 
important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, this 
artificial language is that which has been adopted ever since 
by those who write in dialect, and which later enthusiasts have 
once more endeavoured to foist upon Norway as her official 



AB ABACUS 



language in the place of Dano-Norwegian. Aasen composed 
poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should 
be used ; one of these dramas, The Heir (1855), was frequently 
acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant 
dialect-literature of the last half-century, from Vinje down to 
Garborg. Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars 
and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in Chris- 
tiania, surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, 
but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about 
the language of the peasants became more and more the watch- 
word of the popular party. Quite early in his career, 1842, he 
had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire 
attention to his philological investigations ; and the Storthing 
conscious of the national importance of his work treated him in 
this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in 
years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be 
said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, he added but 
little to his stores. Ivar Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place 
in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least 
selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many 
thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their 
schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania 
on the 23rd of September 1896, and was buried with public 
honours. (E. G.) 

AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the eleventh 
of the civil year of the Jews. It approximately corresponds to 
the period of the isth of July to the ijth of August. The word 
is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the Jews with other calendar 
names after the Babylonian exile. Tradition ascribes the death 
of Aaron to the first day of Ab. On the ninth is kept the Fast of 
Ab, or the Black Fast, to bewail the destruction of the first temple 
by Nebuchadrezzar (586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70). 

ABA. (i) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and 
called after, Antoine d'Abbadie ; (2) a rough homespun manu- 
factured in Bulgaria; (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin 
Arabs. 

ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of 
classical writers), a nomad tribe of African " Arabs " of Hamitic 
origin. They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea, 
and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying 
the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call them- 
selves " sons of the Jinns." With some of the clans of the 
Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they represent 
the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location to-day is 
almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times. They 
were constantly at war with the Romans, who at last subsidized 
them. In the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and 
convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port of 
embarkation for Jedda. From time immemorial they have acted 
as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile 
valley as far as Sennar. To-day many of them are employed in 
the telegraph service across the Arabian desert. They inter- 
married with the Nuba, and settled in small colonies at Shendi 
and elsewhere long before the Egyptian invasion (A.D. 1820-1822). 
They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts. 
The Ababda of Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by 
an hereditary " chief." Although nominally a vassal of the 
Khedive he pays no tribute. Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a por- 
tion of the road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers 
from Bedouin robbers. The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to 
him. The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, 
who visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have 
since diminished, having probably amalgamated with the 
Bisharin, their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a 
powerful nation. The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled 
with Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued 
con tact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion 
of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect, To- 
Bedawiet. Those of Kosseir will not speak this before strangers, 
as they beh'eve that to reveal the mysterious dialect would bring 
ruin on them. Those nearest the Nile have much fellah blood in 
them. As a tribe they claim an Arab origin, apparently through 



their sheikhs. They have adopted the dress and habits of the 
fellahin, unlike their kinsmen the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who 
go practically naked. They are neither so fierce nor of so fine a 
physique as these latter. They are lithe and well built, but 
small: the average height is little more than 5 ft., except in the 
sheikh clan, who are obviously of Arab origin. Their complexion 
is more red than black, their features angular, noses straight and 
hair luxuriant. They bear the character of being treacherous 
and faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be 
honest in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor, 
never beg. Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy 
after the British occupation of Egypt. Their chief settlements are 
in Nubia, ;where they live in villages and employ themselves in 
agriculture. Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then hawk 
the salt fish in the interior. Others are pedlars, while charcoal- 
burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums and drugs, especi- 
ally in senna leaves, occupy many. Unlike the true Arab, the 
Ababda do not live in tents, but build huts with hurdles and mats, 
or live in natural caves, as did their ancestors in classic times. 
They have few horses, using the camel as beast of burden or 
their " mount " in war. They live chiefly on milk and durra, the 
latter eaten either raw or roasted. They are very superstitious, 
believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family if a 
girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes on her 
mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his home far 
from his wife's village. In the Mahdist troubles (1882-1898) 
many " friendlies " were recruited from the tribe. 

For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN, HADEN- 
DOA, KABBABISH; and the following authorities: Sir F. R. Win- 
gate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1891) ; Giuseppe Sergi, 
Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H. 
Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Rus- 
segger, Die Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.) 

ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis, 
which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.). 

ABACUS (Gr. a/k, a slab; Fr. abaque, tailloir), in archi- 
tecture, the upper member of the capital of a column. Its chief 
function is to provide a larger supporting surface for the archi- 
trave or arch it has to carry. In the Greek Doric order the abacus 
is a plain square slab. In the Roman and Renaissance Doric 
orders it is crowned by a moulding. In the Archaic-Greek Ionic 
order, owing to the greater width of the capital, the abacus is 
rectangular in plan, and consists of a carved ovolo moulding. In 
later examples the abacus is square, except where there are angle 
volutes, when it is slightly curved over the same. In the Roman 
and Renaissance Ionic capital, the abacus is square with a fillet 
on the top of an ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes. 
In the Greek Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides 
are concave and its angles canted (except in one or two excep- 
tional Greek capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle) ; and 
the same shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corin- 
thian and Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo 
moulding carved. In Romanesque architecture the abacus is 
square with the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, 
and the same was retained in France during the medieval period; 
but in England, in Early 
English work, a circular 
deeply moulded abacus 
was introduced, which in 
the I4th and isth cen- 
turies was transformed 
into an octagonal one. 
The diminutive of 
Abacus, ABACISCUS, is 
applied in architecture to 
the chequers or squares 
of atessellated pavement. 
" Abacus " is also the 
name of an instrument 
employed by the ancients 
for arithmetical calculations; 
being used as counters. Fig. 




FIG. i. Roman Abacus. 



pebbles, 
i shows 



bits of bone or coins 
a Roman abacus taken 



ABADDON ABANDONMENT 




6 302 715408 
FIG. 2. Chinese Swan-Pan. 



from an ancient monument. It contains seven long and seven 
shorter rods or bars, the former having four perforated beads 
running on them and the latter one. The bar marked I indi- 
cates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on 
the shorter bars denote fives, five units, five tens, &c. The 
rod 6 and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces ; 
and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. 

The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles the 
Roman abacus in. its construction and use. Computations are 

made with it by means of 
balls of bone or ivory run- 
ning on slender bamboo 
rods, similar to the simpler 
board, fitted up with beads 
strung on wires, which is 
employed in teaching the 
rudiments of arithmetic in 
English schools. 

The name of "abacus" 
is also given, in logic, to an 
instrument, often called the " logical machine," analogous to 
the mathematical abacus. It is constructed to show all the 
possible combinations of a set of logical terms with their nega- 
tives, and, further, the way in which these combinations are 
affected by the addition of attributes or other limiting words, 
i.e. to simplify mechanically the solution of logical problems. 
These instruments are all more or less elaborate developments 
of the " logical slate," on which were written in vertical columns 
all the combinations of symbols or letters which could be made 
logically out of a definite number of terms. These were com- 
pared with any given premises, and those which were incom- 
patible were crossed off. In the abacus the combinations are 
inscribed each on a single slip of wood or similar substance, 
which is moved by a key; incompatible combinations can thus 
be mechanically removed at will, in accordance with any given 
series of premises. The principal examples of such machines 
are those of W. S. Jevons (Element. Lessons in Logic, c. xxiii.), 
John Venn (see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), 
and Allan Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
1885, pp. 303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 
1883). 

ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning " destruction." In 
poetry it comes to mean "place of destruction," and so the under- 
world or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6 ; Prov. xv. ji). In Rev. ix. n 
Abaddon ("AjSoSScoy) is used of hell personified, the prince of 
the underworld. The term is here explained as Apollyon (q.v.), 
the " destroyer." W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo- 
padie) notes that Hades and Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are 
employed as personal names, just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, 
shamayim (" heaven "), and makom (" place ") among the 
Rabbins, are used of God. 

ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of 
Pars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile plain on the 
high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. from the former 
and 1 70 m. from the latter place. Pop. 4000. It is the chief place 
of the Abadeh-Iklid district, which has 30 villages ; it has tele- 
graph and post offices, and is famed for its carved wood-work, 
small boxes, trays, sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear 
and box trees. 

ABAE ("Af3<u), a town in the N.E. corner of Phocis, in Greece, 
famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo, one of those con- 
sulted by Croesus (Herod, i. 46). It was rich in treasures (Herod, 
viii. 33) , but was sacked by the Persians, and the temple remained 
in a ruined state. The oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. 
by the Thebans before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple 
seems to have been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was 
in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35), 
though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, 
was undertaken by Hadrian. The sanctity of the shrine ensured 
certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull. Corresp. Hell. vi. 
171), and these were confirmed by the Romans. The polygonal 
walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preserva- 



tion on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. above the little 
plain of Exarcho ; one gateway remains, and there are also 
traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of 
the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a pre- 
cinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples ; these 
were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but 
very little was found. 

See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163; 
Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke). 

(E. GR.) 

ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the Russian 
government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m. S.S.W. of 
Krasnoyarsk, in lat. S42o' N., long. 9i4o' E. This is considered 
the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and is remark- 
able for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues of men from 
seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics. Peter the 
Great had a fort built here in 1707. Pop. 2000. 

ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various 
species of the shell--fish of the Haliotidae family, with a richly 
coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl. This sort jof Haliotis is 
also commonly called " ear-shell," and in Guernsey " ormer " 
(Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer). The abalone shell is found 
especially at Santa Barbara and other places on the southern 
Californian coast, and when polished makes a beautiful ornament. 
The mollusc itself is often eaten, and dried for consumption in 
China and Japan. 

ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR, 
the "rivers of Damascus" (2 Kings v. 12), now generally 
identified with the Barada (i.e. " cold ") and the A'waj (i.e. 
" crooked ") respectively, though if the reference to Damascus 
be limited to the city, as in the Arabic version of the Old Testa- 
ment, Pharpar would be the modern Taura. Both streams run 
from west to east across the plain of Damascus, which owes to 
them much of its fertility, and lose themselves in marshes, or 
lakes, as they are called, on the borders of the great Arabian 
desert. John M'Gregor, who gives an interesting description of 
them in his Rob -Roy on the Jordan, affirmed that as a work of 
hydraulic engineering, the system and construction of the canals, 
by which the Abana and Pharpar were 1 used for irrigation, might 
be considered as one of the most complete and extensive in the 
world. As the Barada escapes from the mountains through a 
narrow gorge, its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or " rivers," 
the name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana. 

ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE- 
VILLE D' (1758-1792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne. 
He was Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and 
organized the defence of the Tuileries for the loth of August. 
Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss 
guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation 
and sent to Orleans to be tried. At the end of August the As- 
sembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to 
be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude 
Fournier, " the American." At Versailles they learned of the 
massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were 
murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 1792. Fournier 
was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime. 

ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to 
abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to 
meltre abandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon 
being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban "), 
in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or 
possession. Its signification varies according to the branch of 
the law in which it is employed, but the more important uses of 
the word are summarized below. 

ABANDONMENT OF AN ACTION is the discontinuance of pro- 
ceedings commenced in the High Court of Justice either because 
the plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action or 
for other reasons. Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875, con- 
siderable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor 
might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring 
another action on the same suit (see NONSUIT) ; but since 1875 
this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who 



ABANO ABATIS 



has delivered his reply (see PLEADING), and afterwards wishes to 
abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only on 
condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter. 

ABANDONMENT IN MARINE INSURANCE is the surrender of the 
ship or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive 
total loss of the thing insured. For the requisites and effects of 
abandonment in this sense see INSURANCE, MARINE. 

ABANDONMENT OF WIFE AND CHILDREN is dealt with under 
DESERTION, and the abandonment or exposure of a young child 
under the age of two, which is an indictable misdemeanour, is 
dealt with under CHILDREN, CRUELTY TO. 

ABANDONMENT OF DOMICILE is the ceasing to reside perman- 
ently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing 
a new domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in 
deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not 
must be inferred from the facts of each individual case. See 
DOMICILE. 

ABANDONMENT OF AN EASEMENT is the relinquishment of some 
accommodation*or right in another's land, such as right of way, 
free access of light and air, &c. See EASEMENT. 

ABANDONMENT OF RAILWAYS has a legal signification in Eng- 
land recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of 
Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a 
railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it. 

ABANO, PIETRO D" (1250-1316), known also as PETRUS DE 
APONO or APONENSIS, Italian physician and philosopher, was 
born at the Italian town from which he takes his name in 1250, 
or, according to others, in 1246. After studying medicine and 
philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where he speedily gained 
a great reputation as a physician, and availed himself of it to 
gratify his avarice by refusing to visit patients except for an 
exorbitant fee. Perhaps this, as well as his meddling with 
astrology, caused him to be charged with practising magic, the 
particular accusations being that he brought back into his purse, 
by the aid of the devil, all the money he paid away, and that he 
possessed the philosopher's stone. He was twice brought to trial 
by the Inquisition ; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and 
he died (1316) before the second trial was completed. He was 
found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed 
and burned ; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the 
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public pro- 
clamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in effigy. In 
his writings he expounds and advocates the medical and philo- 
sophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian writers. His 
best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum quae inter 
philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472 ; Venice, 1476), 
and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472), of which a French 
translation was published at Lyons in 1503. 

ABANO BAGNI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of 
Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei ; it is 6 m. S.W. by 
rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4556. Its hot springs and mud 
baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Romans as 
Aponi fans or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the ancient 
baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato del Bagni 
d' Abano, Padua, 1789). An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the 
so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i., Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), 
small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were per- 
haps found here in the i6th century. 

ABARIS, a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and prophet of 
Apollo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770 B.C., or two 
or three centuries later. According to the legend, he travelled 
throughout the country, living without food and riding on a 
golden arrow, the gift of the god ; he healed the sick, foretold the 
future, worked miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague 
(Herod, iv. 36 ; lamblichus, De Vit. Pythag. xix. 28). Suidas 
credits him with several works : Scythian oracles, the visit of 
Apollo to the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose 
theogony. 

ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and 
metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, 
as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so 
as to leave the letters or ornament in relief. 



ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the 
Late Latin battere, to beat), a beating down or diminishing or 
doing away with ; a term used especially in various legal phrases. 

ABATEMENT OF A NUISANCE is the remedy allowed by law to a 
person or public authority injured by a public nuisance of de- 
stroying or removing it, provided no breach of the peace is com- 
mitted in doing so. In the case of private nuisances abatement is 
also allowed provided there be no breach of the peace, and no 
damage be occasioned beyond what the removal of the nuisance 
requires. (See NUISANCE.) 

ABATEMENT OF FREEHOLD takes place where, after the death 
of the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before the 
entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of possession. 
It differs from intrusion, which is a similar entry by a stranger on 
the death of a tenant for life, to the prejudice of the reversioner, 
or remainder man ; and from disseisin, which is the forcible or 
fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold. (See 
FREEHOLD.) 

ABATEMENT OF DEBTS AND LEGACIES. When the equitable 
assets (see ASSETS) of a deceased person are not sufficient to 
satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportion- 
ately, and they must accept a dividend. Also, in the case of 
legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable 
are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in 
proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any 
particular legacy (see LEGACY). Annuities are also subject to 
the same rule as general legacies. 

ABATEMENT IN PLEADING, or plea in abatement, was the de- 
feating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of 
fact, such as a defect in form or the personalincompetency of the 
parties suing, pleaded by the defendant. It did not involve the 
merits of the cause, but left the right of action subsisting. In 
criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at one time a 
common practice in answer to an indictment, and was set up for 
the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed, by alleging 
misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant. Its effect 
for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law Act 1826, 
which required the court to amend according to the truth, and 
the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered description 
of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement are now 
abolished (R.S.C. Order 21, r. 20). See PLEADING. 

ABATEMENT IN LITIGATION. In civil proceedings, no action 
abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any of 
the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues, and does 
not become defective by the assignment, creation or devolution 
of any estate or title pendentelite (R.S.C. Order 17, r. i). Crim- 
inal proceedings do not abate on the death of the prosecutor, 
being in theory instituted by the crown, but the crown itself 
may bring about their termination without any decision on the 
merits and without the assent of the prosecutor. 

ABATEMENT OF FALSE LIGHTS. By the Merchant Shipping Act 
1854, the general lighthouse authority (see LIGHTHOUSE) has 
power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light 
which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse. 

ABATEMENT IN COMMERCE is a deduction sometimes made at a 
custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on 
account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses. The rate 
and conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by 
the Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also DRAWBACK; 
REBATE.) 

ABATEMENT IN HERALDRY is a badge in coat-armour, indi- 
cating some kind of degradation or dishonour. It is called also 
rebatement. 

ABATI, or DELL' ABBATO, NICCOLO (1512-1571), a celebrated 
fresco-painter of Modena, whose best works are there and at 
Bologna. He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted 
in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau (1552-1571). His pic- 
tures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace and natural 
colouring. Some of his easel pieces in oil are in different collec- 
tions ; one of the finest, in the Dresden Gallery, represents the 
martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul. 

ABATIS, ABATTIS or ABBATTIS (a French word meaning a heap 



8 



ABATTOIR ABBADIDES 



of material thrown), a term in field fortification for an obstacle 
formed of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the tops 
directed towards the enemy and interlaced or tied with wire. 
The abatis is used alone or in combination with wire-entangle- 
ments and other obstacles. 

ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often 
employed in English as an equivalent of " slaughter-house " 
(<;..), the place where animals intended for food are killed. 

ABAUZIT, FIRMIN (1670-1767), a learned Frenchman, was 
born of Protestant parents at Uzes, in Languedoc. His father 
died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revo- 
cation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps 
to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother 
contrived his escape. For two years his brother and he lived as 
fugitives in the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last 
reached Geneva, where their mother afterwards joined them on 
escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the 
time of their flight. Abauzit at an early age acquired great pro- 
ficiency in languages, physics and theology. In 1698 he went to 
Holland, and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P. 
Jurieu and J. Basnage. Proceeding to England, he was intro- 
duced to Sir Isaac Newton, who found in him one of the earliest 
defenders of his discoveries. Sir Isaac corrected in the second 
edition of his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, 
when sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, " You are 
well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me." The reputation 
of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in 
England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to 
return to Geneva. There from 171 5 he rendered valuable assist- 
ance to a society that had been formed for translating the New 
Testament into French. He declined the offer of the chair of 
philosophy in the university in 1723, but accepted, in 1727, the 
sinecure office of librarian to the city of his adoption. Here he 
died at a good old age, in 1767. Abauzit was a man of great 
learning and of wonderful versatility. Whatever chanced to be 
discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit, as of Professor W. Whewell 
of more modern times, that he seemed to have made it a subject 
of particular study. Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his 
praises, addressed to him, in his Nouvelle HSlotse, a fine pane- 
gyric; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had 
come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen 
Abauzit. Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, 
his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into 
their possession, because their own religious opinions were 
different. A few theological, archaeological and astronomical 
articles from his pen appeared in the Journal Helvttique and else- 
where, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau's Dic- 
tionnaire de musique (1767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on 
the canonical authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a 
reply from Dr Leonard Twells. He also edited and made valuable 
additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la rtpublique de Geneve. A 
collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770 
((Etivres de feu M. Abauzit), and another at London in 1773 
(CEuvres diverses de M. Abauzit). Some of them were translated 
into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774). 

Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. Senebier's 
Histoire Litteraire de Geneve, Harwood's Miscellanies, and W. Orme's 
BMiotheca Biblica (1824). 

'ABA YE, the name of a Babylonian 'amora (?..), born in the 
middle of the 3rd century. He died in 339. 

'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of the Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of 
the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study of 
the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led to 
the compilation of the Talmud. He is commonly known as Rab. 

ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on 
the downfall of the western caliphate. It lasted from about 1023 
till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was singu- 
larly active and typical of its time. The founder of the house was 
Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in 1023. He was 
the chief of an Arab family settled in the city from the first days 
of the conquest. The Beni-abbad were not of ancient descent, 
though the poets, whom they paid largely, made an illustrious 



pedigree for them when they had become powerful. They .were, 
however, very rich. Abd-ul-Qasim gained the confidence of the 
townsmen by organizing a successful resistance to the Berber 
soldiers of fortune who were grasping at the fragments of the 
caliphate. At first he professed to rule only with the advice of a 
council formed of the nobles, but when his power became estab- 
lished he dispensed with this show of republican government, and 
then gave himself the appearance of a legitimate title by protect- 
ing an impostor who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When 
Abd-ul-Qasim died in 1042 he had created a state which, though 
weak in itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about 
it. He had made his family the recognized leaders of the Mahom- 
medans of Arab and native Spanish descent against the Berber 
element, whose chief was the king of Granada. Abbad, surnamed 
El Motaddid, his son and successor, is one of the most remarkable 
figures in Spanish Mahommedan history. He had a striking re- 
semblance to the Italian princes of the later middle ages and the 
early renaissance, of the stamp of Filipo Maria Visccnti. El 
Motaddid was a poet and a lover of letters, who was also a 
poisoner, a drinker of wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the 
utmost degree. Though he waged war all through his reign he 
very rarely appeared in the field, but directed the generals, whom 
he never trusted, from his " lair " in the fortified palace, the 
Alcazar of Seville. He killed with his own hand one of his sons 
who had rebelled against him. On one occasion he trapped a 
number of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into 
visiting him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot 
room of a bath. It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the 
enemies he had killed those of the meaner men to be used as 
flower-pots, while those* of the princes were kept in special chests. 
His reign until his death on the 28th of February 1069 was mainly 
spent in extending his power at the expense of his smaller neigh- 
bours, and in conflicts with his chief rival the king of Granada. 
These incessant wars weakened the Mahommedans, to the great 
advantage of the rising power of the Christian kings of Leon and 
Castile, but they gave the kingdom of Seville a certain superiority 
over the other little states. After 1063 he was assailed by 
Fernando El Magno of Castile and Leon, who marched to the 
gates of Seville, and forced him to pay tribute. His son, 
Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim Abenebet who reigned by the title 
of El Motamid was the third and last of the Abbadides. He 
was a no less remarkable person than his father and much more 
amiable. Like him he was a poet, and a favourer of poets. El 
Motamid went, however, considerably further in patronage of 
literature than his father, for he chose as his favourite and prime 
minister the poet Ibn Ammar. In the end the vanity and 
featherheadedness of Ibn Ammar drove his master to kill him. 
El Motamid was even more influenced by his favourite wife, 
Romaica, than by his vizir. He had met her paddling in the 
Guadalquivir, purchased her from her master, and made her his 
wife. The caprices of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of 
Motamid in his efforts to please her, form the subject of many 
stories. In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the 
Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be as 
faithless as his father. His wars and his extravagance exhausted 
his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by taxes. In 1080 
he brought down upon himself the vengeance of Alphonso VI. 
of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental barbarity. He had 
endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the Christian king with 
false money. The fraud was detected by a Jew, who was one of 
the envoys of Alphonso. El Motamid, in a moment of folly and 
rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned the Christian members 
of the mission. Alphonso retaliated by a destructive raid. When 
Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, El Motamid called in Yusef ibn 
Tashfin, the Almoravide (see SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES). 
During the six years which preceded his deposition in 1091, El 
Motamid behaved with valour on the field, but with much 
meanness and political folly. He endeavoured to curry favour 
with Yusef by betraying the other Mahommedan princes to him, 
and intrigued to secure the alliance of Alphonso against the 
Almoravide. It was probably during this period that he sur- 
rendered his beautiful daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who 



ABBADIE ABBAS II. 



made her his concubine, and is said by some authorities to have 
married her after she bore him a son, Sancho. The vacillations 
and submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate 
which overtook his fellow-princes. Their scepticism and extor- 
tion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef a 
" fetva " authorizing him to remove them in the interest of 
religion. In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville. El Motamid, 
who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his sons to 
surrender the fortresses they still held, in order to save his own 
life. He died in prison in Africa in 1095. 

AUTHORITIES. Dozy, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, Leiden, 
1861; and Historia Abbadidarum (Scriptorum Arabum loci de 
Abbadidio), Leiden, 1846. (D. H.) 

ABBADIE, ANTOINE THOMSON D' (1810-1897), and AR- 
NAUD MICHEL D' (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their 
travels in Abyssinia during the first half of the igth century. 
They were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish 
mother, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815. The parents re- 
moved to France in 1818, and there the brothers received a 
careful scientific education. In 1835 the French Academy sent 
Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being pub- 
lished at a later date (1873) under the title of Observations relatives 
a la physique du globe faites au Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger 
Abbadie spent some time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two 
brothers started for Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February 
1838. They visited various parts of Abyssinia, including the then 
little-known districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together 
and sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and 
many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues, 
Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed in 
favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries. After 
collecting much valuable information concerning the geography, 
geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the 
brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their 
materials for publication. The younger brother, Arnaud, paid 
another visit to Abyssinia in 1853. The more distinguished 
brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies re- 
lating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. 
He was especially attacked by C. T. Beke, who impugned his 
veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kaffa. But 
time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown 
that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong 
in his contention hotly contested by Beke that the Blue Nile 
was the main stream. The topographical results of his explora- 
tions were published in Paris in 1860-1873 m Geo&esie d' Ethiopie, 
full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps. 
Of the Geographie de V Ethiopie (Paris, 1890) only one volume has 
been published. In Un Catalogue raisonnedemanuscritstthiopiens 
(Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts col- 
lected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, in- 
cluding a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 1881), and 
prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hernias, with the Latin 
version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the 
geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. 
Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques he published in 
1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the 
course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The 
general account of the travels of the two brothers was published 
by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of Douze ans dans la Haute- 
Ethiopie. Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris 
Geographical Society in 1850. Antoine was a knight of the 
Legion of Honour and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He 
died in 1897, and bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding 
40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of 
its producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million 
stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.) 

ABBADIE, JAKOB (i6s4?-i727), Swiss Protestant divine, 
was born at Nay in Bern. He studied at Sedan, Saumur and 
Puylaurens, with such success that he received the degree of 
doctor in theology at the age of seventeen. After spending some 
years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church, where 
he had great success as a preacher, he accompanied Marshal 



Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became minister 
of the French church in the Savoy, London. His strong attach- 
ment to the cause of King William appears in his elaborate de- 
fence of the Revolution (Defense de la nation britannique, 1692) as 
well as in his history of the conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la 
grande conspiration d' Angleterre) . The king promoted him to the 
deanery of Killaloe in Ireland. He died in London in 1727. 
Abbadie was a man of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but 
is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were 
translated from the original French into other languages and had 
a wide circulation throughout Europe. The most important of 
these are Traite de la veriti de la religion chretienne (1684); its 
continuation, Traite de la divinite de Jesus-Christ (1689); and 
L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692). 

'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'amora (q.v.) who flour- 
ished c. 270-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the study of Greek by 
Jews. He was famous as a collector of traditional lore, and is 
very often cited in the Talmud. 

ABBA MARI (in full, Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph), French 
rabbi, was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of 
the i3th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace 
(Heb. Yerah, i.e. moon,lune), and he further took the name 
Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel. The descendant of 
men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the 
study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted 
with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well 
as with the Talmud. In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 
1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian 
rationalism, which, through the medium of the works of Maimon- 
ides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience 
to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He, there- 
fore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title 
Minhat Kenaot, i.e. " Jealousy Offering ") called upon the famous 
rabbi Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona to come to the aid of 
orthodoxy. Ben Adret, with the approval of other prominent 
Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier 
proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were 
less than thirty years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from 
the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret 
in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain 
and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study 
of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish 
rabbis. On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV. 
in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the 
letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history 
is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical 
poetry and works on civil law. 

AUTHORITIES. Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L. Bislichis 
(Pressburg, 1838); E. Renan, Les rabbins franc. ais, pp. 647 foil.; 
Perles, Salomo ben Abraham ben Adereth, pp. 15-54; Jewish En- 
cyclopaedia, s.v. " Abba Mari." 

ABBAS I. (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun 
Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning 
dynasty. As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim 
Pasha (q.v.) , his real or supposed uncle. The death of Ibrahim in 
November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August 
following, on the death of Mehemet Ali who had been deposed 
in July 1848 on account of mental weakness, Abbas succeeded 
to the pashalik. He has been generally described as a mere 
voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish 
gentleman of the old school. He was without question a re- 
actionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his time shut 
up in his palace. He undid, as far as lay in his power, the works 
of his grandfather, good and bad. Among other things he abol- 
ished trade monopolies, closed factories and schools, and reduced 
the strength of the army to 9000 men. He was inaccessible to 
adventurers bent on plundering Egypt, but at the instance of the 
British government allowed the construction of a railway from 
Alexandria to Cairo. In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha 
Palace by two of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said 
Pasha. 

ABBAS II. (1874- ),khedive of Egypt. Abbas Hilmi Pasha, 



IO 



ABBAS I. ABBAZIA 



great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, born on the I4th of July 
1874, succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive of Egypt on 
the 8th of January 1892. When a boy he visited England, and he 
had an English tutor for some time in Cairo. He then went to 
school in Lausanne, and from there passed on to the Theresianum 
in Vienna. In addition to Turkish, his mother tongue, he ac- 
quired fluency in Arabic, and a good conversational knowledge 
of English, French and German. He was still at college in 
Vienna when the sudden death of his father raised him to the 
Khedivate; and he was barely of age according to Turkish law, 
which fixes majority at eighteen in cases of succession to the 
throne. For some time he did not co-operate very cordially with 
Great Britain. He was young and eager to exercise his new 
power. His throne and life had not been saved for him by the 
British, as was the case with his father. He was surrounded by 
intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for some 
time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary as his 
great-uncle Abbas I. But in process of time he learnt to under- 
stand the importance of British counsels. He paid a second visit 
to England in 1900, during which he frankly acknowledged the 
great good the British had done in Egypt, and declared himself 
ready to follow their advice and to co-operate with the British 
officials administering Egyptian affairs. The establishment of a 
sound system of native justice, the great remission of taxation, 
the reconquest of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous 
irrigation works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound educa- 
tion, each received his approval and all the assistance he could 
give. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in state- 
craft, and his farm of cattle and horses at Koubah, near Cairo, 
would have done credit to any agricultural show in England; at 
Montaza, near Alexandria, he created a similar establishment. 
He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. 
Mahommed Abdul Mouneim, the heir-apparent, was born on the 
zoth of February 1899. 

ABBAS I. (c. 1557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called the 
Great, was the son of shah Mahommed (d. 1 586) . In the midst of 
general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of Khorasan, 
and obtained possession of the Persian throne in 1586. Deter- 
mined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, he first directed 
his efforts against the predatory Uzbegs, who occupied and har- 
assed Khorasan. After a long and severe struggle, he regained 
Meshed, defeated them in a great battle near Herat in 1597, and 
drove them out of his dominions. In the .wars he carried on with 
the Turks during nearly the whole of his reign, his successes 
were numerous, and he acquired, or regained, a large extent of 
territory. By the victory he gained at Bassora in 1605 he ex- 
tended his empire beyond the Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was 
forced to cede Shirvan and Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies 
of the Turks and Tatars were completely defeated near Sultanieh 
in 1618, and Abbas made peace on very favourable terms; and 
on the Turks renewing the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a 
year's siege in 1623. In 1622 he took the island of Ormuz from 
the Portuguese, by the assistance of the British, and much of its 
trade was diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was 
named after the shah. When he died, his dominions reached 
from the Tigris to the Indus. Abbas distinguished himself, not 
only by his successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his 
court and of the buildings which he erected, but also by his re- 
forms in the administration of his kingdom. He encouraged com- 
merce, and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did 
much to facilitate it. To foreigners, especially Christians, he 
showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony and 
Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his confidence. 
His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds of tyranny 
and cruelty. His own family, especially, suffered from his fits of 
jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and the eyes of his other 
children were put out, by his orders. 

See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir Robert 
Sherley, &c. (London, 1825); Sir C. R. Markham, General Sketch 
of the History of Persia (London, 1874). 

ABBASIDS, the name generally given to the caliphs of Bagdad, 
the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan em- 



pire. The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim to the 
throne on their descent from Abbas (A.D. 566-652), the eldest 
uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they regarded 
themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as opposed to the 
Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya. Throughout the second 
period of the Omayyads, representatives of this family were 
among their most dangerous opponents, partly by the skill with 
which they undermined the reputation of the reigning princes by 
accusations against their orthodoxy, their moral character and 
their administration in general, and partly by their cunning 
manipulation of internecine jealousies among the Arabic and non- 
Arabic subjects of the empire. In the reign of Merwan II. this 
opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the 
fourth in descent from Abbas, who, supported by the province of 
Khorasan, achieved considerable successes, but was captured 
(A.D. 747) and died in prison (as some hold, assassinated). The 
quarrel was taken up by his brother Abdallah, known by the 
name of Abu'l-Abbas as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on 
the Greater Zab (750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was 
proclaimed caliph. 

The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual strife 
and the development of luxury and the liberal arts, in place of the 
old-fashioned austerity of thought and manners. Mansur, the 
second of the house, who transferred the seat of government to 
Bagdad, fought successfully against the peoples of Asia Minor, 
and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) and Mamun (813- 
833) were periods of extraordinary splendour. But the empire as 
a whole stagnated and then decayed rapidly. Independent mon- 
archs established themselves in Africa and Khorasan (Spain had 
remained Omayyad throughout), and in the north-west the 
Greeks successfully encroached. The ruin of the dynasty came, 
however, from those Turkish slaves who were constituted as a 
royal bodyguard by Moqtasim (833-842). Their power steadily 
grew until Radi (934-941) was constrained to hand over most 
of the royal functions to Mahommed b. Raik. Province after 
province renounced the authority of the caliphs, who were merely 
lay figures, and finally Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad 
(Feb. 28th, 1258). The Abbasids still maintained a feeble 
show of authority, confined to religious matters, in Egypt under 
the Mamelukes, but the dynasty finally disappeared with Mota- 
wakkil III., who was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople 
by Selim I. 

See CALIPHATE (Sections B, 14 and C), where a detailed account 
of the dynasty will be found. 

ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1783-1833), prince of Persia, was a younger 
son of the shah, Feth Alf, but on account of his mother's royal 
birth was destined by his father to succeed him. Entrusted with 
the government of a part of Persia, he sought to rule it in Euro- 
pean fashion, and employed officers to reorganize his army. He 
was soon at war with Russia, and his aid was eagerly solicited by 
both England and Napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another 
in the East. Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas continued 
the war against Russia, but his new ally could give him very little 
assistance, and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvan- 
tageous peace. He gained some successes during a war between 
Turkey and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked 
his army, and a treaty was signed in 1823. His second war with 
Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of 
success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some 
territory. When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought to 
restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was nominally 
under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the task died at 
Meshed in 1833. In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed Mirza, suc- 
ceeded Feth Ali as shah. Abbas was an intelligent prince, 
possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of 
the comparative simplicity of his life. 

ABBAS-TUMAN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government 
of Tiflis, 50 m. S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65 m. E. 
of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped 
valley. It has hot sulphur baths (935-! 183 Fahr.) and an 
astronomical observatory (4240 ft.). 

ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in 



ABBESS ABBEY 



ii 



Istria, 56 m. S.E. of Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900) 2343. It is 
situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at the 
foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded by 
beautiful woods of laurel. The average temperature is 50 Fahr. 
in winter, and 77 Fahr. in summer. The old abbey, San Giacomo 
della Priluca, from which the place derives its name, has been 
converted into a villa. Abbazia is frequented annually by about 
16,000 visitors. The whole sea-coast to the north and south of 
Abbazia is rocky and picturesque, and contains several smaller 
winter-resorts. The largest of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situ- 
ated 5 m. to the south. 

ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fern, form of abbas, abbot), the female 
superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The mode of election, 
position, rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally 
with those of an abbot (q.v.). The office is elective, the choice 
being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The 
abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal benediction, 
together with the conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and 
holds for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct. The 
council of Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years 
of profession. Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedi- 
ence of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending 
even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the bishop. 
As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual 
functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot. She can- 
not ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In England 
abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Becanfield 
in 694, where they signed before the presbyters. 

By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks 
and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions 
to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period, 
A.D. 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the 
government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female 
superior. 

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess ( 4 e&w) 
has in some cases e.g. Itzehoe survived to designate the heads 
of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as Stifle, 
i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income 
for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses 
(Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen. This office of abbess 
is of considerable social dignity, and is sometimes filled by prin- 
cesses of the reigning houses. 

ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron- 
dissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 m. 
from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m. N.W. of Amiens 
on the Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 18,971. 
It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly 
on an island and partly on both sides of the river, which is 
canalized from this point .to the estuary. The streets are narrow, 
and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of 
wood, with many quaint gables and dark archways. The most 
remarkable building is the church of St Vulfran, erected in the 
1 5th, i6th and i7th centuries. The original design was not 
completed. The nave has only two bays and the choir is insig- 
nificant. The fagade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant 
Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic towers. Abbeville has 
several other old churches and an hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of 
the 1 3th century. Among the numerous old houses, that known 
as the Maison de Francois I", which is the most remarkable, 
dates from the i6th century. There is a statue of Admiral 
Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief square. The public institutions 
include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of 
trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. Abbeville is an 
important industrial centre; in addition to its old-established 
manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, sugar-making, ship-building 
and locksmiths' work are carried on; there is active commerce 
in grain, but the port has little trade. 

Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first 
appears in history during the gth century. At that time belong- 
ing to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards governed by the 
counts of Ponthieu. Together with that county, it came into the 
possession of the Alencon and other French families, and after- 



wards into that of the house of Castille, from whom by marriage 
it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of England. French and English 
were its masters by turns till 1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, 
it was ceded to the duke of Burgundy. In 1477 it was annexed 
by Louis XI., king of France, and was held by two illegitimate 
branches of the royal family in the .i6th and i7th centuries, 
being in 1696 reunited to the crown. 

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was 
born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the ist of April 1852. He 
left the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the 
age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing 
house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company 
with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Reinhart, Joseph 
Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an 
illustrator. In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England to 
gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert Herrick. 
These, published in 1882, attracted much attention, and were 
followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer 
(1887), for a volume of Old Songs (1889), and for the comedies 
(and a few of the tragedies) of Shakespeare. His water-colours 
and pastels were no less successful than the earlier illustrations 
in pen and ink. Abbey now became closely identified with the 
art life of England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of 
Painters in Water-Colours in 1883. Among his water-colours are 
" The Evil Eye " (1877); " The Rose in October" (1879); " An 
Old Song" (1886); "The Visitors" (1890), and "The Jong- 
leur " (1892). Possibly his best known pastels are " Beatrice, " 
" Phyllis," and " Two Noble Kinsmen." In 1890 he made his 
first appearance with an oil painting, " A May Day Morn," at 
the Royal Academy in London. He exhibited " Richard duke of 
Gloucester and the Lady Anne " at the Royal Academy in 1896, 
and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in 
1898. Apart from his other paintings, special mention must be 
made of the large frescoes entitled " The Quest of the Holy Grail," 
in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied for some 
years; and in 1901 he was commissioned by King Edward VII. 
to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many portraits 
elaborately grouped. The dramatic subjects, and the brilliant 
colouring of his oil pictures, gave them pronounced individuality 
among the works of contemporary painters. Abbey became a 
member not only of the Royal Academy, but also of the National 
Academy of Design of New York, and honorary member of the 
Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts 
(Paris), the American Water-Colour Society, etc. He received 
first class gold medals at the International Art Exhibition of 
Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in 1898, at the Paris Exhibitions 
of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in 1903; and was made a cheva- 
lier of the French Legion of Honour. 

ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a monastery, 
or conventual establishment, under the government of an ABBOT 
or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from an abbey in that the 
superior bore the name of prior instead of abbot. This was. the 
case in all the English conventual cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury, 
Ely, Norwich, &c., where the archbishop or bishop occupied the 
abbot's place, the superior of the monastery being termed prior. 
Other priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, 
to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; but in later 
times the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. 

The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTI- 
CISM) with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells 
or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the 
abode of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or 
singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrange- 
ment. The formation of such communities in the East does not 
date from the introduction of Christianity. The example had 
been already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae 
in Egypt. 

In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics were 
accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, at no 
great distance from some village, supporting themselves by the 
labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the 
supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious 



12 



ABBEY 



fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther 
away from the abodes of men into mountain solitudes or lonely 
deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the " cells " or huts 
of these anchorites. Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian 
Thebaid during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the 
most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and 
his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of 
followers, emulous of his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into 
the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They 
refused to be separated from him, and built their cells round that 
of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic com- 
munity, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little 
dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as 
Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), 
" without any conscious design of his own, had become the 
founder of a new mode of living in common, Coencbitism." By 
degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were 
arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses 
in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells 
came to be known as Laurae, AaOpot, " streets " or " lanes. " 

The real founder of cocnobian (KOIJ^S, common, and 0io5, life) 
monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of 
the beginning of the 4th century. The first community estab- 
lished by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper 
Egypt. Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 
3000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies 
could reckon 50,000 members. These coencbia resembled vil- 
lages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one 
sex. The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest 
character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.E. iii. 14), 
contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common 
refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They 
ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they 
could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The 
monks spent all the time, not devoted to religious services or 
study, in manual labour. Palladius, who visited the Egyptian 
monasteries about the close of the 4th century, found among the 
300 members of the coenobium of Panopolis, under the Pacho- 
mian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 camel-drivers 
and 1 5 tanners. Each separate community had its own oeconomus 
or steward, who was subject to a chief oeconomus stationed at 
the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour 
was committed to him, and by him shipped to Alexandria. The 
money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores 
for the support of the communities, and what was over was 
devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the 
several coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency 
of an archimandrite (" the chief of the fold," from n&vdpa, a fold), 
and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration 
for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian 
institution. We learn many details concerning those in the 
vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The monks 
lived in separate huts, <caX6/3ia, forming a religious hamlet on the 
mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a 
common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common 
meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over, 
reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in 
the day they joined in prayers and psalms. 

The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of 
space and convenience of access from one part of the community 
to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly 
arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large 
piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable 
of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the neces- 
s*nta sary edifices were ranged round one or more open 
courts, usually surrounded with cloisters. The usual 
Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the 
convent of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the 
designation of a monastery generally, being converted into a 
female saint). 

This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is 
surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an 



area of between 3 and 4 acres. The longer side extends to a 
length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on 
the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near 
the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the 
monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L. 
The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with 
buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The 
outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and 
storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected 
with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a 
two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner 
court is surrouiwied by a cloister (EE), from which open the 
monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicon 
or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruci- 
form domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed narthex. 
In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a 
dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of 
the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refec- 
tory (G), a large cruciform building, about too feet each way, 
decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a 
semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace 



A. Gateway. 

B. Chapels. 

C. Guest-house. 

D. Church. 

E. Cloister. 

F. Fountain. 

G. Refectory. 
H. Kitchen. 
I. Cells. 

K. Storehouses. 
L. Postern gate. 
M. Tower. 



FIG. I. Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir). 

at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot. 
This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental 
monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. St 
Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vato- 
pede, also on Mount Athos. This enormous establish- 
ment covers at least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many 
separate buildings within its massive walls that it resembles 
a fortified town. It lodges above 300 monks, and the establish- 
ment of the hegumenos is described as resembling the court of a 
petty sovereign prince. The immense refectory, of the same 
cruciform shape as that of St Laura, will accommodate 500 
guests at its 24 marble tables. 

The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, shows 
a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of 
cells on either side of an oblong gallery. 

Monasticism in the West owes its extension and develop- 
ment to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480). His rule was 
diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation 
on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and 
every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceed- 
ing anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and 
splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Bene- 
dictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres 
of population in England, France and Spain. The number 
of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is 




ABBEY 



llt-m- 
dlctlae. 



SI Uall. 




FIG. 2. Plan of Coptic Monastery. 
A. Narthex. B. Church. 



amazing. Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no 
fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order 
alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were 
uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where 
necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the 
monasteries :stand close to the steep bank of a river) to 
accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We 
have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the 
Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time 
and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to 
us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of 
St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, which puts us in pos- 
session of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first 
class towards the early part of the Qth century. This curious and 

interesting plan has been 
made the subject of a 
memoir both by Keller 
(Zurich, 1844) and by Pro- 
fessor Robert Willis (Arch. 
Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp. 
86-117. To the latter we 
are indebted for the sub- 
stance of the following de- 
scription, as well as for the 
plan, reduced from his 
elucidated transcript of the 
original preserved in the 
archives of the convent. 

C. Corridor, with cells on each side. T u hc 8 eneral appearance of 

D. Staircase. tne convent is that of a 

town of isolated houses with 

streets running between them. It is evidently planned in com- 
pliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible, 
the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life, 
as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the 
religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a mill, 
a bakehouse, stables and cow-houses, together with accommoda- 
tion for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the 
walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside 
its limits. 

The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described : 
The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a 
quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all 
great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms 
the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. 
In closest connexion with the church is the group of buildings 
appropriated to the monastic life and its daily requirements the 
refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room 
for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary 
conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged 
about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording 
communication sheltered from the elements between the various 
buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house 
and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the in- 
firmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its head- 
master's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside 
the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that 
he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to 
hospitality are divided into three groups, ^one for the reception of 
distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a 
third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed 
to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery, the 
hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of 
the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor on the 
south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a 
guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of 
buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is 
placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated 
from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are 
reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are con- 
nected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still 
farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted 
to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some 
exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the 
church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty- 
three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of 
nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the 
west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open 
" paradise " (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole 



area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A) 
stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir ; the 
altar of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the 
western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the 
church on either side of the western apse (FF). 

The " cloister court " (G) on the south side of the nave of the 




A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 
FF, 



G. 
H. 



K. 

L. 

M. 

N. 

O. 

Pi. 

P 2 . 

Q. 



K. 

S. 
T. 



FIG. 3. Ground 

CHURCH. 
High altar. 
Altar of St Paul. 
Altar of St Peter. 
Nave. 
Paradise. 
Towers. 

MONASTIC BUILDINGS. 

Cloister. 

Calefactory, with dormitory 
over. 

Necessary. 

Abbot's house. 

Refectory. 

Kitchen. 

Bakehouse and brewhouse. 

Cellar. 

Parlour. [over. 

Scriptorium with library 

Sacristy and vestry. 

House of Novices I .chapel ; 
2. refectory; 3. calefac- 
tory; 4. dormitory; 5. 
master's room; 6. cham- 
bers. 

Infirmary 1-6 as above in 
the house of novices. 

Doctor's house. 

Physic garden. 



plan of St Gall. 

U. House for blood-letting. 
V. School. 

W. Schoolmaster's lodgings. 
\i.\i. Guest-house for those of 

superior rank. 

XjXj. Guest-house for the poor. 
Y. Guest-chamber for strange 

monks. 



MENIAL DEPARTMENT. 



Z. 

a. 

b. 

c, c 

d. 

e. 

f- 



Factory. 

Threshing-floor. 

Workshops. 

Mills. 

Kiln. 

Stables. 

Cow-sheds. 
s. Goat-sheds. 
. Pig-sties. *'. Sheep-folds. 
k, k, k. Servants' and workmen's 

sleepine-chambers. 
/. Gardener s house. 
m, m. Hen and duck house. 

Poultry-keeper's house. 

Garden. 

Cemetery. [bread. 

Bakehouse for sacramental 

Unnamed in plan. 
5, j, A. Kitchens. 
t, t, t. Baths. 



church has on its east side the " pisalis " or " calefactory " (H), the 
common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the 
floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the chapter- 
house, the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It 
appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the 
north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house, 
and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefac- 
tory is the " dormitory " opening into the south transept of the 
church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with 



ABBEY 



readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the " necessarium " (I) , 
a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme 
care. The southern side is occupied by the " refectory " (K), from 
the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This 
is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is con- 
nected by a long passage with a building containing the bakehouse and 
brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms.of the servants. The upper 
story of the refectory is the " vestiarium," where the ordinary clothes 
of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is an- 
other two-story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and 
store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by 
one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the 
monastery area, is the " parlour " for interviews with visitors from 
the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is 
the " scriptorium " or writing-room (Pi), with the library above. 

To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising 
two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. 
Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e. 
refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or chapel on one side, placed 
back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath 
and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to 
the " oblati " or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an 
" infirmary " (R). 

The " residence of the physicians " (S) stands contiguous to the 
infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the 
monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a 
chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The " house for blood- 
letting and purging " adjoins it on the west (U). 

The " outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a 
large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition, 
and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the 
scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the 
side wall of the church. The two " hospitia " or " guest-houses " for 
the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X] X 2 ) comprise 
a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by 
sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and 
bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen 
and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their 
horses. There is also an " hospitium " for strange monks, abutting 
on the north wall of the church (Y). 

Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to 
the south, stands the " factory " (Z), containing workshops for shoe- 
makers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, 
trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, fullers, smiths and goldsmiths, 
with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm- 
buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malt- 
house (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (/), goat- 
stables (g), piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants' 
and labourers quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen 
and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the 
keeper (). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the 
names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, 
lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in all. In the same 
way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, 
and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, 
&c., planted there. 

A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its an- 
nexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, is preserved in the 
Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge. As elucidated by Professor Willis, 1 it exhibits 
Cathedral, the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th 
century, and enables us to compare it with that of the 
9th as seen at St Gall. We see in both the same general principles 
of arrangement, which indeed belong to all Benedictine monas- 
teries, enabling us to determine with precision the disposition of 
the various buildings, when little more than fragments of the 
walls exist. From some local reasons, however, the cloister and 
monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far more 
commonly the case, on the south of the church. There is also a 
separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall. 

The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate 
groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate contact 
with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the group of 
buildings devoted to the monastic life. Outside of these, to the 
west and east, are the "halls and chambers devoted to the 
exercise of hospitality, with which every monastery was pro- 
vided, for the purpose of receiving as guests persons who visited 
it, whether clergy or laity, travellers, pilgrims or paupers." To 
the north a large open court divides the monastic from the menial 
buildings, intentionally placed as remote as possible from the 

l The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of the 
Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert Willis. 
Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869. 



conventual buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bake- 
house, brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of 
the establishment. At the greatest possible distance from the 
church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary 
department. The almonry for the relief of the poor, with a great 
hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium. 

The most important group of buildings is naturally that de- 
voted to monastic life. This includes two cloisters, the great 
cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with 
the daily life of the monks, the church to the south, the refectory 
or f rater-house here as always on the side opposite to the church, 
and farthest removed from it, that no sound or smell of eating 
might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the east the dormitory, 
raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the chapter-house adjacent, 
and the lodgings of the cellarer to the west. To this officer was 
committed the provision of the monks' daily food, as well as that 
of the guests. He was, therefore, appropriately lodged in the 
immediate vicinity of the refectory and kitchen, and close to the 
guest-hall. A passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the 
smaller or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm 
monks. Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of 
the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and 
chancel of an aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking out 
into the green court or herbarium, lies the " pisalis " or " cale- 
factory," the common room of the monks. At its north-east 
corner access was given from the dormitory to the necessarium, a 
portentous edifice in the form of a Norman hall, 145 ft. long by 
25 broad, containing fifty-five seats. It was, in common with all 
such offices in ancient monasteries, constructed with the most 
careful regard to cleanliness and health, a stream of water running 
through it from end to end. A second smaller dormitory runs 
from east to west for the accommodation of the conventual 
officers, who were bound to sleep in the dormitory. Close to the 
refectory, but outside the cloisters, are the domestic offices con- 
nected with it: to the north, the kitchen, 47 ft. square, sur- 
mounted by a lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to 
the west, the butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small 
kitchen of its own. Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are 
two lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall, 
at which the monks washed before and after taking food. 

The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three 
groups. The prior's group " entered at the south-east angle of 
the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the cathedral, 
as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or nobility who were 
assigned to him." The cellarer's buildings were near the west end 
of the nave, in which ordinary visitors of the middle class were 
hospitably entertained. The inferior pilgrims and paupers were 
relegated to the north hall or almonry, just within the gate, as 
far as possible from the other two. 

Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine 
abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be 
traced, with those described above. The cloister and 
monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. 
Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, Abbey. 
was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the 
eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a 
vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept. 
The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The 
small cloister lies to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still 
farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the 
table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their 
chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the 
west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions 
of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as " the 
Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster 
King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond. 

St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed, 
exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts 
are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three Yo rk. 
sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the 
fourth side. The entrance -was by a strong gateway (U) to the 
north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the 



ABBEY 



church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid their devo- 
tions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south 
was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). The buildings are com- 
pletely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the 
grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapter- 
house (B), the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices 
(K, O, O) and the other principal apartments. The infirmary 
has perished completely. 

Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements, 
dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of 
Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the 
cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of 



BOOTH** 




-Churton's Monastic Ruins. 

Offices. 

Cellars. 

Uncertain. 

Passage to abbot's house. 

Passage to common house. 

Hospitium. 

Great gate. 

Porter's lodge. 

Church of St Olaf. 

Tower. 

Entrance from Bootham. 



FIG. 4. 
St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine). 

A. Church. O. 

B. Chapter-house. P. 

C. Vestibule to ditto. Q. 

E. Library or scriptorium. R. 

F. Calefactory. S. 

G. Necessary. T. 
H. Parlour. U. 
I. Refectory. . V. 
K. Great kitchen and court. W. 
L. Cellarer's office. X. 
M. Cellars. Y. 
N. Passage to cloister. 

as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrange- 
ments deduced from the examples described may be regarded 
as invariable. 

The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay 
and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in 
material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first 
religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, 
until by the loth century the decay of discipline was so complete 
in France that the monks are said to have been frequently un- 
acquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that 
they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses 
generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic 
orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modifica- 
tion of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of 



these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its 
name from the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, 
near which, about A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine clua 
abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine 
and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was 
succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the 
order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid ruk 
was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys, 
who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while 
new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance 
to the " archabbot," established at Cluny. By the end of the 
1 2th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in 
the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000. 
The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most 
extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea 
of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, 
A.D. 1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals, 





FIG. 5. Abbey of Cluny, from Viollet-le-Duc. 
A. Gateway. F. Tomb of St Hugh. M. Bakehouse. 



B. Narthex. 

C. Choir. 

D. High-altar. 

E. Retro-altar. 



G. Nave. 
H. Cloister. 
K. Abbot's house. 
L. Guest-house. 



N. Abbey buildings. 
O. Garden. 
P. Refectory. 



a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthu- 
sians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of his sons, 
the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of 
Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the 
abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within 
the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number. 
Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent 
church, were swept away at the close of the i8th century. When 
the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruc- 
tion, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church, 
had been rebuilt. 

The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resem- 
blance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was 
656 ft. by 130 ft. wide. The nave was 102 ft. and the aisles 60 
ft. high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side. 
Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each 
furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept 
was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated 
in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semi- 
circular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church, 
or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked 
by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large 
stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of 
immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the 



i6 



ABBEY 






case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an 
immense building, 100 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, accommodating 
six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned 
with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with 
Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We 
are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings 
(N). The abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the 
entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse 
(M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size. 

The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of Lewes, 
founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few 
fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best 
preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, 
Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans 
of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They 
show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. 
In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac 
houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors 
of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor 
become " abbeys " till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac 
revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celeb- 
rity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With 
their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations 
became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their 
predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. 

The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in 
the last years of the nth century, had a wider diffusion, and a 
Cistercian I n 8 er an< ^ more honourable existence. Owing its real 
origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedic- 
tines, in the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorset- 
shire, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its 
name from Citeaux (Cistercium) , a desolate and almost inacces- 
sible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and Bur- 
gundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are 
undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St 
Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently 
sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses, 
the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116. 
The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this 
reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself 
to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The 
characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest sim- 
plicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower a central one 
was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary 
pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The triforium was 
omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it 
was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless 
ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the 
candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be 
evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested 
itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more 
dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, 
the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not 
merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monas- 
teries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys. 
They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at 
Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so 
rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the 
brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide 
swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable 
forests, were their prevailing features. The " bright valley," 
Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the " valley of Worm- 
wood," infamous as a den of robbers. " It was a savage dreary 
solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his com- 
panions were reduced to live on beech leaves." (Milman's Lai. 
Christ, vol. iii. p. 335.) 

All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the 
locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan. The 
Clairvaux. 8 enera l arrangement and distribution of the various 
buildings, which went to make up one of these vast 
establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own 
abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given. It will be observed 
that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall, fur- 



nished at intervals with watch-towers and other defensive works. 
The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water, artificially 
diverted from the small rivulets which flow through the precincts, 
furnishing the establishment with an abundant supply in every 
part, for the irrigation of the gardens and orchards, the sanitary 
requirements of the brotherhood and for the use of the offices 
and workshops. 

The precincts are divided across the centre by a wall, running from 
N. to S., into an outer and inner ward, the former containing 
the menial, the latter the monastic buildings. The precincts are 
entered by a gateway (P), at the extreme western extremity, giving 
admission to the lower ward. Here the barns, granaries, stables, 
shambles, workshops and workmen's lodgings were placed, without 
any regard to symmetry, convenience being the only consideration. 
Advancing eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the 







A. 
FIG. 6. Clairvaux, No. I (Cistercian), General Plan. 



A. Cloisters. 

B. Ovens, and corn 

and oil mills. 

C. St Bernard's cell. 

D. Chief entrance. 

E. Tanks for fish. 

F. Guest-house. 

G. Abbot's house. 
H. Stables. 



I. Wine-press and 
hay-chamber. 

K. Parlour. 

L. Workshops and 
workmen's lodg- 
ings. 

M. Slaughter-house. 

N. Barnsand stables. 



O. Public presse. 

P. Gateway. 

R. Remains of old 

monastery. 
S. Oratory. 
V. Tile-works. 
X. Tile-kiln. 
Y. Water-courses. 



outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communica- 
tion between the two. On passing through the gateway, the outer 
court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade of the 
monastic church in front. Immediately on the right of entrance was 
the abbot's house (G), in close proximity to the guest-house (F). On 
the other side of the court were the stables, for the accommodation 
of the horses of the guests and their attendants (H). The church 
occupied a central position. To the south was the great cloister (A), 
surrounded by the chief monastic buildings, and farther to the east 
the smaller cloister, opening out of which were the infirmary, novices' 
lodgings and quarters for the aged monks. Still farther to the east, 
divided from the monastic buildings by a wall, were the vegetable 
gardens and orchards, and tank for fish. The large fish-ponds, an 
indispensable adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the for- 
mation of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and 
which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these vast 
establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls. 

Plan No. 2 furnishes the ichnography of the distinctly monastic 
buildings on a larger scale. The usually unvarying arrangement of 
the Cistercian houses allows us to accept this as a type of the monas- 
teries of this order. The church (A) is the chief feature. It consists 






ABBEY 



of a vast nave of eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept 
and short apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb 
in all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and usually 
square.) To the east of each limb of the transept are two square 
chapels, divided according to Cistercian rule by solid walls. Nine 
radiating chapels, similarly divided, surround the apse. The stalls 
of the monks, forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays 
of the nave. There was a second range of stalls in the extreme 
western bays of the nave for thefratres convent, or lay brothers. To 
the south of the church, so as to secure as much sun as possible, 
the cloister was invariably placed, except when local reasons forbade 
it. Round the cloister (B) were ranged the buildings connected with 
the monks' daily life. The chapter-house (C) always opened out of 
the east walk of the cloister in a line with the south transept. In 




FIG. 7. Clairvaux 

A. Church. 

B. Cloister. 

C. Chapter-house. 

D. Monks' parlour. 

E. Calefactory. 

F. Kitchen and court. 

G. Refectory. 
H. Cemetery. 

I. Little cloister. 
K. Infirmary. 



, No. 2 (Cistercian), 

L. Lodgings of nov 
ices. 

M. Old guest-house. 

N. Old abbot's lodg- 
ings. 

O. Cloister of super- 
numerary 
monks. 

P. Abbot's hall. 

Q. Cell of St Bernard 

R. Stables. 



Monastic Buildings. 

S. Cellars and store- 
houses. 

T. Water-course. 

U. Saw-mill and oil- 
mill. 

V. Currier's work- 
shop, 

X. Sacristy. 

Y. Little library. 

Z. Undercroft of dor- 
mitory. 



Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided by pillars 
and arches into two or three aisles. Between it and the transept we 
find the sacristy (X), and a small book-room (Y), armariolum, where 
the brothers deposited the volumes borrowed from the library. On 
the other side of the chapter-house, to the south, is a passage (D) 
communicating with the courts and buildings beyond. This was 
sometimes known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the 
privilege of conversation here. Here also, when discipline became 
relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, were allowed to 
display their goods. Beyond this we often find the calefactorium or 
day-room an apartment warmed by flues beneath the pavement, 
where the brethren, half frozen during the night offices, betook them- 
selves after the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease 
their sandals and get themselves ready for the work of the day. In 
the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the south cloister 
walk, adjoining the refectory. The place usually assigned to it is 
occupied by the vaulted substructure of the dormitory (Z). The dormi- 



tory, as a rule; was placed on the east side of the cloister, running 
over the calefactory and chapter-house, and joined the south transept, 
where a flight of steps admitted the brethren into the church for 
nocturnal services. Opening out of the dormitory was always the 
necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanli- 
ness, a water-course invariably running from end to end. The re- 
fectory opens out of the south cloister at G. The position of the 
refectory is usually a marked point of difference between Benedictine 
and Cistercian abbeys. In the former, as at Canterbury, the refec- 
tory ran east and west parallel to the nave of the church, on the side 
of the cloister farthest removed from it. In the Cistercian monas- 
teries, to keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from 
the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south, at right 
angles to the axis of the church. It was often divided, sometimes 
into two, sometimes, as here, into three aisles. Outside the refectory 
door, in the cloister, was the lavatory, where the monks washed their 
hands at dinner-time. The buildings belonging to the material life 
of the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the church , 
to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer court was the 
kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery and larder, and the im- 
portant adjunct of a stream of running water. Farther to the west, 
projecting beyond the line of the west front of the church, were vast 
vaulted apartments (SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above 
which was the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and 
separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various work- 
shops, which convenience required to be banished to the outer pre- 
cincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned by water, and a currier's 
shop (V), where the sandals and leathern girdles of the monks were 
made and repaired. 

Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small 
cloister (I), opening from the north side of which were eight small 
cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works for the 
library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible by a turret 
staircase. To the south of the small cloister a long hall will be noticed. 
This was a lecture-hall, or rather a hall for the religious disputations 
customary among the Cistercians. From this cloister opened the 
infirmary (K), with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and 
other dependencies. At the eastern verge of the vast group of build- 
ings we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister near the 
novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M). Detached from 
the great mass of the monastic edifices was the original abbot's house 
(N),with its dining-hall (P). Closely adjoining to this, so that the eye 
of the father of the whole establishment should be constantly over 
those who stood the most in need of his watchful care, those who 
were training for the monastic life, and those who had worn them- 
selves out in its duties, was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed 
buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the establish- 
ment. The cemetery, the last resting-place of the brethren, lay to 
the north side of the nave of the church (H). 

It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement 
of a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly 
denned system, and admirably adapted to its purpose. The base 
court nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging 
to the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of 
labour. Advancing into the inner court, the buildings devoted 
to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those 
connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren, 
the kitchen, cellars, &c., form a court of themselves outside 
the cloister and quite detached from the church. The church 
refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging to the pro- 
fessional life of the brethren surround the great cloister. The 
small cloister beyond, with its scribes' cells, library, hall for 
disputations, &c., is the centre of the literary life of the com- 
munity. The requirements of sickness and old age are carefully 
provided for in the infirmary cloister and that for the aged and 
infirm members of the establishment. The same group contains 
the quarters of the novices. 

This stereotyped arrangement is further shown by the illus- 
tration of the mother establishmet of Clteaux. 

A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to the gate 
of the monastery, reached by an avenue of trees. On one side of the 
gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably the almonry, . 
with a dormitory above for the lower class of guests. On the 
other side is a chapel(D). As soon as the porter heard a stranger knock 
at the gate, he rose, saying, Deo gratias,the opportunity for the exercise 
of hospitality being regarded as a cause for thankfulness. On opening 
:he door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing Benedicite. 
He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the abbot. 
However important the abbot's occupations might be, he at once 
lastened to receive him whom heaven had sent. He also threw 
limself at his guest's feet, and conducted him to the chapel (D) pur- 
x>sely built close to the gate. After a short prayer, the abbot com- 
mitted the guest to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it 
was to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he 



i8 



ABBEY 



might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner gate- 
house (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court (T), round 
which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. On the eastern 
side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers, fratres conversi (G), 
detached from the cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At 
H, also outside the monastic buildings proper, was the abbot's 
house, and annexed to it the guest-house. For these buildings there 
was a separate door of entrance into the church (S). The large 
cloister, with its surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end 
projects the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from the 
base court. The long gabled building on the east side of the cloister 
contained on the ground floor the chapter-house and calefactory, 
with the monks' dormitory above (M), communicating with the south 
transept of the church. At L was the staircase to the dormitory. 
The small cloister is at W, where were the carols or cells of the 
scribes, with the library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. At 
R we see a portion of the infirmary. The whole precinct is sur- 
rounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches, 







FIG. 8 


Bird's-eye view 


of Citeaux. 


I. 
a. 


A. 


Cross. 




H. 


Abbot's house. 


R. 


Infirmary. 


3. 


B. 


Gate-house. 




I. 


Kitchen. 




S. 


Doortothechurch 


4- 


C. 


Almonry. 




K. 


Refectory. 






for the lay bro- 


5. 


I). 


Chapel. 




L. 


Staircase to 


dor- 




thers. 


6. 


E. 


Inner gate-house. 


mitory. 




T. 


Base court. 


7- 


F. 


Stable. 




M 


Dormitory. 




V. 


Great cloister. 


8. 


G. 


Dormitory of 


lay 


N. 


Church. 




W 


Small cloister. 






brethren. 




P. 


Library. 




X. 


Boundary wall. 


9- 



through which streams of water are introduced. It will be noticed 
that the choir of the church is short, and has a square end instead of 
the usual apse. The tower, in accordance with the Cistercian rule, 
is very low. The windows throughout accord with the studied 
simplicity of the order. 

The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such ex- 
tensive and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall, 
Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same plan, 
with slight local variations. As an example, we give the ground- 
plan of Kirkstall Abbey, which is one of the best pre- 
served. The church here is of the Cistercian type, 
with a short chancel of two squares, and transepts 
with three eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls 
(2 2 2). The whole is of the most studied plainness. The 
windows are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium. 
The cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the 
nave. On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house (5), 
between which and the south transept is a small sacristy (3), 



and on the other side two small apartments, one of which was 
probably the parlour (6). Beyond this stretches southward the 
calefactory or day-room of the monks (14). Above this whole 
range of building runs the monks' dormitory, opening by stairs 
into the south transept of the church. At the other end were the 
necessaries. On the south side of the cloister we have the re- 
mains of the old refectory (n), running, as in Benedictine 
houses, from east to west, and the new refectory (12), which, 
with the increase of the inmates of the house, superseded it, 
stretching, as is usual in Cistercian houses, from north to south. 
Adjacent to this apartment are the remains of the kitchen, 
pantry and buttery. The arches of the lavatory are to be seen 
near the refectory entrance. The western side of the cloister is, 
as usual, occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper 
story the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the 




.i.-\i>-.'.X.;.-- [. 8 -.X.; .Xj :- !.X.'.X 




FIG. 9. Kirkstall Abbey, 

' Church. 
Chapels. 
Sacristy. 
Cloister. 
Chapter-house. 
Parlour. 

Punishment cell (?). 
Cellars, with dormitories for 

conversi over. 
Guest-house. 



Yorkshire (Cistercian). 

10. Common room. 

11. Old refectory. 

12. New refectory. 

13. Kitchen court. 

14. Calefactory or day-room. 

15. Kitchen and offices. 
16-19. Uncertain ; perhaps offices 

connected with the in- 
firmary. 
20. I nfirmary or abbot's house. 



south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the walls and 
foundations of a secondary group of considerable extent. These 
have been identified either with the hospitium or with the 
abbot's house, but they, occupy the position in which the infir- 
mary is more usually found. The hall was a very spacious apart- 
ment, measuring 83 ft. in length by 48 ft. 9 in. in breadth, 
and was divided by two rows of columns. The fish-ponds lay 
between the monastery and the river to the south. The abbey 
mill was situated about 80 yards to the north-west. The mill- 
pool may be distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill 
stream. 

Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, is one of the largest 
and best preserved Cistercian houses in England. But the 
earlier buildings received considerable additions and 
alterations in the later period of the order, causing 
deviations from the strict Cistercian type. The church 
stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the 



ABBEY 



buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the 
stream. We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the three- 
aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its 
eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) and 
buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk. 




FIG. 10. Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire. 


A. Naveof thechurch. 


N. Cellar. 


Z. Gate-house. 


B. Transept. 
C. Chapels. 


O. Brewhouse. 
P. Prisons. 


ABBOT'S HOUSE. 


D. Tower. 


Q. Kitchen. 


i. Passage. 


E. Sacristy. 


R. Offices. 


2. Great hall. 


F. Choir. 


S. Refectory. 


3. Refectory. 


G. Chapel of nine 


T. Buttery. 


4. Buttery. 


altars. 


U. Cellars and store- 


5. Storehouse. 


H. Cloister. 


houses. 


6. Chapel. 


I. Chapter-house. 


V. Necessary. 


7. Kitchen. 


K. Base court. 


W. Infirmary (?). 


8. Ashpit. 


L. Calefactory. 


X. Guest-houses. 


9. Yard. 


M. Water-course. 


Y. Mill bridge. 


10. Kitchen tank. 



Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted sub- 
structure (U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars 
and store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi 
above. This building extended across the river. At its S.W. 
corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above the 
swiftly flowing stream. The monks' dormitory was in its usual 



position above the chapter-house, to the south of the transept. 
As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed the position of 
the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and calefactory, and of 
the infirmary (W) (unless there is some error in its designation) 
above the river to the west, adjoining the guest-houses (XX). 
We may also call attention to the greatly lengthened choir, 
commenced by Abbot John of York, 1203-1211, and carried on 
by his successor, terminating, like Durham Cathedral, in an 
eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220-1247, 
and to the tower (D), added not long before the dissolution by 
Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very unusual position at the north- 
ern end of the north transept. The abbot's house, the largest and 
most remarkable example of this class of buildings in the king- 
dom, stands south to the east of the church and cloister, from 
which it is divided by the kitchen court (K), surrounded by the 
ordinary domestic offices. A considerable portion of this house 
was erected on arches over the Skell. The size and character of 
this house, probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious 
house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks the 
wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern simplicity 
of the original foundation. The hall (2) was one of the most 
spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval times, measur- 
ing 170 ft. by 70 ft. Like the hall in the castle at Winchester, 
and Westminster Hall, as originally built, it was divided by 18 
pillars and arches, with 3 aisles. Among other apartments, for 
the designation of which we must refer to the ground-plan, was 
a domestic oratory or chapel, 465 ft. by 23 ft. and a kitchen 
(7), 50 ft. by 38 ft. The whole arrangements and character of 
the building bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the 
humble father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by 
vows to a life of poverty and self-denying toil. In the words of 
Dean Milman, " the superior, once a man bowed to the earth 
with humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit 
bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot on 
his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver cross before 
him, travelling to take his place amid the lordliest of the realm." 
(Lat. Christ, vol. iii. p. 330.) 

The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so called 
from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiari- 
ties. This order had its first seat in England at Col- 
chester, where a house for Austin canons was founded * ustla 

Canons. 

about A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely. As 
an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between 
monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of 
parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great 
length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is 
usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ 
Church (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, 
Kirkham, &c., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the 
northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at 
Bolton, Brinkburn and Lanercost. The arrangement of the 
monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's 
lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of 
the nave. The annexed plan of the Abbey of St 
Augustine's at Bristol, now the cathedral church of 
that city, shows the arrangement of the buildings, 
which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. 
The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is re- 
markable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the 
upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establish- 
ment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated 
date. 

The Premonsiratensian regular canons, or White canons, had 
as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect 
remaining are those of Easby, Yorkshire, and Bayham, 
Kent. The head house of the order in England was 
Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the 
Austin canons, founded, A.D. 1119, by Norbert (born 
at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Premontre, a 
secluded marshy valley in the forest of Coucy in the diocese 
of Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's 
lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and Palestine. It long 



20 



ABBEY 



maintained its rigid austerity, till in the course of years wealth 
impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence 
and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England 
shortly after A.D. 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in 
Lincolnshire, near the Humber. The ground-plan of Easby 
Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping 
banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly 
placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings 
occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as 
at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding build- 
ings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The 
church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their 
northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave that to the 
north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each tran- 
sept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. 

The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave 
or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This 
church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion 
to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is 




FIG. II. St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol Cathedral). 



H. Kitchen. 

I. Kitchen court. 

K. Cellars. 

L. Abbot's hall. 

P. Abbot's gate way. 

R. Infirmary. 



S. Friars' lodging. 
T. King's hall. 
V. Guest-house. 
W. Abbey gateway. 
X. Barns, stables, &c 
Y. Lavatory. 



A. Church. 

B. Great cloister. 

C. Little cloister. 

D. Chapter-house. 

E. Calefactory. 

F. Refectory. 

G. Parlour. 

not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons 
wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; there- 
fore they built their church like a long room. 

The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno, 
about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and arrange- 
ment of a monastic institution. The principle of this 
order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary 
life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel 
plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his 
twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux, 
near Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establish- 
ments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the 
order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive sim- 
plicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnifi- 
cence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the 
Certosas of Pavia and Florence. According to the rule of St 
Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in 
the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small 
detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded 
by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister. 
In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in 
the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to 
attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when 
the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of 
the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter -house, 
as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French 
chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of Clermont, from 
Viollet-le-Duc. 

The whole establishment is surrounded by a wall, furnished at in- 
tervals with watch towers(R) . The enclosure is divided into two courts, 
Clermont f which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from 
which the cottages of the monks (I) open, is much the larger. 
The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery, 



including the church, the sanctuary (A), divided from B, the monks' 
choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south 
(S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X) these 
buildings occupying their normal position and the chapel of 
Pontgibaud (K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the re- 
fectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister. 
To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the side 
chapels (M ) , we find the cell of the sub-prior (a) , with its garden. The 
lodgings of the prior (G) occupy the centre of the outer court, im- 
mediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gate- 
way of the convent (O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is 
before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), the 
stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns and granaries 
(Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T). At Z is the prison. 
(In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham, 
there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the 
monks.) The outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage 
(F), wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells 
of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great 



A. Church. 

B. Monks' choir. 

C. Prior's garden. 

D. Great cloister. 

E. Chapter-house. 

F. Passage. 

G. Prior's lodg- 

ings. 

H. Dovecot. 

I. Cells. 

K. Chapel of Pont- 
gibaud. 

L. Sacristy. 

M. Chapel. 

N. Stables. 

O. Gateway. 

P. Guest-cham- 
bers. 

Q. Barns and 
granaries. 

R. Watch-tower. 

S. Little cloister. 

T. Bakehouse. 

V. Kitchen. 

X. Refectory. 

Y. Cemetery. 

Z. Prison. 

a. Cell of sub- 

prior. 

b. Garden of do. 



FIG. 12. Carthusian monastery of Clermont. 

cloister is 1 8. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little 
dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room (C), warmed by a 
stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), furnished with a bed, a table, 
a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet (E). Between the cell and 
the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the 
inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt 
his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and 
through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being 
seen. At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance 
of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, 
affording no view either inwards or outwards. H is the garden, 
cujtivated by the occupant of the cell. At K is the wood-house. 
F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end. 

The above arrangements are found with scarcely any varia- 
tion in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The Yorkshire 
Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland, 
the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal 
of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, 
about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English 
example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order. 
The church is a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless. 
Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the 
two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, re- 
fectory, &c., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain 
and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number. 
It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the two walls being 
about 30 ft. or 40 ft. apart. Between these, each in its own 




ABBEY 



21 



garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages, of two 
or three rooms on the ground -floor, lighted by a larger and a 
smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to 
the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, 
through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of 
his cell and the refuse of his garden to the " eremus " beyond. 
By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through 
which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by 
turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in 
or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch an arrange- 
ment belonging to all Carthusian houses exists at Miraflores, 
.near Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. 



A. Cloister gallery. 

B. Corridor. 

C. Living-room. 

D. Sleeping-room. 

E. Closets. 

F. Covered walk. 

G. Necessary. 
H. Garden. 

I. Hatch. 

K. Wood-house. 




FIG. 13. Carthusian cell, Clermont. 

There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The 
earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded by 
Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into England. 
The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Rich- 
mond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D. 1414. The 
dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been 
remarkably large. The great court measured 300 ft. by 250 
ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.; the hall was no 
ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth. The most celebrated 
historically is the Charter-house of London, founded by Sir 
Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which is preserved by the 
famous public school established on the site by Thomas Sutton 
A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming. 

An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete 
without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or 
Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or Domini- 
cans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, 
the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at the 
beginning of the i3th century, when the Benedictines, together 
with their various reformed branches, had terminated their 
active mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new re- 
ligious revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, 
and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated 
districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their 
buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrange- 
ment, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it. 
Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of 
hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves, 
totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and 
character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by 
transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies, 
one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left 
entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is 
often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted 
structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end 
was usually square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a 
polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, 
sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This 
arrangement is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small 
friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities 



of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of 
towers; but in the I4th and isth centuries, tall, slender towers 
were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The 
Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good 
example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally 
peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of 
the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a 
cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel 
aisles, while the refectory a room of immense length, quite 
detached from the cloister stretched across the area before the 
west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two 
parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapel. 
The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister, 
which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house 
and sacristy on the east. As examples of English 
friaries, the Dominican house at Norwich, and those Qi OUC esier. 
of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester, 
may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich 
departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew's 
Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier 
examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and 
aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing 
at Lynn, has perished. The cloister and monastic buildings 
remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent 
at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side 
of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west 
side and on the south the dormitory of the i3th century. This 
is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles 
on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. 
On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date. 
At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the 
ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a 
continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower be- 
tween the nave and the choir. Of the convents of the Carmelite 
or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey Hulne. 
of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in 
England, founded A.D. 1240. The church is a narrow oblong, 
destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The 
cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, &c., to the 
east, with the dormitory over. The pripr's lodge is placed to 
the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance 
gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of 
the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin 
Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated 
date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very 
light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of 
the cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of 
Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still 
standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name. 
Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars 
afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine 
of St Alban's, Matthew Paris: " The friars who have been 
founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of 
kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous 
edifices, encircling them with lofty walls, lay up in them their 
incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of 
poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their 
profession." Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival 
order just rising in popularity. 

Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more 
smaller establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic 
colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted Cetfj _ 
on some outlying estate. As an example, we may 
refer to the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, 
a cell of the great Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in 
the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the city of 
Lincoln. This consists of one long narrow range of building, of 
which the eastern part formed the chapel and the western 
contained the apartments of the handful of monks of which it 
was the home. To the east may be traced the site of the abbey 
mill, with its dam and mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to 
a Cluniac house, were called Obedientiae. The plan given by 



22 



ABBON OF FLEURY ABBOT 



Viollet-le-Duc of the Priory of St Jean des Bans Hommes, a 
Cluniac cell, situated between the town of Avallon and the 
village of Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments 
comprised every essential feature of a monastery, chapel, 
cloister, chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped ac- 
cording to the recognized arrangement. These Cluniac obedientiae 
differed from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of 
punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave 
infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of peniten- 
tiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a prior, 
and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling the 
duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as farm- 
servants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the 
monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They 
gave employment to a body of coniiersi and labourers under the 
management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother Hospitaller 
the granges, like their parent institutions, affording shelter 
and hospitality to belated travellers. 

AUTHORITIES. Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir, Architecture monas- 
tique (1852-1856) ; Vipllet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonnee de I'archi- 
lecture fran$aise; Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); 
Kraus, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.) 

ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945- 
1004), a learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He 
distinguished himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was 
especially proficient in science as known in his time. He spent 
two years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in 
restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey. After 
his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire 
(988). He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious 
(986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a 
threatened papal interdict. He was killed at La Reole in 1004, 
in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt. He wrote an 
Epitome de vilis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial 
treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Palrologia Latino, vol. 139). 
His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in which much 
of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great import- 
ance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially with 
reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139). 

See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885) ; 
Cuissard-Gaucheron, " L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du io e 
siecle," in Memoires de la socicte archeol. de I'Orleanais, xiv. (Orleans, 
1875) ; A. Molinier, Sources de I'histoire de France. 

ABBOT, EZRA (1810-1884), American biblical scholar, was 
born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April 
1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in 1847, 
at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, went to Cambridge, 
where he was principal of a public school until 1856. He was 
assistant librarian of Harvard University from 1856 to 1872, 
and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalogue, 
combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary 
catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics under more 
general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic cata- 
logue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of 
New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard 
Divinity School. His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages 
and the textual criticism of the New Testament, though his 
work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive 
list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life, 
appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future 
Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages (1862), and 
published separately in 1864. His publications, though always 
of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large 
extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concord- 
ances, texts edited by others, Unitarian controversial treatises, 
&c.; but he took a more conspicuous and more personal part in 
the preparation (with the Baptist scholar, Horatio B. Hackett) 
of the enlarged American edition of Dr (afterwards Sir) William 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1867-1870), to which he contri- 
buted more than 400 articles besides greatly improving the 
bibliographical completeness of the work; was an efficient 
member of the American revision committee employed in 
connexion with the Revised Version (1881-1885) f tne King 



James Bible; and aided in the preparation of Caspar Rene 
Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised Greek New Testament of 
Tischendorf. His principal single production, representing his 
scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was The Author- 
ship of the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second 
edition, by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a 
lecture, and in spite of the compression due to its form, up to 
that time probably the ablest defence, based on external evi- 
dence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the com- 
pletes! treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel. 
Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from 
Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. 
He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of March 
1884. 

See S. J. Barrows, Ezra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884). 

ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of 
Canterbury, was born on the igth of October 1562, at Guildford 
in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied, 
and then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master 
of University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester 
in 1600. He was three times vice-chancellor of the university, 
and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of 
the New Testament. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the earl 
of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of 
England and Scotland. He so pleased the king (James I.) in 
this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and Coventry 
in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month afterwards, 
and in less than a year was raised to that of Canterbury. His 
puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treat- 
ment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to 
the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit 
of the Lady Frances Howard against the earl of Essex, and again 
in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the declara- 
tion permitting Sunday sports. He was naturally, therefore, a 
promoter of the match between the elector palatine and the 
Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected mar- 
riage of the prince of Wales with the infanta of Spain. This 
policy brought upon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he 
had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the court, 
though the king himself never forsook him. In 1622, while 
hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt 
from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of 
the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly 
distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melan- 
choly. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this 
accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though 
the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had 
led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully 
indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of 
ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after 
this sort." The commission was equally divided, and the king 
gave a casting vote in the archbishop's favour, though signing 
also a formal pardon or dispensation. After this the arch- 
bishop seldom appeared at the council, chiefly on account of 
his infirmities. He attended the king constantly, however, in 
his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation 
of Charles I. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached 
by Dr Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on the 22nd of February 
1626-1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's 
demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute 
non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led 
Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them 
in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however, 
soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's 
powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived 
from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in 
undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on the sth of 
August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, 
where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of 300 
a year. Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in 
view and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists. 
He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being 






ABBOT 



his discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was 
reprinted in 1845. His Geography, or a Brief Description of the 
Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions. 

The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England. 

ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648), English writer, known as 
" The Puritan," has been oddly and persistently mistaken for 
others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he never 
was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his writ- 
ings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as 
by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the 
sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he 
was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a 
different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is not 
clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East 
Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603-1604, his mother (or 
grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering. Of his 
early life and training nothing is known. He married a daughter 
of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire, and as his 
monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells, 
he bravely held the manor house against Princes Rupert and 
Maurice during the civil war. As a layman, and nevertheless a 
theologian and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he 
holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period. 
The terseness of his Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made 
easy for any to understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with 
the usual prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators. 
His Vindiciae Sabbatki (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting 
influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy. His Brief Notes 
upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows, 
was posthumous. He died on the 2nd of February 1648. 

AUTHORITIES. MS. collections at Abbeyville for history of all of 
the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington ; Dug- 
dale's Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730, p. 1099 ; Wood's Athenae 
(Bliss), ii. 141, 594; Cox's Literature of the Sabbath. 

ABBOT, ROBERT (is88?-i662?), English Puritan divine. 
Noted as this worthy was in his own time, and representative 
in various ways, he has often since been confounded with others, 
e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury. He is also wrongly 
described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he 
acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles dedi- 
catory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepc, out Sinne and 
Antichrist (1623, 4to), that he had " received all " his " worldly 
maintenance," as well as " best earthly countenance " and 
" fatherly incouragements." The worldly maintenance was 
the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent. 
He had received his education at Cambridge, where he pro- 
ceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In 
1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book 
historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells us, "I 
have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above fifty years, 
and in the place of my allotment two and twenty full." The 
former date carries us back to 1588-1589, or perhaps 1587-1588 
the " Armada " year as his birth-time; the latter to 1616- 
1617 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters 
(1626), he describes himself as formerly " assistant to a reverend 
divine . . . now with God," and the name on the margin is 
" Master Haiward of Wool Church (Dorset)." This was doubt- 
less previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very remarkable and 
effective was Abbot's ministry at Cranbrook, where his parish- 
ioners were as his own " sons and daughters " to him. Yet, 
Puritan though he was, he was extremely and often unfairly 
antagonistic to Nonconformists. He remained at Cranbrook 
until 1643, when, Parliament deciding against pluralities of 
ecclesiastical offices, he chose the very inferior living of South- 
wick, Hants, as between the one and the other. He afterwards 
succeeded the " extruded " Udall of St Austin's, London, where 
according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in 1657. He 
disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662. Robert Abbot's 
books are conspicuous amongst the productions of his time by 
their terseness and variety. In addition to those mentioned 
above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's Catechism for her 
Children (1646), and A Christian Family builded by God, or Direc- 
tions for Governors of Families (1653). 



AUTHORITIES. Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's Sufferings, 
ii. 183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 323; Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. ii. 
218, which confuses him most oddly of all with one of the ejected 
ministers of 1662. 

ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843), English actor, was born in 
Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath 
in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808. At Covent 
Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his 
first decided success. He was Pylades to Macready's Orestes in 
Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made his 
first appearance at that theatre (1816). He created the parts of 
Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginius (1820) and of 
Modus in his Hunchback (1832). In 1827 he organized the com- 
pany, including Macready and Miss Smithson, which acted 
Shakespeare in Paris. On his return to London he played 
Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830). Two of Abbot's 
melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great (1817) 
and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at Covent Garden. 
He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland. 

ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac 
abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form 
abbad-em changed in i3th century under influence of the 
Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the i?th 
century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and chief governor of a 
community of monks, called also in the East hegumenos or 
archimandrite. The title had its origin in the monasteries of 
Syria, whence it spread through the East, and soon became 
accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the 
head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful 
title for any monk, as we learn from St Jerome, who denounced 
the custom on the ground that Christ had said, " Call no man 
father on earth " (in Epist. ad Gal. iv. 6, in Matt, xxiii. 9), 
but it was soon restricted to the superior. The name "abbot/' 
though general in the West, was never universal. Among the 
Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians, &c., the superior was 
called Praepositus, "provost," and Prior; among the Francis- 
cans, Custos, " guardian "; and by the monks of Camaldoli, 
Major. 

In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of 
the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Some- 
times he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, 
each of which had its own abbot as well. Cassian speaks of an 
abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him, a number 
exceeded in other cases. By the rule of St Benedict, which, until 
the reform of Cluny, was the norm in the West, the abbot has 
jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevit- 
able, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until 
the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme 
abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, 
was definitely recognized. New styles were devised to express 
this new relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called 
abbas abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the titles 
abbas generalis, or magister or minister generalis. 

Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the 
abbot any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore, even the 
" doorkeeper," took precedence of him. For the reception of 
the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his 
monks were commanded to attend the nearest church (Novellae, 
133, c. ii.). This rule naturally proved inconvenient when a 
monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, 
and necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innova- 
tion was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity 
being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, 
before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots 
seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not pres- 
byters. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the 
office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of 
the 7th century, and partially so up to the nth. Ecclesiastical 
councils were, however, attended by abbots. Thus at that held 
at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of Eutyches, 
23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and, c. A.D. 
690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon, inhibiting 



ABBOT 



bishops from compelling abbots to attend councils. Examples 
are not uncommon in Spain and in England in Saxon times. 
Abbots were permitted by the second council of Nicaea, A.D. 787, 
to ordain their monks to the inferior orders. This rule was 
adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against clerical 
monks having gradually broken down, eventually monks, 
almost without exception, took holy orders. 

Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and 
continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the nth century. 
The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly 
subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case 
recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal 
control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of 
Aries, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of 
bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be 
traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it 
increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of 
exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal 
control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received 
an impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions, intro- 
duced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil 
by the 1 2th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, 
and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres 
of influence in his diocese. In the i2th century the abbots of 
Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots 
more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance 
of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard 
and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves 
and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear 
mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 
nth century, but the documents on which this claim is based 
are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453). The 
first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II. in 
1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monas- 
tery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The mitred 
abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney, 
Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, Col- 
chester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's 
Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, 
Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winch- 
combe, St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was originally 
yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. 
(Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in 
which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot 
of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish 
abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be 
made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented 
with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that 
the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of 
outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their 
own house. 

The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed 
by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to 
be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran 
council, A.D. 1123. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, 
with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted 
by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787, to confer the tonsure 
and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the 
West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in A.D. 
1489 permitted by Innocent IV. to confer both the subdiaconate 
and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the 
power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the 
religious habit. 

When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the 
abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election 
was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserv- 
ing to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the bene- 
diction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from episcopal 
jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred 
by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses 
of the new abbot's journey to Rome. By the rule of St Benedict, 
the consent of the laity was in some undefined way required; 



but this seems never to have been practically enforced. It was 
necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of 
legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no 
suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from 
another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct 
others, one also who had learned how to command by having 
practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was 
allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot 
in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example 
in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually en- 
croached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had 
usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, 
with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs 
of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was 
canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was 
directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop. 

The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot 
in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of 
Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at 
the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the mem- 
bers of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding 
up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of 
the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced 
by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The 
monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, 
and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office. 
He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, 
and the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon. 

The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, 
however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general 
establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control. As a rule, 
however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act without his 
orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty to execute 
his orders, however unreasonable, until they were withdrawn. 
Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind submission 
to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by 
those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will 
as the highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others, 
e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or 
endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his 
powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays down, as the principle of the 
compact between the abbot and his monks, that they should 
obey their superiors in all things, and perform whatever they 
commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eusloch. de custod. virgin.). So despotic 
did the tyranny become in the West, that in the time of Charle- 
magne it was necessary to restrain abbots by legal enactments 
from mutilating their monks and putting out their eyes; while 
the rule of St Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment 
for very slight offences. An abbot also had the power of ex- 
communicating refractory nuns, which he might use if desired 
by their abbess. 

The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and 
reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared 
either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His 
letters were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the 
king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to 
kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without 
his permission. The highest place was naturally assigned to 
him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded 
to eat with the other monks. In the West the rule of St Benedict 
appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain 
guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to 
luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that the 
abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the 
ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. 
These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to 
secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds 
with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate 
extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot con- 
descended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon 
him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. At 
St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the centre of the 



ABBOTSFORD 



high table, and was served on silver plate, and sumptuously 
entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of quality. 
When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule of St 
Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, 
provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were 
to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. 

The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be 
the same as that of the monks. But by the loth century the 
rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints 
of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They 
sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and 
assumed a secular dress. 1 This was a necessary consequence of 
their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at 
that time only natural. With the increase of wealth and power, 
abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and 
become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by 
celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their 
men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and 
huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, 
c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare- 
hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots 
vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with 
gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on 
their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The 
bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated 
on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and 
shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power 
was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we 
read of Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially mur- 
dered by Henry VIII., that his house was a kind of well-ordered 
court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, 
who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been 
brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for 
the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an 
honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 
persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the 
vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, 
and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted 
to upwards of too persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendome 
were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church. 

In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred 
to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system, as 
to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the 
Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, Abbas Curiae, or 
military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas Castrensis. It even 
came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief 
magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi. 
Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis, 
Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c. 

Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensorcs, abbacomites, abbates laid, 
abbates milites, abbates saeculares or irreligiosi, abbatiarii, or 
sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome of the growth of 
the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice 
of commendation, by which to meet a contemporary emergency 
the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay 
lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the em- 
perors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with 
rich abbeys held in commendam. During the Carolingian epoch 
the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs 
or benefices, and by the loth century, before the great Cluniac 
reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of 
St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet. The example 
of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by 
making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without 
any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse 
was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts 
of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely 
a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in 
lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the 
foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of 

1 Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is charged by 
Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman. 



spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank 
in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in 
the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in 
form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject 
to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to 
perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (decanus), 
but also as abbot (abbas legitimus, monasticus, regularis). When 
the great reform of the nth century had put an end to the direct 
jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot con- 
tinued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late 
as the I3th century and later, the actual head of the community 
retaining that of dean. The connexion of the lesser lay abbots 
with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; 
and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers 
(abbates milites) for centuries, together with certain rights over 
the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the 
West. John, patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the i2th 
century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been 
handed over to laymen, benejiciarii, for life, or for part of their 
lives, by the emperors. 

In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place 
of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior 
of the monastery were performed by a prior. 

The title abbe (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the Catholic 
church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the 
English " Father," being loosely applied to all who have re- 
ceived the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated 
in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat 
between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), to appoint abbis 
commendataires to most of the abbeys in France. The expecta- 
tion of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the 
church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbes so formed 
abbes de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes 
(ironically) abbes de sainte esptrance, abbes of St Hope came 
to hold a recognized position. The connexion many of them 
had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly 
in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate 
course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a 
distinctive dress a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. 
Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many 
of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility 
as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbe. 
The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy 
title of abbe, having long lost all connexion in people's minds 
with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient 
general term applicable to any clergyman. 

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt) 
is sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction, 
and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries 
converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of 
these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover, 
founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of 
Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum, 
who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy 
of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory of the 
kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of abbot, 
prior and the " convent " of canons (Stiftsherren). 

See Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (1840); Du Cange, 
Glossarium med. et inf. Lat. (ed. 1883); J. Craigie Robertson, Hist, 
of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond Martene, De antiquis 
ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783); C. F. R. de Montalembert, Les 
moines d'occident depuis S. Benott jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860-1877) ; 
Achille Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franqaises (Par. 1892). 

(E. V. ; W. A. P.) 

ABBOTSFORD, formerly the residence of Sir Walter Scott, 
situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, about 3 m. W. of Melrose, 
Roxburghshire, Scotland, and nearly i m. from Abbotsford 
Ferry station on the North British railway, connecting Selkirk 
and Galashiels. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of 
100 acres, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e. muddy) 
Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the 
neighbouring house of Ashestiel. It was added to from time to 
time, the last and principal acquisition being that of Toftfield 



26 



ABBOTT 



(afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new 
house was then begun and completed in 1824. The general 
ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side 
overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish 
Baronial. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and 
curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of 
the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott had only enjoyed his 
residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of 
fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830 the library 
and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. 
The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert 
Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in ex- 
change for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's 
works. Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, 
having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent 
possessors were Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart , J. R. Hope 
Scott, Q.C., and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the 
Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the 
" Abbotsford Club," a successor of the Bannatyne and Maitland 
clubs, founded by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's- 
honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected 
with his writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864. 

See Lockhart, Life of Scott; Washington Irving, Abbotsford and 
Newstead Abbey; W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country. 

ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT (1838- ), English school- 
master and theologian, was born on the 2Oth of December 1838. 
He was educated at the City of London school and at St John's 
College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours in the 
classical, mathematical and theological triposes, and became 
fellow of his college. In 1862 he took orders. After holding 
masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at 
Clifton College, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster 
of the City of London school in 1865 at the early age of twenty- 
six. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1876. He retired in 1889, and 
devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits. Dr Abbott's 
liberal inclinations in theology were prominent both in his 
educational views and in his books. His Shakespearian Gram- 
mar (1870) is a permanent contribution to English philology. 
In 1885 he published a life of Francis Bacon. His theo- 
logical writings include three anonymously published religious 
romances Philochristus (1878), Onesimus (1882), Silanus ( 1 906) . 
More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological 
discussion The Kernel and the Husk (1886), Fhilomythus (1891), 
his book on Cardinal Newman as an Anglican (1892), and his 
article " The Gospels " in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica, embodying a critical view which caused considerable 
stir in the English theological world; he also wrote St Thomas 
of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles (i8g8),Johannine Vocabu- 
lary (1905), Johannine Grammar (1906). 

His brother, Evelyn Abbott (1843-1901), was a well-known 
tutor of Balliol, Oxford, and author of a scholarly History of 
Greece. 

ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891), American singer, was born at 
Chicago and studied in Milan and Paris. She had a fine soprano 
voice, and appeared first in opera in London under Colonel 
Mapleson's direction at Covent Garden, also singing at important 
concerts. She organized an opera company known by her name, 
and toured extensively in the United States, where she had a 
great reputation. In 1873 she married E. J. Wetherell. She 
died at Salt Lake City on the sth of January 1891. 

ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), American writer of books for 
the young, was born at Hallowell, Maine, on the I4th of 
November 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820; 
studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 
1824; was tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was 
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst 
College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association 
in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for young ladies in 
Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829-1833; was pastor 
of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury, 
Mass., in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and 
in 1843-1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 1845-1848 



of the Mount Vernon School for boys, in New York City. He was 
a prolific author, writing juvenile stories, brief histories and 
biographies, and religious books for the general reader, and a 
few works in popular science. He died on the 3ist of October 
1879 at Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time 
since 1839, and where his brother Samuel Phillips Abbott 
founded in 1844 the Abbott School, popularly called " Little 
Blue." Jacob Abbott's " Rollo Books "Rollo at Work, Rollo 
at Play, Rollo in Europe, &c. (28 vols.) are the best known of 
his writings, having as their chief characters a representative 
boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two 
generations of young American readers a service not unlike that 
performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of 
Evenings at Home, Sandford and Merlon, and the Parent's 
Assistant. Of his other writings (he produced more than two 
hundred volumes in all), the best are the Franconia Stories (10 
vols.), twenty-two volumes of biographical histories in a series 
of thirty-two volumes (with his brother John S. C. Abbott), and 
the Young Christian, all of which had enormous circulations. 

His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott (1830-1890), Austin 
Abbott (1831-1896), both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott 
(q.v.), and Edward Abbott (1841-1908), a clergyman, were also 
well-known authors. 

See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the 
Author by one of his sons, i.e. Edward Abbott (New York, 1882), 
with a bibliography of his works. 

ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877), American 
writer, was born in Brunswick, Maine, on the i8th of September 
1805. He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated 
with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York 
City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical 
biographies. He is best known, however, as the author of a 
partisan and unscholarly, but widely popular and very readable 
History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which the various 
elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are treated with some 
skill in arrangement, but with unfailing adulation. Dr Abbott 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, prepared for the ministry 
at Andover Theological Seminary, and between 1830 and 1844, 
when he retired from the ministry, preached successively at 
Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket, Massachusetts. He died 
at Fair Haven, Connecticut, on the I7th of June 1877. He was 
a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of his- 
tories, which now seem unscholarly and untrustworthy, but 
were valuable in their time in cultivating a popular interest in 
history. In general, except that he did not write juvenile fiction, 
his work in subject and style closely resembles that of his brother, 
Jacob Abbott. 

ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author, 
was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the i8th of December 
1835, the son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at the University 
of New York in 1853, studied law, and was admitted to the bar 
in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and, after 
studying theology with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott, was ordained 
a minister of the Congregational Church in 1860. He was pastor 
of a church inTerre Haute, Indiana, in 1860-1865, and of the New 
England Church in New York City in 1865-1869. From 1865 to 
1868 he was secretary of the American Union (Freedman's) 
Commission. In 1869 he resigned his pastorate to devote him- 
self to literature. He was an associate editor of Harper's Maga- 
zine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly, and was 
co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian Union with Henry Ward 
Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as pastor of Plymouth 
Church, Brooklyn. From this pastorate he resigned ten years 
later. From 1881 he was editor-in-chief of The Christian Union, 
renamed The Outlook in 1893; this periodical reflected his efforts 
toward social reform, and, in theology, a liberality, humanitarian 
and nearly Unitarian. The latter characteristics marked his 
published works also. 

His works include Jesus of Nazareth (1869) ; Illustrated Commentary 
on the New Testament (4 vols., 1875); A Study in Human Nature 
(1885); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution of Christianity (Lowell 
Lectures, 1896); The Theology of an Evolutionist (1897); Chris- 
tianity and Social Problems (1897) ; Life and Letters of Paul (1898) ; 






ABBOTTABAD ABBREVIATION 



27 



The Life that Really is (1899); Problems of Life (1900); The Rights 
of Man (1901) ; Henry Ward Beecher (1903) ; The Christian Ministry 
(1905); The Personality of Cod (1905); Industrial Problems (1905); 
and Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907). He edited Sermons of 
Henry Ward Beecher (2 vols., 1868). 

ABBOTTABAD, a town of British India, 4120 ft. above sea- 
level, 63 m. from Rawalpindi, the headquarters of the Hazara 
district in the N.W. Frontier Province, called after its founder, 
Sir James Abbott, who settled this wild district after the annexa- 
tion of the Punjab. It is an important military cantonment and 
sanatorium, being the headquarters of a brigade in the second 
division of the northern army corps. In 1901 the population of 
the town and cantonment was 7764. 

ABBREVIATION (Lat. brevis, short), strictly a shortening; 
more particularly, an " abbreviation " is a letter or group of 
letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent 
them for the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single 
words and of phrases, having a meaning more or less fixed and 
recognized, are common in ancient writings and inscriptions 
(see PALAEOGRAPHY and DIPLOMATIC), and very many are in 
use at the present time. A distinction is to be observed between 
abbreviations and the contractions that are frequently to be 
met with in old manuscripts, and even in early printed books, 
whereby letters are dropped out here and there, or particular 
collocations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary sym- 
bols. The commonest form of abbreviation is the substitution 
for a word of its initial letter; but, with a view to prevent 
ambiguity, one or more of the other letters are frequently 
added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a 
superlative. 

I. CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS. The following list contains 
a selection from the abbreviations that occur in the writings 
and inscriptions of the Romans: 

A. 

A. Absolvo, Aedilis, Aes, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus, 

Antique, Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum, 

Aut. 

A.A. Aes alienum, Ante audita, Apud agrum, Aurum argentum. 

AA. August!. AAA. Augusti tres. 

A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo. 1 
A.A.V. Alter ambove. 
A.C. Acta causa, Alius civis. 

A.D. Ante diem; e.g. A.D.V. Ante diem quintum. 

A.D.A. Ad dandos agros. 
AED. Aedes, Aedilis, Aedilitas. 
AEM. and AIM. Aemilius, Aemilia. 
AER. Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico. 
A-F. Actum fide, Auli filius. 

AG. Ager, Ago, Agrippa. 

A.G. Animo grato, Aulus Gellius. 

A.L.AE. and A.L.E. Arbitrium litis aestimandae. 
A.M. and A.MILL.Ad milliarium. 
AN. Aniensis, Annus, Ante. 

ANN. Annales, Anni, Annona. 
ANT. Ante, Antonius. 
A.O. Alii pmnes, Amico optimo. 

AP. Appius, Apud. 

A.P. Ad pedes, Aedilitia potestate. 

A.P.F. Auro (or argento) publico feriundo. 
A.P.M. Amico posuit monumentum, Annorum plus minus. 
A.P.R.C. Anno post Romam conditam. 
ARG. Argentum. 
AR.V.V.D.D. Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono 

dedit. 

AT. A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER. 
A.T.M.D.O. Aio te mihi dare opprtere. 
AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurelius. 

A.V. Annos vixit. 

A.V.C. Ab urbe condita. 
AVG. Augur, Augustus. 

AVGG. Augusti (generally of two). AVGGG. Augusti tres. 
AVT.PR.R. Auctoritas provincial Romanorum. 

B. 

B. Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius, Beneficium, 

Bonus, Brutus, Bustum. 
B. for V. Berna Bivus, Bixit. 

B.A. Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis. 
BB. or B.B. Bene bene, i.e. optime, Optimus. 
B.D. Bonae deae, Bonum datum. 
B.DD. Bonis deabus. 

1 Describing the function of the triumviri monetales. 



B.D.S.M. Bene de se merenti. 

B.F. Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum. 

g.J. Bona femina, Bona filia. 

B.H. Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres. 

B.I. Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judicis judicium. 

B.M. Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti. 

B.N. Bona npstra, Bonum nomen. 

BN.H.I. Bona hie invenies. 

B.P. Bona paterna, Bonorum pptestas, Bonum publicum. 

Bene quiescat, Bona quaesita. 
B.RP.N. Bono reipublicae natus. 
BRT. Britannicus. 
B.T. Bonorum tutor, Breyi tempore. 

B.V. Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir. 

B.V.V. Balnea vina Venus. 
BX. Bixit, for vixit. 

C. 
C. Caesar, Caius, Caput, Causa, Censor,Civis, Cohors, Colonia , 

Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo, 

Custos. , 

C. Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con. 

C.B. Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui 

bono. 
C.C. Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Con- 

silium cepit, Curiae consulto. 
C.C.C. Calumniae cavendae causa. 

C.C.F. Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Caius Caii filius. 
CC.VV. Clarissimi viri. 

C.D. Caesaris decreto, Caius Decius, Comitialibus diebus. 

CES. Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores. 

Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum. 
C.H. Custos heredum, Custos hortorum. 

C.I. Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex. 

CL. Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia. 

CL.V. Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit. 
C.M. Caius Marius, Causa mortis. 
CN. Cnaeus. 

COH. Coheres, Cohors. 

COL. Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columna. 
COLL. Collega, Colpni, Coloniae. 
COM. Comes, Comitium, Comparatum. 
CON. Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis. 
COR. Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus. 
COS. Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules. 

C.P. Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit 

ponendum. 
C.R. Caius Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum. 

Caesar, Communis, Consul. 
C.V. Clarissimus or Consularis vir. 

CVR. Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia. 

D. 

D. Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio, 

Deus, Dicit, &c., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus, 

Donum. 

D.C. Decurio coloniae, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar. 

D.D. Dea Dia.Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono 

dedit. 

D. D. D. Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit. 
D.E.R. De ea re. 
DES. Designatus. 

D.I. Dedit imperatpr, Diis immprtalibus, Diis inferis. 

D.I.M. Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus. 
D.M. Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo. 
D.O.M. Deo Optimo Maximo. 
D.P.S. Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo perpetuo sacrum, De pecunia 

sua. 

E. 

Ejus, Eques, Erexit, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex. 
EG. Aeger, Egit, Egregius. 

E.M. Egregiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum. 
EQ.M. Equitum magister. 
E.R.A. Ea res agitur. 

F. 

F. Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies), Felix, 

Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamen, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit, 

Functus. 

F.C. Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissum, Fiduciae causa. 

F.D. Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit. 

F.F.F. Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato. 
FL. Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius. 

F.L. Favete linguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber. 

FR. Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius. 

F.R. Forum Romanum. 

G. 

G. Gaius ( = Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Gellius, Gemina, Gens, 

Gesta, Gratia. 

G.F. Gemina fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F, Gemina 

pia fidelis. 



ABBREVIATION 



GL. Gloria. 

GN. Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus ( = Cnaeus). 

G.P.R. Genio populi Romani. 

H. 

H. Habet, Heres, Hie, Homo, Honor, Hora. 

HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules. 
H.L. Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco. 

H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta raulier, Hora mala. 
H.S.E. Hie sepultus est, Hie situs est. 
H.V. Haec urbs, Hie vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir. 

I. 
I. Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse, 

Isis, Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus. 
IA. . Jam, Intra. 

I.C. Julius Caesar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile. 

ID. Idem, Idus, Interdum. 

Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei. 
I.D.M. Jovi deo magno. 
I.F. In foro, In fronte. 

I.H. Jacet hie, In honestatem, Justus homo. 

IM. Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa. 

IMP. Imperator, Imperium. 
I.O.M. Jovi optimo maximo. 

I. P. In publico, Intra provinciam, Justa persona. 

I.S.V.P. Impensa sua vivus posuit. 

K. 

K. Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra. 

K., KAL. and KL. Kalendae. 

L. 
L. Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius, 

Lucius, Ludus. 

LB. Libens, Liberi, Libertus. 

L.D.D.D. Locus datus decreto decurionum. 
LEG. Legatus, Legio. 

LIB. Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, Librarius. 

LL. Leges, Libentissime, Liberti. 

L.M. Libens merito, Locus monument!. 

L.S. Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer. 

LVD. Ludus. 
LV.P.F. Ludos publicos fecit. 

M. 
M. Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marius, 

Marti, Mater,Memoria,Mensis, Miles, Monumentum, 

Mortuus, Mucius, Mulier. 
M'. Manius. 

M.D. Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit. 
MES. Mensis. MESS. Menses. 
M.F. Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit. 
M.I. Matri Idaeae, Matri Isidi, Maximo Jovi. 

MNT.andMON. Moneta. 
M.P. Male positus, Monumentum posuit. 

M.S. Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum. 

MVN. Municeps, or municipium; so also MN., MV. and MVNIC. 
M.V.S. Marti ultori sacrum, Merito votum solvit. 

N. 
N. Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero, 

Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Nume- 

rius, Numerus, Nummus. 
NEP. Nepos, Neptunus. 
N.F.C. Nostrae fidei commissum. 

Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe. 
N.M.V. Nobilis memoriae vir. 

NN. Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum. 

NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOBR. and NOV. Novembris. 
N.P. Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parte diei), Non potest. 

O. 

O. Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa. 

OB. Obiit, Obiter, Orbis. 

O.C.S. Ob cives servatps. 
O.H.F. Omnibus honoribus functus. 
O.H.S.S. Ossa hie sita sunt. 
OR. Hora, Ordo, Ornamentum. 

O.T.B.Q. Ossa tua bene quiescant. 

P. 
P. Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius, 

Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor, 

Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer. 
P.C. Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia consti- 

tuta, Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate 

censoria. 

Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius. 
P.M. Piae memoriae, Plus minus, Pontifex maximus. 

P.P. Pater patratus,Pater patriae,Pecunia publica.Praepositus, 

Primipilus, Propraetor. 
PR. Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps. 

Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus. 
P.R.C. Post Romam conditam. 



PR.PR. Praefectus praetorii. Propraetor. 

P.S. Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicae 

saluti. 
P.V. Pia victrix, Praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir. 

Q. 

Q. Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis, 

Quintus, Quirites. 

8.D.R. Qua de re. 
.I.S.S. Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c. 
8Q. Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque. 

.R. Quaestor reipublicae. 

R. 
R. Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus, 

Rufus, Rursus. 

R.C. Romana civitas, Romanus civis. 

RESP. and RP. Respublica. 
RET. P. and RP. Retro pedes. 

S. 

S. Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius, 

Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub, 
Suus. 

SAC. Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum. 

S.C. Senatus cpnsultum. 

S.D. Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, Sententiam 

dedit. 

S.D.M. Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo. 
SER. Servius, Servus. 
S.E.T.L. Sit ei terra levis. 
SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine. 

Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia. 
S.P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus. 
S.S. Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scriptum. 

S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo. 

T. 

T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma, 

Tutor. 

TB., TI. and TIB. Tiberius. 
TB., TR. and TRB. Tribunus. 

T.F. Testamentum fecit.Titi filius,Titulum fecit.Titus Flavius. 

TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae. 

T.P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis. 

TVL. Tullius, Tufius. 

V. 
V. Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir, 

Vivus, Vixit, Volo, Votum. 
V.A. Veterano assignatus, Vixit annps. 

V.C. Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis. 

V.E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est. 

V.F. Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit. 

V.P. Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit. 

V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit. 

II. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS. Of the different kinds of 
abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are 
examples : 

A.M. Ave Maria. 

B.P. Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus. 

CC. Carissimus (also plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum. 

D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux. 

D.N.PP. Dominus noster Papa. 

FF. Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II). 

I.C. or I.X. Jesus Christus. 

I.D.N. In Dei nomine. 

KK. Karissimus (or -mi). 

MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus. 

O.S.B. Ordmis Sancti Benedicti. 

PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimus. 

R.F. Rex Francorum. 

R.P.D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominus. 

S.C.M. Sacra Caesarea Majestas. 

S.M.E. Sancta Mater Ecclesia. 

S.M.M. Sancta Mater Maria. 

S.R.I. Sanctum Romanum Imperium. 

S.V. Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo. 

V. Venerabilis, Venerandus. 

V.R.P. Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas. 

III. ABBREVIATIONS NOW IN USE. The import of these 
will often be readily understood from the connexion in which 
they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common 
abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture, 
months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and 
mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like " Mr," &c. 

The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may 
be conveniently classified under the following headings: 



ABBREVIATION 



29 



I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS. 

A.A. Associate of Arts. 

A.B. Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts. 

A.D.C. Aide-de-Camp. 

A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts. 

A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy. 

A.R.I. B. A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects. 

A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. 

B.A. Bachelor of Arts. 

Bart. Baronet. 

B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. 

B.LL. Bachelor of Laws. 

B.Sc. Bachelor of Science. 

C. Chairman. 

C.A. Chartered Accountant. 

C.B. Companion of the Bath. 

C.E. Civil Engineer. 

C.I.E. Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire. 

C.M. (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery. 

C.M.G. Companion of St Michael and St George. 

C.S.I. Companion of the Star of India. 

D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. 

D.D. Doctor of Divinity. 

D.Lit. or Litt. D. Doctor of Literature. 

D.M. Doctor of Medicine (Oxford). 

D.Sc. Doctor of Science. 

D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order. 

Ebor. (Eboracensis) of York. 1 

F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society. 

F.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith. 

F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons 

(Glasgow). 

F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society. 
F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians 

in Ireland. 

F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaean Society. 
P.M. Field Marshal. 
F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society. 
F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. 
F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. 
F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 
F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. 
F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society. 
F.R.Hist.Soc. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. 
F.R.I. B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects. 
F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. 
F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. 
F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. 
F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society. 
F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society. 
G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. 
G.C.H. Knight Grand Cross of Hanover. 
G.C.I. E. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian 

Empire. 

G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George. 
G.C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India. 
G.C.V.O. Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order. 



His or Her Highness. 

His or Her Imperial Highness. 

His or Her Imperial Majesty. 

His or Her Majesty. 

His or Her Royal Highness. 

His or Her Serene Highness. 

Judge. 

(Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor), Doctor of 

Canon or Civil Law. 

(Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law. 
Justice of the Peace. 
King's Counsel. 

Knight Commander of the Bath. 
Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire. 



H.H. 

H.I.H. 

H.I.M. 

H.M. 

H.R.H. 

H.S.H. 

jic.D. 
J.U.D. 

K P C. 

K.C.B. 

K.C.I.E. 

K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St Michael and St George. 

K. C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India. 

K.C.V.O. Knight Commander of the Victorian Order. 

K.G. Knight of the Garter. 

K.P. Knight of St Patrick. 

K.T. Knight of the Thistle. 

L.A.H. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall. 

L.C.C. London County Council, or Councillor. 

L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice. 



1 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes 
for his surname the name of his see ; thus the prelates of Canterbury, 
York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves with their initials 
(Christian names only), followed by Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin. 
(sometimes London.), &c. 



L.J. Lord Justice. 

L.L.A. Lady Literate in Arts. 

LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws. 

LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws. 

LL.M. (Legum Magister), Master of Laws. 

L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. 

L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. 

L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society. 

M.A. Master of Arts. 

M.B. . (Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine. 

M.C. Member of Congress. 

M.D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine. 

M.Inst.C.E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers. 

M.P. Member of Parliament. 

M.R. Master of the Rolls. 

M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians. 

M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. 

M.R.I. A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 

Mus.B. Bachelor of Music. 

Mus.D. Doctor of Music. 

M.V.O. Member of the Victorian Order. 

N.P. Notary Public. 

O.M. Order of Merit. 

P.C. Privy Councillor. 

Ph.D. (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. 

P.P. Parish Priest. 

P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy. 

R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen. 

R. & I. Rex et Imperator. 

R.A. Royal Academician, Royal Artillery. 

R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music. 

R.E. Royal Engineers. 

Reg. Prof. Regius Professor. 

R.M. Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate. 

R.N. Royal Navy. 

S. or St. Saint. 

S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts [of Scotland] . 

S.T.P. (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of Sacred 

Theology. 

V.C. Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross. 

V.G. Vicar-General. 

V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. 

W.S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland] . Equivalent to Attorney. 

2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND 

MEASURES. 2 



Ib. or Ib. (libra), pound (weight). 

m. or mi. mile, minute. 

i>l. minim. 

mo. month. 

na. nail. 

oz. ounce. 

pk. peck. 

po. pole. 

pt. pint. 

q. (quadrans), farthing. 

qr. quarter. 

qt. quart. 

ro. rood. 

Rs. 3 rupees. 

s. or/ (solidus), shilling. 

s. or sec. second. 

sc. or scr. scruple^ 

sq. ft. &c. square foot, &c. 

St. stone. 

yd. yard. 



ac. acre, 

bar. barrel, 

bus. bushel, 

c. cent. 

c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c. 
cwt. hundredweight. 

d. (denarius), penny, 
deg. degree. 

dr. drachm or dram, 

dwt. pennyweight, 

f. franc, 

fl. florin. 

ft. foot, 

fur. furlong, 

gal. gallon, 

gr. grain, 
h. or hr. hour, 

hhd. hogshead, 

in. inch, 

kilo, kilometre. 

L., 2 , 2 or /. (libra), pound 
(money). 

3. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS. 

A. Accepted. 

A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ. 

ace., a/c. or acct. Account. 

A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. 

A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universe, 4 or Alles Erdreich 

1st Oesterreich Unterthan. 

Act. or Aetat. (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age. 
A.H. (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan 

era). 

2 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same 
way; e.g. ' " for "degrees, minutes, seconds " (circular measure); 
?i 3. 3 f r "ounces, drachms, scruples." | is probably to be traced 
to the written form of the z in "oz." 

* These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar) 
are placed before their amounts. 

4 It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. The device of 
Austria, first adopted by Frederick III. 



ABBREVIATORS ABDALLATIF 



A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world. 

A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoon. 

Anon. Anonymous. 

A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building of the 

city (i.e. Rome). 
A.V. Authorized version of the Bible. 

b. born. 

B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary. 
B.C. Before Christ. 

c. circa, about. 

C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter. 

C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer. 

cent. 1 (Centum), A hundred, frequently 100. 

Cf. or cp. (Confer), Compare. 

Ch. or Chap. Chapter. 

C.M.S. Church Missionary Society. 

Co. Company, County. 

C.O.D. Cash on Delivery. 

Cr. Creditor. 

curt. Current, the present month. 

d. died. 

D.G. (Dei gratia). By the grace of God. 
Do. Ditto, the same. 

D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest. 
Dr. Debtor. 

D.V. (Deo volente), God willing. 
E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted. 
e.g. (Exempli gratia), For example, 
etc. or &c. (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth. 
Ex. Example. 

F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer. 
Fee. (Fecit), He made (or did) it. 
fl. Flourished. 

Fo. or Fol. Folio, 
f.o.b. Free on board. 
G.P.O. General Post Office. 
H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service. 
Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place. 
Id. (Idem), The same. 
i.e. (Id est). That is. 

I.H.S. A symbol for "Jesus," derived from the first three letters 
of the Greek (I H 2] ; the correct origin was lost sight 
of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted 
erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Sahator, 
the Latin " h " and Greek long " e " being confused. 
I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God. 
Inf. (Infra), Below. 
Inst. Instant, the present month. 
I.O.U. I owe you. 
i.q. (Idem quod). The same as. 
K.T.\. (KO! TO. Xourd), Et caetera, and the rest. 
L. or Lib. (Liber), Book. 
Lat. Latitude. 

I.e. (Loco citato), In the place cited. 
Lon. or Long. Longitude. 
L.S. (Locus sigilh). The place of the seal. 
Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum. 

Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts. 

(Nota bene), Mark well; take notice. 

North Britain (i.e. Scotland). 

No date. 

(Nemine contrad icente) , No one contradicting. 



MS. 

N.B. 

N.B. 

N.D. 

nem. con. 

No. 

N.S. 

N.T. 

ob. 

Obs. 



(Numero), Number. 

New Style. 

New Testament. 

(Obiit), Died. 

Obsolete. 

O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service. 
O.S. Old Style. 

O.S.B. Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines). 
O.T. Old Testament. 
P. Page. Pp. Pages. 

| (Per), For; e.g. $ Ib., For one pound. 

Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it. 
P.M. (Post Meridiem), Afternoon. 
P.O. Post Office, Postal Order. 
P.O.O. Post Office Order. 
P.P,C. (Pour prendre conge), To take leave. 
P.R. Prize-ring. 

prox. (Proximo [mense]), Next month. 
P.S. Postscript. 
Pt. Part. 

p.t. or pro tern. (Pro tempore), For the time. 
P.T.O. Please turn over. 
Q., Qu., or Qy. Query; Question. 

q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say; as much as to say. 
Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated. 
Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done. 



"Per cent." is often signified by%, a form traceable to"ioo.' 



q.s. or quant, suff. (Quantum sufficit), As much as is sufficient. 

q.v. (Quod vide), Which see. 

R. or 5. (Recipe), T^ke. 

V ( = r. for radix), The sign of the square root. 

R.I. P. (Requiescat in pace!). May he rest in peace! 

R.S.V.P. (Respondez s'il vous plait), Please reply. 

sc. (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say. 

Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it. 

S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 

seq.or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequens, sequentia), The following. 

S.J. Society of Jesus. 

s.p. (Sine prole), Without offspring. 

S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge 

S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. 

S.T.D. ) 

S.T.B. Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology. 

S.T.L. ) 

Sup. (Supra), Above. 

s.v. (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading). 

T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin. 

ult. (Ultimo [mense]), Last month. 

U.S. United States. 

U.S.A. United States of America. 

v. (Versus), Against. 

v. or vid. (Vide), See. 

viz. (Videlicet), Namely- 

Xmas. Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch. 

See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); Nicolai's 
Tractatus de Sifjis Veterum ; Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Lati- 
narum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's Paleographie (Paris, 1838); 
Alph. Chassant's Paleographie (1854), and Dictionnaire des A brevia- 
tions (3rd ed. 1866); Campelli, Dizionario di Abbreviature (1899). 

ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery, 
whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the 
pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are 
written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first men- 
tioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict XII. 
Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. From the 
time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed as de Parco 
majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de Parco minori. The name 
was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a 
grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower 
(major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that 
of the vice-chancellor. After the protonotaries left the sketching 
of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who 
ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the 
apostolic chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made 
essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they 
obtained in course of time many important privileges. They 
were suppressed in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were trans- 
ferred to the protonotarii apostolici participates . (See CURIA 
ROMANA.) 

ABDALLATIF, or ABD-UL-LATIF (1162-1231), a celebrated 
physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers 
of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1 162. An interesting memoir 
of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with addi- 
tions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary. 
From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth 
of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study 
of the rules and principles of grammar, and in their committing 
to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise or two on philology 
and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian poetry. After 
attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif 
applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy 
the society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and 
afterwards to Damascus. With letters of recommendation 
from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where the wish he had 
long cherished to converse with Maimonides, " the Eagle of the 
Doctors," was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle 
of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jerusalem. 
He taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus 
for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at 
Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit different 
parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and he was setting out on a 
pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdal- 
latif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an 
inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works 
mostly on medicine which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only, 



ABD-AR-RAHMAN 



his graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears 
to be known in Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward 
Pococke the Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library, 
contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the 
author's residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its 
banks. It was translated into Latin by Professor White of 
Oxford in 1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De 
Sacy in 1810. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the 
Omayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them 
being rulers of great capacity. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch 
of the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahom- 
medan Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the 
East by the Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty 
years of age. Together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge 
with Bedouin tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their 
enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the 
brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself 
by fleeing first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the 
common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach 
of the Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate 
produced by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the 
hands of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omay- 
yad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time 
Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled 
farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of Mauri- 
tania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from 
the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been encouraged by 
reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would 
restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his 
wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Omayyads. In 755 
he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence he sent an agent over 
to Spain to ask for the support of other clients of the family, 
descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous 
in the province of Elvira, the modern Granada. The country 
was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the amir 
Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by 
tribal dissensions among the Arabs and by race conflicts be- 
tween the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd-ar-rahman the 
opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation 
of his partisans he landed at Almunecar, to the east of Malaga, 
in September 755. For a time he was compelled to submit to 
be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their 
venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd- 
ar-rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land. 
This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would 
probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a 
better if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish 
renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad 
cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with 
being unable to write good Arabic. Under this provocation 
Obeidullah drew the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign 
was fought in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on 
the 1 6th of May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abd- 
ar-rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost 
the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was 
improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round 
the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the 
banner of the Spanish Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-ar- 
rahman I. was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab 
and Berber subjects to order. They had never meant to give 
themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which 
grew continually heavier. The details of these conflicts belong 
to the general history of Spain. It is, however, part of the 
personal history of Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was 
compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels 
acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory, 
he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with salt and 
camphor and sent them as a defiance to the eastern caliph. 
His last years were spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies, 
repressed with cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and 



ferocious. He was a fine example of an oriental founder of a 
dynasty, and did his work so well that the Omayyads lasted in 
Spain for two centuries and a half. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of 
the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for music 
and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion. It is chiefly 
memorable for having included the story of the " Martyrs of 
Cordova," one of the most remarkable passages in the religious 
history of the middle ages. 

ABD-AR-RAHMAN III. (912-96^ was the greatest and the 
most successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the 
general history of his reign see SPAIN, History) . He ascended the 
throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a 
century. His life was so completely identified with the govern- 
ment of the state that he offers less material for biography than 
his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it supplies some passages 
which show the real character of an oriental dynasty even at its 
best. Abd-ar-rahman III. was the grandson of his predecessor, 
Abdallah, one of the weakest and worst of the Spanish Omayyads. 
His father, Mahommed, was murdered by a brother Motarrif by 
order of Abdallah. The old sultan was so far influenced by 
humanity and remorse that he treated his grandson kindly. 
Abd-ar-rahman III. came to the throne when the country was 
exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among 
the Arabs, and of strife between them and the Mahommedans 
of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or 
secretly Christians had acted with the renegades. These ele- 
ments, which formed the bulk of the population, were not 
averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them 
against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the 
most serious of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came 
the Fatimites of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the 
caliphate, and who aimed at extending their rule over the 
Mahommedan world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman 
subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army, which in- 
cluded Christians. He repelled the Fatimites, partly by sup- 
porting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the 
caliphate for himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content 
with the title of sultan. The caliphate was thought only to 
belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca 
and Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far 
weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph 
on the i6th of January 929, and the assumption of the title 
gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain 
and Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahom- 
medans. After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega 
in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see 
SPAIN, History) he never again took the field. He is accused of 
having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of 
the harem. When the undoubted prosperity of his dominions 
is quoted as an example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is 
well to remember that he administered well not by means of 
but in spite of Mahommedans. The high praise given to his 
administration may even excite some doubts as to its real ex- 
cellence. We are told that a third of his revenue sufficed for 
the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded 
and a third spent on buildings. A very large proportion of the 
surplus must have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra, 
built three miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a 
favourite concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have 
been employed for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which 
no trace now remains. The great monument of early Arabic 
architecture in Spain, the mosque of Cordova, was built by his 
predecessors, not by him. It is said that his harem included 
six thousand women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is 
highly probable that he was very indifferent in religion, and it 
is certain that he was a thorough despot. One of the most 
authentic sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of 
Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of 
Gorze, who has left in his Vila an incomplete account of his 
embassy (in Pertz, Man. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 355-377). He 
blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, which he said 



ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. ABD-EL-KADER 



could only increase their pride and leaning to rebellion. His 
confession that he had known only twenty happy days in his 
long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed with the " omnia 
fui, el nil expedit " of Septimius Severus. 

In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes 
of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time, 
Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V. 
Mostadir (1023-1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, 
who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered 
in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when fleeing 
from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. 
Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at 
Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed 
workmen, headed by one of his own cousins. 

The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histotre 
des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.) 

ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of 
Sultan Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen 
years of age on his father's death in 1894. By the wise action 
of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el- 
Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little 
fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed 
himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1900 the regency 
ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his 
own hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his 
chief adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan 
sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to 
act up to it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain, 
and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to 
do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action 
and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted 
exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His in- 
timacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were 
sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction. His 
attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy of 
taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not 
strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money 
which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to 
purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai Abd- 
el-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were 
accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of 
spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed 
to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and Fez, 
this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the country. 
The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke 
out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the condition of 
things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 
came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on England for 
support and protection against the inroads of France. On the 
advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of an international 
conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult upon methods of 
reform, the sultan's desire being to ensuie a condition of affairs 
which would leave foreigners with no excuse for interference in 
the control of the country, and would promote its welfare, 
which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly desired from his accession to 
power. The sultan gave his adherence to the Act of the Algeciras 
Conference, but the state of anarachy into which Morocco fell 
during the latter half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed 
that the young ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will 
respected by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern 
tribes invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and 
viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following 
August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the 
usual formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans 
at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by France. 
In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez and 
endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers 
against his brother. From France he accepted the grand 
cordon of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to 
negotiate a loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further 
opposition to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared 
deposed by the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid. 



After months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to re- 
store his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched 
on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was com- 
pletely overthrown (August igth) when near that city, and 
Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines round Cas- 
ablanca. In November he came to terms with his brother, 
and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner 
of the new sultan. He declared himself more than reconciled 
to the loss of the throne, and as looking forward to a quiet, 
peaceful life. (See MOROCCO, History.) 

ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great 
opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near 
Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were sherifs or descend- 
ants of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated 
throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-el- 
Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman 
of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in 
horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a youth 
he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca and 
Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at Bag- 
dad events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious 
enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated 
to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out 
by Mehemet Ali, with the value of European civilization, and the 
knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din and 
his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French occupa- 
tion of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government of the Dey. 
Coming forward as the champion of Islam against the infidels, 
Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 1832. He 
prosecuted the war against France vigorously and in a short 
time had rallied to his standard all the tribes of western Algeria. 
The story of his fifteen years' struggle against the French is 
given under ALGERIA. To the beginning of 1842 the contest 
went in favour of the amir; thereafter he found in Marshal 
Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the end, his master. 
Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed himself a born 
leader of men, a great soldier, a capable administrator, a per- 
suasive orator, a chivalrous opponent. His fervent faith in the 
doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, and his ultimate failure 
was due in considerable measure to the refusal of the Kabyles, 
Berber mountain tribes whose Mahommedanism is somewhat 
loosely held, to make common cause with the Arabs against the 
French. On the 2ist of December 1847, the amir gave himself 
up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi Brahim. On the 23rd, his 
submission was formally made to the due d'Aumale, then 
governor of Algeria. In violation of the promise that he would 
be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, on the faith 
of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and his family were 
detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in 
November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There 
Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when he was re- 
leased by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again to dis- 
turb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in Brusa, 
removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July 1860, when the Moslems 
of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among the Druses 
of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and killed over 
3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the outbreak 
and saved large numbers of Christians. For this action the 
French government, which granted the amir a pension of 4000, 
bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In 
1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in Paris at 
the exposition of 1867. In 1871, when the Algerians again rose 
in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling submission to 
France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted himself anew 
to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical 
treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 
under the title of Rappel d I 'intelligent. Avis & I'indifffrent. 
He also wrote a book on the Arab horse. He died at Damascus 
on the 26th of May 1883. 

See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807-1883 (Paris [1899]); 
Alex. Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: sa vie polilique et militaire (Paris, 
1863) ; Col. C. H. Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867). 



ABDERA ABDOMEN 



33 



ABDERA, an ancient seaport town on the south coast of 
Spain, between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district in- 
habited by the Bastuli. It was founded by the Carthaginians 
as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under 
the Romans one of the more important towns in the province 
of Hispania Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern 
Adra (q.v.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician 
inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and a 
tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the 
place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two 
tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions re- 
lating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267. 

ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of 
the Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical founda- 
tion was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from 
Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity dates 
from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of Teos migrated 
to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape the Persian yoke 
(Herod, i. 168); the chief coin type, a gryphon, is identical 
with that of Teos; the coinage is noted for the beauty and 
variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined 
in importance after the middle of the 4th century. The air of 
Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its 
citizens was the philosopher Democritus. The ruins of the 
town may still be seen on Cape Balastra; they cover seven 
small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour; 
on the S.W. hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of 
Polystylon. 

Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel); 
Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, xxxix. 21 1 ; K. F. Hermann, Ges. 
Abh. 90-111, 370 ff. 

ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from 
ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging 
to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives 
up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held. 
In Roman law, the term is especially applied to the disowning 
of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the 
word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the 
supreme power in a state. Despotic sovereigns are at liberty 
to divest themselves of their powers at any time, but it is other- 
wise with a limited monarchy. The throne of Great Britain 
cannot be lawfully abdicated unless with the consent of the two 
Houses of Parliament. When James II., after throwing the great 
seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally 
resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament 
whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The 
latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly of the 
Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved, in 
spite of James's protest, " that King James II. having endea- 
voured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking 
the original contract between king and people, and, by the 
advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated 
the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of 
this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the 
throne is thereby vacant." The Scottish parliament pronounced 
a decree of forfeiture and deposition. Among the most memor- 
able abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla 
the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 
305. The following is a list of the more important abdications 
of later times: 

A.D. 

Benedict IX., pope 1048 

Stephen II. of Hungary 1131 

Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg 1169 

Ladislaus III. of Poland 1206 

Celestine V., pope . Dec. 13, 1294 

John Baliol of Scotland 1296 

John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East .... 1355 

Richard II. of England Sept. 29, 1399 

John XXIII., pope 1415 

Eric VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . 1439 

Murad II. .Ottoman Sultan 1444 and 1445 

Charles V., emperor 1556 

Christina of Sweden '654 

John Casimir of Poland 1668 



James II. of England 

Frederick Augustus of Poland .... 

Philip V. of Spain 

Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia .... 
Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey .... 
Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain) 

Stanislaus II. of Poland 

Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia .... 

Charles IV. of Spain 

Joseph Bonaparte of Naples 

Gustavus IV. of Sweden 

Louis Bonaparte of Holland 

Napoleon I., French Emperor 

Victor Emanuel of Sardinia 

Charles X. of France 

Pedro of Brazil J 

Miguel of Portgual 

William I. of Holland 

Louis Philippe, king of the French 

Louis Charles of Bavaria 

Ferdinand of Austria 

Charles Albert of Sardinia 



A.D. 

1688 
1704 
1724 
1730 
1730 
1759 
1795 

June 4, 1802 
Mar. 19, 1808 
June 6, 1808 
Mar. 29, 1809 
July 2, 1810 

April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815 
, Mar. 13, 1821 
Aug. 2, 1830 
April 7, 1831 
May 26, 1834 
Oct. 7, 1840 
Feb. 24, 1848 
Mar. 21, 1848 
Dec. 2, 1848 
Mar. 23, 1849 






I. 2 



Leopold II. of Tuscany July 21, 1859 

Isabella II. of Spain June 25, 1870 

Amadeus I. of Spain Feb. 11,1873 

Alexander of Bulgaria Sept. 7, 1886 

Milan of Servia Mar. 6, 1889 

ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from 
a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, the region of the 
body containing most of the digestive organs. (See for ana- 
tomical details the articles ALIMENTARY CANAL, and ANATOMY, 
Superficial and Artistic.) 

ABDOMINAL SURGERY. The diseases affecting this region 
are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, and 
under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term " ab- 
dominal surgery " covers generally the operations which involve 
opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this field of 
work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia the 
surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the most 
part, in connexion with the anatomical description of that 
organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.) ; but here the general 
principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed. 

Exploratory Laparotomy. In many cases of serious intra- 
abdominal disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly 
what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his 
finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With due 
care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the great ad- 
vantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully recognized. 
It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American physiologist 
and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of what wood a 
table is made without lifting up the cloth; so also it is often 
impossible to say what is wrong inside the abdomen without 
making an opening into it. When an opening is made in such 
circumstances provided only it is done soon enough the 
successful treatment of the case often becomes a simple matter. 
An exploratory operation, therefore, should be promptly resorted 
to as a means of diagnosis, and not left as a last resource till the 
outlook is well-nigh hopeless. 

It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced 
hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having 
advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen, 
his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other hand, 
he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he had not 
resorted to it, post-mortem examination having shown that if 
only he had insisted on an exploration being made, some band, 
some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess might have been 
satisfactorily dealt with, which, left unsuspected in the dark 
cavity, was accountable for the death. A physician by himself 
is helpless in these cases. 

Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in 
the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved rela- 
tionship which exists between the public and the surgical pro- 
fession. In former days it was not infrequently said, " If a 
surgeon is called in he is sure to operate." Not only have the 

1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but 
abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter. 

5 



34 



ABDOMEN 



public said this, but even physicians have been known to suggest 
it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, the " apothe- 
osis of surgery," in connexion with the operative treatment of 
a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately the public have 
found out that the surgeon, being an honest man, does not 
advise operation unless he believes that it is necessary or, at 
any rate, highly advisable. And this happy discovery has led 
to much more confidence being placed in his decision. It has 
truly been said that a surgeon is a physician who can operate, 
and the public have begun to realize the fact that it is useless 
to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion by diet or drugs. 
Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure or chronic affections 
of the abdomen which were admitted into hospital were sent 
as a matter of course into the medical wards, and after the 
effect of drugs had been tried with expectancy and failure, the 
services of a surgeon were called in. In acute cases this delay 
spoilt all surgical chances, and the idea was more widely spread 
that surgery, after all, was a poor handmaid to medicine. But 
now things are different. Acute or obscure abdominal cases are 
promptly relegated to the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once 
sent for, and if operation is thought desirable it is performed 
without any delay. The public have found that the surgeon is 
not a reckless operator, but a man who can take a broad view 
of a case in all its bearings. And so it has come about that the 
results of operations upon the interior of the abdomen have 
been improving day by day. And doubtless they will continue 
to improve. 

A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, morti- 
fied or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from 
Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor, 
Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated tube in 
two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided ends of the 
bowel, and in such a manner that when the pieces are subse- 
quently " married " the adjusted ends of the bowel are securely 
fixed together and the canal rendered practicable. In the course 
of time the button loosens itself into the interior of the bowel 
and comes away with the alvine evacuation. In many other 
cases the use of the button has proved convenient and successful, 
as in the establishment of a permanent communication between 
the stomach and the small intestine when the ordinary gateway 
between these parts of the alimentary canal is obstructed by 
an irremovable malignant growth; between two parts of the 
small intestine so that some obstruction may be passed; be- 
tween small and large intestine. The operative procedure goes 
by the name of short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the 
bowel to get beyond an obstruction. In this way also a perma- 
nent working communication can be set up between the gall- 
bladder, or a dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small 
intestine the last-named operation bears the precise but 
very clumsy name of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of 
Murphy's ingenious apparatus the communication of two parts 
can be secured in the shortest possible space of time, and this, 
in many of the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest 
importance. But there is this against the method that some- 
times ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button, 
whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its 
passage along the alimentary canal. Some surgeons therefore 
prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft material, 
while others rely upon direct suturing of the parts. The last- 
named method is gradually increasing in popularity, and of 
course, when time and circumstances permit, it is the ideal 
method of treatment. ^The cause of death in the case of intestinal 
obstruction is usually due to the blood being poisoned by the 
absorption of the products of decomposition of the fluid contents 
of the bowel above the obstruction. It is now the custom, 
therefore, for the surgeon to complete his operation for the relief 
of obstruction by drawing out a loop of the distended bowel, 
incising and evacuating it, and then carefully suturing and 
returning it. The surgeon who first recognized the lethal effect 
of the absorption of this stagnant fluid or, at any rate, who 
first suggested the proper method of treating it was Lawson 
Tait of Birmingham, who on the occurrence of grave symptoms 



after operating on the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of 
Epsom salts to wash away the harmful liquids of the bowel 
and to enable it at the same time to empty itself of the 
gas, which, by distending the intestines, was interfering with 
respiration and circulation. 

Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal 
surgery may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the 
sitting position as soon as practicable after the operation, and 
the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the lower 
bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting pints of 
this " normal saline " fluid into the loose tissue of the armpit. 
Hot water thus administered or injected is quickly taken into 
the blood, increasing its volume, diluting its impurities and 
quenching the great thirst which is so marked a symptom in 
this condition. 

Gunshot Wounds of the Abdomen. If a revolver bullet passes 
through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be 
traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small and, by 
chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings may 
tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place into 
the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse suggests 
that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, the cavity 
is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration made. When 
it is uncertain if the bowel has been traversed or not, it is well 
to wait before opening the abdomen, due preparation being 
made for performing that operation on the first appearance of 
symptoms indicative of perforation having occurred. Small 
perforating wounds of the bowel are treated by such suturing 
as the circumstances may suggest, the interior of the abdominal 
cavity being rendered as free from septic micro-organisms as 
possible. It is by the malign influence of such germs that a 
fatal issue is determined in the case of an abdominal wound, 
whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed weapon. If 
aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted to and thoroughly 
carried out, abdominal wounds do well, but these essentials 
cannot be obtained upon the field of battle. When after an 
action wounded men come pouring into the field-hospital, the 
many cannot be kept waiting whilst preparations are being 
made for the thorough carrying out of a prolonged aseptic 
abdominal operation upon a solitary case. Experience in the 
South African war of 1890-1902 showed that Mauser bullets 
could pierce coils of intestine and leave the soldiers in such a 
condition that, if treated by mere " expectancy," more than 
50 % recovered, whereas if operations were resorted to, fatal 
septic peritonitis was likely to ensue. In the close proximity of 
the fight, where time, assistants, pure water, towels, lotions 
and other necessaries for carrying out a thoroughly aseptic 
operation cannot be forthcoming, gunshot wounds of the ab- 
domen had best not be interfered with. 

Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the 
abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may 
have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded. 
In either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be 
set up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out 
if the belly^cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself might 
carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is better to en- 
large the wound in order to determine its depth, and to disinfect 
and close it if it be non-penetrating. If, however, the belly- 
cavity has been opened, the neighbouring pieces of bowel should 
be examined, cleansed and, if need be, sutured. Should there 
have been an escape of the contents of the bowel the " toilet of 
the peritoneum " would be duly made, and a drainage-tube 
would be left in. If the stab had injured a large blood-vessel 
either of the abdominal cavity, or of the liver or of some other 
organ, the bleeding would be arrested by ligature or suture, 
and the extravasated blood sponged out. Before the days of 
antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory abdominal operations, 
these cases were generally allowed to drift to almost certain 
death, unrecognized and almost untreated: at the present time 
a large number of them are saved. 

Intussusception. This is a terribly fatal disease of infants and 
children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, and is gripped by, 



ABDUCTION ABD-UL-HAMID II. 



35 



the piece next below it. Formerly it was generally the custom 
to endeavour to reduce the invagination by passing air or water 
up the rectum under pressure a speculative method of treat- 
ment which sometimes ended in a fatal rupture of the distended 
bowel, and often one might almost say generally failed to do 
what was expected of it. The teaching of modern surgery is 
that a small incision into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal 
of the invaginated piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, 
and more than, injection can effect, without blindly risking a 
rupture of the bowel. It is certain that when the surgeon is 
unable to unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to 
the parts themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel 
could have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing 
cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is ex- 
tremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which the 
intussusception and resulting strangulation entail. Still, every 
operation gives them by far the best chance. 

Cancer of the Intestine. With the introduction of aseptic 
methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can 
reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely. With 
the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the diseased 
bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest. If the can- 
cerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece of bowel is 
excised and the cut ends are spliced together, and the continuity 
of the alimentary canal is permanently re-established. Thus 
in the case of cancer of the large intestine which is not too far 
advanced, the surgeon expects to be able not only to relieve 
the obstruction of the bowel, but actually to cure the patient 
of his disease. When the lowest part of the bowel was found 
to be occupied by a cancerous obstruction, the surgeon used 
formerly to secure an easy escape for the contents of the bowel 
by making an opening into the colon in the left loin. But in 
recent years this operation of lumbar colotomy has been almost 
entirely replaced by opening the colon in the left groin. This 
operation of inguinal colotomy is usually divided into two stages: 
a loop of the large intestine is first drawn out through the ab- 
dominal wound and secured by stitches, and a few days after- 
wards, when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation, 
it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no longer 
find their way into the bowel below the artificial anus. If at 
the first stage of the operation symptoms of obstruction are 
urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes with a rubber conduit, 
which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, may be forthwith introduced 
into the distended bowel, so that the contents may be allowed 
to escape without fear of soiling the peritoneum or even the 
surface-wound. (E. O.*) 

ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a law 
term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a person, 
limited by custom to the case where a woman is the victim. 
In the case of men or children, it has been usual to substitute 
the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English laws against abduc- 
tion, generally contemplating its object as the possession of an 
heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by the Offences 
against the Person Act 1861, which makes it felony for any one 
from motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will, 
with intent to marry or carnally know her, &c., any woman 
of any age who has any interest in any real or personal estate, 
or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next 
of kin to any one having such an interest; or for any one to 
cause such a woman to be married or carnally known by any 
other person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take 
away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one, 
out of the possession and against the will of her parents or 
guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention against 
her will of any woman of any age with like intent is felony. 
lie same act makes abduction without even any such intent a 

nisdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the age of six- 
en is unlawfully taken out of the possession and against the 

vill of her parents or guardians. In such a case the girl's con- 

ent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the person charged 
asonably believed that the girl was sixteen or over. The 

Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more stringent 



provisions with reference to abduction by making the procura- 
tion or attempted procuration of any virtuous female under 
the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as well as the 
abduction of any girl under eighteen years of age with the intent 
that she shall be carnally known, or the detaining of any female 
against her will on any premises, with intent to have, or that 
another person may have, carnal knowledge of her. In Scotland, 
where there is no statutory adjustment, abduction is similarly 
dealt with by practice. 

ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan 
Mahmud II., was born on the gth of February 1830, and suc- 
ceeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861. His personal in- 
terference in government affairs was not very marked, and 
extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the 
constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire wealth, 
which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other 
futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of 
"bear" sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in 1875 
and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue 
was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive of Egypt, who paid 
heavily in bakshish for the firman of 1866, by which the succes- 
sion to the khedivate was made hereditary from father to son 
in direct line and in order of primogeniture, as well as for the 
subsequent firmans of 1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the 
khedive's prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that 
the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring 
about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman 
throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest 
son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867, 
being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, and was made a Knight 
of the Garter by Queen Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits 
of the emperor of Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other 
foreign princes, on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal, 
and King Edward VII., while prince of Wales, twice visited 
Constantinople during his reign. The mis-government and 
financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of 
Mussulman discontent and fanaticism which eventually culmi- 
nated in the murder of two consuls at Salonica and in the 
"Bulgarian atrocities," and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His 
deposition on the 3oth of May 1876 was hailed with joy through- 
out Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace 
where he was confined, and trustworthy medical evidence 
attributed his death to suicide. Six children survived him: 
Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din, born 1857; Princess Saliha, wife of 
Kurd Ismail Pasha; Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha; 
Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, born 1869; Prince Seif-ed-din, born 
1876; Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket, 
born 1872, died 1899. 

ABD-UL-HAMID I. 1(1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of 
Ahmed III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long 
confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left him 
pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his accession 
the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual 
donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, how- 
ever, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the 
complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led to the treaty of 
Kuchuk Kainarji (2ist July 1774), the most disastrous, especially 
in its after effects, that Turkey has ever been obliged to con- 
clude. (See TURKEY.) Slight successes in Syria and the Morea 
against rebellious outbreaks there could not compensate for the 
loss of the Crimea, which Russia soon showed that she meant 
to absorb entirely. In 1787 war was again declared against 
Russia, joined in the following year by Austria, Joseph II. being 
entirely won over to Catherine, whom he accompanied in her 
triumphal progress in the Crimea. Turkey held her own against 
the Austrians, but in 1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four 
months later, on the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged 
sixty-four. 

ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of 
Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 2ist of September 1842, 
and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother 
Murad V., on the 3ist of August 1876. He accompanied his 



ABD-UL-MEJID 



uncle Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his visit to England and France 
in 1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless 
manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way to 
be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of 
liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects 
were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him 
with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances 
of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal 
developments. Default in the public funds and an empty 
treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the 
war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout 
Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian 
rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he could 
expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging to the 
groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of late at 
least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great Britain at 
all events would support him, he obstinately refused to give ear 
to the pressing requests of the Powers that the necessary reforms 
should be instituted. The international Conference which met 
at Constantinople towards the end of 1876 was, indeed, startled 
by the salvo of guns heralding the promulgation of a constitu- 
tion, but the demands of the Conference were rejected, in spite 
of the solemn warnings addressed to the sultan by the Powers; 
Midhat Pasha, the author of the constitution, was exiled; and 
soon afterwards his work was suspended, though figuring to this 
day on the Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war 
with Russia followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty 
of San Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent, 
were to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main 
to British diplomacy (see EUROPE, History); but by this time 
the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and thought that 
he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was evidenced in 
his eyes by her capital being selected as the meeting-place of 
the Congress, the future friend of Turkey. He hastened to 
employ Germans for the reorganization of his finances and his 
army, and set to work in the determination to maintain his 
empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding him, to resist the 
encroachments of foreigners, and to take gradually the reins 
of absolute power into his own hands, being animated by a 
profound distrust, not unmerited, of his ministers. Financial 
embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control 
over the Debt, and the decree of December 1881, whereby 
many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the 
Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the bondholders, 
was a sacrifice of principle to which he could only have con- 
sented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in Egypt, where 
a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble on the Greek 
frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were determined 
that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into 
effect, were more or less satisfactorily got over. In his attitude 
towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid 
showed less than his usual Astuteness, and the resulting con- 
solidation of England's hold over the country contributed still 
further to his estrangement from Turkey's old ally. The union 
in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the severance of 
which had been the great triumph of the Berlin Congress, was 
another blow. Few people south of the Balkans dreamed that 
Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, and appre- 
hension was entertained of the results of the union until it was 
seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of it. Then 
the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan preserved 
towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated so as to avoid 
running counter either to Russian or to German wishes. Germany's 
friendship was not entirely disinterested, and had to be fostered 
with a railway or loan concession from time to time, until in 
1899 the great object aimed at, the Bagdad railway, was con- 
ceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile instruments, the sultan had 
succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, 
and in concentrating the whole administration of the country 
into his own hands at Yildiz. But internal dissension was not 
thereby lessened. Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks 
were dissatisfied, and from about 1890 the Armenians began a 



violent agitation with a view to obtaining the reforms promised 
them at Berlin. Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1893 
at Marsovan and Tokat. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in 
the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out; 
the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual grant 
of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a series of 
massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious and threaten- 
ing acts of the victims, and extending over many months and 
throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital itself. The 
reforms became more or less a dead letter. Crete indeed profited 
by the grant of extended privileges, but these did not satisfy its 
turbulent population, and early in 1897 a Greek expedition 
sailed to unite the island to Greece. War followed, in which 
Turkey was easily successful and gained a small rectification of 
frontier; then a few months later Crete was taken over "en 
depot " by the Four Powers Germany and Austria not partici- 
pating, and Prince George of Greece was appointed their 
mandatory. In the next year the sultan received the visit of 
the German emperor and empress. 

Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European 
Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to over- 
whelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam against 
aggressive Christendom. The Panislamic propaganda was en- 
couraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire 
often an obstacle to government were curtailed; the new railway 
to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries were sent to dis- 
tant countries preaching Islam and the caliph's supremacy. This 
appeal to Moslem sentiment was, however, powerless against the 
disaffection due to perennial misgovernment. In Mesopotamia 
and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance 
of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Mussulman 
population by a system of delation and espionage, and by whole- 
sale arrests ; while, obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan 
withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz. 

The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia 
(q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against the 
palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis. 
The remarkable revolution associated with the names of Niazi 
Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and the Com- 
mittee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere (see TURKEY : 
History); here it must suffice to say that Abd-ul-Hamid, on 
learning of the threat of the Salonica troops to march on Con- 
stantinople (July 23), at once capitulated. On the 24th an 
trade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution 
of 1875; next day, further irades abolished espionage and the 
censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners. On 
the loth of December the sultan opened the Turkish parlia- 
ment with a speech from the throne in which he said that the 
first parliament had been " temporarily dissolved until the 
education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high 
level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire." 

The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from 
the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary ele- 
ments in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude to- 
wards the counter-revolution of the i3th of April, when an 
insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of the 
capital overthrew the committee and the ministry. The com- 
mittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on Abd- 
ul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 37th of April his brother 
Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The 
ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica. 

ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-1861), sultan of Turkey, was born on 
the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II. 
on the 2nd of July 1839. Mahmud appears to have been unable 
to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his 
children, so that his son received no better education than that 
given, according to use and wont, to Turkish princes in the 
harem. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the 
affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical state. At the 
very time his father died, the news was on its way to Constanti- 
nople that the Turkish army had been signally defeated at 
Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ali; 



ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN 



37 



and the Turkish fleet was at the same time on its way to Alex- 
andria, where it was handed over by its commander, Ahmed 
Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext that the young sultan's 
advisers were sold to Russia. But through the intervention of 
the European Powers Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms, 
and the Ottoman empire was saved. (See MEHEMET ALI.) In 
compliance with his father's express instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid 
set at once about carrying out the reforms to which Mahmud 
had devoted himself. In November 1839 was proclaimed an 
edict, known as the Hatt-i-sherif of Gulhane, consolidating 
and enforcing these reforms, which was supplemented at the 
close of the Crimean war by a similar statute issued in February 
1856. By these enactments it was provided that all classes of 
the sultan's subjects should have security for their lives and 
property; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice 
impartially administered; and that all should have full religious 
liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme met with keen 
opposition from the Mussulman governing classes and the ulema, 
or privileged religious teachers, and was but partially put in 
force, especially in the remoter parts of the empire; and more 
than one conspiracy was formed against the sultan's life on 
account of it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by 
Abd-ul-Mejid the more important were the reorganization of the 
army (1843-1844), the institution of a council of public instruc- 
tion (1846), the abolition of an odious arid unfairly imposed 
capitation tax, the repression of slave trading, and various pro- 
visions for the better administration of the public service and 
for the advancement of commerce. For the public history of 
his times the disturbances and insurrections in different parts 
of his dominions throughout his reign, and the great war suc- 
cessfully carried on against Russia by Turkey, and by England, 
France and Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey (1853-1856) 
see TURKEY, and CRIMEAN WAR. When Kossuth and others 
sought refuge in Turkey , after the failure of the Hungarian 
rising in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia 
to surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It is 
to his credit, too, that he would hot allow the conspirators 
against his own life to be put to death. He bore the character 
of being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and 
easily led. Against this, however, must be set down his ex- 
cessive extravagance, especially towards the end of his life. 
He died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by his 
brother, Abd-ul-Aziz, as the oldest survivor of the family of 
Osman. He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and 
Abd-ul-Hamid II., eventually succeeded to the throne. In his 
reign was begun, the reckless system of foreign loans, carried to 
excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default, which 
led to the alienation of European sympathy from Turkey and, 
indirectly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz. 

ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, 'amir of Afghanistan (c. 1844- 
1901), was the son of Afzul Khan, who was the eldest son of 
Dost Mahomed Khan, the famous amir, by whose success in 
war the Barakzai family established their dynasty in the ruler- 
ship of Afghanistan. Before his death at Herat, 9th June 1863, 
Dost Mahomed had nominated as his successor Shere Ali, his 
third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and 

zim Khan; and at first the new amir was quietly recognized. 
But after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in 
the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and 
the Oxus, where he had been governing when his father died; 
and then began a fierce contest for power among the sons of 
Dost Mahomed, which lasted for nearly five years. In this 
war, which resembles in character, and in its striking vicissitudes, 
he English War of the Roses at the end of the isth century, 
Abdur Rahman soon became distinguished for ability and daring 
nergy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of 
hese qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shere Ali, the 
son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the amir's 
suspicion, and Abdur Rahman, when he was summoned to 
Cabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shere Ali threw 
Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in south 
Afghanistan; but the amir had scarcely suppressed it by 



winning a desperate battle, when Abdur Rahman's reappear- 
ance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed 
in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. 
After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim 
Khan, occupied Kabul (March 1866). The amir Shere Ali 
marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle 
that ensued at Sheikhabad on loth May he was deserted by a 
large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur 
Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni, 
and installed him upon the throne as amir of Afghanistan. 
Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and some jealousy 
between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they 
again routed Shere Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867; 
and when at the end of that year Afzul Khan died, Azim Khan 
succeeded to the rulership, with Abdur Rahman as his governor 
in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868 Shere 
Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulting in 
their defeat at Tinah Khan on the 3rd of January 1869, forced 
them both to seek refuge in Persia, whence Abdur Rahman pro- 
ceeded afterwards to place himself under Russian protection at 
Samarkand. Azim died in Persia in October 1869. 

This brief account of the conspicuous part taken by Abdur 
Rahman in an eventful war, at the beginning of which he was 
not more than twenty years old, has been given to show the 
rough school that brought out his qualities of resource and 
fortitude, and the political capacity needed for rulership in 
Afghanistan. He lived in exile for eleven years, until on the 
death, in 1879, of Shere Ali, who had retired from Kabul when 
the British armies entered Afghanistan, the Russian governor- 
general at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him 
to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880 
a report reached India that he was in northern Afghanistan; 
and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications 
with him to the effect that the British government were pre- 
pared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman 
as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some 
districts adjacent. After some negotiations, an interview took 
place between him and Mr (afterwards Sir) Lepel Griffin, the 
diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government, 
who described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with 
an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, 
shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand. At 
the durbar on the 22nd of July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially 
recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and 
promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further 
aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he followed 
British advice in regard to his external relations. The evacua- 
tion of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 
1881 the British troops also made over Kandahar to the new 
amir; but Ayub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, marched upon 
that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and 
occupied the place in July. This serious reverse roused the 
amir, who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a 
force from Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the 
complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly 
into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated 
on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years 
he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppress- 
ing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic 
authority. Against the severity of his measures the powerful 
Ghilzai tribe revolted, and were crushed by the end of 1887. 
In that year Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia; 
and in 1888 the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against 
him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing. 

In 1885, at the moment when (see AFGHANISTAN) the amir 
was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in 
India, the news came of a collision between Russian and Afghan 
troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation 
of the north-western frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's 
attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political 
sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth 
up, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment 



ABECEDARIANS ABEKEN 



and the forcible seizure of some debateable frontier lands was 
an untoward incident; but it was no sufficent reason for calling 
upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's 
integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would 
certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, 
and would compel his British allies to throw an army into 
Afghanistan from the south-east. His interest lay in keeping 
powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his king- 
dom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be sup- 
ported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a 
rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian govern- 
ment made ready for that contingency, the amir's reserved and 
circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn 
the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced 
towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who 
met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, 
with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications 
of the implacable severity that too often marked his administra- 
tion. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of 
the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much 
pleasure. 

From the end of 1888 the amir passed eighteen months in 
his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was 
engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by 
revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known 
or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly after- 
wards (1892) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance 
of the Hazara tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their 
immemorial independence, within their highlands, of the central 
authority at Kabul. 

In 1893 Sir Henry Durand was deputed to Kabul by the 
government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of 
territory required by the demarcation of 'the boundary between 
north-eastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in 
order to discuss with the amir other pending questions. The 
amir showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his 
tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a 
sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial 
exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between 
the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, 
were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the 
important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan 
on the east, towards India. In 1895 the amir found himself 
unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from 
Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah 
Khan went in his stead. 

Abdur Rahman died on the ist of October 1001, being succeeded 
by his son Habibullah. He had defeated all enterprises by 
rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of 
local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders 
were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His govern- 
ment was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed 
army; it was administered through officials absolutely sub- 
servient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread 
system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority 
was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held 
open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of 
justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable. 
He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the 
fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself 
of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while 
he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like rail- 
ways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within 
his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the 
position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the 
Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in 
dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure 
in contemporary Asiatic politics and will mark his reign as an 
epoch in the history of Afghanistan. 

The amir received an annual subsidy from the British govern- 
ment of i8j lakhs of rupees. He was allowed to import muni- 
tions of 'war. In 1896 he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-ud- 



Din (Light of the nation and religion); and his zeal for the 
cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on Jehad. His 
eldest son Habibullah Khan, with his brother Nasrullah Khan, 
was born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar 
Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by 
descent with the Barakzai family. 

See also S. Wheeler, F.R.G.S., The Amir Abdur Rahman (London, 
1895); The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan, G.C.B., 
G.C.S.I., edited by Mir Munshi, Sultan Mahommed Khan (avols., 
London, 1900) ; At the Court of the Amir, by J. A. Grey (1895). 

(A. C. L.) 

ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme 
Anabaptists (<?..), who regarded the teaching of the Holy Spirit 
as all that was necessary, and so despised all human learning 
and even the power of reading the written word. 

A BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811-1856), English writer, 
was born in north London on the 9th of January 1811. He 
belonged to a family claiming descent from the father of St 
Thomas Becket. His elder brother, Sir William a Beckett 
(1806-1869), became chief justice of Victoria (Australia). Gil- 
bert Abbott a Beckett was educated at Westminster school, 
and was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1841. He edited 
Figaro in London, and was one of the original staff of Punch 
and a contributor all his life. He was an active journalist on 
The Times and The Morning Herald, contributed a series of 
light articles to The Illustrated London News, conducted in 1846 
The Almanack of the Month and found time to produce some 
fifty or sixty plays, among them dramatized versions of Dickens's 
shorter stories in collaboration with Mark Lemon. As poor-law 
commissioner he presented a valuable report to the home 
secretary regarding scandals in connexion with the Andover 
Union, and in 1849 he became a metropolitan police magistrate. 
He died at Boulogne on the 3oth of August 1856 of typhus fever. 

His eldest son GILBERT ARTHUR A BECKETT (1837-1891) was 
born at Hammersmith on the 7th of April 1837. He went up 
to Christ Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1855, 
graduating in 1860. He was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but gave 
his attention chiefly to the drama, producing Diamonds and 
Hearts at the Hay market in 1867, which was followed by other 
light comedies. His pieces include numerous burlesques and 
pantomimes, the libretti of Savonarola (Hamburg, 1884) and of 
The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music of 
Dr (afterwards Sir) C. V. Stanford. The Happy Land (Court 
Theatre, 1873), a political burlesque of W. S. Gilbert's Wicked 
World, was written in collaboration with F. L. Tomline. For 
the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff of Punch. 
His health was seriously affected in 1889 by the death of his 
only son, and he died on the isth of October 1891. 

A younger son, ARTHUR WILLIAM A BECKETT (1844-1909), 
a well-known journalist and man of letters, was also on the 
staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, and gave an account of his 
father and his own reminiscences in The A Becketts of Punch 
(1903). He died in London on the i4th of January 1909. 

See also M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895). 

ABEDNEGO, the name given in Babylon to Azariah, one of 
the companions of Daniel (Dan. i. 7, &c.). It is probably a 
corruption, perhaps deliberate, of Abednebo, " servant of 
Nebo," though G. Hoffmann thinks that the original form was 
Abednergo, for Abednergal, " servant of the god Nergal." 
C. H. Toy compares Barnebo, "son of Nebo," of which he 
regards Barnabas as a slightly disguised form (Jewish Ency- 
clopaedia). 

ABEKEN, HEINRICH (1809-1872), German theologian and 
Prussian official,- was born at Berlin on the 8th of August 1809. 
He studied theology at Berlin and in 1834 became chaplain 
to the Prussian embassy in Rome. In 1841 he visited England, 
being commissioned by King Frederick William IV. to make 
arrangements for the establishment of the Protestant bishopric of 
Jerusalem. In 1848 he received an appointment in the Prussian 
ministry for foreign affairs, and in 1853 was promoted to be privy 
councillor of legation (Geheimer Legationsrath). He was much 
employed by Bismarck in the writing of official despatches, 
and stood high in the favour of King William, whom he often 



ABEL 



39 



accompanied on his journeys as representative of the foreign 
office. He was present with the king during the campaigns of 
1866 and 1870-71. In 1851 he published anonymously Babylon 
und Jerusalem, a slashing criticism of the views of the Countess 
von Hahn-Hahn (q.v.). 

See Heinrich Abeken, ein schlichtes Leben in bewegter Zeit (Berlin, 
1898), by his widow. This is valuable by reason of the letters written 
from the Prussian headquarters. 

ABEL (Hebrew for breath], the second son of Adam, slain by 
Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16). The narrative in Genesis 
which tells us that " the Lord had respect unto Abel and to his 
offering, but unto Cain and to his offering he had not respect," 
is supplemented by the statement of the New Testament, that 
" by faith Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice 
than Cain" (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain slew Abel "because his 
own works were evil and his brother's righteous" (i John iii. 
12). See further under CAIN. The name has been identified 
with the Assyrian ablu, "son," but this is far from certain. 
It more probably means " herdsman " (cf. the name Jabal), 
and a distinction is drawn between the pastoral Abel and the 
agriculturist Cain. If Cain is the eponym of the Kenites it is 
quite possible that Abel was originally a South Judaean demigod 
or hero; on this, see Winckler, Gesch. Israels, ii. p. 189; 
E. Meyer, Israeliten, p. 395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to 
have lived in North Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De 
Haeresibus, Ixxxvi.). 

ABEL, SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BART. (1827-1902), 
English chemist, was born in London on the I7th of July 1827. 
After studying chemistry for six years under A. W. von Hofmann 
at the Royal College of Chemistry (established in London 
in 1845), he became professor of chemistry at the Royal 
Military Academy in 1851, and three years later was appointed 
chemist to the War Department and chemical referee to the 
government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted 
until 1888, he carried out a large amount of work in connexion 
with the chemistry of explosives. One of the most important 
of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of gun- 
cotton, and he developed a process, consisting essentially of 
reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to 
be prepared with practically no danger and at the same time 
yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness. 
This work to an important extent prepared the way for the 
" smokeless powders " which came into general use towards 
the end of the igth century; cordite, the particular form 
adopted by the British government in 1891, was invented 
jointly by him and Professor James Dewar. Our knowledge 
of the explosion of ordinary black powder was also greatly 
added to by him, and in conjunction with Sir Andrew Noble 
he carried out one of the most complete inquiries on record 
into its behaviour when fired. The invention of the apparatus, 
legalized in 1879, for the determination of the flash-point of 
petroleum, was another piece of work which fell to him by virtue 
of his official position. His first instrument, the open-test 
apparatus, was prescribed by the act of 1868, but, being found 
to possess certain defects, it was superseded in 1879 by the 
Abel close- test instrument (see PETROLEUM). In electricity Abel 
studied the construction of electrical fuses and other applica- 
tions of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems 
of steel manufacture won him in 1897 the Bessemer medal of 
the Iron and Steel Institute, of which from 1891 to 1893 he was 
president. He was president of the Institution of Electrical 
Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 1877. 
He became a member of the Royal Society in 1860, and received 
a royal medal in 1887. He took an important part in the work 
of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887 
became organizing secretary and first director of the Imperial 
Institute, a position he held till his death, which occurred in 
London on the 6th of September 1902. He was knighted in 
1891, and created a baronet in 1893. 

Among his books were Handbook of Chemistry (with C. L. 
Bloxam) , Modern History of Gunpowder ( 1 866) , Gun-cotton (1866), 
On Explosive Agents (1872), Researches in Explosives (1875), and 



Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes (1884). He also wrote 
several important articles in the ninth edition of the Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica. 

ABEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1725-1787), German musician, 
was born in Kothen in 1725, and died on the 2Oth of June 
1787 in London. He was a great player on the viola da gamba, 
and composed much music of importance in its day for that 
instrument. He studied under Johann Sebastian Bach at the 
Leipzig Thomasschule; played for ten years (1748-1758) under 
A. Hasse in the band formed at Dresden by the elector of Saxony; 
and then, going to England, became (in 1759) chamber-musician 
to Queen Charlotte. He gave a concert of his own compositions 
in London, performing on various instruments, one of which, 
the pentachord, was newly invented. In 1762 Johann Christian 
Bach, the eleventh son of Sebastian, came to London, and the 
friendship between him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the 
establishment of the famous concerts subsequently known as 
the Bach and Abel concerts. For ten years these were organ- 
ized by Mrs Cornelys, whose enterprises were then the height 
of fashion. In 1775 the concerts became independent of her, 
and were continued by Abel unsuccessfully for a year aft^r 
Bach's death in 1782. At them the works of Haydn were first 
produced in England. After the failure of his concert under- 
takings Abel still remained in great request as a player on various 
instruments new and old, but he took to drink and thereby 
hastened his death. He was a man of striking presence, of 
whom several fine portraits, including two by Gainsborough, 
exist. 

ABEL, NIELS HENRIK (1802-1829), Norwegian mathe- 
matician, was born at Findoe on the 25th of August 1802. In 
1815 he entered the cathedral school at Christiania, and three 
years later he gave proof of his mathematical genius by his 
brilliant solutions of the original problems proposed by B. 
Holmboe. About this time, his father, a poor Protestant 
minister, died, and the family was left in straitened circum- 
stances; but a small pension from the state allowed Abel to 
enter Christiania University in 1821. His first notable work 
was a proof of the impossibility of solving the quintic equation 
by radicals. This investigation was first published in 1824 
and in abstruse and difficult form, and afterwards (1826) more 
elaborately in the first volume of Crelle's Journal. Further 
state aid enabled him to visit Germany and France in 1825, 
and having visited the astronomer Heinrich Schumacher (1780- 
1850) at Hamburg, he spent six months in Berlin, where he 
became intimate with August Leopold Crelle, who was then 
about to publish his mathematical journal. . This project was 
warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the 
success of the venture. From Berlin he passed to Freiberg, 
and here he made his brilliant researches in the theory of func- 
tions, elliptic, hyperelliptic and a new class known as Abelians 
being particularly studied. In 1826 he moved to Paris, and 
during a ten months' stay he met the leading mathematicians 
of France ; but he was little appreciated, for his work was 
scarcely known, and his modesty restrained him from pro- 
claiming his researches. Pecuniary embarrassments, from 
which he had never been free, finally compelled him to abandon 
his tour, and on his return to Norway he taught for some time 
at Christiania. In 1829 Crelle obtained a post for him at Berlin, 
but the offer did not reach Norway until after his death near 
Arendal on the 6th of April. 

The early death of this talented mathematician, of whom 
Legendre said " quelle tete celle du jeune NoraegienI", cut short 
a career of extraordinary brilliance and promise. Under Abel's 
guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be 
cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions 
so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous 
ramifications along which progress could be made. His works, 
the greater part of which originally appeared in Crelle's Journal, 
were edited by Holmboe and published in 1839 by the Swedish 
government, and a more complete edition by L. Sylow and 
S. Lie was published in 1881. 

For further details of his mathematical investigations see 



ABEL ABELARD 



the articles GROUPS, THEORY OF, and FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX 
VARIABLES. 

See C. A. Bjerknes, Niels Henrik Abel: Tableau de sa vie et son 
action scientifique (Paris, 1885); Lucas de Peslouan, Niels Henrik 
Abel (Paris, 1906). 

ABEL (better ABELL), THOMAS (d. 1540), an English priest 
who was martyred during the reign of Henry VIII. The 
place and date of his birth are unknown. He was educated at 
Oxford and entered the service of Queen Catherine some time 
before 1528, when he was sent by her to the emperor Charles V. 
on a mission relating to the proposed divorce. On his return 
he was presented by Catherine to the living of Bradwell, in 
Essex, and remained to the last a staunch supporter of the 
unfortunate queen. In 1533, he published his Invicta Veritas 
(with the fictitious pressmark of Luneberge, to avoid suspicion), 
which contained an answer to the numerous tracts supporting 
Henry's ecclesiastical claims. After an imprisonment of more 
than six years, Abel was sentenced to death for denying the 
royal supremacy in the church, and was executed at Smithfield 
on the 3oth of July 1 540. There is still to be seen on the wall 
of his prison in the Tower the symbol of a bell with an A upon 
it and the name Thomas above, which he carved during his 
confinement. He was beatified by Pope Leo XIII. 

See J. Gillow's Bibl. Dictionary of Eng. Catholics, vol. i.; Calendar 
of State Papers of Henry VIII., vols. iv.-vii. passim. 

ABELARD, PETER (1070-1142), scholastic philosopher, was 
born at Pallet (Palais), not far from Nantes, in 1079. He was 
the eldest son of a noble Breton house. The name Abaelardus 
(also written Abailardus, Abaielardus, and in many other ways) 
is said to be a corruption of Habelardus, substituted by himself 
for a nickname Bajolardus given to him when a student. As 
a boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of apprehension, 
and, choosing a learned life instead of the knightly career natural 
to a youth of his birth, early became an adept in the art of 
dialectic, under which name philosophy, meaning at that time 
chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted through Latin channels, 
was the great subject of liberal study in the episcopal schools. 
Roscellinus, the famous canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by 
himself as his teacher; but whether he heard this champion of 
extreme Nominalism in early youth, when he wandered about 
from school to school for instruction and exercise, or some years 
later, after he had already begun to teach for himself, remains 
uncertain. His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still 
under the age of twenty. There, in the great cathedral school 
of Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William 
of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of 
Realists, but, presently stepping forward, he overcame the 
master in discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued in 
the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till then 
dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth of opposi- 
tion from the metropolitan teacher, while yet only twenty-two, 
he proceeded to set up a school of his own at Melun, whence, for 
more direct competition, he removed to Corbeil, nearer Paris. 
The success of his teaching was signal, though for a time he had 
to quit the field, the strain proving too great for his physical 
strength. On his return, after 1 108, he found William lecturing 
no longer at Notre-Dame, but in a monastic retreat outside the 
city, and there battle was again joined between them. Forcing 
upon the Realist a material change of doctrine, he was once 
more victorious, and thenceforth he stood supreme. His dis- 
comfited rival still had power to keep him from lecturing in 
Paris, but soon failed in this last effort also. From Melun, 
where he had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital, 
and set up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking 
over Notre-Dame. From his success in dialectic, he next turned 
to theology and attended the lectures of Anselm at Laon. His 
triumph over the theologian was complete; the pupil was able 
to give lectures, without previous training or special study, 
which were acknowledged superior to those of the master. 
Abelard was now at the height of his fame. He stepped into the 
chair at Notre-Dame, being also nominated canon, about the 
year 1115. 



Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard now did for a 
time. Distinguished in figure and manners, he was seen sur- 
rounded by crowds it is said thousands of students, drawn 
from all countries by the fame of his teaching, in which acuteness 
of thought was relieved by simplicity and grace of exposition. 
Enriched by the offerings of his pupils, and feasted with universal 
admiration, he came, as he says, to think himself the only 
philosopher standing in the world. But a change in his fortunes 
was at hand. In his devotion to science, he had hitherto lived 
a very regular life, varied only by the excitement of conflict: 
now, at the height of his fame, other passions began to stir 
within him. There lived at that time, within the precincts of 
Notre-Dame, under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert, 
a young girl named Heloise, of noble extraction, and born about 
noi. Fair, but still more remarkable for her knowledge, which 
extended beyond Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, she 
awoke a feeling of love in the breast of Abelard; and with 
intent to win her, he sought and gained a footing in Fulbert's 
house as a regular inmate. Becoming also tutor to the maiden, 
he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained over her 
for the purpose of seduction, though not without cherishing a 
real affection which she returned in unparalleled devotion. 
Their relation interfering with his public work, and being, 
moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon became known 
to all the world except the too-confiding Fulbert; and, when 
at last it could not escape even his vision, they were separated 
only to meet in secret. Thereupon Heloise found herself preg- 
nant, and was carried off by her lover to Brittany, where she 
gave birth to a son. To appease her furious uncle, Abelard 
now proposed a- marriage, under the condition that it should be 
kept secret, in order not to mar his prospects of advancement 
in the church; but of marriage, whether public or secret, Heloise 
would hear nothing. She appealed to him not to sacrifice for 
her the independence of his life, nor did she finally yield to the 
arrangement without the darkest forebodings, only too soon 
to be realized. The secret of the marriage was not kept by 
Fulbert; and when Heloise, true to her singular purpose, boldly 
denied it, life was made so unsupportable to her that she sought 
refuge in the convent of Argenteuil. Immediately Fulbert, 
believing that her husband, who aided in the flight, designed to 
be rid of her, conceived a dire revenge. He and some others 
broke into Abelard's chamber by night, and perpetrated on him 
the most brutal mutilation. Thus cast down from his pinnacle 
of greatness into an abyss of shame and misery, there was left 
to the brilliant master only the life of a monk. The priesthood 
and ecclesiastical office were canonically closed to him. Heloise, 
not yet twenty, consummated her work of self-sacrifice at the 
call of his jealous love, and took the veil. 

It was in the abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now aged forty, 
sought to bury himself with his woes out of sight. Finding, 
however, in the cloister neither calm nor solitude, and having 
gradually turned again to study, he yielded after a year to urgent 
entreaties from without and within, and went forth to reopen 
his school at the priory of Maisoncelle (1120). His lectures, 
now framed in a devotional spirit, were heard again by crowds 
of students, and all his old influence seemed to have returned; 
but old enmities were revived also, against which he was no longer 
able as before to make head. No sooner had he put in writing 
his theological lectures (apparently the Introductio ad Theolo- 
giam that has come down to us), than his adversaries fell foul 
of his rationalistic interpretation of the Trinitarian dogma. 
Charging him with the heresy of Sabellius in a provincial synod 
held at Soissons in 1121, they procured by irregular practices 
a condemnation of his teaching, whereby he was made to throw 
his book into the flames and then was shut up in the convent of 
St Mddard at Soissons. After the other, it was the bitterest 
possible experience that could befall him, nor, in the state of 
mental desolation into which it plunged him, could he find any 
comfort from being soon again set free. The life in his own 
monastery proved no more congenial than formerly. For this 
Abelard himself was partly responsible. He took a sort of 
malicious pleasure in irritating the monks. Quasi jocando, he 



ABELIN 



4 1 



cited Bede to prove that Dionysius the Areopagite had been 
bishop of Corinth, while they relied upon the statement of the 
abbot Hilduin that he had been bishop of Athens. When this 
historical heresy led to the inevitable persecution, Abelard 
wrote a letter to the abbot Adam in which he preferred to the 
authority of Bede that of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica and 
St Jerome, according to whom Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, 
was distinct from Dionysius the Areopagite, bishop of Athens 
and founder of the abbey, though, in deference to Bede, he 
suggested that the Areopagite might also have been bishop of 
Corinth. Life in the monastery was intolerable for such a 
troublesome spirit, and Abelard, who had once attempted to 
escape the persecution he had called forth by flight to a monastery 
at Provins, was finally allowed to withdraw. In a desert place 
near Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and 
reeds, and turned hermit. But there fortune came back to him 
with a new surprise. His retreat becoming known, students 
flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him 
with their tents and huts. When he began to teach again he 
found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the new 
oratory they built for him by the name of the Paraclete. 

Upon the return of new dangers, or at least of fears, Abelard 
left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, accepting an 
invitation to preside over the abbey of St Gildas-de-Rhuys, 
on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany. It proved a wretched 
exchange. The region was inhospitable, the domain a prey 
to lawless exaction, the house itself savage and disorderly. 
Yet for nearly ten years he continued to struggle with fate 
before he fled from his charge, yielding in the end only under 
peril of violent death. The misery of those years was not, 
however, unrelieved; for he had been able, on the breaking up 
of Heloise's convent at Argenteuil, to establish her as head of 
a new religious house at the deserted Paraclete, and in the 
capacity of spiritual director he often was called to revisit the 
spot thus made doubly dear to him. All this time Heloise had 
lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and character, 
uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon her 
youth; but now, at last, the occasion came for expressing all 
the pent-up emotions of her soul. Living on for some time 
apart (we do not know exactly where), after his flight from St 
Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous Historia 
Calamitatum, and thus moved her to pen her first Letter, which 
remains an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and womanly 
devotion; the first being followed by the two other Letters, in 
which she finally accepted the part of resignation which, now 
as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to her. He not 
long after was seen once more upon the field of his early triumphs 
lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in 1136 (when he was heard 
by John of Salisbury), but it was only for a brief space: no new 
triumph, but a last great trial, awaited him in the few years to 
come of his chequered life. As far back as the Paraclete days, 
he had counted as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux, 
in whom was incarnated the principle of fervent and unhesitating 
faith, from which rational inquiry like his was sheer revolt, 
and now this uncompromising spirit was moving, at the instance 
of others, to crush the growing evil in the person of the boldest 
offender. After preliminary negotiations, in which Bernard 
was roused by Abelard's steadfastness to put forth all his 
strength, a council met at Sens (1141), before which Abelard, 
formally arraigned upon a number of heretical charges, was 
prepared to plead his cause. When, however, Bernard, not 
without foregone terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubt- 
able dialectician, had opened the case, suddenly Abelard ap- 
pealed to Rome. The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard, 
who had power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation passed 
at the council, did not rest a moment till a second condemnation 
was procured at Rome in the following year. Meanwhile, on 
his way thither to urge his plea in person, Abelard had broken 
down at the abbey of Cluny, and there, an utterly fallen man, 
with spirit of the humblest, and only not bereft of his intellectual 
force, he lingered but a few months before the approach of 
death. Removed by friendly hands, for the relief of his sufferings, 



to the priory of St Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, he died on 
the 2ist of April 1142. First buried at St Marcel, his remains 
soon after were carried off in secrecy to the Paraclete, and given 
over to the loving care of Heloise, who in time came herself to 
rest beside them (1164). The bones of the pair were shifted 
more than once afterwards, but they were marvellously pre- 
served even through the vicissitudes of the French Revolution, 
and now they lie united in the well-known tomb in the cemetery 
of Pere-la-Chaise at Paris. 

Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the minds 
of his contemporaries and the course of medieval thought, he 
has been little known in modern times but for his connexion 
with Heloise. Indeed, it was not till the igth century, when 
Cousin in 1836 issued the collection entitled Outrages inedits 
d' Abelard, that his philosophical performance could be judged 
at first hand; of his strictly philosophical works only one, the 
ethical treatise Scilo te ipsum, having been published earlier, 
namely, in 1721. Cousin's collection, besides giving extracts 
from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage of opposite 
opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the Fathers as a basis 
for discussion, the main interest in which lies in the fact that 
there is no attempt to reconcile the different opinions), includes 
the Dialectica, commentaries on logical works of Aristotle, 
Porphyry and Boethius, and a fragment, De Generibus et 
Speciebus. The last-named work, and also the psychological 
treatise De Intellectibus, published apart by Cousin (in Fragment 
Philosophiques, vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal 
evidence not to be by Abelard himself, but only to have sprung 
out of his school. A genuine work, the Glossulae super Porphy- 
rium, from which Charles de Remusat, in his classical monograph 
Abelard (1845), has given extracts, remains in manuscript. 

The general importance of Abelard lies in his having fixed 
more decisively than any one before him the scholastic manner 
of philosophizing, with its object of giving a formally rational 
expression to the received ecclesiastical doctrine. However 
his own particular interpretations may have been condemned, 
they were conceived in essentially the same spirit as the general 
scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in the i3th century 
with approval from the heads of the church. Through him 
was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy of the philo- 
sophical authority of Aristotle, which became firmly established 
in the half-century after his death, when first the completed 
Organon, and gradually all the other works of the Greek thinker, 
came to be known in the schools: before his time it was rather 
upon the authority of Plato that the prevailing Realism sought 
to lean. As regards his so-called Conceptualism and his attitude 
to the question of Universals, see SCHOLASTICISM. Outside of his 
dialectic, it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity 
of philosophical thought; laying very particular stress upon 
the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral char- 
acter, at least the moral value, of human action. His thought 
in this direction, wherein he anticipated something of modern 
speculation, is the more remarkable because his scholastic 
successors accomplished least in the field of morals, hardly 
venturing to bring the principles and rules of conduct under 
pure philosophical discussion, even after the great ethical 
inquiries of Aristotle became fully known to them. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Abelard's own works remain the best sources for 
his life, especially his Historia Calamitatum, an autobiography, and 
the correspondence with Heloise. The literature on Abelard is 
extensive, but consists principally of monographs on different 
aspects of his philosophy. Charles de Remusat's Abelard (2 vols., 
1845) remains an authority-; it must be distinguished from his drama 
Abelard (1877), which is an attempt to give a picture of medieval 
life. McCabe's life of Abelard is written closely from the sources. 
See also the valuable analysis by Nitsch in the article "Abalard" 
in Hauck's Realencyklopadie f. prot. Theol. u. Kirche, 3rd ed., 1896. 
There is a comprehensive bibliography in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des 
sources hist, du moyen dge, s. "Abailard." (G. C. R. ; J. T. S.*) 

ABELIN, JOHANN PHILIPP, an early 16th-century German 
chronicler, was born, probably, at Strasburg, and died there 
between the years 1634 and 1637. He wrote numerous histories 
over the pseudonyms of Philipp Arlanibaus, Abeleus and Johann 
Ludwig Gottfried or Gotofredus, his earliest works of importance 



ABENCERRAGES ABEOKUTA 



being his history of the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus, 
entitled Arma Suecica (pub. 1631-1634, in 12 parts), and the 
Inventarium Sueciae (1632) both compilations from existing 
records. His best known work is the Theatrum Europaeum, 
a series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the 
world down to 1619. He was himself responsible for the first 
two volumes. It was continued by various writers and grew to 
twenty-one volumes (Frankf. 1633-1738). The chief interest 
of the work is, however, its illustration by the beautiful copper- 
plate engravings of Matthaus Merian (1593-1650). Abelin also 
wrote a history of the antipodes, Historia Antipodum (post- 
humously pub. Frankf. 1655), and a history of India. 

See G. Droysen, Arlanibaeus, Godofredus, Abelinus (Berlin, 1864) ; 
and notice in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic. 

ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said to have 
held a prominent position in the Moorish kingdom of Granada 
in the i5th century. The name appears to have been derived 
from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time 
of Mahommed VII., who did that sovereign good service in his 
struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times de- 
prived. Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but 
the name is familiar from the interesting romance of Gines 
Perez de Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the 
feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, 
and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. 
J. P. de Florian's Gonsahe de Cordoue and Chateaubriand's Le 
dernier des Abencerrages are imitations of Perez de Hita's work. 
The hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra takes its name 
from being the reputed scene of the massacre of the family. 

ABENDANA, the name of two Jewish theologians, (i) 
JACOB (1630-1695), rabbi (Hakham) of the Spanish Jews in 
London from 1680. Like his brother Isaac, Jacob Abendana 
had a circle of Christian friends, and his reputation led to the 
appreciation of Jewish scholarship by modern Christian theo- 
logians. (2) ISAAC (c. 1650-1710), his brother, taught Hebrew 
at Cambridge and afterwards at Oxford. He compiled a Jewish 
Calendar and wrote Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil 
Polity of the Jews (1706). 

ABENEZRA (!BN EZRA), or, to give him his full name, 
ABRAHAM BEN MEIR IBN EZRA (1092 or 1093-1167), one of the 
most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the 
Middle Ages. He was born at Toledo, left his native land of Spain 
before 1140 and led until his death a life of restless wandering, 
which took him to North Africa, Egypt, Italy (Rome, Lucca, 
Mantua.Verona) , Southern France(Narbonne, Beziers) , Northern 
France (Dreux), England (London), and back again to the South 
of France. At several of the above-named places he remained 
for some time and developed a rich literary activity. In his 
native land he had already gained the reputation of a distin- 
guished poet and thinker; but, apart from his poems, his works, 
which were all in the Hebrew language, were written in the 
second period of his life. With these works, which cover in the 
first instance the field of Hebrew philology and Biblical exegesis, 
he fulfilled the great mission of making accessible to the Jews 
of Christian Europe the treasures of knowledge enshrined in 
the works written in Arabic which he had brought with him 
from Spain. His grammatical writings, among which Moznayim 
("the Scales," written in 1140) and Zahot ("Correctness," 
written in 1141) are the most valuable, were the first expositions 
of Hebrew grammar in the Hebrew language, in which the 
system of Hayyuj and his school prevailed. He also translated 
into Hebrew the two writings of Hayyuj in which the founda- 
tions of the system were laid down Of greater original value 
than the grammatical works of Ibn Ezra are his commentaries 
on most of the books of the Bible, of which, however, a part 
has been lost. His reputation as an intelligent and acute ex- 
pounder of the Bible was founded on his commentary on the 
Pentateuch, of which the great popularity is evidenced by 
the numerous commentaries which were written upon it. In 
the editions of this commentary (ed. princ. Naples 1488) the 
commentary on the book of Exodus is replaced by a second, 
more complete commentary of Ibn Ezra, while the first and 



shorter commentary on Exodus was not printed until 1840. 
The great editions of the Hebrew Bible with rabbinical com- 
mentaries contained also commentaries of Ibn Ezra's on the 
following books of the Bible: Isaiah, Minor Prophets, Psalms, 
Job, Pentateuch, Daniel; the commentaries on Proverbs, Ezra 
and Nehemiah which bear his name are really those of Moses 
Kimhi. Ibn Ezra wrote a second commentary on Genesis as 
he had done on Exodus, but this was never finished. There are 
second commentaries also by him on the Song of Songs, Esther 
and Daniel. The importance of the exegesis of Ibn Ezra con- 
sists in the fact that it aims at arriving at the simple sense of 
the text, the so-called " Pesohat," on solid grammatical prin- 
ciples. It is in this that, although he takes a great part of his 
exegetical material from his predecessors, the originality of his 
mind is everywhere apparent, an originality which displays 
itself also in the witty and lively language of his commentaries. 
To judge by certain signs, of which Spinoza in his Tractatus 
Theologico Politicus makes use, Ibn Ezra belongs to the earliest 
pioneers of the criticism of the Pentateuch. His commentaries, 
and especially some of the longer excursuses, contain numerous 
contributions to the philosophy of religion. One writing in 
particular, which belongs to this province (Yosod Mera), on the 
division and the reasons for the Biblical commandments, he 
wrote in 1158 for a London friend, Joseph b. Jacob. In his 
philosophical thought neo-pla tonic ideas prevail; and astrology 
also had a place in his view of the world. He also wrote various 
works on mathematical and astronomical subjects. Ibn Ezra 
died on the 28th of January 1167, the place of his death being 
unknown. 

Among the literature on Ibn Ezra may be especially mentioned : 
M. Friedlander, Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra (London, 1877) ; 
W. Bacher, Abraham Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker (Strasburg, 1882); 
M. Steinschneider, Abraham Ibn Ezra, in the Zeitschrift fur Mathe- 
matik und Physik, Band xxv., Supplement; D. Rosin, Die Religions- 
philosophic Abraham Ibn Ezra'sin vols. xlii. and xliii. of the Monat- 
schrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums; his Diwan 
was edited by T. Egers (Berlin, 1886) ; a collection of his poems, 
Reime und Gedichte, with translation and commentary, were pub- 
lished by D. Rosin in several annual reports of the Jewish theological 
Seminary at Breslau (1885-1894). (W. BA.) 

ABENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, 
on the Abens, a tributary of the Danube, 18 m. S.W. of Regens- 
burg, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. 2202. It has a 
small spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of 
rheumatism and gout. The town is the Castra Abusina of the 
Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood. 
Here, on the 2oth of April 1809, Napoleon gained a signal 
victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and 
General Hiller. 

ABEOKUTA, a town of British West Africa in the Egba 
division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate. It is 
situated in 7 8' N., 3 25' E., on the Ogun river, 64 m. 'N. 
of Lagos by railway, or 81 m. by water. Population, approxi- 
mately 60,000. Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile country, 
the surface of which is broken by masses of grey granite. It 
is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded by mud 
walls 18 miles in extent. Abeokuta, under the reforming zeal 
of its native rulers, was largely transformed during the early 
years of the 2oth century. Law courts, government offices, 
prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads made, 
and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed. The streets 
are generally narrow and the houses built of mud. There are 
numerous markets in which a considerable trade is done in 
native products and articles of European manufacture. Palm- 
oil, timber, rubber, yams and shea-butter are the chief articles 
of trade. An official newspaper is published in the Yoruba and 
English languages. Abeokuta is the headquarters of the Yoruba 
branch of the Church Missionary Society, and British and 
American missionaries have met with some success in their 
civilizing work. In their schools about 2000 children are edu- 
cated. The completion in 1899 of a railway from Lagos helped 
not only to develop trade but to strengthen generally the in- 
fluence of the white man. 

Abeokuta (a word meaning "under the rocks"), dating 






ABERAVON ABERCROMBY 



43 






from 1825, owes its origin to the incessant inroads of the slave- 
hunters from Dahomey and Ibadan, which compelled the 
village populations scattered over the open country to take 
refuge in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy. 
Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many 
distinct tribal groups, each preserving the traditional customs, 
religious rites and even the very names of their original villages. 
Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held its ground suc- 
cessfully against the powerful armies often sent against the 
place both by the king of Dahomey from the west, and by the 
people of Ibadan from the north-east. 

The district of Egba, of which Abedkuta is the capital, has an 
estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some 350,000. 
It is officially known as the Abeokuta province of the Southern 
Nigeria protectorate. It contains luxuriant forests of palm- 
trees, which constitute the chief wealth of the people. Cotton 
is indigenous and is grown for export. The Egbas are enthusi- 
astic farmers and have largely adopted European methods of 
cultivation. They are very tenacious of their independence, 
but accepted without opposition the establishment of a British 
protectorate, which, while putting a stop to inter-tribal warfare, 
slave-raiding and human sacrifices, and exercising control over 
the working of the laws, left to the people executive and fiscal 
autonomy. The administration is in the hands of a council of 
chiefs which exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent, 
judicial functions. The president of this council, or ruling chief 
chosen from among the members of the two recognized reign- 
ing families is called the alake, a word meaning "Lord of 
Ake," Ake being the name of the principal quarter of Abeokuta, 
after the ancient capital of the Egbas. The alake exercises 
little authority apart from his council, the form of government 
being largely democratic. Revenue is chiefly derived from 
tolls or import duties. A visit of the alake to England in 1904 
evoked considerable public interest. The chief was a man of 
great intelligence, eager to study western civilization, and an 

ardent agriculturist. 

See the publications of the Church Missionary Society dealing 
with the Yoruba Mission; Col. A. B. Ellis's The Yoruba-speaking 
Peoples (London, 1894); and an article on Abeokuta by Sir Wm. 
Macgregor, sometime governor of Lagos, in the African Society's 
Journal, No. xii. (London, July 1904). 

ABERAVON, a contributory parliamentary and municipal 
borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the 
Avon, near its mouth in Swansea Bay, n m. E.S.E. of Swansea 
and 170 m. from London by rail. Pop. (1901) 7553. It has a 
station on the Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway and is also on 
the main South Wales line of the Great Western, whose station, 
however, is at Port Talbot, half a mile distant, on the eastern 
side of the Avon. The valley of the Avon, which is only some 
three miles long, has been from about 1840 a place of much 
metallurgical activity. There are tinplate and engineering works 
within the borough. At Cwmavon, if m. to the north-east, 
are large copper-smelting works established in 1838, acquired 
two years later by the governor and Company of the Copper 
Miners of England, but now worked by the Rio Tinto Copper 
Company. There are also iron, steel and tinplate works both 
at Cwmavon and at Port Talbot, which, when it consisted only 
of docks, was appropriately known as Aberavon Port. 

The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted 
from Avan), which also gave its name to a medieval lordship. 
On the Norman conquest at Glamorgan, Caradoc, the eldest son 
of the defeated prince, Lestyn ab Gwrgan, continued to hold 
this lordship, and for the defence of the passage of the river 
built here a castle whose foundations are still traceable in a 
field near the churchyard. His descendants (who from the 
i3th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene) 
established, under the protection of the castle, a chartered town, 
which in 1372 received a further charter from Edward Le De- 
spenser, into whose family the lordship had come on an exchange 
of lands. In modern times these charters were not acted upon, 
the town being deemed a borough by prescription, but in 1861 
it was incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act. 
Since 1832 it has belonged to the Swansea parliamentary dis- 



trict of boroughs, uniting with Kenfig, Loughor, Neath and 
Swansea to return one member; but in 1885 the older portion 
of Swansea was given a separate member. 

ABERCARN, an urban district in the southern parliamentary 
division of Monmouthshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Newport 
by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 12,607. There are 
collieries, ironworks and tinplate works in the district; the 
town, which- lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley, 
being situated on the south-eastern flank of the great mining 
region of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire. 

ABERCORN, JAMES HAMILTON,isx EARL OF (c. 1575-1618), 
was the eldest son of Claud Hamilton, Lord Paisley (4th son of 
James, 2nd earl of Arran, and duke of Chatelherault), and of 
Margaret, daughter of George, 6th Lord Seton. He was made 
sheriff of Linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of lands in 
Scotland and Ireland, was created in 1603 baron of Abercorn, 
and on the icth of July 1606 was rewarded for his services in 
the matter of the union by being made earl of Abercorn, and 
Baron Hamilton, Mount Castle and Kilpatrick. He married 
Marion, daughter of Thomas, 5th Lord Boyd, and left five sons, 
of whom the eldest, baron of Strabane, succeeded him as 2nd 
earl of Abercorn. He died on the 23rd of March 1618. The 
title of Abercorn, held by the head of the Hamilton family, 
became a marquessate in 1790, and a dukedom in 1868, the 
2nd duke of Abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent Unionist 
politician and chairman of the British South Africa Company. 

ABERCROMBIE, JOHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician, 
was the son of the Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen, 
where he was born on the loth of October 1780. He was edu- 
cated at the university of Edinburgh, and after graduating as 
M.D. in 1803 he settled down to practise in that city, where he 
soon attained a leading position. From 1816 he published 
various papers in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 
which formed the basis of his Pathological and Practical Re- 
searches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and of his 
Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and 
other Viscera of the Abdomen, both published in 1828. He also 
found time for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he pub- 
lished his Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man 
and the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by 
a sequel, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. Both works, 
though showing little originality of thought, achieved wide 
popularity. He died at Edinburgh on the i4th of November 
1844. 

ABERCROMBY, DAVID, a 17th-century Scottish physician 
who was sufficiently noteworthy a generation after the probable 
date of his death to have his Nova Medicinae Praxis reprinted 
at Paris in 1740. During his lifetime his Tula ac ejficax luis 
venereae saepe absque mercuric ac semper absque salivatione 
mercuriali curando methodus (1684) was translated into French, 
Dutch and German. Two other works by him were De Pulsus 
Varialione (London, 1685), and Ars explorandi medicas facultates 
plantarum ex solo sapore (London, 1685-1688). His Opuscula 
were collected in 1687. These professional writings gave him a 
place and memorial in A. von Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinae 
Pract. (4 vols. 8vo, 1779, torn. iii. p. 619); but he claims notice 
rather by his remarkable controversial books in theology and 
philosophy than by his medical writings. Bred up at Douai as 
a Jesuit, he abjured popery, and published Protestancy proved 
Safer than Popery (London, 1686). But the most noticeable 
of his productions is A Discourse of Wit (London, 1685), 
which contains some of the most characteristic and most 
definitely-put metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy 
of common sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum 
(1687), and by A Moral Treatise of the Power of Interest (1690), 
dedicated to Robert Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines, 
by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James 
Maidment. The exact date of his death is unknown, but ac- 
cording to Haller he was alive early in the i8th century. 

ABERCROMBY, PATRICK (i656-c. 1716), Scottish physician 
and antiquarian, was the third son of Alexander Abercromby 
of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and brother of Francis Aber- 



44 



ABERCROMBY ABERDARE 



cromby, who was created Lord Glasford by James II. He 
was born at Forfar in 1656 apparently of a Roman Catholic 
family. Intending to become a doctor of medicine he entered 
the university of St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D. 
in 1685, but apparently he spent most of his youthful years 
abroad. It has been stated that he attended the university of 
Paris. The Discourse of Wit (1685), sometimes assigned to 
him, belongs to Dr David Abercromby (<?..). On his return to 
Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in Edinburgh, 
where, besides his professional duties, he gave himself with 
characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities. He was appointed 
physician to James II. in 1685, but the revolution deprived 
him of the post. Living during the agitations for the union 
of England and Scotland, he took part in the war of pamphlets 
inaugurated and sustained by prominent men on both sides 
of the Border, and he crossed swords with no less redoubtable 
a foe than Daniel Defoe in his Advantages of the Act of Security 
compared with those of the intended Union (Edinburgh, 1707), 
and A Vindication of the Same against Mr De Foe (ibid.). A 
minor literary work of Abercromby's was a translation of 
Jean de Beaugue's Histoire de la guerre d'Ecosse (1556) which 
appeared in 1707. But the work with which his name is perma- 
nently associated is his Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation, 
issued in two large folios, vol. i. 1711, vol. ii. 1716. In the 
title-page and preface to vol. i. he disclaims the ambition of 
being an historian, but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface 
alike, he is no longer a simple biographer, but an historian. 
Even though, read in the light of later researches, much of the 
first volume must necessarily be relegated to the region of the 
mythical, none the less was the historian a laborious and accom- 
plished reader and investigator of all available authorities, as 
well manuscript as printed; while the roll of names of those 
who aided him includes every man of note in Scotland at the 
time, from Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to 
Alexander Nisbet and Thomas Ruddiman. The date of Aber- 
cromby's death is uncertain. It has been variously assigned to 
1715, 1716, 1720, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left 
a widow in great poverty. The Memoirs of the Abercromby s, 
commonly attributed to him, do not appear to have been pub- 
lished. 

See Robert Chambers, Eminent Scotsmen, s.v.; William Anderson, 
Scottish Nation, s.v.; Alexander Chalmers, Biog. Diet., s.v.; George 
Chalmers, Life of Ruddiman; William Lee, Defoe. 

ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH (1734-1801), British lieutenant- 
general, was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tullibody, 
Clackmannanshire, and was born in October 1734. Educated 
at Rugby and Edinburgh University, in 1754 he was sent to 
Leipzig to study civil law, with a view to his proceeding to the 
Scotch bar. On returning from the continent he expressed a 
strong preference for the military profession, and a cornet's 
commission was accordingly obtained for him (March 1756) in 
the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He served with his regiment in the 
Seven Years' war, and the opportunity thus afforded him of 
studying the methods of the great Frederick moulded his military 
character and formed his tactical ideas. He rose through the 
intermediate grades to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the 
regiment (1773) and brevet colonel in 1780, and in 1781 he 
became colonel of the King's Irish infantry. When that regi- 
ment was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon half-pay. That 
up to this time he had scarcely been engaged in active service 
was owing mainly to his disapproval of the policy of the govern- 
ment, and especially to his sympathies with the American 
colonists in their struggles for independence; and his retirement 
is no doubt to be ascribed to similar feelings. On leaving the 
army he for a time took up political life as member of Parlia- 
ment for Clackmannanshire. This, however, proved uncongenial, 
and, retiring in favour of his brother, he settled at Edinburgh 
and devoted himself to the education of his children. But on 
France declaring war against England in 1793, he hastened to 
resume his professional duties; and, being esteemed one of the 
ablest and most intrepid officers in the whole British forces, he 
was appointed to the command of a brigade under the duke of 



York, for service in Holland. He commanded the advanced 
guard in the action at Le Cateau, and was wounded at Nijmwegen. 
The duty fell to him of protecting the British army in its dis- 
astrous retreat out of Holland, in the winter of 1794-1795. In 
1795 he received the honour of a knighthood of the Bath, in 
acknowledgment of his services. The same year he was ap- 
pointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander-in-chief of 
the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796 Grenada was 
suddenly attacked and taken by a detachment of the army 
under his orders. He afterwards obtained possession of the 
settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in South America, 
and of the islands of St Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad. He 
returned in 1797 to Europe, and, in reward for his important 
services, was appointed colonel of the regiment of Scots Greys, 
entrusted with the governments of the Isle of Wight, Fort-George 
and Fort- Augustus, and raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
He held, in 1797-1798, the chief command of the forces in Ire- 
land. There he laboured to maintain the discipline of the army, 
to suppress the rising rebellion, and to protect the people from 
military oppression, with a care worthy alike of a great general 
and an enlightened and beneficent statesman. When he was 
appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that country 
by the French was confidently anticipated by the English govern- 
ment. He used his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an 
army that was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he 
anxiously endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing 
the supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military 
to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary for 
the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of order. 
Finding that he received no adequate support from the head of 
the Irish government, and that all his efforts were opposed and 
thwarted by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he 
resigned the command. His departure from Ireland was deeply 
lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was speedily 
followed by those disastrous results which he had anticipated, 
and which he so ardently desired and had so wisely endeavoured 
to prevent. After holding for a short period the office of com- 
mander-in-chief in Scotland, Sir Ralph, when the enterprise 
against Holland was resolved upon in 1799, was again called to 
command under the duke of York. The campaign of 1799 
ended in disaster, but friend and foe alike confessed that the most 
decisive victory could not have more conspicuously proved the 
talents of this distinguished officer. His country applauded the 
choice when, in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the 
French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and the West 
Indies particularly fitted him for this new command, as was 
proved by his carrying his army in health, in spirits and with 
the requisite supplies, in spite of very great difficulties, to the 
destined scene of action. The debarkation of the troops at 
Aboukir, in the face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked 
among the most daring and brilliant exploits of the English 
army. A battle in the neighbourhood of Alexandria (March 21, 
1801) was the sequel of this successful landing, and it was 
Abercromby's fate to fall in the moment of victory. He was 
struck by a spent ball, which could not be extracted, and died 
seven days after the battle. His old friend and commander the 
duke of York paid a just tribute to the great soldier's memory 
in general orders: " His steady observance of discipline, his 
ever-watchful attention to the health and wants of his troops, 
the persevering and unconquerable spirit which marked his 
military career, the splendour of his actions in the field and the 
heroism of his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire, 
like him, a life of heroism and a death of glory." By a vote of 
the House of Commons, a monument was erected in his honour 
in St Paul's cathedral. His widow was created Baroness Aber- 
cromby of Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of 20x30 
a year was settled on her and her two successors in the title. 

A memoir of the later years of his life (1793-1801) by his third 
son, James (who was Speaker of the House of Commons, 1835-1839, 
and became Lord Dunfermline), was published in 1861. For a 
shorter account of Sir Ralph Abercromby see Wilkinson, Twelve 
British Soldiers (London, 1899). 

ABERDARE, HENRY AUSTIN BRUCE, IST BARON (1815- 






ABERDARE ABERDEEN 



45 



1895), English statesman, was born at Duffryn, Aberdare, 
Glamorganshire, on the i6th of April 1815, the son of John 
Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner. John Bruce's original 
family name was Knight, but on coming of age in 1805 he 
assumed the name of Bruce, his mother, through whom he in- 
herited the Duffryn estate, having been the daughter of William 
Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry Austin Bruce 
was educated at Swansea grammar school, and in 1837 was 
called to the bar. Shortly after he had begun to practise, the 
discovery of coal beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare 
Valley estates brought the family great wealth. From 1847 to 
1852 he was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydvil and 
Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he 
entered parliament as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydvil. 
In 1862 he became under-secretary for the home department, 
and in 1869, after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydvil, but being 
re-elected for Renfrewshire, he was made home secretary by 
W. E. Gladstone. His tenure of this office was conspicuous for 
a reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the 
Licensing Act of 1872, which constituted the magistrates the 
licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in 
public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale 
of drink. In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at 
Gladstone's request, to become lord president of the council, 
and was almost simultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron 
Aberdare. The defeat of the Liberal government in the following 
year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he sub- 
sequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic 
questions. In 1876 he was elected F.R.S.; from 1878 to 1892 
he was president of the Royal Historical Society; and in 1881 
he became president of the Royal Geographical Society. In 
1882 he began a connexion with West Africa which lasted the 
rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the National 
African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman Goldie, which 
in 1886 received a charter under the title of the Royal Niger 
Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British government, 
its territories being constituted the protectorate of Nigeria. 
West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord 
Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts 
that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the university of Wales 
at Cardiff. Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a G.C.B., 
presided over several Royal Commissions at different times. 
He died in London on the 25th of February 1895. His second 
wife was the daughter of Sir William Napier, the historian of 
the Peninsular war, whose Life he edited. 

ABERDARE, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, 
situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and 
Cynon, the latter being a tributary of the Taff. Pop. of urban 
district (1901), 43,365. It is 4 m. S.W. of Merthyr Tydvil, 24 
from Cardiff and 160 from London by rail. It has a station 
on the Pontypool and Swansea section of the Great Western 
railway, and is also served by the Llwydcoed and Abernant 
stations which are on a branch line to Merthyr. The Taff Vale 
line (opened 1846) has a terminus in the town. The Glamorgan 
canal has also a branch (made in 1811) running from Abercynon 
to Aberdare. From being, at the beginning of the igth century, 
a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly 
in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore, 
and the population of the whole parish (which was only 1486 in 
1801) increased tenfold during the first half of the century. Iron- 
works were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 
1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman 
in 1827 and 1847. These have not been worked since about 
1875, and the only metal industries remaining in the town are 
an iron foundry or two and a small tinplate works at Gadlys 
(established in 1868). Previous to 1836, most of the coal worked 
in the parish was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks, but 
in that year the working of steam coal for export was begun, 
pits were sunk in rapid succession, and the coal trade, which at 
least since 1875 has been the chief support of the town, soon 
reached huge dimensions. There are also several brickworks 
and breweries. During the latter half of the igth century, 



considerable public improvements were effected in the town, 
making it, despite its neighbouring collieries, an agreeable place 
of residence. Its institutions included a post-graduate theo- 
logical college (opened in connexion with the Church of England 
in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to Llandaff). There is 
a public park of fifty acres with two small lakes. Aberdare, 
with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Pagan's (Trecynon) and 
Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, has some twelve 
Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic church (built in 1866 in 
Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys Abbey) 
and over fifty Nonconformist chapels. The services in the 
majority of the chapels are in Welsh. The whole parish falls 
within the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydvil. The 
urban district includes what were once the separate villages of 
Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmbach, Cwmaman, Cwmdare, Llwyd- 
coed and Trecynon. There are several cairns and the remains 
of a circular British encampment on the mountain between 
Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor, 4 m. to the N.W. of 
Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at 
which Rhys ap Jewdwr, prince of Dyfed, was defeated by the 
allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and lestyn ab 
Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan. 

ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, IST EARL or (1637-1720), 
lord chancellor of Scotland, son of Sir John Gordon, ist baronet 
of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, executed by the Presbyterians in 
1644, was born on the 3rd of October 1637. He graduated M.A., 
and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1658. 
Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad. At 
the Restoration the sequestration of his father's lands was 
annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder 
brother to the baronetcy and estates. He returned home in 
1667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high legal 
reputation. He represented Aberdeenshire in the Scottish 
parliament of 1669 and in the following assemblies, during his 
first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two 
legislatures. In November 1678 he was made a privy councillor 
for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord Haddo. 
He was a leading member of the duke of York's administration, 
was created a lord of session in June and in November 1681 
president of the court. The same year he is reported as moving 
in the council for the torture of witnesses. 1 In 1682 he was 
made lord chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on the I3th 
of November, earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Formartine, and Lord 
Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage, 
being appointed also sheriff principal of Aberdeenshire and 
Midlothian. Burnet reflects unfavourably upon him, calls him 
" a proud and covetous man," and declares " the new chancellor 
exceeded all that had gone before him." 2 He executed the laws 
enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish 
churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny pre- 
scribed by the English government; and in consequence of an 
intrigue of the duke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained 
the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of 27,000, he was 
dismissed in 1684. After his fall he was subjected to various 
petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of 
discovering some act of maladministration on which to found 
a charge against him, but the investigations only served to 
strengthen his credit. He took an active part in parliament 
in 1685 and 1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of 
William's reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance, 
and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on 
the nth of May 1703. In the great affair of the Union in 1707, 
while protesting against the completion of the treaty till the 
act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to 
support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from 
attending parliament when the treaty was settled. He died on 
the 20th of April 1720, after having amassed a large fortune. 
He is described by John Mackay as " very knowing in the laws 
and constitution of his country and is believed to be the solidest 
statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure." 

1 Sir J. Lauder's Hist. Notices (Bannatyne Club, 1848), p. 297. 
1 Hist, of his own Times, i. 523. 



4 6 



ABERDEEN 



His person was said to be deformed, and his " want of mine or 
deportment " was alleged as a disqualification for the office of 
lord chancellor. He married Anne, daughter and sole heiress of 
George Lockhart of Torbrecks, by whom he had six children, 
his only surviving son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of 
Aberdeen. 

See Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen (with memoir: Spalding 
Club, 1851); Hist. Account of the Senators of the College of Justice, 
by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 408; G. Crawfurd's Lives of 
the Officers of State (1726), p. 226; Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland, by 
SirG. Mackenzie (1821), p. i.j.8; Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall) 
Journals (Scottish Hist. Society, vol. xxxvi., 1900); J. Mackay's 
Memoirs (1733), p. 215; A. Lang's Hist, of Scotland, iii. 369, 376. 

(P. C. Y.) ' 

ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL OF 
(1784-1860), English statesman, was the eldest son of George 
Gordon, Lord Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William 
Baird of Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George, 
3rd earl of Aberdeen. Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January 
1784, he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795; and as 
his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to reside 
with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville. At the age of 
fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name his own 
curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt and Dundas 
for this office he spent much of his time at their houses, thus 
meeting many of the leading politicians of the day. He was 
educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, where 
he graduated as a nobleman in 1804. Before this time, however, 
he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's death in 
1801, and had travelled over a large part of the continent of 
Europe, meeting on his journeys Napoleon Bonaparte and other 
persons of distinction. He also spent some time in Greece, and 
on his return to England founded the Athenian Society, member- 
ship of which was confined to those who had travelled in that 
country. Moreover, he wrote an article in the Edinburgh Review 
of July 1805 criticizing Sir William Gill's Topography of Troy, 
and these circumstances led Lord Byron to refer to him in 
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers as " the travell'd thane, 
Athenian Aberdeen." Having attained his majority in 1805, 
he married on the 28th of July Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton, 
daughter of John James, ist marquess of Abercorn. In De- 
cember 1806 he was elected a representative peer for Scotland, 
and took his seat as a Tory in the House of Lords, but for some 
years he took only a slight part in public business. However, 
by his birth, his abilities and his connexions alike he was marked 
out for a high position, and after the death of his wife in February 
1812 he was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister 
plenipotentiary at Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Toplitz 
between Great Britain and Austria in October 1813 ; and 
accompanying the emperor Francis I. through the subsequent 
campaign against France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig. 
He was one of the British representatives at the congress of 
Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was present 
during the negotiations which led to the treaty of Paris in the 
following May. Returning home he was created a peer of the 
United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen (1814), and 
made a member of the privy council. On the isth of July 1815 
he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John Douglas, and 
widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus became doubly 
connected with the family of the marquess of Abercorn. During 
the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part 
in public affairs, although he succeeded in passing the Entail 
(Scotland) Act of 1825. He kept in touch, however, with foreign 
politics, and having refused to join the ministry of George 
Canning in 1827, became a member of the cabinet of the duke of 
Wellington as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in January 
1828. In the following June he was transferred to the office of 
secretary of state for foreign affairs, and having acquitted himself 
with credit with regard to the war between Russia and Turkey, 
and to affairs in Greece, Portugal and France, he resigned with 
Wellington in November 1830, and shared his leader's attitude 
towards the Reform Bill of 1832. As a Scotsman, Aberdeen 
was interested in the ecclesiastical controversy which culminated 



in the disruption of 1843. In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle 
the vexed question of patronage; but disliked by a majority 
in the general assembly of the Scotch church, and unsupported 
by the government, it failed to become law, and some opprobrium 
was cast upon its author. In 1843 he brought forward a similar 
measure " to remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers 
to benefices." This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called, 
passed into law, but did not reconcile the opposing parties. 

During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834 
and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for the 
colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again under Peel, 
on this occasion as foreign secretary; the five years during 
which he held this position were the most fruitful and successful 
of his public life. He owed his success to the confidence placed 
in him by Queen Victoria, to his wide knowledge of European 
poh'tics, to his intimate friendship with Guizot, and not least to 
his own conciliatory disposition. Largely owing to his efforts, 
causes of quarrel between Great Britain and France in Tahiti, 
over, the marriage of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other direc- 
tions, were removed. More important still were his services 
in settling the question of the boundary between the United 
States and British North America at a time when a single in- 
judicious word would probably have provoked a war. In 1845 
he supported Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to 
suspend the duty on foreign corn,' and left office with that 
minister in July 1846. After Peel's death in 1850 he became 
the recognized leader of the Peelites' although since his resigna- 
tion his share in public business had been confined to a few 
speeches on foreign affairs. His dislike of the Ecclesiastical 
Titles Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure 
in 1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord 
John Russell, or from forming an administration himself in 
this year. In December 1852, however, be became first lord of 
the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and 
Peelites. Although united on free trade and in general on ques- 
tions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained Lord 
Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to Aberdeen, 
was certain to differ on questions of foreign policy. The strong 
and masterful character of these and other colleagues made the 
task of the prime minister one of unusual difficulty, a fact which 
was recognized by contemporaries. Charles Greville in his 
Memoirs says, " In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate 
men of equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely 
to acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any 
other, and every one of these five or six considering himself abler 
and more important than their premier"; and Sir James 
Graham wrote, " It is a powerful team, but it will require good 
driving." The first year of office passed off successfully, and it 
was owing to the steady support of the prime minister that 
Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the cabinet. 
This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute between 
France and Turkey over the guardianship of the holy places at 
Jerusalem, which, after the original cause of quarrel had been 
forgotten, developed into the Crimean war. The tortuous 
negotiations which preceded the struggle need not be discussed 
here, but in defence of Aberdeen it may be said that he hoped 
and strove for peace to the last. Rightly or wrongly, however, 
he held that Russell was indispensable to the cabinet, and that 
a resignation would precipitate war. His outlook, usually so 
clear, was blurred by these considerations, and he lacked the 
strength to force the suggestions which he made in the autumn 
of 1853 upon his imperious colleagues. Palmerston, supported 
by Russell and weU served by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, 
British ambassador at Constantinople, favoured a more aggres- 
sive policy, and Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and 
unwilling to let Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame. 
When the war began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but 
the stories of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war 
deprived the ministry of public favour. Russell resigned; and 
on the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, for 
the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the con- 
duct of the war, was carried in the House of Commons by a 



ABERDEEN 



47 



large majority. Treating this as a vote of want of confidence 
Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed 
upon him the order of the Garter. He smoothed the way for 
Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon re- 
mained at the foreign office he aided him with advice and was 
consulted on matters of moment. He died in London on the 
I4th of December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at 
Stanmore. By his first wife he had one son and three daughters, 
all of whom predeceased their father. By his second wife, who 
died in August 1833, he left four sons and one daughter. His 
eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th earl; his second 
son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, K.C.B.; his 
third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton- Gordon; and 
his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various high 
offices under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in 1893. 
Among the public offices held by the earl were those of lord- 
lieutenant of Aberdeenshire, president of the society of Anti- 
quaries from 1812 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society. 

Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory 
and a wide knowledge of literature and art. His private life 
was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the 
loftiness of his character. His manner was reserved, and as a 
speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent. In public life 
he was remarkable for his generosity to his political opponents, 
and for his sense of justice and honesty. He did not, however, 
possess the qualities which impress the populace, and he lacked 
the strength which is one of the essential gifts of a statesman. 
His character is perhaps best described by a writer who says 
" his strength was not equal to his goodness." His foreign 
policy was essentially one of peace and non-intervention, and in 
pursuing it he was accused of favouring the despotisms of 
Europe. Aberdeen was a model landlord. By draining the land, 
by planting millions of trees and by erecting numerous build- 
ings, he greatly improved the condition of his Aberdeenshire 
estates, and studied continually the welfare of his dependants. 
A bust of him by Matthew Noble is in Westminster Abbey, and 
his portrait was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. He wrote 
An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture 
(London, 1822), and the Correspondence of the Earl of Aberdeen 
has been printed privately under the direction of his son, Lord 
Stanmore. 

The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl, was 
drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother John Campbell 
Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen (b. 1847), a prominent Liberal 
politician, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1886, governor- 
general of Canada 1893-1898, and again the lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his 
ministry at the close of 1905. 

See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1893); 
C. C. F. Greville, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1888); 
Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886), and Life 
of Lord John Russell (London, 1889); A. W. Kinglake, Invasion of 
the Crimea (London, 1877-1888); Sir T. Martin, Life of tht Prince 
Consort (London, 1875-1880) ; J. Morley, Life of Gladstone (London, 
1903). (A. W. H.*) 

ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, capital 
of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of Scotland. 
It is the fourth Scottish town in population, industry and wealth, 
and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of 
the Don and Dee, 1303 m. N. E. of Edinburgh by the North 
British railway. Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the 
city suburbs to the southern banks of the Don, has a separate 
charter, privileges and history, the distinction between it and 
New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist; and for parlia- 
mentary, municipal and other purposes, the two towns now form 
practically one community. Aberdeen's popular name of the 

Granite City " is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town 
is built of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation 
of the " Silver City by the Sea," it should be seen after a heavy 
rainfall when its stately structures and countless houses gleam 
pure and white under the brilliant sunshine. The area of the 
city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of Old Aberdeen and 
Woodside, and the district of Torry (for parliamentary purposes 



in the constituency of Kincardineshire) to the south of the Dee, 
having been incorporated in 1891. The city comprises eleven 
wards and eighteen ecclesiastical parishes, and is under the 
jurisdiction of a council with lord provost, bailies, treasurer and 
dean of guild. The corporation owns the water (derived from 
the Dee at a spot 21 m. W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplies, 
electric lighting and tramways. Since 1885 the city has returned 
two members to Parliament. Aberdeen is served by the Cale- 
donian, Great North of Scotland and North British railways 
(occupying a commodious joint railway station), and there is 
regular communication by sea with London and the chief ports 
on the eastern coast of Great Britain and the northern shores 
of the Continent. The mean temperature of the city for the year 
is 45-8 F., for summer 56 F., and for winter 37-3 F. The 
average yearly rainfall is 30-57 inches. The city is one of the 
healthiest in Scotland. 

Streets and Buildings. Roughly, the extended city runs north 
and south. From the new bridge of Don to the " auld brig " of 
Dee there is tramway communication via King Street, Union 
Street and Holburn Road a distance of over five miles. Union 
Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares in the British 
Isles. From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. for nearly a mile, is 
70 ft. wide, and contains the principal shops and most of 
the modern public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street 
crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great 
North of Scotland railway) by a fine granite arch of 132 ft. 
span, portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, fifty feet 
below the level of Union Street. Amongst the more conspicuous 
secular buildings in the street may be mentioned the Town and 
County Bank, the Music Hall, with sitting accommodation for 
2000 persons, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (origin- 
ating in various years between 1398 and 1527, and having charit- 
able funds for poor members, widows and orphans), containing 
some portraits by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved 
oak chairs, dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with 
quaint inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one 
of the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the 
Palace Hotel; the office of the Northern Assurance Company, 
and the National Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a con- 
tinuation eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipal 
and County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices in 
Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 1867-1878. 
They are of four stories and contain the great hall with an open 
timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House; 
the Town Hall, with excellent portraits of Prince Albert (Prince 
Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, the various lord provosts 
and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the en- 
trance corridor stands a suit of black armour believed to have 
been worn by Provost Sir Robert Davidson, who fell in the battle 
of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 1411. From the south-western 
corner a grand tower rises to a height of 210 ft., commanding a 
fine view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the 
municipal buildings is the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek 
design, with a portico of Corinthian columns, the capitals of 
which are exquisitely carved. On the opposite side of the street 
is the fine building of the Union Bank. At the upper end of 
Castle Street stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective 
castellated mansion, the most imposing " barracks " possessed 
anywhere by this organization. In front of it is the Market Cross, 
a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in diameter 
and 18 ft. high. The original was designed in 1682 by John 
Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was removed 
hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better style. On the 
entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are panels contain- 
ing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James I. to James VII. 
From the centre rises a shaft, 123 ft. high, with a Corinthian 
capital on which is the royal unicorn rampant. On an eminence 
east of Castle Street are the military barracks. In Market Street 
are the Mechanics' Institution, founded in 1824, with a good 
library; the Post and Telegraph offices; and the Market, where 
provisions of all kinds and general wares are sold. The Fish 
Market, on the Albert Basin, is a busy scene in the early morning. 



4 8 



ABERDEEN 



The Art Gallery and Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian 
Renaissance style of red and brown granite, contains an excellent 
collection of pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contem- 
porary artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional 
interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain. The public 
library, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000 
volumes. The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of dra- 
matic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety enter- 
tainment. The new buildings of Marischal College fronting 
Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one 
of the most splendid examples of modern architecture, in Great 
Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native 
of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to the 
design of a noble building with the originality of genius. 

Churches. Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well 
equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but few 
of special interest. The East and West churches of St Nicholas, 
their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic facade, 
1475 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous building, 220 ft. 
in length, including the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of 
the Irvines of Drum) and the Collison Aisle, which divide them 
and which formed the transept of the 12th-century church of St 
Nicholas. The West Church was built in 1775, in the Italian 
style, the East originally in 1834 in the Gothic. In 1874 a fire 
destroyed the East Church and the old central tower with its 
fine peal of nine bells, one of which, Laurence or " Lowrie," 
was 4 ft. in diameter at the mouth, 3! ft. high and very thick. 
The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected 
over the intervening aisles at the cost of the municipality, a 
new peal of 36 bells, cast in Holland, being installed to com- 
memorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887. The Roman Catholic 
Cathedral in Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in 
1859. The see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in 
Banffshire by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there 
over the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric 
to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of St 
Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun. 
Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone (1484-1511), 
the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed 
him in 1518, was enabled to complete the structure by adding 
the two western spires and the southern transept. The church 
suffered severely at the Reformation, but is still used as the parish 
church. It now consists of the nave and side aisles. It is chiefly 
built of outlayer granite, and, though the plainest cathedral in 
Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it 
unique distinction. On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave 
are the heraldic shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who 
shared in its erection, and the great west window contains 
modern painted glass of excellent colour and design. The 
cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the 
links, Nellfield at the junction of Great Western and Holburn 
Roads, and Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie 
Park. 

Education. Aberdeen University consists of King's College 
in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, and 
Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by George 
Keith, sth earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 1860. 
Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine and science 
at Marischal. The number of students exceeds 800 yearly. The 
buildings of both colleges are the glories of Aberdeen. King's 
forms a quadrangle with interior court, two sides of which have 
been rebuilt, and a library wing has been added. The Crown 
Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 150x3. The 
former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. high, consisting 
of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both sculptured, and 
resting on the intersections of two arched ornamental slips 
rising from the four corners of the top of the tower. The choir 
of the chapel still contains the original oak canopied stalls, 
miserere seats and lofty open screens in the French flamboyant 
style, and of unique beauty of design and execution. Their 
preservation was due to the enlightened energy of the principal 
at the time of the Reformation, who armed his folk to save the 



building from the barons of the Mearns after they had robbed 
St Machar's of its bells and lead. Marischal College is a stately 
modern building, having been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly 
extended several years later at a cost of 100,000. The additions 
to the buildings opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been 
already mentioned. The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named 
from the benefactor (Dr Charles Mitchell) who provided the 
splendid graduation hall. The opening of this tower in 1895 
signalized the commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary 
of the foundation of the university. The University Library 
comprises nearly 100,000 books. A Botanic Garden was pre- 
sented to the university in 1899. Aberdeen and Glasgow Uni- 
versities combine to return one member to Parliament. The 
United Free Church Divinity Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor 
Gothic style, dates from 1850. The Grammar School, founded in 
1263, was removed in 1861-1863 fro m its old quarters in Schoolhill 
to a large new building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene 
Street. Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in 
1729 by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 
by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted (as 
Gordon's Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the 
sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was re- 
organized in 1 88 1 as a day and night school for secondary and 
technical education, and has since been unusually successful. 
Besides a High School for Girls and numerous board schools, 
there are many private higher-class schools. Under the Endow- 
ments Act 1882 an educational trust was constituted which 
possesses a capital of 155,000. At Blairs, in Kincardineshire, 
five miles S. W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College 
for the training of young men intended for the priesthood. 

Charities. The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established 
in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and largely 
extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee; 
the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan Asylum, 
in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, in Huntly 
Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital for Sick Chil- 
dren; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; the City 
Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb Institu- 
tion; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East and West 
Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted to 
specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of the charit- 
able institutions. There are, besides, industrial schools for boys 
and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a Female School 
of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth House and 
Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's Conva- 
lescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the Convent 
of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School. 

Parks and Open Spaces. Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift'of 
Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an 
excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park (13 
acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are situated 
in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart Park (n 
acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 1893. The 
capacious links bordering the sea between the mouths of the two 
rivers are largely resorted to for open-air recreation; there is 
here a rifle range where a " wapinschaw," or shooting tourna- 
ment, is held annually. Part is laid out as an i8-hole golf course; 
a section is reserved for cricket and football; a portion has been 
railed off for a race-course, and a bathing-station has been 
erected. Union Terrace Gardens are a popular rendezvous in 
the heart of the city. 

Statues. In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue 
in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A. 
(1888). In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns and 
Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert. In front of 
Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, A.R.S.A., 
of General Gordon (1888). At the east end of Union Street is 
the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected in 1893 by the 
royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite 
statue of the sth duke of Gordon (d. 1836). Here may also be 
mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead granite, 70 ft. high, erected 
in the square of Marischal College to the memory of Sir James 



ABERDEEN ABERDEENSHIRE 



49 



M'Grigor (1778-1831), the military surgeon and director-general 
of the Army Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord 
rector of the College. 

Bridges. The Dee is crossed by four bridges, the old bridge, 
the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, and Vic- 
toria Bridge, opposite Market Street. The first, till 1832 the 
only access to the city from the south, consists of seven semi- 
circular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and was built early 
in the i6th century by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It 
was nearly all rebuilt in 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from 
14! to 26 ft. The bridge of Don has five granite arches, each 
75 ft. in span, and was built in 1827-1832. A little to the west is 
the Auld Brig o' Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning 
the deep black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I., 
and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan. 

Harbour. A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel 
bar at its entrance, long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but 
under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The 
north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly 
by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North 
Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few feet 
to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at neap. A 
wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, was completed 
in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit 
to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By 
the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee near the harbour was diverted 
from the south at a cost of 80,000, and go acres of new ground 
(in addition to 25 acres formerly made up) were provided on the 
north side of the river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), 
quays and warehouses. A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long, 
was constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection 
against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point 
of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833. Near the harbour 
mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. 

Industry. Owing to the variety and importance of its chief 
industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in 
Scotland. Very durable grey granite has been quarried near 
Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed 
paving " setts," kerb and building stones, and monumental 
and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported 
from the district to all parts of the world. This, though once 
the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the deep-sea 
fisheries, which derived a great impetus from beam-trawling, 
introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing in 1889, and threaten 
to rival if not to eclipse those of Grimsby. Fish trains are 
despatched to London daily. Most of the leading industries date 
from the i8th century, amongst them woollens (1703), linen 
(1749) and cotton (1779). These give employment to several 
thousands of operatives. The paper-making industry is one of 
the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first 
made in Aberdeen in 1694. Flax-spinning and jute and comb- 
making factories are also very flourishing, and there are suc- 
cessful foundries and engineering works. There are large 
distilleries and breweries, and chemical works employing many 
hands. In the days of wooden ships ship-building was a flourish- 
ing industry, the town being noted for its fast clippers, many of 
which established records in the " tea races." The introduction 
of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance 
of the city from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of 
iron vessels. Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted 
meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in 
strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city. 

History. Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the 
1 2th century. William the Lion had a residence in the city, to 
which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights 
granted by David I. The city received other royal charters 
iter. It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in 
1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New 
Vberdeen. The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland. They 

egin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to the 
present day. For many centuries the city was subject to 
attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified, 



but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse 
was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the 
English. During the struggles between the Royalists and 
Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides. 
In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at 
Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland resided for a 
short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender. 
The motto on the city arms is " Bon Accord," which formed the 
watchword of the Aberdonians while aiding Robert Bruce in 
his battles with the English. 

Population. In 1396 the population was about 3000. By 1801 
it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; 
(1901) 153,503. 

AUTHORITIES. The charters of the burgh; extracts from the 
council register down to 1625, and selections from the letters, 
guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols. of the Spalding 
Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis, Spalding 
Club; Walter Thorn, The History of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson, 
Historical Account and Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William 
Kennedy, The Annals of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Description of the 
Chanonry, Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725 
(1830) ; Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated Architecture 
of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of Old Castellated Houses of Aberdeen 
(1838); James Bryce, Lives of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841); 
J. Gordon, Description of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club, 
1842); Joseph Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839); 
W. Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 1893); 
C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 
1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, Provosts and Lord 
Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897) ; P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c., 
illustrating the History of the Royal Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 
1890) ; Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New Spalding 
Club, 1889, 1898-1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of the Church of St 
Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); G. Cadenhead, Sketch of 
the Territorial History of the Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876); 
W. Cadenhead, Guide to the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); 
A. Smith, History and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 
1882). 

ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, 
South Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m. N.E. of Pierre. Pop. (1890) 
3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1905) 
5841; (1910) 10,753. Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Mil- 
waukee and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and 
St Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways. It is 
the financial and trade centre for the northern part of the state, 
a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks and a 
number of wholesale houses. The city is the seat of the Northern 
Normal and Industrial School, a state institution, and has a 
Carnegie library; the principal buildings are the court house 
and the government buildings. Artesian wells furnish good 
water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain pitchers, brooms, 
chemicals and flour are manufactured. The municipality owns 
and operates the water- works. Aberdeen was settled in 1880, 
and was chartered as a city in 1883. 

ABERDEENSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, 
bounded N. and E. by the North Sea, S. by Kincardine, Forfar 
and Perth, and W. by Inverness and Banff. It has a coast-line 
of 65 m., and is the sixth Scottish county in area, occupying 
1,261,887 acres or 1971 sq. m. The county is generally hilly, 
and from the south-west, near the centre of Scotland, the 
Grampians send out various branches, mostly to the north-east. 
The shire is popularly divided into five districts. Of these the 
first is Mar, mostly between the Dee and Don, which nearly 
covers the southern half of the county and contains the city of 
Aberdeen. It is mountainous, especially Braemar (q.v.), which 
contains the greatest mass of elevated land in the British Isles. 
The soil on the Dee is sandy, and on the Don loamy. The second 
district, Formartine, between the lower Don and Ythan, has a 
sandy coast, which is succeeded inland by a clayey, fertile, tilled 
tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses and tilled land. 
Buchan, the third district, lies north of the Ythan, and, com- 
prising the north-east of the county, is next in size to Mar, parts 
of the coast being bold and rocky, the interior bare, low, flat, 
undulating and in places peaty. On the coast, 6 m. S. of Peter- 
head, are the Bullers of Buchan a basin in which the sea, enter- 
ing by a natural arch, boils up violently in stormy weather. 
Buchan Ness is the most easterly point of Scotland. The fourth 



ABERDEENSHIRE 






district, Garioch, in the centre of the shire, is a beautiful, undu- 
lating, loamy, fertile valley, formerly called the granary of 
Aberdeen. Strathbogie, the fifth district, occupying a consider- 
able area south of the Deveron, mostly consists of hills, moors 
and mosses. The mountains are the most striking of the physical 
features of the county. Ben Macdhui (4296 ft.), a magnificent 
mass, the second highest mountain in Great Britain, Braeriach 
(4248), Cairntoul (4241), Ben-na-bhuaird (3924), Ben Avon 
(3843), "dark" Lochnagar (3786), the subject of a well-known 
song by Byron, Cairn Eas (3556), Sgarsoch (3402), Culardoch 
( 2 9S3)> are the principal heights in the division of Mar. Farther 
north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border, 
Tap o' Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which 
from its central position is a landmark visible from many different 
parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John Imlah's 
song, " O gin I were where Gadie rins," and Foudland (1529). 
The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Don, 82 m. ; the 
Ythan, 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the Ugie, 20 m., 
and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of Banffshire. 
The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel 
occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl in the Scottish 
crown is said to be from the Ythan. Loch Muick, the largest of 
the few lakes in the county, 1310 ft. above the sea, 25 m. long 
and \ to \ m. broad, lies some 8| m. S.W. of Ballater, and has 
Altnagiuthasach, a royal shooting-box, near its south-western end. 
Loch Strathbeg, 6 m. S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from 
the sea by a narrow strip of land. There are noted chalybeate 
springs at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater. 
Geology. The greater part of the county is composed of 
crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of the 
Eastern Highlands. In the upper parts of the valleys of the Dee 
and the Don they form well-marked groups, of which the most 
characteristic are (i) the black schists and phyllites, with calc- 
flintas, and a thin band of tremolite limestone, (2) the main or 
Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the quartzite. These divisions are 
folded on highly inclined or vertical axes trending north-east 
and south-west, and hence the same zones are repeated over a 
considerable area. The quartzite is generally regarded as the 
highest member of the series. Excellent sections showing the 
component strata occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys 
above Braemar. Eastwards down the Dee and the Don and 
northwards across the plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head 
and Fraserburgh there is a development of biotite gneiss, partly 
of sedimentary and perhaps partly of igneous origin. A belt 
of slate which has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along 
the west border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and 
the Foudland Hills towards the Tap o' Noth near Gartly. The 
metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials, 
some before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the 
strata. The basic types of the former are represented by the 
sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick and Glen 
Callater, which have been permeated by granite and pegmatite 
in veins and lenticles, often foliated. The later granites subse- 
quent to the plication of the schists have a wide distribution on 
the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and on Lochnagar; they 
stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland to Aberdeen and 
north to Bennachie. Isolated masses appear at Peterhead and 
at Strichen. Though consisting mainly of biotite granite, these 
later intrusions pass by intermediate stages into diorite, as in 
the area between Balmoral and the head-waters of the Gairn. 
The granites have been extensively quarried at Rubislaw, Peter- 
head and Kemnay. Serpentine and troctolite, the precise age 
of which is uncertain, occur at the Black Dog rock north of 
Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old Meldrum. Where the 
schists of sedimentary origin have been pierced by these igneous 
intrusions, they are charged with contact minerals such as silli- 
manite, cordierite, kyanite and andalusite. Cordierite-bearing 
rocks occur near Ellon, at the foot of Bennachie, and on the top 
of the Buck of Cabrach. A banded and mottled calc-silicate 
hornfels occurring with the limestone at Derry Falls, W. N.W. of 
Braemar, has yielded malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase, 
garnet, sphene and hornblende. A larger list of minerals has 



been obtained from an exposure of limestone and. associated 
beds in Glen Gairn, about four miles above the point where that 
river joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting 
unconformably on the old platform of slates and schists, have 
been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to Fyvie, 
and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle. The 
strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones, which, 
at Gartly and at Rhynie, are associated with lenticular bands 
of andesite indicating contemporaneous volcanic action. Small 
outliers of conglomerate and sandstone of this age have recently 
been found in the course of excavations in Aberdeen. The 
glacial deposits, especially in the belt bordering the coast 
between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish important evidence. 
The ice moved eastwards off the high ground at the head of the 
Dee and the Don, while the mass spreading outwards from the 
Moray Firth invaded the low plateau of Buchan; but at a 
certain stage there was a marked defection northwards parallel 
with the coast, as proved by the deposit of red clay north of 
Aberdeen. At a later date the local glaciers laid down materials 
on top of the red clay. The committee appointed by the British 
Association (Report for 1897, P- 333) proved that the Greensand, 
which has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat, 
in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting probably 
on granite. The strata from which the Moreseat fossils were 
derived are not now found in place in that part of Scotland, but 
Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon of the fossils is that 
of the lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight or the Aptien stage 
of France. Chalk flints are widely distributed in the drift 
between Fyvie and the east coast of Buchan. At Plaidy a patch 
of clay with Liassic fossils occurs. At several localities between 
Logic Coldstone and Dinnet a deposit of diatomite (Kieselguhr) 
occurs beneath the peat. 

Flora and Fauna. The tops of the highest mountains have 
an arctic flora. At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft. 
above the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses, 
&c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing at 
1300 ft. above the sea. Trees, especially Scotch fir and larch, 
grow well, and Kraemar is rich in natural timber, said to surpass 
any in the north of Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak 
found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now growing. 
The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the squirrel at 
1400. Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful, and rabbits 
are often too numerous. Red deer abound in Braemar, the deer 
forest being the most extensive in Scotland. 

Climate and Agriculture. The climate, except in the moun- 
tainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to the proximity 
of much of the shire to the sea. The mean annual temperature 
at Braemar is 43-6 F., and at Aberdeen 45-8. The mean 
yearly rainfall varies from about 30 to 37 in. The summer 
climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most 
bracing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to 1600 ft. 
above the sea, or 400 to 500 ft. higher than elsewhere in North 
Britain. Poor, gravelly, clayey and peaty soils prevail, but 
tile-draining, bones and guano, and the best methods of modern 
tillage, have greatly increased the produce. Indeed, in no part 
of Scotland has a more productive soil been made out of such 
unpromising material. Farm-houses and steadings have much 
improved, and the best agricultural implements and machines 
are in general use. About two-thirds of the population depend 
entirely on agriculture. Farms are small compared with those 
in the south-eastern counties. Oats are the predominant crop, 
wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley has 
largely increased. The most distinctive industry is cattle-feed- 
ing. A great number of the home-bred crosses are fattened for 
the London and local markets, and Irish animals are imported 
on an extensive scale for the same purpose, while an exceedingly 
heavy business in dead meat for London and the south is done 
all over the county. Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in 
large numbers. 

Fisheries. A large fishing population in villages along the 
coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the next 
most important industry to agriculture, its development having 






ABERDEENSHIRE 



been due almost exclusively to the introduction of steam trawlers. 
The total value of the annual catch, of which between a half 
and a third consists of herrings, amounts to 1,000,000. Had- 
docks are salted and rock-dried (speldings) or smoked (finnans). 
The ports and creeks are divided into the fishery districts of 
Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Aberdeen, the last of which in- 
cludes also three Kincardine'shire ports. The herring season 
for Aberdeen, Peterhead and Fraserburgh is from June to 
September, at which time the ports are crowded with boats 
from other Scottish districts. There are valuable salmon- 
fishings rod, net and stake-net on the Dee, Don, Ythan and 
Ugie. The average annual despatch of salmon from Aberdeen- 
shire is about 400 tons. 

Other Industries. Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or 
near the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts 
there is much milling of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work, 
brewing and distilling, cart and farm-implement making, casting 
and drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially on Deeside 
and Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, laths and barrel- 
staves. There are a number of paper-making establishments, 
most of them on the Don near Aberdeen. 

The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable granite, 
which is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and else- 
where. An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded 40 to 
50 worth of causewaying stones. Sandstone and other rocks 
are also quarried at different parts. The imports are mostly 
coal, lime, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile 
manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar, 
alcoholic liquors, fruits. The exports are granite 1 (rough- 
dressed and polished), flax, woollen and .cotton goods, paper, 
combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle. 

Communications. From the south Aberdeen city is approached 
by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the 
North British (via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways, 
and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland 
railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith 
and Elgin. There are branch lines from various points opening 
up the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater 
by Deeside, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at 
Maud for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam) , 
from Kintore to Alford, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and 
also to Macduff. By sea there is regular communication with 
London, Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands, 
Iceland and the continent. The highest of the macadamized 
roads crossing the eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft. 
above sea-level. 

Population and Government. In 1891 the population num- 
bered 284,036 and in 1901 it was 304,439 (of whom 159,603 
were females), or 154 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 
8 persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic 
and English. The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1901, 
153,503), Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4136), 
Inverurie (3624), Peterhead (11,794), Turriff (2273). The 
Supreme Court of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from 
the counties of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine. The three 
counties are under a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute 
resident in Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly, 
Peterhead and Turriff. The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen 
and Peterhead. The county sends two members to parliament 
one for East Aberdeenshire and the other for West Aberdeen- 
shire. The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two members. 
Peterhead, Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin group 
of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being Banff, 
Cullen and Elgin. The county is under school-board juris- 
diction, and there are also several voluntary schools. There are 
higher-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary schools at 
Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of the other 
schools in the county earn grants for secondary education. The 
County Secondary Education Committee dispense a large sum, 
partly granted by the education department and partly con- 
tributed by local authorities from the "residue" grant, and 

ipport, besides the schools mentioned, local classes and lectures 






in agriculture, fishery and other technical subjects, in addition 
to subsidizing the agricultural department of the university of 
Aberdeen. The higher branches of education have always been 
thoroughly taught in the schools throughout the shire, and pupils 
have long been in the habit of going directly from the schools to 
the university. 

The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny, 
active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without demon- 
strative enthusiasm. They have a physiognomy distinct from 
the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather 
angry accent. The local Scots dialect is broad, and rich in 
diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for o or ,/for wh, d for 
t/i, &c. So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of 
almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used. 

History. The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen 
and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom 
Ptolemy called Taixali, the territory being named Taixalon. 
Their town of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aber- 
deen, has been identified by Prof. John Stuart with a site in 
the parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient 
camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station 
on Loch Davan, west of Aboyne. So-called Roman camps have 
also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but 
evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek. Traces 
of the native inhabitants, however, are much less equivocal. 
Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the west. Relics 
of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch Ceander, or Kinnord, 
S m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch Goul in the parish of 
New Machar and elsewhere. Duns or forts occur on hills at 
Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area of two acres, Barra 
near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer near Insch and 
other places. Monoliths, standing stones and "Druidical" 
circles of the pagan period abound, and there are many examples 
of the sculptured stones of the early Christian epoch. Efforts 
to convert the Picts were begun by Ternan in the 5th century, 
and continued by Columba (who founded a monastery at Old 
Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but it was long before they 
showed lasting results. Indeed, dissensions within the Columban 
church and the expulsion of the clergy from Pictland by the 
Pictish king Nectan in the 8th century undid most of the 
progress that had been made. The Vikings and Danes periodi- 
cally raided the coast, but when (1040) Macbeth ascended the 
throne of Scotland the Northmen, under the guidance of Thor- 
finn, refrained from further trouble in the north-east. Macbeth 
was afterwards slain at Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Perkhill 
marking the spot. The influence of the Norman conquest of 
England was felt even in Aberdeenshire. Along with numerous 
Anglo-Saxon exiles, there also settled in the country Flemings 
who introduced various industries, Saxons who brought farming, 
and Scandinavians who taught nautical skill. The Celts revolted 
more than once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors 
crushed them and confiscated their lands. In the reign of Alex- 
ander I. (d. 1124) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally 
called Aberdon and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which re- 
ceived its charter from William the Lion in 1179, by which date 
its burgesses had already combined with those of Banff, Elgin, 
Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form a 
free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading privi- 
leges. By this time, too, the Church had been organized, the 
bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in 1 1 50. In the 
1 2th and i3th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire families 
arose, including the earl of Mar (c. 1122), the Leslies, Freskins 
(ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland), Durwards, Bysets, 
Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant that in most cases 
their founders were immigrants. The Celtic thanes and their 
retainers slowly fused with the settlers. They declined to take 
advantage of the disturbed condition of the country during the 
wars of the Scots independence, and made common cause with 
the bulk of the nation. Though John Comyn (d. 1300?), one of 
the competitors for the throne, had considerable interests in 
the shire, his claim received locally little support. In 1296 
Edward I. made a triumphal march to the north to terrorize the 



ABERDOUR ABERFOYLE 



more turbulent nobles. Next year William Wallace surprised 
the English garrison in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle. 
In 1303 Edward again visited the county, halting at the castle 
of Kildrummy, then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who 
shortly afterwards became the acknowledged leader of the Scots 
and made Aberdeen his headquarters for several months. De- 
spite the seizure of Kildrummy Castle by the English in 1306, 
Bruce's prospects brightened from 1308, when he defeated John 
Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1313?), at Inverurie. For a hundred 
years after Robert Bruce's death (1329) there was intermittent 
anarchy in the shire. Aberdeen itself was burned by the English 
in 1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and 
Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels on the part of the dis- 
possessed. Moreover, the crown had embroiled itself with some 
of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it sought to 
abolish. This policy culminated in the invasion of Aberdeen- 
shire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however, defeated 
at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in 1411. In the 
1 5th century two other leading county families appeared, Sir 
Alexander Forbes being created Lord Forbes about 1442, and 
Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 an ^ earl of Huntly 
in 1445. Bitter feuds raged between these families for a long 
period, but the Gordons reached the height of their power in the 
first half of the i6th century, when their domains, already vast, 
were enhanced by the acquisition, through marriage, of the 
earldom of Sutherland (1514). Meanwhile commerce with the 
Low Countries, Poland and the Baltic had grown apace, Camp- 
vere, near Flushing in Holland, becoming the emporium of the 
Scottish traders, while education was fostered by the foundation 
of King's College at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed 
a century later). At the Reformation so little intuition had the 
clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that religious 
structures were being despoiled in the south, the building and 
decoration of churches went on in the shire. The change was 
acquiesced in without much tumult, though rioting took place 
in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in the city suffered 
damage. The 4th earl of Huntly offered some resistance, on 
behalf of the Catholics, to the influence of Lord James Stuart, 
afterwards the Regent Murray, but was defeated and killed at 
Corrichie on the hill of Fare in 1562. As years passed it was 
apparent that Presbyterianism was less generally acceptable 
than Episcopacy, of which system Aberdeenshire remained for 
generations the stronghold in Scotland. Another crisis in ecclesi- 
astical affairs arose in 1638, when the National Covenant was 
ordered to be subscribed, a demand so grudgingly responded to 
that the marquis of Montrose visited the shire in the following 
year to enforce acceptance. The Cavaliers, not being disposed 
to yield, dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the 
affair called the Trot of Turriff (1639), in which the first blood 
of the civil war was shed. The Covenanters obtained the upper 
hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge of 
Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no 
choice but to cast in its lot with the victors. Montrose, however, 
soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters under 
Cord. Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to rapine. 
He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff fight on the 2nd 
of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the beautiful Howe of Alford. 
Peace was temporarily restored on the " engagement " of the 
Scots commissioners to assist Charles I. On his return from 
Holland in 1650 Charles II. was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in 
little more than a year General Monk entered the city at the 
head of the Cromwellian regiments. The English garrison re- 
mained till 1659, and next year the Restoration was effusively 
hailed, and prelacy was once more in the ascendant. Most of the 
Presbyterians conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in 
the shire and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere 
else in Scotland, were systematically persecuted. After the 
Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the 
clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the inevitable, 
hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy might yet be 
recognized as the national form of Church government. Her 
death dissipated these dreams, and as George I., her successor, 



was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened that Jacobitism and 
episcopalianism came to be regarded in the shire as identical, 
though in point of fact the non-jurors as a body never counte- 
nanced rebellion. The earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt 
in Braemar (6th of September 1715); a fortnight later James 
was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the Pretender landed at 
Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and in February 1716 he 
was back again in France. The collapse of the first rising ruined 
many of the lairds, and when the second rebellion occurred 
thirty years afterwards the county in the main was apathetic, 
though the insurgents held Aberdeen for five months, and Lord 
Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory for Prince Charles Edward 
at Inverurie (23rd of December 1745). The duke of Cumberland 
relieved Aberdeen at the end of February 1746, and in April 
the Young Pretender was a fugitive. Thereafter the people 
devoted themselves to agriculture, industry and . commerce, 
which developed by leaps and bounds, and, along with equally 
remarkable progress in education, transformed the aspect of 
the shire and made the community as a whole one of the most 
prosperous in Scotland. 

See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh, 1900); 
Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen and Banff (edited 
by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club) ; Sir A. Leith-Hay, Castles 
of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 1887); J. Davidson, Inverurie and the 
Earldom of the Garioch (Edinburgh, 1878); Pratt, Buchan (rev. by 
R. Anderson), (Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Deeside .(Aber- 
deen, 1895). 

ABERDOUR, a village of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pleasantly 
situated qn the shore of the Firth of Fortfi, 175 m. N.W. of 
Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m. N.W. of Leith 
by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent sea-bathing. 
There are ruins of a castle and an old decayed church, which 
contains some fine Norman work. About 3 m. S.W. is Doni- 
bristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray (Moray), and the 
scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James, 2nd (Stuart) earl 
of Murray. The island of Inchcolm, or Island of Columba, f m. 
from the shore, is in the parish of Aberdour. As its name 
implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba. The 
primitive stone-roofed oratory is supposed to have been a 
hermit's cell. The Augustinian monastery was founded in 1123 
by Alexander I. The buildings are well preserved, consisting of a 
low square tower, church, cloisters, refectory and small chapter- 
house. The island of Columba was occasionally plundered by 
English and other rovers, but in the i6th century it became the 
property of Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl 
of Murray by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the 
ist earl. From it comes the earl's title of Lord St Colme (1611). 

ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi is the county frontier), a 
seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian 
railway. Pop. (1901) 1466. It lies in the midst of beautiful 
scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary, 
commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and 
Plynlimmon. The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a ferry 
to Berth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth. The sub- 
merged " bells of Aberdovey " (since Seithennin " the drunkard " 
caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous in a Welsh 
song. Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort. 

ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 
34i m. N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop. 
of parish (1901) 1052. The village is situated at the base of 
Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head-water of 
the Forth. Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed 
a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older 
road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has be- 
come the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine. 
Loch Ard, about 2 m. W. of Aberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the sea. 
It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end) and i m. 
broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle), 
and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two 
m. N.W. is Loch Chon, 290 ft. above the sea, if m. long, and 
about 5 m. broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, 
which is drained in turn by the Laggan. The slate quarries on 
Craigmore are the only industry in Aberfoyle. 






ABERGAVENNY ABERNETHY 



53 



ABERGAVENNY, a market town and municipal borough in 
the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 
14 m. W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the London 
and North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 7795. It is situated 
at the junction of a small stream called the Gavenny with the 
river Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills, is 
very beautiful. The town was formerly walled, and has the 
remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently the 
scene of border strife. The church of St Mary belonged origin- 
ally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the i2th cen- 
tury. The existing building, however, is Decorated and Perpen- 
dicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates from the 
I3th to the 1 7th century. There is a free grammar school, which 
till 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College, Oxford. Breweries, 
ironworks, quarries, brick fields and collieries in the neighbour- 
hood are among the principal industrial establishments. Aber- 
gavenny was incorporated in 1899, and is governed by a mayor, 
4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 825 acres. 

This was the Roman Gobannium, a small fort guarding the road 
along the valley of the Usk and ensuring quiet among the hill tribes. 
There is practically no trace of this fort. Abergavenny (Bergavenny) 
grew up under the protection of the lords of Abergavenny, whose 
title dated from William I. Owing to its situation, the town was 
frequently embroiled in the border warfare of the I2th and I3th 
centuries, and Giraldus Cambrensis relates how in 1175 the castle 
was seized by the Welsh. Hamelyn de Baalun, first lord of Aber- 
gavenny, founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently 
endowed by William de Braose with a tenth of the profits of the 
castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory part of this en- 
dowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, 
the site itself passing to the Gunter family. During the Civil War 
prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, Charles I. visited Aber- 
gavenny, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams 
and other parliamentarians. In 1639 Abergavenny received a 
charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A 
charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears 
never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to 
the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath 
of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the charter was annulled, and 
the town subsequently declined in prosperity. The act of 27 
Henry VIII., which provided that Monmouth, as county town, 
should return one burgess to parliament, further stated that other 
ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the 
payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny 
on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being 
in 1685. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a 
charter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. 1211). The 
right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto 
held, was confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the 
production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst 
the fashion prevailed, of periwigs of goats' hair. 

The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates from 
Edward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of the 1st earl 
of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt. 
He married the heiress of Richard, earl of Worcester, whose father 
had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was sum- 
moned in 1392 to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward 
Neville was summoned to parliament with this title in 1450. His 
direct male descendants ended in 1587 in Henry Neville, but a 
cousin, Edward Neville (d. 1622), was confirmed in the barony in 
1604. From him it has descended continuously, the title being 
increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic), 
5th earl (b. 1826), an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the 
Conservative party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See 
NEVILLE.) 

ABERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT (1848-1881), Anglo- 
Indian writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th 
of July 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School and 
Cambridge University. Entering the Indian education depart- 
ment in 1870, he became professor of English literature in Delhi 
College in 1873, .tutor to the raja of Rutlam 1876, and principal 
of the Rajkumar College at Indcre in 1877. He is best known 
for his book Twenty-one Days in India (1878-1879)^ satire upon 
Anglo-Indian society and modes of thought. This book gave 
promise of a successful literary career; but the author died at 
the age of thirty-three. 

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680-1740), Irish Presbyterian divine, 
was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father 
was Nonconformist minister, on the igth of October 1680. In 
his thirteenth year he entered the university of Glasgow, and on 
concluding his course there went on to Edinburgh, where his 



intellectual and social attainments gained him a ready entrance 
into the most cultured circles. Returning home he received 
licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was twenty-one. 
In 1701 he was urgently invited to accept charge of an important 
congregation in Antrim; and after an interval of two years, 
mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he was ordained there 
on the 8th of August 1703. Here he did notable work, both as a 
debater in the synods and assemblies of his church and as an 
evangelist. In 1712 he lost his wife (Susannah Jordan) , and the 
loss desolated his life for many years. In 1717 he was invited to 
the congregation of Usher's Quay, Dublin, and contemporane- 
ously to what was called the Old Congregation of Belfast. The 
synod assigned him to Dublin. After careful consideration he 
declined to accede, and remained at Antrim. This refusal was 
regarded then as ecclesiastical high-treason; and a controversy 
of the most intense and disproportionate character followed, Aber- 
nethy standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the 
sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts. The contro- 
versy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the con- 
flict, the " Subscribers " and the " Non-subscribers." Out-and- 
out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can be no question 
that he and his associates sowed the seeds of that after-struggle 
(1821-1840) in which, under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke, 
the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish Presbyterian Church 
were thrown out. Much of what he contended for, and which the 
" Subscribers " opposed bitterly, has been silently granted in the 
lapse of time. In 1726 the " Non-subscribers," spite of an almost 
wofully pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were 
cut off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian 
Church. In 1730, although a " Non-subscriber," he was invited 
to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed. In 1731 came on 
the greatest controversy in which Abernethy engaged, viz. in 
relation to the Test Act nominally, but practically on the entire 
question of tests and disabilities. His stand was " against all 
laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions 
and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability 
from serving their country." He was nearly a century in ad- 
vance of his age. He had to reason with those who denied that a 
Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a " man of integrity and 
ability." His Tracts afterwards collected did fresh service, 
generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love 
freedom of conscience and opinion. He died in December 1740. 
See Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1762); Diary in MS., 
6 vols. 410; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234. 

ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson 
of John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the 
3rd of April 1764. His father was a London merchant. Edu- 
cated at Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed 
in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical 
lectures of Sir William Blizard (1743-1835) at the London 
Hospital, and was early employed to assist as "demonstrator"; 
he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter. On 
Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's, 
Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-s,urgeon, succeeded him, 
and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this 
capacity he began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew 
Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the 
hospital built a regular theatre (1790-1791), and Abernethy thus 
became the founder of the distinguished school of St Bartholo- 
mew's. He held the office of assistant-surgeon of the hospital 
for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was 
elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been ap- 
pointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons 
(1814). Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is 
associated with the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the 
external iliac artery. His Surgical Observations on the Constitu- 
tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809) known as 
" My Book," from the great frequency with which he referred 
his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that 
name was one of the earliest popular works on medical science. 



54 



ABERRATION 



He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of 
disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated 
by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was ex- 
ceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely 
attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated 
his views. It has been said, however, that the influence he 
exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial 
in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically, 
and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced 
so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry. 
The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his 
great professional skill, but also in part to the singularity of his 
manners. He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse 
with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes 
even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends he was 
courteous and affectionate; and in all his dealings he was strictly 
just and honourable. He resigned his position at St Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on 
the 20th of April 1831. 

A collected edition of his works was published in 1830. A bio- 
graphy, Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, appeared 
in 1853. 

ABERRATION (Lat. ab, from or away, errare, to wander), 
a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense : 
as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology, a mental 
derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal development 
or structure. In optics, the word has two special applications: 
(i) Aberration of Light, and (2) Aberration in Optical Systems. 
These subjects receive treatment below. 

I. ABERRATION OF LIGHT 

This astronomical phenomenon may be defined as an apparent 
motion of the heavenly bodies; the stars describing annually 
orbits more or less elliptical, according to the latitude of the 
star; consequently at any moment the star appears to be dis- 
placed from its true position. This apparent motion is due to 
the finite velocity of light, and the progressive motion of the 
observer with the earth, as it performs its yearly course about 
the sun. It may be familiarized by the following illustrations. 
Alexis Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be 
falling vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular 
tube to be standing on the ground. If the bearer be stationary, 
rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides; 
if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inclined 
at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain may 
traverse the tube centrally. J. J. L. de Lalande gave the illus- 
tration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if the carriage 
be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be moving, rain 
enters at the front. The " umbrella " analogy is possibly the 
best known figure. When stationary, the most efficient position 
in which to hold an umbrella is obviously vertical; when walk- 
ing, the umbrella must be held more and more inclined from the 
vertical as the walker quickens his pace. Another familiar figure, 
pointed out by P. L. M. de Maupertuis, is that a sportsman, 
when aiming at a bird on the wing, sights his gun some distance 
ahead of the bird, the distance being proportional to the velocity 
of the bird. The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of 
velocities, permits a ready and easy graphical representation of 
these facts. Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut, 
let AB (fig. i) represent the velocity of the rain, and 
AC the relative velocity of the person bearing the 
tube. The diagonal AD of the parallelogram, of 
which AB and AC are adjacent sides, will represent, 
both in direction and magnitude, the motion of the 
rain as apparent to the observer. Hence for the 
rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined at an 
angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently termed 
the aberration due to these two motions. The umbrella analogy 
is similarly explained; the most efficient position being when 
the stick points along the resultant AD. 

The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James 
Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of 




FIG. i. 



astronomy. That it was unexpected there can be no doubt; 
and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity 
that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. Its origin is seated 
in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing discordances 
as to whether the stars possessed appreciable parallaxes. The 
Copernican theory of the solar system that the earth revolved 
annually about the sun had received confirmation by the ob- 
servations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and the mathematical 
investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas 
Digges had suggested that this theory should necessitate a 
parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar 
parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive 
additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have 
determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Riccioli 
concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, 
and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In 1680 
Jean Picard, in his Voyage d'Uranibourg, stated, as a result of 
ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole Star, exhibited 
variations in its position amounting to 40" annually; some 
astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these 
attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that 
which parallax would occasion. J. Flamsteed, from measure- 
ments made in 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quad- 
rant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star 
was 40" less in July than in September. R. Hooke, in 1674, 
published his observations of y Draconis, a star of the second 
magnitude which passes practically overhead in the latitude of 
London, and whose observations are therefore singularly free 
from the complex corrections due to astronomical refraction, 
and concluded that this star was 23" more northerly in July 
than in October. 

When James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this 
sphere of astronomical research in 1725, there consequently 
prevailed much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes 
had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of 
definitely answering this question that these astronomers 
erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at Kew. 
They determined to reinvestigate the motion of y Draconis; the 
telescope, constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a cele- 
brated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney- 
stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the 
eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical, 
was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and 
a plumb-line. The instrument was set up in November 1725, 
and observations on y Draconis were made on the 3rd, 5th, nth, 
and 1 2th of December. There was apparently no shifting of 
the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly 
point. On the I7th of December, however, Bradley observed 
that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown 
by observations on the 2oth. These results were unexpected, 
and, in fact, inexplicable by existing theories; and an examina- 
tion of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were 
not due to instrumental errors. The observations were continued, 
and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until 
March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than 
its December position. After March it began to pass north- 
wards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June 
it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it did in De- 
cember; and in September it passed through its most northerly 
position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle 
between the March and September positions, being 40". 

This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case, 
the maximum range should be between the June and December 
positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley 
and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of 
fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while y Draconis was 
stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements 
were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the earth 
varied. The oscillation of the earth's axis may arise in two 
distinct ways; distinguished as " nutation of the axis " and 
" variation of latitude. " Nutation, the only form of oscilla- 
tion imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the earth's 






ABERRATION 



55 



axis is fixed with respect to the earth, i.e. the north and south 
poles occupy permanent geographical positions, yet the axis 
is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation 
of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis 
within the earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole 
Varies. 

Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent 
motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar 
distance as 7 Draconis should exhibit the same apparent motion 
after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars 
satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance with that of 
7 Draconis, but few were bright enough to be observed in Moly- 
neux's telescope. One such star, however, with a right ascension 
nearly equal to that of 7 Draconis, but in the opposite sense, 
was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen 
to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a 
consequence of the nutation of the earth's axis; but since its 
declination varied only one half as much as in the case of 7 Dra- 
conis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite 
solution. The question as to whether the motion was due to an 
irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus involving 
abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investi- 
gated; here, again, negative results were obtained. 

Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars 
previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declina- 
tion from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to 
the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he realized 
the necessity for more observations before any generalization 
could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory, 
Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs Pound, the widow of his 
uncle James Pound, with whom he had made many observations 
of the heavenly bodies. Here he had set up, on the ipth of 
August 1727, a more convenient telescope than that at Kew, 
its range extending over 6j on each side of the zenith, thus 
covering a far larger area of the sky. Two hundred stars in the 
British Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, 
of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His 
conclusions may be thus summarized: (i) only stars near the 
solstitial colure had their maximum north and south positions 
when the sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was at its 
maximum positions when it passed the zenith at six o'clock 
morning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, 
and found the greatest change in declination to be proportional 
to the latitude of the star), (3) the apparent motions of all stars 
at about the same time was in the same direction. 

A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as 
to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory 
was ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable in 
simplicity and importance with the association of a falling apple 
with the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. 
Sailing on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly observed the 
shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course; 
and, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant 
that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he 
realized that the position taken up by the vane was determined 
by the motion of the boat and the direction of the wind. The 
application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so 
long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published 
his theory of the aberration of light a corner-stone of the 
edifice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the 
s observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be 
perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary 
at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if, 
however, he traverses the distance BA in the same 
time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will 
appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the ob- 
server is not conscious of his own translatory motion 
FIG. 2. w ;th the earth in its orbit, the star appears to have 
a displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion 
of the observer. To generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun, 
ABCD the earth's orbit, and s the true position of a star. 
When the earth is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star 




is displaced to a point a, its displacement sa being parallel to 
the earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star 
appears at b; and so on 
throughout an orbital re- 
volution of the earth. Every 
star, therefore, describes an 
apparent orbit, which, if the 
line joining the sun and the 
star be perpendicular to 
the plane ABCD, will be ex- 
actly similar to that of the 
earth, i.e. almost a circle. 
As the star decreases in lati- 
tude, this circle will be 
viewed more and more ob- 
liquely, becoming a flatter 
and flatter ellipse until, with A j 
zero latitude, it degenerates 
into a straight line (fig. 4). 

The major axis of any 
such aberrational ellipse is 
always parallel to AC, i.e. the 
ecliptic, and since it is equal 
to the ratio of the velocity 
of light to the velocity of the earth, it is necessarily constant. 
This constant length subtends an angle of about 40" at the 
earth; the " constant of aberration " is half this angle. The 
generally accepted value is 20-445", due to Struve; the last two 
figures are uncertain, and all that can be definitely affirmed 
is that the value lies between 20-43" an( i 20-48". The minor axis, 
on the other hand, is not constant, but, as w'e have already 
seen, depends on the latitude, being the product of 
the major axis into the sine of the latitude. 

Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley cor- 
rected his observations for aberration, but he found 
that there still remained a residuum which was evi- 
dently not a parallax, for it did not exhibit an annual 
cycle. He reverted to his early idea of a nutation of 
the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the discovery 
that the earth did possess such an oscillation (see 
ASTRONOMY). Bradley recognized the fact that the 
experimental determination of the aberration constant 
gave the ratio of the velocities of light and of the 
earth; hence, if the velocity of the earth be known, 
the velocity of light is determined. In recent years 
much attention has been given to the nature of the 
propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the ea.rth, the 
argument generally being centred about the relative effect of 
the motion of the aether on the velocity of light. This subject is 
discussed in the articles AETHER and LIGHT. 

REFERENCES. A detailed account of Bradley's work is given in 
S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in Charles Hutton, 
Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (J795); a particularly 
clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, Astronomical 
Discovery (1904). The subject receives treatment in all astronomical 
works. 

II. ABERRATION IN OPTICAL SYSTEMS 

Aberration in optical systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a 
series of them, may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays 
from the points of an object after transmission through the 
system; it happens generally that an image formed by such a 
system is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical 
systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the 
instrument-maker. Reference should be made to the articles 
REFLEXION, REFRACTION, and CAUSTIC for the general char- 
acters of reflected and refracted rays (the article LENS considers 
in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also be 
consulted) ; in this article will be discussed the nature, varieties 
and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical point of 
view, i.e. that of the optical-instrument maker. 

Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr. 
, colour) aberrations, caused by the composite nature of 




Lat. a" 

FIG. 4. 



ABERRATION 



the light generally applied (e.g. white light), which is dispersed 
by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr. fiovos, one) aberrations 
produced without dispersion. Consequently the monochro- 
matic class includes the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any 
coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic or 
light of single wave length. 

(a) Monochromatic Aberration. 

The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: 
Rays of light proceeding from any " object point " unite in an 
"image point"; and therefore an "object space" is repro- 
duced in an " image space." The introduction of simple auxiliary 
terms, due to C. F. Gauss (Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Got- 
tingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits 
the determination of the image of any object for any system 
(see LENS). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long 
as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmet- 
rical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal 
objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not 
realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, 
in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aper- 
ture or field of view exceeds certain limits. The investigations 
of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856; Quart. Journ. Math., 
1858, and Ernst Abbe 1 ) showed that the properties of these 
reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the 
images, are not special properties of optical systems, but neces- 
sary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the repro- 
duction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes 
a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner 
in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved, 
however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, 
since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion 
and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies 
a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no con- 
structor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. All 
that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane 
in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satis- 
factorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is im- 
probable that these will ever be entirely corrected. 

This, and related general questions, have been treated besides 
the above-mentioned authors by M . Thiesen (Berlin . A kad. Sitzber. , 
1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin.Phys.Ges.Verh., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig. 
Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton! 
"characteristic function" (Irish Acad. Trans., "Theory of Systems 
of Rays," 1828, et seq.). Reference may also be made to the treatise 
of Czapski-Eppenstem, pp. 155-161. 

A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given, 
(i) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration in the re- 
stricted sense). If S (fig. 5) be any optical system, rays pro- 
ceeding from an axis point O under an angle u\ will unite in the 
axis point O'i ; and those under an angle u 2 in the axis point O' 2 . 
If there be refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through 
a thin positive lens, O' 2 will lie in front of O'i so long as the angle 
2 is greater than u\ (" under correction ") ; and conversely 
with a dispersive surface or lenses ("over correction"). The 
caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than) ; 
in the second < (less than). If the angle i be very small, O'i 
is the Gaussian image; and O'i O' 2 is termed the " longitudinal 
aberration," and O'iR the " lateral aberration " of the pencils 
with aperture 2 . If the pencil with the angle w 2 be that of the 
maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a 
plane perpendicular to the axis at O'i there is a circular " disk 
of confusion" of radius O'iR, and in a parallel plane at O's 
another one of radius O'2R 2 ; between these two is situated the 
" disk of least confusion." 

The largesc opening of the pencils, which take part in the 
reproduction of O, i.e. the angle , is generally determined by 
the margin of one of the lenses or by a. hole in a thin plate placed 
between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole 
is termed the "stop" or "diaphragm"; Abbe used the term 
" aperture stop " for both the hole and the limiting margin of the 

'The investigations of E. Abbe on geometrical optics, originally 
published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by 
S. Czapski in 1893. See below, AUTHORITIES. 



lens. The component Si of the system, situated between the 
aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the dia- 
phragm, termed by Abbe the "entrance pupil"; the "exit 
pupil " is the image formed by the component S 2 , which is placed 
behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass 
through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and 
exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since 
the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle 
u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magni- 
tude of the aberration will be determined by the position and 
diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind 
the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (" front 
stop ") ; if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (" back stop "). 

If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by 
the first member of the system are parallel, and their inter- 
sections, after traversing the system, vary according to their 
" perpendicular height of incidence," i.e. their distance from 
the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding 
considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance 
pupil, is its maximum value. 

(2) Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles 
to the axis. If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it 
does not follow 
that points in a 
portion of a plane 
perpendicular at 
O to the axis 
will be also con- O 
current, even if 
the part of the 
plane be very 
small. With 
a considerable 
aperture, the 
neighbouring 




FIG. 5. 



point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations com- 
parable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided 
if, according to Abbe, the " sine condition," sin w'i/sin i = sin 
w' 2 /sin u-i, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the 
object point O be infinitely distant, MI and M 2 are to be replaced 
by h\ and hi, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the " sine 
condition " then becomes sin MVAi = sin ' 2 //i 2 . A system ful- 
filling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called 
" aplanatic " (Greek a-, privative, ir\a.vr), a wandering). This 
word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of prac- 
tical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a 
superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to 
denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration 
of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly 
increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture. 

(3) Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis) 
with narrow pencils. Astigmatism. A point O (fig. 6) at a 
finite distance from the 
axis (or with an infinitely { 
distant object, a point 
which subtends a finite 
angle at the system) is, 
in general, even then not 
sharply reproduced, if 
the pencil of rays issuing 
from it and traversing 




FIG. 6. 



the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture 
stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from 
the object point through the now infinitely small entrance 
pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil 
does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; 
therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, ori-y^a, a point). 
Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the 
axis of the pencil " or " principal ray," we can say: the rays 
of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, 
which we can assume to be at right angles to the principal ray; 
of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and 



ABERRATION 



57 



the axis of the system, i.e. in the " first principal section " or 
" meridional section," and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in 
the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, 
therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, 
for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point; 
on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O" are 
separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed), 
and in a plane between O' and O" a circle of least confusion. 
The interval O'O", termed the astigmatic difference, increases, 
in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with 
the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two " astig- 
matic image surfaces " correspond to one object plane; and these 
are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines 
of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in 
which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed ana- 
stigmatic or stigmatic. 

Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigraation; 
the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas 
Young (A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 1807); and 
the theory has been recently developed by A. Gullstrand (Skand. 
Arch.f. physiol., 1890, 2, p. 269; Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat. 
Aberrationen, etc., Upsala, 1900; Arch.f. Ophth., 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185). 
A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's Die Bilder- 
zeugung in optischen Instrumenten (Berlin, 1904). 

(4) Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma. 
By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral 
points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in 
this case they are much more complicated. The course of the 
rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the 
principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there 
appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not sym- 
metrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a 
comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. 
From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form 
of the meridional pencil formerly the only one considered is 
coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been 
treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.) , and more recently 
by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941). 

(5) Curvature of the field of the image. If the above errors 
be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp 
image obtained with a wide aperture there remains the necessity 
to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the 
image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. 
In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. 

(6) Distortion of the image. If now the image be sufficiently 
sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point 
meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen 
that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object. 
This error consists in the different parts of the object being re- 
produced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner 
parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (" barrel- 
shaped distortion "), or conversely (" cushion-shaped distortion") 
(see fig. 7). Systems free of this aberration are called " ortho- 

scopic " (6p96s, right, 
o-KOTTflv, to look) . 
This aberration is 
quite distinct from 
that of the sharpness 
of reproduction ; in 
unsharp reproduction, 
the question of dis- 
tortion arises if only 
parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in 
an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object 
point, the "centre of gravity" of the patch may be regarded 
as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiv- 
ing the image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing 
through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if 
a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary when 
the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs. 
This ray, named by Abbe a " principal ray " (not to be confused 
with the "principal rays" of the Gaussian theory), passes 
through the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, 





Object 



Barrel shaped 



Cushion shaped 



Distorted image 

FIG. 7. 




FIG. 8. 



and the centre of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From 
this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the 
principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature 
of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ =a' 
tan w'/a tan w=i/N, where N is the " scale " or magnification 
of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w' I 
a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a' /a be sufficiently 
constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the 
" condition of Airy," i.e. tan ui' '/ tan a>=a constant. This 
simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. i) is fulfilled 
in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their 
diaphragm (briefly named " symmetrical or holosymmetrical 
objectives "), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, 
components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their 
size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical 
objectives); in these systems tan in' I tan wi=i. The constancy 
of a' la necessary for this re- 
lation to hold was pointed out 
by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ. 
Photog., 1861), and Thomas 
Sutton (Photographic Notes, 
1862); it has been treated by 
O. Lummer and by M. von 
Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., 
1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). 
It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced 
in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical 
aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling 
neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio 
a! tan w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object. 
This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical 
objectives reproducing with the scale i, and by hemisymmetrical, 
if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of 
the two components. 

Analytic Treatment of Aberrations. The preceding review of 
the several errors of reproduction belongs to the " Abbe theory 
of aberrations," in which definite aberrations are discussed separ- 
ately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction 
of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be elimi- 
nated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the 
mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the re- 
production of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all 
probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is 
only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be " in- 
finitely small of a certain order"; and with each order of infinite 
smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to 
finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations 
is associated. This connexion is only supplied by theories 
which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of 
indefinite series. 

A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be de- 
fined by the co-ordinates (, 17) of this point O in an object plane I, 
at right angles 
to the axis, and 
two other co- 
ordinates (x, y), 
the point in 
which the ray 
intersects the 
entrance pupil, 

i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may 
be defined by the points (',17'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and 
II'. The origins of these four plane co-ordinate systems may be 
collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corre- 
sponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four co-ordinates 
^',tl',x',y' are functions of ,i),x,y; and if it be assumed that the 
field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then , ij, x, y 
are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expand- 
ing ', jj', x', y' in ascending powers of , rj, x, y, series are ob- 
tained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers. 
It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the 
origins of the co-ordinate systems collinear with the optical axis 




ABERRATION 



and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs 
of ,77, x, y, the values ', if, x, y must likewise change their sign, 
but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series 
are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables. 

The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding 
from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this 
will not be the case, for ', t\ vary if , t\ be constant, but x, y 
variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are 
drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by 
rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an 
extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, 
the Gauss image point O'o, with co-ordinates ' 0) ij'o, of the 
point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. 
Writing A' = ' ' and ATJ' = TJ' TJ'O, then A' and AT;' are 
the aberrations belonging to , 77 and x, y, and are functions of 
these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only 
odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account 
of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of 
light, depending in size on the lowest powers of , r/, x, y which 
the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These 
degrees, named by J. Petzval (Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger 
dioptrischer Untersuchungen, Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad. Sitzber., 
Wien, 1857, vols.xxiv.xxvi.) " the numerical orders of the image," 
are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the for- 
mation of an image of the wzth order is that in the series for A' 
and AT;' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . . 
(w-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory 
being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image 
of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd 
degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; 
in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the 
vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. 

The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants 
of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices 
and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel (Astr. 
Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait 
objective, unexcelled even at the present day, from similar cal- 
culations, which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, 
Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, Berlin, 1899, 
p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Miinchen. 
Akad. Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous 
paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (Miinchen. Akad. 
Sitzber., 1898, 28, p. 395) ; a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (Bei- 
trdge zur Dioptrik, Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-^). A. Konigand M. von Rohr 
(see M. von Rohr, Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, pp. 
3' 7-3 2 3) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the 
Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe 
method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically 
(pp. 212-316). 

The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the "char- 
acteristic function " of the system and its differential coefficients, 
instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not 
immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the 
number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton 
(British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of 
the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by 
Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1874-1875; see also the 
treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. 
Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys.Ber., 
1895, 21 , p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschild 
(Gottingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, No. l), who thus discovered the 
aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly 
the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand 
(vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory 
of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces. 

The aberrations of the third order are: (i) aberration of the 
axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the 
Aberra- ax ' s * s verv sm all, less than of the third order the 
tioas of deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall 
the third together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature 
of the field; (5) distortion. 

(i) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with 
in all text-books on optics. It is important for telescope objec- 
tives, since their apertures are so small as to permit higher 
orders to be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness 
and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the 
radii r: r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value 
of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the 



power of the lens remaining constant) . The total aberration of 
two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the 
individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the 
lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with 
=i-S, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the 
third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical 
importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of 
which has just so strong a positive aberration (" under-correc- 
tion," vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a 
positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however, 
may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained. 
It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect 
by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and 
likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin 
lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be repro- 
duced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from 
aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant, 
is known as " Herschel's condition." All these rules are valid, 
inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not 
to be taken into account. 

(2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is 
also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as 
" Fraunhofer's Condition." (4) After eliminating the aberration 
on the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness 
of the field in the third order is expressed by the " Petzval 
equation," 2i/r(n'-w)= o, where r is the radius of a refracting 
surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring 
media, and 2 the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces. 

Practical Elimination of Aberrations. The existence of an 
optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite plane on 
another with pencils of finite aperture, is doubtful; but practical 
systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly 
suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. 
The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object 
upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aber- 
rations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by 
means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, 
the analytical difficulties are too great. Solutions, however, have 
been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's 
Die BUderzeugung, p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gottingen. Akad. 
Abhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 2and3). At the present time constructors 
almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a 
system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, 
by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, 
whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples 
are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik, 
Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances 
are continually altered until the errors of the image become 
sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of repro- 
duction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, 
of those named above. The analytical approximation theory 
is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not 
generally suffice. 

In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation 
from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, 
there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture * (with 
infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) 
the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to 
one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller 
than the largest aperture U or II to be used in the system). 
The Tays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not 
have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio; 
these deviations are called "zones," and the constructor en- 
deavours to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for 
the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: 
astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated 
for a definite value, w*; "zones of astigmatism, curvature of 
field and distortion " attend smaller values of w. The practical 
optician names such systems: "corrected for the angle of 
aperture u* (the height of incidence h*), or the angle of field of 
view w*." Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios 
are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture, 






ABERRATION 



59 



in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image sur- 
faces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as 
functions of the angles of the field of view. 

The final form of a practical system consequently rests on 
compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution 
of the available field of view, and vice versa. The following 
may be regarded as typical: (i) Largest aperture; necessary 
corrections are for the axis point, and sine condition; errors 
of the field of view are almost disregarded; example high- 
power microscope objectives. (2) Largest field of view; neces- 
sary corrections are for astigmatism, curvature of field and 
distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; ex- 
amples photographic widest angle objectives and oculars. 
Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photo- 
graphic objective: the portrait objective is corrected more with 
regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to 
the field of view. (3) Telescope objectives have usually not 
very large apertures, and small fields of view; they should, 
however, possess zones as small as possible, and be built in the 
simplest manner. They are the best for analytical computation. 

(b) Chromatic or Colour A berration. 

In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude 
and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of 
the glass employed (see LENS, and above, " Monochromatic 
Aberration ") . Since the index of refraction varies with the colour 
or wave length of the light (see DISPERSION), it follows that a 
system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different 
colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with differ- 
ent aberrations; i.e. there are " chromatic differences " of 
the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of mono- 
chromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white 
light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ulti- 
mately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing 
screen of a camera, &c.), they cause a confusion, named chro- 
matic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a 
dark background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or 
narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achroma- 
tism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. 
A system is said to be " chromatically under-corrected " when it 
shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, 
otherwise it is said to be " over-corrected." 

If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected 
in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted then every 
reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, 
and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, 
as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of repro- 
duction. These constants are determined by the data of the 
system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., of the lenses) ; 
therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and conse- 
quently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given 
in Czapski-Eppenstein, Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen 
Instruments (1903, p. 166). The refractive indices for different 
wave lengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. 
In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one 
constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e. 
this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, 
with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal 
plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants 
of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for 
all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and the 
system is said to be in " stable achromatism." 

In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine 
the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of 
intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by 
a sum in which each component contains the amount due to 
each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, -op. cit. p. 170; 
A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, Die Bttderzeugung, p. 340). 
In a plane containing the image point of one colour, another 
colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the con- 
fusion caused by two " zones " in spherical aberration. For 
infinitely distant objects the radius of the chromatic disk of 



confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent 
of the focal length (vide supra, " Monochromatic Aberration of the 
Axis Point ") ; and since this disk becomes the less harmful with 
an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal 
length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is propor- 
tional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the 
" relative aperture." (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in 
vogue before the discovery of achromatism.) 

Examples. (a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant 
of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the 
distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index 
for one colour be n, and for another n+dn, and the powers, or 
reciprocals of the focal lengths, be <and <j>-{-d(j>, then (i) d<j>/4> 
= dn/(n- i) = i/v; dn is called the dispersion, and v the dis- 
persive power of the glass. 

(b) Two thin lenses in contact: let <fr and <j> 2 be the powers 
corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices n\ and n^ and 
radii r'\, r"\, and r*t, r"z respectively; let $ denote the total 
power, and d<t>, dn\, dn^ the changes of <f>, i, and HI with the 
colour. Then the following relations hold: 

(2) 4> = 4> 1 +<fc= ( ni - iXi/Vi- i/r'\) + (n,- i)(i/r' 2 - i/r',) = 
(ni-i)ki+(nz-i)k 2 ; and 

(3) dcj> = kidni + kzdni. For achromatism d<t> o, hence, 
from (3), 

(4) ki/kz= -dnz/dni, or <t>i/(f>i= -Vi/** Therefore <j>i and 4>j 
must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be com- 
posed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the 
powers of the two must be different (in order that <j> be not zero 
(equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different 
(according to 4). 

Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different 
dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he 
constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory 
and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false con- 
ception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by 
Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond 
in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. 
(See TELESCOPE.) 

Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named 
" crown glass "; that with greater dispersive power, " flint 
glass." For the construction of an achromatic collective lens 
((j> positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collec- 
tive lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass 
must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the 
other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an 
achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted. 
This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, 
e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values 
of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) 
and (4). Two other conditions may also be pos- 
tulated: one is always the elimination of the 
aberration on the axis; the second either the 
"Herschel" or " Fraunhofer condition," the 
latter being the best (vide supra, " Monochromatic 
Aberration "). In practice, however, it is often 
more useful to avoid the second condition by 
making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal 
radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog., 
1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin 
lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the 
axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive 
index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of 
astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens 
has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval 
equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nackr., 1856, p. 289). Should the 
cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must 
be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs 
the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to say, crown 
glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater 
refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier 
kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with 
the refractive index; that is, v decreased as n increased; but 
some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and 0. Schott were crown 




FIG. 10. 



6o 



ABERRATION 



glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from 
such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, 
are called the "new achromats," and were employed by P. 
Rudolph in the first " anastigmats " (photographic objectives). 

Instead of making d<j> vanish, a certain value can be assigned 
to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any 
desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one 
present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be 
cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour, 
then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece; 
by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or 
achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its 
chromatic effect (d<t>/<t>) be greater than that of the same lens, 
this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses em- 
ployed, it is termed " hyper-chromatic." 

For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition 
for achromatism is D = (u 1/1+ 02/2) ("i+flz); if t>i = 2 (* 
if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to 
D = ^ (/i+/2), known as the "condition for oculars." 

If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, 
be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for other 
colours, if. two different glasses are employed. For example, 
the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact 
is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn 2 /dn i varies 
within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. 
Fraunhofer, who defined the colours by means of the dark lines 
in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the disper- 
sion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet 
(the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, 
for two colours, a and b, / =/& =/, then for a third colour, c, the 
focal length is different, viz. if c lie between a and 6, then f c </, 
and wee versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that 
towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass pre- 
ponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These 
chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two 
colours, are called the "secondary spectrum," and depend 
upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the 
primary chromatic errors do. 

In fig. n, taken from M. von Rohr's Theorie und Geschichte 
des pholographischen Objectivs, the abscissae are focal lengths, 
and the ordinates wave-lengths; of the latter the Fraunhofer 
lines used are 

A' C D Green Hg. F G' Violet Hg. 



767-7 656-3 5 8 9-3 546-1 



800 



700 



Cr.Hg. 



500 

F 



10 20 30 +4O 



WT7 



486-2 434-1 405-1 MM, 
and the focal lengths are 
made equal for the lines C 
and F. In the neighbourhood 
of 550 nfj. the tangent to the 
curve is parallel to the axis 
of wave-lengths; and the 
focal length varies least over 
a fairly large range of colour, 
therefore in this neighbour- 
hood the colour union is at 
its best. Moreover, this region 
of the spectrum is thai which 
appears brightest to the 
human eye, and consequently 
this curve of the secondary 
spectrum, obtained by making 
/C=/F, is, according to the 
experiments of Sir G. G. 
Stokes (Proc. Roy.Soc., 1878), 
the most suitable for visual 



108. Optical correction /c =/ = matlsm ) In a similar man- 
100 mm. The ordinates give the ner, for systems used in photo- 
wave-lengths in w>. The ab- graphy, the vertex of the 
scissae give /X -/c in o-oi mm., colour curve must be placed 
commencing at felt- . ... r . 

(From M.v. Rohr, <,p. a,.) in the position of the man- 

mum sensibility of the plates; 

this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the 



F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially 
adopted in objectives for astronomical photography ("pure 
actinic achromatism"). For ordinary photography, however, 
there is this disadvantage: the image on the focussing-screen 
and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate 
are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference 
is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the 
objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordi- 
nary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic 
image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; 
and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as 
the " actinic correction " or " freedom from chemical focus "). 

Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths 
for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. /<.=/&=/=/, then the relative 
partial dispersion (n e -n &) (n a -n &) must be equal for the two 
kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation 
(4) for the two pairs of colours ac and be. Until recently no 
glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption; 
but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and 
F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses 
between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which re- 
duced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was 
only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe 
and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dis- 
persion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two 
lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three 
lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses. 
In uniting three colours an " achromatism of a higher order " 
is derived; there is yet a residual "tertiary spectrum," but it 
can always be neglected. 

The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochro- 
matic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different 
for different colours; and should they be compensated for one 
colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing. 
The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration 
of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image, 
after par-axial rays of different colours are united by an appro- 
priate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected 
for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account 
of the greater dispersion in the negative components the flint 
glasses, over-correction will arise for the shorter wave- 
lengths (this being the error of the negative components), and 
under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown 
glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated 
by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. 
Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more 
important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum 
of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be 
eliminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, then it 
must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which 
are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical 
representation of this error is given in M- von Rohr, Theorie 
und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs). 

The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in 
the place of a sharply reproduced point the constant of the 
sine relation must also be fulfilled with large apertures for 
several colours. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope 
objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the 
sine condition for several colours, which therefore, according to 
his definition, were " aplanatic for several colours "; such sys- 
tems he termed " apochromatic." While, however, the magnifi- 
cation of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for 
red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnifica- 
tion. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite 
sense, by the oculars, which are used with these objectives 
(" compensating oculars "), so that it is eliminated in the image 
of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and 
photographic objectives intended for three-colour work, are also 
apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality 
of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic 
differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical 
importances. 



ABERSYCHAN ABGAR 



61 



AUTHORITIES. The standard treatise in English is H. D. Taylor, 
A System of Applied Optics (1906); reference may also be made to 
R. S. Heath, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (2nd ed., 1895); and 
L. A. Herman, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (1900). The ideas 
of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Czapski, Theorie der optischen 
Instrumente nach Abbe, published separately at Breslau in 1893, 
and as vol. ii. of Winkelmann's Handbuch der Physik in 1894; a 
second edition, by Czapski and O. Eppenstein, was published at 
Leipzig in 1903 with the title, Grwidzuge der Theorie der optischen 
Instrumente nach Abbe, and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's 
Handbuch der Physik. The collection of the scientific staff of Carl 
Zeiss at Jena, edited by M. von Rohr, DieBilderzeugung in optischen 
Inslrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik (Berlin, 1904), 
contains articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealing with 
aberrations. (O. E.) 

ABERSYCHAN, an urban district in the northern parlia- 
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, ii m. N. by W. 
of Newport, on the Great Western, London and North- Western, 
and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901) 17,768. It lies in the 
narrow upper valley of the Afon Lwyd on the eastern edge of 
the great coal and iron mining district of Glamorganshire and 
Monmouthshire, and its large industrial population is occupied 
in the mines and ironworks. The neighbourhood is wild and 
mountainous. 

ABERTILLERY, an urban district in the western parlia- 
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 16 m. N.W. of 
Newport, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 10,846; 
(1901) 21,945. It h' es m the mountainous mining district of 
Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, in the valley of the Ebbw 
Each, and the large industrial population is mainly employed 
in the numerous coal-mines, ironworks and tinplate works. 
Farther up the valley are the mining townships of NANTYGLO 
and BLAINA, forming an urban district with a population (1901) 
of 13,489. 

ABERYSTWYTH, a municipal borough, market-town and 
seaport of Cardiganshire, Wales, near the confluence of the 
rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, about the middle of Cardigan Bay. 
Pop. (1901) 8013. It is the terminal station of the Cambrian 
railway, and also of the Manchester and Milford line. It is the 
most popular watering-place on the west coast of Wales, and 
possesses a pier, and a fine sea-front which stretches from Consti- 
tution Hill at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the mouth 
of the harbour. The town is of modern appearance, and con- 
tains many public buildings, of which the most remarkable is 
the imposing but fantastic structure of the University College 
of Wales near the Castle Hill. Much of the finest scenery in 
mid- Wales lies within easy reach of Aberystwyth. 

The history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the 
time of Gilbert Strongbow, who in 1109 erected a fortress on 
the present Castle Hill. Edward I. rebuilt Strongbow's castle 
in 1277, after its destruction by the Welsh. Between the years 
1404 and 1408 Aberystwyth Castle was in the hands of Owen Glen- 
dower, but finally surrendered to Prince Harry of Monmouth, and 
shortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of 
Ville de Lampadarn, the ancient name of the place being Llan- 
badarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it 
from Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile inland. It is thus 
styled in a charter granted by Henry VIII., but by Elizabeth's 
time the town was invariably termed Aberystwyth in all docu- 
ments. In 1647 the parliamentarian troops razed the castle to 
the ground, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though 
portions of three towers still exist. Aberystwyth was a contri- 
butory parliamentary borough until 1885, when its representation 
was merged in that of the county. In modern times Aberyst- 
wyth has become a Welsh educational centre, owing to the 
erection here of one of the three colleges of the university of 
Wales (1872), and of a hostel for women in connexion with it. 
In 1905 it was decided to fix here the site of the proposed Welsh 
National Library. 

ABETTOR (from " to abet," O. Fr. abeter, a and beter, to bait, 
urge dogs upon any one ; this word is probably of Scandi- 
navian origin, meaning to cause to bite), a law term implying 
one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an 
offence. An abettor differs from an accessory (q.v.) in that he 
must be present at the commission of the crime; all abettors 



(with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence 
of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable 
to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence. A 
person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the 
commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a 
principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in 
aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt 
to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws. 

ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping"), a state of expectancy 
in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them 
is not vested in any one person, but awaits the appearance or 
determination of the true owner. In law, the term abeyance 
can only be applied to such future estates as have not yet vested 
or possibly may not vest. For example, an estate is granted 
to A for life, with remainder to the heir of B, the latter being 
alive; the remainder is then said to be in abeyance, for until 
the death of B it is uncertain who his heir is. Similarly the 
freehold of a benefice, on the death of the incumbent, is said 
to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession. 
The most common use of the term is in the case of peerage 
dignities. If a peerage which passes to heirs-general, like the 
ancient baronies by writ, is held by a man whose heir-at-law 
is neither a male, nor a woman who is an only child, it goes into 
abeyance on his death between two or more sisters or their 
heirs, and is held by no one till the abeyance is terminated; if 
eventually only one person represents the claims of all the 
sisters, he or she can claim the termination of the abeyance as 
a matter of right. The crown can also call the peerage out of 
abeyance at any moment, on petition, in favour of any one of 
the sisters or their heirs between whom it is in abeyance. The 
question whether ancient earldoms created in favour of a man 
and his " heirs " go into abeyance like baronies by writ has been 
raised by the claim to the earldom of Norfolk created in 1312, 
discussed before the Committee for Privileges in 1906. It is 
common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are 
dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance. (j. H. R.) 

ABGAR, a name or title borne by a line of kings or toparchs, 
apparently twenty-nine in number, who reigned in Osrhoene 
and had their capital at Edessa about the time of the Christian 
era. According to an old tradition, one of these princes, perhaps 
Abgar V. (Ukkama or Uchomo, " the black "), being afflicted 
with leprosy, sent a letter to Jesus, acknowledging his divinity, 
craving his help and offering him an asylum in his own residence, 
but Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, promising, however, 
that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples. These 
letters are given by Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. i. 13), who declares 
that the Syriac document from which he translates them had 
been preserved in the archives at Edessa from the time of Abgar. 
Eusebius also states that in due course Judas, son of Thaddaeus, 
was sent (in 34O=A.D. 29). In another form of the story, de- 
rived from Moses of Chorene, it is said further that Jesus sent 
his portrait to Abgar, and that this existed in Edessa (Hist. 
Armen., ed. W. Whiston, ii. 29-32). Yet another version is 
found in the Syriac Doctrina Addaei (Addaeus = Thaddaeus), 
edited by G. Phillips (1876). Here it is said that the reply of 
Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event 
took place in 343 (A.D. 32). Greek forms of the legend are 
found in the Ada Thaddaei (C. Tischendorf, Acta apostolorum 
apocr. 261 ff.). 

These stories have given rise to much discussion. The testi- 
mony of Augustine and Jerome is to the effect that Jesus wrote 
nothing. The correspondence was rejected as apocryphal by 
Pope Gelasius and a Roman Synod (c. 495), though, it is true, 
this view has not been shared universally by the Roman church 
(Tillemont, Memoires, i. 3, pp. 990 ff.). Amongst Evangelicals 
the spuriousness of the letters is almost generally admitted. 
Lipsius (Die Edessenische Abgar sage, 1880) has pointed out 
anachronisms which seem to indicate that the story is quite 
unhistorical. The first king of Edessa of whom we have any 
trustworthy information is Abgar VIII., bar Ma'nu (A.D. 176- 
213). It is suggested that the legend arose from a desire to 
trace the christianizing of his kingdom to an apostolic source. 



62 



ABHIDHAMMA ABILA 



Eusebius gives the legend in its oldest form; it was worked up 
in the Doctrina Addaei in the second half of the 4th century; 
and Moses of Chorene was dependent upon both these sources. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. Schmidt in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie; 
Lipsius, Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersuchl (1880); 
Matthes, Die Edessenische Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung untersucht 
(1882); Tixeront, Les Origines de I'eglise d'Edesse el la legends d'A. 
(1888) ; A. Harnack, Geschichte d. altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 2 (1893) ; 
L. Duchesne, Bulletin critique, 1889, pp. 41-48; for the Epistles 
see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, sect. New Testament " (c). 

ABHIDHAMMA, the name of one of the three Pitakas, or 
baskets of tradition, into which the Buddhist scriptures (see 
BUDDHISM) are divided. It consists of seven works: i. Dhamma 
Sanganl (enumeration of qualities). 2. Vibhanga (exposition). 
3. Katha Vatthu (bases of opinion). 4. Puggala Pannatti (on 
individuals). 5. Dhatu Katha (on relations of moral disposi- 
tions). 6. Yamaka (the pairs, that is, of ethical states). 7.' 
Palthana (evolution of ethical states). These have now been 
published by the Pali Text Society. The first has been trans- 
lated into English, and an abstract of the third has been pub- 
lished. The approximate date of these works is probably from 
about 400 B.C. to about 250 B.C., the first being the oldest and 
the third the latest of the seven. Before the publication of 
the texts, when they were known only by hearsay, the term 
A bhidhamma was usually rendered "Metaphysics." This is now 
seen to be quite erroneous. Dhamma means the doctrine, and 
Abhidhamma has a relation to Dhamma similar to that of by- 
law to law. It expands, classifies, tabulates, draws corollaries 
from the ethical doctrines laid down in the more popular treat- 
ises. There is no metaphysics in it at all, only psychological 
ethics of a peculiarly dry and scholastic kind. And there is no 
originality in it; only endless permutations and combinations 
of doctrines already known and accepted. As in the course of 
centuries the doctrine itself, in certain schools, varied, it was felt 
necessary to rewrite these secondary works. This was first done, 
so far as is at present known, by the Sarvastivadins (Realists), 
who in the century before and after Christ produced a fresh 
set of seven Abhidhamma books. These are lost in India, but 
still exist in Chinese translations. The translations have been 
analysed in a masterly way by Professor Takakusu in the article 
mentioned below. They deal only with psychological ethics. 
In the course of further centuries these books in turn were 
superseded by new treatises; and in one school at least, that of 
the Maha-yana (great vehicle) there was eventually developed 
a system of metaphysics. But the word Abhidhamma then fell 
out of use in that school, though it is still used in the schools 
that continue to follow the original seven books. 

See Buddhist Psychology by Caroline Rhys Davids (London, 1900), 
a translation of the Dhamma Sangant, with valuable introduction; 
"Schools of Buddhist Belief," by T. W. Rhys Davids, in Journal 
of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1892, contains an abstract of the Katlia 
Vatthu; "On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins," by 
Prof. Takakusu, in Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1905. 

(T. W. R. D.) 

ABHORRERS, the name given in 1679 to the persons who 
expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed 
petitions urging King Charles II. to assemble parliament. Feel- 
ing against Roman Catholics, and especially against James, 
duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had 
been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of 
James, duke of Monmouth, was very great. To prevent this 
bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved parliament in 
July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its suc- 
cessor without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with 
petitions urging him to call it together, and this agitation was 
opposed by Sir George Jeffreys (q.v.) and Francis Wythens, who 
presented addresses expressing "abhorrence" of the "Peti- 
tioners," and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who 
supported the action of the king. "The frolic went all over 
England," says Roger North; and the addresses of the Ab- 
horrers which reached the king from all parts of the country 
formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said 
that the terms Whig and. Tory were first applied to English poli- 
tical parties in consequence of this dispute. 



ABIATHAR (Heb. Ebydthar, "the [divine] father is pre- 
eminent"), in the Bible, son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, priest at 
Nob. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul's massacre, 
he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (i Sam. 
xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especi- 
ally at the time of the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29, 
35, xx. 25). In i Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found 
acting together as priests under Solomon. In i Kings i. 7, 19, 
25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and 
in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and 
banished to Anathoth. In 2 Sam. viii. 17 "Abiathar, the son 
of Ahimelech" should be read, with the Syriac, for "Ahimelech, 
the son of Abiathar." For a similar confusion see Mark ii. 26. 

ABICH, OTTO WILHELM HERMANN VON (1806-1886), 
German mineralogist and geologist, was born at Berlin on the 
nth of December 1806, and educated at the university in that 
city. His earliest scientific work related to spinels and other 
minerals, and later he made special studies of fumaroles, of the 
mineral deposits around volcanic vents and of the structure of 
volcanoes. In 1842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy 
in the university of Dorpat, and henceforth gave attention to 
the geology and mineralogy of Russia. Residing for some time 
at Tiflis he investigated the geology of the Caucasus. Ultimately 
he retired to Vienna, where he died on the ist of July 1886. The 
mineral Abichite was named after him. 

PUBLICATIONS. Vues Mustratives de quelques phenom^nes geolo- 
giques, prises sur le Vesuve et I'Etna, pendant les annees 1833 et 
1834 (Berlin, 1836); Ueber die Natur und den Zusammenhang der 
vulcanischen Bildungen (Brunswick, 1841); Geologische Forschungen 
in den Kaukasischen Landern (3 vols., Vienna, 1878, 1882, and 1887). 

ABIGAIL (Heb. Abigayil, perhaps "father is joy"), or ABIGAL 
(2 Sam. iii. 3), in the Bible, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite, 
on whose death she became the wife of David (i Sam. xxv.). 
By her David had a son, whose name appears in the Hebrew of 
2 Sam. iii. 3 as Chileab, in the Septuagint as Daluyah, and in 
i Chron. iii. i as Daniel. The name Abigail was also borne by 
a sister of David (2 Sam. xvii. 25; i Chron. ii. 16 f.). From the 
former (self-styled "handmaid" i Sam. xxv. 25 f.) is derived 
the colloquial use of the term for a waiting-woman (cf. Abigail, 
the "waiting gentlewoman," in Beaumont and Fletcher's 
Scornful Lady). 

ABIJAH (Heb. Abiyyah and Abiyyahu, "Yah is father"), a 
name borne by nine different persons mentioned in the Old 
Testament, of whom the most noteworthy are the following. 

(1) The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (2 Chron. 
xii. i6-xiii.), reigned about two years (918-915 B.C.). The ac- 
counts of him in the books of Kings and Chronicles are very con- 
flicting (compare i Kings xv. 2 and 2 Chron. xi. 20 with 2 Chron. 
xiii.2). The Chronicler tells us that he has drawn his facts from 
the Midrash (commentary) of the prophet Iddo. This is perhaps 
sufficient to explain the character of the narrative. (2) The 
second son of Samuel (i Sam. viii. 2; i Chron. vi. 28 [13]). He 
and his brother Joel judged at Beersheba. Their misconduct 
was made by the elders of Israel a pretext for demanding a king 
(i Sam. viii. 4). (3) A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel; he 
died young (i Kings xiv. i ff., 17). (4) Head of the eighth order 
of priests (i Chron. xxiv. 10), the order to which Zacharias, the 
father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke i. 5). 

The alternative form Abijam is probably a mistake, though 
it is upheld by M. Jastrow. 

ABILA, (i) a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the tetrarchy 
of Abilene, a territory whose extent it is impossible to define. 
It is generally called Abila of Lysanias, to distinguish it from 

(2) below. Abila was an important town on the imperial high- 
way from Damascus to Heliopolis (Baalbek). The site is indi- 
cated by ruins of a temple, aqueducts, &c., and inscriptions on 
the banks of the river Barada at Suk Wadi Barada, a village 
called by early Arab geographers Abil-es-Suk, between Baalbek 
and Damascus. Though the names Abel and Abila differ in 
derivation and in meaning, their similarity has given rise to the 
tradition that this was the place of Abel's burial. According to 
Josephus, Abilene was a separate Iturean kingdom till A.D. 37, 
when it was granted by Caligula to Agrippa I.; in 52 Claudius 



ABILDGAARD ABINGER 



granted it to Agrippa II. (See also LYSANIAS.) (2) A city in 
Perea, now Abil-ez-Zeit. 

ABILDGAARD, NIKOLAJ ABRAHAM (1744-1809), called 
" the Father of Danish Painting," was born at Copenhagen, the 
son of Soren Abildgaard, an antiquarian draughtsman of repute. 
He formed his style on that of Claude and of Nicolas Poussin, 
and was a cold theorist, inspired not by nature but by art. As 
a technical painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being 
very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's eye, is 
rarely interesting. His works are scarcely known out of Copen- 
hagen, where he won an immense fame in his own generation. 
He was the founder of the Danish school of painting, and the 
master of Thorwaldsen and Eckersberg. 

ABIMELECH (Hebrew for "father of [or is] the king ") (i) 
A king of Gerar in South Palestine with whom Isaac, in the Bible, 
had relations. The patriarch, during his sojourn there, alleged 
that his wife Rebekah was his sister, but the king doubting this 
remonstrated with him and pointed out how easily adultery 
might have been unintentionally committed (Gen. xxvi.). 
Abimelech is called " king of the Philistines," but the title is 
clearly an anachronism. A very similar story is told of Abraham 
and Sarah (ch. xx.), but here Abimelech takes Sarah to wife, 
although he is warned by a divine vision before the crime is 
actually committed. The incident is fuller and shows a great 
advance in ideas of morality. Of a more primitive character, 
however, is another parallel story of Abraham at the court of 
Pharaoh, king of Egypt (xii. 10-20), where Sarah his wife is taken 
into the royal household, and the plagues sent by Yahweh lead 
to the discovery of the truth. Further incidents in Isaac's life 
at Gerar are narrated in Gen. xxvi. (cp. xxi. 22-34, time of 
Abraham), notably a covenant with Abimelech at Beer-sheba 
(whence the name is explained "well of the oath"); (see 
ABRAHAM). By a pure error, or perhaps through a confusion 
in the traditions, Achish the Philistine (of Gath, i Sam. xxi., 
xxvii.), to whom David fled, is called Abimelech in the super- 
scription to Psalm xxxiv. 

(2) A son of Jerubbaal or Gideon (q.v.), by his Shechemite 
concubine (Judges viii. 31, ix.). On the death of Gideon, 
Abimelech set himself to assert the authority which his father 
had earned, and through the influence of his mother's clan won 
over the citizens of Shechem. Furnished with money from the 
treasury of the temple of Baal-berith, he hired a band of followers 
and slew seventy (cp. 2 Kings x. 7) of his brethren at Ophrah, his 
father's home. This is one of the earliest recorded instances of 
a practice common enough on the accession of Oriental despots. 
Abimelech thus became king, and extended his authority over 
central Palestine. But his success was short-lived, and the sub- 
sequent discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites was 
regarded as a just reward for his atrocious massacre. Jotham, 
the only one who is said to have escaped, boldly appeared on 
Mount Gerizim and denounced the ingratitude of the townsmen 
towards the legitimate sons of the man who had saved them 
from Midian. " Jotham's fable " of the trees who desired a king 
may be foreign to the context; it is a piece of popular lore, and 
cannot be pressed too far: the nobler trees have no wish to rule 
over others, only the bramble is self-confident. The " fable " 
appears to be antagonistic to ideas of monarchy. The origin 
of the conflicts which subsequently arose is not clear. Gaal, a 
new-comer, took the opportun'ty at the time of the vintage, 
when there was a festival in ihs temple, to head a revolt and 
seized Shechem. Abimelech, warned by his deputy Zebul, left 
his residence at Arumah and approached the city. In a fine bit 
of realism we are told how Gaal observed the approaching foe 
and was told by Zebul, " You see the shadow of the hills as men," 
and as they drew nearer Zebul's ironical remark became a taunt, 
" Where is now thy mouth ? is not this the people thou didst 
despise? go now and fight them!" This revolt, which Abime- 
lech successfully quelled, appears to be only an isolated episode. 
Another account tells of marauding bands of Shechemites 
which disturbed the district. The king disposed his men (the 
whole chapter is specially interesting for the full details it gives 
of the nature of ancient military operations), and after totally 



destroying Shechem, proceeded against Thebez, which had also 
revolted. Here, while storming the citadel, he was struck on 
the head by a fragment of a millstone thrown from the wall by 
a woman. To avoid the disgrace of perishing by a woman's 
hand, he begged his armour-bearer to run him through the body, 
but his memory was not saved from the ignominy he dreaded 
(2 Sam. xi. 21). It is usual to regard Abimelech's reign as the 
first attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel, but the story is 
mainly that of the rivalries of a half-developed petty state, and 
of the ingratitude of a community towards the descendants of 
its deliverer. (See, further, JEWS, JUDGES.) (S. A. C.) 

ABINGDON, a market town and municipal borough in the 
Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 6 m. S. 
of Oxford, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway 
from Radley. Pop. (1901) 6480. It lies in the fiat valley of 
the Thames, on the west (right) bank, where the small river 
Ock flows in from the Vale of White Horse. The church of 
St Helen stands near the river, and its fine Early English tower 
with Perpendicular spire is the principal object in the pleasant 
views of the town from the river. The body of the church, which 
has five aisles, is principally Perpendicular. The smaller church 
of St Nicholas is Perpendicular in appearance, though parts of 
the fabric are older. Of a Benedictine abbey there remain a 
beautiful Perpendicular gateway, and ruins of buildings called 
the prior's house, mainly Early English, and the guest house, 
with other fragments. The picturesque narrow-arched bridge 
over the Thames near St Helen's church dates originally from 
1416. There may be mentioned further the old buildings of the 
grammar school, founded in 1563, and of the charity called 
Christ's Hospital (1583); while the town-hall in the market- 
place, dating from 1677, is attributed to Inigo Jones. The 
grammar school now occupies modern buildings, and ranks 
among the lesser public schools of England, having scholarships 
at Pembroke College, Oxford. St Peter's College, Radley, 2 m. 
from Abingdon, is one of the principal modern public schools. 
It was opened in 1847. The buildings lie close to the Thames, 
and the school is famous for rowing, sending an eight to the 
regatta at 'Henley each year. Abingdon has manufactures of 
clothing and carpets and a large agricultural trade. The borough 
is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 
730 acres. 

Abingdon (Abbedun, Abendun) was famous for its abbey, which 
was of great wealth and importance, and is believed to have been 
founded in A.D. 675 by Cissa, one of the subreguli of Centwin. Abun- 
dant charters from early Saxon monarchs are extant confirming 
various laws and privileges to the abbey, and the earliest of these, 
from King Ceadwalla, was granted before A.D. 688. In the reign of 
Alfred the abbey was destroyed by the Danes, but it was restored 
by Edred, and an imposing list of possessions in the Domesday 
survey evidences recovered prosperity. William the Conqueror 
in 1084 celebrated Easter at Abingdon, and left his son, afterwards 
Henry I., to be educated at the abbey. After the dissolution in 
1538 the town sank into decay, and in 1555, on a representation of 
its pitiable condition, Queen Mary granted a charter establishing 
it as a free borough corporate with a common council consisting 
of a mayor, two bailiffs, twelve chief burgesses, and sixteen second- 
ary burgesses, the mayor to be clerk of the market, coroner and a 
justice of the peace. The council was empowered to elect one 
burgess to parliament, and this right continued until the Redistri- 
bution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were 
also appointed, and the town boundaries described in great detail. 
Later charters from Elizabeth, James \., James II., George II. and 
George III. made no considerable change. James II. changed the 
style of the corporation to that of a mayor, twelve aldermen and 
twelve burgesses. The abbot seems to have held a market from 
very early times, and charters for the holding of markets and fairs 
were granted by various sovereigns from Edward I. to George II. 
In the I3th and I4th centuries Abingdon was a flourishing agri- 
cultural centre with an extensive trade in wool, and a famous weav- 
ing and clothing manufacture. The latter industry declined before 
the reign of Queen Mary, but has since been revived. 

The present Christ's Hospital originally belonged to the Gild 
of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI. founded 
the hospital under its present name. 

See Victoria County History, Berkshire', Joseph Stevenson, 
Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, A.D. 201-1189 (Rolls Series, 
2 vols., London, 1858). 

ABINGER, JAMES SCARLETT, IST BARON (1760-1844), 



6 4 



ABINGTON ABIOGENESIS 



English judge, was born on the i3th of December 1769 in 
Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, had property. In 
the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his 
education, and went to Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his 
B.A. degree in 1789. Having entered the Inner Temple he was 
called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the 
Lancashire sessions. Though he had no professional connexions, 
by steady application he gradually obtained a large practice, 
ultimately confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and 
the northern circuit. He took silk in 1816, and from this time 
till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the 
bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income 
reached the high-water mark of 18,500, a large sum for that 
period. He began life as a Whig, and first entered parliament 
in 1819 as member for Peterborough, representing that constitu- 
ency with a short break (1822-1823) till 1830, when he was elected 
for the borough of Malton. He became attorney-general, and 
was knighted when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and 
though he resigned when the duke of Wellington came into power 
in 1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the duke of 
Wellington in 1830. His opposition to the Reform Bill caused 
his severance from the Whig leaders, and having joined the Tories 
he was elected, first for Colchester and then in 1832 for Norwich, 
for which borough he sat until the dissolution of parliament. He 
was appointed lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1834, and 
presided in that court for more than nine years. While attending 
the Norfolk circuit on the 2nd of April he was suddenly seized 
with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury on the 7th of 
April 1844. He had been raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger 
in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in 
1813. The qualities which brought him success at the bar were 
not equally in place on the bench; he was partial, dictatorial 
and vain; and complaint was made of his domineering attitude 
towards juries. But his acuteness of mind and clearness of ex- 
pression remained to the end. Lord Abinger was twice married 
(the second time only six months before his death), and by his 
first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title 
passing to his eldest son Robert (1794-1861). His second son, 
General Sir James Yorke Scarlett (1799-1871), leader of the 
heavy cavalry charge at Balaclava, is dealt with in a separate 
article; and his elder daughter, Mary, married John, Baron 
Campbell, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden (Lady 
Stratheden and Campbell) (d. 1860). Sir Philip Anglin Scarlett 
(d. 1831), Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of 
Jamaica. 

See P. C. Scarlett, Memoir of James, ist Lord Abinger (1877); 
Foss's Lives of the Judges; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904). 

ABINCTON, FRANCES (1737-1815), English actress, was the 
daughter of a private soldier named Barton, and was, at first, a 
flower girl and a street singer. She then became servant to a 
French milliner, obtaining a taste in dress and a knowledge of 
French which afterwards stood her in good stead. Her first 
appearance on the stage was at the Haymarket in 1755 as 
Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's Busybody. In 1756, on the recom- 
mendation of Samuel Foote, she became a member of the Drury 
Lane company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard 
and Kitty Clive. In 1759, after an unhappy marriage with her 
music-master, one of the royal trumpeters, she is mentioned in 
the bills as Mrs Abington. Her first success was in Ireland as 
Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the pressing 
invitation of Garrick, that she returned to Drury Lane. There 
she remained for eighteen years, being the original of more than 
thirty important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777). Her 
Beatrice, Portia, Desdemona and Ophelia were no less liked 
than her Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue. 
It was in the last character in Love for Love that Reynolds 
painted his best portrait of her. In 1782 she left Drury Lane for 
Covent Garden. After an absence from the stage from 1790 
until 1797, she reappeared, quitting it finally in 1799. Her am- 
bition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished 
position in society, in spite of her humble origin. Women of 
fashion copied her frocks, and a head-dress she wore was widely 



adopted and known as the " Abington cap." She died on the 
4th of March 1815. 

ABIOGENESIS, in biology, the term, equivalent to the older 
terms " spontaneous generation," Generatio aequiwca, Generatio 
primaria, and of more recent terms such as archegenesis and 
archebiosis, for the theory according to which fully formed living 
organisms sometimes arise from not-living matter. Aristotle 
explicitly taught abiogenesis, and laid it down as an observed 
fact that some animals spring from putrid matter, that plant- 
lice arise from the dew which falls on plants, that fleas are 
developed from putrid matter, and so forth. T. J. Parker 
(Elementary Biology) cites a passage from Alexander Ross, who, 
commenting on Sir Thomas Browne's doubt as to " whether mice 
may be bred by putrefaction," gives a clear statement of the 
common opinion on abiogenesis held until about two centuries 
ago. Ross wrote: " So may he (Sir Thomas Browne) doubt 
whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles 
and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers, 
shell-fish, snails, eels, and such like, be procreated of putrefied 
matter, which is apt to receive the form of that creature to which 
it is by formative power disposed. To question this is to question 
reason, sense and experience. If he doubts of this let him go 
to Egypt, and there he will find the fields swarming with mice, 
begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the in- 
habitants." 

The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory of abio- 
genesis was taken by the Italian Redi, who, in 1668, proved 
that no maggots were " bred " in meat on which flies were pre- 
vented by wire screens from laying their eggs. From the i7th 
century onwards it was gradually shown that, at least in the case 
of all the higher and readily visible organisms, abiogenesis did 
not occur, but that omne vivum e vivo, every living thing came 
from a pre-existing living thing. 

The discovery of the microscope carried the refutation further. 
In 1683 A. van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria, and it was 
soon found that however carefully organic matter might be 
protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered receptacles, 
putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied by the 
appearance of myriads of bacteria and other low organisms. As 
knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, so the apparent 
possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and it became a tempting 
hypothesis that whilst the higher forms of life arose only by 
generation from their kind, there was a perpetual abiogenetic 
fount by which the first steps in the evolution of living organisms 
continued to arise, under suitable conditions, from inorganic 
matter. It was due chiefly to L. Pasteur that the occurrence 
of abiogenesis in the microscopic world was disproved as much 
as its occurrence in the macroscopic world. If organic matter 
were first sterilized and then prevented from contamination 
from without, putrefaction did not occur, and the matter re- 
mained free from microbes. The nature of sterilization, and the 
difficulties in securing it, as well as the extreme deh'cacy of the 
manipulations necessary, made it possible for a very long time 
to be doubtful as to the application of the phrase omne vivum e 
vivo to the microscopic world, and there still remain a few 
belated supporters of abiogenesis. Subjection to the tempera- 
ture of boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient 
mode of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of 
bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only 
prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as 
an efficient process of sterilization. Moreover, the presence of 
bacteria, or their spores, is so universal that only extreme pre- 
cautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized material. 
It may now be stated definitely that all known living organisms 
arise only from pre-existing living organisms. 

So far the theory of abiogenesis may be taken as disproved. 
It must be noted, however, that this disproof relates only to 
known existing organisms. All these are composed of a definite 
substance, known as protoplasm (q.v.), and the modern refutation 
of abiogenesis applies only to the organic forms in which proto- 
plasm now exists. It may be that in the progress of science it 
may yet become possible to construct living protoplasm from 






ABIPONES ABLUTION 



non-living material. The refutation of abiogenesis has no further 
bearing on this possibility than to make it probable that if 
protoplasm ultimately be formed in the laboratory, it will be by 
a series of stages, the earlier steps being the formation of some 
substance, or substances, now unknown, which are not proto- 
plasm. Such intermediate stages may have existed in the past, 
and the modern refutation of abiogenesis has no application to 
the possibility of these having been formed from inorganic 
matter at some past time. Perhaps the words archebiosis, or 
archegenesis, should be reserved for the theory that protoplasm 
in the remote past has been developed from not-living matter 
by a series of steps, and many of those, notably T. H. Huxley, 
who took a large share in the process of refuting contemporary 
abiogenesis, have stated their belief in a primordial archebiosis. 
(See BIOGENESIS and LIFE.) (P. C. M.) 

ABIPONES, a tribe of South American Indians of Guaycuran 
stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa Fe 
and St lago. They originally occupied the Chaco district of 
Paraguay, but were driven thence by the hostility of the Spaniards. 
According to Martin Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary, who, 
towards the end of the i8th century, lived among them for a 
period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 5000. 
They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black eyes and 
aquiline noses, thick black hair, but no beards. The hair from 
the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled out, this con- 
stituting a tribal mark. The faces, breasts and arms of the 
women were covered with black figures of various designs made 
with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture of ashes and 
blood. The lips and ears of both sexes were pierced. The men 
were brave fighters, their chief weapons being the bow and spear. 
No child was without bow and arrows; the bow-strings were 
made of foxes' entrails. In battle the Abipones wore an armour 
of tapir's hide over which a jaguar's skin was sewn. They were 
excellent swimmers and good horsemen. For five months in the 
year when the floods were out they lived on islands or even in 
shelters built in the trees. They seldom married before the age 
of thirty, and were singularly chaste. " With the Abipones," 
says Darwin, " when a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the 
parents about the price. But it frequently happens that the 
girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents 
and bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of 
marriage. She often runs away and hides herself, and thus 
eludes the bridegroom." Infanticide was systematic, never 
more than two children being reared in one family, a custom 
doubtless originating in the difficulty of subsistence. The young 
were suckled for two years. The Abipones are now believed to 
be extinct as a tribe. 

Martin Dobrizhoffer's Latin Historia deAbiponibus (Vienna, 1784) 
was translated into English by Sara Coleridge, at the suggestion of 
Southey, in 1822, under the title of An Account of the Abipones 
(3 vols.). 

ABITIBBI, a lake and river of Ontario, Canada. The lake, in 
49 N., 80 W., is 60 m. long and studded with islands. It is 
shallow, and the shores in its vicinity are covered with small 
timber. It was formerly employed by the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the north. The 
construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway through this 
district has made it of some importance. Its outlet is Abitibbi 
river, a rapid stream, which after a course of 200 m. joins the 
Moose river, flowing into James Bay. 

ABJURATION (from Lat. abjurare, to forswear), a solemn 

repudiation or renunciation on oath. At common law, it signified 

the oath of a person who had taken sanctuary to leave the realm 

for ever; this was abolished in the reign of James I. The Oath 

1 of Abjuration, in English history, was a solemn disclaimer, taken 

1 by members of parliament, clergy and laymen against the 

i right of the Stuarts to the crown, imposed by laws of William III., 

George I. and George III.; but its place has since been taken 

by the oath of allegiance. 

ABKHASIA, or ABHASIA, a tract of Russian Caucasia, govern- 
ment of Kutais. The Caucasus mountains on the N. and N.E. 
divide it from Circassia; on the S.E. it is,bounded by Mingrelia; 
i-3 



and on the S.W. by the Black Sea. Though the country is 
generally mountainous, with dense forests of oak and walnut, 
there are some deep, well-watered valleys, and the climate is 
mild. The soil is fertile, producing wheat, maize, grapes, figs, 
pomegranates and wine. Cattle and horses are bred. Honey 
is produced; and excellent arms are made. This country was 
subdued (c. 550) by the Emperor Justinian, who introduced 
Christianity. Native dynasties ruled from 735 to the isth 
century, when the region was conquered by the Turks and 
became Mahommedan. The Russians acquired possession of it 
piecemeal between 1829 and 1842, but their power was not 
firmly established until after 1864. Area, 2800 sq. m. The 
principal town is Sukhum-kaleh. Pop. 43,000, of whom two- 
thirds are Mingrelians and one-third Abkhasians, a Cherkess or 
Circassian race. The total number of Abkhasians in the two 
governments of Kutais and Kuban was 72,103 in 1897; large 
numbers emigrated to the Turkish empire in 1864 and 1878. 

ABLATION (from Lat. ablatus, carried away), the process of 
removing anything; a term used technically in geology of the 
wearing away of a rock or glacier, and in surgery for operative 
removal. 

ABLATITIOUS (from Lat. ablatus, taken away), reducing or 
withdrawing; in astronomy a force which interferes between 
the moon and the earth to lessen the strength of gravitation is 
called " ablatitious," just as it is called " addititious " when it 
increases that strength. 

ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. casus, from ablalum, taken 
away), in grammar, a case of the noun, the fundamental sense 
of which is direction from; in Latin, the principal language in 
which the case exists, this has been extended, with or without a 
preposition, to the instrument or agent of an act, and the place 
or time at, and manner in, which a thing is done. The case is 
also found in Sanskrit, Zend, Oscan and Umbrian, and traces 
remain in other languages. The " Ablative Absolute," a gram- 
matical construction in Latin, consists of a noun in the ablative 
case, with a participle, attribute or qualifying word agreeing 
with it, not depending on any other part of the sentence, to 
express the time, occasion or circumstance of a fact. 

ABLUTION (Lat. ablulio, from abluere, " to wash off "), a 
washing, in its religious use, destined to secure that ceremonial 
or ritualistic purity which must not be confused with the 
physical or hygienic cleanliness of persons and things obtained 
by the use of soap and water. 1 Indeed the two states may con- 
tradict each other, as in the case of the 4th-century Christian 
pilgrim to Jerusalem who boasted that she had not washed 
tier face for eighteen years for fear of removing therefrom the 
holy chrism of baptism. The purport, then, of ablutions is to 
remove, not dust and dirt, but the to us imaginary stains 
contracted by contact with the dead, with childbirth, with 
menstruous women, with murder whether wilful or involuntary, 
with almost any form of bloodshed, with persons of inferior 
caste, with dead animal refuse, e.g. leather or excrement, with 
leprosy, madness and any form of disease. Among all races 
in a certain grade of development such associations are vaguely 
felt to be dangerous and to impair vitality. In a later stage the 
taint is regarded as alive, as a demon or evil spirit alighting on 
and passing into the things and persons exposed to contamina- 
tion. In general, water, cows' urine and blood of swine are the 
materials used in ablutions. Of these water is the commonest, 
and its efficacy is enhanced if it be running, and still more if a 
magical or sacramental virtue has been imparted to it by ritual 
blessing or consecration. Some concrete examples will best 
illustrate the nature of such ablutions. In the Atharva-Veda, 
vii. 1 16, we have this allopathic remedy for fever. The patient's 
skin burns, that of a frog is cold to the touch; therefore tie to 
the foot of the bed a frog, bound with red and black thread, 
and wash down the sick man so that the water of ablution falls 

1 In its technical ecclesiastical sense the ablution is the ritual 
washing of the chalice and of the priest's fingers after the celebration 
of Holy Communion in the Catholic Church. The wine and water 
used for this purpose are themselves sometimes called "the 
ablution." 



66 



ABNAKI ABO 



on the frog. Let the medicine man or magician pray that the 
fever may pass into the frog, and the frog be forthwith re- 
leased, and the cure will be effected. In the old Athenian 
Anthesteria the blood of victims was poured over the unclean. 
A bath of bulls' blood was much in vogue as a baptism in the 
mysteries of Attis. The water must in ritual washings run off 
in order to carry away the miasma or unseen demon of disease; 
and accordingly in baptism the early Christians used living or 
running water. Nor was it enough that the person baptized 
should himself enter the water; the baptizer must pour it over 
his head, so that it run down his person. Similarly the Brahman 
takes care, after ablution of a person, to wipe the cathartic water 
off from head to feet downwards, that the malign influence may 
pass out through the feet. The same care is shown in ritual 
ablutions in the Bukovina and elsewhere. 

Water and fire, spices and sulphur, are used in ritual cleans- 
ings, says lamblichus in his book on mysteries (v. 23), as being 
specially full of the divine nature. Nevertheless in all religions, 
and especially in the Brahmanic and Christian, the cathartic 
virtue of water is enhanced by the introduction into it by means 
of suitable prayers and incantations of a divine or magical power. 
Ablutions both of persons and things are usually cathartic, 
that is, intended to purge away evil influences (nadaipeiv, to 
make KaBapos, pure). But, as Robertson Smith observes, "holi- 
ness is contagious, just as uncleanness is "; and common things 
and persons may become taboo, that is, so holy as to be dangerous 
and useless for daily life through the mere infection of holiness. 
Thus in Syria one who touched a dove became taboo for one 
whole day, and if a drop of blood of the Hebrew sin-offering fell 
on a garment it had to be ritually washed off. It was as neces- 
sary in the Hebrew religion for the priest to wash his hands 
after handling the sacred volume as before. Christians might not 
enter a church to say their prayers without first washing their 
hands. So Chrysostom says: "Although our hands may be 
already pure, yet unless we have washed them thoroughly, we 
do not spread them upwards in prayer." Tertullian (c. 200) 
had long before condemned this as a heathen custom; none the 
less, it was insisted on in later ages, and is a survival of the pagan 
lustrations or TrtpippavTripia. Sozomen (vi. 6) tells how a priest 
sprinkled Julian and Valentinian with water according to the 
heathen custom as they entered his temple. The same custom 
prevails among Mahommedans. Porphyry (de Abst. ii. 44) 
relates that one who touched a sacrifice meant to avert divine 
anger must bathe and wash his clothes in running water before 
returning to his city and home, and similar scruples in regard 
to holy objects and persons have been observed among the 
natives of Polynesia, New Zealand and ancient Egypt. The 
rites, met within all lands, pf pouring out water or bathing in 
order to produce rain from heaven, differ in their significance 
from ablutions with water and belong to the realm of sympa- 
thetic magic. 

There are certain forms of purification which one does not 
know whether to describe as ablutions or anointings. Thus 
Demosthenes in his speech " On the crown " accused Aeschines 
of having " purified the initiated and wiped them clean with 
(not from) mud and pitch." Smearing with gypsum (rLravos, 
titanos) had a similar purifying effect, and it has been suggested * 
that the Titans were no more than old-world votaries who had 
so disguised themselves. Perhaps the use of ashes in mourning 
had the same origin. In the rite of death-bed penance given in 
the old Mozarabic Christian ritual of Spain, ashes were poured 
over the sick man. 

AUTHORITIES. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; Jul. Well- 
hausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums ( = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, 
iii. 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897); John Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum 
rilualibus (Tubingae, 1732) ; Art. "Clean and Unclean " in Hastings' 
Bible Dictionary and in Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. iv. ; J. G. Frazer, 
Adonis, Attis, Osiris (London, 1906); Joseph Bingham, Antiquities 
of the Christian Church, bk. viii. ; Hermann Oldenberg, Die Religion 
des Veda's, Berlin, 1894. (F. C. C.) 

ABNAKI (" the whitening sky at daybreak," i.e. Easterners), 
a confederacy of North American Indians of Algonquian stock, 
1 By J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion, p. 493. 



called Terrateens by the New England tribes and colonial 
writers. It included the Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, Norridge- 
wock, Malecite and other tribes. It formerly occupied what is 
now Maine and southern New Brunswick. All the tribes were 
loyal to the French during the early years of the i8th century, 
but after the British success in Canada most of them withdrew 
to St Francis, Canada, subsequently entering into an agreement 
with the British authorities. The Abnaki now number some 
1600. 

For details see Handbook of American Indians, edited by F. W. 
Hodge (Washington, 1907). 

ABNER (Hebrew for "father of [or is a] light"), in the Bible, 
first cousin of Saul and commander-in-chief of his army (i Sam. 
xiv. 50, xx. 25). He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's 
history (i Sam. xvii. 55, xxvi. 5), and is not mentioned in the 
account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power 
was crushed. Seizing the only surviving son, Ishbaal, he set 
him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. 
David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was mean- 
while reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried 
on between the two parties. The only engagement between the 
rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch 
as it was preceded by an encounter at Gibeon between twelve 
chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem 
to have perished (2 Sam. ii. I2). 1 In the general engagement 
which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was 
closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have 
been " light of foot as a wild roe." As Asahel would not desist 
from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay 
him in self-defence. This originated a deadly feud between 
the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, 'as next of kin to 
Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger 
of his blood. For some time afterwards the war was carried on, 
the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length 
Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrat- 
ing with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines, 
an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, implied pre- 
tensions to the throne (cp. 2 Sam. xvi. 21 sqq.; i Kings ii. 21 
sqq.). Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and im- 
mediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him 
on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him. 
This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast. 
Almost immediately after, however. Joab, who had been sent 
away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the 
gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination 
was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient 
justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the 
time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show 
that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not ven- 
ture to punish its perpetrators (2 Sam. iii. 31-39; cp. i Kings ii. 
31 seq.). (See DAVID.) 

ABO (Finnish Turku), a city and seaport, the capital of the 
province of Abo-Bjorneborg, in the grand duchy of Finland, on 
the Aura-joki, about 3 m. from where it falls into the gulf of 
Bothnia. Pop. (1810) 10,224; (1870) 19,617; (1904) 42,639. 
It is 381 m. by rail from St Petersburg via Tavastehus, and is 
in regular steamer communication with St Petersburg, Vasa, 
Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hull. It was already a place of 
importance when Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden. 
When the Estates of Finland seceded from Sweden and accepted 
the Emperor Alexander of Russia as their grand duke at the 
Diet of Borga in 1809, Abo became the capital of the new state, 
and so remained till 1819 when the seat of government was 
transferred to Helsingfors. In November 1827 nearly the 
whole city was burnt down, the university and its valuable 
library being entirely destroyed. Before this calamity Abo 
contained i no houses and 13,000 inhabitants; and its university 
had 40 professors, more than 500 students, and a library of up- 
wards of 30,000 volumes, together with a botanical garden, an 

1 The object of the story of the encounter is to explain the name 
Helkath-hazzurim, the meaning of which is doubtful (Ency. Bib. 
col. 2006; Batten in Zeit.f. alt-test. Wissens. 1906, pp. 90 sqq.). 



ABO-BJORNEBORG ABORTION 



67 



observatory and a chemical laboratory. The university has 
since been removed to Helsingfors. Abo remains the ecclesias- 
tical capital of Finland, is the seat of the Lutheran archbishop 
and contains a fine cathedral dating from 1258 and restored 
after the fire of 1827. The cathedral is dedicated to St Henry, 
the patron saint of Finland, an English missionary who intro- 
duced Christianity into the country in the i2th century. Abo 
is the seat of the first of the three courts of appeal of Finland. 
It has two high schools, a school of commerce and a school of 
navigation. The city is second only to Helsingfors for its trade ; 
sail-cloth, cotton and tobacco are manufactured, and there are 
extensive saw-mills. There is also a large trade in timber and 
a considerable butter export. Ship-building has considerably 
developed, torpedo-boats being built here for the Russian navy. 
Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet come up to the town, but ships of 
greater draught are laden and discharged at its harbour (Born- 
holm, on Hyrvinsala Island), which is entered yearly by from 
700 to 800 ships, of about 200,000 tons. 

ABO-BJORNEBORG, a province occupying the S.W. corner of 
Finland and including the Aland islands. It has a total area of 
24,171 square kilometres and a population (1900) of 447,098, 
of whom 379,622 spoke Finnish and 67,260 Swedish; 446,900 
were of the Lutheran religion. The province occupies a promi- 
nent position in Finland for its manufacture of cottons, sugar 
refinery, wooden goods, metals, machinery, paper, &c. Its 
chief towns are: Abo (pop. 42,639), Bjorneborg (16,053), Raumo 
(5501), Nystad (4165), Mariehamn (1171), Nadendal (917). 

ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to 
bide) , generally, a dwelling. In English law this term has a more 
restricted meaning than domicile, being used to indicate the 
place of a man's residence or business, whether that be either 
temporary or permanent. The law may regard for certain 
purposes, as a man's abode, the place where he carries on busi- 
ness, though he may reside elsewhere ; so that the term has 
come to have a looser significance than residence, which has been 
defined as " where a man lives with his family and sleeps at 
night" (R. v. Hammond, 1852, 17 Q.B. 772). In serving a 
notice of action, a solicitor's place of business may be given as 
his abode (Roberts v. Williams, 1835, 5 L.J.M.C. 23), and in more 
recent decisions it has been similarly held that where a notice 
was required to be served under the Public Health Act 1875, 
either personally or to some inmate of the owner's or occupier's 
" place of abode, " a place of business was sufficient. 

ABOMASUM (caillette), the fourth or rennet stomach of 
Ruminantia. From the omasum the food is finally deposited 
in the abomasum, a cavity considerably larger than either the 
second or third stomach, although less than the first. The base 
of the abomasum is turned to the omasum. It is of an irregular 
conical form. It is that part of the digestive apparatus which 
is analogous to the single stomach of other Mammalia, as the 
food there undergoes the process of chymification, after being 
macerated and ground down in the three first stomachs. 

ABOMEY, capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey, West 
Africa, now included in the French colony of the same name. 
It is 70 m. N. by rail of the seaport of Kotonu, and has a popula- 
tion of about 15,000. Abomey is built on a rolling plain, 800 ft. 
above sea-level, terminating in short bluffs to the N.W., where it 
is bounded by a long depression. The town was surrounded by a 
mud wall, pierced by six gates, and was further protected by a 
ditch 5 ft. deep, filled with a dense growth of prickly acacia, 
the usual defence of West African strongholds. Within the 
walls, which had a circumference of six miles, were villages 
separated by fields, several royal palaces, a market-place and 
a large square containing the barracks. In November 1892, 
Behanzin, the king of Dahomey, being defeated by the French, 
set fire to Abomey and fled northward. Under French adminis- 
tration the town has been rebuilt, placed (1905) in railway 
communication with the coast, and given an ample water supply 
by the sinking of artesian wells. 

ABOMINATION (from Lat. ab, from, and ominare, to fore- 
bode), anything contrary to omen, and therefore regarded with 
aversion; a word used often in the Bible to denote evil doctrines 






or ceremonial practices which were impure. An incorrect deri- 
vation was ab homine (i.e. inhuman), and the spelling of the 
adjective " abominable " in the first Shakespeare folio is always 
" abhominable." Colloquially " abomination " and " abomin- 
able " are used to mean simply excessive in a disagreeable sense. 

ABOR HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier 
of India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Abors. 
It lies north of Lakhimpur district, in the province of eastern 
Bengal and Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Mishmi 
Hills and on the west by the Miri Hills, the villages of the tribe 
extending to the Dibong river. The term Abor is an Assamese 
word, signifying "barbarous" or "independent," and is applied 
in a general sense by the Assamese to many frontier tribes; but 
in its restricted sense it is specially given to the above tract. 
The Abors, together with the cognate tribes of Miris, Daphlas 
and Akas, are supposed to be descended from a Tibetan stock. 
They are a quarrelsome and sulky race, violently divided in 
their political relations. In former times they committed fre- 
quent raids upon the plains of Assam, and have been the object 
of more than one retaliatory expedition by the British govern- 
ment. In 1893-94 occurred the first Bor Abor expedition. 
Some military police sepoys were murdered in British territory, 
and a force of 600 troops was sent, who traversed the Abor 
country, and destroyed the villages concerned in the murder 
and all other villages that opposed the expedition. A second 
expedition became necessary later on, two small patrols having 
been treacherously murdered; and a force of too British troops 
traversed the border of the Abor country and punished the tribes, 
while a blockade was continued against them from 1894 to 1900. 

See Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, 1872. 

ABORIGINES, a mythical people of central Italy, connected 
in legendary history with Aeneas, Latinus and Evander. They 
were supposed to have descended from their mountain home 
near Reate (an ancient Sabine town) upon Latium, whence they 
expelled the Siceli and subsequently settled down as Latini 
under a King Latinus (Dion Halic. i. 9. 60). The most gener- 
ally accepted etymology of the name (ab origine), according to 
which they were the original inhabitants ( = Gk. avroxQoves) of the 
country, is inconsistent with the fact that the oldest authorities 
(e.g. Cato in his Origines) regarded them as Hellenic immigrants, 
not as a native Italian people. Other explanations suggested 
are arborigines, "tree-born," and aberrigines, "nomads." His- 
torical and ethnographical discussions have led to no result; 
the most that can be said is that, if not a general term, " abori- 
gines " may be the name of an Italian stock, about whom the 
ancients knew no more than ourselves. 

In modern times the term "Aborigines" has been extended in 
signification, and is used to indicate the inhabitants found in a 
country at its first discovery, in contradistinction to colonies or 
new races, the time of whose introduction into the country is 
known. 

The Aborigines' Protection Society was founded in 1838 in 
England as the result of a royal commission appointed at the 
instance of Sir T. Powell Buxton to inquire into the treatment 
of the indigenous populations of the various British colonies. 
The inquiry revealed the gross cruelty and injustice with which 
the natives had been often treated. Since its foundation the 
society has done much to make English colonization a synonym 
for humane and generous treatment of savage races. 

ABORTION (from Lat. aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish), 
in obstetrics, the premature separation and expulsion of the 
contents of the pregnant uterus. It is a common terminology 
to call premature labour of an accidental type a "miscarriage," 
in order to distinguish "abortion" as a deliberately induced 
act, whether as a medical necessity by the accoucheur, or as 
a criminal proceeding (see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE) ; otherwise 
the term "abortion" would ordinarily be used when occurring 
before the eighth month of gestation, and " premature labour " 
subsequently. As an accident of pregnancy, it is far from un- 
common, although its relative frequency, as compared with 
that of completed gestation, has been very differently estimated 
by accoucheurs. It is more liable to occur in the earlier than 



68 



ABORTION 



in the later months of pregnancy, and it would also appear to 
occur more readily at the periods corresponding to those of the 
menstrual discharge. It may be induced by numerous causes, 
both of a local and general nature. Malformations of the pelvis, 
accidental injuries and the diseases and displacements to which 
the uterus is liable, on the one hand; and, on the other, various 
morbid conditions of the ovum or placenta leading to the death 
of the foetus, are among the direct local causes. The general 
causes embrace certain states of the system which are apt to 
exercise a more or less direct influence upon the progress of 
utero-gestation. The tendency to recurrence in persons who 
have previously miscarried is well known, and should ever be 
borne in mind with the view of avoiding any cause likely to lead 
to a repetition of the accident. Abortion resembles ordinary 
labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in the former 
hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one of the leading 
symptoms. The treatment embraces the means to be used by 
rest, astringents and sedatives, to prevent the occurrence when 
it merely threatens; or when, on the contrary, it is inevitable, 
to accomplish as speedily as possible the complete removal of 
the entire contents of the uterus. 

Among primitive savage races abortion is practised to a far 
less extent than infanticide (q.v.), which offers a simpler way of 
getting rid of inconvenient progeny. But it is common among 
the American Indians, as well as in China, Cambodia and India, 
although throughout Asia it is generally contrary both to law 
and religion. How far it was considered a crime among the 
civilized nations of antiquity has long been debated. Those 
who maintain the impunity of the practice rely for their authority 
upon certain passages in the classical authors, which, while 
bitterly lamenting the frequency of this enormity, yet never 
allude to any laws by which it might be suppressed. For ex- 
ample, in one of Plato's dialogues (Theaet.), Socrates is made to 
speak of artificial abortion as a practice, not only common but 
allowable; and Plato himself authorizes it in his Republic 
(lib. v.). Aristotle (Polit. lib. vii. c. 17) gives it as his opinion 
that no child ought to be suffered to come into the world, the 
mother being above forty or the father above fifty-five years of 
age. Lysias maintained, in one of his pleadings quoted by 
Harpocration, that forced abortion could not be considered 
homicide, because a child in utero was not an animal, and had no 
separate existence. Among the Romans, Ovid (Amor. lib. ii.), 
Juvenal (Sat. vi. 594) and Seneca (Consol. ad Hel. 16) mention 
the frequency of the offence, but maintain silence as to any 
laws for punishing it. On the other hand, it is argued that the 
authority of Galen and Cicero (pro Cluentio) place it beyond a 
doubt that, so far from being allowed to pass with impunity, 
the offence in question was sometimes punished by death; 
that the authority of Lysias is of doubtful authenticity; and 
that the speculative reasonings of Plato and Aristotle, in matters 
of legislation, ought not to be confounded with the actual state 
of the laws. Moreover, Stobaeus (Serm. 73) has preserved a 
passage from Musonius, in which that philosopher expressly 
states that the ancient law-givers inflicted punishments on 
females who caused themselves to abort. After the spread of 
Christianity among the Romans, however, foeticide became 
equally criminal with the murder of an adult, and the barbarian 
hordes which afterwards overran the empire also treated the 
offence as a crime punishable with death. This severe penalty 
remained in force in all the countries of Europe until the Middle 
Ages. With the gradual disuse of the old barbarous punishments 
so universal in medieval times came also a reversal of opinion 
as to the magnitude of the crime involved in killing a child not 
yet born. But the exact period of transition is not dearly 
marked. 

In England the Anglo-Saxons seem to have regarded abortion 
only as an ecclesiastical offence. Sir Matthew Hale (1609-1676) 
tells us that if anything is done to "a woman quick or great 
with child, to make an abortion, or whereby the child within 
her is killed, it is not murder or manslaughter by the law of 
England, because it is not yet in rerum natura." But the 
common law appears, nevertheless, to have treated as a mis- 



demeanour any attempt to effect the destruction of such an 
infant, though unsuccessful. Blackstone (1723-1780), to be 
sure, a hundred years later, says that, " if a woman is quick 
with child, and by poison or otherwise killeth it in her womb, 
or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her body, and 
she is delivered of a dead child, this, though not murder, was, 
by the ancient law, homicide or manslaughter." Whatever 
may have been the exact view taken by the common law, the 
offence was made statutory by an act of 1803, making the 
attempt to cause the miscarriage of a woman, not being, or not 
being proved, to be quick with child, a felony, punishable with 
fine, imprisonment, whipping or transportation for any term 
not exceeding fourteen years. Should the woman have proved 
to have quickened, the attempt was punishable with death. 
The provisions of this statute were re-enacted in 1828. The 
English law on the subject is now governed by the Offences 
against the Person Act 1861, which makes the attempting to 
cause miscarriage by administering poison or other noxious 
thing, or unlawfully using any instrument equally a felony, 
whether the woman be, or be not, with child. No distinction is 
now made as to whether the foetus is or is not alive, legislation 
appearing to make the offence statutory with the object of 
prohibiting any risk to the life of the mother. If a woman ad- 
ministers to herself any poison or other noxious thing, or unlaw- 
fully uses any instrument or other means to procure her own 
miscarriage, she is guilty of felony. The punishment for the 
offence is penal servitude for life or not less than three years, or 
imprisonment for not more than two years. If a child is born 
alive, but in consequence of its premature birth, or of the means 
employed, afterwards dies, the offence is murder; the general 
law as to accessories applies to the offence. 

In all the countries of Europe the causing of abortion is now 
punishable with more or less lengthy terms of imprisonment. 
Indeed, the tendency in continental Europe is to regard the 
abortion as a crime against the unborn child, and several codes 
(notably that of the German Empire) expressly recognize the 
life of the foetus, while others make the penalty more severe if 
abortion has been caused in the later stages of pregnancy, or if 
the woman is married. According to the weight of authority in 
the United States abortion was not regarded as a punishable 
offence at common law, if the abortion was produced with the 
consent of the mother prior to the time when she became quick 
with child; but the Supreme Courts of Pennsylvania and North 
Carolina held it a crime at common law, which might be com- 
mitted as soon as gestation had begun (Mills v. Com. 13 Pa. St. 
630; State v. Slagle, 83 N.C. 630). The attempt is a punishable 
offence in several states, but not in Ohio. Nor was it ever murder 
at common law to take the life of the child at any period of 
gestation, even in the very act of delivery (Mitchell v. Com. 78 
Ky. 204). If the death of the woman results it is murder at 
common law (Com. v. Parker, 9 Met. [Mass.] 263). It is now 
a statutory offence in all states of the Union, but the woman 
must be actually pregnant. In most states not only is the person 
who causes the abortion punishable, but also any one who sup- 
plies any drug or instrument for the purpose. The woman, 
however, is not an accomplice (except by statute as in Ohio, 
State v. M'Coy, 39 N.E. 316), nor is she guilty of any crime 
unless by statute as in New York (Penal Code, 295) and Cali- 
fornia (Penal Code, 275) and Connecticut (Gen. Stats. 1902, 
1156). She may be a witness, and her testimony does not 
need corroboration. The attempt is also a crime in New York 
(1905, People v. Conrad, 102 App. D. 566). 

AUTHORITIES. Plpucguet, Commentarius Medicus in processus 
criminates super homicidio el infanticidio, &c. (1736); Burke Ryan, 
Infanticide, its Law, Prevalence, Prevention and History (1862); 
G. Greaves, Observations on the Laws referring to Child-Murder and 
Criminal Abortion (1864); Storer and Heard, Criminal Abortion, 
its Nature, Evidence and Law (Boston, 1868); J. Cave Browne, 
Infanticide, its Origin, Progress and Suppression (1857) ; T. R. Beck, 
Medical Jurisprudence (1842); A. S. Taylor, Principles and Practice 
of Medical Jurisprudence (1894); Sir J. Stephen, History of the 
Criminal Law of England (1883); Sir W. O. Russell, Crimes and 
Misdemeanours (3 vols., 1896); Archbold's Pleading and Evidence 
in Criminal Cases (1900) ; Roscoe's Evidence in Criminal Casts (1898); 



ABOUKIR ABRAHAM 



69 



Treub, van Oppenraag and Vlaming, The Right to Life of the Unborn 
Child (New York, 1903) ; L. Hochheimer, Crimes and Criminal 
Procedure (New York, 1897); A. A. Tardieu, &ude medico-legal sur 
I'avortement (Paris, 1904) ; F. Berolzheimer, System der Rechls- und 
Wisscnschaftsphilosophie (Munich, 1904). 

ABOUKIR, a village on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, 
145 m. N.E. of Alexandria by rail, containing a castle used as 
a state prison by Mehemet Ali. Near the village are many 
remains of ancient buildings, Egyptian, Greek and Roman. 
About 2 m. S.E. of the village are ruins supposed to mark the 
site of Canopus. A little farther east the Canopic branch of 
the Nile (now dry) entered the Mediterranean. 

Stretching eastward as far as the Rosetta mouth of the Nile 
is the spacious bay of Aboukir, where on the ist of August 1798 
Nelson fought the battle of the Nile, often referred to as the 
battle of Aboukir. The latter title is applied more properly 
to an engagement between the French expeditionary army and 
the Turks fought on the 2$th of July 1799. Near Aboukir, on 
the 8th of March 1801, the British army commanded by Sir R. 
Abercromby landed from its transports in the face of a strenuous 
opposition from a French force entrenched on the beach. (See 
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) 

ABOUT, EDMOND FRANQOIS VALENTIN (1828-1885), 
French novelist, publicist and journalist, was born on the I4th 
of February 1828, at Dieuze, in Lorraine. The boy's school 
career was brilliant. In 1848 he entered the Ecole Normale, 
taking the second place in the annual competition for admis- 
sion, Taine being first. Among his college contemporaries were 
Taine, Francisque, Sarcey, Challemel-Lacour and the ill-starred 
Prevost-Paradol. Of them all About was, according to Sarcey, 
the most highly vitalized, exuberant, brilliant and " undisci- 
plined." At the end of his college career he joined the French 
school in Athens, but if we may believe his own account, it had 
never been his intention to follow the professorial career, for 
which the Ecole Normale was a preparation, and in 1853 he 
returned to France and frankly gave himself to literature and 
journalism. A book on Greece, La Grece contemporaine (1855), 
which did not spare Greek susceptibilities, had an immediate 
success. In Tolla (1855) About was charged with drawing too 
freely on an earlier Italian novel, Vittoria Savelli (Paris, 1841). 
This caused a strong prejudice against him, and he was the 
object of numerous attacks, to which he was ready enough to 
retaliate. The Lettres d'un ban jeune homme, written to the 
Figaro under the signature of Valentin de Quevilly, provoked 
more animosities. During the next few years, with indefatigable 
energy, and generally with full public recognition, he wrote 
novels, stories, a play which failed, a book-pamphlet on the 
Roman question, many pamphlets on other subjects of the day, 
newspaper articles innumerable, some art criticisms, rejoinders 
to the attacks of his enemies, and popular manuals of political 
economy, L'A B C du travailleur (1868), Le pr ogres (1864). 
About's attitude towards the empire was that of a candid friend. 
He believed in its improvability, greeted the liberal ministry of 
Emile Ollivier at the beginning of 1870 with delight and wel- 
comed the Franco-German War. That day of enthusiasm had a 
terrible morrow. For his own personal part he lost the loved 
home near Saverne in Alsace, which he had purchased in 1858 
out of the fruits of his earlier literary successes. With the fall 
of the empire he became a republican, and, always an inveterate 
anti-clerical, he threw himself with ardour into the battle against 
the conservative reaction which made head during the first 
years of the republic. From 1872 onwards for some five or six 
years his paper, the XIX ' Siecle, of which he was the heart and 
soul, became a power in the land. But the republicans never 
quite forgave the tardiness of his conversion, and no place 
rewarded his later zeal. On the 23rd January 1884 he was 
elected a member of the French Academy, but died on the i6th 
of January 1885, before taking his seat. His journalism of 
; which specimens in his earlier and later manners will be found 
in the two series of Lettres d'un ban jeune homme d, sa cousine 
Madeleine (1861 and 1863), and the posthumous collection, Le 
dix-neuvieme sitcle (1892) was of its nature ephemeral. So 
. were the pamphlets, great and small. His political economy 






was that of an orthodox popularizer, and in no sense epoch- 
making. His dramas are negligible. His more serious novels, 
Madelon (1863), L'infdme (1867), the three that form the 
trilogy of the Vieille Roche (1866), and Le roman d'un brave 
homme (1880) a kind of counterblast to the view of the French 
workman presented in Zola's Assommoir contain striking and 
amusing scenes, no doubt, but scenes which are often suggestive 
of the stage, while description, dissertation, explanation too 
frequently take the place of life. His best work after all is to 
be found in the books that are almost wholly farcical, Le nez 
d'un notaire (1862); Le roi des montagnes (1856); L'homme d 
I'oreille cassee (1862); Trente el quarante (1858); Le cas de 
M. Guerin (1862). Here his most genuine wit, his spright- 
liness, his vivacity, the fancy that was in him, have free play. 
" You will never be more than a little Voltaire," said one 
of his masters when he was a lad at school. It was a true 
prophecy. (F. T. M.) 

ABRABANEL, ISAAC, called also ABRAVANEL, ABARBANEL 
(1437-1508), Jewish statesman, philosopher, theologian and 
commentator, was born at Lisbon of an ancient family which 
claimed descent from the royal house of David. Like many of 
the Spanish Jews he united scholarly tastes with political ability. 
He held a high place in the favour of King Alphonso V., who 
entrusted him with the management of important state affairs. 
On the death of Alphonso in 1481, his counsellors and favourites 
were harshly treated by his successor John, and Abrabanel was 
compelled to flee to Spain, where he held for eight years (1484- 
1492) the post of a minister of state under Ferdinand and 
Isabella. When the 'Jews were banished from Spain in 1492, 
no exception was made in Abrabanel's favour. He afterwards 
resided at Naples, Corfu and Monopoli, and in 1 503 removed to 
Venice, where he held office as a minister of state till his death 
in 1508. His repute as a commentator on the Scriptures is still 
high; in the I7th and i8th centuries he was much read by 
Christians such as Buxtorf. Abrabanel often quotes Christian 
authorities, though he opposed Christian exegesis of Messianic 
passages. He was one of the first to see that for Biblical exegesis 
it was necessary to reconstruct the social environment of olden 
times, and he skilfully applied his practical knowledge of state- 
craft to the elucidation of the books of Samuel and Kings. 

ABRACADABRA, a word analogous to Abraxas (<?..), used 
as a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilides 
in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and 
misfortune. It is found on Abraxas stones which were worn as 
amulets. Subsequently its use spread beyond the Gnostics, 
and in modern times it is applied contemptuously (e.g. by the 
early opponents of the evolution theory) to a conception or 
hypothesis which purports to be a simple solution of apparently 
insoluble phenomena. The Gnostic physician Serenus Sam- 
monicus gave precise instructions as to its mystical use in avert- 
ing or curing agues and fevers generally. The paper on which 
the word was written had to be folded in the form of a cross, 
suspended from the neck by a strip of linen so as to rest on the 
pit of the stomach, worn in this way for nine days, and then, 
before sunrise, cast behind the wearer into a stream running to 
the east. The letters were usually arranged as a triangle in one 
of the following ways: 

ABRACADABRA ABRACADABRA 
ABRACADABR BRACADABR 

ABRACADAB RACADAB 

ABRACADA ACADA 

ABRACAD CAD 

ABRACA A 

ABRAC 
ABRA 
ABR 
AB 
A 

ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high "), the 
ancestor of the Israelites, the first of the great Biblical patri- 
archs. His life as narrated in the book of Genesis reflects the 
traditions of different ages. It is the latest writer (P) who men- 



7 o 



ABRAHAM 



tions Abram (the original form of the name), Nahor and Haran, 
sons of Terah, at the close of a genealogy of the sons of Shem, 
which includes among its members Eber the eponym of the 
Hebrews. Terah is said to have come from Ur of the Chaldees, 
usually identified with Mukayyar in south Babylonia. He 
migrated to Haran 1 in Mesopotamia, apparently the classical 
Carrhae, on a branch of the Habor. Thence, after a short stay, 
Abram with his wife Sarai, and Lot the son of IJaran, and all 
their followers, departed for Canaan. The oldest tradition does 
not know of this twofold move, and seems to locate Abram's 
birthplace and the homes of his kindred at Haran (Gen. xxiv. 
4, 7, xxvii. 43). At the divine command, and encouraged by the 
promise that Yahweh would make of him, although hitherto 
childless, a great nation, he journeyed down to Shechem, and at 
the sacred tree (cf. xxxv. 4, Josh. xxiv. 26, Judg. ix. 6) received 
a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed. 
Having built an altar to commemorate the theophany, he 
removed to a spot between Bethel and Ai, where he built another 
altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen. 
xii. 1-9). Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between 
his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to 
Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the 
first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the 
Jordan, whilst Abram, after receiving another promise from 
Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of Mamre in Hebron and built 
an altar. In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction 
of Sodom and Gomorrah, Abram appears prominently in a fine 
passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom, 
and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein 
the city shall be preserved (xviii. 16-33). 

A peculiar passage, more valuable for the light it throws 
upon primitive ideas than for its contribution to the history 
of Abram, narrates the patriarch's visit to Egypt. Driven by 
a famine to take refuge in Egypt (cf. xxvi. i, xli. 57, xlii. i), 
he feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs 
of the Egyptians and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged 
that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the Pharaoh, 
who took her into the royal harem and enriched Abram with 
herds and servants. But when Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and 
his house with great plagues" suspicion was aroused, and the 
Pharaoh rebuked the patriarch for his deceit and sent him away 
under an escort (xii. lo-xiii. i). This story of Abram and his 
increased wealth (xiii. 2) receives no comment at the hands of 
the narrator, and in its present position would make Sarai over 
sixty years of age (xii. 4, xvii. i, 17). A similar experience is 
said to have happened to Abraham and Sarah at Gerar with the 
Philistine king Abimelech (xx. E), but the tone of the narrative 
is noticeably more advanced, and the presents which the patri- 
arch receives are compensation for the king's offence. Here, 
however, Sarah has reached her ninetieth year (xvii. 17). (The 
dates are due to the post-exilic framework in which the stories 
are inserted.) Still another episode of the same nature is re- 
corded of Isaac and Rebekah at Gerar, also with Abimelech. 
Ethically it is the loftiest, and Isaac obtains his wealth simply 
through his successful farming. Arising out of the incident is 
an account of a covenant between Abimelech and Isaac (xxvi. 
16-33, J)> a duplicate of which is placed in the time of Abraham 
(xxi. 22-34, J and E). Beersheba, which figures in both, is cele- 
brated by the planting of a sacred tree and (like Bethel) by the 
invocation of the name of Yahweh. This district is the scene 
of the birth of Ishmael and Isaac. As Sarai was barren (cf. 
xi. 3o) 2 the promise that his seed should possess the land seemed 
incapable of fulfilment. According to one rather obscure narra- 
tive, Abram's sole heir was the servant, who was over his 
household, apparently a certain Eliezer of Damascus 3 (xv. 2, 

1 The name is not spelt with the same guttural as Haran the son 
of Terah. 

2 Barrenness is a motif which recurs in the stories of Rebekah, 
Rachel, the mother of Samson, and Hannah (Gen. xxv. 21, xxix. 31 ; 
Judg. xiii. 2; i Sam. i. 5). 

* Abram's connexion with Damascus is supplemented in the 
traditions of Nicolaus of Damascus as cited by Josephus (Antiq. 
i. 7. 2). 



the text is corrupt). He is now promised as heir one of his own 
flesh, and a remarkable and solemn passage records how the 
promise was ratified by a covenant. The description is particu- 
larly noteworthy for the sudden appearance of birds of prey, 
which attempted to carry off the victims of the sacrificial cove- 
nant. The interpretation of the evil omen is explained by an 
allusion to the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt and their 
return in the fourth generation (xv. 16; contrast v. 13, after four 
hundred years; the chapter is extremely intricate and 'has the 
appearance of being of secondary origin). The main narrative 
now relates how Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to 
Abram her Egyptian handmaid Hagar, who, when she found she 
was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that 
Sara;, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story 
of Hannah, i Sam. i. 6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to 
flee (xvi. 1-14, J; on the details see ISHMAEL). Another tradi- 
tion places the expulsion of Hagar after the birth of Isaac. It 
was thirteen years after the birth of Ishmael, according to the 
latest narratives, that God appeared unto Abram with a renewed 
promise that his posterity should inhabit the land. To mark the 
solemnity of the occasion, the patriarch's name was changed to 
Abraham, and that of his wife to Sarah. 4 A covenant was 
concluded with him for all time, and as a sign thereof the rite of 
circumcision was instituted (xvii. P). The promise of a son to 
Sarah made Abraham "laugh", a punning allusion to the name 
Isaac (q.v.) which appears again in other forms. Thus, it is 
Sarah herself who "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears 
to Abraham at Mamre (xviii. 1-15, J), or who^ when the child is 
born cries "God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth 
will laugh at me" (xxi. 6, E). Finally, there is yet another 
story which attributes the flight of Hagar and Ishmael to Sarah's 
jealousy at the sight of Ishmael's "mocking" (rather dancing 
or playing, the intensive form of the verb "to laugh") on the 
feast day when Isaac was weaned (xxi. 8 sqq.). But this last 
story is clearly out of place, since a child who was then fourteen 
years old (cf . xvii. 24, xxi. 5) could scarcely be described as a weak 
babe who had to be carried (xxi. 14; see the commentaries). 

Abraham was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in 
the land of Moriah. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by 
an angel as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a ram 
which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he 
received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant 
prosperity (xxii. E). Thence he returned to Beersheba. The 
story is one of the few told by E, and significantly teaches that 
human sacrifice was not required by the Almighty (cf. Mic. 
vi. 7 seq.). The interest of the narrative now extends to Isaac 
alone. To his "only son" (cp. xxii. 2, 12) Abraham gave all 
he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands 
outside Palestine; they were thus regarded as less intimately 
related to Isaac and his descendants (xxv. 1-4, 6). The measures 
taken by the patriarch for the marriage of Isaac are circum- 
stantially described. His head-servant was sent to his master's i 
country and kindred to find a suitable bride, and the necessary 
preparation for the story is contained in the description of , 
Nahor's family (xxii. 20-24). The picturesque account of the 
meeting with Rebekah throws interesting light on oriental 
custom. Marriage with one's own folk (cf. Gen. xxvii. 46, J 
xxix. 19; Judg. xiv. 3), and especially with a cousin, is recom- 
mended now even as in the past. For its charm the story is ' 
comparable with the account of Jacob's experiences in the same 
land (xxix.). For the completion of the history of Abraham 
the compiler of Genesis has used P's narrative. Sarah is said 
to have died at a good old age, and was buried in the cave of 
Machpelah near Hebron, which the patriarch had purchased, 
with the adjoining field, from Ephron the Hittite (xxiii.) ; and here 
he himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place 
of pilgrimage and the traditional site is marked by a fine mosque. 1 

4 Abram (or Abiram) is a familiar and old-attested name meaning 
"(my) father is exalted"; the meaning of Abraham is obscure 
and the explanation Gen. xvii. 5 is mere word-play. It is possible 
that raham was originally only a dialectical form of ram. 

6 See Sir Charles Warren's description, Hasting's Diet. Bible, 
vol. iii. pp. 200 seq. The so-called Babylonian colouring of Gen. 



ABRAHAM 



7 1 



The story of Abraham is of greater value for the study of Old 
Testament theology than for the history of Israel. He became 
to the Hebrews the embodiment of their ideals, and stood at 
their head as the founder of the nation, the one to whom Yahweh 
had manifested his love by frequent promises and covenants. 
From the time when he was bidden to leave his country to enter 
the unknown land, Yahweh was ever present to encourage him 
to trust in the future when his posterity should possess the land, 
and so, in its bitterest hours, Israel could turn for consolation 
to the promises of the past which enshrined in Abraham its 
hopes for the future. Not only is Abraham the founder of 
religion, but he, of all the patriarchal figures, stands out most 
prominently as the recipient of the promises (xii. 2 seq. 7, xiii. 
14-17, xv., xvii., xviii. 17-19, xxii. 17 seq.; cf. xxiv. 7), and these 
the apostle Paul associates with the coming of Christ, and, 
adopting a characteristic and artificial style of interpretation 
prevalent in his time, endeavours to force a Messianic interpre- 
tation out of them. 1 

For the history of the Hebrews the life of Abraham is of the 
same value as other stories of traditional ancestors. The narra- 
tives, viewed dispassionately, represent him as an idealized 
sheikh (with one important exception, Gen. xiv., see below), 
about whose person a number of stories have gathered. As the 
father of Isaac and Ishmael, he is ultimately the common an- 
cestor of the Israelites and their nomadic fierce neighbours, men 
roving unrestrainedly like the wild ass, troubled by and troubling 
every one (xvi. 12). As the father of Midian, Sheba and other 
Arabian tribes (xxv. 1-4), it is evident that some degree of 
kinship was felt by the Hebrews with the dwellers of the more 
distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the 
mothers (Sarah, Hagar and Keturah) are in the descending 
scale as regards purity of blood. This great ancestral figure 
came, it was said, from Ur in Babylonia and Haran and thence 
to Canaan. Late tradition supposed that the migration was 
to escape Babylonian idolatry (Judith v., Jubilees xii.; cf. 
Josh. xxiv. 2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from 
death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in Is. 
xxix. 22). The route along the banks of the Euphrates from 
south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that 
the tradition has nothing improbable in itself, but the prominence 
given in the older narratives to the view that Haran was the 
home gives this the preference. It was thence that Jacob, the 
father of the tribes of Israel, came and the route to Shechem 
and Bethel is precisely the same in both. A twofold migration 
is doubtful, and, from what is known of the situation in Palestine 
in the isth century B.C., is extremely improbable. Further, 
there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by 
Joshua (q.v.) , partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf . 
also Josh. viii. 9 with Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3), whence it would appear 
that too much importance must not be laid upon any ethnological 
interpretation which fails to account for the three versions. 
That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not 
unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is 
difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from 
the east of the Jordan; the presence of Aramaean blood among 
the Israelites (see JACOB) ; the origin of the sanctity of venerable 
sites, these and other consideratons may readily be found to 
account for the traditions. Noteworthy coincidences in the 
lives of Abraham and Isaac, noticed above, point to the fluctu- 
ating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abra- 
ham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common 
stock of popular lore. 2 More original is the parting of Lot and 
Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests 
between Moab and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps Judg. iii.), 
and if this explains part of the story, the physical configura- 
tion of the Dead Sea may have led to the legend of the 
xxiii. has been much exaggerated ; see S. R. Driver, Genesis, ad loc. ; 
S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses, p. 208. 

1 See H. St. J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to Contemporary 
Jewish Thought, p. 69 seq. (1900). 

s On the other hand, the coincidences in xx. xxi. are due to E, 
who is also the author of xxii. Apart from these the narratives of 
Abraham are from J and P. 



destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities (see SODOM AND 
GOMORRAH). 

Different writers have regarded the life of Abraham differently. 
He has been viewed as a chieftain of the Amorites (q.v.), as the 
head of a great Semitic migration from Mesopotamia; or, since 
Ur and IJaran were seats of Moon-worship, he has been identi- 
fied with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evi- 
dence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham 
was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram- 
Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been 
combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not 
explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. 3 But it is important 
to remember that the narratives are not contemporary, and 
that the interesting discovery of the name Abi-ramu (Abram) on 
Babylonian contracts of about 2000 B.C. does not prove the 
Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as 
the fact that there were " Amorites " in Babylonia at the same 
period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of 
their number. One remarkable chapter associates Abraham 
with kings of Elam and the east (Gen. xiv.). No longer a 
peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, 4 
he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have 
ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been 
strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds. 

"It is generally recognized that this chapter holds quite an 
isolated place in the Pentateuchal history; it is the only passage 
which presents Abraham in the character of a warrior, and connects 
him with historical names and political movements, and there are 
no clear marks by which it can be assigned to any one of the docu- 
ments of which Genesis is made up. Thus, while one school of 
interpreters finds in the chapter the earliest fragment of the political 
history of western Asia, some even holding with Ewald that the 
narrative is probably based on old Canaanite records, other critics, 
as Noldeke, regard the whole as unhistorical and comparatively 
late in origin. On the latter view, which finds its main support 
in the intrinsic difficulties of the narrative, it is scarcely possible 
to avoid the conclusion that the chapter is one of the latest additions 
to the Pentateuch (Wellhausen and many others)." 6 

On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in 
remote days may have been current, considerable interest is 
attached to the names. Of these, Amraphel, king of Shinar 
(i.e. Babylonia, Gen. x. 10), has been identified with Kham- 
murabi, one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (c. 2000 
B.C.), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the 
Mediterranean Sea, the equation has found considerable favour. 
Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the 
king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can 
only be regarded as possible. Arioch, king of Ellasar, has been 
connected with Eriaku of Larsa the reading has been ques- 
tioned a contemporary with Khammurabi. Chedorlaomer, 
king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine Elamite name. 
Finally, the name of Tid'al, king of Goiim, may be identical 
with a certain Tudhulu the son of Gazza, a warrior, but appar- 
ently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, 
and Goiim may stand for Gutim, the Guti being a people who 
lived to the east of Kurdistan. Nevertheless, there is as yet no 
monumental evidence in favour of the genuineness of the story, 
and at the most it can only be said that the author (of what- 
ever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy, source, 
and in representing an invasion of Palestine by Babylonian 
overlords has given expression to a possible situation. 6 The 
improbabilities and internal difficulties of the narrative remain 

'According to Breasted (Amer. Journ. of Sent. Lit., 1904, p. 36), 
the "field of Abram " occurs among the places mentioned in the 
list of the Egyptian king Shishak (No. 71-2) in the loth century. 
See also his History of Egypt, p. 530. 

4 The number is precisely that of the total numerical value of the 
consonants of the name "Eliezer " (Gen. xv. 2); an astral signi- 
fication has also been found. 

6 W. R. Smith, Ency. Brit, (gth ed., 1883), art. " Melchizedek." 

" That the names may be those of historical personages is no proof 
of historical accuracy: "We cannot therefore conclude that the 
whole account is accurate history, any more than we can argue 
that Sir Walter Scott's Anne of Geier stein is throughout a correct 
account of actual events because we know that Charles the Bold and 
Margaret of Anjou were real people " (W. H. Bennett, Century 
Bible: Genesis, p. 186). 






ABRAHAM ABRUZZI 



untouched, only the bare outlines may very well be historical. 
If, as most critics agree, it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the 
book of Judith), it is possible that a writer, preferably one who 
lived in the post-exilic age and was acquainted with Babylonian 
history, desired to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibit- 
ing his military success against the monarchs of the Tigris and 
Euphrates, the high esteem he enjoyed in Palestine and his 
lofty character as displayed in his interview with Melchizedek. 

See further, Pinches, Old Test, in Light of Hist. Records, pp. 208- 
236; Driver, Genesis, p. xlix., and notes on ch. xiv. ; Addis, Docu- 
ments of the Hexateuch, ii. pp. 208-213; Carpenter and Harford- 
Battersby, The Hexateuch, i. pp. 157-159, 168; Bezold, Bab.-Assyr. 
Keilinschriften, pp. 24 sqq., 54 sqq.; A. Jeremias, Altes Test, im 
Lichte d. Allen Orients**', pp. 343 seq.; also the literature to the 
art. GENESIS. Many fanciful legends about Abraham founded on 
Biblical accounts prspun out of the fancy are to be found in Joseph us, 
and in post-Biblical and Mahommedan literature; for these, re- 
ference may be made to Beer, .Leben Abrahams (1859); Griin- 
baum, Neue Beitrage z. semit. Sagenkunde, pp. 89 seq. (1893) ; the 
apocryphal "Testament of Abraham " (M. R. James in Texts 
and Studies, 1892); W. Tisdall, Original Sources of the Quran, 
passim (1905). (S. A. C.) 

ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (1644-1709), Austrian divine, 
was born at Kreenheinstetten, near Messkirch, in July 1644. 
His real name was Ulrich Megerle. In 1662 he joined the order 
of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the name by which he 
is known. In this order he rose step by step until he became 
prior provincialis and definitor of his province. Having early 
gained a great reputation for pulpit eloquence, he was appointed 
court preacher at Vienna in 1669. The people flocked to hear 
him, attracted by the force and homeliness of his language, 
the grotesqueness of his humour, and the impartial severity 
with which he lashed the follies of all classes of society and of 
the court in particular. In general he spoke as a man of the 
people, the predominating quality of his style being an over- 
flowing and often coarse wit. There are, however, many pass- 
ages in his sermons in which he rises to loftier thought and 
uses more dignified language. He died at Vienna on the ist of 
December 1709. In his published writings he displayed much 
the same qualities as in the pulpit. Perhaps the most favourable 
specimen of his style is his didactic novel entitled Judas der 
Erzschelm (4 vols., Salzburg, 1686-1695). 

His works have been several times reproduced in whole or in part, 
though with many spurious interpolations. The best edition is 
that published in 21 vols. at Passau and Lindau (1835-1854). See 
Th. G. von Karajan, Abraham a Sancta 'Clara (Vienna, 1867); 
Blanckenburg, Studien iiber die Sprache Abrahams a S. C. (Halle, 
1897); Sexto, Abraham a S. C. (Sigmaringen, 1896); Schnell, 
Pater A. a S. C. (Munich, 1895) ; H. Mareta, Ober Judas d. Erzschelm 
(Vienna, 1875). 

ABRAHAM IBN DAUD (c. 1110-1180), Jewish historiographer 
and philosopher of Toledo. His historical work was the Book of 
Tradition (Sepher Haqabala), a chronicle down to the year 1161. 
This was a defence of the traditional record, and also contains 
valuable information for the medieval period. It was translated 
into Latin by Genebrad (1519). His philosophy was expounded 
in an Arabic work better known under its Hebrew title 'Emunah 
Ramah (Sublime Faith). This was translated into German by 
Weil (1882) . Ibn Baud was one of the first Jewish scholastics to 
adopt the Aristotelian system; his predecessors were mostly 
neo-Platonists. Maimonides owed a good deal to him. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect of deists in Bohemia in the i8th 
century, who professed to be followers of the pre-circumcised 
Abraham. Believing in one God, they contented themselves 
with the Decalogue and the Paternoster. Declining to be classed 
either as Christians or Jews, they were excluded from the edict 
of toleration promulgated by the emperor Joseph II. in 1781, 
and deported to various parts of the country, the men being 
drafted into frontier regiments. Some became Roman Catholics, 
and those who retained their " Abrahamite " views were not 
able to hand them on to the next generation. 

ABRAHAM-MEN, the nickname for vagrants who infested 
England in Tudor times. The phrase is certainly as old as 1 561, 
and was due to these beggars pretending that they were patients 
discharged from the Abraham ward at Bedlam. The genuine 
Bedlamite was allowed to roam the country on his discharge, 



soliciting alms, provided he wore a badge. This humane privi- 
lege was grossly abused, and thus gave rise to the slang phrase 
" to sham Abraham." 

ABRANTES, a town of central Portugal, in the district of 
Santarem, formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 
on the right bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of the 
Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon railway with the Guarda-Abrantes 
line. Pop. (1900) 7255. Abrantes, which occupies the crest of 
a hill covered with olive woods, gardens and vines, is a fortified 
town, with a thriving trade in fruit, olive oil and grain. As it 
commands the highway down the Tagus valley to Lisbon, it 
has usually been regarded as an important military position. 
Originally an Iberian settlement, founded about 300 B.C., it 
received the name Aurantes from the Romans; perhaps owing 
to the alluvial gold (aurum) found along the Tagus. Roman 
mosaics, coins, the remains of an aqueduct, and other antiquities 
have been discovered in the neighbourhood. Abrantes was cap- 
tured on the 24th of November 1807 by the French under 
General Junot, who for this achievement was created duke of 
Abrantes. By the Convention of Cintra (22nd of August 1808) 
the town was restored to the British and Portuguese. 

ABRASION (from Lat. ah, off, and radere, to scrape), the 
process of rubbing off or wearing down, as of rock by moving 
ice, or of coins by wear and tear; also used of the results of 
such a process as an abrasion or excoriation of the skin. In 
machinery, abrasion between moving surfaces has to be prevented 
as much as possible by the use of suitable materials, good fitting 
and lubrication. Engineers and other craftsmen make extensive 
use of abrasion, effected by the aid of such abrasives as emery 
and carborundum, in shaping, finishing and polishing their 
work. 

ABRAUM SALTS (from the German Abraum-salze, salts to be 
removed), the name given to a mixed deposit of salts, including 
halite, carnallite, kieserite, &c., found in association with rock- 
salt at Stassfurt in Prussia. 

ABRAXAS, or ABRASAX, a word engraved on certain antique 
stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used 
as amulets or charms. The Basilidians, a Gnostic sect, attached 
importance to the word, if, indeed, they did not bring it into use. 
The letters of <i/3paas,in the Greek notation,make up the number 
365, and the Basilidians gave the name to the 365 orders of 
spirits which, as they conceived, emanated in succession from 
the Supreme Being. These orders were supposed to occupy 
365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior to that above it; 
and the lowest of the heavens was thought to be the abode of 
the spirits who formed the earth and its inhabitants, and to 
whom was committed the administration of its affairs. Abraxas 
stones are of very little value. In addition to the word Abraxas 
and other mystical characters, they have often cabalistic figures 
engraved on them. The commonest of these have the head of a 
fowl, and the arms and bust of a man, and terminate in the 
body and tail of a serpent. 

ABROGATION (Lat. abrogare, to repeal or annul a law; 
rogare, literally " to ask," to propose a law), the annulling 
or repealing of a law by legislative action. Abrogation, 
which is the total annulling of a law, is to be distinguished 
from the term derogation, which is used where a law is only 
partially abrogated. Abrogation may be either express or 
implied. It is express either when the new law pronounces the 
annulment in general terms, as when in a concluding section it 
announces that all laws contrary to the provisions of the new 
one are repealed, or when in particular terms it announces 
specifically the preceding laws which it repeals. It is implied 
when the new law contains provisions which are positively 
contrary to the former laws without expressly abrogating 
those laws, or when the condition of things for which the law 
had provided has changed and consequently the need for the 
law no longer exists. The abrogation of any statute revives 
the provisions of the common law which had been abrogated 
by .that statute. See STATUTE; REPEAL. 

ABRUZZI E MOLISE, a group of provinces (compartimento) of 
Southern Italy, bounded N. by the province of Ascoli, N.W. an< 



" 



ABSALOM ABSALON 



73 



W. by Perugia, S.W. by Rome and Caserta, S. by Benevento, 
E. by Foggia and N.E. by the Adriatic Sea. It comprises the 
provinces of Teramo (population in 1901, 307,444), Aquila 
(396,629), Chieti (370,907) and Campobasso (366,571), which, 
under the kingdom of Naples, respectively bore the names 
Abruzzo Ulteriore I., Abruzzo Ulteriore II., Abruzzo Citeriore 
(the reference being to their distance from the capital) and 
Molise. The total area is 6567 sq. m. and the population (1901) 
1,441,551. The district is mainly mountainous in the interior, 
including as it does the central portion of the whole system of 
the Apennines and their culminating point, the Gran Sasso 
d'ltalia. Towards the sea the elevation is less considerable, 
the hills consisting mainly of somewhat unstable clay and sand, 
but the zone of level ground along the coast is quite inconsider- 
able. The coast line itself, though over 100 miles in length, 
has not a single harbour of importance. The climate varies 
considerably with the altitude, the highest peaks being covered 
with snow for the greater part of the year, while the valleys 
running N.E. towards the sea are fertile and well watered by 
several small rivers, the chief of which are the Tronto, Vomano, 
Pescara, Sangro, Trigno and Biferno. These are fed by less 
important streams, such as the Aterno and Gizio, which water 
the valleys between the main chains of the Apennines. They 
are liable to be suddenly swollen by rains, and floods and land- 
slips often cause considerable damage. This danger has been 
increased, as elsewhere in Italy, by indiscriminate timber-felling 
on the higher mountains without provision for re-afforestation, 
though considerable oak, beech, elm and pine forests still exist 
and are the home of wolves, wild boars and even bears. They 
also afford feeding-ground for large herds of swine, and the hams 
and sausages of the Abruzzi enjoy a high reputation. The 
rearing of cattle and sheep was at one time the chief occupation 
of the inhabitants, and many of them still drive their flocks 
down to the Campagna di Roma for the winter months and 
back again in the summer, but more attention is now devoted 
to cultivation. This flourishes especially in the valleys and in 
the now drained bed of the Lago Fucino. The industries are 
various, but none of them is of great importance. Arms and 
cutlery are produced at Campobasso and Agnone. At the 
exhibition of Abruzzese art, held at Chieti in 1905, fine specimens 
of goldsmiths' work of the i5th and i6th centuries, of majolica 
of the 1 7th and i8th centuries, and of tapestries and laces 
were brought together; and the reproduction of some of these 
is still carried on, the small town of Castelli being the centre of 
the manufacture. The river Pescara and its tributary the 
Tirino form an important source of power for generating elec- 
tricity. The chief towns are (i) Teramo, Atri, Campli, Penne, 
Castellammare Adriatico; (2) Aquila, Avezzano, Celano, Taglia- 
cozzo, Sulmona; (3) Chieti, Lanciano, Ortona, Vasto; (4) 
Campobasso, Agnone, Isernia. Owing to the nature of the 
country, communications are not easy. Railways are (i) the 
coast railway (a part of the Bologna-Gallipoli line), with branches 
from Giulianova to Teramo and from Termoli to Campobasso; 
(2) a line diverging S.E. from this at Pescara and running via 
Sulmona (whence there are branches via Aquila and Rieti to 
Terni, and via Carpinone to (a) Isernia and Caianello, on the line 
from Rome to Naples, and (b) Campobasso and Benevento), 
and Avezzano (whence there is a branch to Roccasecca) to 
Rome. 

The name Abruzzi is conjectured to be a medieval corruption 
of Praetuttii. The district was, in Lombard times, part of the 
duchy of Spoleto, and, under the Normans, a part of that of 
Apulia; it was first formed into a single province in 1240 by 
Frederick II., who placed the Justiciarius Aprutii at Solmona 
and founded the city of Aquila. After the Hohenstauffen lost 
their Italian dominions, the Abruzzi became a province of the 
Angevin kingdom of Naples, to which it was of great strategic 
importance. The division into three parts was not made until 
the 1 7th century. The Molise, on the other hand, formed part 
of the Lombard duchy of Benevento, and was placed under the 
Justiciarius of Terra di Lavoro by Frederick II.: after various 
, changes it became part of the Capitanata, and was only formed 






into an independent province in 1811. The people are remark- 
ably conservative in beliefs, superstitions and traditions. 

See V. Bindi, Monumenti storici ed artistici degU Abruzzi (Naples, 
1889); A. de Nino, Usi e costumi Abruzzesi (Florence, 1879-1883). 

ABSALOM (Hebrew for " father of [or is] peace "), in the 
Bible, the third son of David, king of Israel. He was deemed 
the handsomest man in the kingdom. His sister Tamar having 
been violated by David's eldest son Amnon, Absalom, after 
waiting two years, caused his servants to murder Amnon at a 
feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 Sam- xiii.). 
After this deed he fled to Talmai, " king " of Geshur (see Josh, 
xii. 5 or xiii. 2), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until 
five years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour 
(see JOAB). Four years after this he raised a revolt at Hebron, 
the former capital. Absalom was now the eldest surviving son 
of David, and the present position of the narratives (xv.-xx.) 
after the birth of Solomon and before the struggle between 
Solomon and Adonijah may represent the view that the 
suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne 
excited the impulsive youth to rebellion. All Israel and Judah 
flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the Cherethites 
and Pelethites and some recent recruits from Gath, found it 
expedient to flee. The priests remained behind in Jerusalem, 
and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies. 
Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned 
Ahithophel. The pursuit was continued and David took refuge 
beyond the Jordan. A battle was fought in the " wood of 
Ephraim " (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) 
and Absalom's army was completely routed. He himself was 
caught in the boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly 
charged his men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was 
informed. What a common soldier refused to do even for a 
thousand shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook. 
Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he 
struggled in the branches, and as though this were not enough, 
his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him. The king's 
overwhelming grief is well known. A great heap of stones was 
erected where he fell, whilst another monument near Jerusalem 
(not the modern " Absalom's Tomb," which is of later origin) 
he himself had erected in his lifetime to perpetuate his name 
(2 Sam. xviii. 17 seq.). But the latter notice does not seem to 
agree with xiv. 27 (cf. i Kings xv. 2). On the narratives in 
2 Sam. xiii.-xix., see further DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. 

ABSALON (c. 1128-1201), Danish archbishop and statesman, 
was born about 1128, the son of Asscr Rig of Fjenneslev, at 
whose castle he and his brother Esbjorn were brought up along 
with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards Valdemar I. The 
Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were rich. They 
founded the monastery of Soro as a civilizing centre, and after 
giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home, 
which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial 
exercise, they sent him to the university of Paris. Absalon first 
appears in Saxo's Chronicle as a fellow-guest at Roskilde, at the 
banquet given, in 1157, by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and 
Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped as- 
sassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occa- 
sion, but at length escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed 
them, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Grathe Heath. 
The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish 
throne saw Absalon elected bishop of Roskilde. Henceforth 
Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter 
of that imperial policy which, for three' generations, was to give 
Denmark the dominion of the Baltic. Briefly, it was Absalon's 
intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who 
inhabited that portion of the Baltic littoral which we now call 
Pomerania, and ravaged the Danish coasts so unmercifully that 
at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark 
lay wasted and depopulated. The very existence of Denmark 
demanded the suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked 
pagan freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the 
best part of his life. The first expedition against the Wends, 
conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160, but it was not 



74 



ABSCESS ABSENCE 



till 1168 that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in Rtigen, 
containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit, was surrendered, 
the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian 
religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by 
sea to Garz, in south Rtigen, the political capital of the Wends, 
and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected 
fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered 
unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. 
Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of Aarhus, and twelve " house- 
carls," thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of 
Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding 
among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding 
to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol 
to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole popula- 
tion of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations 
of twelve churches in the isle of Rtigen. The destruction of 
this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon 
considerably to reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to 
keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed 
another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on 
the isle of Wollin. Absalon's last military exploit was the 
annihilation, off Strela (Stralsund), on Whit-Sunday 1184, of a 
Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromir 
of Riigen. He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life 
had aged him, and he was content to resign the command of 
fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, after- 
wards Valdemar II., and to confine himself to the administration 
of the empire which his genius had created. In this sphere 
Absalon proved himself equally great. The aim of his policy 
was to free Denmark from the German yoke. It was contrary 
to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I. rendered fealty to 
the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at D61e in 1162; and when, 
on the accession of Canute V. in 1182, an imperial ambassador 
arrived at Roskilde to receive the homage of the new king, 
Absalon resolutely withstood him. " Return to the emperor," 
cried he, " and tell him that the king of Denmark will in no wise 
show him obedience or do him homage." As the archpastor of 
Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services, 
building churches and monasteries, introducing the religious 
orders, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote 
civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first 
Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. In 1178 he became archbishop 
of Lund, but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunica- 
tion from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium. 
Absalon died on the 2ist of March 1201, at the family monastery 
of Sor6, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed. 

Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque 
figures of the Middle Ages, and was equally great as churchman, 
statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be 
no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well 
fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the 
army and the best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like 
the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole 
concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the " shedding of 
blood " by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon 
never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were 
of the nature of crusades. Moreover, all his martial energy 
notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly 
winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single 
enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by 
him into friends. 

See Saxo, Gesta Danorum, ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books x.- 
xvi. ; Steinstrup, Danmark's Riges Historie. Oldtiden og den cddre 
Middelalder, pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.) 

ABSCESS (from Lat. abscedere, to separate), in pathology, a 
collection of pus among the tissues of the body, the result of 
bacterial inflammation. Without the presence of septic organ- 
isms abscess does not occur. At any rate, every acute abscess 
contains septic germs, and these may have reached the inflamed 
area by direct infection, or may have been carried thither by 
the blood-stream. Previous to the formation of abscess some- 
thing has occurred to lower the vitality of the affected tissue 



some gross injury, perchance, or it may be that the power of 
resistance against bacillary invasion was lowered by reason of 
constitutional weakness. As the result, then, of lowered vitality, 
a certain area becomes congested and effusion takes place into 
the tissues. This effusion coagulates and a hard, brawny mass 
is formed which softens towards the centre. If nothing is done 
the softened area increases in size, the skin over it becomes 
thinned, loses its vitality (mortifies) and a small " slough " is 
formed. When the slough gives way the pus escapes and, 
tension being relieved, pain ceases. A local necrosis or death of 
tissue takes place at that part of the inflammatory swelling 
farthest from the healthy circulation. When the attack of 
septic inflammation is very acute, death of the tissue occurs en 
masse, as in the core of a boil or carbuncle. Sometimes, however, 
no such mass of dead tissue is to be observed, and all that escapes 
when the skin is lanced or gives way is the creamy pus. In the 
latter case the tissue has broken down in a molecular form. After 
the escape of the core or slough along with a certain amount of 
pus, a space, the abscess-cavity, is left, the walls of which are 
lined with new vascular tissue which has itself escaped destruc- 
tion. This lowly organized material is called granulation tissue, 
and exactly resembles the growth which covers the floor of an 
ulcer. These granulations eventually fill the contracting cavity 
and obliterate it by forming interstitial scar-tissue. This is 
called healing by second intention. Pus may accumulate in a 
normal cavity, such as a joint or bursa, or in the cranial, thoracic 
or abdominal cavity. In all these situations, if the diagnosis 
is clear, the principle of treatment is evacuation and drainage. 
When evacuating an abscess it is often advisable to scrape away 
the lining of unhealthy granulations and to wash out the cavity 
with an antiseptic lotion. If the after-drainage of the cavity is 
thorough the formation of pus ceases and the watery discharge 
from the abscess wall subsides. As the cavity contracts the 
discharge becomes less, until at last the drainage tube can be 
removed and the external wound allowed to heal. The large 
collections of pus which form in connexion with disease of the 
spinal column in the cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions are 
now treated by free evacuation of the tuberculous pus, with 
careful antiseptic measures. The opening should be in as de- 
pendent a position as possible in order that the drainage may be 
thorough. If tension recurs after opening has been made, as 
by the blocking of the tube, or by its imperfect position, or by 
its being too short, there is likely to be a fresh formation of pus, 
and without delay the whole procedure must be gone through 
again. (E. O.*) 

ABSCISSA (from the Lat. abscissus, cut off), in the Cartesian 
system of co-ordinates, the distance of a point from the axis 
of y measured parallel to the horizontal axis y 

(axis of x). Thus PS (or OR) is the abscissa s/--.-,,P 

of P. The word appears for the first time in f / 

a Latin work written by Stefano degli Angeli / / 

(1623-1697), a professor of mathematics in / R " 
Rome. (See GEOMETRY, Analytical.) ' 

ABSCISSION (from Lat. abscindere), a tearing away, or cut- 
ting off; a term used sometimes in prosody for the elision of 
a vowel before another, and in surgery especially for abscission 
of the cornea, or the removal of that portion of the eyeball 
situated in front of the attachments of the recti muscles; in 
botany, the separation of spores by elimination of the connexion. 

ABSCOND (Lat. abscondere, to hide, put away), to depart in 
a secret manner; in law, to remove from the jurisdiction of the 
courts or so to conceal oneself as to avoid their jurisdiction. A 
person may " abscond " either for the purpose of avoiding arrest 
for a crime (see ARREST), or for a fraudulent purpose, such as 
the defrauding of his creditors (see BANKRUPTCY). 

ABSENCE (Lat. absentia), the fact of being "away," either 
in body or mind; " absence of mind " being a condition in 
which the mind is withdrawn from what is passing. The special 
occasion roll-call at Eton College is called " Absence," which the 
boys attend in their tall hats. A soldier must get permission or 
" leave of absence " before he can be away from his regimen 
Seven years' absence with no sign of life either by letter o 



t . 



ABSENTEEISM ABSOLUTE 



75 



message is held presumptive evidence of death in the law 
courts. 

ABSENTEEISM, a term used primarily of landed proprietors 
who absent themselves from their estates, and live and spend 
their incomes elsewhere; in its more extended meaning it in- 
cludes all those (in addition to landlords) who live out of a 
country or locality but derive their income from some source 
within it. Absenteeism is a question which has been much de- 
bated, and from both the economic and moral point of view 
there is little doubt that it has a prejudicial effect. To it has 
been attributed in a great measure the unprosperous condition 
of the rural districts of France before the Revolution, when 
it was unusual for the great nobles to live on their estates unless 
compelled to do so by a sentence involving their " exile " from 
Paris. It has also been an especial evil in Ireland, and many 
attempts were made to combat it. As early as 1 7 2 7 a tax of four 
shillings in the pound was imposed on all persons holding offices 
and employments in Ireland and residing in England. This tax 
was discontinued in 1753, but was re-imposed in 1769. In 1774 
the tax was reduced to two shillings in the pound, but was 
dropped after some years. It was revived by the Independent 
Parliament in 1782 and for some ten years brought in a sub- 
stantial amount to the revenue, yielding in 1790 as much as 
63,089. 

AUTHORITIES. For a discussion of absenteeism from the economic 
point of view see N. W. Senior, Lectures on the Rate of Wages, Political 
Economy; J. S. Mill, Political Economy; ]. R. McCulloch, Treatises 
and Essays on Money, &c., article "Absenteeism "; A. T. Hadley, 
Economics; on absenteeism in Ireland see A. Young, Tour in 
Ireland (1780); T. Prior, List of Absentees (1729); E. Wakefield, 
Account of Ireland (1812); W. E. H. Lecky, Ireland in the iSth 
Century (1892) ; A. E. Murray, History of the Commercial and 
Financial Relations between England and Ireland (1903); Parlia- 
mentary Papers, Ireland, 1830, vii., ditto, 1845, xix.-xxii. ; in France, 
A. de Monchretien, Traicte de I'akonomie politique (1615); A. de 
Tocqueville, L'Ancien Regime (1857); H. Taine, Les Origines de la 
France contemporaine, I'ancien Regime (1876). 

ABSINTHE, a liqueur or aromatized spirit, the characteristic 
flavouring matter of which is derived from various .species of 
wormwood ( A rtemisia absinthium) . Among the other substances 
generally employed in its manufacture are angelica root, sweet 
flag, dittany leaves, star-anise fruit, fennel and hyssop. A 
colourless" alcoholate " (see LIQUEURS) is first prepared, and to 
this the well-known green colour of the beverage is imparted by 
maceration with green leaves of wormwood, hyssop and mint. 
Inferior varieties are made by means of essences, the distillation 
process being omitted. There are two varieties of absinthe, the 
French and the Swiss, the latter of which is of a higher alcoholic 
strength than the former. The best absinthe contains 70 to 80% 
of alcohol. It is said to improve very materially by storage. 
There is a popular belief to the effect that absinthe is frequently 
adulterated with copper, indigo or other dye-stuffs (to impart 
the green colour), but, in fact, this is now very rarely the case. 
There is some reason to believe that excessive absinthe-drinking 
leads to effects which are specifically worse than those assoc- 
iated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol. 

ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free), a term having 
the general signification of independent, self-existent, uncondi- 
tioned. Thus we speak of " absolute " as opposed to " limited " 
or " constitutional " monarchy, or, in common parlance, of an 
" absolute failure," i.e. unrelieved by any satisfactory circum- 
stances. In philosophy the word has several technical uses, 
(i) In Logic, it has been applied to non-connotative terms which 
do not imply attributes (see CONNOTATION), but more commonly, 
in opposition to Relative, to terms which do not imply the exist- 
ence of some other (correlative) term; e.g. " father " implies 
" son," " tutor " " pupil," and therefore each of these terms is 
relative. In fact, however, the distinction is formal, and, though 
convenient in the terminology of elementary logic, cannot be 
strictly maintained. The tefm " man," for example, which, as 
compared with " father," " son," " tutor," seems to be absolute, 
is obviously relative in other connexions; in various contexts 
it implies its various possible opposites, e.g. " woman," " boy," 
" master," " brute." In other words, every term which is 



susceptible of definition is ipso facto relative, for definition is 
precisely the segregation of the thing defined from all other 
things which it is not, i.e. implies a relation. Every term which 
has a meaning is, therefore, relative, if only to its contradictory. 

(2) The term is used in the phrase " absolute knowledge " to 
imply knowledge per se. It has been held, however, that, since 
all knowledge implies a knowing subject and a known object, 
absolute knowledge is a contradiction in terms (see RELATIVITY). 
So also Herbert Spencer spoke of "absolute ethics," as opposed 
to systems of conduct based on particular local or temporary 
laws and conventions (see ETHICS). 

(3) By far the most important use of the word is in the phrase 
" the Absolute " (see METAPHYSICS). It is sufficient here to 
indicate the problems involved in their most elementary form. 
The process of knowledge in the sphere of intellect as in that of 
natural science is one of generalization, i.e. the co-ordination of 
particular facts under general statements, or in other words, the 
explanation of one fact by another, and that other by a third, 
and so on. In this way the particular facts or existences are 
left behind in the search for higher, more inclusive conceptions; 
as twigs are traced to one branch, and branches to one trunk, 
so, it is held, all the plurality of sense-given data is absorbed 
in a unity which is all-inclusive and self-existent, and has no 
" beyond." By a metaphor this process has been described as 
the &5bs avu (as of tracing a river to its source). Other phrases 
from different points of view have been used to describe the 
idea, e.g. First Cause, Vital Principle (in connexion with the 
origin of life), God (as the author and sum of all being), Unity, 
Truth (i.e. the sum and culmination of all knowledge), Causa 
Causans, &c. The idea in different senses appears both in ideal- 
istic and realistic systems of thought. 

The theories of the Absolute may be summarized briefly as 
follows, (i) The Absolute does not exist, and is not even in any 
real sense thinkable. This view is held by the empiricists, who 
hold that nothing is knowable save phenomena. The Absolute 
could not be conceived, for all knowledge is susceptible of defini- 
tion and, therefore, relative. The Absolute includes the idea of 
necessity, which the mind cannot cognize. (2) The Absolute 
exists for thought only. In this theory the absolute is the un- 
known x which the human mind is logically compelled to postu- 
late a priori as the only coherent explanation and justification 
of its thought. (3) The Absolute exists but is unthinkable, 
because it is an aid to thought which comes into operation, as 
it were, as a final explanation beyond which thought cannot go. 
Its existence is shown by the fact that without it all demonstra- 
tion would be a mere circulus in probando or verbal exercise, 
because the existence of separate things implies some one thing 
which includes and explains them. (4) The Absolute both exists 
and is conceivable. It is argued that we do in fact conceive it 
in as much as we do conceive Unity, Being, Truth. The concep- 
tion is so clear that its inexplicability (admitted) is of no account. 
Further, since the unity of our thought implies the absolute, 
and since the existence of things is known only to thought, it 
appears absurd that the absolute itself should be regarded as 
non-existent. The Absolute is substance in itself, the ultimate 
basis and matter of existence. All things are merely manifesta- 
tions of it, exist in virtue of it, but are not identical with it. 
(5) Metaphysical idealists pursue this line of argument in a dif- 
ferent way. For them nothing exists save thought; the only 
existence that can be predicated of any thing and, therefore, of 
the Absolute, is that it is thought. Thought creates God, things, 
the Absolute. (6) Finally, it has been held that we can conceive 
the Absolute, though our conception is only partial, just as our 
conception of all things is limited by the imperfect powers of 
human intellect. Thus the Absolute exists for us only in our 
thought of it (4 above). But thought itself comes from the 
Absolute which, being itself the pure thought of thoughts, 
separates from itself individual minds. It is, therefore, perfectly 
natural that human thought, being essentially homogeneous 
with the Absolute, should be able by the consideration of the 
universe to arrive at some imperfect conception of the source 
from which all is derived. 



ABSOLUTION ABSORPTION OF LIGHT 



The whole controversy is obscured by inevitable difficulties 
in terminology. The fundamental problem is whether a thing 
which is by hypothesis infinite can in any sense be defined, and 
if it is not defined, whether it can be said to be cognized or 
thought. It would appear to be almost an axiom that anything 
which by hypothesis transcends the intellect (i.e. by including 
subject and object, knowing and known) is ipso facto beyond the 
limits of the knower. Only an Absolute can cognize an absolute. 

ABSOLUTION (Lat. absolutio from absolve, loosen, acquit), 
a term used in civil and ecclesiastical law, denoting the act of 
setting free or acquitting. In a criminal process it signifies the 
acquittal of an accused person on the ground that the evidence 
has either disproved or failed to prove the charge brought against 
him. In this sense it is now little used, except in Scottish law 
in the forms assoilzie and absolvitor. The ecclesiastical use of the 
word is essentially different from the civil. It refers not to an 
accusation, but to sin actually committed (after baptism) ; and 
it denotes the setting of the sinner free from the guilt of the sin, 
or from its ecclesiastical penalty (excommunication), or from 
both. The authority of the church or minister to pronounce 
absolution is based on John xx. 23; Matt, xviii. 18; James v. 16, 
&c. In primitive times, when confession of sins was made before 
the congregation, the absolution was deferred till the penance 
was completed; and there is no record of the use of any special 
formula. Men were also encouraged, e.g. by Chrysostom, to 
confess their secret sins secretly to God. In course of time 
changes grew up. (i) From the 3rd century onwards, secret 
(auricular) confession before a bishop or priest was practised. 
For various reasons it became more and more common, until 
the fourth Lateran council (1215) ordered all Christians of the 
Roman obedience to make a confession once a year at least. In 
the Greek church also private confession has become obligatory. 
(2) In primitive times the penitent was reconciled by imposition 
of hands by the bishop with or without the clergy: gradually 
the office was left to be discharged by priests, and the outward 
action more and more disused. (3) It became the custom to give 
the absolution to penitents immediately after their confession 
and before the penance was performed. (4) Until the 'Middle 
Ages the form of absolution after private confession was of the 
nature of a prayer, such as " May the Lord absolve thee "; 
and this is still the practice of the Greek church. But about the 
i3th century the Roman formula was altered, and the council 
of Trent (1551) declared that the "form" and power of the 
sacrament of penance lay in the words Ego le absolve, &c., and 
that the accompanying prayers are not essential to it. Of the 
three forms of absolution in the Anglican Prayer Book, that in 
the Visitation of the Sick (disused in the church of Ireland by 
decision of the Synods of 1871 and 1877) runs "I absolve thee," 
tracing the authority so to act through the church up to Christ: 
the form in the Communion Service is precative, while that in 
Morning and Evening Prayer is indicative indeed, but so general 
as not to imply anything like a judicial decree of absolution. 
In the Lutheran church also the practice of private confession 
survived the Reformation, together with both the exhibitive 
(I forgive, &c.) and declaratory (I declare and pronounce) forms 
of absolution. In granting absolution, even after general con- 
fession, it is in some places still the custom for the minister, 
where the numbers permit of it, to lay his hands on the head of 
each penitent. (W. O. B.) 

ABSOLUTISM, in aesthetics, a term applied to the theory that 
beauty is an objective attribute of things, not merely a subjec- 
tive feeling of pleasure in him who perceives. It follows that 
there is an absolute standard of the beautiful by which all ob- 
jects can be judged. The fact that, in practice, the judgments 
even of connoisseurs are perpetually at variance, and that the 
so-called criteria of one place or period are more or less opposed 
to those of all others, is explained away by the hypothesis that 
individuals are differently gifted in respect of the capacity to 
appreciate. (See AESTHETICS.) 

In political philosophy absolutism, as opposed to constitu- 
tional government, is the despotic rule of a sovereign unrestrained 
by laws and based directly upon force. In the strict sense such 



governments are rare, but it is customary to apply the term to a 
state at a relatively backward stage of constitutional develop- 
ment. 

ABSORPTION OF LIGHT. The term "absorption" (from 
Lat. absorbere) means literally " sucking up " or " swallowing," 
and thus a total incorporation in something, literally or figura- 
tively ; it is technically used in animal physiology for the 
function of certain vessels which suck up fluids; and in light 
and optics absorption spectrum and absorption band are terms 
used in the discussion of the transformation of rays in various 
media. 

If a luminous body is surrounded by empty space, the light 
which it emits suffers no loss of energy as it travels outwards. 
The intensity of the light diminishes merely because the total 
energy, though unaltered, is distributed over a wider and wider 
surface as the rays diverge from the source. To prove this, it 
will be sufficient to mention that an exceedingly small deficiency 
in the transparency of the free aether would be sufficient to pre- 
vent the light of the fixed stars from reaching the earth, since 
their distances are so immense. But when light is transmitted 
through a material medium, it always suffers some loss, the 
light energy being absorbed by the medium, that is, converted 
partially or wholly into other forms of energy such as heat, 
a portion of which transformed energy may be re-emitted as 
radiant energy of a lower frequency. Even the most transparent 
bodies known absorb an appreciable portion of the light trans- 
mitted through them. Thus the atmosphere absorbs a part of 
the sun's rays, and the greater the distance which the rays have 
to traverse the greater is the proportion which is absorbed, so 
that on this account the sun appears less bright towards sunset. 
On the other hand, light can penetrate some distance into all 
substances, even the most opaque, the absorption being, however, 
extremely rapid in the latter case. 

The nature of the surface of a body has considerable influence 
on its power of absorbing light. Platinum black, for instance, 
in which the metal is in a state of fine division, absorbs nearly 
all the light incident on it, while polished platinum reflects the 
greater part. In the former case the light penetrating between 
the particles is unable to escape by reflexion, and is finally 
absorbed. 

The question of absorption may be considered from either of 
two points of view. We may treat it as a superficial effect, 
especially in the case of bodies which are opaque enough or thick 
enough to prevent all transmission of light, and we may investi- 
gate how much is reflected at the surface and how much is ab- 
sorbed; or, on the other hand, we may confine our attention 
to the light which enters the body and inquire into the relation 
between the decay of intensity and the depth of penetration. 
We shall take these two cases separately. 

Absorptive Power. When none of the radiations which fall on 
a body penetrates through its substance, then the ratio of the 
amount of radiation of a given wave-length which is absorbed 
to the total amount received is called the " absorptive power " 
of the body for that wave-length. Thus if the body absorbed 
half the incident radiation its absorptive power would be f, 
and if it absorbed all the incident radiation its absorptive power 
would be i. A body which absorbs all radiations of all wave- 
lengths would be called a " perfectly black body." No such 
body actually exists, but such substances as lamp-black and 
platinum-black approximately fulfil the condition. The frac- 
tion of the incident radiation which is not absorbed by a body 
gives a measure of its reflecting power, with which we are not here 
concerned. Most bodies exhibit a selective action on light, that 
is to say, they readily absorb light of particular wave-lengths, 
light of other wave-lengths not being largely absorbed. All 
bodies when heated emit the same kind of radiations which they 
absorb an important principle known as the principle of the 
equality of radiating and absorbing powers. Thus black sub- 
stances such as charcoal are very luminous when heated. A 
tile of white porcelain with a black pattern on it will, if heated 
red-hot, show the pattern bright on a darker ground. On the 
other hand, those substances which either are good reflectors or 



ABSTEMII ABSTRACTION 



77 



good transmitters, are not so luminous at the same temperature; 
for instance, melted silver, which reflects well, is not so luminous 
as carbon at the same temperature, and common salt, which is 
very transparent for most kinds of radiation, when poured in a 
fused condition out of a bright red-hot crucible, looks almost 
like water, showing only a faint red glow for a moment or two. 
But all such bodies appear to lose their distinctive properties 
when heated in a vessel which nearly encloses them, for in that 
case those radiations which they do not emit are either trans- 
mitted through them from the walls of the vessel behind, or else 
reflected from their surface. This fact may be expressed by 
saying that the radiation within a heated enclosure is the same 
as that of a perfectly black body. 

Coefficient of Absorption, and Law of Absorption. The law 
which governs the rate of decay of light intensity in passing 
through any medium may be readily obtained. If Io represents 
the intensity of the light which enters the surface, Ii the intensity 
after passing through i centimetre, I 2 the intensity after passing 
through 2 centimetres, and so on; then we should expect that 
whatever fraction of Io is absorbed in the first centimetre, the 
same fraction of Ii will be absorbed in the second. That is, if an 
amount yio is absorbed in the first centimetre, jl\ is absorbed in 
the second, and so on. We have then 

and so on, so that if I is the intensity after passing through a 
thickness / in centimetres 

I = I (i-j)< (i). 

We might call /, which is the proportion absorbed in one 
centimetre, the "coefficient of absorption" of the medium. It 
would, however, not then apply to the case of a body for which 
the whole light is absorbed in less than one centimetre. It is 
better then to define the coefficient of absorption as a quantity 
k such that kin of the light is absorbed in i/th part of a centi- 
metre, where n may be taken to be a very large number. The 
formula (i) then becomes 

I = V-*< '(2) 

where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and k is a constant 
which is practically the same as; for bodies which do not absorb 
very rapidly. 

There is another coefficient of absorption (K) which occurs in 
Helmholtz's theory of dispersion (see DISPERSION). It is closely 
related to the coefficient k which we have just defined, the 
equation connecting the two being &=4/7nc/X,A being the wave- 
length of the incident light. 

The law of absorption expressed by the formula (2) has been 
verified by experiments for various solids, liquids and gases. 
The method consists in comparing the intensity after trans- 
mission through a layer of known thickness of the absorbent 
with the intensity of light from the same source which has not 
passed through the medium, k being thus obtained for various 
thicknesses and found to be constant. In the case of solutions, 
if the absorption of the solvent is negligible, the effect of in- 
creasing the concentration of the absorbing solute is the same 
as that of increasing the thickness in the same ratio. In a 
similar way the absorption of light in the coloured gas chlorine 
is found to be unaltered if the thickness is reduced by compres- 
sion, because the density is increased in the same ratio that the 
thickness is reduced. This is not strictly the case, however, 
for such gases and vapours as exhibit well-defined bands of 
absorption in the spectrum, as these bands are altered in char- 
acter by compression. 

If white light is allowed to fall on some coloured solutions, 
lie transmitted light is of one colour when the thickness of the 
olution is small, and of quite another colour if the thickness 
great. This curious phenomenon is known as dichromatism 
(from Si-, two, and \pSifjia, colour). Thus, when a strong light is 
newed through a solution of chlorophyll, the light seen is a 
rilliant green if the thickness is small, but a deep blood-red 
3r thicker layers. This effect can be explained as follows. The 
olution is moderately transparent for a large number of rays 



in the neighbourhood of the green part of the spectrum; it is, 
on the whole, much more opaque for red rays, but is readily 
penetrated by certain red rays belonging to a narrow region of 
the spectrum. The small amount of red transmitted is at first 
quite overpowered by the green, but having a smaller coefficient 
of absorption, it becomes finally predominant. The effect is 
complicated, in the case of chlorophyll and many other bodies, 
by selective reflexion and fluorescence. 

For the molecular theory of absorption, see SPECTROSCOPY. 

REFERENCES. A. Schuster's Theory of Optics (1904); P. K. L. 
Drude's Theory of Optics (Eng. trans., 1902); F. H. Wullner's 
Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Bd. iv. (1899). (J- R- C.) 

ABSTEMII (a Latin word, from abs, away from, temetum, in- 
toxicating liquor, from which is derived the English " abste- 
mious " or temperate), a name formerly given to such persons 
as could not partake of the cup of the Eucharist on account of 
their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed these to com- 
municate in the species of bread only, touching the cup with 
their lip; a course which was deemed a profanation by the 
Lutherans. Among several Protestant sects, both in Great 
Britain and America, abstemii on a somewhat different principle 
have appeared in modern times. These are total abstainers, 
who maintain that the use of stimulants is essentially sinful, 
and allege that the wine used by Christ and his disciples at the 
supper was unfermented. They accordingly communicate in 
the unfermented " juice of the grape." 

ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain), the fact or 
habit of refraining from anything, but usually from the indul- 
gence of the appetite and especially from strong drink. " Total 
abstinence " and " total abstainer " are associated with taking 
the pledge to abstain from alcoholic liquor (see TEMPERANCE). 
In the discipline of the Christian Church abstinence is the term 
for a less severe form of Fasting (<?..). 

ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere), the process or result of 
drawing away; that which is drawn away, separated or derived. 
Thus the noun is used for a summary, compendium or epitome 
of a larger work, the gist of which is given in a concentrated form. 
Similarly an absent-minded man is said to be " abstracted," 
as paying no attention to the matter in hand. In philosophy 
the word has several closely related technical senses, (i) In 
formal logic it is applied to those terms which denote qualities, 
attributes, circumstances, as opposed to concrete terms, the 
names of things; thus " friend " is concrete, " friendship " 
abstract. The term which expresses the connotation of a word 
is therefore an abstract term, though it is probably not itself 
connotative; adjectives are concrete, not abstract, e.g. " equal " 
is concrete, " equality " abstract (cf. Aristotle's aphaeresis and 
prosthesis). (2) The process of abstraction takes an important 
place both in psychological and metaphysical speculation. The 
psychologist finds among the earliest of his problems the question 
as to the process from the perception of things seen and heard to 
mental conceptions, which are ultimately distinct from immediate 
perception (see PSYCHOLOGY). When the mind, beginning with 
isolated individuals, groups them together in virtue of perceived 
resemblances and arrives at a unity in plurality, the process by 
which attention is diverted from individuals and concentrated 
on a single inclusive concept (i.e. classification) is one of ab- 
straction. All orderly thought and all increase of knowledge 
depend partly on establishing a clear and accurate connexion 
between particular things and general ideas, rules and principles. 
The nature of the resultant concepts belongs to the great contro- 
versy between Nominalism, Realism and Conceptualism. Meta- 
physics, again, is concerned with the ultimate problems of matter 
and spirit; it endeavours to go behind the phenomena of sense 
and focus its attention on the fundamental truths which are the 
only logical bases of natural science. This, again, is a process of 
abstraction, the attainment of abstract ideas which, apart from 
the concrete individuals, are conceived as having a substantive 
existence. The final step in the process is the conception of the 
Absolute (q.v.), which is abstract in the most complete sense. 

Abstraction differs from Analysis, inasmuch as its object is 
to select a particular quality for consideration in itself as it is 



ABSTRACT OF TITLE ABU HANIFA 



found in all the objects to which it belongs, whereas analysis 
considers all the qualities which belong to a single object. 

ABSTRACT OF TITLE, in English law, an epitome of the 
various instruments and events under and in consequence of 
which the vendor of an estate derives his title thereto. Such an 
abstract is, upon the sale or mortgage of an estate, prepared 
by some competent person for the purchaser or mortgagee, and 
verified by his solicitor by a comparison with the original deeds. 
(See CONVEYANCING.) 

ABT, FRANZ (1810-1885), German composer, was born on 
the 22nd of December 1819 at Eilenburg, Saxony, and died at 
Wiesbaden on the 3ist of March 1885. The best of his popular 
songs have become part of the recognized art-folk-music of Ger- 
many; his vocal works, solos, part-songs, &c., enjoyed an extra- 
ordinary vogue all over Europe in the middle of the igth century, 
but in spite of their facile tunefulness have few qualities of last- 
ing beauty. Abt was kapellmeister at Bernburg in 1841, at 
Zurich in the same year and at Brunswick from 1852 to 1882, 
when he retired to Wiesbaden. 

ABU, a mountain of Central India, situated in 24 36' N. lat. 
and 72 43' E. long., within the Rajputana state of Sirohi. It is 
an isolated spur of the Aravalli range, being completely detached 
from that chain by a narrow valley 7 miles across, in which 
flows the western Banas. It rises from the surrounding plains 
of Marwar like a precipitous granite island, its various peaks 
ranging from 4000 to 5653 feet. The elevations and platforms of 
the mountain are covered with elaborately sculptured shrines, 
temples and tombs. ' On the top of the hill is a small round plat- 
form containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the 
impression of the feet of Data-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu. 
This is the chief place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks and 
Banians. The two principal temples are situated at Deulwara, 
about the middle of the mountain, and five miles south-west of 
Guru Sikra, the highest summit. They are built of white marble, 
and are pre-eminent alike for their beauty and as typical speci- 
mens of Jain architecture in India. The more modern of the 
two was built by two brothers, rich merchants, between the years 
1197 and 1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of 
detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient and 
lavish labour. The other was built by another merchant prince, 
Vimala Shah, apparently about A.D. 1032, and, although simpler 
and bolder in style, is as elaborate as good taste would allow in 
a purely architectural object. It is one of the oldest as well as 
one of the most complete examples of Jain architecture known. 
The principal object within the temple is a cell lighted only from 
the door, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the god 
Parswanath. The portico is composed of forty-eight pillars, the 
whole enclosed in an oblong courtyard about 140 feet by 90 feet, 
surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, forming 
porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose it on all sides, 
exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery (vihdra). In this 
temple, however, each cell, instead of being the residence of a 
monk, is occupied by an image of Parswanath, and over the door, 
or on the jambs of each, are sculptured scenes from the life of 
the deity. The whole interior is magnificently ornamented. 

Abu is now the summer residence of the governor-general's 
agent for Rajputana, and a place of resort for Europeans in the 
hot weather. It is 16 miles from the Abu road station of the 
Rajputana railway. The annual mean temperature is about 
70, rising to 90 in April; but the heat is never oppressive. 
The annual rainfall is about 68 inches. The hills are laid out 
with driving-roads and bridle-paths, and there is a beautiful little 
lake. The chief buildings are a church, club, hospital and a 
Lawrence asylum school for the children of British soldiers. 

ABU-BEKR (573-634), the name (" Father of the virgin ") 
of the first of the Mahommedan caliphs (see CALIPH). He was 
originally called Abd-el-Ka'ba (" servant of the temple "), 
and received the name by which he is known historically in con- 
sequence of the marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to 
Mahomet. He was born at Mecca in the year A.D. 573, a 
Koreishite of the tribe of Beni-Taim. Possessed of immense 
wealth, which he had himself acquired in commerce, and held 



in high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams and a 
depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession to 
Islamism was a fact of great importance. On his conversion he 
assumed the name of Abd-Alla (servant of God) . His own belief 
in Mahomet and his doctrines was so thorough as to procure 
for him the title El Siddik (the faithful), and his success in 
gaining converts was correspondingly great. In his personal 
relationship to the prophet he showed the deepest veneration 
and most unswerving devotion. When Mahomet fled from 
Mecca, Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his 
hardships and his triumphs, remaining constantly with him 
until the day of his death. During his last illness the prophet 
indicated Abu-Bekr as his successor by desiring him to offer up 
prayer for the people. The choice was ratified by the chiefs of 
the army, and ultimately confirmed, though Ali, Mahomet's son- 
in-law, disputed it, asserting his own title to the dignity. After 
a time Ali submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his 
claims gave rise to the controversy which still divides the 
followers of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and 
Shiites. Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position (63 2) , 
under the title Califet-Resul-Allah (successor of the prophet of 
God), when he was called to suppress the revolt of the tribes 
Hejaz and Nejd, of which the former rejected Islamism and 
the latter refused to pay tribute. He encountered formidable 
opposition from different quarters, but in every case he was 
successful, the severest struggle being that with the impostor 
Mosailima, who was finally defeated by Khalid at the battle of 
Akraba. Abu-Bekr's zeal for the spread of the new faith was 
as conspicuous as that of its founder had been. When the 
internal disorders had been repressed and Arabia completely 
subdued, he directed his generals to foreign conquest. The 
Irak of Persia was overcome by Khalid in a single campaign, 
and there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After 
the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that the 
sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten when those 
who had listened to them had all been removed by death, 
induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preservation in a written 
form. The record, when completed, was deposited with Hafsa, 
daughter of Omar, and one of the wives of Mahomet. It was 
held in great reverence by all Moslems, though it did not possess 
canonical authority, and furnished most of the materials out of 
which the Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the 
authoritative version was completed all copies of Hafsa's record 
were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and divi- 
sions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23rd of August 634. Shortly 
before his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another 
to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after the 
manner Mahomet had observed in his own case. 

ABU HAMED, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the 
right bank of the Nile, 345 m. by rail N. of Khartum. It stands 
at the centre of the great S-shaped bend of the Nile, and from it 
the railway to Wadi Haifa strikes straight across the Nubian 
desert, a little west of the old caravan route to Korosko. A 
branch railway, 138 m. long, from Abu Hamed goes down the 
right bank of the Nile to Kareima in the Dongola mudiria. The 
town is named after a celebrated sheikh buried here, by 
whose tomb travellers crossing the desert used formerly to 
deposit all superfluous goods, the sanctity of the saint's tomb 
ensuring their safety. 

ABU HANlFA AN-NU'MAN IBN THABIT, Mahommedan 
canon lawyer, was born at Kufa in A.H. 80 (A.D. 699) of non- 
Arab and probably Persian parentage. Few events of his life 
are known to us with any certainty. He was a silk-dealer and 
a man of considerable means, so that he was able to give his 
time to legal studies. He lectured at Kufa upon canon law 
(fiqh) and was a consulting lawyer (mufti), but refused steadily 
to take any public post. When al-Mansur, however, was build- 
ing Bagdad (145-149) Abu JJanifa was one of the four over- 
seers whom he appointed over the craftsmen (G. Le Strange, 
Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 17). In A.H. 150 
(A.D. 767) he died there under circumstances which are very 
differently reported. A persistent but apparently later tradition 



ABU KLEA ABUL FAZL 



79 



asserts that he died in prison after severe beating, because he 
refused to obey al-Mansur's command to act as a judge (cadi, 
qddi) . This was to avoid a responsibility for which he felt unfit 
a frequent attitude of more pious Moslems. Others say that 
al-Mahdi, son of al-Mansur, actually constrained him to be a 
judge and that he died a few days after. It seems certain that 
he did suffer imprisonment and beating for this reason, at the 
hands of an earlier governor of Kufa under the Omayyads (Ibn 
Qutaiba, Ma'drif, p. 248). Also that al-Mansur desired to make 
him judge, but compromised upon his inspectorship of buildings 
(so in Tabarl). A late story is that the judgeship was only 
a pretext with al-Mansur, who considered him a partisan of the 
'Alids and a helper with his wealth of Ibrahim ibn 'Abd Allah 
in his insurrection at Kufa in 145 (Weil, Geschichte, ii. 53 ff.). 

For many personal anecdotes see de Slane's transl. of Ibn 
Khallikan iii. 555 ff., iv. 272 ff. -For his place as a speculative 
jurist in the history of canon law, see MAHOMMEDAN LAW. He 
was buried in eastern Bagdad, where his tomb still exists, one 
of the few surviving sites from the time of al-Mansur, the founder. 
(Le Strange 191 ff.) 

See C. Brockelmann, Geschichte, i. 169 ff. ; Nawawi's B-iogr. Diet. 
pp. 698-770; Ibn Hajar al-Haitami's Biography, publ. Cairo, A.H. 
1304; legal bibliography under MAHOMMEDAN LAW. (D. B. MA.) 

ABU KLEA, a halting-place for caravans in the Bayuda 
Desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It is on the road from Merawi 
to Metemma and 20 m. N. of the Nile at the last-mentioned place. 
Near this spot, on the i?th of January 1885, a British force 
marching to the relief of General Gordon at Khartum was 
attacked by the Mahdists, who were repulsed. On the igth, 
when the British force was nearer Metemma, the Mahdists re- 
newed the attack, again unsuccessfully. Sir Herbert Stewart, 
the commander of the British force, was mortally wounded on 
the igth, and among the killed on the I7th was Col. F. G. 
Burnaby (see EGYPT, Military Operations). 

ABU-L-'ALA UL-MA'ARRl [Abu-1-' Ala Ahmad ibn 'Abdallah 
ibn Sulaiman] (973-1057), Arabian poet and letter- writer, be- 
longed to the South Arabian tribe Tanukh, a part of which had 
migrated to Syria before the time of Islam. He was born in 
973 at Ma'arrat un-Nu'man, a Syrian town nineteen hours' 
journey south of Aleppo, to the governor of which it was subject 
at that time. He lost his father while he was still an infant, 
and at the age of four lost his eyesight owing to smallpox. This, 
however, did not prevent him from attending the lectures of 
the best teachers at Aleppo, Antioch and Tripoli. These teachers 
were men of the first rank, who had been attracted to the court 
of Saif-ud-Daula, and their teaching was well stored in the re- 
markable memory of the pupil. At the age of twenty-one 
Abu-l-'Ala. returned to Ma'arra, where he received a pension of 
thirty dinars yearly. In 1007 he visited Bagdad, where he was 
admitted to the literary circles, recited in the salons, academies 
and mosques, and made the acquaintance of men to whom he 
addressed some of his letters later. In 1009 he returned to 
Ma'arra, where he spent the rest ef his life in teaching and 
writing. During this period of scholarly quiet he developed 
his characteristic advanced views on vegetarianism, cremation 
of the dead and the desire for extinction after death. 

Of his works the chief are two collections of his poetry and 
two of his letters. The earlier poems up to 1029 are of the kind 
usual at the time. Under the title of Saqt uz-Zand they have 
beenpublishedinBulaq(i869), Beirut (1884) and Cairo (1886). 
The poems of the second collection, known as the Luzum ma lam 
yalzam, or the Luzumiyydt, are written with the difficult rhyme 
in two consonants instead of one, and contain the more original, 
mature and somewhat pessimistic thoughts of the author on 
mutability, virtue, death, &c. They have been published in 
Bombay (1886) and Cairo (1889). The letters on various literary 
and social subjects were published with commentary by Shain 
Effendi in Beirut (1894), and with English translation, &c., by 
Prof. D. S. Margoliouth in Oxford (1898). A second collection 
of letters, known as the Risdlat ul-Ghufrdn, was summarized and 
partially translated by R. A. Nicholson in the Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society (1900, pp. 637 ff.; 1902, pp. 75 ff., 337 ff., 813 ff.). 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. Rieu, De Abu-l-'Alae Poetae Arabici vita et 
carminibus (Bonn, 1843) ; A. von Kremer, Vber die philosophischen 
Gedichte des Abu-l-'Ala (Vienna, 1888); cf. also the same writer's 
articles in the Zeilschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft 
(vols. xxix., xxx., xxxi. and xxxviii.). For his life see the intro- 
duction to D. S. Margoliouth's edition of the letters, supplemented 
by the same writer's articles "Abu-l-'Ala al-Ma'arri's Correspond- 
ence on Vegetarianism " in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 
(1902, pp. 289 ff.). (G. W. T.) 

ABU-L-'ATAHIYA [Abu Ishaq Isma'il ibn Qasim al-'Anazi] 
(748-828), Arabian poet, was born at 'Ain ut-Tamar in the 
Hijaz near Medina. His ancestors were of the tribe of 'Anaza. 
His youth was spent in Kufa, where he was engaged for some 
time in selling pottery. Removing to Bagdad, he continued his 
business there, but became famous for his verses, especially for 
those addressed to 'Utba, a slave of the caliph al-Mahdi. His 
affection was unrequited, although al-Mahdi, and after him 
Harun al-Rashld, interceded for him. Having offended the 
caliph, he was in prison for a short time. The latter part of his 
life was more ascetic. He died in 828 in the reign of al-Ma'mun. 
The poetry of Abu-1-' Atahiya is notable for its avoidance of the 
artificiality almost universal in his days. The older poetry of 
the desert had been constantly imitated up to this time, al- 
though it was not natural to town life. Abu-1-' Atahiya was one 
of the first to drop the old qasida (elegy) form. He was very 
fluent and used many metres. He is also regarded as one of 
the earliest philosophic poets of the Arabs. Much of his poetry 
is concerned with the observation of common life and morality, 
and at times is pessimistic. Naturally, under the circumstances, 
he was strongly suspected of heresy. 

His poems (Diwan) with life from Arabian sources have been 
published at the Jesuit Press in Beirut (1887, 2nd ed. 1888). On his 
position in Arabic literature see W. Ahlwardt, Diwan des Abu Nowas 
(Greifswald, 1861), pp. 21 ff. ; A. von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des 
Orients (Wien, 1877), vol. ii. pp. 372 ff. (G. W. T.) 

ABULFARAJ [Abu-1-Faraj 'AH ibn ul-Husain ul-Isbahani] 
(897-967), Arabian scholar, was a member of the tribe of the 
Quraish (Koreish) and a direct descendant of Marwan, the last 
of the Omayyad caliphs. He was thus connected with the 
Omayyad rulers in Spain, and seems to have kept up a corre- 
spondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. 
He was born in Ispahan, but spent his youth and made his 
early studies in Bagdad. He became famous for his knowledge 
of early Arabian antiquities. His later life was spent in various 
parts of the Moslem world, in Aleppo with Saif-ud-Daula (to 
whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), in Rai with the Buyid 
vizier Ibn 'Abbad and elsewhere. In his last years he lost his 
reason. In religion he was a Shiite. Although he wrote poetry, 
also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia 
and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his 
Book of Songs (Kitdb ul-Aghdni), which gives an account of the 
chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, with the stories of the 
composers and singers. It contains a mass of information as to 
the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable 
authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Moslem days. 
A part of it was published by J. G. L. Kosegarten with Latin 
translation (Greifswald, 1840). The text was published in 20 
vols. at Bulaq in 1868. Vol. xxi. was edited by R. E. Brunnow 
(Leyden, 1888). A volume of elaborate indices was edited by 
I. Guidi (Leyden, 1900), and a missing fragment of the text was 
published by J. Wellhausen in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgen- 
landischen Gesellschaft, vol. 50, pp. 146 ff. 

For his life see M'G. de Slane s translation of Ibn Khallikan's 
Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 249 ff. (G. W. T.) 

ABUL FAZL, wazir and historiographer of the great Mogul 
emperor, Akbar, was born in the year A.D. 1551. His career 
as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, would probably 
have been by this time forgotten but for the record he himself 
has left of it in his celebrated history. The Akbar Nameh, or 
Book of Akbar, as Abul Fazl's chief literary work, written in 
Persian, is called, consists of two parts the first being a com- 
plete history of Akbar's reign and the second, entitled Ain-i- 
Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an account of the religious 
and political constitution and administration of the empire. 
The style is singularly elegant, and the contents of the second 



8o 



ABULFEDA ABU SIMBEL 



part possess a unique and lasting interest. An excellent trans- 
lation of the Ain by Francis Gladwin was published in Calcutta, 
1783-1786. It was reprinted in London very inaccurately, and 
copies of the original edition are now exceedingly rare and 
correspondingly valuable. It was also translated by Professor 
Blockmann in 1848. Abul Fazl died by the hand of an assassin, 
while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 1602. The 
murderer was instigated by Prince Selim, afterwards Jahangir, 
who had become jealous of the minister's influence. 

ABULFEDA [Abu-1-Fida' Isma'Il ibn 'All 'Imad-ud-Dnl] 
(1273-1331), Arabian historian and geographer, was born at 
Damascus, whither his father Malik ul-Afdal, brother of the 
prince of Hamah, had fled from the Mongols. He was a de- 
scendant of Ayyub, the father of Saladin. In his boyhood he 
devoted himself to the study of the Koran and the sciences, 
but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in 
military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders. In 1285 
he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the knights of 
St John, and he took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre and 
Qal'at ar-Rum. In 1 298 he entered the service of the Mameluke 
Sultan Malik al-Nasir and after twelve years was invested by 
him with the governorship of Hamah. In 1312 he became 
prince with the title Malik us-Salih, and in 1320 received the 
hereditary rank of sultan with the title Malik ul-Mu'ayyad. 
For more than twenty years altogether he reigned in tran- 
quillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of govern- 
ment and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly 
indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of 
letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in 
1331. His chief historical work in An Abridgment of the History 
of the Human Race, in the form of annals extending from the 
creation of the world to the year 1329 (Constantinople, 2 vols. 
1869). Various translations of parts of it exist, the earliest 
being a Latin rendering of the section relating to the Arabian 
conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic professor at Palermo, 
in 1610 (preserved in Muratori's Rerum Ilalicarum Scriptores, 
vol. i.). The section dealing with the pre-Islamitic period was 
edited with Latin translation by H. O. Fleischer under the title 
Abulfedae Historia Ante-I slamica (Leipzig, 1831). The part 
dealing with the Mahommedan period was edited, also with 
Latin translation, by J. J. Reiske as Annales Muslemici (5 vols., 
Copenhagen, 1789-1794). His Geography is, like much of the his- 
tory, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately 
on the work of Ptolemy. A long introduction on various geo- 
graphical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing 
in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each 
name are given the longitude, latitude, " climate," spelling, and 
then observations generally taken from earlier authors. Parts 
of the work were published and translated as early as 1650 
(cf. Carl Brockelmann's Geschichte der Arabischen Litleratur, 
Berlin, 1902, vol. ii. pp. 44-46). The text of the whole was pub- 
lished by M'G. de Slane and M. Reinaud (Paris, 1840), and a 
French translation with introduction by M. Reinaud and 
Stanislas Guyard (Paris, 1848-1883). (G. W. T.) 

ABO-L-QASIM [Khalaf ibn 'Abbas uz-Zahrawi], Arabian 
physician and surgeon, generally known in Europe as ABUL- 
CASIS, flourished in the tenth century at Cordova as physi- 
cian to the caliph 'Abdur-Rahman III. (912-961). No details 
of his life are known. A part of his compendium of medicine 
was published in Latin in the i6th century as Liber theoricae 
nee non praclicae Alsaharavii (Augsburg, 1519). His manual 
of surgery was published at Venice in 1497, at Basel in 1541, 
and at Oxford Abulcasis de Chirurgia arabice et latine euro, 
Johannis Channing (2 vols. 1778). 

For his other works see Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabi- 
schen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 239-240. (G. W. T.) 

ABUNDANTIA ("Abundance"), a Roman goddess, the 
personification of prosperity and good fortune. Modelled after 
the Greek Demeter, she is practically identical with Copia, 
Annona and similar goddesses. On the coins of the later Roman 
emperors she is frequently represented holding a cornucopia, 
from which she shakes her gifts, thereby at the same time in- 



dicating the liberality of the emperor or empress. She may be 
compared with Domina Abundia (Old Fr. Dame Habonde, 
Notre Dame d' Abondance) , whose name often occurs in poems 
of the Middle Ages, a beneficent fairy, who brought plenty to 
those whom she visited (Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, tr. 1880, 
i. 286-287). 

ABU NUWiS [Abu 'AH Hal-asan ibn Hani'al-Eakaml] (c. 
756-810), known as Abu Nuwas, Arabian poet, was born in al- 
Ahwaz, probably about 756. His mother was a Persian, his 
father a soldier, a native of Damascus. His studies were made 
in Basra under Abu Zaid and Abu 'Ubaida (?..), and in 
Kufa under Khalaf al-Ahmar. He is also said to have spent a 
year with the Arabs in the desert to gain purity of language. 
Settling in Bagdad he enjoyed the favour of Harun al-Rashld 
and al-Amln, and died there probably about 810. The greater 
part of his life was characterized by great licentiousness and 
disregard of religion, but in his later days he became ascetic. 
Abu Nuwas is recognized as the greatest poet of his time. His 
mastery of language has led to extensive quotation of his verses 
by Arabian scholars. Genial, cynical, immoral, he drew on all 
the varied life of his time for the material of his poems. In his 
wine-songs especially the manners of the upper classes of Bagdad 
are revealed. He was one of the first to ridicule the set form of 
the qaslda (elegy) as unnatural, and has satirized this form in 
several poems. See I. Goldziher, Abhandlungen zur Arabischen 
Philologie (Leyden, 1896), i. pp. 145 ff. His poems were collected 
by several Arabian editors. One such collection (the MS. of 
which is now in Vienna) contains nearly 5000 verses grouped 
under the ten headings: wine, hunting, praise, satire, love of 
youths, love of women, obscenities, blame, elegies, renunciation 
of the world. His collected poems (Diwan) have been published 
in Cairo (1860) and in Beirut (1884). The wine-songs were 
edited by W. Ahlwardt under the title Diwan des Abu Nowas. 
i. Die Weinlieder (Greifswald, 1861). (G. W. T.) 

ABU SIMBEL, or IPSAMBUL, the name of a group of temples of 
Rameses II. (c. 1250 B.C.) in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile, 
56 m. by river S. of Korosko. They are hewn in the cliffs at the 
riverside, at a point where the sandstone hills on the west reach 
the Nile and form the southern boundary of a wider portion of 
the generally barren valley. The temples are three in number. 
The principal temple, probably the greatest and most imposing 
of all rock-hewn monuments, was discovered by Burckhardt in 
i8i2andopenedbyBelzoniin 1817. (The front has been cleared 
several times, most recently in 1892, but the sand is always 
pressing forward from the north end.) The hillside was recessed 
to form the facade, backed against which four immense seated 
colossi of the king, in pairs on either side of the entrance, rise 
from a platform or forecourt reached from the river by a flight 
of steps. The colossi are no less than 65 ft. in height, of nobly 
placid design, and are accompanied by smaller figures of Rameses' 
queen and their sons and daughters; behind and over them is 
the cornice, with the dedication below in a line of huge hiero- 
glyphs, and a long row of apes, standing in adoration of the 
rising sun above. The temple is dedicated primarily to the solar 
gods Amenre of Thebes and Raharakht of Heliopolis, the true 
sun god; it is oriented to the east so that the rays of the sun in 
the early morning penetrate the whole length of two great halls 
to the innermost sanctuary and fall upon the central figures of 
Amenre and Rameses, which are there enthroned with Ptah of 
Memphis and Raharakht on either side. The interior of the 
temple is decorated with coloured sculpture of fine workmanship 
and in good preservation; the scenes are more than usually 
interesting; some are of religious import (amongst them Ra- 
meses as king making offerings to himself as god), others illus- 
trate war in Syria, Libya and Ethiopia: another series depicts 
the events of the famous battle with the Hittites and their allies 
at Kadesh, in which Rameses saved the Egyptian camp and 
army by his personal valour. Historical stelae of the same reign 
are engraved inside and outside the temple; the most interest- 
ing is that recording the marriage with a Hittite princess in the 
34th year. Not the least important feature of the temple be- 
longs to a later age, when some Greek, Carian and Phoenician 



ABU TAMMAM ABYDOS 



81 



soldiers of one of the kings named Psammetichus (apparently 
Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C.) inscribed their names upon the 
two southern colossi, doubtless the only ones then clear of sand. 
These graffiti are of the highest value for the early history of 
the alphabet, and as proving the presence of Greek mercenaries 
in the Egyptian armies of the period. The upper part of the 
second colossus (from the south) has fallen; the third was re- 
paired by Sethos II. not many years after the completion of the 
temple. This great temple was wholly rock-cut, and is now 
threatened by gradual ruin by sliding on the planes of stratifica- 
tion. A small temple, immediately to the south of the first, 
is believed to have had a built antechamber: it is the earliest 
known example of a " birth chapel," such as was usually attached 
to Ptolemaic temples for the accommodation of the divine 
mother-consort and her son. The third and northernmost temple, 
separated from the others by a ravine, is on a large scale; the 
colossi of the facade are six in number and 33 ft. high, repre- 
senting Rameses and his queen Nefrere, who dedicated the temple 
to the goddess Hathor. The whole group forms a singular monu- 
ment of Rameses' unbounded pride and self-glorification. 

See EGYPT; J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records, Egypt, vol. iii. 
pp. 124 et seq., esp. 212; "The Temples of Lower Nubia," in the 
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, October 
1906. (F. LL. G.) 

ABtJ TAMMAM [Hablb ibn Aus] (807-846), Arabian poet, was, 
like Buhturl, of the tribe of Tai (though some say he was the son 
of a Christian apothecary named Thaddeus, and that his genea- 
logy was forged). He was born in Jasim (Josem), a place to the 
north-east of the Sea of Tiberias or near Manbij (Hierapolis). 
He seems to have spent his youth in Horns, though, according 
to one story, he was employed during his boyhood in selling 
water in a mosque in Cairo. His first appearance as a poet 
was in Egypt, but as he failed to make a living there he went to 
Damascus and thence to Mosul. From this place he made a visit 
to the governor of Armenia, who awarded him richly. After 
833 he lived mostly in Bagdad, at the court of the caliph Mo'tasim. 
From Bagdad he visited Khorassan, where he enjoyed the favour 
of 'Abdallah ibn Tahir. About 845 he was in Ma'arrat un- 
Nu'man, where he met Buhturl. He died in Mosul. Abu 
Tammam is best known in literature as the compiler of the collec- 
tion of early poems known as the Hamdsa (q.v.). Two other 
collections of a similar nature are ascribed to him. His own poems 
have been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his com- 
pilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime, and were 
distinguished for the purity of their style, the merit of the verse 
and the excellent manner of treating subjects. His poems 
(Diwdn) were published in Cairo (A.D. 1875). 

See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by 
M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. i. pp. 348 ff. ; and in 
the Kit&b ul-Aghdni (Book of Songs) of Abulfaraj (Bulaq, 1869), 
vol. xv. pp. 100-108. (G. W. T.) 

ABUTILON (from the Arabic aubutilun, a name given by 
Avicenna to this or an allied genus), in botany, a genus of plants, 
natural order Malvaceae (Mallows), containing about eighty 
species, and widely distributed in the tropics. They are free- 
growing shrubs with showy bell-shaped flowers, and are favourite 
greenhouse plants. They may be grown outside in England 
during the summer months, but a few degrees of frost is fatal to 
them. They are readily propagated from cuttings taken in the 
spring or at the end of the summer. A large number of horti- 
cultural varieties have been developed by hybridization, some 
of which have a variegated foliage. 

ABUTMENT, a construction in stone or brickwork designed 
to receive and resist the lateral pressure of an arch, vault or strut. 
When built outside a wall it is termed a buttress. 

ABU UBAIDA [Ma'mar ibn ul-Muthanna] (728-825), Arabian 
scholar, was born a slave of Jewish Persian parents in Bara, 
and in his youth was a pupil of Abu'Amr ibn ul-'Ala. In 803 
he was called to Bagdad by Harun al-Rashld. He died in Basra. 
He was one of the most learned and authoritative scholars of 
his time in all matters pertaining to the Arabic language, anti- 
quities and stories, and is constantly cited by later authors and 
compilers. Jahiz held him to be the most learned scholar in all 



branches of human knowledge, and Ibn Hisham accepted his 
interpretation even of passages in the Koran. The titles of 105 
of his works are mentioned in the Fihrist, and his Book of Days is 
the basis of parts of the history of Ibn al-Athir and of the Book 
of Songs (see ABULFARAJ), but nothing of his (except a song) seems 
to exist now in an independent form. He is often described as 
a Kharijite. This, however, is true only in so far as he denied 
the privileged position of the Arab people before God. He was, 
however, a strong supporter of the Shu'ubite movement, i.e. 
the movement which protested against the idea of the superi- 
ority of the Arab race over all others. This is especially seen in 
his satires on Arabs (which made him so hated that no man 
followed his bier when he died). He delighted in showing that 
words, fables, customs, &c., which the Arabs believed to be 
peculiarly their own, were derived from the Persians. In these 
matters he was the great rival of Asma'I (q.v.). 

See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by 
M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 388-398; also 
I. Goldziher's Muhammedanische Sludien (Halle, 1888), vol. i. pp. 
194-206. (G. W. T.) 

ABYDOS, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated 
at Nagara Point on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile 
broad. It probably was originally a Thracian town, but was 
afterwards colonized by Milesians. Here Xerxes crossed the 
strait on his bridge of boats when he invaded Greece. Abydos 
is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against Philip V. 
of Macedon (200 B.C.), and is famed in story for the loves of Hero 
and Leander. The town remained till late Byzantine times the 
toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred 
to the Dardanelles (q.v.), after the building of the " Old Castles " 
by Sultan Mahommed II. (c. 1456). 

See Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage dans I 'empire ottoman (Paris, 1842). 

ABYDOS, one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, about 
7 m. W. of the Nile in lat. 26 10' N. The Egyptian name was 
Abdu, " the hill of the symbol or reliquary," in which the sacred 
head of Osiris was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos, 
like the city on the Hellespont; the modern Arabic name is 
Arabet el Madfuneh. The history of the city begins in the late 
prehistoric age, it having been founded by the pre-Menite kings 
(Petrie, Abydos, ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been 
found there. The kings of the 1st dynasty, and some of the Hnd 
dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and 
enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind 
the town by three kings of the Hnd dynasty. The temple and 
town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of 
the XXXth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously. 
In the XHth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut in the rock by 
Senwosri (or Senusert) III. Seti I. in the XlXth dynasty founded 
a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the 
ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by 
Rameses (or Ramessu) II., who also built a lesser temple of his 
own. Mineptah (Merenptah) added a great Hypogeum of Osiris 
to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of 
Nekhtnebf in the XXXth dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times 
the place continued to decay and no later works are known 
(Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.). 

The worship here was of the jackal god Upuaut (Ophois, 
Wepwoi), who " opened the way " to the realm of the dead, in- 
creasing from the 1st dynasty to the time of the XHth dynasty 
and then disappearing after the XVIIIth. Anher appears in the 
Xlth dynasty; and Khentamenti, the god of the western Hades, 
rises to importance in the middle kingdom and then vanishes 
in the XVIIIth. The worship here of Osiris in his various forms 
begins in the XHth dynasty and becomes more important in 
later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as 
sacred to him (Abydos, ii. 47). 

The temples successively built here on one site were nine or 
ten in number, from the 1st dynasty, 5500 B.C. to the XXVIth 
dynasty, 500 B.C. The first was an enclosure, about 30 X 50 ft., 
surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Covering one wall 
of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall 
about 10 ft. thick. An outer temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded 
the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the Hnd or 



ABYSS ABYSSINIA 



Illrd dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the IVth 
dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing 
a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are 
found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for 
sacrifices decreed by Cheops (Khufu) in his temple reforms. A 
great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier, 
and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings 
and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work 
of the 1st dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple inlaid hiero- 
glyphs in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the most 
important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found 
in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of 
this greatest ruler. The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger 
scale by Pepi I. in the Vlth dynasty. He placed a great stone 
gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, 
with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about 
40X50 ft. inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing 
that it was of the processional type. In the Xlth dynasty 
Menthotp (Mentuhotep) III. added a colonnade and altars. 
Soon after, Sankhkere entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone 
pavement over the area, about 45 ft. square, besides subsidiary 
chambers. Soon after Senwosri (Senusert) I. in the Xllth 
dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement 
of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing 
a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times 
the earlier size. 

The XVIIIth dynasty began with a large chapel of Amasis 
(Ahmosi, Aahmes) I., and then Tethmosis (Thothmes, Tahutmes) 
III. built a far larger temple, about 130X20x5 ft. He made also 
a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery 
beyond, with a great gateway of granite. Rameses III. added 
a large building; and Amasis II. in the XXVIth dynasty rebuilt 
the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red 
granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive 
temples were comprised within about 18 ft. depth of ruins; 
these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various 
buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and 
looo levellings (Petrie, Abydos, ii.). 

The temple of Seti I. was built on entirely new ground half 
a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. 
This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, 
being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal 
object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, 
to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The 
long list of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall 
is known as the " Table of Abydos." There were also seven 
chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods. At the 
back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship 
(Caulfield, Temple of the Kings); and probably from these led 
out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mys- 
teries, built by Mineptah (Murray, Osireion). The temple was 
originally 550 ft. long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, 
and the part in good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide, 
including the wing at the side. Excepting the list of kings and 
a panegyric on Rameses II., the subjects are not historical but 
mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and re- 
finement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages. 
The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not 
facsimile, by Mariette in his Abydos, i. The adjacent temple of 
Rameses II. was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had 
a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which 
the lower parts remain. ' A list of kings, similar to that of Seti, 
formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the 
French consul and sold to the British Museum. 

The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about 
a mile back on the great desert plain. The earliest is about 
10 X 20 ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed 
with timber and matting. Others also before Menes are 15X25 
ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this 
the tombs increase in size and complexity. The tomb-pit is 
surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual 
sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the 



brick-lined pit. Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of 
the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such 
burials being usual. By the end of the Hnd dynasty the type 
changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either 
hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The 
greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space 
of over 3000 square yards. The contents of the tombs have 
been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; enough re- 
mained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, 
a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal 
table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled 
with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies, 
and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record 
of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various 
officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an 
insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. 
and ii.). 

The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with 
some pit tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Xllth and 
XIHth dynasties and contained many rich tombs. In the 
XVIIIth-XXth dynasties a large number of fine tombs were 
made, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times. 
Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's work- 
men, without any record of the burials (Mariette, Abydos, ii. and 
iii.). Later excavations have been recorded by Ayrton, Abydos, 
iii. ; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Gars tang, El Arabah. 

The forts lay behind the town. That known as Shunet ez 
Zebib is about 450X250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. high. 
It was built by Khasekhemui, the last king of the Hnd dynasty. 
Another fort nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather 
older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the 
Coptic convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos, 
iii.). (W.M.F.P.) 

ABYSS (Gr. &-, privative, /3w<76s, bottom), a bottomless 
depth ; hence any deep place. From the late popular abyssimus 
(superlative of Low Latin abyssus) through the French abisme 
(i.e. abime) is derived the poetic form abysm, pronounced as late 
as 1616 to rhyme with time. The adjective " abyssal " or 
" abysmal " has been used by zoologists to describe deep regions 
of the sea; hence abysmal zone, abysmal flora and fauna, abys- 
mal accumulations, the deposit on the abysmal bed of the ocean. 
In heraldry, the abyss is the middle of an escutcheon. In the 
Greek version of the Old Testament the word represents (i) the 
original chaos (Gen. i. 2), (2) the Hebrew tehom (" a surging 
water-deep "), which is used also in apocalyptic and kabba- 
listic literature and in the New Testament for hell, the place of 
punishment (cf. Eurip. Phoen. for the " yawning chasm of 
Tartarus ") ; in the Revised (not the Authorized) version abyss 
is generally used for this idea. Primarily in the Septuagint 
cosmography the word is applied (a) to the waters under the 
earth which originally covered it, and from which the springs 
and rivers are supplied, (b) to the waters of the firmament which 
were regarded as closely connected with those below. Deriva- 
tively, from the general idea of depth, it acquired the meaning of 
the place of the dead, though apparently never quite the same as 
Sheol. In Revelation it is the prison of evil spirits whence they 
may occasionally be let loose, and where Satan is doomed to 
spend 1000 years. Beneath the altar in the temple of Jeru- 
salem there was believed to be a passage which led down to the 
abyss of the world, where the foundation-stone of the earth was 
laid. In rabbinical cosmography the abyss is a region of 
Gehenna situated below the ocean bed and divided into three or 
seven parts imposed one above the other. In the Kabbalah the 
abyss as the opening into the lower world is the abode of evil 
spirits, and corresponds to the opening of the abyss to the world 
above. In general the abyss is regarded vaguely as a place of 
indefinite extent, the abode of mystery and sorrow. 

See G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament (Eng. trans., 
Oxford, 1905). 

ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA), an inland country and 
empire of N.E. Africa lying, chiefly, between 5 and 15 N. 
and 35 and 42 E. It is bounded N. by Eritrea (Italian). W. 



ABYSSINIA 



ABYSSINIA 



Scale, 1:9,000,000 
English MUe 

D 50 tOO 150 200 ZCO 



Kilometres 
o 50 100 300 300 400 



ay Gulf of Aden 



Longitude East 40 of Greenwich 




by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, S. by British East Africa, S.E. 
and E. by the British, Italian and French possessions in Somali- 
land and on the Red Sea. The coast lands held by European 
powers, which cut off Abyssinia from access to the sea, vary in 
width from 40 to 250 miles. The country approaches nearest to 
the ocean on its N.E. border, where the frontier is drawn about 
40 m. from the coast of the Red Sea. Abyssinia is narrowest 
in the north, being here 230 m. across from east to west. It 
broadens out southward to a width of goo m. along the line of 
9 N., and resembles in shape a triangle with its apex to the north. 
It is divided into Abyssinia proper (i.e. Tigre, Amhara, Gojam, 
&c.), Shoa, Kaffa and Galla land all these form a geographical 
unit and central Somaliland with Harrar. To the S.W. Abys- 
sinia also includes part of the low country of the Sobat tributary 
of the Nile. The area of the whole state is about 350,000 sq. m., 
of which Abyssinian Semaliland covers fully a third. 



(i) Physical Features. Between the valley of the Upper Nile 
and the low lands which skirt the south-western shores of the 
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden is a region of elevated plateaus 
from which rise various mountain ranges. These tablelands 
and mountains constitute Abyssinia, Shoa, Kaffa and Galla 
land. On nearly every side the walls of the plateaus rise with 
considerable abruptness from the plains, constituting outer 
mountain chains. The Abyssinian highlands are thus a clearly 
marked orographic division. From Ras Kasar (18 N.) to 
Annesley Bay (15 N.) the eastern wall of the plateau runs 
parallel to the Red Sea. It then turns due S. and follows closely 
the line of 40 E. for some 400 m. About 9 N. there is a break 
in the wall, through which the river Hawash flows eastward. 
The main range at this point trends S.W., while south of the 
Hawash valley, which is some 3000 ft. below the level of the 
mountains, another massif rises in a direct line south. This 



8 4 



ABYSSINIA 



second range sends a chain (the Harrar hills) eastward to the Gulf 
of Aden. The two chief eastern ranges maintain a parallel course 
S. by W., with a broad upland valley between in which valley 
are a series of lakes to about 3 N., the outer (eastern) spurs 
of the plateau still keeping along the line of 40 E. The southern 
escarpment of the plateau is highly irregular, but has a general 
direction N.W. and S.E. from 6 N. to 3 N. It overlooks the 
depression in which is Lake Rudolf and east of that lake 
southern Somaliland. The western wall of the plateau from 6 
N. to 11 N. is well marked and precipitous. North of 11 N. 
the hills turn more to the east and fall more gradually to the 
plains at their base. On its northern face also the plateau falls 
in terraces to the level of the eastern Sudan. The eastern escarp- 
ment is the best defined of these outer ranges. It has a mean 
height of from 7000 to 8000 ft., and in many places rises almost 
perpendicularly from the plain. Narrow and deep clefts, 
through which descend mountain torrents to lose themselves in 
the sandy soil of the coast land, afford means of reaching the 
plateau, or the easier route through the Hawash valley may be 
chosen. On surmounting this rocky barrier the traveller finds 
that the encircling rampart rises little above the normal level 
of the plateau. 

(2) The aspect of the highlands is most impressive. The 
northern portion, lying mainly between 10 and 15 N., consists 
of a huge mass of Archaean rocks with a mean height of from 
7000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, and is flooded in a deep central 
depression by the waters of Lake Tsana. Above the plateau 
rise several irregular and generally ill-defined mountain ranges 
which attain altitudes of from 12,000 to over 15,000 ft. Many 
of the mountains are of weird and fantastic shape. Character- 
istic of the country are the enormous fissures which divide it, 
formed in the course of ages by the erosive action of water. They 
are in fact the valleys of the rivers which, rising on the uplands 
or mountain sides, have cut their way to the surrounding low- 
lands. Some of the valleys are of considerable width; in other 
cases the opposite walls of the gorges are but two or three 
hundred yards apart, and fall almost vertically thousands of 
feet, representing an erosion of hard rock of many millions of 
cubic feet. One result of the action of the water has been 
the formation of numerous isolated flat-topped hills or small 
plateaus, known as ambas, with nearly perpendicular sides. The 
highest peaks are found in the Simen (or Semien) and Gojam 
ranges. The Simen Mountains lie N.E. of Lake Tsana and cul- 
minate in the snow-covered peak of Daschan (Dajan), which 
has an altitude of 15,160 ft. A few miles east and north re- 
spectively of Dajan are Mounts Biuat and Abba Jared, whose 
summits are a few feet only below that of Dajan. In the Chok 
Mountains in Gojam Agsias Fatra attains a height of 13,600 ft. 

Parallel with the eastern escarpment are the heights of Baila 
(12,500 ft.), Abuna Josef (13,780 ft.), and Kollo (14,100 ft.), the 
last-named being S.W. of Magdala. The valley between these 
hills and the eastern escarpment is one of the longest and most 
profound chasms in Abyssinia. Between Lake Tsana and the 
eastern hills are Mounts Guna (13,800 ft.) and Uara Sahia 
(13,000 ft.). The figures given are, however, approximate only. 
The southern portion of the highlands the 10 N. roughly marks 
the division between north and south has more open tableland 
than the northern portion and fewer lofty peaks. Though there 
are a few heights between 10,000 and 12,000 ft., the majority do 
not exceed 8000 ft. But the general character of the southern 
regions is the same as in the north a much-broken hilly 
plateau. 

Most of the Abyssinian uplands have a decided slope to the 
north-west, so that nearly all the large rivers find their way in 
that direction to the Nile. Such are the Takazze 1 in the north, 
the Abai in the centre, and the Sobat in the south, and through 
these three arteries is discharged about four-fifths of the entire 
drainage. The rest is carried off, almost due north by the Khor 
Baraka, which occasionally reaches the Red Sea south of Suakin; 
by the Hawash, which runs out in the saline lacustrine district 
near the head of Tajura Bay; by the Webi Shebeli (Wabi- 
Shebeyli) and Juba, which flow S.E. through Somaliland, though 



the Shebeli fails to reach the Indian Ocean; and by the Omo, 
the main feeder of the closed basin of Lake Rudolf. 

The Takazze, which is the true upper course of the Atbara, 
has its head- waters in the central tableland; and falls from 
about 7000 to 2500 ft. in the tremendous crevasse through 
which it sweeps round west, north and west again down to the 
western terraces, where it passes from Abyssinian to Sudan 
territory. During the rains the Takazze (i.e. the " Terrible ") 
rises some 18 ft. above its normal level, and at this time forms 
an impassable barrier between the northern and central provinces. 
In its lower course the river is known by the Arab name Setit. 
The Setit is joined (14 10' N., 36 E.) by the Atbara, a river 
formed by several streams which rise in the mountains W. and 
N.W. of Lake Tsana. The Gash or Mareb is the most northerly 
of the Abyssinian rivers which flow towards the Nile valley. 
Its head-waters rise on the landward side of the eastern escarp- 
ment within 50 miles of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It 
reaches the Sudan plains near Kassala, beyond which place its 
waters are dissipated in the sandy soil. The Mareb is dry for a 
great part of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden 
freshets during the rains. Only the left bank of the upper course 
of the river is in Abyssinian territory, the Mareb here forming 
the boundary between Eritrea and Abyssinia. 

(3) The Abai that is, the upper course of the Blue Nile 
has its source near Mount Denguiza in the Gojam highlands 
(about 11 N. and 37 E.), and first flows for 70 m. nearly due 
north to the south side of Lake Tsana. Tsana (q.v.}, which 
stands from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the normal level of the plateau, 
has somewhat the aspect of a flooded crater. It has an area of 
about noo sq. m., and a depth in some parts of 250 ft. At the 
south-east corner the rim of the crater is, as it were, breached 
by a deep crevasse through which the Abai escapes, and here 
develops a great semicircular bend like that of the Takazze, but 
in the reverse direction east, south and north-west down to 
the plains of Sennar, where it takes the name of Bahr-el-Azrak 
or Blue Nile. The Abai has many tributaries. Of these the 
Bashilo rises near Magdala and drains eastern Amhara; the 
Jamma rises near Ankober and drains northern Shoa; the Muger 
rises near Adis Ababa and drains south-western Shoa; the 
Didessa, the largest of the Abai's affluents, rises in the Kaffa 
hills and has a generally S. to N. course; the Yabus runs near 
the western edge of the plateau escarpment. All these are 
perennial rivers. The right-hand tributaries, rising mostly on the 
western sides of the plateau, have steep slopes and are generally 
torrential in character. The Bolassa, however, is perennial, 
and the Rahad and Dinder are important rivers in flood-time. 

In the mountains and plateaus of Kaffa and Galla in the 
south-west of Abyssinia rise the Baro, Gelo, Akobo and other 
of the chief affluents of the Sobat tributary of the Nile. The 
Akobo, in about 7 50' N. and 33 E., joins the Pibor, which in 
about 8j N. and 33 20' E. unites with the Baro, the river below 
the confluence taking the name of Sobat. These rivers descend 
from the mountains in great falls, and like the other Abyssinian 
streams are unnavigable in their upper courses. The Baro on 
reaching the plain becomes, however, a navigable stream afford- 
ing an open waterway to the Nile. The Baro, Pibor and Akobo 
form for 250 m. the W. and S.W. frontiers of Abyssinia (see 
NILE, SOBAT and SUDAN). 

The chief river of Abyssinia flowing east is the Hawash 
(Awash, Awasi), which rises in the Shoan uplands and makes a 
semicircular bend first S.E. and then N.E. It reaches the Afar 
(Danakil) lowlands through a broad breach in the eastern 
escarpment of the plateau, beyond which it is joined on its left 
bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (Kasam), and then 
trends round in the direction of Tajura Bay. Here the Hawash 
is a copious stream nearly 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep, even in 
the dry season, and during the floods rising 50 or 60 ft. above 
low-water mark, thus inundating the plains for many miles 
along both its banks. Yet it fails to reach the coast, and after 
a winding course of about 500 m. passes (in its lower reaches) 
through a series of badds (lagoons) to Lake Aussa, some 60 or 
70 m. from the head of Tajura Bay. In this lake the river is 



ABYSSINIA 



lost. This remarkable phenomenon is explained by the position 
of Aussa in the centre of a saline lacustrine depression several 
hundred feet below sea-level. While most of the other lagoons 
are highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their 
margins, Aussa remains fresh throughout the year, owing to 
the great body of water discharged into it by the Hawash. 

Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoa heights 
south-west to the Samburu (Lake Rudolf) depression. In this 
chain of lovely upland lakes, some fresh, some brackish, some 
completely closed, others connected by short channels, the 
chief links in their order from north to south are: Zwai, com- 
municating southwards with Hara and Lamina, all in the Arusi 
Galla territory; then Abai with an outlet to a smaller tarn in 
the romantic Baroda and Gamo districts, skirted on the west 
sides by grassy slopes and wooded ranges from 6000 to nearly 
9000 ft. high; lastly, in the Asille country, Lake Stefanie, the 
Chuwaha of the natives, completely closed and falling to a level 
of about 1800 ft. above the sea. To the same system obviously 
belongs the neighbouring Lake Rudolf (q.v.), which is larger 
than all the rest put together. This lake receives at its northern 
end the waters of the Omo, which rises in the Shoa highlands 
and is a perennial river with many affluents. In its course of 
some 370 m. it has a total fall of about 6000 ft. (from 7600 at its 
source to 1600 at lake-level), and is consequently a very rapid 
stream, being broken by the Kokobi and other falls, and navi- 
gable only for a short distance above its mouth. The chief rivers 
of Somaliland (q.v.), the Webi Shebeli and the Juba (q.v.), have 
their rise on the south-eastern slopes of the Abyssinian escarp- 
ment, and the greater part of their course is through territory 
belonging to Abyssinia. There are numerous hot springs in 
Abyssinia, and earthquakes, though of no great severity, are not 
uncommon. 

(4) Geology. The East African tableland is continued into 
Abyssinia. Since the visit of W. T. Blanford in 1870 the geology 
has received little attention from travellers. The following 
formations are represented: 

Sedimentary and Metamorphic. 
Recent. Coral, alluvium, sand. 

Tertiary. (?) Limestones of Harrar. 

Jurassic. Antalo Limestones. 

Triassic (?). Adigrat Sandstones. 

Archaean. Gneisses, schists, slaty rocks. 

Igneous. 

Recent. . Aden Volcanic Series. 

Tertiary, Cretaceous (?). Magdala group. 
Jurassic. Ashangi group. 

Archaean. The metamorphic rocks compose the main mass 
of the tableland, and are exposed in every deep valley in Tigre 
and along the valley of the Blue Nile. Mica schists form the 
prevalent rocks. Hornblende schists also occur and a compact 
felspathic rock in the Suris defile. The foliae of the schists 
strike north and south. 

Triassic (?). In the region of Adigrat the metamorphic rocks 
are invariably overlain by white and brown sandstones, un- 
fossiliferous, and attaining a maximum thickness of 1000 feet. 
They are overlain by the fossiliferous limestones of the Antalo 
group. Around Chelga and Adigrat coal-bearing beds occur, 
which Blanford suggests may be of the same age as the coal- 
bearing strata of India. The Adigrat Sandstone possibly 
represents some portion of the Karroo formation of South 
Africa. 

Jurassic. The fossiliferous limestones of Antalo are generally 
horizontal, but are in places much disturbed when interstratified 
with trap rocks. The fossils are all characteristic Oolite forms 
and include species of Hemicidaris, Pholadomya, Ceromya, 
Trigonia and Alaria. 

Igneous Rocks. Above a height of 8000 ft. the country con- 
sists of bedded traps belonging to two distinct and unconform- 
able groups. The lower (Ashangi group) consists of basalts 
and dolerites often amygdaloidal. Their relation to the Antalo 



limestones is uncertain, but Blanford considers them to be not 
later in age than the Oolite. The upper (Magdala group) con- 
tains much trachytic rock of considerable thickness, lying 
perfectly horizontally, and giving rise to a series of terraced 
ridges characteristic of central Abyssinia. They are inter- 
bedded with unfossiliferous sandstones and shales. Of more 
recent date (probably Tertiary) are some igneous rocks, rich in 
alkalis, occurring in certain localities in southern Abyssinia. 
Of still more recent date are the basalts and ashes west of 
Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as the Aden 
Volcanic Series. With regard to the older igneous rocks, the 
enormous amount they have suffered from denudation is a 
prominent feature. They have been worn into deep and narrow 
ravines, sometimes to a depth of 3000 to 4000 ft. 

($) Climate. The climate of Abyssinia and its dependent 
territories varies greatly. Somaliland and the Danakil lowlands 
have a hot, dry climate producing semi-desert conditions; the 
country in the lower basin of the Sobat is hot, swampy and 
malarious. But over the greater part of Abyssinia as well as 
the Galla highlands the climate is very healthy and temperate. 
The country lies wholly within the tropics, but its nearness to 
the equator is counterbalanced by the elevation of the land. In 
the deep valleys of the Takazze and Abai, and generally in 
places below 4000 ft., the conditions are tropical and fevers are 
prevalent. On the uplands, however, the aif is cool and bracing 
in summer, and in winter very bleak. The mean range of 
temperature is between 60 and 80 F. On the higher moun- 
tains the climate is Alpine in character. The atmosphere on 
the plateaus is exceedingly clear, so that objects are easily 
recognizable at great distances. In addition to the variation 
in climate dependent on elevation, the year may be divided 
into three seasons. Winter, or the cold season, lasts from 
October to February, and is followed by a dry hot period, which 
about the middle of June gives place to the rainy season. The 
rain is heaviest in the Takazze basin in July and August. In 
the more southern districts of Gojam and Wallega heavy rains 
continue till the middle of September, and occasionally October 
is a wet month. There are also spring and winter rains; indeed 
rain often falls in every month of the year. But the rainy 
season proper, caused by the south-west monsoon, lasts from 
June to mid-September, and commencing in the north moves 
southward. In the region of the Sobat sources the rains begin 
earlier and last longer. The rainfall varies from about 30 in. a 
year in Tigre and Amhara to over 40 in. in parts of Galla land. 
The rainy season is of great importance not only to Abyssinia 
but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the prosperity of the 
eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent upon the rain- 
fall. A season of light rain may be sufficient for the needs 
of Abyssinia, but there is little surplus water to find its way 
to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means a low Nile, as 
practically all the flood water of that river is derived from 
the Abyssinian tributaries (see NILE). 

(6) Flora and Fauna. As in a day's journey the traveller may 
pass from tropical to almost Alpine conditions of climate, so 
great also is the range of the flora and fauna. In the valleys 
and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but the general appearance 
of the plateaus is of a comparatively bare country with trees 
and bushes thinly scattered over it. The glens and ravines 
on the hillside are often thickly wooded, and offer a delightful 
contrast to the open downs. These conditions are particularly 
characteristic of the northern regions; in the south the vegeta- 
tion on the uplands is more luxuriant. Among the many varie- 
ties of trees and plants found are the date palm, mimosa, wild 
olive, giant sycamores, junipers and laurels, the myrrh and 
other gum trees (gnarled and stunted, these flourish most on 
the eastern foothills), a magnificent pine (the Natal yellow pine, 
which resists the attacks of the white ant), the fig, orange, lime, 
pomegranate, peach, apricot, banana and other fruit trees; 
the grape vine (rare), blackberry and raspberry; the cotton 
and indigo plants, and occasionally the sugar cane. There are 
in the south large forests of valuable timber trees; and the 
coffee plant is indigenous in the Kaffa country, whence it takes 



86 



ABYSSINIA 



its name. Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound. Large 
areas are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose 
family, which grows from 8 to 10 ft. high and has abundant 
pendent red blossoms. The flowers and the leaves of this plant 
are highly prized for medicinal purposes. The fruit of the 
kurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields a black 
grain highly esteemed as a spice. On the tableland a great 
variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated. A fibrous 
plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild state in the 
semi-desert regions of the north and south-east. 

In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below 
( 8) the fauna is very varied. Elephant and rhinoceros are 
numerous in certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat 
valley. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin 
has no folds. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the 
larger rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in 
which, however, otters of large size are plentiful. Lions abound 
in the low countries and in Somaliland. In central Abyssinia 
the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river 
valleys. Leopards, both spotted and black, are numerous and 
often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are hardy 
and fierce; the lynx, wolf, wild dog and jackal are also common. 
Boars and badgers are more rarely seen. The giraffe is found 
in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass frequent the 
lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the north. There are large 
herds of buffalo and antelope, and gazelles of many varieties 
and in great numbers are met with in most parts of the country. 
Among the varieties are the greater and lesser kudu (both rather 
rare); the duiker, gemsbuck, hartebeest, gerenuk (the most 
common it has long thin legs and a camel-like neck); klip- 
springer, found on the high plateaus as well as in the lower dis- 
tricts; and the dik-dik, the smallest of the antelopes, its weight 
rarely exceeding 10 ft, common in the low countries and the 
foothills. The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia, but 
chiefly in the Galla regions. Squirrels and hares are numerous, 
as are several kinds of monkeys, notably the guereza, gelada, 
guenon and dog-faced baboon. They range from the tropical 
lowlands to heights of 10,000 ft. 

Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for 
the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles, vultures, 
hawks, bustards and other birds of prey are met with ; and 
partridges, duck, teal, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, curlews, wood- 
cock, snipe, pigeons, thrushes and swallows are very plentiful. 
A fine variety of ostrich is commonly found. Among the birds 
prized for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, black- 
bird, parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance. 
Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey 
everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the 
inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust. Serpents are 
not numerous, but several species are poisonous. There are 
thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects. 

(7) Provinces and Towns. Politically, Abyssinia is divided into 
provinces or kingdoms and dependent territories. The chief 
provinces are Tigr6, which occupies the N.E. of the country; 
Amhara or Gondar, in the centre; Gojam, the district enclosed 
by the great semicircular sweep of the Abai; and Shoa (q.v.), 
which lies east of the Abai and south of Amhara. Besides these 
ancient provinces and several others of smaller size, the empire 
includes the Wallega region, lying S.W. of Gojam; the Harrar 
province in the east; Kaffa (q.v.) and Galla land, S.W. and S. 
of Shoa; and the central part of Somaliland. 

With the exception of Harrar (q.v.), a city of Arab foundation, 
there are no large towns in Abyssinia. Harrar is some 30 m. 
S.E. of Dire Dawa, whence there is a railway (188 m. long) to 
Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden. The absence of large towns in 
Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces into which the country 
is divided having been for centuries in a state of almost continual 
warfare, and to the frequent change of the royal residences on 
the exhaustion of fuel supplies. The earliest capital appears to 
have been Axum (q.v.) in Tigre, where there are extensive 
ruins. In the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital 
of the country and was so regarded up to the middle of the ipth 



century. Since 1892 the capital has been Adis Ababa in the 
kingdom of Shoa. 

The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be 
grouped according to their geographical position. None of 
them has a permanent population exceeding 6000, but at several 
large markets are held periodically. In Tigre there are Adowa 
or Adua (17 m. E. by N. of Axum), Adigrat, Macalle and Antalo. 
The three last-named places are on the high plateau near its 
eastern escarpment and on the direct road south from Massawa 
to Shoa. West of Adigrat is the monastery of Debra-Domo, 
one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia. 

In Amhara there are: Magdala (q.v.), formerly the residence 
of King Theodore, and the place of imprisonment of the British 
captives in 1866. Debra-Tabor (" Mount Tabor "), the chief 
royal residence during the reign of King John, occupies a strong 
strategic position overlooking the fertile plains east of Lake 
Tsana, at a height of about 8,620 ft. above the sea ; it has 
a population of 3000, including the neighbouring station of 
Samara, headquarters of the Protestant missionaries in the time 
of King Theodore. Ambra-Mariam, a fortified station midway 
between Gondar and Debra-Tabor near the north-east side of 
Lake Tsana, with a population of 3000; here is the famous 
shrine and church dedicated to St Mary, whence the name of 
the place, " Fort St Mary." Mahdera-Mariam (" Mary's Rest "), 
for some time a royal residence, and an important market and 
great place of pilgrimage, a few miles south-west of Debra- 
Tabor; its two churches of the " Mother " and the " Son " are 
held in great veneration by all Abyssinians; it has a permanent 
population estimated at over 4000, Gallas and Amharas, the 
former mostly Mahommedan. Sokota, one of the great central 
markets, and capital of the province of Waag in Amhara, at 
the converging point of several main trade routes; the market 
is numerously attended, especially by dealers in the salt blocks 
which come from Lake Alalbed. The following towns are in 
Shoa: Ankober, formerly the capital of the kingdom; Aliu- 
Amba, east of Ankober on the trade route to the Gulf of Aden; 
Debra-Berhan (Debra-Bernam) (" Mountain of Light "), once 
a royal residence; Lich6 (Litche), one of the largest market 
towns in southern Abyssinia. Lieka, the largest market in 
Galla land, has direct communications with Gojam, Shoa and 
other parts of the empire. Bonga, the commercial centre of 
Kaffa, and Jiren, capital of the neighbouring province of Jimma, 
are frequented by traders from all the surrounding provinces, 
and also by foreign merchants from the seaports on the Gulf 
of Aden. Apart from these market-places there are no settle- 
ments of any size in southern Abyssinia. 

Communications. The 'Jibuti-Dire Dawa railway has been 
mentioned above. The continuation of this railway to the capital 
was begun in 1906 from the Adis Ababa end. There are few 
roads in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic. Transport is 
usually carried on by mules, donkeys, pack-horses and (in the 
lower regions) camels. From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a 
well-made carriage road, and from Harrar to Adis Ababa the 
caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being 
spanned by an iron bridge. There is also a direct trade route 
from Dire Dawa to the capital. Telegraph lines connect Adis 
Ababa and several important towns in northern Abyssinia with 
Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. There is also a telephonic service, 
the longest line being from Harrar to the capital. 

(8) Agriculture. The soil is exceedingly fertile, as is evident 
from the fact that Egypt owes practically all its fertility to the 
sediment carried into the Nile by its Abyssinian tributaries. 
Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly by the Gallas, the 
indolence of the Abyssinians preventing them from being good 
farmers. In the lower regions a wide variety of crops are grown 
among them maize, durra, wheat, barley, rye, ieff, pease, 
cotton and sugar-cane and many kinds of fruit trees are culti- 
vated. TeJ? is a kind of millet with grains about the size of an 
ordinary pin-head, of which is made the bread commonly eaten. 
The low grounds also produce a grain, tocussa, from which black 
bread is made. Besides these, certain oleaginous plants, the 
suf, nuc and settle (there are no European equivalents for the 



ABYSSINIA 



87 



native names), and the ground-nut are largely grown. The 
castor bean grows wild, the green castor in the low, damp 
regions, the red castor at medium altitudes. The kat plant, a 
medicinal herb which has a tonic quality, is largely grown in the 
Harrar province. On the higher plateaus the hardier cereals 
only are cultivated. Here the chief crops are wheat, barley, 
teff, peppers, vegetables of all kinds and coffee. Above 10,000 
ft. the crops are confined practically to barley, oats, beans and 
occasionally wheat. 

Coffee is one of the most important products of the country, 
and its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands. It 
is cultivated in the S., S.E. and S.W. provinces, and to a less 
extent in the central districts. Two qualities of coffee are 
cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as Harrar- 
Mocha. The " Abyssinian " coffee is grown very extensively 
throughout the southern highlands. Little attention is paid 
to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the 
ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low 
grade. " Harrar-Mocha " is of first-class quality. It is grown 
in the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme care. 
The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus in the 
early years of the aoth century. The soil of the Hawash valley 
proved particularly suitable for raising this crop. In the high 
plateaus the planting of seeds begins in May, in the lower pla- 
teaus and the plains in June, but in certain parts where the 
summer is long and rain abundant sowing and reaping are going 
on at the same time. Most regions yield two, many three crops 
a year. The methods of culture are primitive, the plough 
commonly used being a long pole with two vertical iron teeth 
and a smaller pole at right angles to which oxen are attached. 
This implement costs about four shillings. The ploughing is 
done by the men, but women and girls do the reaping. The 
grain is usually trodden out by cattle and is often stored in clay- 
lined pits. Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to ten- 
fold the quantity sown; the major part of the land yields 
twenty to thirtyfold. In the northern parts of the empire very 
little land is left uncultivated. The hillsides are laid out in 
terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the channels 
being often two miles or more long. Of all the cereals barley 
is the most widely grown. The average rate of pay to an agri- 
cultural labourer is about threepence a day in addition to food, 
which may cost another penny a day. 

The Abyssinians keep a large number of domestic animals. 
Among cattle the Sanga or Galla ox is the most common. The 
bulls are usually kept for ploughing, the cow being preferred for 
meat. Most of the cattle are of the zebu or hump-backed variety, 
but there are also two breeds one large, the other resembling 
the Jersey cattle which are straight-backed. The horns of 
the zebu variety are sometimes four feet long. Sheep, of which 
there are very large flocks, belong to the short and fat-tailed 
variety. The majority are not wool-bearing, but in one district 
a very small black sheep is raised for wool. The small mountain 
breed of sheep weigh no more than 20 to 30 Ib apiece. Goats 
are of both the long and short-haired varieties. The horns of the 
large goats are often thirty inches in length and stand up straight 
from the head. The goats from the Arusi Galla country have 
fine silky hair which is sometimes sixteen inches long. The meat 
of both sheep and goats is excellent; that of the latter is pre- 
ferred by the natives. In 1904 the estimated number of sheep 
and goats in the country was 20,000,000. Large quantities of 
butter, generally rancid, are made from the milk of cows, goats 
and sheep. In the Leka province small black pigs are bred in 
considerable numbers. The horses (very numerous) are small 
but strong; they are generally about 14 hands in height. The 
best breeds come from the Shoa uplands. The ass is also small 
and strong; and the mule, bred in large numbers, is of excellent 
quality, and both as a transport animal and as a mount is 
preferred to the horse. The mule thrives in every condition of 
climate, is fever-proof, travels over the most difficult mountain 
passes with absolute security, and can carry with ease a load of 
200 Ib. The average height of a mule is 12^ hands. The 
country is admirably adapted for stock-raising. 



(9) Minerals. In the south and south-west provinces placer 
gold mines by the banks of watercourses are worked by Gallas 
as an industry subsidiary to tending their flocks and fields. In 
the Wallega district are veins of gold-bearing quartz, mined to a 
certain extent. There are also gold mines in southern Shoa. 
The annual output of gold is worth not less than 500,000. Only 
a small proportion is exported. Besides gold, silver, iron, coal 
and other minerals are found. Rock-salt is obtained from the 
province of Tigre. 

Trade and Currency. Abyssinia being without seaports, the 
external trade is through Massawa (Italian) in the north, Jibuti 
(French), Zaila and Berbera (British) in the south, and for all 
these ports Aden is a distributing centre. For Tigre and 
Amhara products Massawa is the best port, for the rest of the 
empire, Jibuti. For southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla lands, 
Harrar is the great entrepot, goods being forwarded thence to 
Jibuti and the other Somaliland ports. There is also a con- 
siderable trade with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through the 
frontier towns of Rosaires and Gallabat. At the French and 
British ports there is freedom of trade, but on goods for Abys- 
sinia entering Massawa a discriminating tax is levied if they 
are not imported from Italy. 

The chief articles of export are coffee, skins, ivory, civet, 
ostrich feathers, gum, pepper, kat plant (used by Moslems for 
its stimulating properties), gold (in small quantities) and live 
stock. The trade in skins is mainly with the United States 
through Aden ; America also takes a large propoition of the 
coffee exported. For live stock there is a good trade with 
Madagascar. The chief imports are cotton goods, the yearly value 
of this trade being fully 250,000; the sheetings are largely 
American; the) remainder English and Indian. No other 
article of import approaches cotton in importance, but a con- 
siderable trade is done in arms and ammunition, rice, sugar, 
flour and other foods, and a still larger trade in candles and 
matches (from Sweden), oil, carpets (oriental and European), 
hats and umbrellas. Commerce long remained in a backward 
condition; but under the Emperor Menelek II. efforts were 
made to develop the resources of the country, and in 1905 the 
total volume of trade exceeded 1,000,000. 

Until the end of the igth century the usual currency was the 
Maria Theresa dollar, bars of rock-salt and cartridges. In 1894 
a new coinage was introduced, with the Menelek dollar or 
talari, worth about two shillings, as the standard. This new 
coinage gradually superseded the older currency. In 1905 the 
Bank of Abyssinia, the first banking house in the country, 
was founded, with its headquarters at Adis Ababa. The 
bank, which was granted a monopoly of banking business in 
the empire for fifty years, has a capital of 500,000, has the 
power to issue notes, to mint the Abyssinian coinage, and 
to engage in commercial operations. It was founded under 
Egyptian law by the National Bank of Egypt, which insti- 
tution had previously obtained a concession from the emperor 
Menelek. 

(10) Government. The political institutions are of a feudal 
character. Within their provinces the rases (princes) exercise 
large powers. The emperor, styled negus negusti (king of kings) , 
is occasionally assisted by a council of rases. In October 1907 
an imperial decree announced the constitution of a cabinet on 
European lines, ministers being appointed to the portfolios of 
foreign affairs, war, commerce, justice and finance. The legal 
system is said to be based on the Justinian code. From the 
decisions of the judges there is a right of appeal to the emperor. 
The chief judicial official is known as the affa-negus (breath of 
the king) . The Abyssinian church (q.v.) is presided over by an 
abuna, or archbishop. The land is not held in fee simple, but is 
subject to the control of the emperor or the church. Revenue 
is derived from an ad valorem tax on all imports; the purchase 
and sale of animals; from royalties on trading concessions, and 
in other ways, including fees for the administration of justice. 
Education, of a rudimentary character, is given by the clergy. 
In 1907 a system of compulsory education " of all male children 
over the age of 12 " was decreed. The education was to be state 



ABYSSINIA 



provided, Coptic teachers were brought from Egypt and school 
buildings were erected. 

The Abyssinian calendar is as follows: The Abyssinian year 
of 365 days (366 in leap-year) begins on the ist of Maskarram, 
which corresponds to about the loth of September. The 
months have thirty days each, and are thus named: Maskarram, 
Tekemt, Hadar, Tahsas, Tarr, Yekatit, Magawit, Miaziah, 
Genbot, Sanni, Hamle, Nas'hi. The remaining five days in the 
year, termed Pagmen or Quaggimi (six in leap-year, the extra 
day being named Kadis Yohannis), are put in at the end and 
treated as holidays. Abyssinian reckoning is about seven years 
eight months behind the Gregorian. Festivals, such as Easter, 
fall a week later than in western Europe. 

Army. A small standing army is maintained in each province 
of Abyssinia proper. Every able-bodied Abyssinian is expected 
to join the army in case of need, and a force, well armed with 
modern weapons, approaching 250,000 can be placed in the field. 
The cavalry is chiefly composed of Galla horsemen. (F. R. C.) 

ETHNOLOGY 

(u) The population of the empire is estimated at from 
3,500,000 to 5,000,000. The inhabitants consist mainly of the 
Abyssinians, the Galla and the Somali (the two last-named 
peoples are separately noticed). Of non- African races the most 
numerous are Armenians, Indians, Jews and Greeks. There is 
a small colony of British, French, Italians and Russians. The 
following remarks apply solely to Abyssinia proper and its in- 
habitants. It should be remembered that the term " Abys- 
sinian " is purely geographical, and has little or no ethnical 
significance; it is derived from the Arabic Habesh. "mixed," 
and was a derisive name applied by the Arabs to the hetero- 
geneous inhabitants of the Abyssinian plateau. 

Abyssinia appears to have been originally peopled by the 
eastern branch of the Hamitic family, which has occupied this 
region from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great 
bulk of its inhabitants, though the higher classes are now strongly 
Semitized. The prevailing colour in the central provinces 
(Amhara, Gojam) is a deep brown, northwards (Tigre, Lasta) it 
is a pale olive, and here even fair complexions are seen. South- 
wards (Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru) a decided chocolate and almost 
sooty black is the rule. Many of the people are distinctly 
negroid, with big lips, small nose, broad at the base, and frizzly 
or curly black hair. The negroid element in the population is 
due chiefly to the number of negro women who have been im- 
ported into the harems of the Abyssinians. The majority, 
however, may be described as a mixed Hamito-Semitic people, 
who are in general well formed and handsome, with straight and 
regular features, lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat 
curled and in colour dark olive, approaching to black. The 
Galla, who came originally from the south, are not found in 
many parts of the country, but predominate in the Wollo dis- 
trict, between Shoa and Amhara. It is from the Galla that the 
Abyssinian army is largely recruited, and, indeed, there are few 
of the chiefs who have not an admixture of Galla blood in their 
veins. 

As regards language, several of the indigenous groups, such as 
the Khamtas of Lasta, the Agau or Agaos of Agaumeder (" Agao 
land ") and the Falashas (q.v.), the so-called " Jews " of Abys- 
sinia, still speak rude dialects of the old Hamitic tongue. But 
the official language and that of all the upper classes is of Semitic 
origin, derived from the ancient Himyaritic, which is the most 
archaic member of the Semitic linguistic family. Geez, as it is 
called, was introduced with the first immigrants from Yemen, 
and although no longer spoken is still studied as the liturgical 
language of the Abyssinian Christians. Its literature consists 
of numerous translations of Jewish, Greek and Arabic works, 
besides a valuable version of the Bible. (See ETHIOPIA.) The 
best modern representative of Geez is the Tigrina of Tigr6 and 
Lasta, which is much purer but less cultivated than the Amharic 
dialect, which is used in state documents, is current in the central 
and southern provinces and is much affected by Hamitic ele- 
ments. All are written in a peculiar syllabic script which, un- 



like all other Semitic forms, runs from left to right, and is derived 
from that of the Sabaeans and Minaeans, still extant in the 
very old rock-inscriptions of south Arabia. 

The hybridism of the Abyssinians is reflected in their political 
and social institutions, and especially in their religious beliefs 
and practices. On a seething mass of African heathendom, 
already in early times affected by primitive Semitic ideas, was 
suddenly imposed a form of Christianity which became the state 
religion. While the various ethnical elements have been merged 
in the composite Abyssinian nation, the primitive and more ad- 
vanced religious ideas have nowhere been fused in a uniform 
Christian system. Foreigners are often surprised at the strange 
mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community 
which, for instance, accounts accidental manslaughter as wilful 
murder. Recourse is still had to dreams as a means of detecting 
crime. A priest is summoned, and, if his prayers and curses fail, 
a small boy is drugged, and " whatever person he dreams of is 
fixed on as the criminal. ... If the boy does not dream of the 
person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he 
is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him " (Count 
Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, chap, xvi., 1898). 

The Abyssinian character reflects the country's history. 
Murders and executions are frequent, yet cruelty is not a marked 
feature of their character; and in war they seldom kill their 
prisoners. When a man is convicted of murder, he is handed 
over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to 
death or accept a ransom. When the murdered person has no 
relatives, the priests take upon themselves the office of avengers. 
The natural indolence of the people has been fostered by the 
constant wars, which have discouraged peaceful occupations. 
The soldiers live by plunder, the monks by alms. The haughtiest 
Abyssinian is not above begging, excusing himself with the 
remark, " God has given us speech for the purpose of begging." 
The Abyssinians are vain and selfish, irritable but easily ap- 
peased; and are an intelligent bright people, fond of gaiety. 
On every festive occasion, as a saint's day, birth, marriage, &c., 
it is customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neigh- 
bours, and kill a cow and one or two sheep. The principal parts 
of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the re- 
mainder being cut into small pieces and cooked with the favour- 
ite sauce of butter and red pepper paste. The raw meat eaten in 
this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much 
more tender than when cold. The statement by James Bruce 
respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently 
been called in question, but there can be no doubt that Bruce 
actually saw what he narrates. Mutton and goat's flesh are the 
meats most eaten: pork is avoided on religious grounds, and 
the hare is never touched, possibly, as in other countries, from 
superstition. Many forms of game are forbidden; for example, 
all water-fowl. The principal drinks are tnese, a kind of 
mead, and bousa, a sort of beer made from fermented cakes. 
The Abyssinians are heavy eaters and drinkers, and any occasion 
is seized as an excuse for a carouse. Old and young, of both 
sexes, pass days and nights in these symposia, at which special 
customs and rules prevail. Little bread is eaten, the Abyssinian 
preferring a thin cake of durra meal or teff, kneaded with water 
and exposed to the sun till the dough begins to rise, when it is 
baked. Salt is a luxury; " he eats salt " being said of a spend- 
thrift. Bars of rock-salt, after serving as coins, are, when 
broken up, used as food. There is a general looseness of morals: 
marriage is a very slight tie, which can be dissolved at any time 
by either husband or wife. Polygamy is by no means uncommon. 
Hence there is little family affection, and what exists is only 
between children of the same father and mother. Children of 
the same father, but of different mothers, are said to be " always 
enemies to each other." (Samuel Gobat's Journal of a Three 
Years' Residence in Abyssinia, 1834.) 

The dress of the Abyssinians is much like that of the Arabs. 
It consists of close-fitting drawers reaching below the knees, 
with a sash to hold them, and a large white robe. The Abys- 
sinian, however, is beginning to adopt European clothes on the 
upper part of the body, and European hats are becoming common. 



ABYSSINIA 



89 



The Christian Abyssinians usually go barehead and barefoot, in 
contrast to the Mahommedans, who wear turbans and leather 
sandals. The women's dress is a smock with sleeves loose to 
the wrist, where they fit tightly. The priests wear a white jacket 
with loose sleeves, a head-cloth like a turban and a special type 
of shoe with turned-up toes and soles projecting at the heel. 
In the Woldeba district hermits dress in ochre-yellow cloths, 
while the priests of some sects wear hides dyed red. Clothes 
are made of cotton, though the nobles and great people wear 
silk robes presented by the emperor as a mark of honour. The 
possessor of one of these is allowed to appear in the royal presence 
wearing it instead of having one shoulder bared, as is the usual 
Abyssinian method of showing respect. A high-born man covers 
himself to the mouth in the presence of inferiors. The men 
either cut their hair short or plait it; married women plait 
their hair and wind round the head a black or parti-coloured silk 
handkerchief; girls wear their hair short. In the hot season no 
Abyssinian goes without a flag-shaped fan of plaited rushes. 
The Christian Abyssinians, men and women, wear a blue silk 
cord round the neck, to which is often attached a crucifix. For 
ornament women wear silver ankle-rings with bells, silver neck- 
laces and silver or gold rosettes in the ears. Silver rings on 
fingers and also on toes are common. The women are very fond 
of strong scents, which are generally oils imported from India 
and Ceylon. The men scarcely ever appear without a long 
curved knife, generally they carry shield and spear as well. 
Although the army has been equipped with modern rifles, the 
common weapon of the people is the matchlock, and slings are 
still in use. The original arms were a sickle-shaped sword, 
spear and shield. The Abyssinians are great hunters and are 
also clever at taming wild beasts. The nobles hunt antelopes 
with leopards, and giraffes and ostriches with horse and grey- 
hound. In elephant-hunting iron bullets weighing a quarter of 
a pound are used; thro wing-clubs are employed for small game, 
and lions are hunted with the spear. Lion skins belong to the, 
emperor, but the slayer keeps a strip to decorate his shield. 

Stone and mortar are used in building, but the Abyssinian 
houses are of the roughest kind, being usually circular huts, ill 
made and thatched with grass. These huts are sometimes made 
simply of straw and are surrounded by high thorn hedges, but, 
in the north, square houses, built in stories, flat-roofed, the roof 
sometimes laid at the same slope as the hillside, and some with 
pitched thatched roofs, are common. The inside walls are 
plastered with cow-dung, clay and finely chopped straw. None 
of the houses have chimneys, and smoke soon colours the in- 
terior a dark brown. Generally the houses are filthy and 
ill ventilated and swarm with vermin. Drainage and sanitary 
arrangements do not exist. The caves of the highlands are often 
used as dwellings. The most remarkable buildings in Abyssinia 
are certain churches hewn out of the solid rock. The chief 
native industries are leather-work, embroidery and filigree 
metal- work; and the weaving of straw mats and baskets is 
extensively practised. The baskets are particularly well made, 
and are frequently used to contain milk. 

Abyssinian art is crude and is mainly reserved for rough 
frescoes in the churches. These frescoes, however, often exhibit 
considerable skill, and are indicative of the lively imagination 
of their painters. They are in the Byzantine style and the colour- 
ing is gaudy. Saints and good people are always depicted full 
face, the devil and all bad folk are shown in profile. Among the 
finest frescoes are those in the church of the Holy Trinity at 
Adowa and those in the church at Kwarata, on the shores of 
Lake Tsana. The churches are usually circular in form, the 
walls of stone, the roof thatched. 

The chief musical instruments are rough types of trumpets 
and flutes, drums, tambourines and cymbals, and quadrangular 
harps. 

HISTORY 

(12) Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was 
included in the tract of country known to the ancients as 
Ethiopia, the northern limits of which reached at one time 



to about Syene. The connexion between Egypt and Ethiopia 
was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two coun- 
tries were under the same ruler, so that the arts and civilization 
of the one naturally found their way into the other. In early 
times, too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the 
Ethiopians; and according to Abyssinian tradition the queen 
of Sheba who visited Solomon was a monarch of their country, 
and from their son Menelek the kings of Abyssinia claim descent. 
During the Captivity many of the Jews settled here and brought 
with them a knowledge of the Jewish religion. Under the 
Ptolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of the Greeks entered 
Ethiopia, and led to the establishment of Greek colonies. A 
Greek inscription at Adulis, no longer extant, but copied by 
Cosmas of Alexandria, and preserved in his Topographia Chris- 
tiana, records that Ptolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek 
dynasty in Egypt, invaded the countries on both sides of the 
Red Sea, and having reduced most of the provinces of Tigre to 
subjection, returned to the port of Adulis, and there offered 
sacrifices to Jupiter, Mars and Neptune. Another inscription, 
not so ancient, found at Axum, states that Aizanas, king of 
the Axumites, the Homerites, &c., conquered the nation of the 
Bogos, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his 
victory. Out of these Greek colonies appears to have arisen 
the kingdom of Auxume which flourished from the ist to the 
7th century A.D. and was at one time nearly coextensive with 
Abyssinia proper. The capital Auxume and the seaport Adulis 
were then the chief centres of the trade with the interior 
of Africa in gold dust, ivory, leather, aromatics, &c. At Axum, 
the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former great- 
ness still exist; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a sea- 
port on the bay of Annesley, are now about 4 m. from the shore 
(see ETHIOPIA, The Axumite Kingdom). 

(13) Christianity was introduced into the country by Fru- 
mentius (<?..), who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by 
St Athanasius of Alexandria about A.D. 330. From i a troduc- 
the scanty evidence available it would appear that aoa of 
the new religion at first made little progress, and the Christi- 
Axumite kings seem to have been among the latest **!& 
converts. Towards the close of the sth century a great company 
of monks are believed to have established themselves in the 
country. Since that time monachism has been a power among 
the people and not without its influence on the course of events. 
In the early part of the 6th century the king of the Homerites, 
on the opposite coast of the Red Sea, having persecuted the 
Christians, the emperor Justinian I. requested the king of 
Auxume, Caleb or El-Esbaha, to avenge their cause. He ac- 
cordingly collected an army, crossed over into Arabia, and con- 
quered Yemen (c. 525), which remained subject to Ethiopia for 
about fifty years. This was the most flourishing period in the 
annals of the country. The Ethiopians possessed the richest 
part of Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far 
as India and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with 
the Greek empire. Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by 
the conquest of Egypt by the Mahommedans in the middle of 
the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued 
advances of the followers of the Prophet at length cut them 
off from almost every means of communication with the civilized 
world; so that, as Gibbon says, " encompassed by the enemies 
of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for near a thousand years, 
forgetful of the world by whom they were forgotten." About 
A.D. 1000, a Jewish princess, Judith, conceived the design of 
murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establish- 
ing herself in their stead. During the execution of this project, 
the infant king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and 
conveyed to Shoa, where his authority was acknowledged, while 
Judith reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and 
transmitted the crown to her descendants. In 1 268 the kingdom 
was restored to the royal house in the person of Yekuno Amlak. 

(14) Towards the close of the isth century the Portuguese 
missions into Abyssinia began. A belief had long prevailed 
in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far 
east, whose monarch was known as Prester John, and various 



9 o 



ABYSSINIA 



expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among others who 
had engaged in this search was Pedro de Covilham, who 

arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he 

had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented 
influence, to the negus, or emperor of the country, a letter from his 

master the king of Portugal, addressed to Prester John. 
Covilham remained in the country, but in 1507 an Armenian 
named Matthew was sent by the negus to the king of Portugal 
to request his aid against the Mahommedans. In 1520 a 
Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the Red Sea 
in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet 
visited the negus, Lebna Dengel Dawit (David) II., and remained 
in Abyssinia for about six years. One of this embassy was Father 
Francisco Alvarez, from whom we have the earliest and not the 
least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and 1 540 
armies of Mahommedans, under the renowned general Mahommed 
Gran (or Granye, probably a Somali or a Galla) , entered Abyssinia 
from the low country to the south-east, and overran the kingdom, 
obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. 
In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese. 
John Bermudez, a subordinate member of the mission of 1520, 
who had remained in the country after the departure of the 
embassy, was, according to his own statement (which is untrust- 
worthy), ordained successor to the abuna (archbishop), and sent 
to Lisbon. Bermudez certainly came to Europe, but with what 
credentials is not known. Be that as it may, a Portuguese 
fleet, under the command of Stephen da Gama, was sent from 
India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Here he 
received an ambassador from the negus beseeching him to send 
help against the Moslems, and in the July following a force of 
450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher da Gama, 
younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and 
being joined by native troops were at first successful against the 
enemy; but they were subsequently defeated, and their com- 
mander taken prisoner and put to death (August 1542). On 
the 2ist of February 1543, however, Mahommed Granye was 
shot in an engagement and his forces totally routed. After 
this, quarrels arose between the negus and Bermudez, who had 
returned to Abyssinia with Christopher da Gama and who now 
wished the emperor publicly to profess himself a convert to 
Rome. This the negus refused to do, and at length Bermudez 
was obliged to make his way out of the country. The Jesuits 
who had accompanied or followed the da Gama expedition into 
Abyssinia, and fixed their headquarters at Fremona (near Adowa) , 
were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In 
the beginning of the i7th century Father Pedro Paez arrived at 
Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into 
high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith. 
He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in 
different parts of the country, and carried out many useful 
works. His successor Mendez was a man of much less concili- 
atory manners, and the feelings of the people became strongly 
excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of the 
negus Sysenius, Socinius or Seged I., and the accession of his 
son Fasilidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country, 

after having had a footing there for nearly a century 
Poncet an< ^ a half. The French physician C. J. Poncet, who 
ana Bruce, went there in 1698, via Sennar and the Blue Nile, was 

the only European that afterwards visited the country 
before Bruce in 1769. James Bruce's main object was to dis- 
cover the sources of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in 
Abyssinia. Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769, 
he travelled via Axum to Gondar, where he was well received 
by King Tekla Haimanot II. He accompanied the king on a 
warlike expedition round Lake Tsana, moving S. round the 
eastern shore, crossing the genuine Blue Nile (Abai) close to its 
point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore. 
On a second expedition of his own he proved to his own satis- 
faction that the river originated some 40 miles S.W. of the lake 
at a place called Geesh (4th of November 1770). He showed 
that this river flowed into the lake, and left it by its now well- 
known outlet. Bruce subsequently returned to Egypt (end of 



1772) via Gondar, the upper Atbara, Sennar, the Nile and the 
Korosko desert (see BRUCE, JAMES). 

(15) In order to attain a clear view of native Abyssinian 
history, as distinct from the visits and influence of Europeans, 
it must be borne in mind that during the last three 
hundred years, and indeed for a longer period, for ^e'ae^s' 
the old chroniclers may be trusted to have given a negusti. 
somewhat distorted view of the importance of the 
particular chieftains with whom they came in contact, the coun- 
try has been merely a conglomeration of provinces and districts, 
ill defined, loosely connected and generally at war with each 
other. Of these the chief provinces have been Tigre (northern), 
Amhara (central) and Shoa (southern). The seat of government, 
or rather of overlordship, has usually been in Amhara, the ruler 
of which, calling himself negus negusti (king of kings, or em- 
peror), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other 
provinces. The title of negus negusti has been to a considerable 
extent based on the blood in the veins of the claimant. All the 
emperors have based their claims on their direct descent from 
Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that 
in many, if not in most, cases their success has been due more 
to the force of their arms than to the purity of their lineage. 
Some of the rulers of the larger provinces have at times been 
given, or have given themselves, the title of negus or king, so 
that on occasion as many as three, or even more, neguses have 
been reigning at the same time; and this must be borne in mind 
by the student of Abyssinian history in order to avoid confusion 
of rulers. The whole history of the country is in fact one gloomy 
record of internecine wars, barbaric deeds and unstable govern- 
ments, of adventurers usurping thrones, only to be themselves 
unseated, and of raids, rapine and pillage. Into this chaos 
enter from time to time broad rays of sunshine, the efforts of a 
few enlightened monarchs to evolve order from disorder, and to 
supply to their people the blessings of peace and civilization. 
Bearing these matters in mind, we find that during the i8th 
century the most prominent and beneficent rulers were the 
emperor Yesu of Gondar, who died about 1720, Sebastie, negus 
of Shoa (1703-1718), Amada Yesus of Shoa, who extended his 
kingdom and founded Ankober (1743-1774), Tekla Giorgis of 
Amhara (1770-1798?) and Asfa Nassen of Shoa (1774-1807), the 
latter being especially renowned as a wise and benevolent 
monarch. The first years of the igth century were disturbed by 
fierce campaigns between Guxa, ras of Gondar, and Wolda 
Selassie, ras of Tigre, who were both striving for the crown of 
Guxa's master, the emperor Eguala Izeion. Wolda Selassie 
was eventually the victor, and practically ruled the whole 
country till his death in 1816 at the age of eighty. 

(16) Mention must here be made of the first British mission, 
under Lord Valentia and Mr Henry Salt, which was sent in 
1805 to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia, and BHtlsh 
obtain a port on the Red Sea in case France secured mission 
Egypt by dividing up the Turkish empire with Russia, aadmis- 
This mission was succeeded by many travellers, slo ar y 

. . . , r ti enterprise. 

missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the 
stream of Europeans continued until well into Theodore's reign. 
For convenience' sake we insert at this point a partial list, of mis- 
sionaries and others who visited the country during the second 
third of the igth century merely calling attention to the fact 
that their visits were distributed over widely different parts of 
the country, ruled by distinct lines of monarchs or governors. 
In 1830 Protestant missionary enterprise was begun by Samuel 
Gobat and Christian Kugler, who were sent out by the Church 
Missionary Society, and were well received by the ras of Tigre. 
Mr Kugler died soon after his arrival, and his place was subse- 
quently supplied by Mr C. W. Isenberg, who was followed by 
Dr Ludwig Krapf, the discoverer of Mount Kenya, and others. 
Mr (afterwards Bishop) Gobat proceeded to Gondar, where he 
also met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned to 
Europe, and published a journal of his residence in Abyssinia. 
In 1834 Gobat went back to Tigre, but in 1836 ill health 
compelled him to leave. In 1838 other missionaries were 
obliged to leave the country, owing to the opposition of the native 



ABYSSINIA 



priests. Messrs Isenberg and\Krapf went south, and established 
themselves at Shoa. The former soon after returned to England, 
but Mr Krapf remained in Shoa till March 1842, when he re- 
moved to Mombasa. Dr E. Riippell, the German naturalist, 
visited the country in 1831, and remained nearly two years. 
M. E. Combes and M. Tamisier arrived at Massawa in 1835, 
and visited districts which had not been traversed by Europeans 
since the time of the Portuguese. One who did much at the time 
to extend our geographical knowledge of the country was Dr 
C. T. Beke (q.v.), who was there from 1840 to 1843. Mr Mansfield 
Parkyns was there from 1843 to 1846, and wrote the most inter- 
esting book on the country since the time of Bruce. Bishop 
Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay missionaries 
into the country, who would engage in secular occupations as 
well as carry on missionary work, Dr Krapf returned to Abys- 
sinia in 1855 with Mr Flad as pioneers of that mission; Krapf, 
however, was not permitted to remain in the country. Six lay 
workers came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by 
others. Their secular work, however, appears to have been 
more valuable to Theodore than their preaching, so that he 
employed them as workmen to himself, and established them 
at Gaffat, near his capital. Mr Stern arrived in Abyssinia in 
1860, and after a visit to Europe returned in 1863, accompanied 
by Mr and Mrs Rosenthal. 1 

(17) Wolda Selassie of Tigre was succeeded in 1817, through 
force of arms, by Sabagadis of Agame, and the latter, as ras of 
Rivalry of Tigre, introduced various Englishmen, whom he much 
British admired, into the country. He increased the pros- 
and French p er jty o f his land considerably, but by so doing 
factions. rouse( j th e jealousy of Ras Marie of Amhara to 
whom he had refused tribute and Ubie, son of Hailo Mariam, 
a governor of Simen. In an ensuing battle (in January 
1831), both Sabagadis and Marie were killed, and Ubie retired 
to watch events from his own province. Marie was shortly 
succeeded in the ras-ship of Amhara by Ali, a nephew of Guxa 
and a Mahommedan. But Ubie, who was aiming at the crown, 
soon attacked Ras Ali, and after several indecisive campaigns 
proclaimed himself negus of Tigre. To him came many French 
missionaries and travellers, chief of whom were Lieut. Lefebvre, 
charged (1839) with political and geographical missions, and 
Captains Galinier and Ferret, who completed for him a useful 
triangulation and survey of Tigre and Simen (1840-1842). The 
brothers Antoine and Arnaud d'Abbadie (q.v.) spent ten years 
(1838-1848) in the country, making scientific investigations of 
great value, and also involving themselves in the stormy politics 
of the country. Northern Abyssinia was now divided into two 
camps, the one, Amhara and Ras Ali, under Protestant British, 
and the other, Tigre and Ubie, under Roman Catholic French, 
influence. The latent hostility between the two factions threat- 
ened at one time to develop into a religious war, but no serious 
campaigns took place until Kassa (later Theodore) appeared on 
the scene. 

(18) Lij ( = Mr) Kassa was born in Kwara, a small district of 
Western Amhara, in 1818. His father was a small local chief, 

and his uncle was governor of the districts of Dembea, 
Rise of the K wara and Chelga between Lake Tsana and the un- 
r'he'odore. defined N.W. frontier. He was educated in a monas- 
tery, but preferred a more active life, and by his talents 
and energy came rapidly to the front. On the death of his 
uncle he was made chief of Kwara, but in consequence of the 
arrest of his brother Bilawa by Ras Ali, he raised the standard 
of revolt against the latter, and, collecting a large force, re- 
peatedly beat the troops that were sent against him by the ras 
(1841-1847). On one occasion peace was restored by his receiving 
Tavavich, daughter of Ras Ali, in marriage; and this lady is 
said to have been a good and wise counsellor during her lifetime. 
He next turned his arms against the Turks, in the direction of 
Massawa, but was defeated; and the mother of Ras Ali having 
insulted him in his fallen condition, he proclaimed his independ- 
ence. As his power was increasing, to the detriment of both Ras 

1 Since Theodore's time Protestant missionary work, except by 
natives, has been stopped. 



Ali and Ubie, these two princes combined against him, but were 
heavily defeated by him at Gorgora (on the southern shore of 
Lake Tsana) in 1853. Ubie retreated to Tigre, and Ras Ali fled 
to Begemeder, where he eventually died. Kassa now ruled in 
Amhara, but his ambition was to attain to supreme power, and 
he turned his attention to conquering the remaining 
chief divisions of the country, Gojam, Tigr6 and Shoa, a "^ l r " g l 
which still remained unsubdued. Berro, ras of Gojam, shoa. 
in order to save himself, attempted to combine with 
Tigre, but his army was intercepted by Kassa and totally de- 
stroyed, himself being taken prisoner and executed (May 1854). 
Shortly afterwards Kassa moved against Tigre, defeated Ubie's 
forces at Deragi6, in Simen (February 1855), took their chief 
prisoner and proclaimed himself negus negusti of Ethiopia under 
the name of Theodore III. He now turned his attention to Shoa. 

(19) Retracing our steps for a moment in that direction, we 
find that in 1813 Sahela (or Sella) Selassie, younger son of the 
preceding ras, Wassen Seged, had proclaimed himself negus or 
king. His reign was long and beneficent. He restored the 
towns of Debra-Berhan and Angolala, and founded Entotto, 
the strong stone-built town whose ruins overlook the modern 
capital, Adis Ababa. In the terrible " famine of St Luke " in 
1835, Selassie still further won the hearts of his subjects by his 
wise measures and personal generosity; and by extending his 
hospitality to Europeans, he brought his country within the 
closer ken of civilized European powers. During his reign he 
received the missions of Major W. Cornwallis Harris, sent by the 
governor-general of India (1841), and M. Rochet d'Hericourt, 
sent by Louis Philippe (1843), with both of whom he concluded 
friendly treaties on behalf of their respective governments. He 
also wrote to Pope Pius IX., asking that a Roman Catholic 
bishop should be sent to him. This request was acceded to, 
and the pope despatched Monsignor Massaja to Shoa. But 
before the prelate could reach the country, Selassie was dead 
(1847), leaving his eldest son, Haeli Melicoth, to succeed him. 
Melicoth at once proclaimed himself negus, and by sending 
for Massaja, who had arrived at Gondar, gave rise to the sus- 
picion that he wished to have himself crowned as emperor. By 
increasing his dominions at the expense of the Gallas, he still 
further roused the jealousy of the northerners, and a treaty 
which he concluded with Ras Ali against Kassa in 1850 deter- 
mined the latter to crush him at the earliest opportunity. 

Thus it was that in 1855 Kassa, under the name of the em- 
peror Theodore, advanced against Shoa with a large army. 
Dissensions broke out among the Shoans, and after a desperate 
and futile attack on Theodore at Debra-Berhan, Haeli Melicoth 
died of exhaustion and fever, nominating with his last breath 
his eleven-year-old son Menelek 2 as successor (November 1855). 
Darge, Haeli's brother, took charge of the young prince, but 
after a 'hard fight with Angeda, one of Theodore's rases, was 
obliged to capitulate. Menelek was handed over to the negus, 
taken to Gondar, and there trained in Theodore's service. 

(20) Theodore was now in the zenith of his career. He is 
described as being generous to excess, free from cupidity, merciful 
to his vanquished enemies, and strictly continent, but subject 
to violent bursts of anger and possessed of unyielding pride 
and fanatical religious zeal. He was also a man of education 
and intelligence, superior to those among whom he lived, with 
natural talents for governing and gaining the esteem of others. 
He had, further, a noble bearing and majestic walk, a frame 
capable of enduring any amount of fatigue, and is said to have 
been " the best shot, the best spearman, the best runner, and the 
best horseman in Abyssinia." Had he contented himself with 
the sovereignty of Arnhara and Tigre, he might have maintained 
his position; but he was led to exhaust his strength against the 
Wollo Gallas, which was probably one of the chief causes of 
his ruin. He obtained several victories over that people, ravaged 
their country, took possession of Magdala, which he afterwards 
made his principal stronghold, and enlisted many of the chiefs 
and their followers in his own ranks. As has been shown, he also 
reduced the kingdom of Shoa, and took Ankober, the capital; 

1 Menelek means "a second self." 



ABYSSINIA 



but in the meantime his own people were groaning under his 
heavy exactions, rebellions were breaking out in various parts 
of his provinces, and his good queen Tavavich was now dead. 

The British consul, Walter C. Plowden, who was strongly 
attached to Theodore, having been ordered by his government 
Theodore's in 1 860 to return to Massawa, was attacked on his 
quarrel way by a rebel named Garred, mortally wounded, 
nri* Oreat an( i taken prisoner. Theodore attacked the rebels, 
and in the action the murderer of Mr Plowden 
was slain by his friend and companion Mr J. T. Bell, an 
engineer, but the latter lost his life in preserving that of 
Theodore. The deaths of the two Englishmen were terribly 
avenged by the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 2000 rebels. 
Theodore soon after married his second wife Terunish, the proud 
daughter of the late governor of Tigre, who felt neither affection 
nor respect for the upstart who had dethroned her father, and 
the union was by no means a happy one. In 1862 he made a 
second expedition against the Gallas, which was stained with 
atrocious cruelties. Theodore had now given himself up to 
intoxication and lust. When the news of Mr Plowden's death 
reached England, Captain C. D. Cameron was appointed to 
succeed him as consul, and arrived at Massawa in February 
1862. He proceeded to the camp of the king, to whom he pre- 
sented a rifle, a pair of pistols and a letter in the queen's name. 
In October Captain Cameron was sent home by Theodore, with a 
letter to the queen of England, which reached the Foreign Office 
on the 1 2th of February 1863. This letter was put aside and no 
answer returned, and to this in no small degree are to be attri- 
buted the difficulties that subsequently arose with that country. 
In November despatches were received from England, but no 
answer to the emperor's letter, and this, together with a visit 
paid by Captain Cameron to the Egyptian frontier town of 
Kassala, greatly offended him; accordingly in January 1864 
Captain Cameron and his suite, with Messrs Stern and Rosenthal, 
were cast into prison. When the news of this reached England, 
the government resolved, when too late, to send an answer to 
the emperor's letter, and selected Mr Hormuzd Rassam to be 
its bearer. He arrived at Massawa in July 1864, and immedi- 
ately despatched a messenger requesting permission to present 
himself before the emperor. Neither to this nor a subsequent 
application was any answer returned till August 1865, when a 
curt note was received, stating that Consul Cameron had been 
released, and if Mr Rassam still desired to visit the king, he was 
to proceed by the route of Gallabat. Later in the year Theodore 
became more civil, and the British party on arrival at the king's 
camp in Damot, on the 2$th of January 1866, were received 
with all honour, and were afterwards sent to Kwarata, on Lake 
Tsana, there to await the arrival of the captives. The latter 
reached Kwarata on the I2th of March, and everything appeared 
to proceed favourably. A month later they started for the coast, 
but had not proceeded far when they were all brought back and 
put into confinement. Theodore then wrote a letter to the queen, 
requesting European workmen and machinery to be sent to 
him, and despatched it by Mr Flad. The Europeans, although 
detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly treated; but 
in the end of June they were sent to Magdala, where they were 
soon afterwards put in chains. They suffered hunger, cold and 
misery, and were in constant fear of death, till the spring of 
1868 when they were relieved by the British troops. 

(21) In the meantime the power of Theodore in the country 
was rapidly waning. Shoa had already shaken off his yoke; 
Gojam was virtually independent; Walkeit and Simen were 
under a rebel chief; and Lasta, Waag and the country about 
Lake Ashangi had submitted to Wagshum Gobassie, who had 
also overrun Tigre and appointed Dejaj Kassai his governor. 
The latter, however, in 1867 rebelled against his master and 
assumed the supreme power of that province. This was the 
state of matters when the English troops made their appearance 
in the country. With a view if possible to effect the release of 
the prisoners by conciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent back, 
with some artisans and machinery, and a letter from the queen, 
stating that these would be handed over to his majesty on the 



release of the prisoners and their return to Massawa. This, 
however, failed to influence the emperor, and the English 
government at length saw that they must have recourse to arms. 
In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved to send an army into 
Abyssinia to enforce the release of the captives, under Sir 
Robert Napier (ist Baron Napier of Magdala). The landing- 
place selected was Mulkutto (Zula), on Annesley Bay, the point 
of the coast nearest to the site of the ancient Adulis, and we 
are told that "the pioneers of the English expedition followed 
to some extent in the footsteps of the adventurous 
soldiers of Ptolemy, and met with a few faint traces 
of this old-world enterprise " (C. R. Markham). The expedition. 
force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, besides 
12,640 belonging to the transport service, and followers, making 
in all upwards of 32,000 men. The task to be accomplished 
was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous and little-known 
country, inhabited by savage tribes, to the camp or fortress of 
Theodore, and compel him to deliver up his captives. The com- 
mander-in-chief landed on the 7th of January 1868, and soon 
after the troops began to move forward through the pass of 
Senafe, and southward through the districts of Agame, Tera, 
Endarta, Wojerat, Lasta and Wadela. In the meantime 
Theodore had been reduced to great straits. His army, which at 
one time numbered over 100,000 men, was rapidly deserting him, 
and he could hardly obtain food for his followers. He resolved 
to quit his captial Debra-Tabor, which he burned, and set out 
with the remains of his army for Magdala. During this march 
he displayed an amount of engineering skill in the construction 
of roads, of military talent and fertility of resource, that excited 
the admiration and astonishment of his enemies. On the after- 
noon of the loth of April a force of about 3000 men suddenly 
poured down upon the English in the plain of Arogie, a few 
miles from Magdala. They advanced again and again to the 
charge, but were each time driven back, and finally retired in 
good order. Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut. Prideaux, 
one of the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native chief, 
to the English camp to sue for peace. Answer was returned, 
that if he would deliver up all the Europeans in his hands, and 
submit to the queen of England, he would receive honourable 
treatment. The captives were liberated and sent away, and 
accompanying a letter to the English general was a present 
of looo cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance of which would, 
according to Eastern custom, imply that peace was granted. 
Through some misunderstanding, word was sent to Theodore 
that the present would be accepted, and he felt that he was now 
safe; but in the evening he learned that it had not been received, 
and despair again seized him. Early next morning he attempted 
to escape with a few of his followers, but subsequently returned. 
The same day (i3th April) Magdala was stormed and taken, 
practically without loss, and within they found the dead body 
of the emperor, who had fallen by his own hand. The inhabit- 
ants and troops were subsequently sent away, the fortifications 
destroyed and the town burned. The queen Terunish having 
expressed her wish to go back to her own country, accompanied 
the British army, but died during the march, and her son Alam- 
ayahu, the only legitimate son of the emperor, was brought to 
England, as this was the desire of his father. 1 The success of 
the expedition was in no small degree owing to the aid afforded 
by the several native chiefs through whose country it passed, 
and no one did more in this way than Dejaj Kassa or Kassai of 
Tigre. In acknowledgment of this, several pieces of ordnance, 
small arms and ammunition, with much of the surplus stores, 
were handed over to him, and the English troops left the country 
in May 1868. 

(22) It is now time to return to the story of the young prince 
Menelek, who, as we have seen, had been nomin- Meoelek 
ated by his late father as ruler of Shoa, but was 
in Theodore's power in Tigre. The following table 
shows his descent since the beginning of the igth century: 

1 He was subsequently sent to school at Rugby, but died in his 
nineteenth year, on the I4th of November 1879. He was buried 
at St George's Chapel, Windsor. 






ABYSSINIA 



93 



Asfa Nassen, d. 1807 

Wassan Seged = Woizero Zenebe Work 
d. 1811 



Becurraye 



Sella Selassie = Woizero Betsabesh 
(1795-1847) 



Haeli Melicoth = Ejigayu 
(1825-1855) 



Menelek II. =Tai'tu 
b. 1844 



Siefu Darge 

(1826-1860) b. 1827 

Masnasha 



I son Zauditu Tanina Work 

(dead) (Judith) (daughter) 

On the retirement of Theodore's forces from Shoa in 1855, 
Siefu, brother of Haeli Melicoth, proclaimed himself negus of 
Shoa at Ankober, and beat the local representatives of the 
northern government. The emperor returned, however, in 
1858, and after several repulses succeeded in entering Ankober, 
where he behaved with great cruelty, murdering or mutilating 
all the inhabitants. Siefu kept up a gallant defence for two 
more years, but was then killed by Kebret, one of his own chiefs. 
Thus chaos again reigned supreme in Shoa. In 1865, Menelek, 
now a dejazmach 1 of Tigre, took advantage of Theodore's diffi- 
culties with the British government and escaped to Workitu, 
queen of the Wollo Galla country. The emperor, who held as 
hostage a son of Workitu, threatened to kill the boy unless 
Menelek were given up; but the gallant queen refused, and lost 
both her son and her throne. The fugitive meanwhile arrived 
safely in Shoa, and was there acclaimed as negus. For the next 
three years Menelek devoted himself to strengthening and 
disciplining his army, to legislation, to building towns, such as 
Liche (near Debra-Berhan), Worra Hailu (Wollo Galla country), 
&c., and to repelling the incursions of the Gallas. On the death 
of Theodore (i3th April 1868) many Shoans, including Ras 
Darge, were released, and Menelek began to feel himself strong 
KlagJoha enough, after a few preliminary minor campaigns, to 
attains undertake offensive operations against the northern 
supreme pr i nces g ut t h ese projects were of little avail, for 
Kassai of Tigre, as above mentioned, had by this time 
(1872) risen to supreme power in the north. With the help of the 
rifles and guns presented to him by the British, he had beaten 
Ras Bareya of Tigre, Wagshum Gobassie of Amhara and Tekla 
Giorgis of Condar, and after proclaiming himself negus negusti 
under the name of Johannes or John, was now preparing to 
march on Shoa. Here, however, Menelek was saved from prob- 
able destruction through the action of Egypt. This power had, 
by the advice of Werner Munzinger (q.v.), their Swiss governor 
of Massawa, seized and occupied in 1872 the northern province 
of Bogos; and, later on, insisted on occupying Hamasen also, 
for fear Bogos should be attacked. John, after futile protests, 
collected an army, and with the assistance of Ras Walad Michael, 
hereditary chief of Bogos, advanced against the Egyptian forces, 
who were under the command of one Arendrup, a Dane. Meeting 
near the Mareb, the Egyptians were beaten in detail, and almost 
annihilated at Gundet (i3th November 1875). An avenging 
expedition was prepared in the spring of the following year, and, 
numbering 14,000 men under Ratib Pasha, Loring (American), 
and Prince Hassan, advanced to Gura and fortified a position 
in the neighbourhood. Although reinforced by Walad Michael, 
who had now quarrelled with John, the Egyptians were a second 
time (25th March 1876) heavily beaten by the Abyssinians, and 
retired, losing an enormous quantity of both men and rifles. 
Colonel C. G. Gordon, governor-general of the Sudan, was now 
ordered to go and make peace with John, but the king had moved 
south with his army, intending to punish Menelek for having 
raided Gondar whilst he, John, was engaged with the Egyptians. 

1 A title variously translated. A dejazmach (dejaj) is a high 
official, ranking immediately below a ras. 



(23) Menelek's kingdom was meanwhile torn in twain by 
serious dissensions, which had been instigated by his concubine 
Bafana. This lady, to whom he was much attached, had been 
endeavouring to secure the succession of one of her own sons to 
the throne of Shoa, and had almost succeeded in getting rid of 
Mashasha, son of Siefu and cousin of Menelek, who was the ap- 
parent heir. On the approach of John, the Shoans united for a 
time against their common enemy. But after a few skirmishes 
they melted away, and Menelek was obliged to submit and do 
obeisance to John. The latter behaved with much generosity, 
but at the same time imposed terms which effectually deprived 
Shoa of her independence (March 1878). In 1879 Gordon was 
sent on a fresh mission to John on behalf of Egypt; but he was 
treated with scant courtesy, and was obliged to leave the country 
without achieving anything permanent. 

The Italians now come on the scene. Assab, a port near the 
southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the 
local sultan in March 1870 by an Italian company, 
which, after acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880, f^"^af 
was bought out by the Italian government in 1882. influence. 
In this year Count Pietro Antonelli was despatched to 
Shoa in order to improve the prospects of the colony by treaties 
with Menelek and the sultan of Aussa. Several missions followed 
upon this one, with more or less successful results; but both 
John and Menelek became uneasy when Beilul, a port to the north 
of Assab Bay, was occupied by the Italians in January 1885, and 
Massawa taken over by them from Egypt in the following month. 
This latter act was greatly resented by the Abyssinians, for by a 
treaty concluded with a British and Egyptian mission under 
Admiral Hewett and Mason Pasha 2 in the previous year, free 
transit of goods was to be allowed through this port. Matters 
came to a head in January 1887, when the Abyssinians, in con- 
sequence of a refusal from General Gene to withdraw his troops, 
surrounded and attacked a detachment of 500 Italian troops 
at Dogali, killing more than 400 of them. Reinforcements were 
sent from Italy, whilst in the autumn the British government 
stepped in and tried to mediate by means of a mission under Mr 
(afterwards Sir Gerald) Portal. His mission, however proved 
abortive, and after many difficulties and dangers he returned to 
Egypt at the end of the year. In April 1888 the Italian forces, 
numbering over 20,000 men, came into touch with the Abys- 
sinian army; but negotiations took the place of fighting, with 
the result that both forces retired, the Italians only leaving 
some 5000 troops in Eritrea, as their colony was now called. 
Meanwhile John had not been idle with regard to the dervishes, 
who had in the meantime become masters of the Egyptian 
Sudan. Although he had set his troops in motion too late to 
relieve Kassala, Ras Alula, his chief general, had succeeded in 
inflicting a handsome defeat on Osman Digna at Kufit in Sep- 
tember 1885. Fighting between the dervishes and the Abys- 
sinians continued, and in August 1887 the dervishes entered 
and sacked Gondar. After some delay, King John took the field 
in force against the enemy, who were still harassing the north- 
west of his territory. A great battle ensued at Gallabat, in which 
the dervishes, under Zeki Tumal, were beaten. But a stray 
bullet struck the king, and the Abyssinians decided to retire. 
The king died during the night, and his body fell into the hands 
of the enemy (gth March 1889). 

(24) Immediately the news of John's death reached Menelek, 
he proclaimed himself emperor, and received the submission of 
Gondar, Gojam and several other provinces. In 
common with other northern princes, Mangasha, 
reputed son and heir of King John, with the yellow- 

eyed Ras Alula, 3 refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of 
Menelek; but, on the latter marching against them in the 
following January with a large army, they submitted. As it 
happened, Count Antonelli was with Menelek when he claimed 

2 The main object of this mission was to seek John's assistance 
in evacuating the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan, which were 
threatened by the dervishes. 

3 Ras Alula died February 1897, A S^ about 52. He had raised 
himself by his military talents from being a groom and private 
soldier to the position of generalissimo of the army. 






94 



ABYSSINIA 



the throne, and promptly concluded (2nd of May 1889) with 
him on behalf of Italy a friendly treaty, to be known hereafter 
as the famous Uccialli treaty. In consequence of this the 
Italians occupied Asmara, made friends with Mangasha and 
received Ras Makonnen, 1 Menelek's nephew, as his plenipo- 
tentiary in Italy. Thus it seemed as though hostilities between 
the two countries had come to a definite end, and that peace 
was assured in the land. For the next three years the land was 
fairly quiet, the chief political events being the convention (6th 
February 1891) between Italy and Abyssinia, protocols between 
Italy and Great Britain (24th March and isth April 1891) and 
a proclamation by Menelek (loth April 1891), all on the subject 
of boundaries. As, however, the Italians became more and more 
friendly with Mangasha and Tigre the apprehensions of Menelek 
increased, till at last, in February 1893, he wrote denouncing 
the Uccialli treaty, which differed in the Italian and Amharic 
versions. According to the former, the negus was bound to 
make use of Italy as a channel for communicating with other 
powers, whereas the Amharic version left it optional. Mean- 
while the dervishes were threatening Eritrea. A fine action by 
Colonel Arimondi gained Agordat for Italy (zist December 
1893), and a brilliant march by Colonel Baratieri resulted in 
the acquisition of Kassala (i7th July 1894). 

On his return Baratieri found that Mangasha was intriguing 
with the dervishes, and had actually crossed the frontier with a 
large army. At Koatit and Senate (i3th to i5th January 1895) 
Mangasha was met and heavily defeated by Baratieri, who 
occupied Adrigat in March. But as the year wore on the Italian 
commander pushed his forces unsupported too far to the south. 
Menelek was advancing with a large army in national support 
of Mangasha, and the subsequent reverses at Amba Alagi (7th 
December 1895) and Macalle (23rd January 1896) forced the 
Italians to fall back. 

Reinforcements of many thousands were meanwhile arriving 
at Massawa, and in February Baratieri took the field at the 
head of over 13,000 men. Menelek's army, amounting 
to a but 90,000, had during this time advanced, and 
was occupying a strong position at Abba Garima, 
near Adua (or Adowa). Here Baratieri attacked him on the ist 
of March, but the difficulties of the country were great, and one 
of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far forward. This 
brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers, and on the 
remaining brigades advancing in support, they were successively 
cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the enemy. The Italians 
lost over 4500 white and 2000 native troops killed and wounded, 
and over 2500 prisoners, of which 1600 were white, whilst the 
Abyssinians owned to a loss of over 3000. General Baldissera 
advanced with a large body of reinforcements to avenge this 
defeat, but the Abyssinians, desperately short of supplies, had 
already retired, and beyond the peaceful relief of Adrigat no 
further operations took place. It may here be remarked that 
the white prisoners taken by Menelek were exceedingly well 
treated by him, and that he behaved throughout the struggle 
with Italy with the greatest humanity and dignity. On the 
26th of October following a provisional treaty of peace was 
concluded at Adis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and 
recognizing the absolute independence of Abyssinia. This 
treaty was ratified, and followed by other treaties and agree- 
ments defining the Eritrean-Abyssinian and the Abyssinian- 
Italian Somaliland frontiers (see ITALY, History, and SOMALI- 
LAND, Italian). 

(25) The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention 
of all Europe to Abyssinia and its monarch, and numerous 
Menelek missions, two Russian, three French and one British, 
as lade- were despatched to the country, and hospitably re- 
ceived bv Menelek. The British one, under Mr (after- 
wards Sir) Rennell Rodd, concluded a friendly treaty 
with Abyssinia (isth of May 1897), but did not, except in the 
direction of Somaliland, touch on frontier questions, which for 
several years continued a subject of discussion. During the 

1 Ras of Harrar, which province had been conquered and occupied 
by Menelek in January 1887. 



same year (1897) a small French expedition under Messrs 
Clochette and de Bonchamps endeavoured to reach the Nile, 
but, after surmounting many difficulties, stuck in the marshes 
of the Upper Sobat, and was obliged to return. Another expe- 
dition of Abyssinians, under Dejaj Tasamma and accompan- 
ied by three Europeans Faivre (French), Potter (Swiss) and 
Artomonov (Russian) started early in 1898, and reached the 
Nile at the Sobat mouth in June, a few days only before Major 
Marchand and his gallant companions arrived on the scene. 
But no contact was made, and the expedition returned to 
Abyssinia. 

In the same year Menelek proceeded northwards with a large 
army for the purpose of chastising Mangasha, who was again 
rebelling against his authority. After some trifling fighting 
Mangasha submitted, and Ras Makonnen despatched a force 
to subdue Beni Shangul, the chief of which gold country, Wad 
Tur el Guri, was showing signs of disaffection. This effected, 
the Abyssinians almost came into contact with the Egyptian 
troops sent up the Blue Nile (after the occupation of Khartum) 
to Famaka and towards Gallabat; but as both sides were 
anxious to avoid a collision over this latter town, no hostile 
results ensued. An excellent understanding was, in fact, estab- 
lished between these two contiguous countries, in spite of occa- 
sional disturbances by bandits on the frontier. On this frontier 
question, a treaty was concluded on the isth of May 1902 
between England and Abyssinia for the delimitation of the 
Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Menelek, in addition, agreed not 
to obstruct the waters of Lake Tsana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat, 
so as not to interfere with the Nile irrigation question, and he 
also agreed to give a concession, if such should be required, for 
the construction of a British railway through his dominions, to 
connect the Sudan with Uganda. A combined British- Abys- 
sinian expedition (Mr A. E. Butter's) was despatched in 1901 to 
propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia on the one 
side and British East Africa and Uganda on the other; and the 
report of the expedition was made public by the British govern- 
ment in November 1904. It was followed in 1908 by an agree- 
ment defining the frontiers concerned. 

(26) In 1899 the rebellion of the so-called "mad "mullah 
(Hajji Mahommed Abdullah) began on the borders of 
British Somaliland. An Abyssinian expedition was, 
at Great Britain's request, sent against the mullah, t i 'a^h' 
but without much effect. In the spring and Britain 
summer of 1901 a fresh expedition from Harrar was "gainst the 
undertaken against the mullah, who was laying waste fj^" 
the Ogaden country. Two British officers accompanied 
this force, which was to co-operate with British troops advancing 
from Somaliland; but little was achieved by the Abyssinians, 
and after undergoing considerable privations and losses, and 
harassing the country .generally, including that of some friendly 
tribes, it returned to Harrar. During the 1902-3 campaign of 
General (Sir) W. H. Manning, Menelek provided a force of 5000 
to co-operate with the British and to occupy the Webi Shebeli 
and south-western parts of the Haud. This time the Abyssinians 
were more successful, and beat the rebels in a pitched fight; but 
the difficulties of the country again precluded effective co-opera- 
tion. During General Egerton's campaign (1903-4) yet another 
force of 5000 Abyssinians was despatched towards Somaliland. 
Accompanied by a few British officers, it worked its way south- 
ward, but did not contribute much towards the final solution. 
In any case, however, it is significant that the Abyssinians have 
repeatedly been willing to co-operate with the British away 
from their own country. 

Regarding the question of railways, the first concession for a 
railway from the coast at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the 
interior was granted by Menelek to a French company 
in 1894. The company having met with numberless E 
difficulties and financial troubles, the French govern- influence. 
ment, on the extinction of the company's funds, came 
to the rescue and provided money for the construction. (In the 
alternative British capitalists interested in the company would 
have obtained control of the line.) The French government's 






ABYSSINIAN CHURCH 



95 



help enabled the railway to be completed to Dire Dawa, 28 m. 
from Harrar, by the last day of 1902. Difficulties arose over 
the continuation of the railway to Adis Ababa and beyond, 
and the proposed internationalization of the line. These diffi- 
culties, which hindered the work of construction for years, were 
composed (so far as the European Powers interested were con- 
cerned) in 1906. By the terms of an Anglo-French-Italian 
agreement, signed in London on the i3th of December of that 
year, it was decided that the French company should build the 
railway as far as Adis Ababa, while railway construction west 
of that place should be under British auspices, with the stipula- 
tion that any railway connecting Italy's possessions on the Red 
Sea with its Somaliland protectorate should be built under 
Italian auspices. A British, an Italian and an Abyssinian 
representative were to be appointed to the board of the French 
company, and a French director to the board of any British or 
Italian company formed. Absolute equality of treatment on 
the railway and at Jibuti was guaranteed to the commerce of all 
the Powers. 

Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened 
out cautiously to European influences. Most of the Powers 
appointed representatives at Menelek's capital the British 
minister-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Colonel Sir 
J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after the British 
mission in 1897. In December 1903 an American mission visited 
Adis Ababa, and a commercial treaty between the United States 
and Abyssinia was signed. A German mission visited the 
country early in 1905 and also concluded a treaty of commerce 
with the negus. Later in the year a German minister was ap- 
pointed to the court of the emperor. 

After 1897 British influence in Abyssinia, owing largely no 
doubt to the conquest of the Sudan, the destruction of the 
dervish power and the result of the Fashoda incident, was 
sensibly on the increase. Of the remaining powers France 
occupied the most important position in the country. Ras 
Makonnen, the most capable and civilized of Menelek's probable 
successors, died in March 1906, and Mangasha died later in the 
same year; the question of the succession therefore opened up 
the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing influences, 
Abyssinia might still relapse in the future into its old state 
of conflict. The Anglo-French-Italian agreement of December 
1906 contained provisions in view of this contingency. The 
preamble of the document declared that it was the common 
interest of the three Powers "to maintain intact the integrity 
of Ethiopia," and Article I. provided for their co-operation in 
maintaining "the political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia." 
Should, however, the status quo be disturbed, the powers were to 
concert to safeguard their special interests. The terms of the 
agreement were settled in July 1906, and its text forthwith 
communicated to the negus. After considerable hesitation 
Menelek sent, early in December, a note to the powers, in which, 
after thanking them for their intentions, he stipulated that the 
agreement should not in any way limit his own sovereign rights. 
In June '1908, by the nomination of his grandson, Lij Yasu (b. 
1896), as his heir, the emperor endeavoured to end the rivalry 
between various princes claiming the succession to the throne. 
(See MENELEK.) A convention with Italy, concluded in the 
same year, settled the frontier questions outstanding with that 
country. (G.*) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general information see A. B. Wylde's Mod- 
ern Abyssinia (London, 1901), a volume giving the result of many 
years' acquaintance with the country and people ; Voyage enAbyssinie 
. . . 1839-43, par une commission scientifique, by Th. Lefebvre 
and others (6 vols. and atlas, 3 vols., Paris, 1845-54) : Elisee Reclus, 
Nouvelle geographic universelle, vol. x. chap. v. (Paris, 1885). For 
latest geographical and kindred information consult the Geographical 
Journal (London), especially "A Journey through Abyssinia," 
vol. xv. (1900), and "Exploration in the Abai Basin," vol. xxvii. 
(1906), both by H. Weld Blundell, and "From the Somali Coast 
through S. Ethiopia to the Sudan," vol. xx. (1902), by C. Neumann; 
Antoine d'Abbadie, Geographie de I'Ethiopie (Paris, 1890). The 
British parliamentary paper Africa, No. 13 (1904), is a report on the 
survey of the S.E. frontier by Capt. P. Maud, R.E., and contains 
a valuable map. For geology, &c., see W. T. Blanford, Observa- 
tions on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia (London, 1870); 



C. Futterer, "Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Jura in Ost-Afrika," Zeit. 
Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. xlix. p. 568 (1897) ; C. A. Raisin, "Rocks from 
Southern Abyssinia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lix. pp. 292-306 
(1903)- 

Among works by travellers describing the country are James 
Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile [1768-1773] (Edin- 
burgh, 1813, 3rd ed., 8 vols.); The Highlands oj Aethiopw (3 vols., 
London, 1844), by Sir W. Cornwallis Harris, dealing with the Danakil 
country, Harrar and Shoa; Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia; 
being notes collected during three years' residence and travels (2nd ed., 
London, 1868); Antoine d'Abbadie, Douze ans dans la Haute- 
Ethiopie (Paris, 1868); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, A Sporting Trip 
through Abyssinia (London, 1902); A. Donaldson Smith, Through 
Unknown African Countries (London, 1897); M. S. Wellby, 'Twixt 
Sirdar and Menelik (London, 1901). For history see A. M. H. J. 
Stokvis' Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. pp. 439-46, and vol. ii. pp. Ixxiv-v 
(Leiden, 1888-89), which contains lists of the sovereigns of Abyssinia, 
Shoa and Harrar, from the earliest times, with brief notes. Texts 
of treaties between Abyssinia and the European Powers up to 1896 
will be found in vol. i. of Sir E. Hertslet's The Map of Africa by 
Treaty (London, 1896). L. J. Morie's Histoire de I'Ethiopie: Tome 
n, "L'Abyssinie " (Paris, 1904), is a comprehensive survey (the views 
on modern affairs being coloured by a strong anti-British bias). 
For more detailed historical study consult C. Beccari's Notizia e 
Saggi di opere e documenti inediti riguardanti la Storia di Etiopia 
durante i Secoli XVI., XVII. e XVIII. (Rome, 1903), a valuable 
guide to the period indicated; E. Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien 
und Afrika (Munich, 1895); The Portuguese Expedition to Abys- 
sinia in 1541-1543 as narrated by Castanhoso (with the account of 
Bermudez), translated and edited by R. S. Whiteway (London, 
Hakluyt Society, 1902), which contains a bibliography; Futuh el- 
Habacha, a contemporary Arab chronicle of the wars of Mahommed 
Gran, translated into French by Antoine d'Abbadie and P. Pau- 
litschke (Paris, 1898) ; A Voyage to Abyssinia by Father Jerome Lobo, 
from the French [by Samuel Johnson] (London, 1735); Record of 
the Expedition to Abyssinia, 3 vols., an official history of the war of 
1868, by Major T. J. Holland and Capt. H. Hozier (London, 1870); 
Hormuzd Rassam, Narrative of the British Mission to Theodore 
[1865-1868] (2 vols., London, 1869); Henry Blanc, A Narrative of 
Captivity in Abyssinia (London, 1868), by one of Theodore's prisoners; 
Sir Gerald H. Portal, My Mission to Abyssinia (London, 1892), 
an account of the author's embassy to King John in 1887; Count 
A. E. W. Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, 1897 (London, 
1898), containing the story of the Rennell Rodd mission; R. P. 
Skinner, Abyssinia of To-Day (London, 1906), a record of the first 
American mission to the country; G. F. H. Berkeley, The Cam- 
paign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (London, 1902). Books deal- 
ing with missionary enterprise are Journal of a Three Years' 
Residence in Abyssinia, by Bishop Samuel Gobat (London, 1834); 
J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours during 
an 18 years' residence in Eastern Africa (London, 1860); Cardinal 
G. Massaja, I miei Trentacinque anni di Missione nell' Alia Etiopia 
(10 vols., Milan, 1886-1893). Political questions are referred to by 
T. Lennox Gilmour, Abyssinia: the Ethiopian Railway and the 
Powers (London, 1906); H. le Roux, Menelik et nous (Paris, 1901); 
Charles Michel, La question d'Ethiopie (Paris, 1905). (F. R. C.) 

ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. As the chronicle of Axum relates, 
Christianity was adopted in Abyssinia in the 4th century. 
About A.D. 330 Frumentius was made first bishop of Ethiopia 
by Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. Cedrenus and Nice- 
phorus err in dating Abyssinian Christianity from Justinian, 
c. 542. From Frumentius to the present day, with one break, 
the Metropolitan (Abuna) has always been appointed from 
Egypt, and, oddly enough, he is always a foreigner. Little is 
known of church history down to the period of Jesuit rule, 
which broke the connexion with Egypt from about 1500 to 
1633. But the Abyssinians rejected the council of Chalcedon, 
and still remain monophysites. Union with the Coptic Church 
(q.v.) continued after the Arab conquest in Egypt. Abu Salih 
records (i2th century) that the patriarch used always to send 
letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia, till Al 
Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus 
as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce 
observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These 
examples show the close relations of the two churches in the 
Middle Ages. But early in the i6th century the church was 
brought under the influence of a Portuguese mission. In 1439, 
in the reign of Zara Yakub, a religious discussion between an 
Abyssinian, Abba Giorgis, and a Frank had led to the despatch 
of an embassy from Abyssinia to the Vatican; but the initiative 
in the Roman Catholic missions to Abyssinia was taken, not by 
Rome, but by Portugal, as an incident in the struggle with the 
Mussulmans for the command of the trade route to India by the 



9 6 



ACACIA 



Red Sea. In 1 507 Matthew, or Matheus, an Armenian, had been 
sent as Abyssinian envoy to Portugal to ask aid against the 
Mussulmans, and in 1520 an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de 
Lima landed in Abyssinia. An interesting account of this 
mission, which remained for several years, was written by 
Francisco Alvarez, the chaplain. Later, Ignatius Loyola wished 
to essay the task of conversion, but was forbidden. Instead, 
the pope sent out Joao Nunez Barreto as patriarch of the East 
Indies, with Andre de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys 
went to Abyssinia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the 
king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure 
of success was achieved, but not till 1604 did the king make 
formal submission to the pope. Then the people rebelled and 
the king was slain. Fresh Jesuit victories were followed sooner 
or later by fresh revolt, and Roman rule hardly triumphed 
when once for all it was overthrown. In 1633 the Jesuits were 
expelled and allegiance to Alexandria resumed. 

There are many early rock-cut churches in Abyssinia, closely 
resembling the Coptic. After these, two main types of archi- 
tecture are found one basilican, the other native. The cathe- 
dral at Axum is basilican, though the early basilicas are nearly 
all in ruins e.g. that at Adulis and that of Martula Mariam in 
Gojam, rebuilt in the i6th century on the ancient foundations. 
These examples show the influence of those architects who, in 
the 6th century, built the splendid basilicas at Sanaa and else- 
where in Arabia. Of native churches there are two forms one 
square or oblong, found in Tigre; the other circular, found in 
Amhara and Shoa. In both, the sanctuary is square and stands 
clear in the centre. An outer court, circular or rectangular, 
surrounds the body of the church. The square type may be 
due to basilican influence, the circular is a mere adaptation of 
the native hut: in both, the arrangements are obviously based 
on Jewish tradition. Church and outer court are usually 
thatched, with wattled or mud-built walls adorned with rude 
frescoes. The altar is a board on four wooden pillars having 
upon it a small slab (tabut) of alabaster, marble, or shittim 
wood, which forms its essential part. At Martula Mariam, the 
wooden altar overlaid with gold had two slabs of solid gold, one 
500, the other 800 ounces in weight. The ark kept at Axum is 
described as 2 feet high, covered with gold and gems. The 
liturgy was celebrated on it in the king's palace at Christmas, 
Epiphany, Easter and Feast of the Cross. 

Generally the Abyssinians agree with the Copts in ritual and 
practice. The LXX. version was translated into Geez, the 
literary language, which is used for all services, though hardly 
understood. Saints and angels are highly revered, if not adored, 
but graven images are forbidden. Fasts are long and rigid. 
Confession and absolution, strictly enforced, give great power to 
the priesthood. The clergy must marry, but once only. Pil- 
grimage to Jerusalem is a religious duty and covers many sins. 

AUTHORITIES. Tellez, Hisloria de Ethiopia (Coimbra, 1660); 
Alvarez, translated and edited for the Hakluyt Soc. by Lord Stanley 
of Alderley, under the title Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to 
Abyssinia (London, 1881); Ludolphus, History of Ethiopia (London, 
1684, and other works); T. Wright, Christianity of Arabia (London, 
1855); C. T. Beke. "Christianity among the Gallas," Brit. Mag. 
(London, 1847); J. C. Hotten, Abyssinia Described (London, 1868); 
"Abyssinian Church Architecture," Royal Inst. Brit. Arch. Trans- 
actions, 1869; Ibid. Journal, March 1897; Archaeologia, vol. xxxii. ; 
J. A. de Graca Barreto, Documenta historiam ecclesiae Habessinarum 
illustrantia (Olivipone, 1879); E. F. Kromrei, Glaubenlehre und 
Gebrauche der alteren Abessinischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1895) ; F. M. E. 
Pereira, Vida do Abba Samuel (Lisbon, 1894); Idem, Vida do Abba 
Daniel (Lisbon, 1897) ; ldem,Historiados Martyresde Nagran (Lisbon, 
1899); Idem, Chronica de Susenyos (Lisbon, text 1892, tr. and notes 
1900) ; Idem, Martyrio de Abba Isaac (Coimbra, 1903) ; Idem, Vida de 
S. Paulo de Thebas (Coimbra, 1904); Archdeacon Bowling, The 
Abyssinian Church, (London, 1909) ; and periodicals as under COPTIC 
CHURCH. (A. J. B.) 

ACACIA, a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the family 
Leguminosae and the sub-family Mimoseae. The small flowers 
are arranged in rounded or elongated clusters. The leaves are 
compound pinnate in general (see fig.). In some instances, 
however, more especially in the Australian species, the leaflets 
are suppressed and the leaf-stalks become vertically flattened, 



and serve the purpose of leaves. The vertical position protects 
the structure from the intense sunlight, as with their edges 
towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as 
ordinary horizontally placed leaves. There are about 450 species 
of acacia widely scattered over the warmer regions of the globe. 
They abound in Australia and Africa. Various species yield 
gum. True gum-arabic is the product of Acacia Senegal, abun- 
dant in both east and west tropical Africa. Acacia arabica is 
the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the 
true gum-arabic. An astringent medicine, called catechu (q.v.) 
or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially 
from Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating 
the solution so as to get an extract. The bark of Acacia arabica, 
under the name of babul or babool, is used in Scinde for tanning. 
The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is 
also very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export. 
Such are Acacia pycnantha, golden wattle, A. decurrens, tan 
wattle, and A. dealbata, silver wattle. The pods of Acacia 
nilotica, under the name of neb-neb, and of other African species 




^ 

Acacia Senegal, flowering branch, natural size (after A. Meyer 

and Schumann). 
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Boianik. 

are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. The seeds of 
Acacia niopo are roasted and used as snuff in South America. 
Some species afford valuable timber; such are Acacia melan- 
oxylon, black wood of Australia, which attains a great. size; its 
wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish ; and Acacia 
homalophylla (also Australian), myall wood, which yields a 
fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. Acacia formosa 
supplies the valuable Cuba timber called sabicu. Acacia seyal 
is supposed to be the shittah tree of the Bible, which supplied 
shittim- wood. Acacia heterophylla, from Mauritius and Bourbon, 
and Acacia koa from the Sandwich Islands are also good timber 
trees. The plants often bear spines, especially those growing in 
arid districts in Australia or tropical and South Africa. These 
sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard 
and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the 
kangaroo-thorn of Australia, A. girajfae, the African camel- 
thorn. In the Central American Acacia sphaerocephala (bull- 
thorn acacia) and A. spadicigera, the large thorn-like stipules 
are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on a secretion 
of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of 
the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-cutting 
insects. In common language the term Acacia is often applied 
to species of the genus Robinia (q.v.) which belongs also to the 



ACADEMIES 



97 



Leguminous family, but is placed in a different section. Robinia 
Pseud-acacia, or false acacia, is cultivated in the milder parts of 
Britain, and forms a large tree, with beautiful pea-like blossoms. 
The tree is sometimes called the locust tree. 

ACADEMIES. The word "academy" is derived from "the 
olive grove of Academe, Plato's retirement, " the birthplace 
of the Academic school of philosophy (see under ACADEMY, 
GREEK). The schools of Athens after the model of the Academy 
continued to flourish almost without a break for nine centuries 
till they were abolished by a decree of Justinian. It was not 
without significance in tracing the history of the word that 
Cicero gave the name to his villa near Puteoli. It was there 
that he entertained his cultured friends and held the symposia 
which he afterwards elaborated in Academic Questions and other 
philosophic and moral dialogues. 

"Academy," in its modern acceptation, may be defined as a 
society or corporate body having for its object the cultivation 
and promotion of literature, of science and of art, either sever- 
ally or in combination, undertaken for the pure love of these 
pursuits, with no interested motive. Modern academies, more- 
over, have, almost without exception, some form of public 
recognition; they are either founded or endowed, or subsidized, 
or at least patronized, by the sovereign of the state. The term 
" academy " is very loosely used in modern times; and, in 
essentials, other bodies with the title of " society " or " college," 
or even " school, " often embody the same idea; we are only 
concerned here, however, with those which, bearing the title of 
academy, are of historical importance in their various spheres. 

Early History. The first academy, as thus defined, though it 
might with equal justice claim to be the first of universities, 
was the museum of Alexandria founded at the beginning of the 
3rd century B.C. by the first of the Ptolemies. There all the 
sciences then known were pursued, and the most learned men 
of Greece and of the East gathered beneath its spacious por- 
ticos. Here, too, was the nucleus of the famous library of 
Alexandria. 

Passing over the state institute for the promotion of science 
founded at Constantinople by Caesar Bardas in the pth century, 
and the various academies established by the Moors at Granada, 
at Corduba and as far east as Samarkand, we come to the 
academy over which Alcuin presided, a branch of the School 
of the Palace established by Charlemagne in 782. This academy 
was the prototype of the learned coteries of Paris which Moliere 
afterwards satirized. It took all knowledge for its province; 
it included the learned priest and the prince who could not 
write his own name, and it sought to solve all problems by witty 
definitions. 

The David of Alcuin's academy (such was the name that the 
emperor assumed) found no successors or imitators, and the 
tradition of an Oxford academy of Alfred the Great has been 
proved to rest on a forgery. The academy of arts founded at 
Florence in 1270 by Brunetto Latini was short-lived and has left 
no memories, and modern literary academies may be said to 
trace their lineage in direct descent from the troubadours of the 
early I4th century. The first Floral Games were held at Tou- 
louse in May 1324, at the summons of a gild of troubadours, 
who invited " honourable lords, friends and companions' who 
possess the science whence spring joy, pleasure, good sense, 
merit and politeness " to assemble in their garden of the " gay 
science " and recite their works. The prize, a golden violet, 
was awarded to Vidal de Castelnaudary for a poem to the glory 
of the Virgin. In spite of the English invasion and other 
adversities the Floral Games survived till, about the year 1500, 
their permanence was secured by the munificent bequest of 
Clemence Isaure, a rich lady of Toulouse. In 1694 the Acad&mie 
des Jeux Floraux was constituted an academy by letters patent 
of Louis XIV. ; its statutes were reformed and the number of 
members raised to 36. Suppressed during the Revolution it 
was revived in 1806, and still continues to award amaranths of 
gold and silver lilies, for which there is keen competition. 

Provence led the way, but Italy of the Renaissance is the soil 
in which academies most grew and flourished. The Accademia 

1.4 



Pontaniana, to give it its subsequent title, was founded at Flor- 
ence in 1433 by Antonio Beccadelli of Palermo and fostered by 
Lauren tius Valla. Far more famous was the Accademia Pla- 
tonica, founded c. 1442 by Cosimo de' Medici, which numbered 
among its members Marsih'o Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Machia- 
velli and Angelo Poliziano. It was, as the name implies, chiefly 
occupied with Plato, but it added to its objects the study of 
Dante and the purification of the Italian language, and though it 
lived for barely half a century, yet its influence as a model for 
similar learned societies was great and lasting. 

Modern Academics. Academies have played an important 
part in the revival of learning and in the birth of scientific 
inquiry. They mark an age of aristocracies when letters were 
the distinction of the few and when science had not been differ- 
entiated into distinct branches, each with its own specialists. 
Their interest is mainly historical, and it cannot be maintained 
that at the present day they have much direct influence on the 
advancement of learning either by way of research or of publi- 
cation. For example, the standard dictionaries of France, 
Germany and England are the work, not of academies, but of 
individual scholars, of Littre, Grimm and Murray. Matthew 
Arnold's plea for an English academy of letters to save his 
countrymen from the note of vulgarity and provinciality has 
met with no response. Academies have been supplanted, 
socially by the modern club, and intellectually by societies 
devoted to special branches of science. Those that survive from 
the past serve, like the Heralds' College, to set an official stamp 
on literary and scientific merit. The principal academies of 
Europe, past and present, may be dealt with in various classes, 
according to the subjects to which they are devoted. 

I. SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES 

Austria. The Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften at 
Vienna, originally projected by Leibnitz, was founded by the 
emperor Ferdinand I. in 1846, and has two classes mathe- 
matics and natural science, and history and philology. 

Belgium and the Netherlands. A literary society was founded 
at Brussels in 1769 by Count Cobenzl, the prime minister of 
Maria Theresa, which after various changes of name and con- 
stitution became in 1816 the Acad&mie imp&riale et royale des 
sciences et belles-lettres, under the patronage of William I. of the 
Netherlands. It has devoted itself principally to natural his- 
tory and antiquities. The Royal Institute of the Low Countries 
was founded in 1808 by King Louis Bonaparte. It was replaced 
in 1851 by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, to 
which in 1856 a literary section was added. 

Denmark. The Kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab (Royal 
Academy of Sciences) at Copenhagen owes its origin to 
Christian VI., who in 1742 invited six Danish numismatists to 
arrange his cabinet of medals. Historians and antiquaries were 
called in to assist at the sittings, and the commission developed 
into a sort of learned club. The king took it under his protec- 
tion, enlarged its scope by the addition of natural history, 
physics and mathematics, and in 1743 constituted it a royal 
academy with an endowment fund. 

France. The old Academic des sciences had the same origin 
as the more celebrated Academic franQaise. A number of men 
of science had for some thirty years met together, first at the 
house of P. Marsenne, then at that of Montmort, a member of 
the Council of State, afterwards at that of Melchisedec Thevenot, 
the learned traveller. It included Descartes, Gassendi, Blaise 
and Etienne Pascal. Hobbes, the author of Leviathan, was 
presented to it during his visit to Paris in 1640. Colbert con- 
ceived the idea of giving an official status to this learned club. 
A number of chemists, physicians, anatomists and eminent 
mathematicians, among whom were Christian Huyghens and 
Bernard Frenicle de Bessy (1605-1675), the author of a famous 
treatise on magic squares, were chosen to form the nucleus of 
the new society. Pensions were granted by Louis XIV. to each 
of the members, and a fund for instruments and experiment 
was placed at their disposal. They began their session on the 
22nd of December 1666 in the Royal Library, meeting twice a 



9 8 



ACADEMIES 



week the mathematicians on Wednesdays, the physicists on 
Saturdays. Duhamel was appointed permanent secretary, a 
post he owed more to his polished Latinity than to his scientific 
attainments, all the proceedings of the society being recorded 
in Latin, and C. A. Couplet was made treasurer. At first the 
academy was rather a laboratory and observatory than an 
academy proper. Experiments were undertaken in common 
and results discussed. Several foreign savants, in particular the 
Danish astronomer Roemer, joined the society, attracted by 
the liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German physi- 
cian and geometer Tschirnhausen and Sir Isaac Newton were 
made foreign associates. The death of Colbert, who was suc- 
ceeded by Louvois, exercised a disastrous effect on the fortunes 
of the academy. The labours of the academicians were diverted 
from the pursuit of pure science to such works as the construc- 
tion of fountains and cascades at Versailles, and the mathema- 
ticians were employed to calculate the odds of the games of 
lansquenet and basset. In 1699 the academy was reconstituted 
by Louis Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, under whose 
department as secretary of state the academies came. By its 
new constitution it consisted of twenty-five members, ten 
honorary, men of high rank interested in science, and fifteen 
pensionaries, who were the working members. Of these three 
were geometricians, three astronomers, three mechanicians, 
three anatomists, and three chemists. Each of these three had 
two associates, and, besides, each pensionary had the privilege 
of naming a pupil. There were eight foreign and four free 
associates. The officers were, a president and a vice-president, 
named by the king from among the honorary members, and a 
secretary and treasurer chosen from the pensionaries, who held 
office for life. Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a popularizer 
of science than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as 
secretary. The constitution was purely aristocratical, differing 
in that respect from that of the French Academy, in which the 
principle of equality among the members was never violated. 
Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with the patronage 
of the great. The two leading spirits of the academy at this 
period were Clairault and Reaumur. To trace the subsequent 
fortunes of this academy would be to write the history of the 
rise and progress of science in France. It has reckoned among 
its members Laplace, Buffon, Lagrange, D'Alembert, Lavoisier, 
and Jussieu, the father of modern botany. On the 2ist of 
December 1792 it met for the last time, and it was suppressed 
with its sister academies by the act of the Convention on the 
8th of April 1793. Some of its members were guillotined, some 
were imprisoned, more were reduced to poverty. The aristo- 
cracy of talent was almost as much detested and persecuted by 
the Revolution as that of rank. 

In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Institut 
National which was to replace all the academies, and its first 
class corresponded closely to the old academy of sciences. In 
1816 the Academie des sciences was reconstituted as a branch 
of the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its 
members, besides many other brilliant men, Carnot the engineer, 
the physicists Fresnel, Ampere, Arago, Biot, the chemists Gay- 
Lussac and Thenard, the zoologists G. Cuvier and the two 
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaires. In France there were also considerable 
academies in most of the large towns. Montpellier, for example, 
had a royal academy of sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., 
on nearly the same footing as that of Paris, of which, indeed, it 
was in some measure the counterpart. It was reconstituted in 
1847, and organized under three sections medicine, science 
and letters. Toulouse also has an academy, founded in 1640, 
under the name of Society de lanternistes; and there were analo- 
gous institutions at Nimes, Aries, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux and 
elsewhere. 

Germany. The Collegium Curiosum was a scientific society, 
founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics and natural 
philosophy in the university of Altorf, in Franconia, in 1672, on 
the plan of the Accademia del Cimento. It originally consisted 
of twenty members, and continued to flourish long after the 
death of its founder. The early labours of the society were 



devoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the most 
notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the re- 
sults. Two volumes (1676-1685) of proceedings were published 
by Sturm. The former, Collegium Experimental sive Curiosum, 
begins with an account of the diving-bell, "a new invention"; 
next follow chapters on the camera obscura, the Torricellian 
experiment, the air-pump, microscope, telescope, &c. 

The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, if judged by the 
work it has produced, holds the first place in Germany. Its 
origin was the Societas Regia Scientiarum, constituted in 1700 by 
Frederick I. on the comprehensive plan of Leibnitz, who was 
its first president. Hampered and restricted under Frederick 
William I., it was reorganized under Frederick II. on the French 
model furnished by Maupertuis, and received its present con- 
stitution in 181 2. It is divided into two classes and four sections 
physical and mathematical, philosophical and historical. 
Each section has a permanent secretary with a salary of 1200 
marks, and each of the 50 regular members is paid 600 marks a 
year. Among the contributors to its transactions (first volume 
published in 1710), to name only the dead, we find Immanuel 
Bekker, Bockling, Bernoulli, F. Bopp, P. Buttmann, Encke (of 
comet fame), L. Euler, the brothers Grimm, the two Humboldts, 
Lachmann, Lagrange, Leibnitz, T. Mommsen, J. Mtiller, G. 
Niebuhr, C. Ritter (the geographer), Savigny and Zumpt. 
Frederick II. presented in 1768 A Dissertation on Ennui. To 
the Berlin Academy we owe the Corpus Inscriptionum Grae- 
carum, the Corpus Inscriptionum Lalinarum, and the Monumenta 
Germaniae Historica. 

The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Mannheim was founded 
by the elector Palatine in 1755. Since 1780 it has devoted itself 
specially to meteorology, and has published valuable observa- 
tions under the title of Ephemerides Societatis Meteorologicae 
Theodora- Palatinae. 

The Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Milnchen was 
founded in 1759. It is distinguished from other academies by 
the part it has played in national education. Maximilian Joseph, 
the enlightened elector (afterwards king) of Bavaria, induced 
the government to hand over to it the organization and super- 
intendence of public instruction, and this work was carried out 
by Privy-councillor Jacobi, the president of the academy. In 
recent years the academy has specially occupied itself with 
natural history. 

The Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, at Erfurt, which 
dates from 1754 and devotes itself to applied science, and the 
Hessian academy of sciences at Giessen, which publishes medical 
transactions, also deserve mention. 

Great Britain and Ireland. In 1616 a scheme for founding a 
royal academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent 
scholar and antiquary, who in his petition to King James I., 
which was supported by George Villiers, marquis of Buckingham, 
proposed that the title of the academy should be "King James, 
his Academe or College of honour." A list of the proposed 
original members is still extant, and includes the names of 
George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden, 
Sir Kenelm Digby and Sir Henry Wotton. The constitution is 
of interest as reflecting the mind of the learned king. The 
academy was to consist of three classes, tutelaries, who were 
to be Knights of the Garter, auxiliaries, all noblemen or ministers 
of state, and the essentials, "called from out of the most famous 
lay gentlemen of England, and either living in the light of things, 
or without any title of profession or art of life for lucre." Among 
other duties to be assigned to this academy was the licensing of 
all books other than theological. The death of King James put 
an end to the undertaking. In 1635 a second attempt to found 
an academy was made under the patronage of Charles I., with 
the title of "Minerva's Museum," for the instruction of young 
noblemen in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was 
soon dropped. (For the "British Academy" see III. below.) 
About 1645 the more ardent followers of Bacon used to meet, 
some in London, some at Oxford, for the discussion of subjects 
connected with experimental science. This was the original oi 
the Royal Society (q.v.), which received its charter in 1662. 



ACADEMIES 



99 



A society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society 
in London, as early as 1683; but the distracted state of the 
country proved unpropitious to the cultivation of philosophy 
and literature. The Royal Irish Academy grew from a society 
established in Dublin about 1782 by a number of gentlemen, 
most of whom belonged to the university. They held weekly 
meetings, and read, in turn, essays on various subjects. They 
professed to unite the advancement of science with the history 
of mankind and polite literature. The first volume of transac- 
tions appeared in 1788. 

Hungary. The Magyar Tudomdnyos Akademia (Hungarian 
Academy of Sciences) was founded in 1825 by Count Stephen 
Szechenyi for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian 
language and the various sciences. It has about 300 members 
and a fine building in Budapest containing a picture gallery and 
housing various national collections. 

Italy. The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at 
Naples in 1560 by Giambattista della Porta. It arose like the 
French Academy from a little club of friends who met at della 
Porta's house and called themselves the Otiosi. The condition 
of membership was to have made some discovery in natural 
science. Della Porta was suspected of practising the black arts 
and summoned to Rome to justify himself before the papal 
court. He was acquitted by Paul V., but commanded to close 
his academy. 

The Accademia dei Lined, to which della Porta was admitted 
when at Rome, and of which he became the chief ornament, had 
been founded in 1603 by Federigo Cesi, the marchese di Monti- 
celli. Galileo and Colonna were among its earliest members. 
Its device was a lynx with upturned eyes, tearing a Cerberus 
with its claws. As a monument the Lincei have left the magni- 
ficent edition of Fernandez de Oviedo's Natural History of 
Mexico (Rome, 1651, fol.), printed at the expense of the founder 
and elaborately annotated by the members. This academy 
was resuscitated in 1870 under the title of Reale Accademia dei 
Lincei, with a literary as well as a scientific side, endowed in 
1878 by King Humbert; and in 1883 it received official recog- 
nition from the Italian government, being lodged in the Corsini 
palace, whose owner made over to it his library and collections. 

The Accademia del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657 
by Leopold de' Medici, brother of the grand duke Ferdinand II., 
at the instigation of Vincenzo Viviani, the geometrician. It 
was an academy of experiment, a deliberate protest against the 
deductive science of the quadrivium. Its founder left it when he 
was made a cardinal, and it lasted only ten years, but the grand 
folio published in Italian (afterwards translated into Latin) in 
1667 is a landmark in the history of science. It contains ex- 
periments on the pressure of the air (Torricelli and Borelli were 
among its members), on the incompressibility of water and on 
universal gravity. 

Science in Italy is now represented by the Reale Accademia 
dette Scienze (Royal Academy of Sciences), founded in 1757 as 
a private society, and incorporated under its present name by 
royal warrant in 1783. It consists of 40 full members, who 
must be residents of Turin, 20 non-resident, and 20 foreign 
members. It publishes a yearly volume of proceedings and 
awards prizes to learned works. There are, besides, royal 
academies of science at Naples, Lucca and Palermo. 

Portugal. The Academia Real das Sciencias (Royal Academy 
of Sciences) at Lisbon dates from 1779. It was reorganized 
in 1851 and since then has been chiefly occupied in the publication 
of Portugaliae Monumenta Historica, 

Russia. The Academic Imperiale des sciences de Saint- Peters- 
bourg, Imperatorskaya Akademiya nailk, was projected by Peter 
the Great. The advice of Wolff and Leibnitz was sought, and 
several learned foreigners were invited to become members. 
Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the loth of February 
1724; but his sudden death delayed its fulfilment. On the 
2ist of December 1725, however, Catherine I. established it 
according to his plan, and on the 27th the society met for the 
first time. On the ist of August 1726, Catherine honoured the 
meeting with her presence, when Professor G. B. Bilfinger, a 



German scientist, delivered an oration upon the determination 
of magnetic variations and longitude. Shortly afterwards the 
empress settled a fund of 4982 per annum for the support of 
the academy; and 15 eminent members were admitted and 
pensioned, under the title of professors in the various branches 
of science and literature. The most distinguished of these 
were Nicholas and Darnel Bernouilli, the two Delisles, Bilfinger, 
and Wolff. 

During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of members 
were discontinued, and the academy neglected by the Court; 
but it was again patronized by the empress Anne, who added a 
seminary under the superintendence of the professors. Both 
institutions flourished for some time under the direction of 
Baron Johann Albrecht Korff (1697-1766). At the accession 
of Elizabeth the original plan was enlarged and improved; 
learned foreigners were drawn to St Petersburg; and, what 
was considered a good omen for the literature of Russia, two 
natives, Lomonosov and Rumovsky, men of genius who had 
prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, were enrolled 
among its members. The annual income was increased to 
10,659, and sundry other advantages were conferred upon the 
institution. Catherine II. utilized the academy for the advance- 
ment of national culture. She altered the court of directors 
greatly to the advantage of the whole body, corrected many of 
its abuses, added to its means, and infused a new vigour and 
spirit into its researches. By her recommendation the most 
intelligent professors visited all the provinces of her vast do- 
minions, with most minute and ample instructions to investigate 
the natural resources, conditions and requirements, and report 
on the real state of the empire. The result was that no country 
at that time could boast, within so few years, such a number of 
excellent official publications on its internal state, its natural 
productions, its topography, geography and history, and on 
the manners, customs and languages of the different tribes that 
inhabited it, as came from the press of this academy. In its 
researches in Asiatic languages, oriental customs and religions, 
it proved itself the worthy rival of the Royal Asiatic Society 
in England. The first transactions, Commentarii 'Academiae 
Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae ad annum 1726, with a 
dedication to Peter II., were published in 1728. This was con- 
tinued until 1747, when the transactions were called Novi 
Commentarii Academiae, &c. ; and in 1777, A eta Academiae 
Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae, with some alteration in 
the arrangements and plan of the work. The papers, hitherto in 
Latin only, were now written indifferently in Latin or in French, 
and a preface added, Partie Historique, which contains an ac- 
count of the society's meetings. Of the Commentaries, fourteen 
volumes were published: of the New Commentaries (1750-1776) 
twenty. Of the Ada Academiae two volumes are printed every 
year. In 1872 there was published at St Petersburg in 2 vols., 
Tableau general des matures contenues dans les publications de 
I' Academic Imperiale des Sciences de St Petersbourg. The 
academy is composed, as at first, of fifteen professors, besides 
the president and director. Each of the professors has a house 
and an annual stipend of from 200 to 600. Besides the pro- 
fessors, there are four pensioned adjuncts, who are present at 
the meetings of the society, and succeed to the first vacancies. 
The buildings and apparatus of this academy are on a vast scale. 
There is a fine library, of 36,000 books and manuscripts; and 
an extensive museum, considerably augmented by the collections 
made by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenstadt and other professors, 
during their expeditions through the Russian empire. The motto 
of the society is Paulatim. 

Spain. The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid (see below) 
had a predecessor in the Academia Naturae curiosorum (dating 
from 1657) modelled on that of Naples. It was reconstituted 
in 1847 after the model of the French academy. 

Sweden. The Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien owes 
its institution to six persons of distinguished learning, among 
whom was Linnaeus. They met on the 2nd of June 1739, and 
formed a private society, the Collegium Curiosorum', and at 
the end of the year their first publication made its appearance. 






IOO 



ACADEMIES 



As the meetings continued and the members increased the 
society attracted the notice of the king; and on the sist of 
March 1741 it was incorporated as the Royal Swedish Academy. 
Though under royal patronage and largely endowed, it is, like 
the Royal Society in England, entirely self-governed. Each of 
the members resident at Stockholm becomes in turn president, 
and continues in office for three months. The dissertations 
read at each meeting are published in the Swedish language, 
quarterly, and make an annual volume. The first forty volumes, 
octavo, completed in 1779, are called the Old Transactions. 

United States of America. The oldest scientific association 
in the United States is the American Philosophical Society 
Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge. It 
owed its origin to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1743 published 
" A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the 
British Plantations in America," which was so favourably 
received that in the same year the society was organized, with 
Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751) as president and Franklin as 
secretary. In 1769 it united with another scientific society 
founded by Franklin, called the American Society Held at 
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, and adopted its 
present name, adding the descriptive phrase from the title of 
the American Society, and elected Franklin president, an office 
which he held until his death (1790). The American Philo- 
sophical Society is national in scope and is exclusively scien- 
tific; its Transactions date from 1771, and its Proceedings from 
1838. It has a hall in Philadelphia, with meeting-rooms and a 
valuable library and collection of interesting portraits and relics. 
David Rittenhouse was its second and Thomas Jefferson was 
its third president. In 1786 John Hyacinth de Magellan, of 
London, presented a fund, the income of which was to supply 
a gold medal for the author of the most important discovery 
" relating to navigation, astronomy or natural philosophy 
(mere natural history excepted)." An annual general meeting 
is held. 

The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston), the 
second oldest scientific organization in the United States, was 
chartered in Massachusetts in 1780 by some of the most promi- 
nent men of that time. James Bowdoin was its first president, 
John Adams its second. The Academy published Memoirs 
beginning in 1785, and Proceedings from 1846. The Rumford 
Premium awarded through it for the most "important discovery 
or useful improvement on Heat, or on Light " is the income of 
$5000 given to the Academy by Count Rumford. 

The National Academy of Sciences (1863) was incorporated 
by Congress with the object that it " shall, whenever called upon 
by any department of the Government, investigate, examine, 
experiment and report upon any subject of science or art." Its 
membership was first limited to 50; after the amendment of 
the act of incorporation in 1870 the limit was placed at 100; 
and in 1907 it was prescribed that the resident membership 
should not exceed 1 50 in number, that not more than 10 members 
be elected in any one year, and that the number of foreign 
associates be restricted to 50. The Academy is divided into six 
committees: mathematics and astronomy; physics and en- 
gineering; chemistry; geology and palaeontology; biology; 
and anthropology. It gives several gold medals for meritorious 
researches and discoveries. It publishes scientific monographs 
(at the expense of the Federal Government) . Its presidents have 
been Alexander D. Bache, Joseph Henry, Wm. B. Rogers, 
Othniel C. Marsh, Wolcott Gibbs, Alexander Agassiz and Ira 
Remsen. 

The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was or- 
ganized in 1812. It has a large library, very rich in natural 
history, and its museum, with nearly half a million specimens, 
is particularly strong in conchology and ornithology. The 
society has published Journals since 1817, and Proceedings since 
1841; it also has published the American Journal of Conchology. 
The American Entomological Society (in 1859-1867 the Entomo- 
logical Society of Philadelphia, and since 1876 part of this 
academy) has published Proceedings since 1861, and the Entomo- 
logical News (a monthly). 



There are also other scientific organizations like the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science (chartered in 1874, 
as a continuation of the American Association of Geologists, 
founded in 1840 and becoming in 1842 the American Association 
of Geologists and Naturalists), which publishes its Proceedings 
annually; the American Geographical Society (1852), with 
headquarters in New York; the National Geographic Society 
(1888), with headquarters in Washington, D.C.; the Geological 
Society of America (1888), the American Ornithologists' Union 
(1883), the American Society of Naturalists (1883), the Botanical 
Society of America (1893), the American Academy of Medicine 
(1876); and local academies of science, or of special sciences, in 
many of the larger cities. The Smithsonian Institution at 
Washington is treated in a separate article. 

II. ACADEMIES OF BELLES LETTRES 

Belgium. Belgium has always been famous for its literary 
societies. The little town of Diest boasts that it possessed a 
society of poets in 1302, and the Catherinists of Alost date from 
1107. It is at least certain that numerous Chambers of Rhetoric 
(so academies were then called) existed in the first years of the 
rule of the house of Burgundy. 

France. The French Academy (I' Academic franfaise) was 
established by order of the king in the year 1635, but in its 
original form existed four or five years earlier. About the year 
1629 certain literary friends in Paris agreed to meet informally 
each week at the house of Valentin Courart, the king's secretary. 
The conversation turned mostly on literary topics; and when 
one of the number had finished some literary work, he read it to 
the rest, and they gave their opinions upon it. The fame of these 
meetings, though the members were bound to secrecy, reached 
the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, who promised his protection and 
offered to incorporate the society by letters patent. Nearly all 
the members would have preferred the charms of privacy, but, 
considering the risk they would run in incurring the cardinal's 
displeasure, and that by the letter of the law all meetings of any 
sort were prohibited, they expressed their gratitude for the high 
honour the cardinal thought fit to confer on them, proceeded at 
once to organize their body, settle their laws and constitution, 
appoint officers and choose a name. Letters patent were granted 
by the king on the 2gth of January 1635. The officers consisted 
of a director and a chancellor, chosen by lot, and a permanent 
secretary, chosen by vote. They elected also a publisher, not 
a member of the body. The director presided at the meetings, 
being considered as primus inter pares. The chancellor kept the 
seals and sealed all the official documents of the academy. The 
cardinal was ex officio protector. The meetings were held weekly 
as before. 

The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth 
in its statutes, was the purification of the French language. 
" The principal function of the academy shall be to labour with 
all care and diligence to give certain rules to our language, and 
to render it pure, eloquent and capable of treating the arts and 
sciences " (Art. 24). They proposed " to cleanse the language 
from the impurities it has contracted in the mouths of the 
common people, from the jargon of the lawyers, from the mis- 
usages of ignorant courtiers, and the abuses of the pulpit" 
(Letter of A cademy to Cardinal Richelieu) . 

The number of members was fixed at forty. The original 
members formed a nucleus of eight, and it was not till 1639 that 
the full number was completed. Their first undertaking con- 
sisted of essays written by the members in rotation. To judge 
by the titles and specimens which have come down to us, these 
possessed no special originality or merit, but resembled the 
6Tri6eteis of the Greek rhetoricians. Next, at the instance of 
Cardinal Richelieu, they undertook a criticism of Corneille's Cid, 
the most popular work of the day. It was a rule of the academy 
that no work could be criticized except at the author's request, 
and fear of incurring the cardinal's displeasure wrung from 
Corneille an unwilling consent. The critique of the academy 
was re-written several times before it met with the cardinal's 
approbation. After six months of elaboration, it was published 



ACADEMIES 



101 



I 



under the title, Sentiments de I'academie franfaise sur le Cid. 
This judgment did not satisfy Corneille, as a saying attributed 
to him on the occasion shows. "Horatius," he said, referring to 
his last play, " was condemned by the Duumviri, but he was 
absolved by the people." But the crowning labour of the 
academy, begun in 1639, was a dictionary of the French language. 
By the twenty-sixth article of their statutes, they were pledged 
to compose a dictionary, a grammar, a treatise on rhetoric and 
one on poetry. Jean Chapelain, one of the original members 
and leading spirits of the academy, pointed out that the diction- 
ary would naturally be the first of these works to be undertaken, 
and drew up a plan of the work, which was to a great extent 
carried out. A catalogue was to be made of all the most ap- 
proved authors, prose and verse: these were to be distributed 
among the members, and all approved words and phrases were 
to be marked for incorporation in the dictionary. For this they 
resolved themselves into two committees, which sat on other 
than the regular days. C. F. de Vaugelas was appointed editor 
in chief. To remunerate him for his labours, he received from 
the cardinal a pension of 2000 francs. The first edition of this 
dictionary appeared in 1694, the sixth and last in 1835, since 
when complements have been added. 

This old Academic franc.aise perished with the other pre- 
revolutionary academies in 1793, and it has little but the name 
in common with the present academy, a section of the Institute. 
That Jean Baptiste Suard, the first perpetual secretary of the 
new, had been a member of the old academy, is the one con- 
necting link. 

The chronicles of the Institute down to the end of 1895 have 
been given in full by the count de Franqueville in Le premier 
siede de I'lnstitut de France, and from it we extract a few lead- 
ing facts and dates. Before the Revolution there were in exist- 
ence the following institutions: (i) the Academie de poesie et 
de musique, founded by Charles IX. in 1570 at the instigation of 
Ba'if, which counted among its members Ronsard and most of 
the Pleiade; (2) the Academie des inscriptions et medailles, 
founded in 1701; (3) the Academie des inscriptions et belles- 
lettres; (4) the old Academie des sciences; (5) the Academie 
de peinture et de sculpture, a school as well as an academy; (6) 
the Academie d 'architecture. 

The object of the Convention in 1795 was to rebuild all the 
institutions that the Revolution had shattered and to combine 
them in an organic whole; in the words of the preamble: 
"II y a pour toute la RepuUique un Institut national charge de 
recueiller les decouvertes, de perfeclionner les arts et les sciences." 
As Renan has remarked, the Institute embodied two ideas, 
one disputable, the other of undisputed truth: That science 
and art are a state concern, and that there is a solidarity between 
all branches of knowledge and human activities. The Institute 
was at first composed of 184 members resident in Paris and an 
equal number living in other parts of France, with 24 foreign 
members, divided into three classes, (i) physical and mathe- 
matical science, (2) moral and political science, (3) literature 
and the fine arts. It held its first sitting on the 4th of April 
1796. Napoleon as first consul suppressed the second class, as 
subversive of government, and reconstituted the other classes 
as follows: (i) as before, (2) French language and literature, 
(3) ancient history and literature, (4) fine arts. The class of 
moral and political science was restored on the proposal of M. 
Guizot in 1832, and the present Institute consists of the five 
classes named above. Each class or academy has its own 
special jurisdiction and work, with special funds; but there is 
a general fund and a common library, which, with other common 
affairs, are managed by a committee of the Institute two 
chosen from each academy, with the secretaries. Each member 
of the Institute receives an annual allowance of 1200 francs, 
and the secretaries of the different academies have a salary of 
francs. 

The class of the Institute which deals with the language and 
iterature takes precedence, and is known as the Academie 
fran<;aise. There was at first no perpetual secretary, each 
secretary of sections presiding in turn. Shortly afterwards 



J. B. Suard was elected to the post, and ever since the history 
of the academy has been determined by the reigns of its succes- 
sive perpetual secretaries. The secretary, to borrow an epigram 
of Sainte-Beuve, both reigns and governs. There have been in 
order: Suard (13 years), Frangois Juste Raynouard (9 years), 
Louis Simon Auger, Francois Andrieux, Arnault, Villemain (34 
years), Henri Joseph Patin, Charles Camille Doucet (19 years), 
Gaston Boissier. Under Raynouard the academy ran a tilt 
against the abbe Delille and his followers. Under Auger it did 
battle with romanticism, " a new literary schism." Auger did 
not live to see the election of Lamartine in 1829, and it needed 
ten more years for Victor Hugo after many vain assaults to 
enter by the breach. The academy is professedly non-political. 
It accepted and even welcomed in succession the empire, the 
restoration and the reign of Louis Philippe, and it tolerated 
the republic of 1848; but to the second empire it offered a 
passive resistance, and no politician of the second empire, what- 
ever his gifts as an orator or a writer, obtained an armchair. 
The one seeming exception, Emile Ollivier, confirms the rule. 
He was elected on the eve of the Franco-German war, but his 
discours de reception, a eulogy of the emperor, was deferred and 
never delivered. The Institute appears in the annual budget 
for a grant of about 700,0x30 fr. It has also large vested funds 
in property, including the magnificent estate and library of 
ChantiJly bequeathed to it by the due d'Aumale. It awards 
various prizes, of which the most considerable are the Montyon 
prizes, each of 20,000 fr., one for the poor Frenchman who has 
performed the most virtuous action during the year, and one for 
the French author who has published the book of most service 
to morality. The conditions are liberally interpreted; the first 
prize is divided among a number of the deserving poor, and the 
second has been assigned for lexicons to Moliere, Corneille and 
Madame de Sevigne. 

One alteration in the methods of the French Academy has to 
be chronicled: in 1869 it became the custom to discuss the 
claims of the candidates at a preliminary meeting of the members. 
In 1880, on the instance of the philosopher Caro, supported by 
A. Dumas fils, and by the aged Desire Nisard, it was decided to 
abandon this method. 

A point of considerable interest is the degree in which, since 
its foundation, the French Academy has or has not represented 
the best IRerary life of France. It appears from an examination 
of the lists of members that a surprising number of authors of 
the highest excellence have, from one cause or another, escaped 
the honour of academic " immortality." When the academy 
was founded in 1634, the moment was not a very brilliant one 
in French letters. Among the forty original members we find 
only ten who are remembered in literary history; of these four 
may reasonably be considered famous still Balzac, Chapelain, 
Racan and Voiture. In that generation Scarron was never one 
of the forty, nor do the names of Descartes, Malebranche or 
Pascal occur; Descartes lived in Holland, Scarron was paralytic, 
Pascal was best known as a mathematician (his Lettres pro- 
vinciales was published anonymously) and when his fame was 
rising he retired to Port Royal, where he lived the life of a 
recluse. The due de la Rochefoucauld declined the honour from 
a proud modesty, and Rotrou died too soon to be elected. The 
one astounding omission of the i7th century, however, is the 
name of Moliere, who was excluded by his profession as an 
actor. 1 On the other hand, the French Academy was never 
more thoroughly representative of letters than when Boileau, 
Corneille, La Fontaine, Racine, and Quinault were all members. 
Of the great theologians of that and the subsequent age, the 
Academy contained Bossuet, Flechier, Fenelon, and Massillon, 
but not Bourdaloue. La Bruyere and Fontenelle were among 
the forty, but not Saint-Simon, whose claims as a man of letters 
were unknown to his contemporaries. Early in the i8th century 
almost every literary personage of eminence found his place 
naturally in the Academy. The only exceptions of importance 

1 The Academy has made the amende honorable by placing in the 
Salle des seances a bust of Moliere, with the inscription "Rienne 
manque a so. gloire, il manquait & la notre." 



IO2 



ACADEMIES 



were Vauvenargues, who died too early for the honour, and 
two men of genius but of dubious social position, Le Sage and 
the abbe Prevost d'Exiles. The approach of the Revolution 
affected gravely the personnel of the Academy. Montesquieu 
and Voltaire belonged to it, but not Rousseau or Beaumarchais. 
Of the Encyclopaedists, the French Academy opened its doors 
to D'Alembert, Condorcet, Volney, Marmontel and La Harpe, 
but not to Diderot, Rollin, Condillac, Helvetius or the Baron 
d'Holbach. Apparently the claims of Turgot and of Quesnay 
did not appear to the Academy sufficient, since neither was 
elected. In the transitional period, when the social life of Paris 
was distracted and the French Academy provisionally closed, 
neither Andre Chenier nor Benjamin Constant nor Joseph de 
Maistre became a member. In the early years of the ipth 
century considerations of various kinds excluded from the ranks 
of the forty the dissimilar names of Lamennais, Prudhon, Comte 
and Beranger. Critics of the French Academy are fond of point- 
ing out that neither Stendhal, nor Balzac, nor Theophile Gautier, 
nor Flaubert, nor Zola penetrated into the Mazarine Palace. 
It is not so often remembered that writers so academic as Thierry 
and Michelet and Quinet suffered the same exclusion. In later 
times neither Alphonse Daudet nor Edmond de Goncourt, neither 
Guy de Maupassant nor Ferdinand Fabre, has been among the 
forty immortals. The non-election, after a long life of distinc- 
tion, of the scholar Fustel de Coulanges is less easy to account 
for. Verlaine, although a poet of genius, was of the kind that no 
academy can ever be expected to recognize. 

Concerning the influence of the French Academy on the lan- 
guage and literature, the most opposite opinions have been 
advanced. On the one hand, it has been asserted that it has 
corrected the judgment, purified the taste and formed the lan- 
guage of French writers, and that to it we owe the most striking 
characteristics of French h'terature, its purity, delicacy and flexi- 
bility. Thus Matthew Arnold, in his Essay on the Literary Influence 
of Academies, has pronounced a glowing panegyric on the French 
Academy as a high court of letters, and a rallying-point for 
educated opinion, as asserting the authority of a master in 
matters of tone and taste. To it he attributes in a great measure 
that thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of 
vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature; and 
to the want of a similar institution in England he traces that 
eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarseness which, as 
he thinks, are barely compensated by English genius. Thus, too, 
Renan, one of its most distinguished members, says that it is 
owing to the academy " qu'on pent tout dire sans appareil 
scholastique avec la langue des gens du monde." " Ah ne dites," 
he exclaims, " qu'ils n'ont rien fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont 
la vie se passe a instruire le proces des mots, a peser les syllables. 
Us ont fait un chef-d'eeuvre la langue fran$aise." On the other 
hand, its inherent defects have been well summed up by P. 
Lanfrey in his Histoire de Napoleon: " This institution had never 
shown itself the enemy of despotism. Founded by the monarchy 
and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to the spirit of 
intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any sustained or combined 
labour, a stranger to those great works pursued in common 
which legitimize and glorify the existence of scientific bodies, 
occupied exclusively with learned trifles, fatal to emulation, 
which it pretends to stimulate, by the compromises and calcu- 
lations to which it subjects it, directed in everything by petty 
considerations, and wasting all its energy in childish tourna- 
ments, in which the flatteries that it showers on others are only 
a foretaste of the compliments it expects in return for itself, the 
French Academy seems to have received from its founders the 
special mission to transform genius into bel esprit, and it would 
be hard to produce a man of talent whom it has not demoralized. 
Drawn in spite of itself towards politics, it alternately pursues 
and avoids them; but it is specially attracted by the gossip of 
politics, and whenever it has so far emancipated itself as to go 
into opposition, it does so as the champion of ancient prejudices. 
If we examine its influence on the national genius, we shall see 
that it has given it a flexibility, a brilliance, a polish, which it 
never possessed before; but it has done so at the expense of its 



masculine qualities, its originality, its spontaneity, its vigour, 
its natural grace. It has disciplined it, but it has emasculated, 
impoverished and rigidified it. It sees in taste, not a sense of 
the beautiful, but a certain type of correctness, an elegant form 
of mediocrity. It has substituted pomp for grandeur, school 
routine for individual inspiration, elaborateness for simplicity, 
fadeur and the monotony of literary orthodoxy for variety, the 
source and spring of intellectual life; and in the works produced 
under its auspices we discover the rhetorician and the writer, 
never the man. By all its traditions the academy was made to 
be the natural ornament of a monarchical society. Richelieu 
conceived and created it as a sort of superior centralization 
applied to intellect, as a high literary court to maintain intel- 
lectual unity and protest against innovation. Bonaparte, aware 
of all this, had thought of re-establishing its ancient privileges; 
but it had in his eyes one fatal defect esprit. Kings of France 
could condone a witticism even against themselves, a parvenu 
could not." 

On the whole the influence of the French Academy has been 
conservative rather than creative. It has done much by its 
example for style, but its attempts to impose its laws on lan- 
guage have, from the nature of the case, failed. For, however 
perfectly a dictionary or a grammar may represent the existing 
language of a nation, an original genius is certain to arise a 
Victor Hugo or an Alfred de Musset who will set at defiance all 
dictionaries and academic rules. 

Germany. Of the German literary academies the most cele- 
brated was Die Fruchtbringende Gesettschaft (the Fruitful Society), 
established at Weimar in 1617. Five princes were among the 
original members. The object was to purify the mother tongue. 
The German academies copied those of Italy in their quaint 
titles and petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent 
influence on the language or literature of the country. 

Italy. Italy in the i6th century was remarkable for the 
number of its literary academies. Tiraboschi, in his History 
of Italian Literature, has given a list of 171; and Jarkius, in 
his Specimen Historiae Academiarum Conditarum, enumerates 
nearly 700. Many of these, with a sort of Socratic irony, gave 
themselves ludicrous names, or names expressive of ignorance. 
Such were the Lunatici of Naples, the Estravaganti, the Ful- 
minales, the Trapessali, the Drowsy, the Sleepers, the Anxious, 
the Confused, the Unstable, the Fantastic, the Transformed, the 
Ethereal. " The first academies of Italy chiefly directed their 
attention to classical literature; they compared manuscripts; 
they suggested new readings or new interpretations; they de- 
ciphered inscriptions or coins, they sat in judgment ort a Latin 
ode or debated the propriety of a phrase. Their own poetry 
had, perhaps, never been neglected; but it was not till the 
writings of Bembo furnished a new code of criticism in the Italian 
language that they began to study it with the same minuteness 
as modern Latin." " They were encouragers of a numismatic 
and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, and throwing for ever 
little specks of light on the still ocean of the past, but not very 
favourable to comprehensive observation, and tending to bestow 
on an unprofitable pedantry the honours of real learning." 
The Italian nobility, excluded as they mostly were from politics, 
and living in cities, found in literature a consolation and a career. 
Such academies were oligarchical in their constitution; they 
encouraged culture, but tended to hamper genius and extinguish 
originality. Far the most celebrated was the Accademia della 
Crusca or Furfuratorum; that is, of bran, or of the sifted, 
founded in 1582. The title was borrowed from a previous 
society at Perugia, the Accademia degli Scossi, of the well-shaken. 
Its device was a sieve; its motto, " II piu bel fior ne coglie " (it 
collects the finest flower) ; its principal object the purification of 
the language. Its great work was the Vocabulario della Crusca, 
printed at Venice in 1612. It was composed avowedly on Tuscan 
principles, and regarded the i4th century as the Augustan period 
of the language. Paul Beni assailed it in his Anti-Crusca, and 
this exclusive Tuscan purism has disappeared in subsequent 
editions. The Accademia della Crusca is now incorporated with 

1 Hallam's Int. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. p. 654, and vol. ii. p. 502. 



ACADEMIES 



103 



two older societies the Accademia degli Apatici (the Impartials) 
and the Accademia Florentina. 

Among the numerous other literary academies of Italy we 
may mention the academy of Naples, founded about 1440 by 
Alphonso, the king; the Academy of Florence, founded 1540, 
to illustrate and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially by the 
close study of Petrarch; the Intronati of Siena, 1525; the 
Infiammati of Padua, 1534; the Rozzi of Siena, suppressed by 
Cosimo, 1568. 

The Academy of Humorists arose from a casual meeting of 
witty noblemen at the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman 
gentleman. It was carnival time, and to give the ladies some 
diversion they recited verses, sonnets and speeches, first im- 
promptus and afterwards set compositions. This gave them 
the name, Belli Humori, which, after they resolved to form an 
academy of belles lettres, they changed to Humoristi. 

In 1690 the Accademia degli Arcadi was founded at Rome, 
for the purpose of reviving the study of poetry, by Crescimbeni, 
the author of a history of Italian poetry. Among its members 
were princes, cardinals and other ecclesiastics; and, to avoid 
disputes about pre-eminence, all came to its meetings masked 
and dressed like Arcadian shepherds-. Within ten years from 
its establishment the number of academicians was 600. 

The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 1719, and was made 
a royal academy by Charles Albert in 1848. Its emblem is a 
gold orange tree full of flowers and fruit; its motto " Flores 
fructusque perennes," the same as that of the famous Florimen- 
tane Academy, founded at Annecy by St Francis de Sales. It 
,has published valuable memoirs on the history and antiquities 
of Savoy. 

Spain. The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid held its 
first meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the duke 
d'Escalona. It consisted at first of 8 academicians, including 
the duke; to which number 14 others were afterwards added, 
the founder being chosen president or director. In 1714 the 
king granted them the royal confirmation and protection. Their 
device is a crucible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, 
Limpia,fixa, y da esplendor " It purifies, fixes, and gives bright- 
ness." The number of its members was limited to 24; the duke 
d'Escalona was chosen director for life, but his. successors were 
elected yearly, and the secretary for life. Their object, as 
marked out by the royal declaration, was to cultivate and im- 
prove the national language. They were to begin with choosing 
carefully such words and phrases as have been used by the best 
Spanish writers; noting the low, barbarous or obsolete ones; 
and composing a dictionary wherein these might be distinguished 
from the former. 

Sweden. The Svenska Akademien was founded in 1786, for 
the purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swedish language. 
A medal is struck by its direction every year in honour of some 
illustrious Swede. This academy does not publish its transac- 
tions. 

III. ACADEMIES OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY 

France. The old Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (or 
' Petite Academie" founded in 1663) was an offshoot of the 
French Academy, which then at least contained the elite of 
French learning. Louis XIV. was of all French kings the one 
nost occupied with his own aggrandisement. Literature, and 
ven science, he only encouraged so far as they redounded to 
own glory. Nor were literary men inclined to assert their 
ndependence.' Boileau well represented the spirit of the age 
vhen, in dedicating his tragedy Berenice to Colbert, he wrote: 
' The least things become important if in any degree they can 
erve the glory and pleasure of the king." Thus it was that 
be Academy of Inscriptions arose. At the suggestion of Colbert 

company (a committee we should now call it) had been ap- 
>ointed by the king, chosen from the French Academy, charged 
ith the office of furnishing inscriptions, devices and legends 
or medals. It consisted of four academicians: Chapelain, 
hen considered the poet laureate of France, one of the authors 
of the critique on the Cid; the abbe Amable de Bourzeis (1606- 



1671); Francois Charpentier (1620-1702), an antiquary of high 
repute among his contemporaries; and the abbe Jacques de 
Cassagnes (1636-1679), who owed his appointment more to the 
fulsome flattery of his odes than to his really learned translations 
of Cicero and Sallust. This company used to meet in Colbert's 
library in the winter, at his country-house at Sceaux in the 
summer, generally on Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of 
the minister, who was always present. Their meetings were 
principally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues 
and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but 
Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic collector 
of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with them on 
matters of art, history and antiquities. Their first published 
work was a collection of engravings, accompanied by descrip- 
tions, designed for some of the tapestries at Versailles. Louvois, 
who succeeded Colbert as a superintendent of buildings, revived 
the company, which had begun to relax its labours. Felibien, 
the learned architect, and the two great poets Racine and 
Boileau, were added to their number. A series of medals was 
commenced, entitled Midailles de la Grande Histoire, or, in other 
words, the history of the Grand Monarque. 

But it was to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of 
finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed its in- 
stitution. He added to the company Renaudot and Jacques 
Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his son, 
and put at its head his nephew, the abbe Jean Paul Bignon, 
librarian to the king. By a new regulation, dated the i6th 
of July 1701, the Acadimie royale des inscriptions et medailles 
was instituted, being composed of ten honorary members, ten 
pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils. Its constitution was 
an almost exact copy of that of the Academy of Sciences. Among 
the regulations we find the following, which indicates clearly 
the transition from a staff of learned officials to a learned body: 
" The academy shall concern itself with all that can contribute 
to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of designs for such 
monuments and decorations as may be submitted to its judg- 
ment; also with the description of all artistic works, present 
and future, and the historical explanation of the subject of such 
works; and as the knowledge of Greek and Latin antiquities, 
and of these two languages, is the best guarantee for success in 
labours of this class, the academicians shall apply themselves 
to all that this division of learning includes, as one of the most 
worthy objects of their pursuit." 

Among the first honorary members we find the indefatigable 
Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason of his orders), 
Pere La Chaise, the king's confessor, and Cardinal Rohan; 
among the associates Fontenelle and Rollin, whose Ancient 
History was submitted to the academy for revision. In 1711 
they completed L'Histoire metallique du roi, of which Saint- 
Simon was asked to write the preface. In 1716 the regent 
changed its title to that of the Acad&mie des inscriptions et belles- 
lettres, a title which better suited its new character. 

In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns 
which divided the learned world in the first half of the i8th 
century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally espoused the 
cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of Sciences did that of 
the Moderns. During the earlier years of the French Revolu- 
tion the academy continued its labours uninterruptedly; and 
on the 22nd of January 1793, the day after the death of Louis 
XVI., we find in the Proceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper 
on the projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the 
dukes of Anjou and Alencon. In the same year were published 
the 45th and 46th vols. of the M&moires de I'academie. On the 
2nd of August of the same year the last seance of the old academy 
was held. More fortunate than its sister Academy of Sciences, 
it lost only three of its members by the guillotine. One of these 
was the astronomer Sylvain Bailly. Three others sat as members 
of the Convention; but for the honour of the academy, it should 
be added that all three were distinguished by their moderation. 

In the first draft of the new Institute, October 25, 1795, 
no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy of Inscrip- 
tions; but most of the members who survived found themselves 



104 



ACADEMIES 



re-elected either in the class of moral and political science, under 
which history and geography were included as sections, or more 
generally under the class of literature and fine arts, which em- 
braced ancient languages, antiquities and monuments. 

In 1816 the academy received again its old name. The Pro- 
ceedings of the society embrace a vast field, and are of very 
various merits. Perhaps the subjects on which it has shown 
most originality are comparative mythology, the history of 
science among the ancients, and the geography and antiquities 
of France. The old academy has reckoned among its members 
De Sacy the orientalist, Dansse de Villoison (1750-1805) the 
philologist, Anquetil du Perron the traveller, GuUlaume J. de 
C. L. Sainte-Croix and du Theil the antiquaries, and Le Beau, 
who has been named the last of the Romans. The new academy 
has inscribed on its lists the names of Champollion, A. Remusat, 
Raynouard, Burnouf and Augustin Thierry. 

In consequence of the attention of several literary men in 
Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic Academy 
was established in that city in 1805. Its objects were, first, the 
elucidation of the history, customs, antiquities, manners and 
monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, the 
etymology of all the European languages, by the aid of the 
Celto-British, Welsh and Erse ; and, thirdly, researches relating 
to Druidism. The attention of the members was also particu- 
larly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae in Asia. 
Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French monuments, was 
appointed president. The academy still exists as La societe 
nationale des antiquaires de France. 

Great Britain. The British Academy was the outcome of a 
meeting of the principal European and American academies, held 
at Wiesbaden in October 1899. A scheme was drawn up for an 
international association of the academies of the world under the 
two sections of natural science and literary science, but while the 
Royal Society adequatelyrepresented Englandinscience there was 
then no existing institution that could claim to represent England 
in literature, and at the first meeting of the federated academies 
this chair was vacant. A plan was proposed by Professor H. 
Sidgwick to add a new section to the Royal Society, but after 
long deliberation this was rejected by the president and council. 
The promoters of the plan thereupon determined to form a 
separate society, and invited certain persons to become the 
first members of a new body, to be called "The British Academy 
for the promotion of historical, philosophical and philological 
studies." The unincorporated body thus formed petitioned for 
a charter, and on the 8th of August 1902 the royal charter 
was granted and the by-laws were allowed by order in council. 
The objects of the academy are therein defined "the promo- 
tion of the study of the moral and political sciences, including 
history, philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology 
and philology." The number of ordinary fellows (so all members 
are entitled) is restricted to one hundred, and the academy is 
governed by a president (the first being Lord Reay) and a council 
of fifteen elected annually by the fellows. 

Italy. Under this class the Accademia Ercolanese (Academy of 
Herculaneum) properly ranks. It was established at Naples 
about 1755, at which period a museum was formed of the anti- 
quities found at Herculaneum, Pompeii and other places, by 
the marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its object 
was to explain the paintings, &c., discovered at those places. 
For this purpose the members met every fortnight, and at each 
meeting three paintings were submitted to three academicians, 
who made their report at their next sitting. The first volume 
of their labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued 
under the title of Antichita di Ercolano. They contain engravings 
of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, marble figures, 
medals, utensils, &c., with explanations. In the year 1807 an 
academy of history and antiquities, on a new plan, was estab- 
lished at Naples by Joseph Bonaparte. The number of members 
was limited to forty, twenty of whom were to be appointed by 
the king; and these twenty were to present to him, for his choice, 
three names for each of those needed to complete the full number. 
Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted for the 



current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to the authors of 
four works which should be deemed by the academy most 
deserving of such a reward. A grand meeting was to be held 
every year, when the prizes were to be distributed and analyses 
of the works read. The first meeting took place on the 25th of 
April 1807; but the subsequent changes in the political state of 
Naples prevented the full and permanent establishment of this 
institution. In the same year an academy was established at 
Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which pub- 
lished some volumes of memoirs. 

IV. ACADEMIES OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY 

Austria. The defunct Academy of Surgery at Vienna was 
instituted in 1784 by the emperor Joseph II. under the direction 
of the distinguished surgeon, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla 
(1728-1 800) . For many years it did important work, and though 
closed in 1848 was reconstituted by the emperor Francis Joseph 
in 1854. In 1874 it ceased to exist; its functions had become 
mainly military, and were transferred to newer schools. 

France. Academic de Medecine. Medicine is a science which 
has always engaged the attention of the kings of France. Charle- 
magne established a school of medicine in the Louvre, and various 
societies have been founded, and privileges granted to the 
faculty by his successors. The A cademiede medecine succeeded 
to the old Academie royale de chirurgie et societe royale de medecine. 
It was erected by a royal ordinance, dated December 20, 1820. 
It was divided into three sections medicine, surgery and 
pharmacy. In its constitution it closely resembled the Academie 
des sciences. Its function was to preserve or propagate vaccine 
matter, and answer inquiries addressed to it by the government 
on the subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health 
generally. It has maintained an enormous correspondence in 
all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes. 

Germany. The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards called 
the Academia Caesaraea Leopoldina, was founded in 1662 by 
J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published a general 
invitation to medical men to communicate all extraordinary 
cases that occurred in the course of their practice. The works 
of the Naturae Curiosi were at first published separately ; but 
in 1770 a new arrangement was planned for publishing a volume 
of observations annually. From some cause, however, the first 
volume did not make its appearance until 1784, when it was. 
published under the title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor 
Leopold took the society under his protection, and its name was 
changed in his honour. This academy has no fixed abode, but 
follows the home of its president. Its library remains at Dresden. 
By its constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a presi- 
dent, two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or 
members. At their admission the last come under a twofold 
obligation first, to choose some subject for discussion out of the 
animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously treated 
by any colleague of the academy ; and, secondly, to apply them- 
selves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides. 

V. ACADEMIES or THE FINE ARTS 

France. The Acadimie royale de peinture et de sculpture at 
Paris was founded by Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of 
Academie royale des beaux arts, to which was afterwards united 
the Academie d' architecture, founded 1671. It is composed of 
painters, sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers. 
From among the members of the society who are painters, 
is chosen the director of the French Academie des beaux arts at 
Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The director's 
province is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors, 
&c., who, chosen by competition, are sent to Italy at the expense 
of the government, to complete their studies in that country. 
Most of the celebrated French painters have begun their career 
in this way. 

The Academie nationale de musique is the official and adminis- 
trative name given in France to the grand opera. In 1570 the 
poet Ba'if established in his house a school of music, at which 
ballets and masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought 



ACADEMY 



from Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the rue 
du Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules Strozzi's Achille in 
Sciro, the first opera performed in France. After Moliere's 
death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais Royal was given to Sulli, 
and there were performed all Gluck's great operas; there 
Vestris danced, and there was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's 
Devin du Village. 

Great Britain. The Royal Academy of Arts in London, 
founded in 1768, is described in a separate article. (See 
ACADEMY, ROYAL.) 

The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London 
in 1710, with the view of promoting the study and practice of 
vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution had a fine 
musical library, and was aided by the performances of the 
gentlemen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's, with 
the boys belonging to each, and continued to flourish for many 
years. About 1734 the academy became a seminary for the 
instruction of youth in the principles of music and the laws of 
harmony. The Royal Academy of Music was formed for the 
performance of operas, composed by Handel, and conducted by 
him at the theatre in the Haymarket. The subscription 
amounted to 50,000, and the king, besides subscribing 1000, 
allowed the society to assume the title Royal. It consisted of 
a governor, deputy-governor and twenty directors. A contest 
between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers, in which 
the directors took the part of the latter, occasioned the dis- 
solution of the academy after it had existed with honour for 
more than nine years. The present Royal Academy of Music 
dates from 1822, and was incorporated in 1830. It instructs 
pupils of both sexe,s in music. (See also the article CONSERVA- 
TOIRE for colleges of music.) 

Italy. In 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was 
established at Turin. The meetings were held in the palace of 
the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful 
members. In Milan an academy of architecture was established 
so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazzo Visconti. About the middle 
of the 1 8th century an academy of the arts was established there, 
after the example of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were 
furnished with originals and models, and prizes were distributed 
by competent judges annually. The prize for painting was a 
gold medal. Before the effects of the French Revolution reached 
Italy this was one of the best establishments of the kind in that 
kingdom. In the hall of the academy were some admirable 
examples of Correggio, as well as several statues of great merit, 
particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a torso of Agrippina, 
of most exquisite beauty. The academy of the arts, which had 
been long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was 
restored in the end of the i8th century. In it there are halls for 
nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor and the 
painter, with models of all the finest statues in Italy. But the 
treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine arts were 
greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by the French. 
The academy of the arts at Modena, after being plundered by the 
French, dwindled into a petty school for drawing from living 
models. There is also an academy of the fine arts in Mantua, 
and another at Venice. 

Russia. The academy of St Petersburg was established in 
X 757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count 
Shuvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences. The fund 
for its support was 4000 per annum, and the foundation ad- 
mitted forty scholars. Catherine II. formed it into a separate 
institution, augumented the annual revenue to 12,000, and 
increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she built 
for it a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The 
scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they 
have attained that of eighteen. They are clothed, fed and 
lodged at the expense of the crown; and are instructed in read- 
ing, writing, arithmetic, French, German and drawing. At the 
age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the following 
arts; first, painting in all its branches, architecture, mosaic, 
enamelling, &c.; second, engraving on copper-plates, seal- 
cutting, &c.; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth, 



watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues 
in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste 
and other compositions, gilding and varnishing. Prizes are 
annually distributed, and from those who have obtained four 
prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the charge 
of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling 
expenses; and when they are settled in any town, they receive 
during four years an annual salary of 60. The academy has a 
small gallery of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those 
who have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures 
in the imperial collection. For the purpose of design, there are 
full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy. 

South America. There are several small academies in the 
various towns of South America, the only one of note being 
that of Rio de Janeiro, 'founded by John VI. of Portugal in 
1816 and now known as the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes. 

Spain. In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and 
architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, was 
founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is presi- 
dent. Prizes are distributed every three years. In Cadiz a few 
students are supplied by government with the means of drawing 
and modelling from figures; and such as are not able to purchase 
the requisite instruments are provided with them. 

Sweden. An academy of the fine arts was founded at Stock- 
holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are the 
ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to Charles XI. 
The works of the students are publicly exhibited, and prizes are 
distributed annually. Such of them as display distinguished 
ability obtain pensions from government, to enable them to 
reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes of investigation 
and improvement. In this academy there are nine professors 
and generally about four hundred students. 

Austria. In the year 1705 an academy of painting, sculpture 
and architecture was established at Vienna, with the view of 
encouraging and promoting the fine arts. 

United States of America. In America the institution similar 
to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy 
of Design (1826), which in 1906 absorbed the Society of American 
Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the 
academy. 

The volume of excerpts from the general catalogue of books in 
the British Museum, "Academies," 5 parts and index, furnishes a 
complete bibliography. (F. S.) 

ACADEMY, GREEK or ACADEME (Gr. dxaSij^eiaor waSy pia) , 
the name given to the philosophic successors of Plato. The 
name is derived from a pleasure-garden or gymnasium situated 
in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the river Cephissus about a 
mile to the north-west of Athens from the gate called Dipylum. 
It was said to have belonged to the ancient Attic hero Academus, 
who, when the Dioscuri invaded Attica to recover their sister 
Helen, carried off by Theseus, revealed the place where she was 
hidden. Out of gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced 
the Dioscuri, always spared the Academy during their invasions 
of the country. It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned 
with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. dm. 13), who 
bequeathed it as a public pleasure-ground to his fellow-citizens. 
Subsequently the garden became the resort of Plato (q.v.) , who 
had a small estate in the neighbourhood. Here he taught for 
nearly fifty years till his death in 348 B.C., and his followers 
continued to make it their headquarters. It was closed for teach- 
ing by Justinian in A.D. 529 along with the other pagan schools. 
Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoli, where he 
composed his dialogue The Academic Questions. 

The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato 
to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is traceable 
a distinct continuity of thought which justifies its examination 
as a real intellectual unit. On the other hand, this continuity 
of thought is by no means an identity. The Platonic doctrine 
was so far modified in the hands of successive scholarchs that the 
Academy has been divided into either two, three or five main 
sections (Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 220). Finally, in the days 
of Philo, Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogmatism 



io6 



ACADEMY 



of Plato had been changed into an ethical syncretism which 
combined elements from the Scepticism of Carneades and the 
doctrines of the Stoics; it was a change from a dogmatism 
which men found impossible to defend, to a probabilism which 
afforded a retreat from Scepticism and intellectual anarchy. 
Cicero represents at once the doctrine of the later Academy 
and the general attitude of Roman society when he says, " My 
words do not proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but 
I conjecture what is probable, like a plain man; and where, I 
ask, am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude?" 
And again : " The characteristic of the Academy is never to 
interpose one's judgment, to approve what seems most probable, 
to compare together different opinions, to see what may be 
advanced on either side and to leave one's listeners free to judge 
without pretending to dogmatize." 

The passage from Sextus Empiricus, cited above, gives the 
general view that there were three academies: the first, or Old, 
academy under Speusippus and Xenocrates; the second, or 
Middle, academy under Arcesilaus and Polemon; the third, or 
New, academy under Carneades and Clitomachus. Sextus 
notices also the theory that there was a fourth, that of Philo of 
Larissa and Charmidas, and a fifth, that of Antiochus. Diogenes 
Laertius says that Lacydes was the founder of the New Academy 
(i. 19, iv. 59). Cicero (de Oral. iii. 18, &c.) and Varro insist that 
there were only two academies, the Old and the New. Those 
who maintain that there -is no justification for the five-fold 
division hold that the agnosticism of Carneades was really latent 
in Plato, and became prominent owing to the necessity of re- 
futing the Stoic criterion. 

The general tendency of the Academic thinkers was towards 
practical simplicity, a tendency due in large measure to the 
inferior intellectual capacity of Plato's immediate successors. 
Cicero (de Fin. v. 3) says generally of the Old Academy: " Their 
writings and method contain all liberal learning, all history, all 
polite discourse; and besides they embrace such a variety of 
arts, that no one can undertake any noble career without their 
aid. ... In a word the Academy is, as it were, the workshop of 
every artist." It is true that these men turned to scientific 
investigation, but in so doing they escaped from the high alti- 
tudes in which Plato thought, and tended to lay emphasis on 
the mundane side of philosophy. Of Plato's originality and 
speculative power, of his poetry and enthusiasm they inherited 
nothing, " nor amid all the learning which has been profusely 
lavished upon investigating their tenets is there a single deduc- 
tion calculated to elucidate distinctly the character of their 
progress or regression " (Archer Butler, Led. on Anc. Phil. 

ii- 3I5)- 

The modification of Academic doctrine from Plato to Cicero 

may be indicated briefly under four heads. 

(1) Plato's own theory of Ideas was not accepted even by 
Speusippus and Xenocrates. They argued that the Good cannot 
be the origin of things, inasmuch as Goodness is only found as 
an attribute of things. Therefore, the idea of Good must be 
.secondary to some other more fundamental principle of exist- 
ence. This unit Speusippus attempted to find in the Pytha- 
gorean number-theory. From it he deduced three principles, 
one for numbers, one for magnitude, one for the soul. The 
Deity he conceived as that living force which rules all and 
resides everywhere. Xenocrates, though like Speusippus in- 
fected with Pythagoreanism, was the most faithful ,of Plato's 
successors. He distinguished three spheres, the sensible, the 
intelligible, and a third compounded of the two, to which corre- 
spond respectively, sense, intellect and opinion (56a). Cicero 
notes, however, that both Speusippus and Xenocrates abandon 
the Socratic principle of hesitancy. 

(2) Up to Arcesilaus, the Academy accepted the principle 
of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a 
principle of certainty might be found. Arcesilaus, however, 
broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty. 
Socrates had said, " This alone I know, that I know nothing." 
But Arcesilaus went farther and denied the possibility of even 
the Socratic minimum of certainty: " I cannot know even 



whether I know or not." Thus from the dogmatism of the 
master the Academy plunged into the extremes of agnostic 
criticism. 

(3) The next stage in the Academic succession was the moder- 
ate scepticism of Carneades, which owed its existence to his 
opposition to Chrysippus, the Stoic. To the Stoical theory of 
perception, the tpavratria KaraX^TTTi/oj, by which they expressed a 
conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to 
amount to science, he opposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which 
denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and 
the objects perceived. He saved himself, however, from absolute 
scepticism by the doctrine of probability or verisimilitude, which 
may serve as a practical guide in life. Thus his criterion of 
imagination (<f>aVTaaia) is that it must be credible, irrefutable 
and attested by comparison with other impressions; it may be 
wrong, but for the person concerned it is valid. In ethics he 
was an avowed sceptic. During his official visit to Rome, he 
gave public lectures, in which he successively proved and dis- 
proved with equal ease the existence of justice. 

(4) In the last period we find a tendency not only to reconcile 
the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to con- 
nect it with parallel growths of thought. Philo of Larissa en- 
deavours to show that Carneades was not opposed to Plato, 
and further that the apparent antagonism between Plato and 
Zeno was due to the fact that they were arguing from different 
points of view. From this syncretism emerged the prudent 
non-committal eclecticism of Cicero, the last product of Aca- 
demic development. 

For detailed accounts of the Academicians see SPEUSIPPUS, 
XENOCRATES, &c. ; also STOICS and NEOPLATONISM. Consult his- 
tories of philosophy by Zeller and Windelband, and Th. Gomperz, 
Greek Thinkers, ii. 270 (Eng. tr., London, 1905). 

ACADEMY, ROYAL. The Royal Academy of Arts in London, 
to give it the original title in full, was founded in 1768, " for the 
purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting, sculp- 
ture and architecture." Many attempts had previously been 
made in England to form a society which should have for its 
object the advancement of the fine arts. Sir James Thornhill, 
his son-in-law Hogarth, the Dilettanti Society, made efforts 
in this direction, but their schemes were wrecked by want of 
means. Accident solved the problem. The crowds that attended 
an exhibition of pictures held in 1758 at the Foundling Hospital 
for the benefit of charity, suggested a way of making money 
hitherto unsuspected. Two societies were quickly formed, one 
calling itself the " Society of Artists " and the other the " Free 
Society of Artists." The latter ceased to exist in 1774. The 
former flourished, and in 1765 was granted a royal charter 
under the title of the " Incorporated Society of Artists of Great 
Britain." But though prosperous it was not united. A number 
of the members, including the most eminent artists of the day, 
resigned in 1768, and headed by William Chambers the archi- 
tect, and Benjamin West, presented on z8th November in that 
year to George III., who had already shown his interest in the 
fine arts, a memorial soliciting his " gracious assistance, patron- 
age and protection," in " establishing a society for promoting 
the arts of design." The memorialists stated that the two prin- 
cipal objects they had in view were the establishing of " a well- 
regulated school or academy of design for the use of students in 
the arts, and an annual exhibition open to all artists of distin- 
guished merit; the profit arising from the last of these institu- 
tions " would, they thought, " fully answer all the expenses of 
the first," and, indeed, leave something over to be distributed 
" in useful charities." The king expressed his agreement with 
the proposal, but asked for further particulars. These were 
furnished to him on the 7th of December and approved, and on 
the icth of December they were submitted in form, and the docu- 
ment embodying them received his signature, with the words, 
" I approve of this plan; let it be put into execution." This 
document, known as the " Instrument," defined under twenty- 
seven heads the constitution and government of the Royal 
Academy, and contained the names of the thirty-six original 
members nominated by the king. Changes and modifications 



ACADEMY 



107 



in the laws and regulations laid down in it have of course been 
made, but none of them without the sanction of the sover- 
eign, and the " Instrument " remains to this day in all essential 
particulars the Magna Charta of the society. Four days after 
the signing of this document on the i4th of December twenty- 
eight of the first nominated members met and drew up the Form 
of Obligation which is still signed by every academician on receiv- 
ing his diploma, and also elected a president, keeper, secretary, 
council and visitors in the schools; the professors being chosen 

t a further meeting held on the i7th. No time was lost in 
establishing the schools, and on the 2nd of January 1769 they 
were opened at some rooms in Pall Mall, a little eastward of the 
site now occupied by the Junior United Service Club, the presi- 
dent, Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivering on that occasion the first 
of his famous " discourses." The opening of the first exhibition 
at the same place followed on the 26th of April. 

The king when founding the Academy undertook to supply 
out of his own privy purse any deficiencies between the receipts 
derived from the exhibitions and the expenditure incurred on 
the schools, charitable donations for artists, &c. For twelve 
years he was called upon to do so, and contributed in all some- 
thing over 5000, but in 1781 there was a surplus, and no further 
call has ever been made on the royal purse. George III. also 
gave the Academy rooms in what was then his own palace of 
Somerset House, and the schools and offices were removed there 
in 1771, but the exhibition continued to be held in Pall Mall, 
till the completion in 1780 of the new Somerset House, when the 
Academy took possession of the apartments in it which the king, 
on giving up the palace for government offices, had expressly 
stipulated should be provided. Here it remained till 1837, when 
the government, requiring the use of these rooms, offered in 
exchange a portion of the National Gallery, then just erected 
in Trafalgar Square. The offer, which contained no conditions, 
was accepted. But it was not long before the necessity for a 
further removal became imminent. Already in 1850 notice was 
given by the government that the rooms occupied by the Aca- 
demy would be required for the purposes of the National Gallery, 
and that they proposed to give the Academy 40,000 to provide 
themselves with a building elsewhere. The matter slumbered, 
however, till 1858, when the question was raised in the House of 
Commons as to whether it would not be justifiable to turn the 
Academy out of the National Gallery without making any pro- 
vision for it elsewhere. Much discussion followed, and a royal 
commission was appointed in 1863 " to inquire into the present 
position of the Royal Academy in relation to the fine arts, and 

ato the circumstances and conditions under which it occupies 
a portion of the National Gallery, &c." In their report, which 
contained a large number of proposals and suggestions, some of 
them since carried put, the commissioners stated that they had 
" come to the clear conclusion that the Royal Academy have 
no legal, but that they have a moral claim to apartments at 
the public expense." Negotiations had been already going on 
between the government and the Academy for the appropriation 
to the latter of a portion of the site occupied by the recently 
purchased Burlington House, on which the Academy offered to 
erect suitable buildings at its own expense. The negotiations 
were renewed in 1866, and in March in the following year a lease 
of old Burlington House, and a portion of the garden behind it, 
was granted to the Academy for 999 years at a peppercorn rent, 
subject to the condition that " the premises shall be at all times 
exclusively devoted to the purpose of the cultivation of the fine 
arts." The Academy immediately proceeded to erect, on the 
garden portion of the site thus acquired, exhibition galleries and 
schools, which were opened in 1869, further additions being made 
in 1884. An upper storey was also added to old Burlington 
House, in which to place the diploma works, the Gibson statuary 
and other works of art. - Altogether the Academy, out of its 
accumulated savings, has spent on these buildings more than 
160,000. They are its own property, and are maintained 
entirely at its expense. 

The government of the Academy was by the " Instrument " 
vested in " a president and eight other persons, who shall form 



a council." Four of these were to retire every year, and the 
seats were to go by rotation to every academician. The number 
was increased in 1870 to twelve, and reduced to ten in 1875. 
The rules as to retirement and rotation are still in force. Newly 
elected academicians begin their two years' service as soon as 
they have received their diploma. The council 'has, to quote 
the "Instrument," "the entire direction and management of 
the business " of the Academy in all its branches; and also the 
framing of new laws and regulations, but the latter, before 
coming into force, must be sanctioned by the general assembly 
and approved by the sovereign. The general assembly consists 
of the whole body of academicians, and meets on certain fixed 
dates and at such other times as the business may require; 
also at the request to the president of any five members. The 
principal executive officers of the Academy are the president, 
the keeper, the treasurer, the librarian and the secretary, all 
now elected by the general assembly, subject to the approval of 
the sovereign. The president is elected annually on the founda- 
tion day, loth December, but the appointment is virtually for 
life. No change has ever been made in the conditions attached 
to this office, with the exception of its being now a salaried 
instead of an unsalaried post. The treasurership and librarian- 
ship, both offices originally held not by election but by direct 
appointment from the sovereign, are now elective, the holders 
being subject to re-election every five years, and the keepership 
is also held upon the same terms; while the* secretaryship, 
which up to 1873 had always been filled like the other offices 
by an academician, has since then been held by a layman. 
Other officers elected by the general assembly are the auditors 
(three academicians, one of whom retires every year), the 
visitors in the schools (academicians and associates), and the 
professors of painting, sculpture and architecture who must 
be members and of anatomy and chemistry. There are also 
a registrar, and curators and teachers in the schools, who are 
appointed by the council. 

The thirty-six original academicians were named by George 
III. Their successors have been elected, up to 1 867, by academi- 
cians only since that date by academicians and associates 
together. The original number was fixed in the " Instrument " 
at forty, and has so remained. Each academician on his election 
has to present an approved specimen of his work called his 
diploma work before his diploma is submitted to the sovereign 
for signature. On receiving his diploma he signs the Roll of 
Institution as an academician, and takes his seat in the general 
assembly. The class of associates, out of whom alone the academi- 
cians can be elected, was founded in 1769 they were " to be 
elected from amongst the exhibitors, and be entitled to every 
advantage enjoyed by the royal academicians, excepting that of 
having a voice in the deliberations or any share in the govern- 
ment of the Academy." Those exhibitors who wished to be- 
come candidates had to give in their names at the close of the 
exhibition. This condition no longer exists, candidates having 
since 1867 merely to be proposed and seconded by members of 
the Academy. On election, they attend at a council meeting 
to sign the Roll of Institution as an associate, and receive a 
diploma signed by the president and secretary. In 1867 also 
associates were admitted to vote at all elections of members; 
in 1868 they were made eligible to serve as visitors in the schools, 
and in 1886 to become candidates for the professorships of 
painting, sculpture and architecture. At first the number of 
associates was limited to twenty; in 1866 the number was 
made indefinite with a minimum of twenty, and in 1876 the 
minimum was raised to thirty. Vacancies in the lists of academi- 
cians and associates caused by death or resignation can be 
filled up at any time within five weeks of the event, except in 
the months of August, September and October, but a vacancy 
in the associate list caused by election only dates from the day 
on which the new academician receives his diploma. The mode 
of election is the same in both cases, first by marked lists and 
afterwards by ballot. All who at the first marking have four 
or more votes are marked for again, and the two highest then go 
to the ballot. Engravers have always constituted a separate 



io8 



ACADEMY 



class, and up to 1855 they were admitted to the associateship 
only, the number, six, being in addition to the other associates; 
now the maximum is four, of whom not more than two may be 
academicians. A class of honorary retired academicians was 
established in 1862, and of honorary retired associates in 1884. 
The first honorary foreign academicians were elected in 1869. 
The honorary members consist of a chaplain, an antiquary, a 
secretary for foreign correspondence, and professors of ancient 
history and ancient literature. These posts, which date from 
the foundation of the Academy, have always been held by 
distinguished men. 

Academy Schools. One of the most important functions of the 
Royal Academy, and one which for nearly a century it discharged 
alone, was the instruction of students in art. The first act, as has 
been shown, of the newly founded Academy was to establish schools 
" an Antique Academy," and a " School for the Living Model " for 
painters, sculptors and architects. In the first year, 1769, no fewer 
than seventy-seven students entered. A school of painting was 
added in 1815, and special schools of sculpture and architecture in 
1871. It would occupy too much space to follow the various changes 
that have been made in the schools since their establishment. In 
one important respect, however, they remain the same, viz. in the 
instruction being gratuitous no fees have ever been charged. Up 
to the removal of the Academy to its present quarters the schools 
could not be kept permanently open, as the rooms occupied by them 
were wanted for the exhibition. They are now open all the year 
round with the exception of a fortnight at Christmas, and the months 
of August and September. They consist of an antique school, upper 
and lower schools of painting, a school of drawing from the life, a 
school of modelling from the life and an architectural school. Ad- 
mission is gained by submitting certain specimens of drawing or 
modelling, and the successful candidates, called probationers, have 
then to undergo a further test in the schools, on passing which they 
are admitted as students for three years. At the end of that time 
they are again examined, and if qualified admitted for a further term 
of two years. These examinations are held twice a year, in January 
and July. Female students were first admitted in 1860. There are 
many scholarships, money prizes and medals to be gained by the 
various classes of students during the time of studentship, including 
travelling studentships of the value of 200 for one year, gold and 
silver medals, ahd prizes varying from 50 to 10. There are per- 
manent curators and teachers in all the schools, but the principal 
teaching is done by the visitors, academicians and associates, elected 
to serve in each school. The average cost of maintaining these 
schools, including salaries, fees, cost of models, prizes, books, main- 
tenance of building, &c., is from 5000 to 6000 a year, apart from 
certain scholarships and prizes derived from moneys given or be- 
queathed for this purpose, such as the Landseer scholarships, the 
Creswick prize, the Armitage prizes and the Turner scholarship 
and gold medal. 

Charities. Another of the principal objects to which the profits 
of the Royal Academy have been devoted has been the relief of dis- 
tressed artists and their families. From the commencement of the 
institution a fund was set apart for this purpose, and subsequently 
a further sum was allotted to provide pensions for necessitous 
members of the Academy and their widows. Both these funds were 
afterwards merged in the general fund, and various changes have 
from time to time been made in the conditions under which pensions 
and donations have been granted and in their amount. At the 
present time pensions not exceeding a certain fixed amount may be 
given to academicians and associates, sixty years of age, who have 
retired and whose circumstances show them to be in need, provided 
the sum given does not make their total annual income exceed a 
certain limit, and the same amounts can be given to their widows 
subject to the same conditions. No pensions are granted without 
very strict inquiry into the circumstances of the applicant, who is 
obliged to make a yearly declaration as to his or her income. The 
average annual amount of these pensions has been latterly about 
2000. Pensions are also given according to the civil service scale 
to certain officers on retirement. It may be stated here that with the 
exception of these pensions and of salaries and fees for official services, 
no member of the Academy derives any pecuniary benefit from the 
funds of the institution. Donations to distressed artists who are or 
have been exhibitors at the Royal Academy, their widows and 
children under twenty-one years of age, are made twice a year in 
February and August. The maximum amount that can be granted 
to any one applicant in one donation is 100, and no one can receive 
a grant more than once a year. The average yearly amount thus 
expended is from 1200 to 1500. In addition to these charities from 
its general funds, the Academy administers for the benefit of artists, 
not members of the Academy, certain other funds which have been 
bequeathed to it for charitable purposes, viz. the Turner fund, the 
Cousins fund, the Cooke fund, the Newton bequest and the Edwards 
fund (see below). 

Exhibitions. The source from which have been derived the funds 
for carrying on the varied work of the Royal Academy, its schools, 
its charities and general cost of administration, and which has 



enabled it to spend large sums on building, and provided it with the 
means of maintaining the buildings, has been the annual exhibitions. 
With the exception of the money left by John Gibson, R.A., some of 
which was spent in building the gallery containing the statues and 
bas-reliefs bequeathed by him, these exhibitions have provided the 
sole source of revenue, all other moneys that have come to the 
Academy having been either left in trust, or been constituted trusts, 
for certain specific purposes. The first exhibition in 1769 contained 
136 works, of which more than one-half were contributed by members, 
and brought in 699: 17: 6. In 1780, the first year in which the 
receipts exceeded the expenditure, the number of works was 489, of 
which nearly one-third were by members, and the sum received was 
3069: Is. This increase continued gradually with fluctuations, 
and in 1836, the last year at Somerset House, the number of works 
was 1154, and the receipts were 5179: 193. No great addition to 
the number of works exhibited took place at Trafalgar Square, but 
the receipts steadily grew, and their careful management enabled 
the Academy, when the time came for moving, to erect its own 
buildings and become no longer dependent on the government for a 
home. The greater space afforded by the galleries at Burlington 
House rendered it possible to increase the number of works exhibited, 
which of late years has reached a total of over 2000, while the receipts 
have also been such as to provide the means for further building, and 
for a largely increased expenditure of all kinds. It may be noted 
that the number of works sent for exhibition soon began to exceed 
the space available. In 1868, the last year at Trafalgar Square, the 
number sent was 3011. This went on increasing, with occasional 
fluctuations, at Burlington House, and in the year 1900 it reached 
the number of 13,462. The annual winter exhibition of works by 
old masters and deceased British artists was begun in 1870. It was 
never intended to be a source of revenue, but appreciation by the 
public has so far prevented it from being a cause of loss. The summer 
exhibition of works by living artists opens on the first Monday in May, 
and closes on the first Monday in August. The winter exhibition of 
works by deceased artists opens on the first Monday in January, and 
closes on the second Saturday in March. The galleries containing 
the diploma works, the Gibson statuary and other works of art are 
open daily, free. 

Presidents of the Royal Academy. Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1768- 
1792; Benjamin West (resigned), 1792-1805; James Wyatt 
(president-elect), 1805; Benjamin West (re-elected), 1806-1820; 
Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1820-1830; Sir Martin Archer Shee, 1830- 
1850; Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, 1850-1865; Sir Francis Grant, 
1866-1878; Frederick, Lord Leighton of Stretton, 1878-1896; Sir 
John Everett Millais, 1896; Sir Edward John Poynter, 1896. 

The library contains about 7000 volumes, dealing with the history, 
the theory and the practice of the various branches of the fine arts, 
some of them of great rarity and value. It is open daily to the 
students and members, and to other persons on a proper introduction. 

The trust funds administered by the Royal Academy are: 

The Turner fund (]. M. W. Turner, R.A.), which provides sixteen 
annuities of 50 each, for artists of repute not members of the 
Academy, also a biennial scholarship of 50 and a gold medal for a 
landscape painting. 

The Chantrey fund (Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A.), the income of 
which, paid over by the Chantrey trustees, is spent on pictures and 
sculpture. (See CHANTREY.) 

The Creswick fund (Thomas Creswick, R.A.), which provides an 
annual prize of 30 for a landscape painting in oil. 

The Cooke fund (E. W. Cooke, R.A.), which provides two annuities 
of 35 each for painters not members of the Academy, over sixty 
years of age and in need. 

The Landseer fund (Charles Landseer, R.A.), which provides four 
scholarships of 40 each, two in painting and two in sculpture, 
tenable for two years, open to students at the end of the first two 
years of studentship, and given for the best work done during the 
second year. 

The Armitage fund (E. Armitage, R. A.), which provides two annual 
prizes of 30 and. 10, for a design in monochrome for a figure picture. 

The Cousins fund (S. Cousins, R. A.), which provides sevenannuities 
of 80 each for deserving artists, not members of the Academy, in 
need of assistance. 

The Newton bequest (H. C. Newton), which provides an annual 
sum of 60 for the indigent widow of a painter. 

The Bizofund (John Bizo), to be used in the scientific investigation 
into the nature of pigments and varnishes, &c. 

The Edwards fund (W. J. Edwards), producing 40 a year for the 
benefit of poor artists or artistic engravers. 

The Leighton bequest (Lord Leighton, P.R.A.), received from Mrs 
Orr and Mrs Matthews in memory of their brother, the income from 
which, about 300, is expended on the decoration of public places 
and buildings. 

The literature concerning the Royal Academy consists chiefly of 
pamphlets and articles of more or less ephemeral value. More serious 
works are: William Sandby, The History of the Royal Academy of 
Arts (London, 1862) (withdrawn from circulation on a question of 
copyright); Report from the Select Committee on Arts and their Con-, 
nexion with Manufactures, with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix 
(London, 1836); Report of the Royal Commission on the Royal Academy, 
with Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1863); Martin 



ACADIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA 



109 



Archer Shee, The Life of Sir M. A. Shee, P.R.A. (London, 1860); 
C R. Leslie, R.A., and Torn Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua 
Reynolds, P.R.A. (London, 1865); J. E. Hodgson, R.A. (the late), 
and Fred. A. Eaton, Sec. R.A., " The Royal Academy in the Last 
Century," Art Journal, 1889-1891. But the chief sources of informa- 
tion on the subject are the minute-books of the council and of 
the general assembly, and the annual reports, which, however, only 
date from 1859. (F. A. E.) 

ACADIAN, in geology, the name given by Sir J. W. Dawson in 
1867 to a series of black, red and green shales and slates, with 
dark grey limestones, which are well developed at St John, New 
Brunswick; Avalon in E. Newfoundland, and Braintree in E. 
Massachusetts. These rocks are of Middle Cambrian age and 
possess a Paradoxides fauna. They have been correlated with 
limestone beds in Tennessee, Alabama, Central Nevada and 
British Columbia (St Stephen). 

See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; also C. D. Walcott, Bull. U.S. Geol. 
Survey, No. 81, 1891; and Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology, 
ist ed. 1855, 3rd ed. 1878. 

ACADIE, or ACADIA, a name given by the French in 1603 to 
that part of the mainland of North America lying between the 
latitudes 40 and 46. In the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the 
words used in transferring the French possessions to Britain 
were " Nova Scotia or Acadia." See NOVA SCOTIA for the limits 
included at that date under the term. 

ACANTHOCEPHALA, a compact group of cylindrical, para- 
sitic worms,' with no near allies in the animal kingdom. Its 
members are quite devoid of any mouth or alimentary canal, 
but have a well-developed body cavity into which the eggs 
are dehisced and which communicates with the exterior by 




From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., " Worms, &c.," by permission of 
' nillan & Co., Lid. 

FIG. i. 

A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus acus, Rud., attached to a 
iece of intestinal wall, X 4. 

B, The proboscis of one still more highly magnified. 

leans of an oviduct. The size of the animals varies greatly, 
forms a few millimetres in length to Gigantorhynchus 

\igas, which measures from 10 to 65 cms. The adults live in 
eat numbers in the alimentary canal of some vertebrate, 
sually fish, the larvae are as a rule encysted in the body cavity 

of some invertebrate, most often an insect or crustacean, more 
arely a small fish. The body is divisible into a proboscis and 
trunk with sometimes an intervening neck region. The 

proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal 
ows, and it is by means of these hooks that the animal attaches 

itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or 
tiree shapes. Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its 
avity is separated from the body cavity by a septum or pro- 
oscis sheath. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are 

muscle-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end 

and into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes 

the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity (fig. 2). But 
he whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially, 
ithdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two 
etractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the 
eptum to the body wall (fig. 3). 



The skin is peculiar. Externally is a thin cuticle; this covers 
the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with no cell 
limits. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching 
tubules containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering, 
amoeboid nuclei (fig. 2). Inside the syncytium is a not very 
regular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again 
some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no endo- 
thelium. In their minute structure the muscular fibres resemble 
those of Nematodes. Except for the absence of the longi- 
tudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the 
body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the latter are shut 
off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open 
ultimately into a circular vessel which runs round its base. 
From the circular canal two sac-like, diverticula called the 




From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c.," by permission of 
Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 

FIG. 2. A longitudinal section through the anterior end of 
Echinorhynchus haeruca, Rud. (from Hamann). 



a, The proboscis not fully ex- 

b, Proboscis-sheath. [panded. 

c, Retractor muscles of the pro- 

d, Cerebral ganglion. [boscis. 

e, Retinaculum enclosing a 

nerve. 

/, One of the retractors of the 
g, A lemniscus. [sheath. 



h, One of the spaces in the sub- 
cuticular tissue. 

*, Longitudinal muscular layer. 

;', Circular muscular layer. 

k, Line of division between the 
sub-cuticular tissue of the 
trunk and that of the pro- 
boscis with the lemnisci. 



" lemnisci " depend into the cavity of the body (fig. 2). Each 
consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the 
proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a scanty 
muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the 
fluid of the tense, extended proboscis can withdraw when it 
is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when 
it is wished to expand the proboscis. 

There are no alimentary canal or specialized organs for circula- 
tion or for respiration. Food is imbibed through the skin from 
the digestive juices of the host in which the Acanthocephala 
live. 

J. Kaiser has described as kidneys two organs something like 
minute shrubs situated dorsally to the generative ducts into 
which they open. At the end of each twig is a membrane 
pierced by pores, and a number of cilia depend into the lumen 
of the tube; these cilia maintain a constant motion. 

The central ganglion of the nervous system lies in the proboscis- 
sheath or -septum. It supplies the proboscis with nerves and 
gives off behind two stout trunks which supply the body (fig. 2). 
Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and the com- 
plex retains the old name of " retinaculum." In the male at 



I IO 



ACANTHUS ACAPULCO 



least there is also a genital ganglion. Some scattered papillae 
may possibly be sense-organs. 

The Acanthocephala are dioecious. There is a "stay" called 
the " ligament " which runs from the hinder end of the proboscis- 
sheath to the posterior end of the body. In this the two testes 
lie (fig. 3). Each opens in a vas deferens which bears three 
diverticula or vesiculae seminales, and three pairs of cement 
glands also are found which pour 
their secretions through a duct into 
the vasa deferentia. The latter 
unite and end in a penis which opens 
posteriorly. 

The ovaries arise like the testes as 
rounded bodies in the ligament. From 
these masses of ova dehisce into the 
body cavity and float in its fluid. 
Here the eggs are fertilized and here 
they segment so that the young em- 
bryos are formed within their mother's 
body. The embryos escape into the 
uterus through the " bell," a funnel- 
like opening continuous with the 
uterus. Just at the junction of the 
" bell " and the uterus there is a 
second small opening situated dorsally. 
The " bell " swallows the matured em- 
bryos and passes them on into the 
uterus, and thus out of the body via 
the oviduct, which opens at one end 
into the uterus and at the other on 
to the exterior at the posterior end of 
the body. But should the "bell" 
swallow any of the ova, or even one of 
the younger embryos, these are passed 
back into the body cavity through the 
second and dorsal opening. 

The embryo thus passes from the 
body of the female into the alimentary 
canal of the host and leaves this with 
the faeces. It is then, if lucky, eaten 
by some crustacean, or insect, more 

Ltd. ' rarely by a fish. In the stomach it 

FIG. 3. An optical sec- casts its membranes and becomes 
tion through a male Neo- mobile, bores through the stomach 

r U?omHamann) CepS ' ^ Wal ! S and encvsts usuall y in the bod y 

a, r proboscis. cavity of its first and invertebrate host. 

b, Proboscis sheath. By this time the embryo has all the 

c, Retractor of the pro- organs of the adult perfected save 

d, Cerebral ganglion. ^ * reproductive; these develop 
/,/, Retractors of the pro- only when the first host is swallowed 

boscis sheath. by the second or final host, in which 

g, g, Lemnisci, each with case the parasite attaches itself to 

two giant nuclei. th u f th a li men tary canal and 

h, Space m sub-cuticular . 

layer of the skin. becomes adult. 

I, Ligament. A curious feature shared by both 

m, m, Testes. larva and adult is the large size of 




From Cambridge Natural His- 
yU ''irc r muian &C & Co! 



, 
g, Opening of vas deferens. and the bell. 

O. Hamann has divided the group 
into three families, to which a fourth must be added. 

(i.) Fam. Echinorhynchidae. This is by far the largest family 
and contains the commonest species; the larva of Echino- 
rhynchus proteus lives in Gammarus pulex and in small fish, 
the adult is common in many fresh-water fish: E, polymorphus, 
larval host the crayfish, adult host the duck: E. anguslatus 
occurs as a larva in Asellus aquaticus, as an adult in the 
perch, pike and barbel: E. moniliformis has for its larval 
host the larvae of the beetle Blaps mucronata, for its final 
host certain mice, if introduced into man it lives well: E. acus 
is common in whiting: E. porrigeus in the fin- whale, and E. 
strumosus in the seal. A species named E. hominis has been 
described from a boy. 



(ii.) Fam. Gigantorhynchidae. A small family of large forms 
with a ringed and flattened body. Gigantorhynchus gigas lives 
normally in the pig, but is not uncommon in man in South Russia, 
its larval host is the grub of Melolontha vulgaris, Cetonis auratus, 
and in America probably of Lachno sterna arcuala: G. echino- 
discus lives in the intestine of ant-eaters: G. spira in that of the 





widge Natural History, vol. ii.. "Worms &c.," by permission of 
Macmillan&Co., Ltd. 

FIG. 4. 

A, The larva of Echinorhynchus proleus from the body cavity of 
Phoxinus laevis, with the proboscis retracted and the whole still 
enclosed in a capsule. 

B, A section through the same; a, the invaginated proboscis; 
b, proboscis sheath; c, beginning of the neck; d, lemniscus. Highly 
magnified (both from Hamann). 

king vulture, Sarcorhampus papa, and G. taeniod.es in Dicholopus 
cristatus, a cariama. 

(iii.) Fam. Neorhynchidae. Sexually mature whilst still in 
the larval stage. Neorhynchus clavaeceps in Cyprinus carpio 
has its larval form in the larva of Sialis 
lutaria and in the leech Nephelis octocula: 
N. agilis is found in Mugil auratus and 
M . cephalus. 

(iv.) Apororhynchidae. With no pro- 
boscis. This family contains the single 
species Apororhynchus hemignalhi, 
found near the anus of Hemignathus 
procerus, a Sandwich Island bird. 

AUTHORITIES. O. Hamann, 0. Jen. 
Zeitschr. xxv., 1891, p. 113; Zool. Anz. xv., 
1892, 195; J. Kaiser, Bibl. Zool. ii., 1893; 
A. E. Shipley, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 
xxxix., 1896; ibid, xlii., 1899, p. 361; 
Villot, Zool. Anz. viii., 1885, p. 19. 

(A. E. S.) 

ACANTHUS (the Greek and Latin 
name for the plant, connected with 
d/07, a sharp point), a genus of plants 
belonging to the natural order Acan- 
thaceae. The species are natives of 
the southern parts of Europe and the 
warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The 
best -known is Acanthus mollis (brank- 
ursine, or bears' breech), a common 
species throughout the Mediterranean ^7 m i'on'of' Macm 
region, having large, deeply cut, hairy, Co -> Ltd - 
shining leaves. Another species, Acan- , FlG - 5-~ Fully formed 
thus spinosus, is so called from its spiny JSS/SWSS 
leaves. They are bold, handsome cav ity of Phoxinus laevis 
plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft. (from Hamann). Highly 
high, of flowers with spiny bracts. A. " la S" i ' cd - a - Proboscis; 
mollis, A latifolius and A longi/olius 
are broad-leaved species; A. spinosus 
and A. spinosissimus have narrower, spiny toothed leaves. In 
decoration, the acanthus was first reproduced in metal, and subse- 
quently carved in stone by the Greeks. It was afterwards, with 
various changes, adopted in all succeeding styles of architecture 
as a basis of ornamental decoration. There are two types, that 
found in the Acanthus spinosus, which was followed by the 
Greeks, and that in the Acanthus mollis, which seems to have 
been preferred by the Romans. 

ACAPULCO, a city and port of the state of Guerrero on the 
Pacific coast of Mexico, 190 m. S.S.W. of the city of Mexico, 
Pop. (1900) 4932. It is located on a deep, semicircular bay, 




From Cambridge Natural 



e, lemniSl 



ACARNANIA ACCENT 



in 



almost land-locked, easy of access, and with so secure an anchor- 
age that vessels can safely lie alongside the rocks that fringe the 
shore. It is the best harbour on the Pacific coast of Mexico, 
and it is a port of call for steamship lines running between 
Panama and San Francisco. The town is built on a narrow strip 
of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and 
the lofty mountains that encircle the bay. There is great natural 
beauty in the surroundings, but the mountains render the town 
difficult of access from the interior, and give it an exceptionally 
hot and unhealthy climate. The effort to admit the cooling sea 
breezes by cutting through the mountains a passage called the 
Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect. Acapulco was 
long the most important Mexican port on the Pacific, and the 
only depot for the Spanish fleets plying between Mexico and 
Spain's East Indian colonies from 1778 until the independence 
of Mexico, when this trade was lost. The town has been chosen 
as the terminus for two railway lines seeking a Pacific port - 
the Interoceanic and the Mexican Central. The town suffered 
considerably from earthquakes in July and August 1909. There 
are exports of hides, cedar and fruit, and the adjacent district of 
Tabares produces cotton, tobacco, cacao, sugar cane, Indian 
corn, beans and coffee. 

ACARNANIA, a district of ancient 'Greece, bounded on the 
W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. by the Ambracian Gulf, on the 
E. and S. by Mt. Thyamus and the Achelous. The Echinades 
islands, off the S.W. coast, are gradually being joined up to 
the mainland. Its most populous region was the plain of the 
Achelous, commanded by the principal town Stratus; com- 
munication with the coast was impeded by mountain ridges 
and lagoons. Its people long continued in semi -barbarism, 
having little intercourse with the rest of Greece. In the 5th 
century B.C. with the aid of Athens they subdued the Corinthian 
factories on their coast. In 391 they submitted to the Spartan 
king Agesilaus; in 371 they passed under Theban control. In 
the Hellenistic age the Acarnanians were constantly assailed by 
their Aetolian neighbours. On the advice of Cassander they 
made effective their ancient cantonal league, apparently after the 
pattern of Aetolia. In the 3rd century they obtained assistance 
from the Illyrians, and formed a close alliance with Philip V. 
of Macedonia, whom they supported in his Roman wars, their 
new federal capital, Leucas, standing a siege in his interest. 
For their sympathy with his successor Perseus they were de- 
prived of Leucas and required to send hostages to Rome (167). 
The country was finally desolated by Augustus, who drafted 
its inhabitants into Nicopolis and Patrae. Acarnania took a 
prominent part in the national uprising of 1821; it is now 
joined with Aetolia as a nome. The sites of several ancient 
towns in Acarnania are marked by well-preserved walls, especially 
those of Stratus, Oeniadae and Limnaea. 

AUTHORITIES. Strabo vii. 7, x. 2; Thucydides; Polybius iv. 
40; Livy xxxiii. 16-17; Corpus Inscr. Graecarum, no. 1739; E. 
Oberhummer, Akarnanien im Altertum (Munich, 1887); Heuzey, 
Mt. Olympe et I'Acarnanie (Paris, 1860). (M. O. B. C.; E. GR.) 

ACARUS (from Gr. ana.pi, a mite), a genus of Arachnids, repre- 
sented by the cheese mite and other forms. 

ACASTUS, in Greek legend, the son of Pelias, king of lolcus 
in Thessaly (Ovid, Metam. viii. 306; Apollonius Rhodius i. 224; 
Pindar, Nemea, iv. 54, v. 26). He was a great friend of Jason, 
and took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt and the Argonautic 
expedition. After his father's death he instituted splendid 
funeral games in his honour, which were celebrated by artists 
and poets, such as Stesichorus. His wife Astydameia (called 
Hippolyte in Horace, Odes, iii. 7. 17) fell in love with Peleus 
(q.v.), who had taken refuge at lolcus, but when her advances 
were rejected accused him falsely to her husband. Acastus, to 
avenge his fancied wrongs, left Peleus asleep on Mount Pelion, 
having first hidden his famous sword. On awaking, Peleus was 
attacked by the Centaurs, but saved by Cheiron. Having re- 
covered his sword he returned to lolcus and slew Acastus and 
Astydameia. Acastus was represented with his famous horses 
in the painting of the Argonautic expedition by Micon in the 
temple of the Dioscuri at Athens. 



ACATALEPSY (Gr. &.-, privative, and KaraXaiJ.l3a.vta', to seize), 
a term used in Scepticism to denote incomprehensibility. 

ACAULESCENT (Lat. acaulescens, becoming stemless, from 
a, not, and caulis, a stem), a term used of a plant apparently 
stemless, as dandelion, the stem being almost suppressed. 

ACCA LARENTIA (not Laurentia), in Roman legend, the 
wife of the shepherd Faustulus, who saved the lives of the twins 
Romulus and Remus after they had been thrown into the Tiber. 
She had twelve sons, and on the death of one of them Romulus 
took his place, and with the remaining eleven founded the 
college of the Arval brothers (Fratres Arvales). The tradition 
that Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wolf has been 
explained by the suggestion that Larentia was called lupa 
(" courtesan," literally " she-wolf ") on account of her immoral 
character (Livy i. 4; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 55). According to another 
account, Larentia was a beautiful girl, whom Hercules won in 
a game of dice (Macrobius i. 10; Plutarch, Romulus, 4, 5, 
Quaest. Rom. 35; Aulus Gellius vi. 7). The god advised her 
to marry the first man she met in the street, who proved to be a 
wealthy Etruscan named Tarutius. She inherited all his property 
and bequeathed it to the Roman people, who out of gratitude 
instituted in her honour a yearly festival called Larentalia (Dec. 
23). According to some, Acca Larentia was the mother of the 
Lares, and, like Ceres, Tellus, Flora and others, symbolized the 
fertility of the earth in particular the city lands and their 
crops. 

See Mommsen, " Die echte und die falsche Larentia," in Romische 
Forschungen, ii. 1879; E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History 
(Eng. trans. 1906), whose views on the subject are criticized by 
W. W. Fowler in W. H. D. Rouse's The Year's Work in Classical 
Studies (1907) ; C. Pascal, Studii di antichitd. e Mitologia (1896). 

ACCELERATION (from Lat. accelerare, to hasten, celer, quick), 
hastening or quickening; in mechanics, a term employed to 
denote the rate at which the velocity of a body, whose motion 
is not uniform, either increases or decreases. (See MECHANICS 
and HODOGRAPH.) 

ACCENT. The word " accent " has its origin in the Lat. 
accenlus, which in its turn is a literal translation of the Gr. 
7rpoacj)6ta. The early Greek grammarians used this term for the 
musical accent which characterized their own language, but later 
the term became specialized for quantity in metre, whence comes 
the Eng. prosody. Besides various later developments of usage 
it is important to observe that " accent " is used in two different 
and often contrasted senses in connexion with language. In all 
languages there are two kinds of accent: (i) musical chromatic 
or pitch accent; (2) emphatic or stress accent. The former 
indicates differences in musical pitch between one sound and 
another in speech, the latter the difference between one syllable 
and another which is occasioned by emitting the breath in the 
production of one syllable with greater energy than is employed 
for the other syllables of the same word. These two senses, it is 
to be noticed, are different from the common usage of the word 
in the statement that some one talks with a foreign or with a 
vulgar accent. In these cases, no doubt, both differences of 
intonation and differences of stress may be included in the 
statement, but other elements are frequently no less marked, 
e.g. the pronunciation of t and d as real dentals, whereas the 
English sounds so described are really produced not against the 
teeth but against their sockets, the inability to produce the 
interdental th whether breathed as in thin or voiced as in this 
and its representation by d or z, the production pf o as a uniform 
sound instead of one ending as in English in a slight sound, 
or such dialect changes as lydy (laidy) for lady, or toime for time 
(taime). 

In different languages the relations between pitch and stress 
differ very greatly. In some the pitch or musical accent pre- 
dominates. In such languages if signs are employed to mark 
the position of the chief accent in the word it will be the pitch 
and not the stress accent which will be thus indicated. Amongst 
the languages of ancient times Sanskrit and Greek both indicate 
by signs the position of the chief pitch accent in the word, and 
the same method has been employed in modern times for lan- 
guages in which pitch accent is well marked, as it is, for example. 






112 



ACCENT 



in Lithuanian, the language still spoken by some two millions 
of people on the frontier between Prussia and Russia in the 
neighbourhood of Konigsberg and Vilna. Swedish also has a 
well-marked musical accent. Modern Greek has changed from 
pitch to stress, the stress being generally laid upon the same 
syllable in modern as bore the pitch accent in ancient Greek. 

In the majority of European languages, however, stress is 
more conspicuous than pitch, and there is plenty of evidence 
to show that the original language from which Greek, Latin, 
Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages of Europe are 
descended, possessed stress accent also in a marked degree. 
To the existence of this accent must be attributed a large part 
of the phenomena known as Ablaut or Gradation (see INDO- 
EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). In modern languages we can see the 
same principle at work making Acton out of the O. Eng. (Anglo- 
Saxon) de-tun (oak-town), and in more recent times producing 
the contrast between New Town and Newton. In French, stress 
is less marked than it is in English, but here also there is evidence 
to show that in the development from Latin to .French a very 
strong stress accent must have existed. The natural result of 
producing one syllable of a word with greater energy than the 
others is that the other syllables have a less proportion of breath 
assigned to them and therefore tend to become indistinct or 
altogether inaudible. Thus the strong stress accent existing in 
the transition period between Latin and French led to the 
curtailing of long Latin words like latrocinium or hospitale into 
the words which we have borrowed from French into English as 
larceny and hotel. It will be observed that the first syllable and 
that which bears the accent are the two which best withstand 
change, though the strong tendency in English to stress heavily 
the first syllable bids fair ultimately to oust the e in the pro- 
nunciation of larceny. No such changes arise when a strong 
pitch accent is accompanied by a weaker stress accent, and 
hence languages like ancient Sanskrit and ancient Greek, where 
such conditions existed, preserve fuller forms than their sister 
languages or than even their own descendants, when stress takes 
the place of pitch as the more important element in accent. 

In both pitch and stress accent different gradations may be 
observed. In pitch, the accent may be uniform, rising or 
falling. Or there may be combinations of rising and falling or 
of falling and rising accents upon the same syllable. In ancient 
Greek, as is well known, three accents are distinguished (i) the 
acute ('), a rising accent; (2) the grave ('), apparently merely the 
indication that in particular positions in the sentence the acute 
accent is not used where it would occur in the isolated word; 
and (3) the circumflex, which, as its form ( A ) shows, and as the 
ancient grammarians inform us, is a combination of the rising 
and the falling accent upon the same syllable, this syllable being 
always long. Different Greek dialects, however, varied the 
syllables of the word on which the accent occurred, Aeolic Greek, 
for example, never putting the acute on the last syllable of a 
word, while Attic Greek had many words so accented. 

The pitch accent of the Indo-European languages was origin- 
ally free, i.e. might occur on any syllable of a word, and this 
condition of things is still found in the earliest Sanskrit literature. 
But in Greek before historical times the accent had become 
limited to the last three syllables of a word, so that a long word 
like the Homeric genitive faponkvovo could in no circumstances 
be accented on either of its first two syllables, while if the final 
syllable was long, as in the accusative plural <t>tpopvovs, the 
accent could go back only to the second syllable from the end. 
As every vowel has its own natural pitch, and a frequent inter- 
change between e ( a high vowel) and o (a low vowel) occurs in the 
Indo-European languages, it has been suggested that e originally 
went with the highest pitch accent, while o appeared in syllables 
of a lower pitch. But if there is any foundation for the theory, 
which is by no means certain, its effects have been distorted 
and modified by all manner of analogical processes. Thus Toijuiyi' 
with acute accent and da.ip.uv with the acute accent on the 
preceding syllable would correspond to the rule, so would a\r)8es 
and ihros, but there are many exceptions like 656s where 
the acute accent accompanies an o vowel. Somewhat similar 



distinctions characterize syllables which are stressed. The 
strength of the expiration may be greatest either at the begin- 
ning, the end or the middle of the syllable, and, according as it is 
so, the accent is a falling, a rising, or a rising and falling one. 
Syllables in which the stress is produced continuously whether 
increasing or decreasing are called single-pointed syllables, 
those in which a variation in the stress occurs without being 
strong enough to break the syllable into two are called double- 
pointed syllables. These last occur in some English dialects, 
but are commonest in languages like Swedish and Lithuanian, 
which have a " sing-song " pronunciation. It is often not easy 
to decide whether a syllable is double-pointed or whether what 
we hear is really two-single-pointed syllables. There is no separ- 
ate notation for stress accent, but the acute (') is used for the 
increasing, the grave O for the decreasing stress, and the circum- 
flex (") for the rising and falling (increasing and decreasing) and 
( v ) for the opposite. A separate notation is much to be desired, 
as the nature of the two accents is so different, and could easily 
be devised by using S for the falling, (') for the rising stress, 
and for the combination of the two in one syllable. This 
would be clearer than the upright stroke ( ) preceding the stressed 
syllable, which is used in some phonetic works. 

The relation between the two accents in the same language 
at the same time is a subject which requires further investiga- 
tion. It is generally assumed that the chief stress and the chief 
pitch in a word coincide, but this is by no means certain for all 
cases, though the incidence of the chief stress accent in modern 
Greek upon the same syllable as had the chief pitch accent in 
ancient times suggests that the two did frequently fall upon the 
same syllable. On the other hand, in words like the Sanskrit 
sapta, the Gr. rra, the pitch accent which those languages 
indicate is upon a syllable which certainly, in the earliest times 
at least, did not possess the principal stress. For forms in other 
languages, like the Lat. septem or the Gothic sibun, show that 
the a of the final syllables in Sanskrit and Greek is the repre- 
sentative of a reduced syllable in which, even in the earliest 
times, the nasal alone existed (see under N for the history of 
these so-called sonant nasals). It is possible that sporadic 
changes of accent, as in the Gr. mrrip compared with the Sanskrit 
mold, is owing to the shifting of the pitch accent to the same 
syllable as the stress occupied. 

There is no lack of evidence to show that the stress accent also 
may shift its position in the history of a language from one 
syllable to another. In prehistoric times the stress in Latin 
must have rested upon the first syllable in all cases. Only on 
this hypothesis can be explained forms like pepercl (perfect of 
parco) and collide (a compound of laedo). In historical times, 
when the stress in Latin was on the second syllable from the end 
of the word if that syllable was long, or on the third syllable 
from the end if the second from the end was short, we should have 
expected to find *peparci and *collaedo, for throughout the 
historical period the stress rested in these words upon the second 
syllable from the end. The causes for the change of position 
are not always easy to ascertain. In words of four syllables 
with a long penult and words of five syllables with a short 
penult there probably developed a secondary accent which 
in course of time replaced the earlier accent upon the first 
syllable. But the number of such long words in Latin is com- 
paratively small. It is no less possible that relations between 
the stress and pitch accents were concerned. For unless we 
are to regard the testimony of the ancient Latin grammarians 
as altogether untrustworthy there was at least in classical Latin a 
well-marked pitch as well as a stress accent. This question, 
which had long slumbered, has been revived by Dr J. Vendryes 
in his treatise entitled Recherches s-ar Vhistoire el les ejfels de 
I'intensite initiale en latin (Paris, 1902). 

In English there is a tendency to throw the stress on to the first 
syllable, which leads in time to the modification of borrowed words. 
Thus throughout the l8th century there was a struggle going on 
over the word balcony, which earlier was pronounced balcony. 
Swift is the first author quoted for the pronunciation balcony, and 
Cowper's balcdny in "John Gilpin" is among the latest instances of the 
old pronunciation. Disregarding the Latin quantity of orator and 



ACCEPTANCE ACCESSORY 



senator, English by throwing the stress on the first syllable has 
converted them*5nto orator and senator, while Scots lawyers speak 
also of a curator. How far French influence plays a part here is not 
easy to say. 

Besides the accent of the syllable and of the word, which have 
been already discussed, there remains the accent of the sentence. 
Here the problem is much more complicated. The accent of a 
word, whether pitch or stress, may be considerably modified in the 
sentence. From earliest times some words have become parasitic 
or enclitic upon other words. Pronouns more than most words are 
modified from this cause, but conjunctions like the Gr. re (" and "), 
the Lat. que, have throughout their whole history been enclitic 
upon the preceding word. A very important word may be enclitic, 
as in English don't, shan't. It is to be remembered that the unit 
of language is rather the sentence than the word, and that the form 
which is given to the word in the dictionary is very often not the 
form which it takes in actual speech. The divisions of words in 
speech are quite different from the divisions on the printed page. 
Sanskrit alone amongst languages has consistently recognized this, 
and preserves in writing the exact combinations that are spoken. 

Accent, whether pitch or stress, can be utilized in the sentence to 
express a great variety of meanings. Thus in English a sentence 
like You rode to Newmarket yesterday, which contains five words, 
may be made to express five different statements by putting the 
stress upon each of the words in turn. By putting the stress on 
you the person addressed is marked out as distinct from certain 
others, by putting it upon rode other means of locomotion to New- 
market are excluded, and so on. With the same order of words five 
interrogative sentences may also be expressed, and a third series of 
exclamatory sentences expressing anger, incredulity, &c., may be 
obtained from the same words. It is to be noticed that for these 
two series a different intonation, a different musical (pitch) accent 
appears from that which is found in the same words when employed 
to make a matter-of-fact statement. 

In languages like Chinese, which have neither compound words 
nor inflection, accent plays a- very important part. As the words 
are all monosyllabic, stress could obviously not be so important as 
pitch as a help to distinguish different senses attached to the same 
vocable, and in no other language is variety of pitch so well developed 
as in Chinese. In languages which, like English, show^comparatively 
little pitch accent it is to be noticed that the sentence tends to 
develop a more musical character under the influence of emotion. 
The voice is raised and at the same time greater stress is generally 
employed when the speaker is carried away by emotion, though 
the connexion is not essential and strong emotion may be expressed 
by a lowering as well as by a raising of the voice. In either case, 
however, the stress will be greater than the normal. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. Sweet, Primer of Phonetics (1890, now in 
3rd edition), 96 ff., History of English Sounds (1888), no ff., and 
other works; E. Sievers, Grunaziige der Phonetik (1893), 532 ff. ; 
O. Jespersen, Lehrbuch der Phonetik (1904), an abbreviated German 
translation of the author's larger work in Danish, 216 ff. The books 
of Sievers and Jespersen give (especially Sievers) full references to 
the literature of the subject. For the accent system of the Indo- 
European languages see " Betonung " in Brugmann's Crundriss der 
vergleichendenGrammatikderindogermanischenSprachen,vo\.\. (1897), 
or, with considerable modifications, his Kurze vergleichende Grammatik 
der idg. Sprachen (1902), 32-65 and 343-350. (P. Gi.) 

ACCEPTANCE (Lat. accept/ire, frequentative form of accipere, 
to receive), generally, a receiving or acknowledgment of receipt; 
in law, the act by which a person binds himself to comply with 
the request contained in a bill of exchange (q.v.), addressed to him 
by the drawer. In all cases it is understood to be a promise to 
pay the bill in money, the law not recognizing an acceptance in 
which the promise is to pay in some other way, e.g. partly in 
money and partly by another bill. Acceptance may be either 
general or qualified. A general acceptance is an engagement to 
pay the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is made by the 
drawee subscribing his name, with or without the word " ac- 
cepted," at the bottom of the bill, or across the face of it. Quali- 
fied acceptance may be a promise to pay on a contingency occur- 
ring, e.g. on the sale of certain goods consigned by the drawer to 
the acceptor. No contingency is allowed to be mentioned in the 
body of the bill, but a qualified acceptance is quite legal, and 
equally binding with a general acceptance upon the acceptor 
when the contingency has occurred. It is also qualified accept- 
ance where the promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned 
in the bill, or to pay at a different time or place from those 
specified. As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of the 
drawer's order, the holder is not obliged to take it; and if he 
chooses to take it he must give notice to antecedent parties, 
acting at his own risk if they dissent. In all cases acceptance 
involves the signature of the acceptor either by himself or by 



some person duly authorized on his behalf. A bill can be accepted 
in the first instance only by the person or persons to whom it 
is addressed; but if he or they fail to do so, it may, after being 
protested for non-acceptance, be accepted by some one else 
" supra protest," for the sake of the honour of one or more 
of the parties concerned in it, and he thereupon acquires a 
claim against the drawer and all those to whom he could have 
resorted. 

ACCEPTILATION (from Lat. acceptilatio) , in Roman and 
Scots law, a verbal release of a verbal obligation. This formal 
mode of extinguishing an obligation contracted verbally received 
its name from the book-keeping term acceptilatio, entering a 
receipt, i.e. carrying it to credit. The words conveying the 
release had to correspond to, or strictly cover, the expressed 
obligation. Figuratively, in theology, the word acceptilation 
means free remission or forgiveness of sins. 

ACCESS (Lat. accessus), approach, or the means of approach- 
ing. In law, the word is used in various connexions. The pre- 
sumption of a child's legitimacy is negatived if it be proved 
that a husband has not had access to his wife within such a period 
of time as would admit of his being the father. (See LEGITI- 
MACY.) In the law of easements, every person who has land 
adjoining a public road or a public navigable river has a right 
of access to it from his land. So, also, every person has a right 
of access to air and light from an ancient window. For the right 
of access of parents to children under the guardianship of the 
court, see INFANT. 

ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach), in 
law, a method of acquiring property adopted from Roman law, by 
which, in things that have a close connexion with or dependence 
on one another, the property of the principal draws after it the 
property of the accessory, according to the principle, accessio 
cedet principali. Accession may take place either in a natural 
way, such as the growth of fruit or the pregnancy of animals, or 
in an artificial way. The various methods may be classified as 
(i) land to land by accretion or alluvion; (2) moveables to land 
(see FIXTURES); (3) moveables to moveables; (4) moveables 
added to by the art or industry of man; this may be by speci- 
fication, as when wine is made out of grapes, or by confusion, 
or commixture, which is the mixing together of liquids or solids, 
respectively. In the case of industrial accession ownership is 
determined according as the natural or manufactured substance 
is of the more importance, and, in general, compensation is pay- 
able to the person who has been dispossessed of his property. 

In a historical or constitutional sense, the term " accession " 
is applied to the coming to the throne of a dynasty or line of 
sovereigns or of a single sovereign. 

" Accession " sometimes likewise signifies consent or acquies- 
cence. Thus, in the bankruptcy law of Scotland, where there 
is a settlement by a trust-deed, it is accepted on the part of each 
creditor by a " deed of accession." 

ACCESSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence, not as 
principal, but by participation; as by advice, command, aid 
or concealment. In certain crimes, there can be no accessories; 
all concerned being principals, whether present or absent at the 
time of their commission. These are treason, and all offences 
below the degree of felony, as specified in the Offences against the 
Person Act 1861. 

There are two kinds of accessories before the fact, and after 
it. The first is he who commands or procures another to commit 
felony, and is not present himself; for if he be present, he is a 
principal. The second is he who receives, harbours, assists, or 
comforts any man that has done murder or felony, whereof he 
has knowledge.' An accessory before the fact is liable to the 
same punishment as the principal; and there is now indeed no 
practical difference between such an accessory and a principal 
in regard either to indictment, trial or punishment. Acces- 
sories after the fact are in general punishable with imprisonment 
(with or without hard labour) for a period not exceeding two 
years, but in the case of murder punishable by penal servitude 
for life, or not less than three years, or by imprisonment (with 
or without hard labour) to the extent of two years. 



ACCIAJUOLI ACCLIMATIZATION 



The law of Scotland makes no distinction between the acces- 
sory to any crime and the principal (see ART AND PART). Except 
in the case of treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by 
the law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to prove 
previous accession. 

ACCIAJUOLI, DONATO (1428-1478), Italian scholar, was 
born at Florence in 1428. He was famous for his learning, 
especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to 
his native state. Having previously been entrusted with 
several important embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence 
in 1473. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to 
ask the aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope 
Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence, and buried 
in the church of the Carthusians at the public expense, and his 
daughters were portioned by his fellow-citizens, the fortune he 
left being, owing to his probity and disinterestedness, very small. 
He wrote a Latin translation of some of Plutarch's Lines (Flor- 
ence, 1478); Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politics; 
and the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne. In the work 
on Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropulus. 

ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of " accidents," from the Latin 
neuter plural accidentia, casual events), the term for the gram- 
matical changes to which words are subject in their inflections 
as to gender, number, tense and case. It is also used to denote 
a book containing the first principles of grammar, and so of the 
rudiments of any subject or art. 

ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen), a word of widely 
variant meanings, usually something fortuitous and unexpected; 
a happening out of the ordinary course of things. In the law of 
tort, it is defined as " an occurrence which is due neither to 
design nor to negligence "; in equity, as " such an unforeseen 
event, misfortune, loss, act or omission, as is not the result of 
any negligence or misconduct." So, in criminal law, " an effect 
is said to be accidental when the act by which it is caused is 
not done with the intention of causing it, and when its occurrence 
as a consequence of such act is not so probable that a person 
of ordinary prudence ought, under the circumstances, to take 
reasonable precaution against it " (Stephen, Digest of Criminal- 
Law, art. 210). The word may also have in law the more 
extended meaning of an unexpected occurrence, whether caused 
by any one's negligence or not, as in the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, 
Notice of Accidents Act 1894. See also CONTRACT, CRIMINAL 
LAW, EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY, INSURANCE, TORT, &c. 

In logic an " accident " is a quality which belongs to a subject 
but not as part of its essence (,m Aristotelian language Kara. 
<ruw3|37)/c6s, the scholastic per accidens). Essential attributes 
are necessarily, or causally, connected with the subject, e.g. 
the sum of the angles of a triangle; accidents are not deducible 
from the nature, or are not part of the necessary connotation, 
of the subject, e.g. the area of a triangle. It follows that in- 
creased knowledge, e.g. in chemistry, may show that what was 
thought to be an accident is really an essential attribute, or 
vice versa. It is very generally held that, in reality, there is no 
such thing as an accident, inasmuch as complete knowledge 
would establish a causal connexion for all attributes. An 
accident is thus merely an unexplained attribute. Accidents 
have been classed as (i) " inseparable," i.e. universally present, 
though no causal connexion is established, and (2) " separable," 
where the connexion is neither causally explained nor universal. 
Propositions expressing a relation between a subject and an 
accident are classed as " accidental," " real " or " ampliative," 
as opposed to " verbal " or " analytical," which merely express 
a known connexion, e.g. between a subject and its connotation 

(<?.<>. 

ACCIDENTALISM, a term used (i) in philosophy for any system 
of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that 
events succeed one another haphazard or by chance (not in 
the mathematical but in the popular sense). In metaphysics, 
accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs or re- 
sults from a definite cause. In this connexion it is synonymous 
with Tychism (rbxri, chance), a term used by C. S. Peirce for 
the theories which make chance an objective factor in the 



process of the Universe. Opponents of this accidentalism main- 
tain that what seems to be the result of chance is in reality due 
to a cause or causes which, owing to the lack of imagination, 
knowledge or scientific instruments, we are unable to detect. 
In ethics the term is used, like indeterminism, to denote the 
theory that mental change cannot always be ascribed to 
previously ascertained psychological states, and that voh'tion is 
not causally related to the motives involved. An example of 
this theory is the doctrine of the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae 
("liberty of indifference"), according to which the choice of 
two or more alternative possibilities is affected neither by con- 
temporaneous data of an ethical or prudential kind nor by 
crystallized habit (character). (2) In painting, the term is used 
for the effect produced by accidental lights (Ruskin, Modern 
Painters, I. n. 4, iii. 4, 287). (3) In medicine, it stands for 
the hypothesis that disease is only an accidental modification 
of the healthy condition, and can, therefore, be avoided by 
modifying external conditions. 

ACCIUS, a Latin poet of the i6th century, to whom is attri- 
buted a paraphrase of Aesop's Fables, of which Julius Scaliger 
speaks with great praise. 

ACCIUS, LUCIUS, Roman tragic poet, the son of a freedman, 
was born at Pisaurum in Umbria, in 170 B.C. The year of his 
death is unknown, but he must have lived to a great age, since 
Cicero (Brutus, 28) speaks of having conversed with him on 
literary matters. He was a prolific writer and enjoyed a very 
high reputation (Horace, Epistles, ii. i, 56; Cicero, Pro Plancio, 
24). The titles and considerable fragments (about 700 lines) of 
some fifty plays have been preserved. Most of these were free 
translations from the Greek, his favourite subjects being the 
legends of the Trojan war and the house of Pelops. The national 
history, however, furnished the theme of the Brutus and Decius, 
the expulsion of the Tarquins and the self-sacrifice of Publius 
Decius Mus the younger. The fragments are written in vigorous 
language and show a lively power of description. 
Accius wrote other works of a literary character: Didascalicon 
and Pragmaticon libri, treatises in verse on the history of Greek 
and Roman poetry, and dramatic art in particular; Parerga 
and Praxidica (perhaps identical) on agriculture; and an 
Annales. He also introduced innovations in orthography and 
grammar. 

See Boissier, Le Poete Accius, 1856; L. Miiller, De Accii fabulis 
Disputatio (1890) ; Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1892) ; 
editions of the tragic fragments by Ribbeck (1897), of the others by 
Bahrens (1886); Plessis, Poesie latine (1909). 

ACCLAMATION (Lat. acclamatio, a shouting at), in delibera- 
tive or electoral assemblies, a spontaneous shout of approval or 
praise. Acclamation is thus the adoption of a resolution or the 
passing of a vote of confidence or choice unanimously, in direct 
distinction from a formal ballot or division. In the Roman senate 
opinions were expressed and votes passed by acclamation in 
such forms as Omnes, omnes, Aequum est, Justum est, &c.; and 
the praises of the emperor were celebrated in certain pre-arranged 
sentences, which seem to have been chanted by the whole body 
of senators. In ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is 
very common, the question being usually put in the form, placet 
or non placet. The Sacred College has sometimes elected popes 
by acclamation, when the cardinals simultaneously and without 
any previous consultation " acclaimed " one of their number 
as pontiff. A further ecclesiastical use of the word is in its 
application to set forms of praise or thanksgiving in church 
services, the stereotyped responses of the congregation. In 
modern parliamentary usage a motion is carried by acclamation 
when, no amendment being proposed, approval is expressed by 
shouting such words as A ye or Agreed. 

ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation by which 
animals and plants are gradually rendered capable of surviving 
and flourishing in countries remote from their original habitats, 
or under meteorological conditions different from those which 
they have usually to endure, and at first injurious to them. 

The subject of acclimatization is very little understood, and 
some writers have even denied that it can ever take place. It 



ACCLIMATIZATION 



is often confounded with domestication or with naturalization; 
but these are both very different phenomena. A domesticated 
animal or a cultivated plant need not necessarily be acclimatized; 
that is, it need not be capable of enduring the severity of the 
seasons without protection. The canary bird is domesticated 
but not acclimatized, and many of our most extensively culti- 
vated plants are in the same category. A naturalized animal or 
plant, on the other hand, must be able to withstand all the 
vicissitudes of the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore 
be thought that it must have become acclimatized. But in 
many, perhaps most cases of naturalization (see Appendix below) 
there is no evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions 
which were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea 
of acclimatization. On the contrary, many species, in a new 
country and under somewhat different climatic conditions, 
seem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land, 
and at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as 
often to exterminate the indigenous inhabitants. Thus L. 
Agassiz (in his work on Lake Superior) tells us that the road- 
side weeds of the north-eastern United States, to the number 
of 130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis- 
appeared westwards; while in New Zealand there are, according 
to T. Kirk ( Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. ii. 
p. 131), no less than 250 species of naturalized plants, more than 
100 of which spread widely over the country and often displace 
the native vegetation. Among animals, the European rat, goat 
and pig are naturalized in New Zealand, where they multiply 
to such an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many 
native productions. In none of these cases is there any indica- 
tion that acclimatization was necessary or ever took place. 

On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant cannot be 
naturalized is no proof that it is not acclimatized. It has been 
shown by C. Darwin that, in the case of most animals and plants 
in a state of nature, the competition of other organisms is a far 
more efficient agency in limiting their distribution than the mere 
influence of climate. We have a proof of this in the fact that so 
few, comparatively, of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever 
run wild; and even the most persevering attempts to naturalize 
them usually fail. Alphonse de Candolle (Geographie bolaniqtie, 
p. 798) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, and 
especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many hundreds 
of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared to be the 
most favourable situations, but that in hardly a single case has 
any one of them become naturalized. Attempts have also been 
made to naturalize continental insects in Britain, in places 
where the proper food-plants abound and the conditions seem 
generally favourable, but in no case do they seem to have 
succeeded. Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated 
and so perfectly hardy, has not established itself in a wild state 
in any part of Europe. 

Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animals and 
Plants. Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness 
of their adaptation to meteorological conditions. Not only 
will most tropical plants refuse to live in a temperate climate, 
but many species are seriously injured by removal a few degrees 
of latitude beyond their natural limits. This is probably due to 
the fact, established by the experiments of A. C. Becquerel, 
that plants possess no proper temperature, but are wholly de- 
pendent on that of the surrounding medium. 

Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less sensitive 
to change of temperature, as shown by the extensive range from 
north to south of many species. Thus, the tiger ranges from 
the equator to northern Asia as far as the river Amur, and to 
the isothermal of 32 Fahr. The mountain sparrow (Passer 
montana) is abundant in Java and Singapore in a uniform 
equatorial climate, and also inhabits Britain and a con- 
siderable portion of northern Europe. It is true that most 
terrestrial animals are restricted to countries not possessing a 
great range of temperature or very diversified climates, but 
there is reason to believe that this is d'^e to quite a different set 
of causes, such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appro- 
priate food. When supplied with food and partially protected 



from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of enduring 
climates very different from that in which they originally flour- 
ished. Thus, the horse and the domestic fowl, both natives of 
very warm countries, flourish without special protection in almost 
every inhabited portion of the globe. The parrot tribe form 
one of the most pre-eminently tropical groups of birds, only a 
few species extending into the warmer temperate regions; yet 
even the most exclusively tropical genera are by no means 
delicate birds as regards climate. In the Annals and Magazine 
of Natural History for 1868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account, 
by Charles Buxton, of the naturalization of parrots at Northreps 
Hall, Norfolk. A considerable number of African and Ama- 
zonian parrots, Bengal parroquets, four species of white and rose 
crested cockatoos, and two species of crimson lories, remained 
at large for many years. Several of these birds bred, and they 
almost all lived in the woods the whole year through, refusing 
to take shelter in a house constructed for their use. Even when 
the thermometer fell 6 below zero, all appeared in good spirits 
and vigorous health. Some of these birds have lived thus ex- 
posed for many years, enduring the English cold easterly winds, 
rain, hail and snow, all through the winter a marvellous 
contrast to the equable equatorial temperature (hardly ever less 
than 70) to which many of them had been accustomed for the 
first year or years of their existence. Similarly the recent ex- 
perience of zoological gardens, particularly in the case of parrots 
and monkeys, shows that, excluding draughts, exposure to 
changes of temperature without artificial heat is markedly 
beneficial as compared with the older method of strict protection 
from cold. 

Hardly any group of Mammalia is more exclusively tropical 
than the Quadrumana, yet, if other conditions are favourable, 
some of them can withstand a considerable degree of cold. 
Semnopithecus schistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an 
elevation of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively 
among fir-trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths. 
In Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons was observed by 
W. T. Blanford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may therefore 
conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to warm 
latitudes is probably determined by other causes than tempera- 
ture alone. 

Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied species 
inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently extinct Siberian 
mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were closely allied to species 
now inhabiting tropical regions exclusively. Wolves and foxes 
are found alike in the coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as 
are closely allied species of falcons, owls, sparrows and numerous 
genera of waders and aquatic birds. 

A consideration of these and many analogous facts might 
induce us to suppose that, among the higher animals at least, 
there is little constitutional adaptation to climate, and that in 
their case acclimatization is not required. But there are numer- 
ous examples of domestic animals which show that such adapta- 
tion does exist in other cases. The yak of Thibet cannot long 
survive in the plains of India, or even on the hills below a certain 
altitude; and that this is due to climate, and not to the increased 
density of the atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same 
animal appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there 
readily. The Newfoundland dog will not live in India, and the 
Spanish breed of fowls in this country suffer more from frost 
than most others. When we get lower in the scale the adapta- 
tion is often more marked. Snakes, which are so abundant in 
warm countries, diminish rapidly as we go north, and wholly 
cease at lat. 62. Most insects are also very susceptible to cold, 
and seem to be adapted to very narrow limits of temperature. 

From the foregoing facts and observations we may conclude, 
firstly, that some plants and many animals are not constitution- 
ally adapted to the climate of their native country only, but are 
capable of enduring and flourishing under a more or less exten- 
sive range of temperature and other climatic conditions; and, 
secondly, that most plants and some animals are, more or less 
closely, adapted to climates similar to those of their native 
habitats. In order to domesticate or naturalize the former 






n6 



ACCLIMATIZATION 



class in countries not extremely differing from that from which 
the species was brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatize, 
in the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter class, 
however, acclimatization is a necessary preliminary to natural- 
ization, and in many cases to useful domestication, and we have 
therefore to inquire whether it is possible. 

Acclimatization by Individual Adaptation. It is evident that 
acclimatization may occur (if it occurs at all) in two ways, either 
by modifying the constitution of the individual submitted to 
the new conditions, or by the production of offspring which may 
be better adapted to those conditions than their parents. The 
alteration of the constitution of individuals in this direction is 
not easy to detect, and its possibility has been denied by many 
writers. C. Darwin believed, however, that there were indica- 
tions that it occasionally occurred in plants, where it can be best 
observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants are 
propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue the 
existence of the same individual almost indefinitely. He ad- 
duced the example of vines taken to the West Indies from 
Madeira, which have been found to succeed better than those 
taken directly from France. But in most cases habit, however 
prolonged, appears to have little effect on the constitution of the 
individual, and the fact has no doubt led to the opinion that 
acclimatization is impossible. There is indeed little or no evi- 
dence to show that any animal to which a new climate is at 
first prejudicial can be so acclimatized by habit that, after sub- 
jection to it for a few or many seasons, it may live as healthily 
and with as little care as in its native country; yet we may, 
on general principles, believe that under proper conditions such 
an acclimatization would take place. 

Acclimatization by Variation. A mass of evidence exists 
showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur among 
the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in particular, 
constitutional variations are by no means uncommon. Among 
cultivated plants, for example, hardier and more tender varieties 
often arise. The following cases are given by C. Darwin: 
Among the numerous fruit-trees raised in North America some 
are well adapted to the climate of the northern States and 
Canada, while others only succeed well in the southern States. 
Adaptation of this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for 
example, few English varieties of wheat will thrive in Scotland. 
Seed-wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted 
by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have produced 
a good crop of English wheat. Conversely, French wheat taken 
to the West Indies produced only barren spikes, while native 
wheat by its side yielded an enormous harvest. Tobacco in 
Sweden, raised from home-grown seed, ripens its seeds a month 
earlier than plants grown from foreign seed. In Italy, as long 
as orange trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender; 
but after many of the trees were destroyed by the severe frosts 
of 1709 and 1763, plants were raised from seed, and these were 
found to be hardier and more productive than the former kinds. 
Where plants are raised from seed in large quantities, varieties 
always occur differing in constitution, as well as others differing 
in form or colour; but the former cannot be perceived by us 
unless marked out by tjieir behaviour under exceptional con- 
ditions, as in the following cases. After the severe winter of 
1860-1861 it was observed that in a large bed of araucarias some 
plants stood quite unhurt among numbers killed around them. 
In C. Darwin's garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely 
killed by frost, except three plants, which had not even the tips 
of their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be 
found in Chinese history, according to E. R. Hue, who, in his 
L' Empire chinois (torn. ii. p. 359), gives the following extract 
from the Memoirs of the Emperor Khang: " On the ist day of 
the 6th moon I was walking in some fields where rice had been 
sown to be ready for the harvest in the gth moon. I observed 
by chance a stalk of rice which was already in ear. It was 
higher than all the rest, and was ripe enough to be gathered. 
I ordered it to be brought to me. The grain was very fine and 
well grown, which gave me the idea to keep it for a trial, and see 
if the following year it would preserve its precocity. It did so. 



All the stalks which came from it showed ear before the usual 
time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year has multiplied 
the produce of the preceding, and for thirty years it is this rice 
which has been served at my table. The grain is elongate and 
of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet smell and very pleasant 
taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial rice, because it was first 
cultivated in my gardens. It is the only sort which can ripen 
north of the great wall, where the winter ends late and begins 
very early; but in the southern provinces, where the climate 
is milder and the land more fertile, two harvests a year may be 
easily obtained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have 
procured this advantage for my people." Hue adds his testi- 
mony that this kind of rice flourishes in Manchuria, where no 
other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect example 
of acclimatization by means of a spontaneous constitutional 
variation. 

That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by step 
to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by the following 
examples. Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta from seed imported 
from England rarely blossom, and never yield seed; plants from 
French seed flower better, but are still sterile; but those raised 
from Darjeeling seed (originally imported from England) both 
flower and seed profusely. The peach is believed to have been 
tender, and to have ripened its fruit with difficulty, when first 
introduced into Greece ; so that (as Darwin observes) in travelling 
northward during two thousand years it must have become 
much hardier. Sir J. Hooker ascertained the average vertical 
range of flowering plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 ft., while 
in some cases it extended to 8000 ft. The same species can 
thus endure a great difference of temperature; but the important 
fact is, that the individuals have become acclimatized to the 
altitude at which they grow, so that seeds gathered near the 
upper limit of the range of a species will be more hardy than 
those gathered near the lower limit. This was proved by Hooker 
to be the case with Himalayan conifers and rhododendrons, 
raised in Britain from seed gathered at different altitudes. 

Among animals exactly analogous facts occur. When geese 
were first introduced into Bogota they laid few eggs at long 
intervals, and few of the young survived. By degrees the 
fecundity improved, and in about twenty years became equal to 
what it is in Europe. The same author tells us that, according 
to Garcilaso, when fowls were first introduced into Peru they 
were not fertile, whereas now they are as much so as in Europe. 
C. Darwin adduced the following examples. Merino sheep 
bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better 
adapted for India than those imported from England; and 
while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is quite 
hardy, the variety found in Bengal will only flourish in warm 
latitudes. C. Darwin also called attention to the circumstance 
that writers of agricultural works generally recommend that 
animals should be removed from one district to another as little 
as possible. This advice occurs even in classical and Chinese 
agricultural books as well as in those of our own day, and proves 
that the close adaptation of each variety or breed to the country 
in which it originated has always been recognized. 

Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External 
Modification. Although in some cases no perceptible alteration 
of form or structure occurs when constitutional adaptation to 
climate has taken place, in others it is very marked. C. Darwin 
collected a large number of cases in his Animals and Plants under 
Domestication. 

In his Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (p. 167), 
A. R.Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous variation among 
insects, apparently due to climate or other strictly local causes. 
He found that the butterflies of the family Papilionidae, and some 
others, became similarly modified in different islands and groups 
of islands. Thus, the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java and 
Borneo are almost always much smaller than the closely allied 
species of Celebes and the Moluccas; the species or varieties of 
the small island of Amboyna are larger than the same species or 
closely allied forms inhabiting the surrounding islands; the 
species found in Celebes possess a peculiar form of wing, quite 



ACCLIMATIZATION 



117 



distinct from that of the same or closely allied species of ad- 
jacent islands; and, lastly, numerous species which have tailed 
wings in India and the western islands of the Archipelago, 
gradually lose the tail as we proceed eastward to New Guinea 
and the Pacific. 

Many of these curious modifications may, it is true, be due to 
other causes than climate only, but they serve to show how 
powerfully and mysteriously local conditions affect the form 
and structure of both plants and animals; and they render it 
probable that changes of constitution are also continually pro- 
duced, although we have, in the majority of cases, no means of 
detecting them. It is also impossible to determine how far the 
effects described are produced by spontaneous favourable varia- 
tions or by the direct action of local conditions; but it is prob- 
able that in every case both causes are concerned, although in 
constantly varying proportions. 

Selection and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in Naturalization. 
We may now take it as an established fact that varieties of 
animals and plants occur, both in domesticity and in a state of 
nature, which are better or worse adapted to special climates. 
There is no positive evidence that the influence of new climatal 
conditions on the parents has any tendpncy to produce variations 
in the offspring better adapted to such conditions. Neither does 
it appear that this class of variations are very frequent. It is, 
however, certain that whenever any animal or plant is largely 
propagated constitutional variations will arise, and some of these 
will be better adapted than others to the climatal and other 
conditions of the locality. In a state of nature, every recurring 
severe winter or otherwise unfavourable season weeds out those 
individuals of tender constitution or imperfect structure which 
may have got on very well during favourable years, and it is 
thus that the adaptation of the species to the climate in which 
it has to exist is kept up. Under domestication the same thing 
occurs by what C. Darwin has termed "unconscious selection." 
Each cultivator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited to his 
soil and climate and rejects those which are tender or otherwise 
unsuitable. The farmer breeds from such of his stock as he finds 
to thrive best with him, and gets rid of those which suffer from 
cold, damp or disease. A more or less close adaptation to local 
conditions is thus brought about, and breeds or races are pro- 
duced which are sometimes liable to deterioration on removal 
even to a short distance in the same country, as in numerous 
cases quoted by C. Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domesti- 
cation). 

The Method of Acclimatization. Taking into consideration 
the foregoing facts and illustrations, it may be considered as 
proved ist, That habit has little (though it appears to have 
some) definite effect in adapting the constitution of animals to 
a new climate; but that it has a decided, though still slight, 
influence in plants when, by the process of propagation by buds, 
shoots or grafts, the individual can be kept under its influence 
for long periods; 2nd, That great and sudden changes of climate 
often check reproduction even when the health of the individuals 
does not appear to suffer. In order, therefore, to have the best 
chance of acclimatizing any animal or plant in a climate very dis- 
similar from that of its native country, and in which it has been 
proved that the species in question cannot live and maintain itself 
without acclimatization, we must adopt some such plan as the 
following: 

1. We must transport as large a number as possible of adult 
healthy individuals to some intermediate station, and increase 
them as much as possible for some years. Favourable varia- 
tions of constitution will soon show themselves, and these should 
be carefully selected to breed from, the tender and unhealthy 
individuals being rigidly eliminated. 

2. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time to pass 
through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a number of the 
hardiest may be removed to the more remote station, and the 
same process gone through, giving protection if necessary while 
the stock is being increased, but as soon as a large number of 
healthy individuals are produced, subjecting them to all the 
vicissitudes of the climate. 



It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would 
succeed. It has been recommended by C. Darwin, and at one 
of the early meetings of the Societe Zoologique d' Acclimatalion, at 
Paris, Isodore Geoffrey St Hilaire insisted that it was the only 
method by which acclimatization was possible. But in looking 
through the long series of volumes of Reports published by this 
society, there is no sign that any systematic attempt at acclimat- 
ization has even once been made. A number of foreign animals 
have been introduced, and more or less domesticated, and some 
useful exotics have been cultivated for the purpose of testing 
their applicability to French agriculture or horticulture; but 
neither in the case of animals nor of plants has there been any sys- 
tematic effort to modify the constitution of the species, by breed- 
ing largely and selecting the favourable variations that appeared. 

Take the case of the Eucalyptus globulus as an example. This 
is a Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and great beauty, 
which will thrive in the extreme south of France. In the Bulletin 
of the society a large number of attempts to introduce this tree 
into general cultivation in other parts of France are recorded in 
detail, with the failure of almost all of them. But no precautions 
such as those above indicated appear to have been taken in any 
of these experiments; a.nd we have no intimation that either the 
society or any of its members are making systematic efforts to 
acclimatize the tree. The first step would be, to obtain seed from 
healthy trees growing in the coldest climate and at the greatest 
altitude in its native country, sowing these very largely, and in 
a variety of soils and situations, in a part of France where the 
climate is somewhat but not much more extreme. It is almost 
a certainty that a number of trees would be found to be quite 
hardy. As soon as these produced seed, it should be sown in the 
same district and farther north in a climate a little more severe. 
After an exceptionally cold season, seed should be collected from 
the trees that suffered least, and should be sown in various dis- 
tricts all over France. By such a process there can be hardly any 
doubt that the tree would be thoroughly acclimatized in any 
part of France, and in many other countries of central Europe; 
and more good would be effected by one well-directed effort of 
this kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual 
animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are the 
species that do not require to be acclimatized. 

Acclimatization of Man. On this subject we have, unfortu- 
nately, very little direct or accurate information. The general 
laws of heredity and variation have been proved to apply to 
man as well as to animals and plants; and numerous facts in the 
distribution of races show that man must, in remote ages at 
least, have been capable of constitutional adaptation to climate. 
If the human race constitutes a single species, then the mere fact 
that man now inhabits every region, and is in each case consti- 
tutionally adapted to the climate, proves that acclimatization 
has occurred. But we have the same phenomenon in single 
varieties of man, such as the American, which inhabits alike the 
frozen wastes of Hudson's Bay and Tierra del Fuego, and the 
hottest regions of the tropics, the low equatorial valleys and 
the lofty plateaux of the Andes. No doubt a sudden transfer- 
ence to an extreme climate is often prejudicial to man, as it is 
to most animals and plants; but there is every reason to believe 
that, if the migration occurs step by step, man can be acclimat- 
ized to almost any part of the earth's surface in comparatively 
few generations. Some eminent writers haye denied this. Sir 
Ranald Martin, from a consideration of the effects of the climate 
of India on Europeans and their offspring, believed that there is no 
such thing as acclimatization. Dr Hunt, in a report to the 
British Association in 1861, argued that "time is no agent," 
and " if there is no sign of acclimatization in one generation; 
there is no such process." But he entirely ignored the effect of 
favourable variations, as well as the direct influence of climate 
acting on the organization from infancy. 

Professor Theodor Waitz, in his Introduction to Anthropology, 
adduced many examples of the comparatively rapid constitu- 
tional adaptation of man to new climatic conditions. Negroes, 
for example, who have been for three or four generations acclimat- 
ized in North America, on returning to Africa become subject to 



n8 



ACCLIMATIZATION 



the same local diseases as other unacclimatized individuals. 
He well remarked that the debility and sickening of Europeans 
in many tropical countries are wrongly ascribed to the climate, 
but are rather the consequences of indolence, sensual gratifica- 
tion and an irregular mode of life. Thus the English, who 
cannot give up animal food and spirituous liquors, are less able 
to sustain the heat of the tropics than the more sober Spaniards 
and Portuguese. The excessive mortality of European troops 
in India, and the delicacy of the children of European parents, 
do not affect the real question of acclimatization under proper 
conditions. They only show that acclimatization is in most 
cases necessary, not that it cannot take place. The best examples 
of partial or complete acclimatization are to be found where 
European races have permanently settled in the tropics, and 
have maintained themselves for several generations. There are, 
however, two sources of inaccuracy to be guarded against^ and 
these are made the most of by the writers above referred to, 
and are supposed altogether to invalidate results which are 
otherwise opposed to their views. In the first place, we have the 
possibility of a mixture of native blood having occurred; in the 
second, there have almost always been a succession of immigrants 
from the parent country, who continually intermingle with the 
families of the early settlers. It is maintained that one or other 
of these mixtures is absolutely necessary to enable Europeans 
to continue long to flourish in the tropics. 

There are, however, certain cases in which the sources of error 
above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, and cannot seri- 
ously affect the results; such as those of the Jews, the Dutch at 
the Cape of Good Hope and in the Moluccas, and the Spaniards 
in South America. 

The Jews are a good example of acclimatization, because they 
have been established for many centuries in climates very 
different from that of their native land; they keep themselves 
almost wholly free from intermixture with the people around 
them; and they are often so populous in a country that the inter- 
mixture with Jewish immigrants from other lands cannot seri- 
ously affect the local purity of the race. They have, for instance, 
attained a population of millions in such severe climates as 
Poland and Russia; in the towns of Algeria they have succeeded 
so conspicuously as to bring about an outburst of anti-semitism; 
and in Cochin-China and Aden they succeed in rearing children 
and forming permanent communities. 

In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans 
are perfectly acclimatized, and where the race is kept pure it 
seems to be even improved. Some very valuable notes on this 
subject were furnished to the present writer by the well-known 
botanist, Richard Spruce, who resided many years in South 
America, but who was prevented by ill-health from publishing 
his researches (see A. R. Wallace, Notes of a Botanist, 1908). 
As a careful, judicious and accurate observer, both of man and 
nature, he had few superiors. He says: 

The white inhabitants of Guayaquil (lat. 2 13' S.) are kept pure 
by careful selection. The slightest tincture of red or black blood bars 
entry into any of the old families who are descendants of Spaniards 
from the Provincias Vascongadas or those bordering the Bay of 
Biscay, where the morals are perhaps the purest (as regards the inter- 
course of the sexes) of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even of 
the poorest class, to have a child before marriage is the rarest thing 
possible. The consequence of this careful breeding is, that the 
women of Guayaquil are considered (and justly) the finest along the 
whole Pacific coast. They are often tall, sometimes very handsome, 
decidedly healthy, although pale, and assuredly prolific enough. Their 
sons are big, stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are apt to 
become fat and sluggish. Those of them, however, who have farms 
in the savannahs and are accustomed to take long rides in all 
weathers, and those whose trade obliges them to take frequent 
journeys in the mountainous interior, or even to Europe and North 
America, are often as active and as little burdened with superfluous 
flesh as a Scotch farmer. 

The oldest Christian town in Peru is Piura (lat. 5S.), which was 
founded by Pizarro himself. The climate is very hot, especially in 
the three or four months following the southern solstice. In March 
1843 the temperature only once fell as low as 83 during the whole 
month, the usual lowest night temperature being 85. Yet people 
of all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are very prolific. I 
resided in this town itself nine months, and in the neighbourhood 
seven months more. The population (in 1863-1864) was about 10,000, 



of which not only a considerable proportion waswhite, but was mostly 
descended from the first emigrants after the conquest. Purity of 
descent was not, however, quite so strictly maintained as at Guaya- 
quil. The military adventurers, who have often risen to high or even 
supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom been of mixed race, and fear 
or favour has often availed toprocure them an alliance with theoldest 
and purest-blooded families. 

These instances, so well stated by Spruce, seem to demonstrate 
the complete acclimatization of Spaniards in some of the hottest 
parts of South America. Although we have here nothing to do 
with mixed races, yet the want of fertility in these has been often 
taken to be a fact inherent in the mongrel race, and has been 
also sometimes held to prove that neither the European nor his 
half-bred offspring can maintain themselves in the tropics. The 
following observation is therefore of interest: 

At Guayaquil for a lady of good family married or unmarried 
to be of loose morals is so uncommon, that when it does happen it is 
felt as a calamity by the whole community. But here, and perhaps 
in most other towns in South America, a poor girl of mixed race 
especially if good-looking rarely thinks of marrying one of her own 
class until she has as the Brazilians say "apprpveitada de sua 
mocidade " (made the most of her youth) in receiving presents from 
gentlemen. If she thus bring a good dowry to her husband, he does 
not care to inquire, or is not sensitive, about the mode in which it 
was acquired. The consequence of this indiscriminate sexual inter- 
course, especially if much prolonged, is to diminish, in some cases to 
paralyse, the fertility of the female. And as among people of mixed 
race it is almost universal, the population of these must fall off both 
in numbers and quality. 

The following example of divergent acclimatization of the 
same race to hot and cold zones is very interesting, and will 
conclude our extracts from Spruce's valuable notes: 

One of the most singular cases connected with this subject that 
have fallen under my own observation, is the difficulty, or apparent 
impossibility, of acclimatizing the Red Indian in a certain zone of 
the Andes. Any person who has compared the physical characters 
of the native races of South America must be convinced that these 
have all originated in a common stirps. Many local differences 
exist, but none capable of invalidating tnis conclusion. The warmth 
yet shade-loving Indian of the Amazon; the Indian of the hot, dry 
and treeless coasts of Peru and Guayaquil, who exposes his bare head 
to the sun with as much zest as an African negro ; the Indian of the 
Andes, for whom no cold seems too great, who goes constantly bare- 
legged and often bare-headed, through whose rude straw hut the 
piercing wind of the paramos sweeps andNchills the white man to the 
very bones; all these, in the colour and t^tture of the skin, the hair 
and other important features, are plainly of one and the same race. 

Now there is a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging between 
about 4000 and 6000 feet altitude, where the very best flavoured 
coffee is grown, where cane is less luxuriant but more saccharine than 
in the plains, and which is therefore very desirable to cultivate, but 
where the red man sickens and dies. Indians taken down from the 
sierra get ague and dysentery. Those of the plains find the tempera- 
ture chilly, and are stricken down with influenza and pains in the 
limbs. I have seen the difficulty experienced in getting farms culti- 
vated in this zone, on both sides of the Cordillera. The permanent 
residents are generally limited to the major-domo and his family; 
and in the dry season labourers are hired, of any colour that can be 
obtained some from the low country, others from the highlands 
for three, four, or five months, who gather in and grind the cane, 
and plant for the harvest of the following year; but the staff of 
resident Indian labourers, such as exists in the farms of the sierra, 
cannot be kept up in the Yungas, as these half-warm valleys are 
called. White men, who take proper precautions, and are not 
chronically soaked with cane-spirit, stand the climate perfectly, but 
the creole whites are still too much caballeros to devote themselves 
to agricultural work. 

In what is now the republic of Ecuador, the only peopled portions 
are the central valley, between the two ridges of the Andes height 
7000 to 12,000 feet and the hot plain at their western base; nor 
do the wooded slopes appear to have been inhabited, except by 
scattered savage hordes, even in the time of the Incas. The Indians 
of the highlands are the descendants of others who have inhabited 
that region exclusively for untold ages; and a similar affirmation 
may be made of the Indians of the plain. Now, there is little doubt 
that the progenitors of both these sections came from a temperate 
region (in North America); so that here we have one moiety ac- 
climatized to endure extreme heat, and the other extreme cold; and 
at this day exposure of either to the opposite extreme (or even, as we 
have seen, to the climate of an intermediate zone) is always pernicious 
and often fatal. But if this great difference has been brought about 
in the red man, might not the same have happened to the white man? 
Plainly it might, time being given; for one cannot doubt that the 
inherent adaptability is the same in both, or (if not) that the white 
man possesses it in a higher degree. 



ACCLIMATIZATION 



119 



The observations of Spruce are of themselves almost conclu- 
sive as to the possibility of Europeans becoming acclimatized 
in the tropics; and if it is objected that this evidence applies 
only to the dark-haired southern races, we are fortunately able 
to point to facts, almost equally well authenticated and con- 
clusive, in the case of one of the typical Germanic races. In 
South Africa the Dutch have been settled and nearly isolated 
for over 200 years, and have kept themselves almost or quite 
free from native intermixture. They are still preponderatingly 
fair in complexion, while physically they are tall and strong. 
They marry young and have large families. The population, 
according to a census taken in 1798, was under' 22,000. In 
1865 it was near 182,000, the majority being of " Dutch, German 
or French origin, mostly descendants of original settlers." In 
more recent times, the conditions have been so greatly changed 
by immigration, that the later statistics cease to have a definite 
meaning with regard to acclimatization. We have here a 
population which doubled itself every twenty-two years; and 
the greater part of this rapid increase must certainly be due 
to the old European immigrants. In the Moluccas, where the 
Dutch have had settlements for 250 years, some of the inhabit- 
ants trace their descent to early immigrants; and these, as 
well as most of the people of Dutch descent in the east, are 
quite as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health, 
and are very prolific. But the Dutch accommodate themselves 
admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their work early 
in the morning, dressing very lightly, and living a quiet, tem- 
perate and cheerful life. They also pay great attention to 
drainage and general cleanliness. In addition to these examples, 
it is obvious that the rapid increase of English-speaking popula- 
tions in the United States and in Australia is far greater than 
can be explained by immigration, and shows two conspicuous 
examples of acclimatization. 

On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under 
favourable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means 
to the end in view, man may become acclimatized with at least 
as much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations rather 
than by years) as any of the lower animals. The greatest 
difficulty in his way is not temperature, but the presence of 
parasitic diseases to resist which his body has not been prepared, 
and modern knowledge is rapidly defining these dangers and the 
modes of avoiding them. (A. R. W.) 

APPENDIX 

The task of collecting information as to animals which 
have become permanently naturalized away from their native 
haunts is anything but easy, as few regular records have 
been kept by acclimatizers. Moreover, recorders of local fauna 
have been almost unanimous in ignoring the introduced forms, 
except when they have had occasion to comment on the effects, 
real or supposed, of these immigrants on aboriginal faunas. 

Mammals. It is unnecessary here to dwell upon the world- 
wide distribution of the two rats M us rattus and M . decumanus, 
and of the house-mouse M. musculus; their introduction has 
always been involuntary. Similarly nearly all our domestic 
mammals except the sheep have become feral somewhere or 
other, whether by intentional liberation or by escape; but the 
smaller ones more than the larger, such as pigs, goats, dogs and 
cats. This has been especially the case in Hawaii and New 
Zealand; in America, Australia and Hawaii, horses and cattle 
are also feral. Feral pigs are numerous in New Zealand. 

The domestic Indian buffalo (Bos bubalus) exists as a wild 
animal in North Australia; it is very liable to revert to a wild 
state, being little altered from its still-existing wild ancestor. 
A more curious case is that of the one-humped camel {Camelus 
dromedarius), a beast only known in domestication, and that in 
arid countries; yet a number of these have become feral in the 
Spanish marshes, where they wade about like quadrupedal 
flamingoes. 

The red deer (Cemus elaphus) is now widely distributed as a 
wild animal over New Zealand, where also the fallow-deer (C. 
dama) and the Indian sambar (C. aristotelis or unicolor) have been 



introduced locally. The sambar, or one or other of its sub- 
species, has also been naturalized in Mauritius, and in the 
Marianne Islands in the open Pacific. 

The wide introduction of the rabbit, as a wild animal, is well 
known. Amounting to a serious pest in Australasian colonies, it 
is also established in the Falklands and Kerguelen; its presence 
in much of Europe is attributed to early acclimatization, as it 
seems anciently to have been confined to the Iberian peninsula. 

The hare has been established in New Zealand and Barbadoes. 

Few other rodents have been designedly naturalized, but the 
North American grey squirrel (Sciurus cinereus) appears to be 
established as a wild animal in Woburn Park, Bedfordshire, 
England, and may probably spread thence. 

To check the increase of the rabbit, stoats, weasels and pole- 
cats (the last in the form of the domesticated ferret) were intro- 
duced into New Zealand on a very large scale in the last quarter 
of the ipth century. They have spread widely, and have not 
confined their depredations to the rabbits, so that the indigenous 
flightless birds have suffered largely. 

Another carnivore of very similar habits, the Indian mongoose 
(Herpestus griseus or H . mungo) , has been naturalized in Jamaica, 
whence it has been carried to other West Indian Islands, and in 
the Hawaiian group. It has also been tried, but unsuccessfully, 
in Australia. The first introduction into Jamaica took place in 
1872, and ten years later the animal was credited with saving 
many thousands of pounds annually by its destruction of rats. 
But before an equal space of time had further elapsed, it had 
itself become a pest; the most recent information, however, is 
to the effect that its numbers are now on the decline, and that 
the disturbed faunal equilibrium is being readjusted. 

The civets, being celebrated for their odoriferous secretion, 
are likely animals to have been naturalized. W. T. Blanford 
(Fauna of British India, " Mammals ") thinks that the presence 
of the Indian form, Viverricula malaccensis, in Socotra, the 
Comoro Islands and Madagascar is due to the assistance of 
man. 

The common fox of Europe has been introduced into Australia, 
where it is destructive to the native fauna and to lambs. 

Among primates, a Ceylonese monkey (Macacus pileatus) has 
been naturalized in Mauritius for centuries, the circumstances 
of introduction being unknown. 

The common Australian "opossum" or phalanger (Tricho- 
surus vulpeculd) has been naturalized in New Zealand, although 
very destructive to fruit trees; the value of its fur being probably 
the motive. It is said that the pelage of the New Zealand 
specimens is superior, as might be expected from the colder 
climate. 

Birds. The introduction of mammals has been largely in- 
fluenced by economic conditions, when, indeed, it was not 
absolutely accidental and unavoidable; but in the case of birds 
it has been more gratuitous, so to speak, in many cases, and 
hence is looked upon with especial dislike by naturalists. The 
domestic birds have comparatively seldom become feral, doubt- 
less, as C. Darwin points out, from the reduction of their powers 
of flight in many cases. The guinea-fowl, however, has long 
been in this condition in Jamaica and St Helena, and the fowl 
in Hawaii and other Polynesian islands. The pheasant has been 
naturalized in the United States, New Zealand, Hawaii and 
St Helena. Its naturalization in western Europe is very ancient, 
but the race supposed to have been introduced by the Romans 
(Phasianus colchieus) has been much modified within the last 
century or two by the introduction of the ring-necked Chinese 
form (P. torquatus), which produces fertile hybrids with the old 
breed. Thus those acclimatized were usually, no doubt, of 
mixed blood, and further introductions of pure Chinese stock 
have tended to make the latter the dominant form, at any rate 
in the United States (where it is erroneously called Mongolian 1 ) 
and in New Zealand. In Hawaii and St Helena the ring-neck 
appears to have been the only pheasant introduced pure, but in 
the former the Japanese race (P. tiersicolor) is also naturalized. 

1 The true Mongolian pheasant (P. mongoHcus), a very different 
bird, has recently been introduced into England. 






120 



ACCLIMATIZATION 



The golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) is locally estab- 
lished in the United States, as appear to be other pheasants of 
less common species. The Reeves' pheasant (P. reevesi) is at 
large on some English estates. Of the partridges, the continental 
red-leg (Caccabis rufa) is established in England, and its ally, 
the Asiatic chukore (C. chukar), in St Helena, as is the Cali- 
fornian quail (Lophortyx calif arnica ) in New Zealand and Hawaii. 
The latter, however, though thriving as an aviary bird, has 
failed at large in England, as did the bob-white (Ortyx virginianus) 
both there and in New Zealand. 

The desirable character of the grouse as game-birds has led 
to many attempts at their acclimatization, but usually these 
have been unsuccessful; the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), how- 
ever, the only endemic British bird, is naturalized in some parts 
of Europe. 

Of waterfowl, the Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is natural- 
ized to a small extent in Britain, and also, to a less degree, the 
Egyptian goose (Chenalopex aegyptiacus); the latter bird also 
occurs wild in New Zealand. The modern presence of the black 
swan of Australia (Chenopis atrata) in New Zealand appears to be 
due to a natural irruption of the species about half a century 
ago as much as to acclimatization by man, if not more so. 

Birds of prey are, unjustly enough, regarded with so little favour 
that few attempts have been made to naturalize them; the 
continental little owl (Athene noctua), however, has for some 
time been well established in England, where it has hardly, if 
ever, appeared naturally. 

Pigeons have been very little naturalized; the tame bird has 
become feral locally in various countries, and the Chinese turtle- 
dove (Turtur chinensis) is established in Hawaii, as is the small 
East Indian zebra dove (Geopelia striala) in the Seychelles, and 
the allied Australian (G. tranquilld) in St Helena. There has 
also been very little naturalization of parrots, but the rosella 
parrakeet of Australia (Platycercus eximius) is being propagated 
by escaped captives in the north island of New Zealand, and its 
ally the mealy rosella (P. pallidiceps) is locally wild in Hawaii, 
the stock in this case having descended from a single pair in- 
tentionally liberated. Attempts to naturalize that well-known 
Australian grass-parrakeet the budgerigar (Melopsiltacus un- 
dulatus) in England have so far proved abortive, and none of 
the species experimented with in Norfolk and Bedfordshire 
effected a settlement. The greyheaded love-bird (Agapornis 
cana) of Madagascar is established in the Seychelles. Some 
of the passerine birds have been the most widely distributed, 
especially the house-sparrow (Passer domesticus), which is now 
an integral, and very troublesome, part of the fauna in the 
Australasian States and in North America. It is, in fact, as 
notorious an example of over-successful acclimatization as the 
rabbit, but in Hutton and Drummond's recent work on the 
New Zealand animals (London, 1905) it is not regarded in this 
light, considering that some very common exotic birds were 
needed to keep down the insects, which it certainly did. Even 
in the United States also, it has been found a useful destroyer 
of weed-seeds. The house-sparrow is also feral in Argentina, 
some of the West Indian islands, Hawaii and the Andamans. 

The allied tree-sparrow (P. monlanus) has been locally 
naturalized in the United States; it is a more desirable bird, 
being less prolific and pugnacious, but it is expelled from towns 
by the house-sparrow. 

The so-called Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora), although a 
destructive bird to rice, has been widely distributed by accident 
or design, and is now found in several East Indian islands besides 
Java, in south China, St Helena, India, Zanzibar and the east 
African coast. An allied but much smaller weaver-finch, a form 
of the spice-bird (Munia nisoria punclala), is introduced and 
well distributed over the Hawaiian islands. The little rooibek 
of South Africa (Estrilda aslrild) has been so long and well 
established in St Helena that it is known in the bird trade as 
the St Helena waxbill, and the brilliant scarlet weaver of Mada- 
gascar (Foudia madagascariensis) inhabits as an imported bird 
Mauritius, the Seychelles and even the remote Chagos Islands. 

Returning to the true finches, the only one which can compete 



with the house-sparrow in the extent of its distribution by man 
is the goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), now established all over 
New Zealand, as well as in Australia, the United States and 
Jamaica. It bears a good character, and is one of the marked 
successes of naturalization. The redpoll (Acanthis linaria), 
chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and greenfinch (Chloris Moris) are 
established in New Zealand, the last named being a pest there, 
as is also the cirl-bunting (Emberiza cirlus) the yellow-hammer 
(E. citrinella) being perhaps confused with this also. 

Among starlings, the Indian mynah (generally the house mynah, 
Acridotheres tristis, but some other species seem to have been 
confused with this) has been naturalized in the Andamans, 
Seychelles, Reunion, Australia, Hawaii and parts of New Zealand. 
Its alleged destructiveness to the Hawaiian avifauna seems open 
to doubt. 

The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is naturalized in 
New Zealand, Australia and to some extent in the United 
States. Thrushes have not been widely introduced, but the 
song- thrush and blackbird ( Turdus musicus and Merula merula) 
are common in New Zealand; attempts were made, but unsuc- 
cessfully, to establish the latter in the United States. The 
so-called hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis), really a member 
of this group, is one of the successful introductions into New 
Zealand. The robin (Erithacus rubecula) failed there. 

Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and the Australian "magpie" or 
piping crow (Gymnorhina) are to be found in New Zealand, but 
only locally, especially the former. 

Reptiles and Amphibians. Very little naturalization has been 
effected, or indeed apparently attempted, in regard to these 
groups, but the occurrence of the edible frog of the continent 
of Europe (Rana esculenta) as an introduced animal in certain 
British localities is well known. An Australian tree-frog (Hyla 
peronii) is naturalized in many parts of the north island of New 
Zealand. 

Fish. The instances of naturalization in this class are few, 
but important. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), originally 
a Chinese fish, has for centuries been acclimatized in Europe, 
where indeed it is in places a true domestic creature, with 
definite variations. It is, however, quite feral also, and has 
been introduced into North America. 

The Prussian carp (Carassius vulgaris) is established in New 
Zealand, and the nearly-allied goldfish, a domestic form (C. 
auratus) of Chinese origin, has been widely distributed as a pet, 
and is feral in some places. 

The gourami (Osphromenus olfax) of the East Indies has been 
established in Mauritius and Cayenne, being a valuable food- 
fish. 

The most important case of naturalization of fish is, however, 
the establishment of some Salmonidae in Tasmania and New 
Zealand. These are the common trout and sea-trout (Salmo 
fario and 5. trutla); they attain a great size. So far, attempts 
to establish the true salmon in alien localities have been un- 
successful, but the American rainbow trout (S. irideus) has 
thriven in New Zealand, and the brook char of the same conti- 
nent (S. fontinalis) inhabits at least one stream there to the 
exclusion of the common trout. 

Invertebrates. Many insects and other invertebrates, mostly 
noxious, have been accidentally naturalized, and some have 
been deliberately introduced, like the honey-bee, now feral in 
Australasia and North America, and the humble-bee, imported 
into New Zealand to effect the fertilization of red clover. 

The spread of the European house-fly has been deliberately 
encouraged in New Zealand, as wherever it penetrates the native 
flesh-fly, a more objectionable pest, disappears. 

The wide distribution of three common cockroaches (Peri- 
planeta americana, Blatla orientalis and Ectobia germanica) is 
well known, but these are chiefly house-insects. 

The common small white butterfly of Europe (Pontia or 
Pieris rapae) is now established in North America; and the 
march of the jigger, or foot-infesting flea (Sarcopsytta penetrans) 
of tropical America, across Africa, has taken place in quite 
recent years. 



ACCOLADE ACCOMMODATION 



121 



The Romans are credited with having purposely introduced 
the edible snail (Helix pomatia) into England, and the common 
garden snail and slugs (Helix aspersa, Limax agrestis and 
Arion hortensis) have been unwittingly established in New 
Zealand. In that country, also, the earthworms of Europe are 
noticed to replace native forms as the ground is broken. 

General Remarks. A great deal has been said about the up- 
setting of the balance of nature by naturalization, and as to the 
ill-doing of exotic forms. But certain considerations should be 
borne in mind in this connexion. In the first place, naturaliza- 
tion experiments fail at least as often as they succeed, and often 
quite inexplicably. Thus, the linnet and partridge have failed 
to establish themselves in New Zealand. This may ultimately 
throw some light on the disappearance of native forms; for 
these have at times declined without any assignable cause. 

Secondly, native forms often disappear with the clearing off 
of the original forest or other vegetation, in which case their 
recession is to a certain extent unavoidable, and the fauna which 
has established itself in the presence of cultivation is needed to 
replace them. 

Thirdly, the ill effect of introduced forms on existing ones 
may often be due rather to the spread of disease and parasites 
than to actual attack; thus, in Hawaii the native birds have 
been found suffering from a disease which attacks poultry. And 
the recession of the New Zealand earthworms and flies before 
exotic forms probably falls under this category. As man can- 
not easily avoid introducing parasites, and must keep domestic 
animals and till the land, a certain disturbance in aboriginal 
faunas is absolutely unavoidable. Under certain circumstances, 
however, the native animals may recover, for in some cases 
they even profit by man's advent, and at times themselves 
become pests, like the Kea parrot (Nestor notabilis), which 
attacks sheep in New Zealand, and the bobolink or rice-bird 
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus) in North America. Finally, it should 
never be forgotten that the worst enemies of declining forms have 
been collectors who have not given these species the chance of 
recovering themselves. (F. FN.) 

ACCOLADE (from Ital. accolala, derived from Lat. collum, 
the neck), a ceremony anciently used in conferring knighthood; 
but whether it was an actual embrace (according to the use of 
the modern French word accolade), or a slight blow on the 
neck or cheek, is not agreed. Both these customs appear to be 
of great antiquity. Gregory of Tours writes that the early kings 
of France, in conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, kissed the knights 
on the left cheek; and William the Conqueror is said to have 
made use of the blow in conferring the honour of knighthood 
on his son Henry. At first it was given with the naked fist, a 
veritable box on the ear, but for this was substituted a gentle 
stroke with the flat of the sword on the side of the neck, or on 
either shoulder as well. In Great Britain the sovereign, in 
conferring knighthood, still employs this latter form of accolade. 

" Accolade " is also a technical term in music-printing for a 
sort of brace joining separate staves; and in architecture it 
denotes a form of decoration on doors and windows. 

ACCOLTI, BENEDETTO (1415-1466), Italian jurist and his- 
torian, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, of a noble family, several 
members of which were distinguished like himself for their attain- 
ments in law. He was for some time professor of jurisprudence 
in the university of Florence, and on the death of the celebrated 
Poggio, in 1459, became chancellor of the Florentine republic. 
He died at Florence. In conjunction with his brother Leonardo, 
he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade, entitled De 
Bello a Christianis contra Barbaras gesto pro Christi Sepulchro et 
Judaea recuperandis libri tres (Venice, 1432, translated into 
Italian, 1543, and into French, 1620), which, though itself of 
little interest, is said to have furnished Tasso with the historic 
basis for his Jerusalem Delivered. Another work of Accolti's 
De Praestantia Virorum sui Aevi was published at Parma in 
1689. His brother Francesco (1418-1483) was also a distin- 
guished jurist, and was the author of Consilia sen responsa (Pisa, 
1481); Commentaria super lib. ii. decretalium (Bologna, 1481); 
Commentaria (Pavia, 1493); de Balneis Puteolanis (1475). 



ACCOLTI, BERNARDO (1465-1536), Italian poet, born at 
Arezzo, was the son of Benedetto Accolti. Known in his own 
day as /' Unico Aretino, he acquired great fame as a reciter of 
impromptu verse. He was listened to by large crowds, com- 
posed of the most learned men and the most distinguished 
prelates of the age. Among others, Cardinal Bembo has left 
on record a testimony to his extraordinary talent. His high 
reputation with his contemporaries seems scarcely justified by 
the poems he published, though they give evidence of brilliant 
fancy. It is probable that he succeeded better in his ex- 
temporary productions than in those which were the fruit of 
deliberation. His works, under the title Virginia, Comedia, 
Capitoli e Strambotti di Messer Bernardo Accolti Aretino, were 
published at Florence in 1513, and have been several times 
reprinted. 

ACCOLTI, PIETRO (1455-1532), brother of the preceding, 
known as the cardinal of Ancona, was born in Florence on the 
i5th of March 1455, and died at Rome on the i2th of December 
1532 (Ciaconi, Vitae Pontificum, 1677, iii. 295). He was made 
bishop of Ancona, 1505, and cardinal on the i?th of March 1511, 
by Julius II. He was abbreviator under Leo X., and in that 
capacity drew up in 1520 the bull against Luther (L. Cardella, 
Memorie Storiche de' Cardinali, 1793, iii. 450). He held succes- 
sively the suburban sees of Albano and Sabina, also the sees 
of Cadiz, Maillezais, Arras and Cremona, and was made arch- 
bishop of Ravenna, 1524, by Clement VII. 

F. Cristofori (Storia dei Cardinali, 1888) and others have 
confused him with his nephew BENEDETTO (1497-1549), son of 
Michaele; who followed him in several of his preferments, was 
made cardinal, 1527, by Clement VII., and is known as a writer 
in behalf of papal claims and as a Latin poet. 

ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodarc, to make fit, from ad, 
to, cum, with, and modus, measure), the process of fitting, 
adapting, adjusting or supplying with what is needed (e.g. 
housing). 

In theology the term " accommodation " is used rather loosely 
to describe the employment of a word, phrase, sentence or idea, 
in a context other than that in which it originally occurred; the 
actual wording of the quotation may be modified to a greater or 
lesser extent. Such accommodation, though sometimes purely 
literary or stylistic, generally has the definite purpose of instruc- 
tion, and is frequently used both in the New Testament and 
in pulpit utterances in all periods as a means of producing a 
reasonably accurate impression of a complicated idea in the 
minds of those who are for various reasons unlikely to compre- 
hend it otherwise. There are roughly three main kinds, (i) 
A later Biblical passage quotes from an earlier, partly as a 
literary device, but also with a view to demonstration. Some- 
times it is plain that the writer deliberately " accommodates " 
a quotation (cf. John xviii. 8, 9 with xvii. 12). But New 
Testament quotations of Old Testament predictions are often 
for us accommodations striking or forced as the case may be 
while the New Testament writer, " following the exegetical 
methods current among the Jews of his time, Matthew ii. 15, 
18, xxvi. 31, xxvii. 9 " (S. R. Driver in Zechariah in Century 
Bible, pp. 259, 271), puts them forward as arguments. To say 
that he is merely " describing a New Testament fact in Old 
Testament phraseology " may be true of the result rather than 
of his design. (2) Much besides in the Bible parable, metaphor, 
&c. has been called an " accommodation," or divine conde- 
scension to human weakness. (3) German 18th-century rational- 
ism (see APOLOGETICS) held that the Biblical writers made great 
use of conscious accommodation intending moral common- 
places when they seemed to be enunciating Christian dogmas. 
Another expression for this, used, e.g., by J. S. Semler, is " econ- 
omy," which also occurs in the kindred sense of " reserve " (or 
of Disciplina Arcania, modern term for the supposed early 
Catholic habit of reserving esoteric truths). Isaac Williams on 
Reserve in Religious Teaching, No. 80 of Tracts for the Times, 
made a great sensation; see R. W. Church's comments in The 
Oxford Movement. Strictly, accommodation (2) or (3) modifies, 
in form or in substance, the content of religious belief; reserve, 






122 



ACCOMMODATION BILL ACCORSO 



from prudence or cunning, withholds part. " Economy " is 
used in both senses. 

ACCOMMODATION BILL. An accommodation bill, as its 
name implies, is a bill of exchange accepted and sometimes 
endorsed without any receipt of value in order to afford tem- 
porary pecuniary aid to the person accommodated. (See BILL 
OF EXCHANGE.) 

ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which "accompanies"), a 
musical term for that part of a vocal or instrumental compo- 
sition added to support and heighten the principal vocal or 
instrumental part; either by means of other vocal parts, single 
instruments or the orchestra. The accompaniment may be 
obbligato or ad libitum, according as it forms an essential part 
of the composition or not. The term obbligato or obbligato 
accompaniment is also used for an independent instrumental 
solo accompanying a vocal piece. Owing to the early custom 
of only writing the accompaniment in outline, by means of a 
" figured bass," to be filled in by the performer, and to the 
changes in the number, quality and types of the instruments of 
the orchestra, " additional " accompaniments have been written 
for the works of the older masters; such are Mozart's " addi- 
tional " accompaniments to Handel's Messiah or those to many of 
the elder Bach's works by Robert Franz. In common parlance 
any support given, e.g. by the piano, to a voice or instrument 
is loosely called an accompaniment, which may be merely 
" vamped " by the introduction of a few chords, or may rise 
to the dignity of an artistic composition. In the history of song 
the evolution of the art side of an accompaniment is important, 
and in the higher forms the vocal and instrumental parts practi- 
cally constitute a duet, in which the instrumental part may be at 
least as important as that of the voice. 

ACCOMPLICE (from Fr. complice, conspirator, Lat. complex, 
a sharer, associate, complicare, to fold together; the ac- is 
possibly due to confusion with " accomplish," to complete, Lat. 
complere, to fill up), in law, one who is associated with another 
or others in the commission of a crime, whether as principal 
or accessory. The term is chiefly important where one of 
those charged with a crime turns king's evidence in the expect- 
ation of obtaining a pardon for himself. Accordingly, as his 
evidence is tainted with self-interest, it is a rule of practice 
to direct a jury to acquit, where the evidence of an accomplice 
is not corroborated by independent evidence both as to the 
circumstances of the offence and the participation of the accused 
in it. An accomplice who has turned king's evidence usually 
receives a pardon, but has no legal right to exemption from 
punishment till he has actually received it. 

ACCORAMBONI, VITTORIA (1557-1585), an Italian lady 
famous for her great beauty and accomplishments and for her 
tragic history. She was born in Rome of a family belonging to 
the minor noblesse of Gubbio, which migrated to Rome with a 
view to bettering their fortunes. After refusing several offers of 
marriage for Vittoria, her father betrothed her to Francesco 
Peretti (1573), a man of no position, but a nephew of Cardinal 
Montalto, who was regarded as likely to become pope. Vittoria 
was admired and worshipped by all the cleverest and most 
brilliant men in Rome, and being luxurious and extravagant 
although poor, she and her husband were soon plunged in debt. 
Among her most fervent admirers was P. G. Orsini, duke of 
Bracciano, one of the most powerful men in Rome, and her 
brother Marcello, wishing to see her the duke's wife, had Peretti 
murdered (1581). The duke himself was suspected of complicity, 
inasmuch as he was believed to have murdered his first wife, 
Isabella de' Medici. Now that Vittoria was free he made her 
an offer of marriage, which she willingly accepted, and they 
were married shortly after. But her good fortune aroused much 
jealousy, and attempts were made to annul the marriage; she 
was even imprisoned, and only liberated through the interfer- 
ence of Cardinal Carlo Borromeo. On the death of Gregory 
XIII., Cardinal Montalto, her first husband's uncle, was elected 
in his place as Sixtus V. (1585); he vowed vengeance on the 
duke of Bracciano and Vittoria, who, warned in time, fled first 
to Venice and thence to Sal6 in Venetian territory. Here the 



duke died in November 1585, bequeathing all his personal 
property (the duchy of Bracciano he left to his son by his first 
wife) to his widow. Vittoria, overwhelmed with grief, went to 
live in retirement at Padua, where she was followed by Lodovico 
Orsini, a relation of her late husband and a servant of the Vene- 
tian republic, to arrange amicably for the division of the pro- 
perty. But a quarrel having arisen in this connexion Lodovico 
hired a band of bravos and had Vittoria assassinated (22nd of 
December 1585). He himself and nearly all his accomplices 
were afterwards put to death by order of the republic. 

About Vittoria Accoramboni much has been written, and she has 
been greatly maligned by some biographers. Her story formed 
the basis of Webster's drama, The Tragedy of Paolo Giordano 
Ursini (1612), and of Ludwig Tieck's novel, Vittoria Accoramboni 
(1840); it is told more accurately in D. Gnoli's volume, Vittoria 
Accoramboni (Florence, 1870), and an excellent sketch of her life 
is given in Countess E. Martinengo-Cesaresco's Lombard Studies 
(London, 1902). (L. V.*) 

ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree), in law, an agreement 
between two parties, one of whom has a right of action against 
the other, to give and accept in substitution for such right any 
good legal consideration. Such an agreement when executed 
discharges the cause of action and is called Accord and Satis- 
faction. 

ACCORDION (Fr. accordion; Ger. Handharmonica, Ziehhar- 
monica), a small portable reed wind instrument with keyboard, 
the smallest representative of the organ family, invented in 
1829 by Damian, in Vienna. 

The accordion consists of a bellows of many folds, to which 
is attached a keyboard with from 5 to 50 keys. The keys on 
being depressed, while the bellows are being worked, open 
valves admitting the wind to free reeds, consisting of narrow 
tongues of metal riveted some to the upper, some to the 
lower board of the bellows, having their free ends bent, some 
inwards, some outwards. Each key produces two notes, one 
From the inwardly bent reed when the bellows are compressed, 
the other from the outwardly bent reed by suction (as in the 
American organ; see HARMONIUM) when the bellows are ex- 
panded. The pitch of the note is determined by the length and 
thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length tending to sharpen 
the note, while reduction of the thickness lowers it. The right 
tiand plays the melody on the keyboard, while the left works 
the bellows and manipulates the two or three bass harmony 
ieys, which sound the simple chords of the tonic and dominant. 
The archetype of the accordion is the cheng (q.v.), or Chinese 
organ, between which and the harmonium it forms a connecting 
link structurally, although not invented for some thirty years 
after the harmonium. The timbre of the accordion is coarse 
and devoid of beauty, but in the hands of a skilful performer 
;he best instruments are not entirely without artistic merit. 
Improvements in the construction of the accordion produced the 
concertina (q.v.), melodion and melophone. 

See Adolf Mueller, Accordion- Schule oder vollstandige Anleitung, 
das Accordion in kurzer Zeit richtig spielen zu erlernen (Wien, 1834). 
See also FREE REED VIBRATOR. (K. S.) 

ACCORSO (ACCURSIUS), MARIANGELO (c. 1490-1 544), Italian 
critic, was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of Naples. He was 
a great favourite with Charles V., at whose court he resided for 
:hirty-three years, and by whom he was employed on various 
"oreign missions. To a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin 
ic added an intimate acquaintance with several modern lan- 
;uages. In discovering and collating ancient manuscripts, for 
which his travels abroad gave him special opportunities, he 
displayed uncommon diligence. His work entitled Dialribae in 
Ausonium, Solinum el Ovidium (1524) is a monument of erudi- 
:ion and critical skill. He was the first editor of the Letters of 
lassiodorus, with his Treatise on the Soul (1538); and his edition 
if Ammianus Marcellinus (1533) contains five books more than 
any former one. The affected use of antiquated terms, introduced 
>y some of the Latin writers of that age, is humorously ridiculed 
>y him, in a dialogue in which an Oscan, a Volscian and a 
loman are introduced as interlocutors (1531). Accorso was 
accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius, a charge which 
most solemnly and energetically repudiated. 



ACCOUNT ACCOUNTANTS 



123 



ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, c'im- 
putare, to calculate), counting, reckoning, especially of moneys 
paid and received, hence a statement made as to the receipt 
and payment of moneys; also any statement as to acts or con- 
duct, or quite simply any narrative report of events, &c. A 
further sense-development is that of esteem, consideration. 

As a stock-exchange term " account " is used in several senses, 
(i) The periodical settlements occurring, in London, monthly 
for British government and a few other first-class securities, and 
fortnightly for all others. The settlement extends over four 
days in mining shares and three days in other securities. The 
first day is the carry-over, " contango," or making-up, day, on 
which speculative commitments are carried over, or continued: 
that is, the bulls, who have bought stock for the rise, arrange 
the rate of interest that they have to give on their stock to a 
moneylender, or bear, who will pay for it or take it in for them; 
and the bears, who have sold for the fall, arrange the rate that 
they receive from the bulls or, if the stock is scarce and oversold, 
the backwardation or rate that they have to pay to holders of 
the stock who will lend it them to enable them to complete their 
bargains. On the second day, called ticket-day or name day, a 
ticket giving the name and address of the ultimate buyer and 
the firm which will pay for the stock is passed through the 
various intermediaries to the ultimate seller, so that the actual 
transfer of the stock can be made directly. In the mining 
market the passing of names takes two days. On the last day, 
account day, pay day or settling day, cheques are paid to meet 
speculative differences, or against the delivering of stock. (2) 
The period between two settlements. A nineteen-day account 
is one in which nineteen days elapse between one pay-day and 
another. (3) The volume or condition of commitments. A 
speculator is said to have a large account open when he has dealt 
heavily either for the rise or fall. A bull account exists in a stock 
or group of stocks when it or they have been bought for the rise 
by a large number of opera tors; in the contrary case, when there 
have been heavy sales for the fall, a bear account is developed. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, formerly an officer in the English 
Court of Chancery, who received all moneys lodged in court, and 
by whom they were deposited in bank and disbursed. The office 
was abolished by the Chancery Funds Act 1872, and the duties 
transferred to the paymaster-general (q.v.). 

ACCOUNTANTS. The term "accountant" is one to which, 
of late years, its original meaning has been more generally at- 
tributed that of an expert in the science of book-keeping. It 
is sometimes adopted by book-keepers, but this is an erroneous 
application of the term ; it properly describes those competent 
to design and control the systems of accounts required for the 
record of the multifarious and rapid transactions of trade and 
finance. It assumes the possession of a wide knowledge of the 
principles upon which accountancy is based, which may be 
shortly described as constituting a science by means of which 
all mercantile and financial transactions, whether in money or 
in money's worth, including operations completed and engage- 
ments undertaken to be fulfilled at once or in a future, however 
remote, may be recorded; and this science comprises a know- 
ledge of the methods of preparing statistics, whether relating 
to finance or to any transactions or circumstances which can 
be stated by numeration, and of ascertaining or estimating on 
correct bases the cost of any operation whether in money, in 
commodities, in time, in life or in any wasting property. Gener- 
ally, accountancy may be described as being the science by means 
of which all operations, as far as they are capable of being shown 
in figures, are accurately recorded and their results ascertained 
and stated. 

The origin of the profession of accountancy in Great Britain 
is difficult to trace; auditors of accounts were naturally of very 
History ear ly existence, being mentioned as officers of im- 
portance in the statutes of Westminster in the reign of 
Edward I. The art of accountancy on a scientific principle 
must certainly have been understood in Italy before 1495, 
when Friar Luca dal Borgo published at Venice his treatise on 
book-keeping; but the first known English book on the science 



was published in London by John Gouge or Gough in 1543. It is 
described as A Profitable Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke 
to learn to knows the good order of the kepyng of the famouse recon- 
ynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in Englyshe, Debitor 
and Creditor. A short book of instruction was also published in 
1588 by John Mellis of Southwark, in which he says, " I am but 
the renuer and reviver of an auncient old copie printed here in 
London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and 
set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, who, as appeareth 
by his treatise, then taught Arithmetike, and this booke in 
Saint Ollaves parish in Marke Lane." John Mellis refers to the 
fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple 
system of double entry) is " after the forme of Venice." The 
very interesting and able book described as T he Mer chants Mirr our, 
or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts; 
framed by way of Debitor and Creditor, after the (so tearmed) Italian 
manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635, 
contains many references to early books on the science of ac- 
countancy. In a chapter in this book, headed " Opinion of 
Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author states, on the authority 
of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had 
then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the 
same, or one in many parts very like this, was used in the time 
of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before." He gives quotations 
of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers 
to "ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo"; and he adds: 
" That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other 
for Creditor, is manifest in a certaine place, Naturalis Historiae 
Plinii, lib. 2, cap. 7, where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus: 

Huic Omnia Expensa. 

Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola 
Utramque Paginam facit." 

An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double- 
entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks, 
pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote 
times. 

There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book 
printed the second edition having been published in 1636, 
the third in 1656, and another was issued in 1684. The book 
is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, it was 
beautifully prepared and contains elaborate explanations; the 
numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly 
appreciated in the 1 7th century. From this time there has been 
a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the 
authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art, 
and thus proving that the professional accountant was then 
known and employed. Very early in the i8th century the 
services of an accountant practising in the city of London were 
made use of in the course of an investigation into the trans- 
actions of a director of the South Sea Company, who had been 
dealing in the company's stock. During this investigation the 
accountant appears to have examined the books of at least two 
firms of merchants. His report is described Observations made 
upon examining the books of Sawbridge and Company, by Charles 
Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London. 

In 1799, when Holden's Triennial Directory of London, West- 
minster and Southwark was first published, n individuals and 
firms were therein described as accountants; in the same direc- 
tory, for the period 1809-1811, the number had risen to 24; 
and in that for 1822-1824, there were 73 firms of practising 
accountants recorded. 

The earliest English books dealing with scientific book-keeping 
were written at a time when the English and Dutch were very 
actively engaged in foreign trade, in succession to the 
Italian merchants of the 14th, isth and i6th cen- 
turies; but it was not until the beginning of the ipth 
century that, in consequence of the adoption of 
improved methods of manufacture and transit, resulting from 
the application of water and steam power to manufactures and 
methods of conveyance which largely increased the trade of 
Great Britain, the profession of an accountant became one 
which men of scientific knowledge and capacity adopted for 



124 



ACCOUN TANTS 



their business career. Corporations and companies were formed 
to carry out large operations previously either left to the state 
or not undertaken, and for the development of trades and manu- 
factures which were becoming less profitable when carried on by 
hand labour and with limited capital; and, for these, the services 
of public accountants were necessarily required to devise systems 
of accounts and methods of control, and to enable the results of 
the various transactions carried on to be ascertained with the 
least waste of power or chance of loss by negligence or fraud. 
The large number of companies formed in 1843 and 1844, when 
a great amount of capital was invested in railways and extensive 
speculation resulted, also added to the demand for the services 
of professional accountants. The Companies' Clauses Consoli- 
dation Act 1845 made provision for the audit of the accounts 
of companies regulated by act of parliament, and gave some 
extensive powers to the auditors, who are now, to a very large 
extent, selected from among professional accountants. The 
Companies Act of 1862 led to a large extension of the business 
of accountants, both as auditors and liquidators of companies; 
and the acts relating to bankruptcy passed between the years 
1831 and 1883 added to the work devolving on professional 
accountants. The Companies Act 1879, which affected banking 
companies, made provision for the audit of their accounts, and 
it has been found desirable, in most cases, to appoint professional 
accountants to this duty. The experience and professional 
knowledge of trained accountants have, in fact, been utilized 
by their appointment as auditors in the majority of joint-stock 
companies, whether manufacturing, banking, trading or created 
for any other purpose. Until the Companies Act 1900 was passed 
there was no general obligation upon limited companies to have 
auditors; this act not only requires that auditors shall be ap- 
pointed in all cases, but provides for their remuneration, and 
to a limited extent defines their rights and duties. The legis- 
lature evidently did not find it easy to formulate at all clearly 
the duties of auditors, and it seems reasonable to suppose that 
any general definition will prove an impossibility, as the work 
which auditors undertake must vary very widely, and depends 
largely upon the scope of the operations the accounts of which 
are to be examined. 

The duties of practising accountants cover a very wide area: 
they act as trustees, liquidators, receivers and managers of 
Duties businesses, the owners of which are in default or their 

affairs in liquidation, both under the direction of the 
courts and by appointment of creditors and others; they are 
largely engaged as arbitrators, umpires and referees in differ- 
ences relating to matters of account or finance; they prepare 
the accounts of executors and trustees, and the necessary 
statements of affairs in cases of bankruptcy, both of firms and 
companies; they prepare accounts for prosecutions in cases of 
fraud and misconduct; and they are constantly called upon to 
unravel and properly state the accounts of complicated trans- 
actions. Their services are commonly required to certify the 
profits of businesses intended to be sold, either privately or to 
companies by means of a published prospectus; and, in cases 
of compulsory purchases of businesses by railway companies 
and public bodies, the statements of the profits of the businesses 
to be acquired are generally made by them. In a very large 
number of financial operations they are called upon to give ad- 
vice and prepare accounts, and in few business matters requiring 
arithmetical calculations or involving the investigation of figures, 
and particularly where a considerable acquaintanceship with 
the principles of law is needed, are their services not utilized. 
One of the most important duties undertaken by accountants 
is the audit of accounts, and this duty has, of late years, been 
widely extended. Originally, auditors were appointed to ex- 
amine and vouch statements of receipts and payments; but the 
provisions made in acts of parliament in relation to audit, and 
the requirements of most articles of association of limited com- 
Auditors. Ponies, put much graver responsibilities on auditors, 

who are now generally required to certify to the 
accuracy of balance sheets and of revenue and other accounts, 
the performance of which duties involves far more knowledge 






of accounts than was once required. The efficiency, in most 
cases, of audits conducted by skilled accountants has led the 
public to attach exceptional value to their audit certificates, 
and to demand extensive knowledge and ability in the conduct 
of the audit of the accounts of public companies. One other 
requirement which is generally regarded as indispensable, is 
that the work of audit should be very expeditiously performed; 
for it is easy to understand that, were the presentation of the 
accounts of a company and the distribution of dividends materi- 
ally delayed in consequence of the audit, much inconvenience 
would result, while the value of the criticism of the accounts of 
business operations would be much deteriorated if it could not 
be made very shortly after the accounts were closed. In these 
circumstances, in the cases of large concerns with wide ramifica- 
tions and numerous transactions, it is necessary that auditors 
should have the help of trained assistants, and thus the personal 
examination of details by the auditor himself is, to a large 
extent, rendered unnecessary and the cost of audit materially 
reduced. This delegation of duty by auditors is generally well 
understood, and is in accordance with the requirements of 
those concerned; but there has been a tendency of late years 
to enlarge the responsibilities of auditors to an extent which, 
if persisted in, might render it dangerous for men of reputation 
and means to accept the duties. 

While the number of practising accountants has of late years 
been steadily increasing and their services are correspondingly 
appreciated, the necessity for controlling those exer- 
cising the profession and for improving its status has 
naturally become apparent. The first important steps 
in this direction were taken by the accountants in Scotland 
the Society of Accountants in Edinburgh being incorporated 
by royal charter in 1854; similar societies in Glasgow and 
Aberdeen being also incorporated by charter in 1855 and 1867. 
The Institute of Accountants was formed in London in 1870, 
but did not receive a royal charter until the nth May 1880, 
when all the then existing accountants' societies and institutes 
in England were incorporated as the Institute of Chartered 
Accountants in England and Wales, and means were provided 
by which all the then practising accountants in these countries 
could claim membership thereof. In the year 1885 the Society 
of Accountants and Auditors was incorporated, but has obtained 
no charter; this body, while numbering among its members 
a considerable number of practising accountants in the United 
Kingdom, also includes treasurers and accountants to cities and 
boroughs in England, as well as clerks to chartered and other 
accountants. A large proportion of its members also consists 
of accountants practising abroad. In 1888 an Institute of 
Chartered Accountants was formed in Ireland, and a great many 
institutes and societies have been formed in the British colonies 
and in the United States, some of which have local charters. 
It is curious to note, however, that, outside the United Kingdom, 
it was only in the British colonies that associations of practising 
accountants existed, until, in 1895, an Institute of Accountants 
(Nederlands Inslituut van Accountants) was founded in Utrecht 
for Dutch accountants; when, although the principles of ac- 
countancy have been well understood and practised in Holland 
since the i6th century, and probably earlier, it was found 
necessary to borrow the words " accountant " and " account- 
ancy " from the English language to convey to the Dutch an 
idea of the meaning of the terms. Three others have since been 
formed, the N ' ederlandsche Academic van Accountants (1902); 
the Nalionale Organisalie van Accountants (1903); and the 
N ederlandsche Bond van Accountants (1902). Sweden has a 
society, Svenska Revisorsamfundet, formed in 1899; Belgium, 
the Chambre Syndicate des Experts ComptaUes, founded in 1903. 
In South America, accountants have acquired a certain status 
in Argentina, Uruguay and Peru. 

In the United States the organization of professional account- 
ants is of quite recent growth. The first society formed in 
America was " The New York State Society of Certified Public 
Accountants," and shortly afterwards (in 1896) the New York 
state legislature passed an act authorizing the State university 



ACCOUTREMENT ACCUMULATION 



to confer the degree of certified public accountant (C.P.A.) on 
the members of the society, while requiring all subsequent 
entrants to pass an examination. This degree, however, can 
be obtained, like other university degrees, without being a 
member of the society. Other states, notably Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, California, Illinois, Washington and New Jersey, 
have followed the example of New York. In 1903 the various 
state societies formed themselves into a federation. There is 
also an independent society of practising accountants, the 
American Association of Public Accountants, with objects 
similar to those of the federation, but steps have been taken to 
bring about an amalgamation between the two in order to form 
one central society to look after their common interests, without, 
however, interfering with the individual organization of the 
various state societies. 

See R. Brown, History of Accounting and Accountants (Edin- 
burgh), 1905, the most comprehensive book upon the subject; also 
G. W. Haskins, Accountancy, its Past and Present (U.S.A., 1900); 
S. S. Dawson, Accountant's Compendium', G. Lisle, Accounting in 
Theory and Practice (1899); F. W. Pixley, Auditors and their Lia- 
bilities (1901). The professional periodicals, The Accountant (vol. i., 
1877); Accountant's Journal (vol. i., 1883-1884); The Accountants' 
Magazine (vol. i., 1897); Incorporated Accountants' Journal (vol. i., 
1889-1890); Accountics (U.S.A., vol. i., 1897) may also be consulted, 
and also the Year-books of the Society of Accountants and Auditors, 
and of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. (J. G. GR.) 

ACCOUTREMENT (a French word, probably derived from a 
and coustre or coutre, an old word meaning one who has charge 
of the vestments in a church), clothing, apparel; a term used 
especially, in the plural, of the military equipment of a soldier 
other than his arms and clothing. 

ACCRA, a port on the Gulf of Guinea in 5 31' N., o 12' W., 
since 1876 capital of the British Gold Coast colony. Population 
about 20,000, including some 150 Europeans. Accra is about 
80 m. E. of Cape Coast (q.i>.), the former capital of the colony. 
The name is derived from the Fan ti word Nkran (an ant), by 
which designation the tribe inhabiting the surrounding district 
was formerly known. The town grew up around three forts 
established in close proximity St James (British), Crevecoeur 
(Dutch) and Christiansborg (Danish). The last named was 
ceded to Britain in 1850, Crevecoeur not till 1871. Fort St 
James is now used as a signal station, lighthouse and prison. 
Accra preserves the distinctions of James Town, Ussher Town 
and Christiansborg, indicative of its tripartite origin. Ussher 
Town represents Crevecoeur, the fort being renamed after H. T. 
Ussher, administrator of the Gold Coast (1867-1872). The sea 
frontage extends about three miles; there is, however, no har- 
bour, and steamers have to lie about a mile out, goods and 
passengers being landed in surf boats. The streets formerly 
consisted largely of mud hovels, but since a great fire in 1894, 
which destroyed large parts of James Town and Ussher Town, 
more substantial buildings have been erected. Christiansborg, 
the finest of the three forts, is the official residence of the governor 
of the colony. Westwards of the landing-place, where is the 
customs house, lies James Town. Beyond the fort are various 
public buildings leading to Otoo Street, the main thoroughfare, 
which runs two miles in a straight line to Christiansborg. This 
street contains a fine stone church built in 1895 for the use of 
the Anglican community, a branch of the Bank of British West 
Africa, telegraph offices and the establishments of the principal 
trading firms. In Victoriaborg, a suburb of Ussher Town, are 
the residences of the principal officials, and here a racecourse 
has been laid out. (Accra is almost the only point along the 
Gold Coast where horses thrive.) Behind the town is rolling 
grass land, which gives place to the highlands of Aquapim and 
Akim. At Aburi in the Aquapim hills, 26 m. N. by E. of 
Accra, are the government sanatorium and botanical gardens. 

Accra, the first town in the Gold Coast colony to be raised 
(July i, 1896) to the rank of a municipality, is governed by a 
town council with power to raise and spend money. The council 
consists in equal proportions of nominated and elected members, 
no racial distinctions being made. Accra is connected by cable 
with Europe and South Africa, and is the sea terminus of a railway 
serving the districts N.E., where are flourishing cocoa plantations. 



ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow), an 
addition to that which already exists; increase in any substance 
by the addition of particles from the outside. In law, the term 
is used for the increase of property caused by gradual natural 
additions, as on a river bank or seashore. 

ACCRINGTON, a market town and municipal borough in the 
Accrington parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 
208 m. N.W. by N. from London, and 23 m. N. by W. from 
Manchester, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. 
(1891)138,603; (1901) 43,122- It lies in a deep valley on the 
Hindburn, a feeder of the Calder. Cotton spinning and printing 
works, cotton-mill machinery works, dye-works and chemical 
manufactures, and neighbouring collieries maintain the industrial 
population. The church of St James dates from 1763, and the 
other numerous places of worship and public buildings are all 
modern. The borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 
councillors. Area 3427 acres. 

Accrington (Akerenton, Alkerington, Akerington) was granted 
by Henry de Lacy to Hugh son of Leofwine in Henry II. 's reign, 
but came again into the hands of the Lacys, and was given by 
them about 1200 to the monks of Kirkstall, who converted it 
into a grange. It again returned, however, to the Lacys in 1287, 
was granted in parcels, and like their other lands became merged 
in the duchy of Lancaster. In 1553 the commissioners of 
chantries sold the chapel to the inhabitants to be continued 
as a place of divine service. In 1836 Old and New Accrington 
were merely straggling villages with about 5000 inhabitants. By 
1861 the population had grown to 17,688, chiefly owing to its 
position as an important railway junction. A charter of in- 
corporation was granted in 1878. The date of the original 
chapel is unknown, but it was probably an oratory which was 
an offshoot of Kirkstall Abbey. Ecclesiastically the place was 
dependent on Altham till after the middle of the igth century. 

ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up), strictly 
a piling-up of anything; technically, in law, the continuous 
adding of the interest of a fund to the principal, for the benefit 
of some person or persons in the future. Previous to 1800, 
this accumulation of property was not forbidden by English 
law, provided the period during which it was to accumulate 
did not exceed that forbidden by the law against perpetuities, 
viz. the period of a life or lives in being, and twenty-one years 
afterwards. In 1800, however, the law was amended in conse- 
quence of the eccentric will of Peter Thellusson (1737-1797), an 
English merchant, who directed the income of his property, 
consisting of real estate of the annual value of about 5000 and 
personal estate amounting to over 600,000, to be accumulated 
during the lives of his children, grandchildren and great-grand- 
children, living at the time of his death, and the survivor of them. 
The property so accumulated, which, it is estimated, would have 
amounted to over 14,000,000, was to be divided among such 
descendants as might be alive on the death of the survivor of 
those lives during which the accumulation was to continue. 
The bequest was held valid (Thellusson . Woodford, 1798, 4 
Vesey, 237). In 1856 there was a protracted lawsuit as to who 
were the actual heirs. It was decided by the House of Lords 
(June 9, 1859) in favour of Lord Rendlesham and Charles 
Sabine Augustus Thellusson. Owing, however, to the heavy 
expenses, the amount inherited was not much larger than that 
originally bequeathed. 

To prevent such a disposition of property in the future, the 
Accumulations Act 1800 (known also as the "Thellusson Act") 
was passed, by which it was enacted that no property should 
be accumulated for any longer term than either (i) the life of 
the settlor; or (2) the term of twenty-one years from his death; 
or (3) during the minority of any person living or en ventre sa 
mere at the time of the death of the grantor; or (4) during the 
minority of any person who, if of full age, would be entitled to 
the income directed to be accumulated. The act, however, did 
not extend to any provision for payment of the debts of the 
grantor or of any other person, nor to any provision for raising 
portions for the children of the settlor, or any person interested 
under the settlement, nor to any direction touching the produce 



126 



ACCUMULATOR 



of timber or wood upon any lands or tenements. The act was 
extended to heritable property in Scotland by the Entail Amend- 
ment Act 1848, but does not apply to property in Ireland. 
The act was further amended by the Accumulations Act 1892, 
which forbids accumulations for the purpose of the purchase 
of land for any longer period than during the minority of any 
person or persons who, if of full age, would be entitled to receive 
the income. (See also TRUST and PERPETUITY.) 

ACCUMULATOR, the term applied to a number of devices 
whose function is to store energy in one form or another, as, for 
example, the hydraulic accumulator of Lord Armstrong (see 
HYDRAULICS, 179). In the present article the term is re- 
stricted to its use in electro-technology, in which it describes 
a special type of battery. The ordinary voltaic cell is made 
by bringing together certain chemicals, whose reaction main- 
tains the electric currents taken from the cell. When exhausted, 
such cells can be restored by replacing the spent materials, 
by a fresh " charge " of the original substances. But in some 
cases it is not necessary to get rid of the spent materials, because 
they can be brought back to their original state by forcing a 
reverse current through the cell. The reverse current reverses 
the chemical action and re-establishes the original conditions, 
thus enabling the cell to repeat its electrical work. Cells which 
can thus be " re-charged " by the action of a reverse current are 
called accumulators because they " accumulate " the chemical 
work of an electric current. An accumulator is also known as 
a " reversible battery," " storage battery " or " secondary 
battery." The last name dates from the early days of electro- 
lysis. When a liquid like sulphuric acid was electrolysed for a 
moment with the aid of platinum electrodes, it was found that 
the electrodes could themselves produce a current when de- 
tached from the primary battery. Such a current was attri- 
buted to an " electric polarization " of the electrodes, and was 
regarded as having a secondary nature, the implication being 
that the phenomenon was almost equivalent to a storage of 
electricity. It is now known that the platinum electrodes stored, 
not electricity, but the products of electro-chemical decomposi- 
tion. Hence if the two names, secondary and storage cells, are 
used, they are liable to be misunderstood unless the interpreta- 
tion now put on them be kept in mind. "Reversible battery" 
is an excellent name for accumulators. 

Sir W. R. Grove first used "polarization" effects in his gas 
battery, but R. L. G. Plante (1834-1889) laid the foundation of 
modern methods. That he was clear as to the function of an 
accumulator is obvious from his declaration that the lead- 
sulphuric acid cell could retain its charge for a long time, and 
had the power d'emmagasiner ainsi le travail chimique de la 
pile voltaique: a phrase whose accuracy could not be excelled. 
Plante began his work on electrolytic polarization in 1859, his 
object being to investigate the conditions under which its maxi- 
mum effects can be produced. He found that the greatest storage 
and the most useful electric effects were obtained by using lead 
plates in dilute sulphuric acid. After some " forming " opera- 
tions described below, he obtained a cell having a high electro- 
motive force, a low resistance, a large capacity and almost 
perfect freedom from polarization. 

The practical value of the lead-peroxide-sulphuric-acid cell 
arises largely from the fact that not only are the active materials 
(lead and lead peroxide, PbO 2 ) insoluble in the dilute acid, but 
that the sulphate of lead formed from them in the course of dis- 
charge is also insoluble. Consequently, it remains fixed in the 
place where it is formed; and on the passage of the charging 
current, the original PbC"2 and lead are reproduced in the places 
they originally occupied. Thus there is no material change in 
the distribution of masses of active material. Lastly, the active 
materials are in a porous, spongy condition, so that the acid is 
within reach of all parts of them. 

Plant6 carefully studied the changes which occur in the formation, 
charge and discharge of the cell. In forming, he placed two sheets 
w ^, of lead in sulphuric acid, separating them by narrow strips 
flame Q f caoutchouc (fig. i). When a charging current is 
sent through the cell, the hydrogen liberated at one plate 
escapes, a small quantity possibly being spent in reducing the sur- 



face film of oxide generally found on lead. Some of the oxygen is 
always fixed on the other (positive) plate, forming a surface film of 
peroxide. After a few minutes the current is reversed so that 
the first plate is peroxidized, and the peroxide previously formed 
on the second plate is reduced to metallic lead in a spongy 
state. By repeated reversals, the surface of each plate is alter- 
nately peroxidized and reduced to metallic lead. In successive 
oxidations, the action pene- 
trates farther into the plate, 
furnishing each time a larger 
quantity of spongy PbO 2 on 
one plate and of spongy lead 
on the other. It follows that 
the duration of the successive 
charging currents also in- 
creases. At the beginning, a 
few minutes suffice; at the_i 
end, many hours are required. 
After the first six or eight pj G j. 

cycles, Plante allowed a period 

of repose before reversing. He claimed that the PbO 2 formed by 
reversal after repose was more strongly adherent, and also more 
crystalline than if no repose were allowed. The following figures 
show the relative amounts of oxygen absorbed by a given plate in 
successive charges (between one charge and the next the plate stood 
in repose for the time stated, then was reduced, and again charged 
as anode) : 




Separate Periods of 
Repose. 


Charge. 


Relative Amount of 
Peroxide formed. 


1 8 hours 
2 days 
4 " 

2 " 


First 
Second 
Third 
Fourth 
Fifth 


I-O 

1-57 
1-71 
2-14 
2-43 



and so on for many days (Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry of 
Secondary Batteries). Seeing that each plate is in turn oxidized and 
then reduced, it is evident that the spongy lead will increase at the 
same rate on the other plate of the cell. The process of " forming " 
thus briefly described was not continued indefinitely, but only till 
a fair proportion of the thickness of the plates was converted into 
the spongy material, PbO 2 and Pb respectively. After this, reversal 
was not permitted, the cell being put into use and always charged in 
a given direction. If the process of forming by reversal be continued , 
the positive plate is ultimately all converted into PbO 2 and falls to 
pieces. 

Plant6 made excellent cells by this method, yet three objections 
were urged against them. They required too much time to " form "; 
the spongy masses (PbO 2 more especially) fell off for want of me- 
chanical support, and the separating strips of caoutchouc were not 
likely to have a long life. The first advance was made by C. A. Faure 
(1881), who greatly short- 
ened the time required for 
"forming" by giving the 
plates a preliminary coat-' 
ing of red lead, whereby 
the slow process of biting 
into the metal was avoided. 
At the first charging, the 
red lead on the + electrode 
is changed to PbO 2 , while 
that on the electrode is 
reduced to spongy lead. 
Thus one continuous opera- 
tion, lasting perhaps sixty 
hours, takes the place of 
many reversals, which, with 
periods of repose, last as 
much as three months. 
Faure used felt as a sepa- 
rating membrane, but its 

th W ods "SP 'SUM 
due to E. Volckmar, J. S. Sellon, J. W. Swan and others. These 
inventors put the paste not on to plates of lead, but into the holes 
of a grid, which, when carefully designed, affords good mechanical 
support to the spongy masses, and does away with the necessity 
[or felt, &c. They are more satisfactory, however, as supporters of 
spongy lead than of the peroxide, since at the point of contact in 
the latter case the acid gives rise to a local action, which slowly 
destroys the grid. Disintegration follows sooner or later, though the 
best makers are able to defer the failure for a fairly long time. 
Efforts have been made by A. Tribe, D. G. Fitzgerald and others 
to dispense with a supporting grid for the positive plate, but these 
attempts have not yet been successful enough to enable them to 
compete with the other forms. 

For many years the battle between the " Plant6 " type and 




ACCUMULATOR 



127 



Chloride 
cell. 



the Faure or " pasted " type has been one in which the issue 
was doubtful, but the general tendency is towards a mixed type 
at the present time. There are many good cells, the value of 
all resting on the care exercised during the manufacture and 
also in the choice of pure materials. Increasing emphasis is 
laid on the purity of the water used to replace that lost by 
evaporation, distilled water generally being specified. The 
following descriptions will give a good idea of modern practice. 
The " chloride cell " has a Plante positive with a pasted 
negative. For the positive a lead casting is made, about 0-4 
inch thick pierced by a number of circular holes about 
half an inch in diameter. Into each of these holes 
is thrust a roll or rosette of lead ribbon, which has 
been cut to the right breadth (equal to the thickness of the 

plate), then ribbed or 
gimped, and finally coiled 
into a rosette. The 
rosettes have sufficient 
spring to fix themselves 
in the holes of the lead 
plate, but are keyed in 
position by a hydraulic 
-press. The plates are 
then " formed " by pass- 
ing a current for a long 
time. In a later pattern 
a kind of discontinuous 
longitudinal rib is put in 
the ribbon, and increases 
the capacity and life by 
strengthening the mass 
without interfering with 
the diffusion of acid. 

The negative plate was formerly obtained by reducing pastilles 
of lead chloride, but by a later mode of construction it is 
made by casting a grid with thin vertical ribs, connected 
horizontally by small bars of triangular section. The bars on 
the two faces are " staggered, " that is, those on one face are 
not opposite those on the other. The grid is pasted with a lead 
oxide paste and afterwards reduced; this is known as the 
" exide " negative. 

The larger sizes of negative plate are of a " box " type, formed 
by riveting together two grids and filling the intervening space 




FIG. 3. Tudor negative plate. 





FIG. 4. 



FIG. 5. 



FIG. 6. 



with paste. A feature of the " chloride " cells is the use of 
separators made of thin sheets of specially prepared wood. 
These prevent short circuits arising from scales of active material 
or from the formation of " trees " of lead which sometimes 
grow across in certain forms of battery. 

The Tudor cell has positives formed of lead plates cast in one 
piece with a large surface of thin vertical ribs, intersected at 
Tudor cell intervals b y horizontal ribs to give the plates strength 
to withstand buckling in both directions (fig. 2). The 
thickness of the plates is about 0-4 inch, and the developed 
surface is about eight times that of a smooth plate of the same 
size. A thoroughly adherent and homogeneous coating of 
peroxide of lead is formed on this large surface by an improved 



Plante process. The negative plate (fig. 3) is composed of two 
grids riveted together to form a shallow box; the outer surfaces 
are smooth sheets pierced with many small holes. The space 
between them is intersected by ribs and pasted (before riveting). 
Many of the E.P.S. cells, made by the Electrical Power 
Storage Company, are of the Faure or pasted type, but the 
Plante formation is used for the positives of two 
kinds of cell. The paste for the positive plates is a 
mixture of red lead with sulphuric acid; for the 
negative plates, litharge is substituted for red lead. Figs. 4 and 



B.P.S. 
cell. 




Hart cell. 



FIG. 7. 

5 roughly represent the grids employed for the negative and 
positive plates respectively of a type used for lighting. Fig. 6 
is the cross section of the casting used for the Plante positive 
of the larger cells for rapid discharge. Finer indentations on the 
side expose a large surface. Fig. 7 shows a complete cell. 

The Hart cell, as used for lighting, is a combination of the Plante 
and Faure (pasted) types. The plates hang by side lugs on glass 
slats, and are separated by three rows of glass tubes 
| inch diameter (fig. 8). The tubes rest in grooved 
teak wood blocks placed at the bottom of the glass boxes. 
The blocks also serve as base for a skeleton framework of the 
same material which surrounds and supports the section. Of 
course the wood has to be specially treated to withstand the acid. 
A special non-corrosive terminal is used. A coned bolt draws 
the lug ends of adjacent cells 
together, fitting in a corresponding 
tapered hole in the lugs, and thus 
increasing the contact area. The 
positive and negative tapers being 
different, a cell cannot be con- 
nected up in the wrong way. 

In America, in addition to some 
of the cells already described, there 
are types which are not 
found in England. Two 
may be described. The Gould cell 
is of the Plante type. A special 
effort is made to reduce local and 
other deleterious action by starting 
with perfectly homogeneous plates. 
They are formed from sheet lead 
blanks by suitable machines, which 
gradually raise the surface into a 

series of ribs and grooves. The sides and middle of the blank are 
left untouched and amply suffice to distribute the current over 
the surface of the plate. The grooves are very fine, and when the 
active material is formed in them by electro-chemical action, 
they hold it very securely. 

The Hatch cell has its positive enclosed in an envelope. A 
very shallow porous tray (made of kaolin and silica) is filled with 



Gould cell. 




FIG. 8. Hart Accumulator. 



128 



ACCUMULATOR 



red lead paste, an electrode of rolled sheet lead is placed on its 

surface, and over this again is placed a second porous tray filled 

with paste. The whole then looks like a thin earthen- 

natch celt. 

ware box with the lug of the electrode projecting from 
one end. The negatives consist of sheet lead covered by active 
material. On assembling the plates, each negative is held 
between two positive " boxes," the outsides of which have pro- 
jecting vertical ribs. These press against the active material 
on the negative plates, and help to keep it in position. At the 
same time, the clearance between the ribs allows room for acid 
to circulate freely between the negative plate and the outer face 
of the positive envelope. Diffusion of the acid through this 
envelope is easy, as it is very porous and not more than ^j inch 
thick. 

Traction Cells, Attempts to run tramcars by accumulators 
have practically all failed, but traction cells are employed for 
electric broughams and light vehicles for use in towns. There 
are no large deviations in manufacture except those imposed 
by limited space, weight and vibration. The plates are gener- 
ally thinner and placed closer together. The Plante positive 
is not used so much as in lighting types. The acid is generally 
a little stronger in order to get a higher electromotive force 
(E.M.F.). To prevent the active material from being shaken out 
of the grids, corrugated and perforated ebonite separators are 
placed between the plates. The " chloride " traction cell uses 
a special variety of wood separator: the " exide " type of 
plate is used for both positive and negative. Cells are now 
made to run 3000 or more miles before becoming useless. The 
specific output can be made as high as 10 or n watt-hours per 
pound of cell, but this involves a chance of shorter life. The 
average working requirement for heavy vehicles is about 50 
watt-hours per 1000 Ib per mile. 

Ignition Cells for motor cars are made on the same lines as 
traction cells, though of smaller capacity. As a rule two cells are 
put up in ebonite or celluloid boxes and joined in series so as to 
give a 4-volt battery, the pressure for which sparking coils are 
generally designed. The capacity ranges from 20 to 100 ampere- 
hours, and the current for a single cylinder engine will average 
one to one and a half amperes during the running intervals. 

General Features. The tendency in stationary cells is to allow 
plenty of space below the plates, so that any active material 
which falls from the plates may collect there without risk of 
short-circuit, &c. More space is allowed between the plates, 
which means that (a) there is more acid within reach, and (b) 
a slight buckling is not so dangerous, arid indeed is not so likely 
to occur. The plates are now generally made thicker than 
formerly, so as to secure greater mechanical rigidity. At the 
same time, the manufacturers aim at getting the active materials 
in as porous a state as possible. 

The figures with regard to specific output are difficult to 
classify. It would be most interesting to give the data in the 
form of watt-hours per pound of active material, and then to 
compare them with the theoretical values, but such figures are 
impossible in the nature of the case except in very special in- 
stances. For many purposes, long life and trustworthiness are 
more important than specific output. Except in the case of 
traction cells, therefore, the makers have not striven to reduce 
weight to its lowest values. Table I. shows roughly the weight 
of given types of cells for a given output in ampere hours. 

TABLE I. 



Type of Cell. 


Capaci 
9hrs. 


ty in an 
dischar 
6hrs. 


ipere-hc 
ged in 
3hrs. 


ursif 
i hr. 


Weight of Cell. 


Ordinary light- 












ing .... 


200 


182 


153 


101 


ico pounds. 


*i , 


420 


380 


300 


2IO 


200 




1 200 


1080 


880 


6OO 


670 


Central station 












and High Rate 


3500 


3100 


2500 


I7OO 


2000 


ii it 


6000 


5400 


4400 


3000 


3200 


Traction . . . 


220 


185 


155 


125 


40 


... 




440 






90 



Influence of Temperature on Capacity. These figures are true 
only at ordinary temperatures. In winter the capacity is 
diminished, in summer it is increased. The differences are due 
partly to change of liquid resistance but more especially to the 
difference in the rate at which acid can diffuse into or out of the 
pores: obviously this is greater at higher temperatures. The 
increase in capacity on warming is appreciable, and may amount 
to as much as 3% per degree centigrade (Gladstone and 
Hibbert, Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. xxi. 441; Heim, Electrician, 
Nov. 1901, p. 55; Liagre, L'Eclairage electrique, 1901, xxix. 150). 
Notwithstanding these results, it is not advisable to warm 
accumulators appreciably. At higher temperatures, local action 
is greatly increased and deterioration becomes more rapid. It 
is well, however, to avoid low winter temperatures. 

Working of Accumulators. Whatever the type of cell may be, it is 
important to attend to the following working requirements: (i) 
The cells must be fully equal to the maximum demand, both in dis- 
charge rate and capacity. (2) All the cells in one series ought to be 
equal in discharge rate and capacity. This involves similarity of 
treatment. (3) The cells are erected on strong wooden stands. 
Where floor space is too expensive, they can be erected in tiers; but, 
if possible, this should be avoided. They ought to lie in rows, so ar- 
ranged that it is easy to get to one side (at least) of every cell, for 
examination and testing, and if need be to detach and remove it or 
its plates. Where a second tier is placed over the first, sufficient 
clearance space must be allowed for the plates to be lifted out of the 
lower boxes. The cells are insulated by supporting them on glass 
or mushroom-shaped oil insulators. If the containing vessels are 
made of glass, it is desirable to put them in wooden trays which dis- 
tribute the weight between the vessel and insulators. To prevent 
acid spray from filling the air of the room, a glass plate is arranged 
over each cell. The positive and negative sections are fixed in posi- 
tion with insulating forks or tubes, and the positive terminal of one 
cell is joined to the negative of the next by burning or bolting. If 
the latter method is adopted, the surfaces ought to be very clean and 
well pressed home. The joint ought to be covered by vaseline or 
varnish. When this has been done, examination ought to be made 
of each cell to see that the plates are evenly spaced, that the 
separators (glass tubes or ebonite forks between the plates) are in 
position and vertical, and that there are no scales or other adventi- 
tious matter connecting the plates. The floor of the cell ought to be 
quite clear; if anything lies there it must be removed. (4) To mix 
the solution a gentle stream of sulphuric acid must be poured into the 
water (not the other way, lest too great heating cause an accident). 
It is necessary to stir the whole as the mixing proceeds and to arrange 
that the density is about 1 190, or according to the recommendation 
of the maker. About five volumes of water ought to be taken to one 
volume of acid. After mixing, allow to cool for two or three hours. 
The strong acid ought to be free from arsenic, copper and other 
similar impurities. The water ought to be as pure as can be obtained, 
distilled water being best ; rain water is also good. If potable water 
be employed, it will generally be improved by boiling, which removes 
some of the lime heldin solution. The impurity in ordinary drinking 
water is very slight; but as all cells lose by evaporation and require 
additions of water from time to time, there is a tendency for it to 
increase. The acid must not be put into the cells till everything is 
ready for charging. (5) A shunt-wound or separately-excited dynamo 
being ready and running so as to give at will 2-6 or 2-7 volts 
per cell, the acid is run into the cells. As soon as this is done, the 
dynamo must be switched on and charging commenced. The positive 
terminal of the dynamo must be joined to the positive terminal of the 
battery. If necessary, the + end of the machine must be found by 
a trial cell made of two plain lead sheets in dilute acid. It is im- 
portant also to maintain this first charging operation for a long time 
without a break. Twelve hours is a minimum time, twenty-four not 
too much. The charging is not even then complete, though a short 
interval is not so injurious as in the earlier stage. The full charge 
required varies with the cells, but in all types a full and practically 
continuous first charge is imperatively necessary. During the early 
part of this charge the density of the acid may fall; but after a time 
ought to increase, and finally reach the value desired for permanent 
working. Towards the end of the "formation " vigilant observation 
must be exercised. It is important to notice whether any cells are 
appreciably behind the others in voltage, density or gassing. Such 
cells may be faulty, and in any case they must be charged and tended 
till their condition is like that of the others. They ought not to go 
on the discharge circuit till this is assured. The examination of 
the cells before passing them as ready for discharge includes: (a) 
Density of acid as shown by the hydrometer, (ft) Voltage. This 
may be taken when charging or when idle. In the first case it ought 
to be from 2-4 to 2-6 volts, according to conditions. In the second 
case it ought to be just over 2 volts, provided that the observation 
is not taken too soon after switching off the charging current. For 
about half an hour after that is done, the E.M.F. has a transient high 
value, so that, if it be desired to get the proper E.M.F. of the cell, the 
observation must be taken thirty minutes after the charging ceases. 



ACCUMULATOR 



129 



(c) Eye observations of the plates and the acid between them. The 
positive plates ought to show a rich dark brown colour, the negatives 
a dull slate-blue, and the space between ought to be quite clear and 
free from anything like solid matter. All the positives ought to be 
alike, and similarly all the negatives. If the cells show similarity in 
these respects they will probably be in good working order. 

As to management, it is important to keep to certain simple rules, 
of which these are the chief : (i ) Never discharge below a potential 
difference of 1-85 (or in rapid discharge, 1-8) volt. (2) Never leave 
the cells discharged, if it be avoidable. (3) Give the cells a special 
full charging once a month. (4) Make a periodic examination of each 
cell, determining its E.M.F., density of acid, the condition of its plates 
and freedom from growth. Any incipient growth, however small, 
must be carefully watched. (5) If any cell shows signs of weakness, 
keep it off discharge till it has been brought back to full condition. 
See that it is free from any connexion between the plates which would 
cause short-circuiting; the frame or support which carries the plates 
sometimes gets covered by a conducting layer. To restore the cell, 
two methods can be adopted. In private installations it may be dis- 
connected and charged by one or two cells reserved for the purpose ; 
or, as is preferable, it may be left in circuit, and a cell in good order 
put in parallel with it. This acts as a " milking " cell, not only pre- 
venting the faulty one from discharging, but keeping it supplied 
with a charging current till its potential difference (P.D.) is normal. 
Every battery attendant should be provided with a hydrometer and 
a voltmeter. The former enables him to determine from time to 
time the density of the acid in the cells; instruments specially con- 
structed for the purpose are now easily procurable, and it is desir- 
able that one be provided for every 20 or 25 cells. The voltmeter 
should read up to about 3 volts and be fitted with a suitable con- 
nector to enable contacts to be made quickly with any desired cell. 
A portable glow lamp should also be available, so that a full light 
can be thrown into any cell ; a frosted bulb is rather better than a 
clear one for this purpose. He must also have some form of wooden 
scraper to remove any growth from the plates. The scraping must 
be done gently, with as little other disturbance as possible. By the 
ordinary operations which go on in the cell, small portions of the 
plates become detached. It is important that these should fall 
below the plates, lest they short-circuit the cell, and therefore suffi- 
cient space ought to be left between the bottom of the plates and 
the floor of the cell for these " scalings " to accumulate without 
touching the plates. _ It is desirable that they be disturbed as little 
as possible till their increase seriously encroaches on the free space. 
It sometimes happens that brass nuts or bolts, &c., are dropped 
into a cell ; these should be removed at once, as their partial solu- 
tion would greatly endanger the negative plates. The level of the 
liquid must be kept above the top of the plates. Experience shows 
the advisability of using distilled water for this purpose. It may 
sometimes be necessary to replenish the solution with some dilute 
acid, but strong acid must never be added. 

The chief faults are buckling, growth, sulphating and disintegra- 
tion. Buckling of the plates generally follows excessive discharge, 
caused by abnormal load or by accidental short-circuiting. At 
such times asymmetry in the cell is apt to make some part of the 
plate take much more than its share of the current. That part then 
expands unduiy, as explained later, and curvature is produced. The 
only remedy is to remove the plate, and press it back into shape as 
gently as possible. Growth arises generally from scales from one 
part falling on some other say, on the negative. In the next charg- 
ing the scale is reduced to a projecting bit of lead, which grows still 
further because other particles rest on it. The remedy is, gently to 
scrape off any incipient growth. Sulphating, the formation of a 
white hard surface on the active material, is due to neglect or exces- 
sive discharge. It often yields if a small quantity of sulphate of soda 
be added to the liquid in the cell. Disintegration is due to local 
action, and there is no ultimate remedy. The end can be deferred 
by care in working, and by avoiding strains and excessive discharge 
as much as possible. 

Accumulators in Repose. Accumulators contain only three 
active substances spongy lead on the negative plate, spongy 
lead peroxide on the positive, and dilute sulphuric acid between 

TABLE II. 



' Substance. 


Colour. 


Density. 


Specific Resistance. 


Lead .... 
Peroxide of lead 
Sulphuric acid 
after charge 
Sulphuric acid 
after discharge 
Sulphuric acid 
in pores . . . 
Sulphate of lead 


slate blue 
dark brown 

clear liquid 

>i ii 

' M 

white 


"3 

9-28 

I-2IO 
I-I7O 

below 
1-03 
6-3 


0-0000195 hm 
5-6 to 6-8 
1-37 

1-28 

8-0 
non-conductor. 



them. Sulphate of lead is formed on both plates during dis- 
charge and brought back to lead and lead peroxide again during 



charge, and there is a consequent change in the strength of acid 
during every cycle. The chief properties of these substances 
are shown in Table II. 

The curve in fig. 9 shows the relative conductivity (reciprocal 
of resistance) of all the strengths of sulphuric acid solutions, 
and by its aid and the 

figures in the preceding **" ' 

table, the specific resist- 
ance of any given strength * 
can be determined. 

The lead accumulator 
is subject to three kinds woo 
of local action. First and 
chiefly, local action on sooo 
the positive plate, because 
of the contact between oo 
lead peroxide and the lead 
grid which supports it. '<x> 
In carelessly made or 
roughly handled cells this , 
may be a very serious 
matter. It would be so 



10 20 30 *O 



FIG. 9. 



in all circumstances if the lead sulphate formed on the exposed 
lead grid did not act as a covering for it. It explains why Plante 
found "repose" a useful help in "forming," and also why 
positive plates slowly disintegrate; the lead support is gradu- 
ally eaten through. Secondly, local action on the negative plate 
when a more electro-negative metal settles on the lead. This 
often arises when the original paste or acid contains metallic 
impurities. Similar impurity is also introduced by scraping copper 
wire, &c., near a battery. Thirdly, local action due to the acid 
varying in strength in different parts of a plate. This may arise 
on either plate and is set up because two specimens of either the 
same lead or the same peroxide give an E.M.F. when placed in acids 
of different strengths. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert found 
that the E.M.F. depends on the difference of strength. With two 
lead plates, a maximum of about quarter volt was obtained, 
the lead in the weaker acid being positive. With two peroxide 
plates the maximum voltage was about 0-64, the plate in stronger 
acid being positive to that in weaker. The electromotive force 



25 

'2-4 
23 
22 



20 30 +0 60 

FIG. 10. 

of a cell depends chiefly on the strength of the acid, as may be 
seen from fig. 10 taken from Gladstone and Hibbert's paper 
(Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1892). The observations with very 
strong acid were difficult to obtain, though even that with 
98% acid marked X is believed to be trustworthy. C. Heim 
(Elek. Zeit, 1889), F. Streintz (Ann. Phys. Chem. xlvi. p. 449) 
and F. Dolezalek (Theory of Lead Accumulators, p. 55) have 
also given tables. 

It is only necessary to add to these results the facts illustrated 
by the following diffusion curves, in order to get a complete 
clue to the behaviour of an accumulator in active work. Fig. 
ii shows the rate of diffusion from plates soaked in 1-175 ac 'd 
and then placed in distilled water. It is from a paper by L. 
Duncan and H. Wiegand (Elec. World, N.Y., 1889), who were 






130 



ACCUMULATOR 



the first to show the importance of diffusion. About one half 
the acid diffused out in 30 minutes, a good illustration of the 
slowness of this process. The rate of diffusion is much the same 
for both positive and negative plates; but slower for discharged 
plates than for charged ones. Discharge affects the rate of 
diffusion on the lead plate more than on the peroxide plate. 
This is in accordance with the density values given in Table I. 
For while lead .sulphate is formed in the pores of both plates, 
the consequent expansions (and obstructions) are different; 
100 volumes of lead form 290 volumes of sulphate (a threefold 




10 IS 20 25 

Time in m/nuAjs 
FIG. 11. 

expansion), and 100 volumes of peroxide form 186 volumes of 
sulphate (a twofold expansion). The influence of diffusion on 
the electromotive force is illustrated by fig. 12. A cell was 
prepared with 20% acid. It also held a porous pot contain- 
ing stronger acid, and into this the positive plate was suddenly 
transferred from the general body of liquid. The E.M.F. rose 
by diffusion of stronger acid into the pores. Curve I. in fig. 12 
shows the rate of rise when the porous pot contained 34 % acid ; 
curve II. was obtained with the stronger (58%) acid (Gladstone 
and Hibbert, Phtt. Mag., 1890). Of these two curves the first 
is more useful, because its conditions are nearer those which 
occur in practice. 

At the end of a discharge it is a common thing for the plates 
to be standing in 25% acid, while inside the pores the acid may 
not exceed 8% or 10%. If the discharge be stopped, we have 
conditions somewhat like fig. 12, and the E.M.F. begins to rise. 
In one minute it has gone up by about 0-08 volt, &c. 

Charge and Discharge. The most important practical ques- 
tions concerning an accumulator are: its maximum rate of 
working; its capacity at various discharge rates; its efficiency; 
and its length of life. Apart from mechanical injury all these 

depend primarily on the 
way the cell is made, and 
then on the method of 
charging and discharging. 
For each type and size 
of cell there is a normal 
maximum discharging cur- 
rent. Up to this limit any 
current may be taken; 
beyond it, the cell may 
suffer if discharge be con- 
tinued for any appreciable 
time. The most important 




FlG. 12. 



point to attend to is the voltage at which discharge shall 
cease. The potential difference at terminals must not fall 
below i -80 volt during discharge at ordinary rates (10 
hours) or 1-75 to 1-70 volt for i or 2 hour rate. The reason 
underlying the figures is simple. These voltages indicate that 
the acid in the pores is not being renewed fast enough, and 
that if the discharge continue the chemical action will change: 
sulphate will not be formed in situ for want of acid. Any such 
change in action is fatal to reversibility and therefore to life 
and constancy in capacity. To illustrate: when at slow dis- 
charge rates the voltage is 1-80 volt, the acid in the pores has 
weakened to a mean value of about 2-5% (see fig. n), 
which is quite consistent with some part of the interior being 
practically pure water. With high discharge rates, something 



like o-i volt may be lost in the cells, by ordinary ohmic fall, so 
that a voltage reading of 1-75 means an E.M.F. of a little over 
1-8 volt, and a very weak density of the acid inside the pores. 
Guided by these figures, an engineer can determine what ought 
to be the permissible drop in terminal volts for any given working 
conditions. Messrs W. E. Ayrton, C. G. Lamb, E. W. Smith 
and M. W. Woods were the first to trace the working of a cell 
through varied conditions (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1890), and a 
brief rtsumi of their results is given below. 

They began by charging and discharging between the limits of 2-4 
and i -6 volts. 

Fig. 13 shows a typical discharge curve. Noteworthy points 
are : (i) At the beginning and at the end there is a rapid fall in P.D., 
with an intermediate period of fairly uniform value. (2) When the 



21 








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17 


Mt 


/f 


Ht 


ur. 


f, 


on 


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gH 


nit 


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of 


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ch. 


r 9 












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2 


3 





* 





? 


9 





10 


it 



FIG. 13. 

P.D. reaches i -6 volt the fall is so rapid that there is no advantage 
in continuing the action. When the P.D. had fallen to 1-6 volt the 
cell was automatically switched into a charging circuit, and with a 
current of 9 amperes yielded the curve in fig. 14. Here again there 
is a rapid variation in P.D. (in these cases a rise) at the beginning and 
end of the operation. The cells were now carried through the same 
cycle several times, giving almost identical values for each cycle. 
After some days, however, they became more and more difficult to 
charge, and the return on discharge was proportionately less. It 
became impossible to charge up to a P.D. of 2-4 volts, and finally the 
capacity fell away to half its first value. Examination showed that 
the plates were badly scaled, and that some of the scales had partially 
connected the plates. These scales were cleared away and the ex- 
periments resumed, limiting the fall of P.D. to 1-8 volt. The diffi- 



Curr 



At TfK 



FIG. 14. 

culties then disappeared, showing that discharge to 1-6 volt caused 
injury that did not arise at a limit of 1-8. Before describing the new 
results it will be useful to examine these two cases in the light of the 
theory of E.M.F. already given. 

(a) Fall in E.M.F. at beginning of discharge. At the moment when 
previous charging ceases the pores of the positive plate contain strong 
acid, brought there by the charging current. There is consequently 
a high E.M.F. But the strong acid begins to diffuse away at once 
and the E.M.F. falls rapidly. Even if the cell were not discharged this 
fall would occur, and if it were allowed to rest for thirty minutes or 
so the discharge would have begun with the dotted line (fig. 13). 
(b) Final rapid fall. The pores being clogged by sulphate the plugs 
cannot get acid by diffusion, and when 5% is reached the fall 
in E.M.F. is disproportionately large (see fig. 10). If discharge be 
stopped, there is an almost instantaneous diffusion inwards and a 
rapid rise in E.M.F. {c)The rise in E.M.F. at beginning and end of the 
charging is due to acid in the pores being strengthened, partly by 
diffusion, partly by formation of sulphuric acid from sulphate, and 
partly by electrolytic carrying of strong acid to the positive plate. 
The injurious results at 1-6 volt arise because then the pores contain 
water. The chemical reaction is altered, oxide or hydrate is formed, 
which will partially dissolve, to be changed to sulphate when the 
sulphuric acid subsequently diffuses in. But formed in this way it 
will not appear mixed with the active masses in the electrolytic 
paths, but more or less alone in the pores. In this position it will 
more or less block the passage and isolate some of the peroxide. 



ACCUMULATOR 



Further, when forming in the narrow passage its disruptive action 
will tend to force off the outer layers. It is evident that limitation 
of P.O. to 1-8 volt ought to prevent these injuries, because it pre- 
vents exhaustion of acid in the plugs. 

Fig. 15 shows the results obtained by study of successive periods 
of rest, the observations being taken between the limits of 2-4 and I -8 
volts. Curves A and B show the state and capacity at the beginning. 
After a 10 days' rest the capacity was smaller, but repeated cycles 



2-4 

2.2 
2.Q 
1-8 


Disc/targes with W amperes. Charges with Q amperes. 
























2-4 
2-2 












B 








--| 


^-* 












ft, 












2-0 


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1-8 














































2.4 
























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2-0 
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2-2 
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01*23456789 10 11 O 1 23458789 1O 11 

Time in hours from beginning of discharge. Time la hours from beginning of charge. 

FIG. 15. 

of work brought it back to C and D. A second rest (10 days), followed 
by many cycles, then gave E and F. After a third rest(i6 days) and 
many cycles, G and H were obtained. After a fourth rest (16 days) 
the first discharge gave I and the first charge J. Repeated cycles 
brought the cells back to K and L. Curves M and N show first cycle 
after a fifth rest (16 days); O and P show the final restoration 
brought about by repeated cycles of work. The numbers given by 
the integration of some of these curves are stated in Table III. 

TABLE III. 





Capacity and Efficiency under Various 
Conditions of Working. 




Discharge. 


Charge. 


Efficiency. 


Experiment. 


Am- 
pere 
Hours. 


Watt 
Hours. 


Am- 
pere 
Hours. 


Watt 
Hours. 


Quan- 
tity. 


Energy. 


Normal cycle. 


1 02 


201-7 


104-5. 


230-7 


97-2 


87-4 


Restoration 














after 1st rest 


IOO 


179 


103-8 


228-2 


96-8 


85-8 


Ditto, after 














2nd rest . . 


9i 


176-7 


96-8 


213-2 


94-1 


82-8 


Ditto, after 














3rd rest . . 


82-6 


161-3 


86-2 


190-5 


95-8 


84-7 


Discharge ) 
immediately f 


56-5 


110-5 


86-2 


190-5 


65-5 


58' 


after rest ) 


56-5 


1 10-5 


71-1 


I58-3 


79-6 


69-6 


Restoration 














after 8 cycles 


80 


156-9 


83-8 


184-6 


95-5 


85 



The table shows that the efficiency in a normal cycle may be as 
high as 87-4%; that during a rest of sixteen days the charged 

'This discharge is here compared with the charge that preceded 
the rest; in the next line the same discharge is compared with the 
charge following the rest. 



accumulator is so affected that about 30% of its charge is not 
available, and in subsequent cycles it shows a diminished capacity 
and efficiency; and that by repeated charges and discharges the 
capacity may be partially restored and the efficiency more completely 
so. These changes might be due to (a) leakage or short-circuit, (6) 
some of the active material having fallen to the bottom of the cell or 
(c) some change in the active materials, (a) is excluded by the fact 
that the subsequent charge is smaller, and (6) by the continued in- 
crease of capacity during the cycles that follow the rest. Hence the 



I 



in th 


e active materials has already been given. The formation of 


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lead 
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FIG. 1 6. 

sulphate by local action on the peroxide plate and by direct 
n~of acid on spongy metal on the lead plate explains the loss of 
y shown in curve M, fig. 15, while the fact that it is probably 
;d, not in the path of the regular currents, but on the wall of the 
[remote.from the ordinary action), gives a probable explanation 
e subsequent slow recovery. The action of the acid on the lead 
ig rest must not be overlooked. 
; have seen that capacity diminishes as the discharge rate 
ases; that is, the available output increases as the current 
lishes. R. E. B. Crompton's diagram illustrating this fact is 
in fig. 16. At the higher rates the consumption of acid is too 
, diffusion cannot maintain its strength in the pores, and the 
omes so much earlier, 
e resistance varies with the condition of the cell, as shown by the 
:s in fig. 1 7. It may be unduly increased by long or narrow lugs, 
especially by dirty joints between the lugs. It is interesting 
te that it increases at the end of both charge and discharge, and 


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FIG. 17. 

much more for the first than the second. Now the composition of the 
active materials near the end of charge is almost exactly the same 
as at the beginning of discharge, and at first sight there seems 
nothing to account for the great fall in resistance from 0-0115 to 
0-004 or >m ! that is, to about one-third the value. There is, however, 
one difference between charging and discharging namely, that due 
to the strong acid near the positive, with a corresponding weaker acid 
near the negative electrode. The curve of conductivity for sulphuric 
acid shows that both strong and weak acid have much higher resist- 
ances than the liquid usually employed in accumulators, and it is 
therefore reasonable to suppose that local variations in strength of 
acid cause the changes in resistance. That these are not due to the 
constitution of the plugs is shown by the fact that, while the plugs 



132 



ACCUMULATOR 



are almost identical at end of discharge and beginning of charge, the 
resistance falls from 0-0055 to 0-0033 ohm. 

While a current flows through a cell, heat is produced at the rate 
of CRXo-24 calories (water-gram-degree) per second. As a conse- 
quence the temperature tends to rise. But the change of tempera- 
ture actually observed is much greater during charge, and much less 

during discharge, than the 
foregoing expression would 
suggest; and it is evident 
that, besides the heat pro- 
duced according to Joule's 
law, there are other actions 
which warm the cell during 
charge and cool it during 
discharge. Duncan and 
Wiegand (loc. cit.), who 
first observed the thermal 
changes, ascribe the chief 
influence to the electro- 
chemical addition of H 2 SO 4 
to the liquid during charge 
and its removal during dis- 
charge. Fig. 1 8 gives some 
results obtained by Ayrton, 
Lamb, &c. This elevation 
PIG. 18. of temperature (due to 

electrolytic strengthening 

of acid and local action) is a measure of the energy lost in a cycle, and 
ought to be minimized as much as possible. 

Chemistry. The chemical theory adopted in the foregoing pages 
is very simple. It declares that sulphate of lead is formed on both 
plates during discharge, the chemical action being reversed in charg- 
ing. The following equations express the experimental results. 
Condition before discharge: 

Liquid 
[y. H 2 SO, 
L n. I 



*-2 

s . 
J3 10 

Ij 



1 7 

$ I 

11 

i 










1 
























N, 


































s - 


"v 


























/ 









s 






















/ 










* 


w 


s 
















/ 


















N 












, 






















N, 










/ 


t "> 






















\_ 






/ 


e? 


























s 


\ 


/ 






























/ 


"*! 




























/ 






, 
























> 








\ 






















/ 












\ 






^s, 


s^ 










/^ 




















































) 1 ft * * ft 7 

Titng in Hours from beginning of C/ijrya 



+plate 
x. PbOi + 



H 2 S0 4 
H 2 J 



plate 
+ z. Pb 



After discharge : 
+ plate 



Liquid 



f(*-/>). PbO 2 ~] , r(y-2p). H 2 SO 4 "1 
p. PbSOj ' l_(n+2p). H 2 O J 



plate 

z-p). Pbl 
.. PbSO 4 J 

During charge, the substances are restored to their original con- 
dition: the equation is therefore reversed. An equation of this 
general nature was published by Gladstone and Tribe in 1882, when 
they first suggested the " sulphate " theory, which was based on very 
numerous analyses. Confirmation was given by E.Frankland in 1883 , 
E. Reynier 1884, A. P. P. Crova and P. Garbe 1885, C. Heim and 
W. F. Kohlrausch 1889, W. E. Ayrton, &c., with G. H Robertson 
1890, C. H. J. B. Liebenow 1897, F. Dolezalek 1897, and M. Mugdan 
1899. Yet there has been, as Dolezalek says, an incomprehensible 
unwillingness to accept the theory, though no suggested alternative 
could offer good verifiable experimental foundation. Those who 
seek a full discussion will find it in Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead 
Accumulator. We shall take it that the sulphate theory is proved, 
and apply it to the conditions of charge and discharge. 

From the chemical theory it will be obvious that the acid in the 
pores of both plates will be stronger during charge than that outside. 
During discharge the reverse will be the case. Fig. 19 shows a curve 



FIG. 19. 

of potential difference during charge, with others showing the con- 
current changes in the percentage of PbO 2 and the density of acid. 
These increase almost in proportion to the duration of the current, 
and indicate the decomposition of sulphate and liberation of sul- 
phuric acid. There are breaks in the P.D. curve at A, B, C, D where 
the current was stopped to extract samples for analysis, &c. The 
fall in E.M.F. in this sh'ort interval is noteworthy; it arises from the 
diffusion of stronger acid out of the pores. The final rise of pressure 
is due to increase in resistance and the effect of stronger acid in the 
pores, this last arising partly from reduced sulphate and partly from 
the electrolytic convection of SO 4 (see also Dolezalek, Theory, p. 1 1 3) . 
Fig. 20 gives the data for discharge. The percentage of PbO 2 .and 



the density here fall almost in proportion to the duration of the 
current. The special feature is the rapid fall of voltage at the end. 
Several suggestions have been made about this phenomenon. 
The writer holds that it is due to the exhaustion of the acid in the 
pores. Plante, and afterwards Gladstone and Tribe, found a possible 
cause in the formation of a film of peroxide on the spongy lead. 
E. J. Wade has suggested a sudden readjustment of the spongy mass 
into a complex sulphate. To rebut these hypotheses it is only neces- 
sary to say that the fall can be deferred for a long time by pressing 
fresh acid into the pores hydrostatically (see Liebenow, Zeits. fur 
Elektrochem., 1897, iv. 61), or by working at a higher temperature. 
This increases the diffusion inwards of strong acid, and like the 
increase due to hydrostatic pressure maintains the E.M.F. The other 
suggested causes of the fall therefore fail. Fig. 20 also shows that 
when the discharge current was stopped at points A, B, C, D to 
extract samples, the voltage immediately rose, owing to inward 
diffusion of stronger acid. The inward diffusion of fresh acid also 
accounts for the recuperation found after a rest which follows either 
a complete discharge or a partial discharge at a very rapid rate. If 
the discharge be complete the recuperation refers only to the electro- 
motive force; the pressure falls at once on closed circuit. If dis- 
charge has been rapid, a rest will enable the cell to resume work 
because it brings fresh acid into the active regions. 




FIG. 20. 

As to the effect of repose on a charged cell, Gladstone and Tribe's 
experiments showed that peroxide of lead lying on its lead support 
suffers from a local action, which reduces one molecule of PbO 2 to 
sulphate at the same time that an atom of the grid below it is also 
changed to sulphate. There is thus not only a loss of the available 
peroxide, but a corrosion of the grid or plate. It is through this 
action that the supports gradually give way. On the negative plate 
an action arises between the finely divided lead and the sulphuric 
acid, with the result that hydrogen is set free: 

Pb+H 2 S0 4 = PbS0 4 +H 2 . 

This involvesa diminution of available spongy lead, or lossof capacity, 
occasionally with serious consequences. The capacity of the lead 
plate is reduced absolutely, of course, but its relative value is more 
seriously affected. In the discharge it gets sulphated too much, 
because the better positive keeps up the E.M.F. too long. In the 
succeeding charge, the positive is fully charged before the negative, 
and the differences between them tend to increase in each cycle. 

Kelvin and Helmholtz have shown that the E.M.F. of a voltaic cell 
can be calculated from the energy developed by the chemical action. 
For a dyad gram equivalent ( = 2 grams of hydrogen, 207 grams of 
lead, &c.), the equation connecting them is 

EH . -j-dE 
- ~r 1 JT* 
46000 " i 

where E is the E.M.F. in volts, H is the heat developed by a dyad 
equivalent of the reacting substances, T is the absolute tempera- 
ture, and dE/df is the temperature coefficient of the E.M.F. _ If the 
E.M.F. does not change with temperature, the second term is zero. 
The thermal values for the various substances formed and decom- 
posed are: For PbO 2 , 62400; for PbSO 4 , 216210; for H S SO., 
192920; and for H 2 O, 68400 calories. Writing the equation in 
its simplest form for strong acid, and ignoring the temperature co- 
efficient term, 



-62440-385840 +432420+136720 

leaving a balance of 120860 calories. Dividing by 46000 gives 
2-627 volts. The experimental value in strong acid, according to 
Gladstone and Hibbert, is 2-607 volts, a very close approximation. 
For other strengths of acid, the energy will be less by the quantity 
of heat evolved by dilution of the acid, because the chemical action 
must take tfye H 2 SO 4 from the diluted liquid. The dotted curve 
in fig. 10 indicates the calculated E.M.F. at various points when 
this is taken into account. The difference between it and the con- 
tinuous curve must, if the chemical theory be correct, depend on the 
second term in the equation. The figure shows that the observed 
E.M.F. is above the theoretical for all strengths from 100 down to 5 %. 
Below 5 the position is reversed. The question remains, Can the 
temperature coefficient be obtained? This is difficult, because the 



ACCUMULATOR 



133 



value is so small, and it is not easy to secure a good cycle of obser- 


vations. Streintz has given the following values: 


E 1-9223 


1-9828 


2-0031 


2-0084 


2-0105 


2-078 


2-2070 


. io 6 140 


228 


335 


285 


255 


130 


73 



Unpublished experiments by the writer give -==.. io 6 = 35o for 

acid of density 1-156. With stronger acid, a true cycle could not 
be obtained. Taking Streintz's value, 335 for 25% acid, the second 

term of the equation is T^ = 290X^000335= 0-0971 volt. The first 



term gives 88800 calories = I -9304 volt. 

The observed value is 2-030 volts 



Adding the second term, 

1-9304+0-0971 =2-2075 volts. The observed value is 2-030 volts 
(see fig. io), a remarkably good agreement. This calculation and 
the general relation shown in fig. io render it highly probable that, 
if the temperature coefficient were known for all strengths of acid, 
the result would be equally good. It is worth observing that the 
reversal of relationship between the observed and calculated curves, 
which takes place at 5% or 6%, suggests that the chemistry must 
be on the point of altering as the acid gets weak, a conclusion which 
has been already arrived at on purely chemical grounds. The 
thermodynamical relations are thus seen to confirm very strongly 
the chemical and physical analyses. 1 

Accumulators in Central Stations. As the efficiency of ac- 
cumulators is not generally higher than 75%, and machines 
must be used to charge them, it is hot directly economical to 
use cells alone for public supply. Yet they play an important 
and an increasing part in public work, because they help to 
maintain a constant voltage on the mains, and can be used to 
distribute the load on the running machinery over a much 
greater fraction of the day. Used in parallel with the dynamo, 
they quickly yield current when the load increases, and immedi- 
ately begin to charge when the load diminishes, thus largely 
reducing the fluctuating stress on dynamo and engine for sudden 
variations in load. Their use is advantageous if they can be 
charged and discharged at a time when the steam plant would 
otherwise be working at an uneconomical load. 

Regulation of the potential difference is managed in various 
ways. More cells may be thrown in as the discharge proceeds, 

and taken out during 
charge; but this method 
often leads to trouble, as 
some cells get unduly dis- 
charged, and the unity of 
the battery is disturbed. 
Sometimes the number of 
cells is kept fixed for 
supply, but the P.O. they 
put on the mains is re- 
duced during charge by 
em ploying regulating cells 
in opposition. Both these 
plans have proved unsatis- 
factory, and the battery 
is now preferably joined 
across the mains in parallel 
with the dynamo. The 
cells take the peaks of the 
load and thus relieve the 
dynamo and engine of 
sudden changes, as shown 
in fig. 21. Here the line 
"20 current (shown by the 
erratic curve) varied spas- 
modically from o to 375 
amperes, yet the dynamo current varied from 100 to 150 
amperes only (see line A). At the same time the line voltage 
(S3S volts normal) was kept nearly constant. In the late 
evening the cells became exhausted and the dynamo charged 
them. Extra voltage was required at the end of a " charge " 
and was provided by a " booster." Originally a booster 
was an auxiliary dynamo worked in series with the chief 
nachine, and driven in any convenient way. It has de- 

1 For the discussion of later electrolytic theories as applied to 
umulators, see Dolezalek, Theory of the Lead Accumulator. 




FIG. 21. 



f" '_ Lint 

. 5BSC-: - 


i 


fail* 


n 


J 



o 



FIG. 22. 



veloped into a machine with two or more exciting coils, and 
having its armature in series with the cells (see fig. 22). The 
exciting coils act in opposition; the one carrying the main 
current sets up an E.M.F. in the same direction as that of the 
cells, and helps the cells to discharge as the load rises. When 
the load is small, the voltage on the mains is highest and the 
shunt exciting current greatest. The booster E.M.F. now acts 
with the dynamo and against the cells, and causes them to take 
a full charge. Even this arrangement did not suffice to keep 
the line voltage as constant as seemed desirable in some cases, 
as where lighting and traction work were put on the same 
plant. Fig. 23 is a diagram of a complex booster which gives 
very good regulation. The booster B has its armature in series 
with the accumulators A, 
and is kept running in a 
given direction at a con- 
stant speed by means of 
a shunt-wound motor 
(not shown), so that the 
E.M.F. induced in the 
armature depends on the 
excitation. This is made 
to vary in value and in 
direction by means of 

four independent exciting coils, Ci, Cz, 3, 4. The last is not 
essential, as it merely compensates for the small voltage drop 
in the armature. It is obvious that the excitation Ca will be 
proportionate to the difference in voltage between the battery 
and the mains, and it is arranged that battery volts and booster 
volts shall equal the volts on the mains. Under this excitation 
there is no tendency for the battery to charge or discharge. But 
any additional excitation leads to strong currents one way or 
the other. Excitation Ci rises with the load on the line, and 
gives an E.M.F. helping the battery to discharge most when the 
load is greatest. 2 is dependent on the bus-bar voltage, and is 
greatest when the generator load is small: it opposes Ci and 
therefore excites the booster to charge the battery. The exact 
generator load at which the booster shall reverse its E.M.F. from 
a charging to a discharging value is adjusted by the resistance 
R 2 in series with 2. A similar resistance RS allows the excita- 
tion of Cs to be adjusted. Very remarkable regulation can be 
obtained by reversible boosters of this type. In traction and 
lighting stations it is quite possible to keep the variation of 
bus-bar pressure within 2% of the normal value, although the 
load may momentarily vary from a few amperes up to 200 or 
300. 

J. B. Entz has introduced an auxiliary device which enables 
him to use a much more simple booster. The Entz booster has 
no series coil and only one shunt coil, the direction and value 
of excitation due to this being 
controlled by a carbon regulator, 
having two arms, the resistance 
of each of which can be varied 
by pressure due to the magnet- 
izing action of a solenoid. The 
main current from the generator 
passes through the solenoid and 
causes one or other of the two 
carbon arms to have the less 
resistance. This change in resist- 
ance determines the direction 




FIG. 23. 



of the exciter field current, and therefore the direction of the 
boost. A photograph of the switchboard at Greenock where 
this booster is in use shows the voltmeter needle as if it had been 
held rigid, although the exposure lasted 90 minutes. On the 
same photograph the ammeter needle does not appear, its in- 
cessant and large movements preventing any picture from being 
formed. 

Alkaline Accumulators. Owing to the high electro-chemical 
equivalent of lead, a great saving in weight would be secured 
by using almost any other metal. Unfortunately no other 
metal and its compounds can resist the acid. Hence inventors 



134 



ACCURSIUS ACENAPHTHENE 




have been incited to try alkaline liquids as electrolytes. Many 
attempts have been made to construct accumulators in this way, 
though with only moderate success. The Lalande-Chaperon, 
Desmazures, Waddell-Entz and Edison are the chief cells. 
T. A. Edison's cell has been most developed, and is intended for 
traction work. He made the plates of very thin sheets of nickel- 
plated steel, in each of which 24 rectangular holes were stamped, 
leaving a mere framework of the metal. Shallow rectangular 
pockets of perforated nickel-steel were fitted in the holes and 
then burred over the framework by high pressures. The pockets 
contained the active material. On the positive plate this con- 
sisted of nickel peroxide mixed with flake graphite, and on the 
negative plate of finely divided iron mixed with graphite. Both 
kinds of active material were prepared in a special way. The 

graphite gives greater con- 
ductivity. The liquid was 
a 20% solution of caustic 
potash. During discharge 
the iron was oxidized, 
and the nickel reduced to 
a lower state of oxidation. 
This change was reversed 
during charge. Fig. 24 shows 
the general features. 

The chief results obtained 
by European experts showed 
that the E.M.F. was 1-33 
volt, with a transient higher 
value following charge. A 

cell weighing 17-8 Ib had 
FIG. 24.-Ed.son Accumulator. a resistance of ^^ ohnl; 

and an output at 60 amperes of 210 watt-hours, or at 
1 20 amperes of 177 watt-hours. Another and improved cell 
weighing 12-7 ft gave 14-6 watt-hours per. pound of cell 
at a 2O-ampere rate, and 13-5 watt-hours per pound at a 60- 
ampere rate. The cell could be charged and discharged at 
almost any rate. A full charge could be given in i hour, and 
it would stand a discharge rate of 200 amperes (Journ. Inst. 
Elec. Eng., 1904, pp. 1-36). 

Subsequently Edison found some degree of falling-off in capa- 
city, due to an enlargement of the positive pockets by pressure 
of gas. Most of the faults have been overcome by altering the 
form of the pocket and replacing the graphite by a metallic 
conductor in the form of flakes. 

REFERENCES. G. Plant6, Recherches sur I'Slectricite (Paris, 1879); 
Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry of Secondary Batteries (London, 
1884); Reynier, L' Accumulateur voltaique (Paris, 1888); Heirn, 
Die Akkumulatoren (Berlin, 1889); Hoppe, Die Akk. fiir Elektricitat 
(Berlin, 1892); Schoop, Handbuch fiir Akk. (Stuttgart, 1898); Sir 
E. Frankland, " Chemistry of Storage Batteries," Proc. Roy. Soc., 
1883; Reynier, Jour. Soc. Franc, de Phys., 1884.; Heim, "tX d. 
Einfluss der Sauredichte auf die Kapazitat der Akk.," Elek. Zeits., 
1889; Kohlrausch and Heim, " Ergebnisse von Versuchen an Akk. 
fur Stationsbetrieb," Elek. Zeits., 1889; Darrieus, Bull. Soc. In- 
tern, des Elect., 1892; F. Dolezalek, The Theory of the Lead Accumu- 
lator (London, 1906); Sir D. Salomons, Management of Accumulators 
(London, 1906); E. J. Wade, Secondary Batteries (London, 1001); 
L. Jumau, Les Accumulateurs electriques (Paris, 1904). (W. Hr.) 

ACCURSIUS (Ilal. ACCORSO) , FRANCISCUS (i 182-1 260) , Italian 
jurist, was born at Florence about 1182. A pupil of Azo, 
he first practised law in his native city, and was afterwards 
appointed professor at Bologna, where he had great success as 
a teacher. He undertook the great work of arranging into 
one body the almost innumerable comments and remarks upon 
the Code, the Institutes -and Digests, the confused dispersion 
of which among the works of different writers caused much 
obscurity and contradiction. This compilation, bearing the title 
Glossa ordinaria or magistrates, but usually known as the Great 
Gloss, though written in barbarous Latin, has more method 
than that of any preceding writer on the subject. The best 
edition of it is that f Denis Godefroi (1549-1621), published at 
Lyons in 1589, in 6 vols. folio. When Accursius was employed 
in this work, it is said that, hearing of a similar one proposed 
and begun by Odofred, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned 



indisposition, interrupted his public lectures, and shut himself 
up, till with the utmost expedition he had accomplished his 
design. Accursius was greatly extolled by the lawyers of his 
own and the immediately succeeding age, and he was even called 
the idol of jurisconsults, but those of later times formed a much 
lower estimate of his merits. There can be no doubt that he 
disentangled the sense of many laws with much skill, but it is 
equally undeniable that his ignorance of history and antiquities 
ofteji led him into absurdities, and was the cause of many defects 
in his explanations and commentaries. He died at Bologna in 
1260. His eldest son Franciscus (1225-1293), who also filled 
the chair of law at Bologna, was invited to Oxford by King 
Edward I., and in 1275 or 1276 read lectures on law in the 
university. 

ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a 
causa, a suit or trial at law), a legal term signifying the charging 
of another with wrong-doing, criminal or otherwise. An accusa- 
tion which is made in a court of justice during legal proceedings 
is privileged (see PRIVILEGE), though, should the accused have 
been maliciously prosecuted, he will have a right to bring an 
action for malicious prosecution. An accusation made outside a 
court of justice would, if the accusation were false, render the 
accuser liable to an action for defamation of character, while, 
if the accusation be committed to writing, the writer of it is 
liable to indictment, whether the accusation be made only to 
the party accused or to a third.person. A threat or conspiracy 
to accuse another of a crime or of misconduct which does not 
amount to a crime for the purpose of extortion is in itself 
indictable. 

ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusalivus, sc. casus, a translation of 
the Gr. amem/ci) irrSxris, the case concerned with cause and 
effect, from curio, a cause), in grammar, a case of the noun, 
denoting primarily the object of verbal action or the destination 
of motion. 

ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form 
of the Gr. els), the number one at dice, or the single point 
on a die or card; also a point in the score of racquets, lawn- 
tennis, tennis and other court games. 

ACELDAMA (according to Acts i. 19, " the field of blood "), 
the name given to the field purchased by Judas Iscariot with the 
money he received for the betrayal of Jesus Christ. A different 
version is given in Matthew xxvii. 8, where Judas is said to have 
cast down the money in the Temple, and the priests who had paid 
it to have recovered the pieces, with which they bought " the 
potter's field, to bury strangers in." The MS. evidence is greatly 
in favour of a form Aceldamach. This would seem to mean 
" the field of thy blood," which is unsuitable. Since, however, 
we find elsewhere one name appearing as both Sirach and Sira 
(ch = ), Aceldamach may be another form of an original 
Aceldama (tayi S^ti), the " field of blood." A. Klostermann, 
however, takes the ch to be part of the Aramaic root demach, 
" to sleep "; the word would then mean " field of sleep " or 
cemetery (Probleme im Aposteltexte, 1-8, 1883), an explanation 
which fits in well with the account in Matthew xxvii. The 
traditional site (now Hak el-Dum), S. of Jerusalem on the N.E. 
slope of the "Hill of Evil Counsel" (Jebel Deir Abu Tor), was 
used as a burial-place for Christian pilgrims from the 6th 
century A.D. till as late, apparently, as 1697, and especially in the 
time of the Crusades. Near it there is a very ancient charnel- 
house, partly rock-cut, partly of masonry, said to be the work of 
Crusaders. . ". 

ACENAPHTHENE, Ci 2 Hio, a hydrocarbon isolated from the 
fraction of coal-tar boiling at 26o-27O by M. P. E. Berthelot, 
who, in conjunction with Bardy, afterwards synthesized it from 
a-ethyl naphthalene (Ann. Chem. Phys., 1873, vol. xxix.). It 
forms white needles (from alcohol), melts at 95 and boils at 
278. Oxidation gives naphthalic acid (1-8 naphthalene 
dicarboxylic acid). 

Acenaphthalene, CM Hg, a hydrocarbon crystallizing in yellow 
tables and obtained by passing the vapour of acenaphthene 
over heated litharge. Sodium amalgam reduces it to acenaph- 
thene ; chromic acid oxidizes it to naphthalic acid. 






ACEPHALI ACETO-ACETIC ESTER 



ACEPHALI (from &-, privative, and Kf<f>a\ri, head), a term 
applied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in 
particular to a strict monophysite sect that separated itself, 
in the end of the sth century, from the rule of the patriarch of 
Alexandria (Peter Mongus), and remained " without king or 
bishop " till they were reconciled by Mark I. (799-Sig). 1 The 
term is also used to denote clerici iiagrantes, i.e. clergy without 
title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow (cf. Hinschius i. 
p. 64). Certain persons in England during the reign of King 
Henry I. were called Acephali because they had no lands by 

tue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord. The 
name is also given to certain legendary races described by 
ancient naturalists and geographers as having no heads, their 
mouths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified 
with Pliny's Blemmyae. 

ACEPHALOUS, headless, whether literally or metaphorically, 
leaderless. The word is used literally in biology; and meta- 
phorically in prosody or grammar for a verse or sentence with 
a beginning wanting. In zoology, the mollusca are divided into 
cephalous and acephalous (Acephala), according as they have 
or have not an organized part of their anatomy as the seat of the 
brain and special senses. The Acephala, or Lamellibranchiata 
(q.v.), are commonly known as bivalve shell-fish. In botany 
the word is used for ovaries not terminating in a stigma. 
Acephalocyst is the name given by R. T. H. Laennec to the 
hydatid, immature or larval tapeworm. 

ACERENZA (anc. Acerunlia), a town of the province of 
Potenza, Italy, the seat of an archbishop, 155 m. N.E. of the 
station of Pietragalla, which is 9 m. N.W. of Potenza by rail, 
2730 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4499. Its situation is 
one of great strength, and it has only one entrance, on the 
south. It was occupied as a colony at latest by the end of the 
Republic, and its importance as a fortress was specially ap- 
preciated by the Goths and Lombards in the 6th and 7th cen- 
turies. It has a fine Norman cathedral, upon the gable of which 
is one of the best extant busts of Julian the Apostate. 

ACEROSE (from Lat. acus, needle, or acer, sharp), needle- 
shaped, a term used in botany (since Linnaeus) as descriptive of 
the leaves, e.g., of pines. From Lat. acus, chaff, comes also the 
distinct meaning of " mixed with chaff." 

ACERRA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the 
province of Caserta, 9 m. N.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1901) 
16,443. The town lies on the right bank of the Agno, which 
divides the province of Naples from that of Caserta, 90 ft. above 
the sea, in a fertile but somewhat marshy district, which in the 
middle ages was very malarious. The ancient name (Acerrae) 
was also borne by a town in Umbria and another in Gallia 
Transpadana (the latter now Pizzighettone on the Adda, 13 m. 
W.N.W. of Cremona). It became a city with Latin rights in 
332 B.C. and later a municipium. It was destroyed by Hannibal 
in 216 B.C., but restored in 210; in 90 B.C. it served as the 
Roman headquarters in the Social war, and was successfully held 
against the insurgents. It received a colony under Augustus, but 
appears to have suffered much from floods of the river Clanis. 
Under the Empire we hear no more of it, and no traces of 
antiquity, beyond inscriptions, remain. 

ACERRA, in Roman antiquity, a small box or pot for holding 
incense, as distinct from the turibulum (thurible) or censer in 
which incense was burned. The name was also given by the 
Romans to a little altar placed near the dead, on which incense 
was offered every day till the burial. In ecclesiastical Latin the 
term acerra is still applied to the incense boats used in the 
Roman ritual. 

ACETABULUM, the Latin word for a vinegar cup, an ancient 
ioman vessel, used as a liquid measure (equal to about half a 

11) ; it is also a word used technically in zoology, by analogy 
or certain cup-shaped parts, e.g. the suckers of a mollusc, the 

cket of the thigh-bone, &c. ; and in botany for the receptacle 

' Fungi. 

ACETIC ACID (acidum aceticum), CH 3 -C0 2 H, one of the most 

aportant organic acids. It occurs naturally in the juice of 
1 See Gibbon, ch. xlvii. (vol. v. p. 129 in Bury's ed.). 



| many plants, and as the esters of n-hexyl and n-octyl alcohols 
in the seeds of Heracleum giganteum, and in the fruit of Hera- 
cleum sphondylium, but is generally obtained, on the large scale, 
from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or from the destructive 
distillation of wood. In the former process it is obtained in the 
form of a dilute aqueous solution, in which also the colouring 
matters of the wine, salts, &c., are dissolved; and this impure 
acetic acid is what we ordinarily term vinegar (q.v.). Acetic 
acid (in the form of vinegar) was known to the ancients, who 
obtained it by the oxidation of alcoholic liquors. Wood- 
vinegar was discovered in the middle ages. Towards the close 
of the i Sth century, A. L. Lavoisier showed that air was necessary 
to the formation of vinegar from alcohol. In 1830 J. B. A. 
Dumas converted acetic acid into trichloracetic acid, and in 

1842 L. H. F. Melsens reconverted this derivative into the original 
acetic acid by reduction with sodium amalgam. The synthesis 
of trichloracetic acid from its elements was accomplished in 

1843 by H. Kolbe; this taken in conjunction with Melsens's 
observation provided the first synthesis of acetic acid. An- 
hydrous acetic acid glacial acetic acid is a leafy crystalline 
mass melting at 16-7 C., and possessing an exceedingly pungent 
smell. It boils at 118, giving a vapour of abnormal specific 
gravity. It dissolves in water in all proportions with at first 
a contraction and afterwards an increase in volume. It is 
detected by heating with ordinary alcohol and sulphuric acid, 
which gives rise to acetic ester or ethyl acetate, recognized 
by its fragrant odour; or by heating with arsenious oxide, 
which forms the pungent and poisonous cacodyl oxide. It is a 
monobasic acid, forming one normal and two acid potassium 
salts, and basic salts with iron, aluminium, lead and copper. 
Ferrous and ferric acetates are used as mordants; normal lead 
acetate is known in commerce as sugar of lead (q.v.); basic 
copper acetates are known as verdigris (q.v.). 

Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Glacial acetic acid is occa- 
sionally used as a caustic for corns. The dilute acid, or vinegar, 
may be used to bathe the skin in fever, acting as a pleasant 
refrigerant. Acetic acid has no valuable properties for internal 
administration. Vinegar, however, which contains about 5 % 
acetic acid, is frequently taken as a cure for obesity, but there 
is no warrant for this application. Its continued employment 
may, indeed, so injure the mucous membrane of the stomach 
as to interfere with digestion and so cause a morbid and 
dangerous reduction in weight. 

The acetates constitute a valuable group of medicinal agents, 
the potassium salt being most frequently employed. After 
absorption into the blood, the acetates are oxidized to car- 
bonates, and therefore are remote alkalies, and are administered 
whenever it is desired to increase the alkalinity of the blood 
or to reduce the acidity of the urine, without exerting the dis- 
turbing influence of alkalies upon the digestive tract. The 
citrates act in precisely similar fashion, and may be substituted. 
They are somewhat more pleasant but more expensive. 

ACETO-ACETIC ESTER, C 6 H 10 O 3 or CH3-CO-CH 2 -COOC 2 H 6 , a 
chemical substance discovered in 1863 by A. Geuther, who 
showed that the chief product of the action of sodium on ethyl 
acetate was a sodium compound of composition CeHgOjNa, 
which on treatment with acids gave a colourless, somewhat oily 
liquid of composition CeHioOs. E. Frankland and B. F. Duppa in 
1865 examined the reaction and concluded that Geuther's sodium 
salt was a derivative of the ethyl ester of acetone carboxylic 
acid and possessed the constitution CH 3 CO-CHNa-COOC 2 Hj. 
This view was not accepted by Geuther, who looked upon 
his compound CeHioOs as being an acid. J. Wislicenus also 
investigated the reaction very thoroughly and accepted the 
Frankland-Duppa formula (Annalen, 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, 
190, p. 257). 

The substance is best prepared by drying ethyl acetate over 
calcium chloride and treating it with sodium wire, which is 
best introduced in one operation; the liquid boils and is then 
heated on a water bath for some hours, until the sodium all 
dissolves. After the reaction is completed, the liquid is 
acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:5) and then shaken 



136 



ACETONE ACETOPHENONE 



with salt solution, separated from the salt solution, washed, 
dried and fractionated. The portion boiling between 175 and 
i8sC. is redistilled. The yield amounts to about 30% of that 
required by theory. 

A. Ladenburg and J. A. Wanklyn have shown that pure ethyl 
acetate free from alcohol will not react with sodium to produce 
aceto-acetic ester. L. Claisen, whose views are now accepted, 
studied the reactions of sodium ethylate and showed that if 
sodium ethylate be used in place of sodium in the above re- 
action the same result is obtained. He explains the reactions 
thus- /O /ONa 

CHs-C \nr H +NaOC 2 H 6 =CH 3 -C(f OC 2 H 6 , 
)C Hs \OC 2 H 6 

this reaction being followed by 
/ONa IT 

CH3-CCK>C 2 H 6 + ">CH-COOC 2 H5 = 2C 2 H 5 OH+ 

X OC 2 H S CH 8 -C(ONa):CH-COOC 2 H 6 ; 

and on acidification this last substance gives aceto-acetic ester. 
Aceto-acetic ester is a colourless liquid boiling at i8iC.; it 
is slightly soluble in water, and when distilled undergoes 
some decomposition forming dehydracetic acid CsHgQi. It 
undoubtedly contains a keto-group, for it reacts with hydro- 
cyanic acid, hydroxylamine, phenylhydrazine and ammonia; 
sodium bisulphite also combines with it to form a crystalline 
compound, hence it contains the grouping CH 3 -CO-. J. Wis- 
licenus found that only one hydrogen atom in the -CH 2 - group 
is directly replaceable by sodium, and that if the sodium be 
then replaced by an alkyl group, the second hydrogen atom 
in the group can be replaced in the same manner. These alkyl 
substitution products are important, for they lead to the syn- 
thesis of many organic compounds, on account of the fact 
that they can be hydrolysed in two different ways, barium 
hydroxide or dilute sodium hydroxide solution giving the so- 
called ketone hydrolysis, whilst concentrated sodium hydroxide 
gives the acid hydrolysis. 

Ketone hydrolysis; 

CH 3 -CO-C(XY)-C0 2 C 2 H 6 ^CH 3 -CO-CH(XY)+C 2 H 6 OH+CO 2 ; 

Acid hydrolysis: 

CH 3 -CO-C(XY)-C02C 2 H 6 ->CH 3 -CO 2 H+C 2 H 6 OH+CH(XY)-COOH; 
(where X and Y = alkyl groups). 

Both reactions occur to some extent simultaneously. Aceto- 
acetic ester is a most important synthetic reagent, having been 
used in the production of pyridines (q.v.), quinolines (q.v.}, 
pyrazolones, furfurane (q.v.), pyrrols (q.v.), uric acid (q.v.), and 
many complex acids and ketones. 

For a discussion as to the composition, and whether it is to 
be regarded as possessing the " keto " form CH 3 -COCH 2 -COOC 2 H 6 
or the "enol" form CH,-C(OH) : CH-COOC 2 H 6l see ISOMERISM, and 
also papers by J. Wislicenus (Ann., 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, IQO, p. 
257), A. Michael (Journ. Prak. Chent., 1887, [2] 37, p. 473), L. Knorr 
(Ann., 1886, 238, p. 147), W. H. Perkin, senr. (Journ. of Chem. Soc., 
1892, 61, p. 800) and J. U. Nef (Ann., 1891, 266, p. 70; 1892, 270, 
PP- 289, 333; 1893, 276, p. 212). 

ACETONE, or DIMETHYL KETONE, CH 3 -CO-CHs, in chemistry, 
the simplest representative of the aliphatic ketones. It is present 
in very small quantity in normal urine, in the blood, and in 
larger quantities in diabetic patients. It is found among the 
products formed in the destructive distillation of wood, sugar, 
cellulose, &c., and for this reason it is always present in crude 
wood spirit, from which the greater portion of it may be re- 
covered by fractional distillation. On the large scale it is pre- 
pared by the dry distillation of calcium acetate (CH ( CO2)2Ca = 
CaCO 3 +CH 3 COCH 3 . E. R. Squibb (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 
1895, 17, p. 187) manufactures it by passing the vapour of acetic 
acid through a rotating iron cylinder containing a mixture of 
pumice and precipitated barium carbonate, and kept at a 
temperature of from 500 C. to 600 C. The mixed vapours of 
acetone, acetic acid and water are then led through a condensing 
apparatus so that the acetic acid and water are first condensed, 
and then the acetone is condensed in a second vessel. The 
barium carbonate used in the process acts as a contact substance, 
since the temperature at which the operation is carried out 
is always above the decomposition point of barium acetate. 



Crude acetone may be purified by converting it into the crystal- 
line sodium bisulphite compound, which is separated by filtration 
and then distilled with sodium carbonate. 



v!ix< c 



OH 



+Na 2 C0 3 =2 



CH 3 \ 

,/ 



o+2Na 2 S0 3 +C0 2 +H 2 0. 



It is then dehydrated and redistilled. 

Acetone is largely used in the manufacture of cordite (q.v.). 
For this purpose the crude distillate is redistilled over sulphuric 
acid and then fractionated. 

Acetone is a colourless mobile liquid of pleasant smell, boiling 
at 56- 53C.,and-has a specific gravity o-8i9(o/4C.). It is readily 
soluble in water, alcohol, ether, &c. In addition to its applica- 
tion in the cordite industry, it is used in the manufacture of 
chloroform (q.v.) and sulphonal, and as a solvent. It forms a 
hydrazone with phenyl hydrazine, and an oxime with hydroxyl- 
amine. Reduction by sodium amalgam converts it into iso- 
propyl alcohol; oxidation by chromic acid gives carbon dioxide 
and acetic acid. With ammonia it reacts to form di- and tri- 
acetoneamines. It also unites directly with hydrocyanic acid 
to form the nitrile of a-oxyisobutyric acid. 

By the action of various reagents such as lime, caustic potash, 
hydrochloric acid, &c., acetone is converted into condensation 
products, mesityl oxide C 6 H 10 O, phorone C 9 H 14 O, &c., being 
formed. On distillation with sulphuric acid, it is converted 
into mesitylene CgH^symmetrical trimethyl benzene). Acetone 
has also been used in the artificial production of indigo. In 
the presence of iodine and an alkali it gives iodoform. Acetone 
has been employed medicinally in cases of dyspnoea. With 
potassium iodide, glycerin and water, it forms the preparation 
spirone, which has been used as a spray inhalation in paroxysmal 
sneezing and asthma. 

ACETOPHENONE, or PHENYL-METHYL KETONE, C 8 H 8 O or 
C 6 H 6 CO-CH 3 , in chemistry, the simplest representative of the 
class of mixed aliphatic-aromatic ketones. It can be prepared 
by distilling a mixture of dry calcium benzoate and acetate, 
Ca(O2CC6H 5 ) 2 -KCH3CO 2 )2Ca = 2CaCO,+2C,H 6 CO-CHj l or by 
condensing benzene with acetyl chloride in the presence of anhy- 
drous aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts), C 6 H 6 + 
CH,COCl = Ha+C e H l COCHj. It crystallizes in colourless 
plates melting at 2oC. and boiling at 2O2C.; it is insoluble in 
water, but readily dissolves in the ordinary organic solvents. 
It is reduced by nascent hydrogen to the secondary alcohol 
C 6 H5-CH-OH-CH 3 phenyl-methyl-carbinol, and on oxidation 
forms benzoic acid. On the addition of phenylhydrazine it 
gives a phenylhydrazone, and with hydroxylamine furnishes an 

oxime ^jj'>C-N-OH melting at S9C. This oxime under- 
goes a peculiar rearrangement when it is dissolved in ether and 
phosphorus pentachloride is added to the ethereal solution, 
the excess of ether distilled off and water added to the residue 
being converted into the isomeric substance acetanilide, 
CeHsNHCOCHs, a behaviour shown by many ketoximes and 
known as the Beckmann change (see Berichte, 1886, 19, p. 988). 
With sodium ethylate in ethyl acetate solution it forms the 
sodium derivative of benzoyl acetone, from which benzoyl 
acetone, CsHs-CO-CHrCO-CH^ can be obtained by acidification 
with acetic acid. When heated with the halogens, acetophenone is 
substituted in the aliphatic portion of the nucleus; thus bromine 
gives phenacyl bromide, CeHsCO-CHjBr. Numerous derivatives 
of acetophenone have been prepared, one of the most import- 
ant being orthoaminoacetophenone, NH 2 -C6H 4 -CO-CH 3 , which is 
obtained by boiling orthoaminophenylpropiolic acid with water. 
It is a thick yellowish oil boiling between 242 C. and 250 C. 
It condenses with acetone in the presence of caustic soda to 
aquinoline. Acetonyl-acelophenone, CeHs-CO-CHz-CHrCO-CHs, 
is produced by condensing phenacyl bromide with sodium aceto- 
acetate with subsequent elimination of carbon dioxide, and on 
dehydration gives aa-phenyl-methyl-furfurane. Oxazoles (q.v.) 
are produced on condensing phenacyl bromide with acid-amides 
(M. Lewy, Berichte, 1887, 20, p. 2578). K. L. Paal has also ob- 
tained pyrrol derivatives by condensing acetophenone-aceto- 
acetic-ester with substances of the type NH 2 R. 






ACETYLENE 



137 



n 



ACETYLENE, klumene or ethine, a gaseous compound of 
carbon and hydrogen, represented by the formula C 2 H 2 . It is 
a colourless gas, having a density of 0-02. When 
P re P are d by the action of water upon calcium carbide, 
it has a very strong and penetrating odour, but when 
it is thoroughly purified from sulphuretted and phosphuretted 
hydrogen, which are invariably present with it in minute traces, 
this extremely pungent odour disappears, and the pure gas has 
a not unpleasant ethereal smell. It can be condensed into the 
liquid state by cold or by pressure, and experiments by G. 
Ansdell show that if the gas be subjected to a pressure of 21-53 
atmospheres at a temperature of o C., it is converted into the 
liquid state, the pressure needed increasing with the rise of 
temperature, and decreasing with the lowering of the tempera- 
ture, until at 82 C. it becomes liquid under ordinary atmo- 
spheric pressure. The critical point of the gas is 37 C., at which 
temperature a pressure of 68 atmospheres is required for lique- 
faction. The properties of liquid and solid acetylene have been 
investigated by D. Mclntosh (Jour. Chem. Soe., Abs., 1907, i. 
458). A great future was expected from its use in the liquid 
state, since a cylinder fitted with the necessary reducing valves 
would supply the gas to light a house for a considerable period, 
the liquid occupying about -j-J^ the volume of the gas, but in the 
United States and on the continent of Europe, where liquefied 
acetylene was made on the large scale, several fatal accidents 
occurred owing to its explosion under not easily explained con- 
ditions. As a result of these accidents M. P. E. Berthelot and 
L. J. G. Vieille made a series of valuable researches upon the 
explosion of acetylene under various conditions. They found 
that if liquid acetylene in a steel bottle be heated at one point 
by a platinum wire raised to a red heat, the whole mass decom- 
poses and gives rise to such tremendous pressures that no cylinder 
would be able to withstand them. These pressures varied from 
71,000 to 100,000 Ib. per square inch. They, moreover, tried the 
effect of shock upon the liquid, and found that the repeated 
dropping of the cylinder from a height of nearly 20 feet upon a 
large steel anvil.gave no explosion, but that when the cylinder 
was crushed under a heavy blow the impact was followed, after 
a short interval of time, by an explosion which was manifestly 
due to the fracture of the cylinder and the ignition of the escap- 
ing gas, mixed with air, from sparks caused by the breaking of 
the metal. A similar explosion will frequently follow the breaking 
in the same way of a cylinder charged with hydrogen at a high 
pressure. Continuing these experiments, they found that in 
acetylene gas under ordinary pressures the decomposition 
brought about in one portion of the gas, either by heat or the 
firing in it of a small detonator, did not spread far beyond the 
point at which the decomposition started, while if the acetylene 
was compressed to a pressure of more than 30 Ib on the square 
inch, the decomposition travelled throughout the mass and 
became in reality detonation. These results showed clearly that 
liquefied acetylene was far too dangerous for general introduction 
for domestic purposes, since, although the occasions would be 
rare in which the requisite temperature to bring about detonation 
would be reached, still, if this point were attained, the results 
would be of a most disastrous character. The fact that several 
accidents had already happened accentuated the risk, and in 
Great Britain the storage and use of liquefied acetylene are 
prohibited. 

When liquefied acetylene is allowed to escape from the cylinder 
in which it is contained into ordinary atmospheric pressure, 
some of the liquid assumes the gaseous condition with such 
rapidity as to cool the remainder below the temperature of 
90 C., and convert it into a solid snow-like mass. 

Acetylene is readily soluble in water, which at normal tem- 

perature and pressure takes up a little more than its own volume 

of the gas, and yields a solution giving a purple-red 

Solubility p rec ipit a te with ammoniacal cuprous chloride and 

acetylene. a white precipitate with silver nitrate, these precipi- 

tates consisting of acetylides of the metals. The 

solubility of the gas in various liquids, as given by different 

observers, is 



100 Volumes of 
Brine 
Water 
Alcohol 
Paraffin 

Carbon disulphide 
Fusel oil 
Benzene 
Chloroform 
Acetic acid 
Acetone 



Volumes of Acetylene, 
absorb 5 

no 
600 

150 
100 

100 

400 
400 
600 
2500 

It will be seen from this table that where it is desired to collect 
and keep acetylene over a liquid, brine, i.e. water saturated 
with salt, is the best for the purpose, but in practice it is found 
that, unless water is agitated with acetylene, or the gas bubbled 
through, the top layer soon gets saturated, and the gas then 
dissolves but slowly. The great solubility of acetylene in acetone 
was pointed out by G. Claude and A. Hess, who showed that 
acetone will absorb twenty-five times its own volume of acety- 
lene at a temperature of 15 C. under atmospheric pressure, 
and that, providing the temperature is kept constant, the liquid 
acetone will go on absorbing acetylene at the rate of twenty- 
five times its own volume for every atmosphere of pressure to 
which the gas is subjected. 

At first it seemed as if this discovery would do away with all 
the troubles connected with the storage of acetylene under 
pressure, but it was soon found that there were serious diffi- 
culties still to be overcome. The chief trouble was that acetone 
expands a small percentage of its own volume while it is absorb- 
ing acetylene ; therefore it is impossible to fill a cylinder with 
acetone and then force in acetylene, and still more impracticable 
only partly to fill the cylinder with acetone, as in that case the 
space above the liquid would be filled with acetylene under high 
pressure, and would have all the disadvantages of a cylinder 
containing compressed acetylene only. This difficulty was 
overcome by first filling the cylinder with porous briquettes 
and then soaking them with a fixed percentage of acetone, so 
that after allowing for the space taken up by the bricks the 
quantity of acetone soaked into the brick will absorb ten times 
the normal volume of the cylinder in acetylene for every atmo- 
sphere of pressure to which the gas is subjected, whilst all danger 
of explosion is eliminated. 

This fact having been fully demonstrated, acetylene dissolved 
in this way was exempted from the Explosives Act, and conse- 
quently upon this exemption a large business has grown up in 
the preparation and use of dissolved acetylene for lighting 
motor omnibuses, motor cars, railway carriages, lighthouses, 
buoys, yachts, &c., for which it is particularly adapted. 

Acetylene was at one time supposed to be a highly poisonous 
gas, the researches of A. Bistrow and O. Liebreich having 
apparently shown that it acts upon the blood in the 
same way as carbon monoxide to form a stable com- 
pound. Very extensive experiments, however, made by 
Drs N. Grehant, A. L. Brociner, L. Crismer, and others, all con-, 
clusively show that acetylene is much less toxic than carbon 
monoxide, and indeed than coal gas. 

When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale 
grave fears were entertained as to its safety, it being repre- 
sented that it had the power of combining with 
certain metals, more especially copper and silver, to 
form acetylides of a highly explosive character, and 
that even with coal gas, which contains less than i%, such 
copper compounds had been known to be formed in cases where 
the gas-distributing mains were composed of copper, and 
that accidents had happened from this cause. It was there- 
fore predicted that the introduction of acetylene on a large scale 
would be followed by numerous accidents unless copper and 
its alloys were rigidly excluded from contact with the gas. 
These fears have, however, fortunately proved to be unfounded, 
and ordinary gas fittings can be used with perfect safety with 
this gas. 

Acetylene has the property of inflaming spontaneously when 
brought in contact with chlorine. If a few pieces of carbide be 
dropped into saturated chlorine water the bubbles of gas take 






138 



ACETYLENE 



fire as they reach the surface, and if a jet of acetylene be passed 
up into a bottle of chlorine it takes fire and burns with a heavy 
red flame, depositing its carbon in the form of soot. If chlorine 
be bubbled up into a jar of acetylene standing over water, 
a violent explosion, attended with a flash of intense light and 
the deposition of carbon, at once takes place. When the gas is 
kept in a small glass holder exposed to direct sunlight, the sur- 
face of the glass soon becomes dimmed, and W. A. Bone has 
shown that when exposed for some time to the sun's rays it 
undergoes certain polymerization changes which lead to the 
deposition of a film of heavy hydrocarbons on the surface of the 
tube. It has also been observed by L. Cailletet and later by 
P. Villard that when allowed to stand in the presence of water 
at a low temperature a solid hydrate is formed. Acetylene is 
The poly- readily decomposed by heat, polymerizing under its 
merization influence to form an enormous number of organic 
ot compounds; indeed the gas, which can itself be directly 

acetylene. p re p are( j f rom j ts constituents, carbon and hydrogen, 
under the influence of the electric arc, can be made the starting- 
point for the construction of an enormous number of different 
organic compounds of a complex character. In contact with 
nascent hydrogen it builds up ethylene; ethylene acted upon by 
sulphuric acid yields ethyl sulphuric acid; this can again be 
decomposed in the presence of water to yield alcohol, and it 
has also been proposed to manufacture sugar from this body. 
Picric acid can also be obtained from it by first treating acety- 
lene with sulphuric acid, converting the product into phenol by 
solution in potash and then treating the phenol with fuming 
nitric acid. 

Acetylene is one of those bodies the formation of which is 
attended with the disappearance of heat, and it is for this reason 
Endo- termed an " endo thermic " compound, in contradis- 
thermic tinction to those bodies which evolve heat in their 
nature of formation, and which are called " exothermic." Such 
acetylene. en( j o th erm i c bodies are nearly always found to show con- 
siderable violence in their decomposition, as the heat of formation 
stored up within them is then liberated as sensible heat, and it is 
undoubtedly this property of acetylene gas which leads to its easy 
detonation by either heat or a shock from an explosion of ful- 
minating mercury when in contact with it under pressure. The 
observation that acetylene can be resolved into its constituents 
by detonation is due to Berthelot, who started an explosive 
wave in it by firing a charge of o-i gram of mercury fulminate. 
It has since been shown, however, that unless the gas is at a 
pressure of more than two atmospheres this wave soon dies out, 
and the decomposition is only propagated a few inches from the 
detonator. Heated in contact with air to a temperature of 
480 C., acetylene ignites and burns with a flame, the appearance 
of which varies with the way in which it is brought in contact 
with the air. With the gas in excess a heavy lurid flame emitting 
dense volumes of smoke results, whilst if it be driven out in a 
sufficiently thin sheet, it burns with a flame of intense brilliancy 
and almost perfect whiteness, by the light of which colours can 
be judged as well as they can by daylight. Having its ignition 
point below that of ordinary gas, it can be ignited by any red- 
hot carbonaceous matter, such as the brightly glowing end of a 
cigar. For its complete combustion a volume of acetylene needs 
approximately twelve volumes of air, forming as products of 
combustion carbon dioxide and water vapour. When, however, 
the air is present in much smaller ratio the combustion is incom- 
plete, and carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen 
and water vapour are produced. This is well shown by taking a 
cylinder one-half full of acetylene and one-half of air; on apply- 
ing a light to the mixture a lurid flame runs down the cylinder 
and a cloud of soot is thrown up, the cylinder also being thickly 
coated with it, and often containing a ball of carbon. If now, 
after a few moments' interval to allow some air to diffuse into 
the cylinder, a taper again be applied, an explosion takes place, 
due to a mixture of carbon monoxide and air. It is probable 
that when a flame is smoking badly, distinct traces of carbon 
monoxide are being produced, but when an acetylene flame 
burns properly the products are as harmless as those of coal 



gas, and, light for light, less in amount. Mixed with air, like 
every other combustible gas, acetylene forms an explosive 
mixture. F. Clowes has shown that it has a wider range of ex- 
plosive proportions when mixed with air than any of the other 
combustible gases, the limiting percentages being as follows: 

Acetylene . . 3 to 82 

51072 



Hydrogen . 
Carbon monoxide 
Ethylene . 
Methane . 



13 to 75 

4 to 22 

5 to 13 



The methods which can be and have been employed from time 
to time for the formation of acetylene in small quantities are 
exceedingly numerous. Before the commercial pro- 
duction of calcium carbide made it one of the most 
easily obtainable gases, the processes which were most auction. 
largely adopted for its preparation in laboratories 
were: first, the decomposition of ethylene bromide by dropping 
it slowly into a boiling solution of alcoholic potash, and purifying 
the evolved gas from the volatile bromethylene by washing it 
through a second flask containing a boiling solution of alcoholic 
potash, or by passing it over moderately heated soda lime; 
and, second, the more ordinarily adopted process of passing the 
products of incomplete combustion from a Bunsen burner, the 
flame of which had struck back, through an ammoniacal solution 
of cuprous chloride, when the red copper acetylide was produced. 
This on being washed and decomposed with hydrochloric acid 
yielded a stream of acetylene gas. This second method of pro- 
duction has the great drawback that, unless proper precautions 
are taken to purify the gas obtained from the copper acetylide, 
it is always contaminated with certain chlorine derivatives of 
acetylene. Edmund Davy first made acetylene in 1836 from a 
compound produced during the manufacture of potassium from 
potassium tartrate and charcoal, which under certain conditions 
yielded a black compound decomposed by water with consider- 
able violence and the evolution of acetylene. This compound 
was afterwards fully investigated by J. J. Berzelius, who showed 
it to be potassium carbide. He also made the corresponding 
sodium compound and showed that it evolved the same gas, 
whilst in 1862 F. Wohler first made calcium carbide, and found 
that water decomposed it into lime and acetylene. It was not, 
however, until 1892 that the almost simultaneous discovery was 
made by T. L. Willson in America and H. Moissan in France 
that if lime and carbon be fused together at the temperature of 
the electric furnace, the lime is reduced to calcium, which unites 
with the excess of carbon present to form calcium carbide. 
The cheap production of this material and the easy liberation 
by its aid of acetylene at once gave the gas a position of com- 
mercial importance. In the manufacture of calcium carbide 
in the electric furnace, lime and anthracite of the Maauhc- 
highest possible degree of purity are employed. A hire of 
good working mixture of these materials may be taken "'^^ 
as being 100 parts by weight of lime with 68 parts 
by weight of carbonaceous material. About 1-8 ft of this is 
used up for each pound of carbide produced. The two principal 
processes utilized in making calcium carbide by electrical 
power are the ingot process and the tapping process. In 
the former, the anthracite and lime are ground and carefully 
mixed in the right proportions to suit the chemical actions 
involved. The arc is struck in a crucible into which the mixture 
is allowed to flow, partially filling it. An ingot gradually builds 
up from the bottom of the crucible, the carbon electrode being 
raised from time to time automatically or by hand to suit the 
diminution of resistance due to the shortening of the arc by the 
rising ingot. The crucible is of metal and considerably larger 
than the ingot, the latter being surrounded by a mass of un- 
reduced material which protects the crucible from the intense 
heat. When the ingot has been made and the crucible is full, 
the latter is withdrawn and another substituted. The process 
is not continuous, but a change of crucibles only takes two or 
three minutes under the best conditions, and only occurs every 
ten or fifteen hours. The essence of this process is that the coke 
and lime are only heated to the point of combination, and are not 






ACETYLENE 



" boiled " after being formed. It is found that the ingot of 
calcium carbide formed in the furnace, although itself consisting 
of pure crystalline calcium carbide, is nearly always surrounded 
by a crust which contains a certain proportion of imperfectly 
converted constituents, and therefore gives a lower yield of 
acetylene than the carbide itself. In breaking up and sending 
out the carbide for commercial work, packed in air-tight drums, 
the crust is removed by a sand blast. A statement of the amount 
made per kilowatt hour may be misleading, since a certain 
amount of loss is of necessity entailed during this process. For 
instance, in practical working it has been found that a furnace 
return of 0-504 Ib per kilowatt hour is brought down to 0-406 
Ib per kilowatt hour when the material has been broken up, 
sorted and packed in air-tight drums. In the tapping process a 
fixed crucible is used, lined with carbon, the electrode is nearly 
as big as the crucible and a much higher current density is used. 
The carbide is heated to complete liquefaction and tapped at 
short intervals. There is no unreduced material, and the process 
is considerably simplified, while less expensive plant is required. 
The run carbide, however, is never so rich as the ingot carbide, 
since an excess of lime is nearly always used in the mixture to 
act as a flux, and this remaining in the carbide lowers its gas- 
yielding power. Many attempts have-been made to produce the 
substance without electricity, but have met with no commercial 
success. 

Calcium carbide, as formed in the electric furnace, is a beauti- 
ful crystalline semi-metallic solid, having a density of 2-22, and 

showing a fracture which is often shot with iridescent 

colours - II can ^ e kept unaltered in dry air, but the 
carbide. smallest trace of moisture in the atmosphere leads to 

the evolution of minute quantities of acetylene and 
gives it a distinctive odour. It is infusible at temperatures up to 
2000 C., but can be fused in the electric arc. When heated to 
a temperature of 245 C. in a stream of chlorine gas it becomes 
incandescent, forming calcium chloride and liberating carbon, 
and it can also be made to burn in oxygen at a dull red heat, 
leaving behind a residue of calcium carbonate. Under the same 
conditions it becomes incandescent in the vapour of sulphur, 
yielding calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide; the vapour of 
phosphorus will also unite with it at a red heat. Acted upon by 
water it is at once decomposed, yielding acetylene and calcium 
hydrate. Pure crystalline calcium carbide yields 5-8 cubic feet 
of acetylene per pound at ordinary temperatures, but the carbide 
as sold commercially, being a mixture of the pure crystalline 
material with the crust which in the electric furnace surrounds 
the ingot, yields at the best 5 cubic feet of gas per pound under 
proper conditions of generation. The volume of gas obtained, 
however, depends very largely upon the form of apparatus used, 
and while some will give the full volume, other apparatus will 
only yield, with the same carbide, 3! feet. The purity of the 
carbide entirely depends on the purity of the material used in 
its manufacture, and before this fact had been fully grasped by 
manufacturers, and only the purest material obtainable em- 
ployed, it contained notable quantities of compounds which 
during its decomposition by water yielded a somewhat high pro- 
impurities P ort i n of impurities in the acetylene generated from 

it. Although at the present time a marvellous im- 
provement has taken place all round in the quality of the 
carbide produced, the acetylene nearly always contains minute 
traces of hydrogen, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, phos- 
phuretted hydrogen, silicon hydride, nitrogen and oxygen, and 
sometimes minute traces of carbon monoxide and dioxide. The 
formation of hydrogen is caused by small traces of metallic 
calcium occasionally found free in the carbide, and cases have 
been known where this was present in such quantities that the 
evolved gas contained nearly 20 % of hydrogen. This takes 
place when in the manufacture of the carbide the material is 
kept too long in contact with the arc, since this overheating 
causes the dissociation of some of the calcium carbide and the 
solution of metallic calcium in the remainder. The presence 
of free hydrogen is nearly always accompanied by silicon hydride 
formed by the combination of the nascent hydrogen with the 



silicon in the carbide. The ammonia found in the acetylene is 
probably partly due to the presence of magnesium nitride in 
the carbide. 

On decomposition by water, ammonia is produced by the action 
of steam or of nascent hydrogen on the nitride, the quantity 
formed depending very largely upon the temperature at which 
the carbide is decomposed. The formation of nitrides and 
cyanamides by actions of this kind and their easy conversion 
into ammonia is a useful method for fixing the nitrogen of the 
atmosphere and rendering it available for manurial purposes. 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is invariably present in com- 
mercial acetylene, is formed by the decomposition of aluminium 
sulphide. A. Mourlot has shown that aluminium sulphide, zinc 
sulphide and cadmium sulphide are the only sulphur compounds 
which can resist the heat of the electric furnace without decom- 
position or volatilization, and of these aluminium sulphide is 
the only one which is decomposed by water with the evolu- 
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. In the early samples of carbide 
this compound used to be present in considerable quantity, but 
now rarely more than -fa % is to be found. Phosphuretted 
hydrogen, one of the most important impurities, which has been 
blamed for the haze formed by the combustion of acetylene 
under certain conditions, is produced by the action of water upon 
traces of calcium phosphide found in carbide. Although at first 
it was no uncommon thing to find 5 % of phosphuretted 
hydrogen present in the acetylene, this has now been so reduced 
by the use of pure materials that the quantity is rarely above 
0-1 5 %> ar >d it is often not one-fifth of that amount. 

In the generation of acetylene from calcium carbide and 
water, all that has to be done is to bring these two aeaen- 
compounds into contact, when they mutually react tionot 
upon each other with the formation of lime and acety- acetylene 
lene, while, if there be sufficient water present, the lime 
combines with it to form calcium hydrate. 

Calcium carbide. Water. Acetylene. Lime. 
CaC 2 + H 2 = C 2 H 2 + CaO 

Lime. Water. Calcium hydrate. 
CaO + H 2 O = Ca(HO) 2 

The decomposition of the carbide by water may be brought 
about either by bringing the water slowly into contact with an 
excess of carbide, or by dropping the carbide into an excess of 
water, and these two main operations again may be varied by 
innumerable ingenious devices by which the rapidity of the 
contact may be modified or even eventually stopped. The result 
is that although the forms of apparatus utilized for this purpose 
are all based on the one fundamental principle of bringing about 
the contact of the carbide with the water which is to enter into 
double decomposition with it, they have been multiplied in 
number to a very large extent by the methods employed in order 
to ensure control in working, and to get away from the dangers 
and inconveniences which are inseparable from a too rapid 
generation. 

In attempting to classify acetylene generators some authori- 
ties have divided them into as many as six different 
classes, but this is hardly necessary, as they may be 
divided into two main classes first, those in which 
water is brought in contact with the carbide, the carbide being in 
excess during the first portion of the operation; and, second, those 
in which the carbide is thrown into water, the amount of water 
present being always in excess. The first class may again be 
subdivided into generators in which the water rises in contact 
with the carbide, in which it drips upon the carbide, and in which 
a vessel full of carbide is lowered into water and again with- 
drawn as generation becomes excessive. Some of these generators 
are constructed to make the gas only as fast as it is consumed 
at the burner, with the object of saving the expense and room 
which would be involved by a storage-holder. Generators with 
devices for regulating and stopping at will the action going on 
are generally termed " automatic." Another set merely aims at 
developing the gas from the carbide and putting it into a storage- 
holder with as little loss as possible, and these are termed 



Genera- 
tors. 



140 



ACHAEA 



"non-automatic." The points to be attained in a good 
generator are : 

1. Low temperature of generation. 

2. Complete decomposition of the carbide. 

3. Maximum evolution of the gas. 

4. Low pressure in every part of the apparatus. 

5. Ease in charging and removal of residues. 

6. Removal of all air from the apparatus before generation of 
the gas. 

When carbide is acted upon by water considerable heat is 
evolved; indeed, the action develops about one- twentieth of 
the heat evolved by the combustion of carbon. As, however, 
the temperature developed is a function of the time needed to 
complete the action, the degree of heat attained varies with 
every form of generator, and while the water in one form may 
never reach the boiling-point, the carbide in another may become 
red-hot and give a temperature of over 800 C. Heating in a 
generator is not only a source of danger, but also lessens the 
yield of gas and deteriorates its quality. The best forms of 
generator are either those in which water rises slowly in contact 
with the carbide, or the second main division in which the car- 
bide falls into excess of water. 

It is clear that acetylene, if it is to be used on a large scale as 
a domestic illuminant, must undergo such processes of purifica- 
tion as will render it harmless and innocuous to health 
an d P r P ert y > an d the sooner it is recognized as ab- 
solutely essential to purify acetylene before consuming 
it the sooner will the gas acquire the popularity it deserves. 
The only one of the impurities which offers any difficulty in 
removal is the phosphuretted hydrogen. There are three sub- 
stances which can be relied on more or less to remove this com- 
pound, and the gas to be purified may be passed either through 
acid copper salts, through bleaching powder or through chromic 
acid. In experiments with these various bodies it is found 
that they are all of them effective in also ridding the acetylene 
of the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, provided only that 
the surface area presented to the gas is sufficiently large. The 
method of washing the gas with acid solutions of copper has 
been patented by A. Frank of Charlottenburg, who finds that a 
concentrated solution of cuprous chloride in an acid, the liquid 
being made into a paste with kieselguhr, is the most effective. 
Where the production of acetylene is going on on a small scale 
this method of purification is undoubtedly the most convenient 
one, as the acid present absorbs the ammonia, and the copper 
salt converts the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen 
into phosphates and sulphides. The vessel, however, which 
contains this mixture has to be of earthenware, porcelain or 
enamelled iron on account of the free acid present; the gas 
must be washed after purification to remove traces of hydro- 
chloric acid, and care must be taken to prevent the complete 
neutralization of the acid by the ammonia present in the gas. 
The second process is one patented by Fritz Ullmann of Geneva, 
who utilizes chromic acid to oxidize the phosphuretted and 
sulphuretted hydrogen and absorb the ammonia, and this method 
of purification has proved the most successful in practice, the 
chromic acid being absorbed by kieselgiihr and the material 
sold under the name of "Heratol." 

The third process owes its inception to G. Lunge, who recom- 
mends the use of bleaching powder. Dr P. Wolff has found that 
when this is used on the large scale there is a risk of the ammonia 
present in the acetylene forming traces of chloride of nitrogen 
in the purifying-boxes, and as this is a compound which deton- 
ates with considerable local force, it occasionally gives rise to 
explosions in the purifying apparatus. If, however, the gas be 
first passed through a scrubber so as to wash out the ammonia 
this danger is avoided. Dr Wolff employs purifiers in which 
the gas is washed with water containing calcium chloride, and 
then passed through bleaching-powder solution or other oxidizing 
material. 

When acetylene is burnt from a coo union jet burner, at all 
ordinary pressures a smoky flame is obtained, but on the pres- 
sure being increased to 4 inches a magnificent flame results, free 
from smoke, and developing an illuminating value of 240 candles 



per 5 cubic feet of gas consumed. Slightly higher values have 
been obtained, but 240 may be taken as the average value under 
these conditions. When acetylene was first introduced as a 
commercial illuminant in England, very small union jet nipples 
were utilized for its consumption, but after burning 
for a short time these nipples began to carbonize, 
the flame being distorted, and then smoking occurred with the 
formation of a heavy deposit of soot. While these troubles 
were being experienced in England, attempts had been made in 
America to use acetylene diluted with a certain proportion of 
air which permitted it to be burnt in ordinary flat flame nipples; 
but the danger of such admixture being recognized, nipples of 
the same class as those used in England were employed, and the 
same troubles ensued. In France, single jets made of glass 
were first employed, and then P. Resener, H. Luchaire, G. Ragot 
and others made burners in which two jets of acetylene, coming 
from two tubes placed some little distance apart, impinged and 
splayed each other out into a butterfly flame. Soon afterwards, 
J. S. Billwiller introduced the idea of sucking air into the flame 
at or just below the burner tip, and at this juncture the Naphey 
or Dolan burner was introduced in America, the principle em- 
ployed being to use two small and widely separated jets instead 
of the two openings of the union jet burner, and to make each 
a minute bunsen, the acetylene dragging in from the base of 
the nipple enough air to surround and protect it while burning 
from contact with the steatite. This class of burner forms a 
basis on which all the later constructions of burner have been 
founded, but had the drawback that if the flame was turned 
low, insufficient air to prevent carbonization of the burner tips 
was drawn in, owing to the reduced flow of gas. This fault has 
now been reduced by a cage of steatite round the burner tip, 
which draws in sufficient air to prevent deposition. 

When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale 
attempts were made to utilize its great heat of combustion by 
using it in conjunction with oxygen in the oxy- 
hydrogen blowpipe. It was found, however, that when ^^ t ~ leae 
using acetylene under low pressures, the burner tip blowpipe. 
became so heated as to cause the decomposition of some 
of the gas before combustion, the jet being choked up by the 
carbon which deposited in a very dense form; and as the use of 
acetylene under pressures greater than one hundred inches of 
water was prohibited, no advance was made in this direction. 
The introduction of acetylene dissolved under pressure in 
acetone contained in cylinders filled with porous material drew 
attention again to this use of the gas, and by using a special 
construction of blowpipe an oxy-acetylene flame is produced, 
which is far hotter than the oxy-hydrogen flame, and at the 
same time is so reducing in its character that it can be used 
for the direct autogenous welding of steel and many minor 
metallurgical processes. 

REFERENCES. F. H. Leeds and W. A. Butterfield, Calcium 
Carbide and Acetylene (1903); F. Dommer, L' Acetylene et ses appli- 
cations (1896); V. B. Lewes, Acetylene (1900); F. Liebetanz, 
Calcium-carbid und Acetylen (1899); G. Pelissier, L'Eclairage a 
V acetylene (1897) ; C. de Perrodil, Le carbure de calcium et I' acetylene 
(1897). For a complete list of the various papers and memoirs on 
Acetylene, see A. Ludwig's Fiihrer durch die gesammte Calcium- 
carbid-und-Acetylen-Literatur, Berlin. (V. B. L.) 

ACHAEA, a district on the northern coast of the Peloponnese, 
stretching from the mountain ranges of Erymanthus and Cyllene 
on the S. to a narrow strip of fertile land on the N., border- 
ing the Corinthian Gulf, into which the mountain Panachaicus 
projects. Achaea is bounded on the W. by the territory of Elis, 
on the E. by that of Srcyon, which, however, was sometimes 
included in it. The origin of the name has given rise to 
much speculation; the current theory is that the Achaeans 
(q.v.) were driven back into this region by the Dorian invaders 
of the Peloponnese. Another Achaea, in the south of Thessaly, 
called sometimes Achaea Phthiotis, has been supposed to be 
the cradle of the race. In Roman times the name of the province 
of Achaea was given to the whole of Greece, except Thessaly, 
Epirus, and Acarnania. Herodotus (i. 145) mentions the twelve 
cities of Achaea ; these met as a religious confederacy in the 



ACHAEAN LEAGUE ACHAEANS 



141 



temple of Poseidon Heliconius at Helice; for their later history 
see ACHAEAN LEAGUE. During the middle ages, after the Latin 
conquest of the Eastern Empire, Achaea was a Latin princi- 
pality, the first prince being William de Champlitte (d. 1209). 
It survived, with various dismemberments, until 1430, when 
the last prince, Centurione Zaccaria, ceded the remnant of it to 
his son-in-law, Theodorus II., despot of Mistra. In 1460 it was 
conquered, with the rest of the Morea, by the Turks. In modern 
times the coast of Achaea is mainly given up to the currant 
industry; the currants are shipped from Patras, the second town 
of Greece, and from Aegion (Vostitza). 

ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederation of the ancient towns of 
Achaea. Standing isolated on their narrow strips of plain, these 
towns were always exposed to the raids of pirates issuing from 
the recesses of the north coast of the Corinthian Gulf. It was no 
doubt as a protection against such dangers that the earliest 
league of twelve Achaean cities arose, though we are nowhere 
explicitly informed of its functions other than the common 
worship of Zeus Amarius at Aegium and an occasional arbitra- 
tion between Greek belligerents. Its importance grew in the 
t4th century, when we find it fighting in the Theban wars (368- 
362 B.C.), against Philip (338) and Antipater (330). About 288 
Antigonus Gonatas dissolved the league, which had furnished 
a useful base for pretenders against Cassander's regency; but 
by 280 four towns combined again, and before long the ten 
surviving cities of Achaea had renewed their federation. Anti- 
gonus' preoccupation during the Celtic invasions, Sparta's 
prostration after the Chremonidean campaigns, the wealth 
amassed by Achaean adventurers abroad and the subsidies of 
Egypt, the standing foe of Macedonia, all enhanced the league's 
importance. Most of all did it profit by the statesmanship of 
Aratus (q.v.), who initiated its expansive policy, until in 228 it 
comprised Arcadia, Argolis, Corinth and Aegina. 

Aratus probably also organized the new federal constitution, 
the character of which, owing to the scanty and somewhat 
perplexing nature of our evidence, we can only approximately 
determine. The league embraced an indefinite number of city- 
states which maintained their internal independence practically 
undiminished, and through their several magistrates, assemblies 
and law-courts exercised all traditional powers of self-govern- 
ment. Only in matters of foreign politics and war was their 
competence restricted. 

The central government, like that of the constituent cities, was 
of a democratic cast. The chief legislative powers resided in a 
popular assembly in which every member of the league over 
thirty years of age could speak and vote. This body met for 
three days in spring and autumn at Aegium to discuss the league's 
policy and elect the federal magistrates. Whatever the number 
of its attendant burgesses, each city counted but one on a 
division. Extraordinary assemblies could be convoked at any 
time or place on special emergencies. A council of 1 20 unpaid 
delegates, selected from the local councils, served partly as a 
committee for preparing the assembly's programme, partly as 
an administrative board which received embassies, arbitrated 
between contending cities and exercised penal jurisdiction over 
offenders against the constitution. But perhaps some of these 
duties concerned the dicastae and gerousia, whose functions are 

P nowhere described. The chief magistracy was the strategia 
(tenable every second year), which combined with an unre- 
stricted command in the field a large measure of civil authority. 
Besides being authorized to veto motions, the strategus (general) 
had practically the sole power of introducing measures before 
the assembly. The ten elective demiurgi, who presided over 
this body, formed a kind of cabinet, and perhaps acted as 
departmental chiefs. We also hear of an under-strategus, a 
secretary, a cavalry commander and an admiral. All these higher 
officers were unpaid. Philopoemen (q.v.) transferred the seat of 
assembly from town to town by rotation, and placed dependent 
communities on an equal footing with their former suzerains. 

The league prescribed uniform laws, standards and coinage; 
it summoned contingents, imposed taxes and fined or coerced 
refractory members. 



The first federal wars were directed against Macedonia; in 266- 
263 the league fought in the Chremonidean league, in 243-241 
against Antigonus Gonatas and Aetolia, between 239 and 229 
with Aetolia against Demetrius. A greater danger arose (227-223) 
from the attacks of Cleomenes III. (q.v.). Owing to Aratus's 
irresolute generalship, the indolence of the rich burghers and 
the inadequate provision for levying troops and paying mercen- 
aries, the league lost several battles and much of its territory; 
but rather than compromise with the Spartan Gracchus the 
assembly negotiated with Antigonus Doson, who recovered the 
lost districts but retained Corinth for himself 1 (223-221). Simi- 
larly the Achaeans could not check the incursions of Aetolian 
adventurers in 220-218, and when Philip V. came to the rescue 
he made them tributary and annexed much of the Peloponnese. 
Under Philopoemen the league with a reorganized army routed 
the Aetolians (210) and Spartans (207, 201). After their bene- 
volent neutrality during the Macedonian war the Roman general, 
T. Quinctius Flamininus, restored all their lost possessions and 
sanctioned the incorporation of Sparta and Messene (191), thus 
bringing the entire Peloponnese under Achaean control. The 
league even sent troops to Pergamum against Antiochus (190). 
The annexation of Aetolia and Zacynthus was forbidden by 
Rome. Moreover, Sparta and Messene always remained un- 
willing members. After Philopoemen's death the aristocrats 
initiated a strongly philo-Roman policy, declared war against 
King Perseus and denounced all sympathizers with Macedonia. 
This agitation induced the Romans to deport 1000 prominent 
Achaeans, and, failing proof of treason against Rome, to detain 
them seventeen years. These hostages, when restored in 150, 
swelled the ranks of the proletariate opposition, whose leaders, 
to cover their maladministration at home, precipitated a war 
by attacking Sparta in defiance of Rome. The federal troops 
were routed in central Greece by Q. Caecilius Metellus Mc.-e- 
donicus, and again near Corinth by L. Mummius Achaicus (146). 
The Romans now dissolved the league (in effect, if not in name), 
and took measures to isolate the communities (see POLYBIUS). 
Augustus instituted an Achaean synod comprising the dependent 
cities of Peloponnese and central Greece; this body sat at Argos 
and acted as guardian of Hellenic sentiment. 

The chief defect of the league lay in its lack of proper provision 
for securing efficient armies and regular payment of imposts, 
and for dealing with disaffected members. Moreover, owing to 
difficulties of travel, the assembly and magistracies. were practi- 
cally monopolized by the rich, who shaped the federal policy in 
their own interest. But their rule was mostly judicious, and when 
at last they lost control the ensuing mob-rule soon ruined the 
country. On the other hand, it is the glory of the Achaean 
league to have combined city autonomy with an organized 
central administration, and in this way to have postponed the 
entire destruction of Greek liberty for over a century. 

CHIEF SOURCES. Polybius (esp. bks. ii., iv., v., xxiii., xxviii.),who 
is followed by Livy (bks. xxxii.-xxxv., xxxviii., &c.) ; Pausanias vii. 
9-24; Strabo viii. 384; E. Freeman, Federal Government, i. (ed. 1893, 
London), chs. v.-ix. ; M. Dubois, Les ligues Hlolienne et Acheenne 
(Paris, 1885); A. Holm, Greek History, iv.; G % Hertzberg, Ge- 
schichte Griechenlands unter den Romern, i. (Leipzig, 1866) ; L. 
Warren, Greek Federal Coinage (London, 1863) ; E. Hicks, Greek 
Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1892), 169, 187, 198, 201; W. 



(M. O. B. C.) 

ACHAEANS ('Axaioi, Lat. Achivi), one of the four chief 
divisions of the ancient Greek peoples, descended, according 
to legend, from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of Hellen. This 
Hesiodic genealogy connects the Achaeans closely with the 
lonians, but historically they approach nearer to the Aeolians. 
Some even hold that Aeolus is only a form of Achaeus. In the 
Homeric poems (1000 B.C.) the Achaeans are the master race in 
Greece; they are represented both in Homer and in all later 
traditions as having come into Greece about three generations 
before the Trojan war (1184 B.C.), i.e. about 1300 B.C. They 
found the land occupied by a people known by the ancients as 
Pelasgians, who continued down to classical times the main 



142 



ACHAEMENES ACHENWALL 



element in the population even in the states under Achaean 
and later under Dorian rule. In some cases it formed a serf 
class, e.g. the Penestae in Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and 
the Gymnesii at Argos, whilst it practically composed the whole 
population of Arcadia and Attica, which never came under 
either Achaean or Dorian rule. This people had dwelt in the 
Aegean from the Stone Age, and, though still in the Bronze .Age 
at the Achaean conquest, had made great advances in the useful 
and ornamental arts. They were of short stature, with dark 
hair and eyes, and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centres 
were at Cnossus (Crete), in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each 
being ruled by ancient lines of kings. In Argolis Proetus built 
Tiryns, but later, under Perseus, Mycenae took the lead until 
the Achaean conquest. All the ancient dynasties traced their 
descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the Achaean conquest 
was the chief male divinity of Greece and the islands. The 
Pelasgians probably spoke an Indo-European language adopted 
by their conquerors with slight modifications. (See further 
PELASGIANS for a discussion of other views.) 

The Achaeans, on the other hand, were tall, fair-haired and 
grey-eyed, and their chiefs traced their descent from Zeus, who 
with the Hyperborean Apollo was their chief male divinity. 
They first appear at Dodona, whence they crossed Pindus into 
Phthiotis. The leaders of the Achaean invasion were Pelops, 
who took possession of Elis, and Aeacus, who became master of 
Aegina and was said to have introduced there the worship of 
Zeus Panhellenius, whose cult was also set up at Olympia. They 
brought with them iron, which they used for their long swords 
and for their cutting implements; the costume of both sexes 
was distinct from that of the Pelasgians; they used round 
shields with a central boss instead of the 8-shaped or rectangular 
shields of the latter; they fastened their garments with brooches, 
a.n' 3 burned their dead instead of burying them as did the Pelas- 
gians. They introduced a special style of ornament (" geo- 
metric ") instead of that of the Bronze Age, characterized by 
spirals and marine animals and plants. The Achaeans, or 
Hellenes, as they were later termed, were on this hypothesis 
one of the fair-haired tribes of upper Europe known to the 
ancients as Keltoi (Celts), who from time to time have pressed 
down over the Alps into the southern lands, successively as 
Achaeans, Gauls, Goths and Franks, and after the conquest of 
the indigenous small dark race in no long time died out under 
climatic conditions fatal to their physique and morale. The 
culture of the Homeric Achaeans corresponds to a large extent 
with that of the early Iron Age of the upper Danube (Hallstatt) 
and to the early Iron Age of upper Italy (Villanova) . 

See W. Ridge way, The Early Age of Greece (1901), for a detailed 
discussion of the evidence; articles by Ridgeway and J. L. Myres 
in the Classical Review, vol. xvi., 1902, pp. 68-93, '35- See also 
J. B. Bury's History of Greece (1902), and art. in Journal of Hellenic 
Studies, xv., 1895, pp. 217 foil.; G. G. A. Murray, Rise of the Greek 
Epic (1907), chap. li. ; Andrew Lang, Homer and his Age (1906); 
G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. ed. 2, vol. i. p. 190 (1893); D. B. Monro's 
ed. of the Iliad (1901), pp. 484-488. (W. Ri.) 

ACHAEMENES (HAKHAMANI), the eponymous ancestor of 
the royal house of Persia, the Achaemenidae, " a clan <j>pfiTpt] 
of the Pasargadae " (Herod, i. 125), the leading Persian tribe. 
According to Darius in the Behistun inscription and Herod, 
iii. 75, vii. u, he was the father of Teispes, the great-grandfather 
of Cyrus. Cyrus himself, in his proclamation to the Babylonians 
after the conquest of Babylon, does not mention his name. 
Whether he really was a historical personage, or merely the 
mythical ancestor of the family, cannot be decided. According 
to Aelian (Hist. anim. xii. 21), he was bred by an eagle. We 
leam from Cyrus's proclamation that Teispes and his successors 
had become kings of Anshan, i.e. a part of Elam (Susiana), 
where they ruled as vassals of the Median kings, until Cyrus 
the Great in 550 B.C. founded the Persian empire. After the 
death of Cambyses, the younger line of the Achaemenidae came 
to the throne with Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who was, like 
Cyrus, the great-grandson of Teispes. Cyrus, Darius and all the 
later kings of Persia call themselves Achaemenides (Hakha- 
manishiya). With Darius III. Codomannus the dynasty became 



extinct and the Persian empire came to an end (330). The ad- 
jective Achaemenius is used by the Latin poets as the equivalent 
of " Persian " (Horace, Odes, ii. 12, 21). See PERSIA. 

The name Achaemenes is borne by a son of Darius I., brother 
of Xerxes. After the first rebellion of Egypt, he became satrap 
of Egypt (484 B.C.) ; he commanded the Persian fleet at Salamis, 
and was (460 B.C.) defeated and slain by Inarus, the leader of 
the second rebellion of Egypt. 

ACHARD, FRANZ CARL (1753-1821), Prussian chemist, was 
bom at Berlin on the 28th of April 1753, and died at Kunern, 
in Silesia, on the 2oth of April 1821. He was a pioneer in turn- 
ing to practical account A. S. Marggraf 's discovery of the presence 
of sugar in beetroot, and by the end of the i8th century he was 
producing considerable quantities of beet-sugar, though by a very 
imperfect process, at Kunern, on an estate which was granted 
him about 1800 by the king of Prussia. There too he carried 
on a school of instruction in sugar-manufacture, which had an 
international reputation. For a time he was director of the 
physics class of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and he published 
several volumes of chemical and physical researches, discovering 
among other things a method of working platinum. 

ACHARIUS, ERIK (1757-1819), Swedish botanist, was born 
on the roth of October 1757, and in 1773 entered Upsala Uni- 
versity, where he was a pupil of Linnaeus. He graduated M.D. 
at Lund in 1782, and in 1801 was appointed professor of botany 
at Wadstena Academy. He devoted himself to the study of 
lichens, and all his publications were connected with that class 
of plants, his Lichenographia, Universalis (Gottingen, 1804) 
being the most important. He died at Wadstena on the i3th of 
August 1819. 

ACHATES, the companion of Aeneas in Virgil's Aeneid. The 
expression " fidus Achates " has become proverbial for a loyal 
and devoted companion. 

ACHELOUS (mod. Aspropotamo, " white river "), the largest 
river in Greece (130 m.). It rises in Mt. Pindus, and, dividing 
Aetolia from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian Sea. In the lower 
part of its course the river winds through fertile, marshy plains. 
Its water is charged with fine mud, which is deposited along its 
banks and at its mouth, where a number of small islands (Echi- 
naxles) have been formed. It was formerly called Thoas, from its 
impetuosity; and its upper portion was called by some Inachus, 
the name Achelous being restricted to the shorter eastern 
branch. Achelous is coupled with Ocean by Homer (II. xxi. 
193) as chief of rivers, and the name is given to several other 
rivers in Greece. The name appears in cult and in mythology 
as that of the typical river-god; a familiar legend is that of his 
contest with Heracles for Deianira. 

ACHENBACH, ANDREAS (1815- ), German landscape 
painter, was born at Cassel in 1815. He began his art education 
in 1827 in Dusseldorf under W. Schadow and at the academy. 
In his early work he followed the pseudo-idealism of the German 
romantic school, but on removing to Munich in 1835, the stronger 
influence of L. Gurlitt turned his talent into new channels, and 
he became the founder of the German realistic school. Although 
his landscapes evince too much of his aim at picture-making and 
lack personal temperament, he is a master of technique, and is 
historically important as a reformer. A number of his finest 
works are to be found at the Berlin National Gallery, the New 
Pinakothek in Munich, and the galleries at Dresden, Darmstadt, 
Cologne, Diisseldorf, Leipzig and Hamburg. 

His brother, OSWALD ACHENBACH (1827-1905), was born at 
Diisseldorf and received his art education from Andreas. His 
landscapes generally dwell on the rich and glowing effects of 
colour which drew him to the Bay of Naples and the neighbour- 
hood of Rome. He is represented at most of the important 
German galleries of modern art. 

ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED (1710-1772), German statistician, 
was born at Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1719. He 
studied at Jena, Halle and Leipzig, and took a degree at the 
last-named university. He removed to Marburg in 1 746, where 
for two years he read lectures on history and on the law of 
nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced those inquiries 



ACHERON ACHILLES 



in statistics by which his name became known. In 1 748 he was 
given a professorship at Gottingen, where he resided till his 
death in 1772. His chief works were connected with statistics. 
The Staatsverfassung der heutigen vornehmslen europaischen 
Reiche appeared first in 1749, and revised editions were pub- 
lished in 1762 and 1768. 

ACHERON, in Greek mythology, the son of Gaea or Demeter. 
As a punishment for supplying the Titans with water in their 
contest with Zeus, he was turned into a river of Hades, over 
which departed souls were ferried by Charon. The name (mean- 
ing the river of " woe ") was eventually used to designate the 
whole of the lower world (Stobaeus, Ed. Phys. i. 41, 50, 54). 

ACHIACHARUS, a name occurring in the book of Tobit (i. 
21 f.) as that of a nephew of Tobit and an official at the court of 
Esarhaddon at Nineveh. There are references in Rumanian, 
Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic and Syriac literature to a legend, of 
which the hero is Ahikar (for Armenian, Arabic and Syriac, see 
The Story of Ahikar, F. C. Conybeare, Rendel Harris and Agnes 
Lewis, Camb. 1898), and it was pointed out by George Hoffmann 
in 1880 that this Ahikar and the Achiacharus of Tobit are iden- 
tical. It has been contended that there are traces of the legend 
even in the New Testament, and there is a striking similarity 
between it and the Life of Aesop by Maximus Planudes (ch. 
xxiii.-xxxii.). An eastern sage Achaiicarus is mentioned by 
Strabo. It would seem, therefore, that the legend was un- 
doubtedly oriental in origin, though the relationship of the 
various versions can scarcely be recovered. 

See the Jewish Encyclopaedia and the Encyclopaedia Biblica; 
also M. R. James in The Guardian, Feb. 2, 1898, p. 163 f. 

ACHILL ("Eagle"), the largest island off Ireland, separated 
from the Curraun peninsula of the west coast by the narrow 
Achill Sound. Pop. (1901) 4929. It is included in the county 
Mayo, in the western parliamentary division. Its shape is 
triangular, and its extent is 15 m. from E. to W. and 12 from 
N. to S. The area is 57 sq. m. The. island is mountainous, the 
highest points being Slieve Croaghaun (2192 ft.) in the west, and 
Slievemore (2204 ft.) in the north; the extreme western point 
is the bold and rugged promontory of Achill Head, and the north- 
western and south-western coasts consist of ranges of magnifi- 
cent cliffs, reaching a height of 800 ft. in the cliffs of Minaun, 
near the village of Keel on the south. The seaward slope of 
Croaghaun is abrupt and in parts precipitous, and its jagged 
flanks, together with the serrated ridge of the Head and the view 
over the broken coast-line and islands of the counties Mayo and 
Galway, attract many visitors to the island during summer. 
Desolate bogs, incapable of cultivation, alternate with the 
mountains; and the inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence by 
fishing and tillage, or by seeking employment in England and 
Scotland during the harvesting. The Congested Districts 
Board, however, have made efforts to improve the condition of 
the people, and a branch of the Midland Great Western railway 
to Achill Sound, together with a swivel bridge across the sound, 
improved communications and make for prosperity. Dugort, 
the principal village, contains several hotels. Here is a Protest- 
ant colony, known as " the Settlement " and founded in 1834. 
There are antiquarian remains (cromlechs, stone circles and the 
like) at Slievemore and elsewhere. 

ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus), one of the most famous of the 
legendary heroes of ancient Greece and the central figure of 
Homer's Iliad. He was said to have been the son of Peleus, 
king of the Myrmidones of Phthia in Thessaly, by Thetis, one of 
the Nereids. His grandfather Aeacus was, according to the 
legend, the son of Zeus himself. The story of the childhood of 
Achilles in Homer differs from that given by later writers. Ac- 
cording to Homer, he was brought up by his mother at Phthia with 
his cousin and intimate friend Patroclus, and learned the arts 
of war and eloquence from Phoenix, while the Centaur Chiron 
taught him music and medicine. When summoned to the war 
against Troy, he set sail at once with his Myrmidones in fifty 
ships. 

Post-Homeric sources add to the legend certain picturesque 
details which bear all the evidence of their primitive origin, and 



which in some cases belong to the common stock of Indo-Ger- 
manic myths. According to one of these stories Thetis used to 
lay the infant Achilles every night under live coals, anointing 
him by day with ambrosia, in order to make him immortal. 
Peleus, having surprised her in the act, in alarm snatched the 
boy from the flames; whereupon Thetis fled back to the sea 
in anger (Apollodorus in. 13; Apollonius Rhodius iv. 869). 
According to another story Thetis dipped the child in the waters 
of the river Styx, by which his whole body became invulnerable, 
except that part of his heel by which she held him; whence the 
proverbial " heel of Achilles " (Statius, Achilleis, i. 269). With 
this may be compared the similar story told of the northern hero 
Sigurd. The boy was afterwards entrusted to the care of Chiron, 
who, to give him the strength necessary for war, fed him with 
the entrails of lions and the marrow of bears and wild boars. To 
prevent his going to the siege of Troy, Thetis disguised him in 
female apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the court of 
King Lycomedes in Scyros; but Odysseus, coming to the island 
in the disguise of a pedlar, spread his wares, including a spear 
and shield, before the king's daughters, among whom was 
Achilles. Then he caused an alarm to be sounded; whereupon 
the girls fled, but Achilles seized the arms, and so revealed him- 
self, and was easily persuaded to follow the Greeks (Hyginus, 
Fab. 96; Statius, Ach. i.; Apollodorus, I.e.}. This story may 
be compared with the Celtic legend of the boyhood of Peredur 
or Perceval. 

During the first nine years of the war as described in the Iliad, 
Achilles ravaged the country round Troy, and took twelve cities. 
In the tenth year occurred the quarrel with Agamemnon. In 
order to appease the wrath of Apollo, who had visited the camp 
with a pestilence, Agamemnon had restored Chryseis, his prize 
of war, to her father, a priest of the god, but as a compensation 
deprived Achilles, who had openly demanded this restoration, 
of his favourite slave Briseis. Achilles withdrew in wrath to his 
tent, where he consoled himself with music and singing, and 
refused to take any further part in the war. During his absence 
the Greeks were hard pressed, and at last he so far relaxed his 
anger as to allow his friend Patroclus to personate him, lending 
him his chariot and armour. The slaying of Patroclus by the 
Trojan hero Hector roused Achilles from his indifference; eager 
to avenge his beloved comrade, he sallied forth, equipped with 
new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, slew Hector, and, after 
dragging his body round the walls of Troy, restored it to the aged 
King Priam at his earnest entreaty. The Iliad concludes with 
the funeral rites of Hector. It makes no mention of the death 
of Achilles, but hints at its taking place "before the Scaean 
gates." In the Odyssey (xxiv. 36. 72) his ashes are said to have 
been buried in a golden urn, together with those of Patroclus, 
at a place on the Hellespont, where a tomb was erected to his 
memory; his soul dwells in the lower world, where it is seen by 
Odysseus. The contest between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms 
is also mentioned. The Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus took up 
the story of the Iliad. It told how Achilles, having slain the 
Amazon Penthesileia and Memnon, king of the Aethiopians, who 
had come to the assistance of the Trojans, was himself slain by 
Paris (Alexander), whose arrow was guided by Apollo to his 
vulnerable heel (Virgil, Aen. vi. 57; Ovid, Met. xii. 600). 
Again, it is said that Achilles, enamoured of Polyxena, the 
daughter of Priam, offered to join the Trojans on condition that 
he received her hand in marriage. This was agreed to; Achilles 
went unarmed to the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, and was 
slain by Paris (Dictys iv. n). According to some, he was slain 
by Apollo himself (Quint. Smyrn. iii. 61; Horace, Odes, iv. 6, 3). 
Hyginus (Fab. 107) makes Apollo assume the form of Paris. 

Later stories say that Thetis snatched his body from the 
pyre and conveyed it to the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the 
Danube, where he ruled with Iphigeneia as his wife; or that 
he was carried to the Elysian fields, where his wife was Medea 
or Helen. He was worshipped in many places: at Leuke, where 
he was honoured with offerings and games; in Sparta, Elis, and 
especially Sigeum on the Hellespont, where his famous tumulus 
was erected. 



144 



ACHILLES TATIUS ACHIN 



Achilles is a typical Greek hero; handsome, brave, celebrated 
for his fleetness of foot, prone to excess of wrath and grief, at 
the same time he is compassionate, hospitable, full of affection 
for his mother and respect for the gods. In works of art he is 
represented, like Ares, as a young man of splendid physical pro- 
portions, with bristling hair like a horse's mane and a slender 
neck. Although the figure of the hero frequently occurs in 
groups such as the work of Scopas showing his removal to the 
island of Leuke by Poseidon and Thetis, escorted by Nereids 
and Tritons, and the combat over his dead body in the Aeginetan 
sculptures no isolated statue or bust can with certainty be 
identified with him; the statue in the Louvre (from the Villa 
Borghese), which was thought to have the best claim, is generally 
taken for Ares or possibly Alexander. There are many vase and 
wall paintings and bas-reliefs illustrative of incidents in his life. 
Various etymologies of the name have been suggested: " with- 
out a lip " (a, xeiXos), Achilles being regarded as a river-god, a 
stream which overflows its banks, or, referring to the story that, 
when Thetis laid him in the fire, one of his lips, which he had 
licked, was consumed (Tzetzes on Lycophron, 178); " restrainer 
of the people" (ex^-Xaos); "healer of sorrow" (dxe-Xutos) ; 
"the obscure" (connected with dxXus, "mist"); "snake- 
born " (ex<- s ), the snake being one of the chief forms taken 
by Thetis. The most generally received view makes him a god 
of light, especially of the sun or of the lightning. 

See E. H. Meyer, Indogermanische Mythen, ii., Achille'is, 1887; 
F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cydus, 1865-1882; articles in Pauly- 
Wissowa, Real-Encydopddie der dassischen Altertumswissenschaft, 
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites and Roscher's 
Lexikon der Mythologie; see also T. W. Allen in Classical Review, 
May 1906; A. E. Crawley, J. G. Frazer, A. Lang, Ibid., June, July 
1893, on Achilles in Scyros. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 12 re- 
presents the conflict over the dead body of Achilles. 

ACHILLES TATIUS, of Alexandria, Greek rhetorician, author 
of the erotic romance, the Adventures of Leucippe and Cleitophon, 
flourished about A.D. 450, perhaps later. Suidas, who alone calls 
him Statius, says that he became a Christian and eventually 
a bishop like Heliodorus, whom he imitated but there is no 
evidence of this. Photius, while severely criticizing his lapses 
into indecency, highly praises the conciseness and clearness of 
his style, which, however, is artificial and laboured. Many of the 
incidents of the romance are highly improbable, and the char- 
acters, except the heroine, fail to enlist sympathy. The descrip- 
tive passages and digressions, although tedious and introduced 
without adequate reasons, are the best part of the work. The 
large number of existing MSS. attests its popularity. (Ediiio 
princeps, 1601; first important critical edition by Jacobs, 1821; 
later editions by Hirschig, 1856; Hercher, 1858. There are 
translations in many languages; in English by Anthony H[odges], 
1638, and R.. Smith, 1855. See also ROMANCE.) 

Suidas also ascribes to this author an Etymology, a Miscel- 
laneous History of Famous Men, and a treatise On the Sphere. 
Part of the last is extant under the title of An Introduction to the 
Phaenomena of Aratus. But if the writer is the prudentissimus 
Achilles referred to by Firmicus Maternus (about 336) in his 
Matheseos libri, iv. 10, 17 (ed. Kroll), he must have lived long 
before the author of Leucippe. The fragment was first pub- 
lished in 1567, then in the Uranologion of Petavius, with a Latin 
translation, 1630. Nothing definite is known as to the author- 
ship of the other works, which are lost. 

ACHILLINI, ALESSANDRO (1463-1512), Italian philosopher, 
born on the zgth of October 1463 at Bologna, was celebrated as 
a lecturer both in medicine and in philosophy at Bologna and 
Padua, and was styled the second Aristotle. His philosophical 
works were printed in one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and 
reprinted with considerable additions in 1545, 1551 and 1568. 
He was ako distinguished as an anatomist (see ANATOMY), 
among his writings being Corporis humani Anatomia (Venice, 
1516-1524), and Analomicae Annotationes (Bologna, 1520). He 
died at Bologna on the 2nd of August 1512. 

His brother, GIOVANNI PILOTED ACHILLINI (1466-1533), was 
the author of // Viridario and other writings, verse and prose, and 
his grand-nephew, CLAUDIO ACHILLINI (1574-1640), was a lawyer 



who achieved some notoriety as a versifier of the school of the 
Secentisti. 

ACHIMENES (perhaps from the Gr. axat/iews, an Indian 
plant used in magic), a genus of plants, natural order Gesneraceae 
(to which belong also Gloxinia and Streptocarpus), natives of 
tropical America, and well known in cultivation as stove or 
warm greenhouse plants. They are herbaceous perennials, 
generally with hairy serrated leaves and handsome flowers. 
The corolla is tubular with a spreading limb, and varies widely 
in colour, being white, yellow, orange, crimson, scarlet, blue or 
purple. A large number of hybrids exist in cultivation. The 
plants are grown in the stove till the flowering period, when they 
may be removed to the greenhouse. They are propagated by 
cuttings, or from the leaves, which are cut off and pricked in well- 
drained pots of sandy soil, or by the scales from the underground 
tubes, which are rubbed off and sown like seeds, or by the seeds, 
which are very small. 

ACHIN (Dutch Atjeh), a Dutch government forming the 
northern extremity of the island of Sumatra, having an esti- 
mated area of 20,544 sq. m. The government is divided into 
three assistant-residencies the east coast, the west coast and 
Great Achin. The physical geography (see SUMATRA) is imper- 
fectly understood. Ranges of mountains, roughly parallel to 
the long axis of the island, and characteristic of the whole of it, 
appear to occupy the interior, and reach an extreme height of 
about 1 2 ,000 ft. in the south-west of the government. The coasts 
are low and the rivers insignificant, rising in the coast ranges 
and flowing through the coast states (the chief of which are 
Pedir, Gighen and Samalanga on the N.; Edi, Perlak'and 
Langsar on the E.; Kluwah, Rigas and Melabuh on the W.). 
The chief ports are Olehleh, the port of Kotaraja or Achin 
(formerly Kraton, now the seat of the Dutch government), 
Segli on the N., Edi on the E., and Analabu or Melabuh on 
the W. Kotaraja lies near the northern extremity of the island, 
and consists of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered 
in enclosed groups called kampongs, and buried in a forest of 
fruit-trees. It is situated nearly 3 m. from the sea, in the 
valley of the Achin river, which in its upper part, near Seli- 
mun, is 3 m. broad, the river having a breadth of 99 ft. and a 
depth of 1 5 ft.; but in its lower course, north of its junction 
with the Krung Daru, the valley broadens to 125 m. The 
marshy soil is covered by rice-fields, and on higher ground by 
kampongs full of trees. The river at its mouth is 327 ft. broad 
and 20-33 ft- deep, but before it lies a sandbank covered at low 
water by a depth of only 4 ft. The Dutch garrison in Kotaraja 
occupies the old Achinese citadel. The town is connected by 
rail with Olehleh, and the line also extends up the valley. The 
construction of another railway has been undertaken along the 
east coast. The following industries are of some importance 
gold-working, weapon-making, silk-weaving, the making of 
pottery, fishing and coasting trade. The annual value of the 
exports (chiefly pepper) is about 58,000; of the imports, from 
165,000 to 250,000. The population of Achin in 1898 was 
estimated at 535,432, of whom 328 were Europeans, 3933 Chinese, 
30 Arabs, and 372 other foreign Asiatics. 

The Achinese, a people of Malayan stock but darker, some- 
what taller and not so pleasant-featured as the true Malays, 
regard themselves as distinct from the other Sumatrans. Their 
nobles claim Arab descent. They were at one time Hinduized, 
as is evident from their traditions, the many Sanskrit words in 
their language, and their general appearance, which suggests 
Hindu as well as Arab blood. They are Mahommedans, and 
although Arab influence has declined, their nobles still wear the 
Moslem flowing robe and turban (though the women go un- 
veiled), and they use Arabic script. The chief characteristic is 
their love of fighting; every man is a soldier and ever^ village 
has its army. They are industrious and skilful agriculturists, 
metal-workers and weavers. They build excellent ships. Their 
chief amusements are gambling and opium-smoking. Their 
social organization is communal. They live in kampongs, which 
combine to form mukims, districts or hundreds (to use the nearest 
English term), which again combine to form sagis, of which 



ACHOLI ACID 



there are three. Achin literature, unlike the language, is en- 
tirely Malay; it includes poetry, a good deal of theology and 
several chronicles. Northern Sumatra was visited by several 
European travellers in the middle ages, such as Marco Polo, 
Friar Odorico and Nicolo Conti. Some of these as well as 
Asiatic writers mention Lambri, a state which must have nearly 
occupied the position of Achin. But the first voyager to visit 
Achin, by that name, was Alvaro Tellez, a captain of Tristan 
d'Acunha's fleet, in 1 506. It was then a mere dependency of the 
adjoining state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, formed the 
only states on the coast whose chiefs claimed the title of sultan. 
Yet before twenty years had passed Achin had not only gained 
independence, but had swallowed up all other states of northern 
Sumatra. It attained its climax of power in the time of Sultan 
Iskandar Muda (1607-1636), under whom the subject coast 
extended from Am opposite Malacca round by the north to 
Benkulen on the west coast, a sea-board of not less than noo 
miles; and besides this, the king's supremacy was owned by 
the large island of Nias, and by the continental Malay states of 
Johor, Pahang, Kedah and Perak. 

The chief attraction of Achin to traders in the i7th century 
must have been gold. No place in the East, unless Japan, was 
so abundantly supplied with gold. The great repute of Achin 
as a place of trade is shown by the fact that to this port the 
first Dutch (1599) and first English (1602) commercial ventures 
to the Indies were directed. Sir James Lancaster, the English 
commodore, carried letters from Queen Elizabeth to the king 
of Achin, and was well received by the prince then reigning, 
Alauddin Shah. Another exchange of letters took place be- 
tween King James I. and Iskandar Muda in 1613. But native 
caprice and jealousy of the growing force of the European nations 
in these seas, and the rivalries between those nations themselves, 
were destructive of sound trade; and the English factory, 
though several times set up, was never long maintained. The 
French made one great effort (1621) to establish relations with 
Achin, but nothing came of it. Still the foreign trade of Achin, 
though subject to interruptions, was important. William 
Dampier (c. 1688) and others speak of the number of foreign 
merchants settled there English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese, 
Chinese, &c. Dampier says the anchorage was rarely without 
ten or fifteen sail of different nations, bringing vast quantities 
of rice, as well as silks, chintzes, muslins and opium. Besides 
the Chinese merchants settled at Achin, others used to come 
annually with the junks, ten or twelve in number, which arrived 
in June. A regular fair was then established, which lasted two 
months, and was known as the China camp, a great resort of 
foreigners. 

Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of the 
first independent king of Achin; and they had little remission 
till the power of Portugal fell with the loss of Malacca (1641). 
Not less than ten times before that event were armaments 
despatched from Achin to reduce Malacca, and more than once 
its garrison was hard pressed. One of these armadas, equipped 
by Iskandar Muda in 1615, gives an idea of the king's resources. 
It consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 were galleys, and among 
these a hundred were greater than any then used in Europe. 
Sixty thousand men were embarked. 

On the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow was 
placed on the throne; and as a female reign favoured the 
oligarchical tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three more queens 
were allowed to reign successively. In 1699 the Arab or fana- 
tical party suppressed female government, and put a chief of 
Arab blood on the throne. The remaining history of Achin was 
one of rapid decay. 

After the restoration of Java to the Netherlands in 1816, 
a good deal of weight was attached by the neighbouring British 
colonies to the maintenance of influence in Achin; and in 1819 
a treaty of friendship was concluded with the Calcutta govern- 
ment which excluded other European nationalities from fixed 
residence in Achin. When the British government, in 1824, 
made a treaty with the Netherlands, surrendering the remaining 
British settlements in Sumatra in exchange for certain posses- 






sions on the continent of Asia, no reference was made in the 
articles to the Indian treaty of 1819; but an understanding was 
exchanged that it should be modified, while no proceedings 
hostile to Achin should be attempted by the Dutch. 

This reservation was formally abandoned by the British 
government in a convention signed at the Hague on the 2nd 
of November 1871; and in March 1873 the government of 
Batavia declared war upon Achin. Doubtless there was provo- 
cation, for the sultan of Achin had not kept to the understanding 
that he was to guarantee immunity from piracy to foreign 
traders; but the necessity for war was greatly doubted, even in 
Holland. A Dutch force landed at Achin in April 1873, and 
attacked the palace. It was defeated with considerable loss, 
including that of the general (Kohler). The approach of the 
south-west monsoon precluded the immediate renewal of the 
attempt; but hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell in January 
1874. The natives, however, maintained themselves in the 
interior, inaccessible to the Dutch troops, and carried on a 
guerilla warfare. General van der Heyden appeared to have 
subdued them in 1878-81, but they broke out again in 1896 
under the traitor Taku Umar, who had been in alliance with 
the Dutch. He died shortly afterwards, but the trouble was 
not ended. General van Hentsz carried on a successful campaign 
in 1898 seq., but in 1901, the principal Achinese chiefs on the 
north coast having surrendered, the pretender-sultan fled to 
the Gajoes, a neighbouring inland people. Several expeditions 
involving heavy fighting were necessary against these in 1901-4, 
and a certain amount of success was achieved, but the pretender 
escaped, revolt still smouldered and hostilities were continued. 

See P. J. Veth, Atchin en zijne betrekkingen tot Nederland 
(Leyden, 1873); J. A. Kruijt, Atjeh en de Atjehers (Leyden, 1877); 
Kielstra, Beschrijving van den Atjeh-oorlog (The Hague, 1885); 
Van Langen, Atjeh's Wesskust, Tijdschrift Aardrijko, Genotktsch. 
(Amsterdam, 1888), p. 226; Renaud, Jaarboek van het Mynwezen 
(1882); J. Jacobs, Het famille-en Kampongleven op Croat Atjeh 
(Leyden, 1894); C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjehers (Batavia, 1894). 

ACHOLI, a negro people of the upper Nile valley, dwelling on 
the east bank of the Bahr-el-Jebel, about a hundred miles north 
of Albert Nyanza. They are akin to the Shilluks of the White 
Nile. They frequently decorate the temples or cheeks with 
wavy or zigzag scars, and also the thighs with scrolls; some 
pierce the ears. Their dwelling-places are circular huts with a 
high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of 
grain and a sunk fireplace. The interior walls are daubed with 
mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs 
in red, white or grey. The Acholi are good hunters, using nets 
and spears, and keep goats, sheep and cattle. In war they use 
spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox hide. Their 
dialect is closely allied to those of the Alur, Lango and Ja-Luo 
tribes, all four being practically pure Nilotic. Their religion is 
a vague fetishism. By early explorers the Acholi were called 
Shuli, a name now obsolete. 

ACHROMATISM (Gr. a-, privative, XP^MO., colour), in optics, 
the property of transmitting white light, without decomposing 
it into the colours of the spectrum; "achromatic lenses-" are 
lenses which possess this property, (See LENS, ABERRATION 
and PHOTOGRAPHY.) 

ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour), the 
name loosely applied to any sour substance; in chemistry it has 
a more precise meaning,denoting a substance containing hydrogen 
which may be replaced by metals with the formation of salts. 
An acid may therefore be regarded as a salt of hydrogen. Of 
the general characters of acids we may here notice that they 
dissolve alkaline substances, certain metals, &c., neutralize 
alkalies and redden many blue and violet vegetable colouring 
matters. 

The ancients probably possessed little knowledge indeed of 
acids. Vinegar (or impure acetic acid), which is produced when 
wine is allowed to stand, was known to both the Greeks and 
Romans, who considered it to be typical of acid substances; 
this is philologically illustrated by the words 6%vs, acidus, sour, 
and 6os, acetus, vinegar. Other acids became known during 
the alchemistic period; and the first attempt at a generalized 



146 



ACID 



conception of these substances was made by Paracelsus, 
who supposed them to contain a principle which conferred the 
properties of sourness and solubility. Somewhat similar views 
were promoted by Becher, who named the principle acidum 
primogenium, and held that it was composed of the Para- 
celsian elements " earth " and " water." At about the same time 
Boyle investigated several acids; he established their general 
reddening of litmus, their solvent power of metals and basic 
substances, and the production of neutral bodies, or salts, with 
alkalies. Theoretical conceptions were revived by Stahl, who 
held that acids were the fundamentals of all salts, and the 
erroneous idea that sulphuric acid was the principle of all acids. 

The phlogistic theory of the processes of calcination and com- 
bustion necessitated the view that many acids, such as those 
produced by combustion, e.g. sulphurous, phosphoric, carbonic, 
&c., should be regarded as elementary substances. This prin- 
ciple more or less prevailed until it was overthrown by Lavoisier's 
doctrine that oxygen was the acid-producing element; Lavoisier 
being led to this conclusion by the almost general observation 
that acids were produced when non-metallic elements were 
burnt. The existence of acids not containing oxygen was, in 
itself, sufficient to overthrow this idea, but, although Berthollet 
had shown, in 1789, that sulphuretted hydrogen (or hydro- 
sulphuric acid) contained no oxygen, Lavoisier's theory held its 
own until the researches of Davy, Gay-Lussac and Thenard on 
hydrochloric acid and chlorine, and of Gay-Lussac on hydro- 
cyanic acid, established beyond all cavil that oxygen was not 
essential to acidic properties. 

In the Lavoisierian nomenclature acids were regarded as 
binary oxygenated compounds, the associated water being 
relegated to the position of a mere solvent. Somewhat similar 
views were held by Berzelius, when developing his dualistic 
conception of the composition of substances. In later years 
Berzelius renounced the " oxygen acid " theory, but not before 
Davy, and, almost simultaneously, Dulong, had submitted that 
hydrogen and not oxygen was the acidifying principle. Oppo- 
sition to the " hydrogen-acid " theory centred mainly about the 
hypothetical radicals which it postulated; moreover, the electro- 
chemical theory of Berzelius exerted a stultifying influence on 

the correct views of Davy and Dulong. In Berzelius' system 

+ - 

potassium sulphate is to be regarded as K 2 O.SO 3 ; electrolysis 
should simply effect the disruption of the positive and negative 
components, potash passing with the current, and sulphuric acid 
against the current. Experiment showed, however, that instead 
of only potash appearing at the negative electrode, hydrogen is 
also liberated; this is inexplicable by Berzelius's theory, but 
readily explained by the " hydrogen-acid " theory. By this 
theory potassium is liberated at the negative electrode and 
combines immediately with water to form potash and hydrogen. 
Further and stronger support was given when J. Liebig 
promoted his doctrine of polybasic acids. Dalton's idea that 
elements preferentially combined in equiatomic proportions 
had as an immediate inference that metallic oxides contained 
one atom of the metal to one atom of oxygen, and a simple ex- 
pansion of this conception was that one atom of oxide combined 
with one atom of acid to form one atom of a neutral salt. This 
view, which was specially supported by Gay j Lussac and Leopold 
Gmelin and accepted by Berzelius, necessitated that all acids 
were monobasic. The untenability of this theory was proved 
by Thomas Graham's investigation of the phosphoric acids; for 
he then showed that the ortho- (ordinary), pyro- and meta- 
phosphoric acids contained respectively 3, 2 and i molecules of 
" basic water " (which were replaceable by metallic oxides) and 
one molecule of phosphoric oxide, P 2 OB. Graham's work was 
developed by Liebig, who called into service many organic 
acids citric, tartaric, cyanuric, comenic and meconic and 
showed that these resembled phosphoric acid; and he estab- 
lished as the criterion of polybasicity the existence of com- 
pound salts with different metallic oxides. In formulating these 
facts Liebig at first retained the dualistic conception of the 
structure of acids; but he shortly afterwards perceived that 



this view lacked generality since the halogen acids, which con- 
tained no oxygen but yet formed salts exactly similar in prop- 
erties to those containing oxygen, could not be so regarded. 
This and other reasons led to his rejection of the dualistic hypo- 
thesis and the adoption, on -the ground of probability, and much 
more from convenience, of the tenet that " acids are parti- 
cular compounds of hydrogen, in which the latter can be re- 
placed by metals " ; while, on the constitution of salts, he held 
that " neutral salts are those compounds of the same class in 
which the hydrogen is replaced by its equivalent in metal. The 
substances which we at present term anhydrous acids (acid 
oxides) only become, for the most part, capable of forming salts 
with metallic oxides after the addition of water, or they are 
compounds which decompose these oxides at somewhat high 
temperatures." 

The hydrogen theory and the doctrine of polybasicity as 
enunciated by Liebig is the fundamental characteristic of the 
modern theory. A polybasic acid contains more than one atom 
of hydrogen which is replaceable by metals; moreover, in such 
an acid the replacement may be entire with the formation of 
normal salts, partial with the formation of acid salts, or by two 
or more different metals with the formation of compound salts 
(see SALTS). These facts may be illustrated with the aid of 
orthophosphoric acid, which is tribasic: 

Acid. Normal salt. Acid salts. 

HaPO,. Ag,PO 4 . Na s HPO 4 ; NaH,PO 4 . 

Phosphoric Silver phosphate. Acid sodium 

acid. phosphates. 

Compound salts. 

Mg(NH 4 )PO 4 ; Na(NH 4 )HPO 4 . 

Magnesium ammonium Microcosmic 

phosphate ; salt. 

Reference should be made to the articles CHEMICAL ACTION, 
THERMOCHEMISTRY and SOLUTIONS, for the theory of the 
strength or avidity of acids. 

Organic Acids. Organic acids are characterized by the 
presence of the monovalent group CO -OH, termed the carboxyl 
group, in which the hydrogen atom is replaceable by metals 
with the formation of salts, and by alkyl radicals with the 
formation of esters. The basicity of an organic acid, as above 
defined, is determined by the number of carboxyl groups present. 
Oxy-acids are carboxyh'c acids which also contain a hydroxyl 
group; similarly we may have aldehyde-acids, ketone-acids, &c. 
Since the more important acids are treated under their own 
headings, or under substances closely allied to them, we shall 
here confine ourselves to general relations. 

Classification. It is convenient to distinguish between ali- 
phatic and aromatic acids; the first named being derived from 
open-chain hydrocarbons, the second from ringed hydrocarbon 
nuclei. Aliphatic monobasic acids are further divided according 
to the nature of the parent hydrocarbon. Methane and its 
homologues give origin to the "paraffin" or "fatty series" of 
the general formula C,,H 2n +iCOOH, ethylene gives origin to the 
acrylic acid series, C n H 2 n-iCOOH, and soon. Dibasic acids of 
the paraffin series of hydrocarbons have the general formula 
C n H 2 (COOH) 2 "; malonic and succinic acids are important 
members. The isomerism which occurs as soon as the molecule 
contains a few carbon atoms renders any classification based on 
empirical molecular formulae somewhat ineffective; on the other 
hand, a scheme based on molecular structure would involve 
more detail than it is here possible to give. For further informa- 
tion, the reader is referred to any standard work on organic 
chemistry. A list of the acids present in fats and oils is given 
in the article OILS. 

Syntheses of Organic Acids. The simplest syntheses are un- 
doubtedly those in which a carboxyl group is obtained directly 
from the oxides of carbon, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. 
The simplest of all include: (i) the synthesis of sodium oxalate 
by passing carbon dioxide over metallic sodium heated to 35~ 
360; (2) the synthesis of potassium formate from moist carbon 
dioxide and potassium, potassium carbonate being obtained 
simultaneously; (3) the synthesis of potassium acetate and 
propionate from carbon dioxide and sodium methide and sodium 



ACIDALIUS ACINACES 



147 



ethide; (4) the synthesis of aromatic acids by the interaction of 
carbon dioxide, sodium and a bromine substitution derivative; 
and (5) the synthesis of aromatic oxy-acids by the interaction of 
carbon dioxide and sodium phenolates (see SALICYLIC ACID). 
Carbon monoxide takes part in the syntheses of sodium formate 
from sodium hydrate, or soda lime (at 2oo-22o), and of sodium 
acetate and propionate from sodium methylate and sodium 
ethylate at i6o-2oo. Other reactions which introduce carb- 
oxyl groups into aromatic groups are: the action of carbonyl 
chloride on aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium 
chloride, acid-chlorides being formed which are readily decom- 
posed by water to give the acid; the action of urea chloride 
C1-CO-NH 2 , cyanuric acid (CONH) 3 , nascent cyanic acid, or 
carbanile on hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium chloride, 
acid-amides being obtained which are readily decomposed to 
give the acid. An important nucleus-synthetic reaction is the 
saponification of nitriles, which may be obtained by the interac- 
tion of potassium cyanide with a halogen substitution derivative 
or a sulphonic acid. 

Acids frequently result as oxidation products, being almost 
invariably formed in all cases of energetic oxidation. There are 
certain reactions, however, in which oxidation can be success- 
fully applied to the synthesis of acids. Thus primary alcohols 
and aldehydes, both of the aliphatic and aromatic series, readily 
yield on oxidation acids containing the same number of carbon 
atoms. These reactions may be shown thus: 

R-CH 2 OH - R-CHO -> R-CO-OH. 

In the case of aromatic aldehydes, acids are also obtained by 
means of " Cannizzaro's reaction " (see BENZALDEHYDE). An 
important oxidation synthesis of aromatic acids is from hydro- 
carbons with aliphatic side chains; thus toluene, or methyl- 
benzene, yields benzoic acid, the xylenes, or dimethyl-benzene, 
yield methyl-benzoic acids and phthalic acids. Ketones, 
secondary alcohols and tertiary alcohols yield a mixture of 
acids on oxidation. We may also notice the disruption of un- 
saturated acids at the double linkage into a mixture of two acids, 
when fused with potash. 

In the preceding instances the carboxyl group has been 
synthesized or introduced into a molecule; we have now to 
consider syntheses from substances already containing carboxyl 
groups. Of foremost importance are the reactions termed the 
malonic acid and the aceto-acetic ester syntheses; these are 
discussed under their own headings. The electrosyntheses call 
for mention here. It is apparent that metallic salts of organic 
acids would, in aqueous solution, be ionized, the positive ion being 
the metal, and the negative ion the acid residue. Esters, how- 
ever, are not ionized. It is therefore apparent that a mixed salt 
and ester, for example KO 2 C-CH 2 -CH 2 -CO 2 C 2 H 5 , would give only 
two ions, viz. potassium and the rest of the molecule. If a solu- 
tion of potassium acetate be electrolysed the products are ethane, 
carbon dioxide, potash and hydrogen; in a similar manner, 
normal potassium succinate gives ethylene, carbon dioxide, 
potash and hydrogen; these reactions may be represented: 

CHs-CO 2 |K CH 3 CO 2 K- CH 2 -CO 2 ]K CH 2 CO 2 K' 

! -> I + + I f - ii + + 

CH 3 -CO 2 |K CH 3 CO 2 K- CHz-COjK CH 2 CO 2 K' 

By electrolysing a solution of potassium ethyl succinate, 
K0 2 C-(CH 2 )2CO 2 C 2 H 6 , the KO 2 C- groups are split off and 
the two residues -(CH 2 ) 2 CO 2 C 2 H5 combine to form the ester 
(CH 2 ) 4 (CO 2 C 2 H 6 )2. In the same way, by electrolysing a mix- 
ture of a metallic salt and an ester, other nuclei may be con- 
densed; thus potassium acetate and potassium ethyl succinate 
yield CHs-CH.-CHrC^CjHs. 

Reactions. Organic acids yield metallic salts with bases, 
and ethereal salts or esters (q.v.), R-CO-OR', with alcohols. 
Phosphorus chlorides give acid chlorides, R-CO-C1, the hy- 
droxyl group being replaced by chlorine, and acid anhydrides, 
(R-CO) 2 0, a molecule of water being split off between two 
carboxyl groups. The ammonium salts when heated lose one 
molecule of water and are converted into acid-amides, R-CO-NH 2 , 
which by further dehydration yield nitriles, R- CN. The calcium 



salts distilled with calcium formate yield aldehydes (q.v.); 
distilled with soda-lime, ketones (q.v.) result. 

ACIDALIUS, VALENS (1567-1595), German scholar and critic, 
was born at Wittstock in Brandenburg. After studying at 
Rostock, Greifswald and Helmstedt, and residing about three 
years in Italy, he settled at Breslau, where he is said to have 
embraced the Roman Catholic religion. Early in 1595 he ac- 
cepted an invitation to Neisse, about fifty miles from Breslau, 
where he died of brain fever on the 25th of May, at the age 
of twenty-eight. His excessive application to study, and the 
attacks made upon him in connexion with a pamphlet of which 
he was reputed the author, doubtless hastened his premature end. 
Acidalius wrote notes on Velleius Paterculus (1590), Curtius 
(1594), the panegyrists, Tacitus and Plautus, published after his 
death. 

See Leuschner, Commentatio de A. V. Vita, Moribus, et Scriptis 
(!757); F. Adam, " Der Neisser Rektor," in Bericht der Philomathie 
in Neisse (1872). 

ACID-AMIDES, chemical compounds which may be considered 
as derived from ammonia by replacement of its hydrogen with 
acidyl residues, the substances produced being known as 
primary, secondary or tertiary amides, according to the number 
of hydrogen atoms replaced. Of these compounds, the primary 
amides of the type R-CO-NH 2 are the most important. They 
may be prepared by the dry distillation of the ammonium salts 
of the acids (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 977), by the partial 
hydrolysis of the nitriles, by the action of ammonia or ammonium 
carbonate on acid chlorides or anhydrides, or by heating the 
esters (q.v.) with ammonia. They are solid crystalline compounds 
(formamide excepted) which are at first soluble in water, the 
solubility, however, decreasing as the carbon content of the 
molecule increases. They are easily hydrolysed, breaking up 
into their components when boiled with acids or alkalies. They 
form compounds with hydrochloric acid when this gas is passed 
into their ethereal solution; these compounds, however, are 
very unstable, being readily decomposed by water. On the 
other hand, they show faintly acid properties since the hydrogen 
of the amido group can be replaced by metals to give such com- 
pounds as mercury acetamide (CHsCONH) 2 Hg. Nitrous acid 
decomposes them, with elimination of nitrogen and the formation 
of the corresponding acid, 

RCO-NH 2 +ONOH = R-COOH + N 2 -|-H 2 O. 

When distilled with phosphoric anhydride they yield nitriles. 
By the action of bromine and alcoholic potash on the amides, 
they are converted into amines containing one carbon atom 
less than the original amide, a reaction which possesses great 
theoretical importance (A. W. Hofmann), 

R-CONH 2 -^ R-CONHBr -> R-NH 2 +K 2 CO 3 +KBr+H 2 O. 
Formamide, H-CONH 2 , is a h'quid readily soluble in water, 
boiling at about 195 C. with partial decomposition. Acetamide, 
CHa-CONHj, is a white deliquescent crystalline solid, which 
melts at 82-83 C. and boils at 222 C. It is usually prepared 
by distilling ammonium acetate. It is readily soluble in water 
and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. Benzamide, C6H 6 -CONH 2 , 
crystallizes in leaflets which melt at 130 C. It is prepared by 
the action of ammonium carbonate on benzoyl chloride. It 
yields a silver salt which with ethyl iodide forms benzimido- 
ethyl ether, C 6 H 6 C : (NH)-OC 2 H 6 , a behaviour which points to 
the silver salt as being derived from the tautomeric imido- 
benzoic acid, C 6 H 5 C : (NH)-OH (J. Tafel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 104). 
On the preparation of the substituted amides from the corre- 
sponding sodamides see A. W. Titherley (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1901, 
59, p. 391). The secondary and tertiary amides of the types 
(RCO) 2 NH and (RCO) 3 N may be prepared by heating the 
primary amides or the nitriles with acids or acid anhydrides to 
200 C. Thiamides of the type R-CSNH 2 are known, and result 
by the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen to the nitriles, or 
by the action of phosphorus pentasulphide on the. acid-amides. 
They readily decompose on heating, and are easily hydrolysed 
by alkalies; they possess a somewhat more acid character than 
the acid-amides. 

ACINACES (from the Greek), an ancient Persian sword, short 






148 



ACINET A ACKNOWLEDGMENT 






and straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the 
right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown in the 
bas-reliefs found at Persepolis. Among the Persian nobility 
it was frequently made of gold, being worn as a badge of dis- 
tinction. The acinaces was an object of religious worship with 
the Scythians and others (Herod, iv. 62). 

ACINET A (so named by C. G. Ehrenberg), a genus of suctorial 
Infusoria characterized by the possession of a stalk and cup- 
shaped sheath or theca for the body, and endogenous budding. 
O. Biitschli has separated off the genus Metacineta-(f.or A. mysta- 
cina), which reproduces by direct bud-fission. 

ACINUS (Lat. for a berry), a term in botany applied to such 
fruits as the blackberry or raspberry, composed of small seed- 
like berries, and also to those berries themselves, or to grape- 
stones. By analogy, acinus is applied in anatomy to similar 
granules or glands, or lobules of a gland. 

ACIREALE, a town and episcopal see of the province of 
Catania, Sicily; from the town of the same name it is distant 
9 m. N. by E. Pop. (1901) 35,418. It has some importance as 
a thermal station, and the springs were used by the Romans. 
It takes its name from the river Acis, into which, according to 
the legend, Acis, the lover of Galatea, was changed after he had 
been slain by Polyphemus. The rocks which Polyphemus hurled 
at Ulysses are identified with the seven Scogli de' Ciclopi, or 
Faraglioni, a little to the south of Acireale. 

ACIS, in Greek mythology, the son of Pan (Faunus) and the 
nymph Symaethis, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, was the lover 
of the Nereid Galatea. His rival the Cyclops Polyphemus sur- 
prised them together, and crushed him to pieces with a rock. 
His blood, gushing forth from beneath, was metamorphosed by 
Galatea into the river bearing his name (now Fiume di Jaci), 
which was celebrated for the coldness of its waters (Ovid, Met. 
xiii. 750; Silius Italicus, Punica, xiv. 221). 

ACKERMAN, FRANCIS (c. 1335-1387), Flemish soldier and 
diplomatist, was born at Ghent, and about 1380 became promi- 
nent during the struggle between the burghers of that town and 
Louis II. (de Male), count of Flanders. He was partly respon- . 
sible for inducing Philip van Artevelde to become first captain 
of the city of Ghent in 1382, and at the head of some troops 
scoured the surrounding country for provisions and thus saved 
Ghent from being starved into submission. By his diplomatic 
abilities he secured the assistance of the citizens of Brussels, 
Louvain and Liege, and, having been made admiral of the 
Flemish fleet, visited England and obtained a promise of help 
from King Richard II. After Artevelde's death in November 
1382, he acted as leader of the Flemings, gained several victories 
and increased his fame by skilfully conducting a retreat from 
Damme to Ghent in August 1385. He took part in the conclu- 
sion of the treaty of peace between Ghent and Philip the Bold, 
duke of Burgundy, the successor of Count Louis, in December 
1385. Trusting in Philip, and ignoring the warnings of his 
friends, Ackerman remained in Flanders, and was murdered at 
Ghent on the 22nd of July 1387, leaving a memory of chivalry 
and generosity. 

See Jean Froissart, Chronigues, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud 
(Paris, 1869-1897); Johannes Brandon, Chronodromon, edited by 
K. de Lettenhove in the Chronigues relatives a I'histoire de la Belgigue 
sous la domination des dues de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870). 

ACKERMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1801), 
German physician, was born at Zeulenroda, in Upper Saxony, on 
the I7th of February 1756, and died at Altdorf on the gth of March 
1801. At the age of fifteen he became a student of medicine 
at Jena under E. G. Baldinger, whom he followed to Gottingen 
in 1773, and afterwards he studied for two years at Halle. 
A few years' practice at Stendal (1778-1799), where there were 
numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable original 
observations to his translation (1780-1783) of Bernardino 
Ramazzini's (1633-1714) treatise on diseases of artificers. In 1786 
he became professor of medicine at the university of Altdorf, in 
Franconia, occupying first the chair of chemistry, and then, from 
1794 till his death in 1801, that of pathology and therapeutics. 
He wrote Instilutiones Historiae Medicinae (Nuremberg, 1792) 



and Instilutiones Therapiae Generalis (Nuremberg and Altdorf, 
1784-1795), besides various handbooks and translations. 

ACKERMANN, LOUISE VICTORINE CHOQUET (1813-1890), 
French poet, was born in Paris on the 3Oth of November 1813. 
Educated by her father in the philosophy of the Encyclopaedists, 
Victorine Choquet went to Berlin in 1838 to study German, and 
there married in 1843 Paul Ackermann, an Alsatian philologist. 
After little more than two years of happy married life her 
husband died, and Madame Ackermann went to live at Nice 
with a favourite sister. In 1855 she published Contes en vers, and 
in 1862 Contes et poesies. Very different from these simple and 
charming contes is the work on which Madame Ackermann's real 
reputation rests. She published in 1874 Poesies, premieres poesies, 
poesies philosophiques, a volume of sombre and powerful verse, 
expressing her revolt against human suffering. The volume 
was enthusiastically reviewed in the Revue des deux mondes for 
May 1871 by E. Caro, who, though he deprecated the impiele 
dtsesperee of the verses, did full justice to their vigour and the 
excellence of their form. Soon after the publication of this 
volume Madame Ackermann removed to Paris, where she gathered 
round her a circle of friends, but published nothing further 
except a prose volume, the Pensees d'un solitaire (1883), to which 
she prefixed a short autobiography. She died at Nice on the 
2nd of August 1890. 

See also Anatole France, La vie lilteraire, 4th series (1892) ; the 
comte d'Haussonville, Mme. Ackermann (1882); M. Citoleux, La 
poesie philosophique au XlXe. siecle (vol. i., Mme. Ackermann d'apres 
de nombreux documents inedits, Paris, 1906). 

ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH (1764-1834), Anglo-German in- 
ventor and publisher, was born on the 2oth of April 1764 at 
Schneeberg, in Saxony. He had been a saddler and coach- 
builder in different German cities, Paris and London for ten years 
before, in 1795, he established a print-shop and drawing-school 
in the Strand. Ackermann set up a lithographic press, and 
applied it in 1817 to the illustration of his Repository of Arts, 
Literature, Fashions,' &c. (monthly until 1828 when forty volumes 
had appeared). Rowlandson and other distinguished artists 
were regular contributors. He also introduced the fashion of 
the once popular English Annuals, beginning in 1825 with 
Forget-me-not; and he published many illustrated volumes of 
topography and travel, The Microcosm of London (3 vols., 1808- 
1811), Westminster Abbey (2 vols., 1812), The Rhine (1820), The 
World in Miniature (43 vols., 1821-1826), &c. Ackermann was 
an enterprising man ; he patented (1801) a method for rendering 
paper and cloth waterproof, erected a factory at Chelsea for the 
purpose and was one of the first to illuminate his own premises 
with gas. Indeed the introduction of lighting by gas owed 
much to him. After the battle of Leipzig Ackermann collected 
nearly a quarter of a million sterling for the German sufferers. 
He died at Finchley, near London, on 'the 3Oth of March 1834. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of 
on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the 
forms oknow, aknow and acknow, acknowledge is formed on 
analogy of "knowledge"), an admission that something has 
been given or done, a term used in law in various connexions. 
The acknowledgment of a debt, if in writing signed by the debtor 
or his agent, is sufficient to take it out of the Statutes of Limita- 
tions. The signature to a will by a testator, if not made in the 
presence of two witnesses, may be afterwards acknowledged in 
their presence. The acknowledgment by a woman married before 
1882 of deeds for the conveyance of real property not her separate 
property, requires to be made by her before a judge of the High 
Court or of a county court or before a perpetual or special 
commissioner. Before such an acknowledgment can be received, 
the judge or commissioner is required to examine her apart 
from her husband, touching her knowledge of the deed, and to 
ascertain whether she freely and voluntarily consents to it. An 
acknowledgment to the right of the production of deeds of 
conveyance is an obligation on the vendor, when he retains any 
portion of the property to which the deeds relate, and is entitled 
to retain the deeds, to produce them from time to time at the 
request of the person to whom the acknowledgment is given, 



ACLAND ACNE 



149 



to allow copies to be made, and to undertake for their safe 
custody (Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 9). The term "acknow- 
ledgment " is, in the United States, applied to the certificate 
of a public officer that an instrument was acknowledged before 
him to be the deed or act of the person who executed it. 

" Acknowledgment money " is the sum paid in some parts 
of England by copyhold tenants on the death of the lord of the 
manor. 

ACLAND, CHRISTIAN HENRIETTA CAROLINE (1750-1815), 
usually called Lady Harriet Acland, was born on the 3rd of 
January 1750, the daughter of the first earl of Ilchester. In 
1770 she married John Dyke Acland, who as a member of parlia- 
ment became a vigorous supporter of Lord North's policy 
towards the American colonies, and, entering the British army 
in 1774, served with Burgoyne's expedition as major in the 2oth 
regiment of foot. Lady Harriet accompanied her husband, and, 
when he was wounded at Ticonderoga, nursed him in his tent at 
the front. In the second battle of Saratoga Major Acland was 
again badly wounded and subsequently taken prisoner. Lady 
Harriet was determined to be with him, and underwent great 
hardship to accomplish her object, proving herself a courageous 
and devoted wife. A story has been told that being provided 
with a letter from General Burgoyne .to the American general 
Gates, she went up the Hudson river in an open boat to the 
enemy's lines, arriving late in the evening. The American out- 
posts threatened to fire into the boat if its occupants stirred, 
and Lady Harriet had to wait eight " dark and cold hours," 
until the sun rose, when she at last received permission to join 
her husband. Major Acland died in 1778, and Lady Harriet on 
the 2ist of July 1815. 

ACLAND, SIR HENRY WENTWORTH, BART. (1815-1900), 
English physician and man of learning, was born near Exeter on 
the 23rd of August 1815, and was the fourth son of Sir Thomas 
Dyke Acland (1787-1871). Educated at Harrow and at Christ 
Church, Oxford, he was elected fellow of All Souls in 1840, and 
then studied medicine in London and Edinburgh. Returning 
to Oxford, he was appointed Lee's reader in anatomy at Christ 
Church in 1845, and in 1851 Radcliffe librarian and physician to 
the Radcliffe infirmary. Seven years later he became regius 
professor of medicine, a post which he retained till 1894. He 
was also a curator of the university galleries and of the Bodleian 
Library, and from 1858 to 1887 he represented his university 
on the General Medical Council, of which he served as president 
from 1874 to 1887. He was created a baronet in 1890, and ten 
years later, on the i6th of October 1900, he died at his house in 
Broad Street, Oxford. Acland took a leading part in the revival 
of the Oxford medical school and in introducing the study of 
natural science into the university. As Lee's reader he began 
to form a collection of anatomical and physiological preparations 
on the plan of John Hunter, and the establishment of the Oxford 
University museum, opened in 1861, as a centre for the en- 
couragement of the study of science, especially in relation to 
medicine, was largely due to his efforts. " To Henry Acland," 
said his lifelong friend, John Ruskin, " physiology was an en- 
trusted gospel of which he was the solitary preacher to the 
heathen," but on the other hand his thorough classical training 
preserved science at Oxford from too abrupt a severance from 
the humanities. In conjunction with Dean Liddell, he revolu- 
tionized the study of art and archaeology, so that the cultivation 
of these subjects, for which, as Ruskin declared, no one at Oxford 
cared before that time, began to flourish in the university. 
Acland was also interested in questions of public health. He 
served on the royal commission on sanitary laws in England 
and Wales in 1869, and published a study of the outbreak of 
cholera at Oxford in 1854, together with various pamphlets on 
sanitary matters. His memoir on the topography of the Troad, 
with panoramic plan (1839), was among the fruits of a cruise 
which he made in the Mediterranean for the sake of his health. 

ACME (Gr. 61^17, point), the highest point attainable; first 
used as an English word by Ben Jonson. 

ACMITE, or AEGIRITE, a mineral of the pyroxene (q.v.} group, 
which may be described as a soda-pyroxene, being essentially a 



sodium and ferric metasilicate, NaFe(SiOs)2. In its crystallo- 
graphic characters it is close to ordinary pyroxene (augite and 
diopside), being monoclinic and having nearly the same angle 
between the prismatic cleavages. There are, however, important 
differences in the optical characters: the birefringence of acmite 
is negative, the pleochroism is strong and the extinction angle 
on the plane of symmetry measured to the vertical axis is small 
(3-5). The hardness is 6-65, and the specific gravity 3-55. 
Crystals are elongated in the direction of the vertical axis, and 
are blackish green (aegirite) or dark brown (acmite) in colour. 
Being isomorphous with augite, crystals intermediate in com- 
position between augite or diopside and aegirite are not un- 
common, and these are known as aegirine-augite or aegirine- 
diopside. 

Acmite is a characteristic constituent of igneous rocks rich in 
soda, such as nepheline-syenites, phonolites, &c. It was first 
discovered as slender crystals, sometimes a foot in length, in 
the pegmatite veins of the granite of Rundemyr, near Kongsberg 
in Norway, and was named by F. Stromeyer in 1821 from the 
Gr. aK//i7, a point, in allusion to the pointed terminations of 
the crystals. Aegirite (named from Aegir, the Scandinavian 
sea -god) was described in 1835 fr m tne elaeolite-syenite of 
southern Norway. Although exhibiting certain varietal differ- 
ences, the essential identity of acmite and aegirite has long been 
established, but the latter and more recent name is perhaps in 
more general use, especially among petrologists. 

ACNE, a skin eruption produced by inflammation of the 
sebaceous glands and hair follicles, the essential point in the 
disease being the plugging of the mouths of the sebaceous 
follicles by a " comedo," familiarly known as " blackhead." It 
is now generally acknowledged that the cause of this disease is 
the organism known as bacillus acnes. It shows itself in the 
form of red pimples or papules, which may become pustular and 
be attended with considerable surrounding irritation of the 
skin. This affection is likewise most common in early adult life, 
and occurs on the chest and back as well as on the face, where it 
may, when of much extent, produce considerable disfigurement. 
It is apt to persist for months or even years, but usually in time 
disappears entirely, although slight traces may remain in the 
form of scars or stains upon the skin. Eruptions of this kind 
are sometimes produced by the continued internal use of certain 
drugs, such as the iodide or bromide of potassium. In treating 
this condition the face should first of all be held over steaming 
water for several minutes, and then thoroughly bathed. The 
blackheads should next be removed, not with the finger-nail, 
but with an inexpensive little instrument known as the " comedo 
expressor." When the more noticeable of the blackheads have 
been expressed, the face should be firmly rubbed for three or 
four minutes with a lather made from a special soap composed 
of sulphur, camphor and balsam of Peru. Any lather remaining 
on the face at the end of this time should be wiped off with a 
soft handkerchief. As this treatment might give rise to some 
irritation of the skin, it should be replaced every fourth night 
by a simple application of cold cream. Of drugs used internally 
sulphate of calcium, in pill, 5 grain three times a day, is a very 
useful adjunct to the preceding. The patient should take plenty 
of exercise in the fresh air, a very simple but nourishing diet, 
and, if present, constipation and anaemia must be suitably treated. 

Rosacea, popularly known as acne rosacea, is a more severe 
and troublesome disorder, a true dermatitis with no relation to 
the foregoing, and in most cases secondary to seborrhea of the 
scalp. It is characterized by great redness of the nose and 
cheeks, accompanied by pustular enlargements on the surface 
of the skin, which produce marked disfigurement. Although 
often seen in persons who live too freely, it is by no means con- 
fined to such, but may arise in connexion with disturbances of 
the general health, especially of the function of digestion, and 
in females with menstrual disorders. It is apt to be exceed- 
ingly intractable to treatment, which is here too, as in the pre- 
ceding form, partly local and partly constitutional. Of internal 
remedies preparations of iodine and of arsenic are sometimes 
found of service. 



150 



ACOEMETI ACOMINATUS 



ACOEMETI (Gr. eucoi/uTjTOS, sleepless), an order of Eastern 
monks who celebrated the divine service without intermission 
day or night. This was done by dividing the communities into 
choirs, which relieved each other by turn in the church. Their 
first monastery was established on the Euphrates, in the begin- 
ning of the 5th century, and soon afterwards one was founded in 
Constantinople. Here also, c. 460, was founded by the consular 
Studius the famous monastery of the Studium, which was put 
in the hands of the Acoemeti and became their chief house, so 
that they were sometimes called Studites. At Agaunum (St 
Maurice in the Valais) a monastery was founded by the Bur- 
gundian king Sigismund, in 515, in which the perpetual office 
was kept up; but it is doubtful whether this had any connexion 
with the Eastern Acoemeti. 

The Constantinopolitan Acoemeti took a prominent part in 
the Christological controversies of the 5th and 6th centuries, at 
first strenuously opposing Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 
in his attempted compromise with the monophysites; but after- 
wards, in Justinian's reign, falling under ecclesiastical censure 
for Nestorian tendencies. 

See the article in Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; Wetzer und 
Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.); and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo- 
pddie (3rd ed.) ; also the general histories of the time. (E. C. B.) 

ACOLYTE (Gr.ciKoXouflos, follower), the last of the four minor 
orders in the Roman Church. As an office it appears to be of 
local origin, and is entirely unknown in the Eastern Church, with 
the exception of the Armenians who borrowed it from the West. 
Before the council of Nicaea (325) it was only to be found at 
Rome and Carthage. When in 251 Pope Cornelius, in a letter to 
Fabius of Antioch, mentions among the Roman clergy forty-two 
acolytes, placing them after the subdeacons and before the other 
minor officials (see Eusebius, Hist. Ecc. lib. v. cap. 43), he gives 
no hint that the office was a new one, but speaks of them as hold- 
ing an already established position. Their institution has there- 
fore to be sought for at an earlier date than his pontificate. It 
is possible that the Liber Pontificalis refers to the office under 
the Lathi synonym, when it says of Pope Victor (186-197) that 
he made sequentes cleros, a term sequens which Pope Gaius 
(283-293) uses in the sense of acolyte. While the office was well 
known hi Rome, there is nothing to prove that it was also an 
order through which, as to-day, every candidate to the priest- 
hood must pass. The contrary is a fact proved by many monu- 
mental inscriptions and authentic statements. Though the 
office is found at Carthage, and St Cyprian (2007-258) makes 
many references to acolytes, whom he used to carry his letters, 
this seems to be the only place in Africa where they were known. 
Tertullian, while speaking of readers and exorcists, says nothing 
about acolytes; neither does St Augustine. The Irish Church 
did not know them; and in Spain the council of Toledo (400) 
makes no mention either of the office or of the order. The 
Statuta Ecclesiae Anliqua (falsely called the Canons of the Fourth 
Council of Carthage in 397), a Gallican collection, originating in 
the province of Aries at the beginning of the 6th century, 
mentions the acolyte, but does not give, as in the case of the 
other orders, any form for the ordination. The Roman books are 
silent, and there is no mention of it in the collection known as 
the Leonine Sacramentary; while in the so-called Gelasian Mass- 
book, which, as we have it, is full of Gallican additions made to 
St Gregory's reform, there is the same silence, though in one MS. 
of the loth century given by Muratori we find a form for the 
ordination of an acolyte. While there is frequent mention of 
the acolyte's office in the Ordines Romani, it is only in the Ordo 
VIII. (which is not earlier than the 7th century) that we find the 
very simple form for admitting an acolyte to his office. At the 
end of the mass the cleric, clad in chasuble and stole and bearing 
a linen bag on one arm, comes before the pope or bishop and 
receives a blessing. There is no collation of power or order but 
a simple admission to an office. The evidence available, there- 
fore, points to the fact that the acolyte was only a local office 
and was not a necessary step or order for every candidate. 
In England, though the ecclesiastical organization came from 
Rome and was directed by Romans, we find no trace of such 



an office or order until the time of Ecgbert of York (767), the 
friend of Alcuin and therefore subject to Gallican influence. The 
Pontifical known as Ecgbert's shows that it was then in use both 
as an office and as an order, and Aelfric (1006) in both his pastoral 
epistle and canons mentions the acolyte. The conclusion, then, 
which seems warranted by the evidence, is that the acolyte was 
an office only at Rome, and, becoming an order in the Gallican 
Church, found its way as such into the Roman books at some 
period before the fusion of the two rites under Charlemagne. 

The duties of the acolyte, as given in the Roman Pontifical, 
are identical with those mentioned in the Staluta Ecclesiae 
Antiqua of Aries: " It is the duty of acolytes to carry the candle- 
sticks, to light the lamps of the church, to administer wine and 
water for the Eucharist." It might seem, from the number forty- 
two mentioned by Pope Cornelius, that at Rome the acolytes 
were divided among the seven ecclesiastical regions of the city; 
but we have no proof that, at that date, there were six acolytes 
attached to each region. From the ancient division of the Roman 
acolytes into Palatini, or those in attendance on the pope at the 
Lateran palace, Stationarii, or those who served at the churches 
where there was a " station," and Regionarii, or those attached 
directly to the regions, it would seem that the number forty-two 
was only the actual number then existing and not an official 
number. We get a glimpse of their duties from the Ordines 
Romani. When the pope rode in procession to the station an 
acolyte, on foot, preceded him, bearing the holy chrism; and 
at the church seven regionary acolytes with candles went before 
him in the procession to the altar, while two others, bearing the 
vessel that contained a pre-consecrated Host, presented it for his 
adoration. During the mass an acolyte bore the thurible (Ordo 
VI.) and three assisted at the washing of the hands. At the 
moment of communion the acolytes received in linen bags the 
consecrated Hosts to carry to the assisting priests. This office 
of bearing the sacrament is an ancient one, and is mentioned in 
the legend of Tarcisius, the Roman acolyte, who was martyred 
on the Appian Way while carrying the Hosts from the cata- 
combs. The official dress of the acolyte, according to Ordo V., 
was a close-fitting linen garment (camisia) girt about him, a 
napkin hanging from the left side, a white tunic, a stole (orarium) 
and a chasuble (planeta) which he took off when he sang on the 
steps of the ambone. 

At the present day, despite the earnest wish of the council of 
Trent (Sess. xxiii. cap. 17 d.r.), the acolyte, while remaining an 
order, has ceased to be essentially a clerical office, since the duties 
are now performed, almost everywhere, by laymen. The office 
has been revived, though unofficially, in the Church of England, 
as a result of the Tractarian movement. 

See Morin, Commentarius in sacris Ecclesiae ordinationibus 
(Antwerp, 1685), ii. p. 209, iii. p. 152; Martene, De Antiquis Ec- 
clesiae ritibus (Antwerp, 1739), ii. pp. 47 and 86; Mabillon, Musaeum 
Italicum II. for the Ordines Romani; Muratori, Liturgia Romana 
Vetus; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d' archeologie chrelienne et de liturgie, 
vol. i. col. 348-536. (E. TN.) 

ACOMINATUS (AKOMJNATOS), . MICHAEL (c. 1140-1220), 
Byzantine writer and ecclesiastic, was born at Chonae (the 
ancient Colossae) . At an early age he studied at Constantinople, 
and about 1175 was appointed archbishop of Athens. After the 
capture of Constantinople by the Franks and the establishment 
of the Latin empire (1204), he retired to the island of Ceos, where 
he died. He was a versatile writer, and composed homilies, 
speeches and poems, which, with his correspondence, throw 
considerable light upon the miserable condition of Attica and 
Athens at the time. His memorial to Alexis III. Angelus on the 
abuses of Byzantine administration, the poetical lament over the 
degeneracy of Athens and the monodes on his brother Nicetas 
and Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, deserve special 
mention. 

Edition of his works by S. Lambros (1879-1880) ; Migne, Patrologia 
Graeca, cxl.; see also A. Ellissen, Michael Akominatos (1846), con- 
taining several pieces with German translation; F. Gregorovius, 
Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter, i. (1889); G. Finlay, 
History of Greece, iv. pp. 133-134 (1877). 

His younger brother NICETAS (Niketas), sometimes called 
CHONIATES, who accompanied him to Constantinople, took up 






ACONCAGUA ACONITE 



politics as a career. He held several appointments under the 
Angelus emperors (amongst them that of " great logothete " or 
chancellor) and was governor of the " theme " of Philippopolis 
at a critical period. After the fall of Constantinople he fled to 
Nicaea, where he settled at the court of the emperor Theodorus 
Lascaris, and devoted himself to literature. He died between 
1 2 10 and 1 2 20. His chief work is his History, in 2 1 books, of the 
period from 1180 to 1206. In spite of its florid and bombastic 
style, it is of considerable value as a record (on the whole im- 
partial) of events of which he was either an eye-witness or had 
heard at first hand. Its most interesting portion is the de- 
scription of the capture of Constantinople, which should be read 
with Villehardouin's and Paolo Rannusio's works on the same 
subject. The little treatise On the Statues destroyed by the 
Latins (perhaps, as we have it, altered by a later writer) is of 
special interest to the archaeologist. His dogmatic work(67j(rai;p6s 
'OpOodo^ias, Thesaurus Orthodoxae Fidei), although it is extant in 
a complete form in MS., has only been published in part. It is 
one of the chief authorities for the heresies and heretical writers 
of the 1 2th century. 

Editions: History, editio princeps, H. Wolf (1557); and in the 
Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz., 1st ed.,Bekker (1835) ; Rhetorical 
Pieces in C. Sathas, tJitaauavLiai Bi(3\io0ijK7), i. (1872); Thesaurus in 
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxix., cxl. ; see also C. A. Sainte-Beuve, 
" Geoffrey de Villehardouin " in Causeries du Lundi, ix. ; S. Reinach, 
" La fin de 1'empire grec " in Esquisses Archeologiques (1888); C. 
Neumann, Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert (1888); 
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. Ix. ; and (for both Michael and Nicetas) 
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 

ACONCAGUA, a small northern province of central Chile, 
bounded N. by Coquimbo, E. by Argentina, S. by Santiago and 
Valparaiso and W. by the Pacific. Its area is officially com- 
puted at 5487 sq. m. Pop. (1895) I1 3t 1 (>5'> (rpo 2 , official esti- 
mate based on civil registry returns) 131,255. The province is 
very mountainous, and is traversed from east to west by the broad 
valley of the Aconcagua river. The climate is hot and dry, the 
rainfall being too small to influence climatic conditions. The 
valleys are highly fertile, and where irrigation is employed large 
crops are easily raised. Beyond the limits of irrigation the 
country is semi-barren. Alfalfa and grapes are the principal 
products, and considerable attention is given to the cultivation 
of other fruits, such as figs, peaches and melons. The " Vale of 
Quillota," through which the railway passes between Valparaiso 
and Santiago, is celebrated for its gardens. The Aconcagua 
river rises on the southern slope of the volcano Aconcagua, flows 
eastward through a broad valley, or bay in the mountains, and 
enters the Pacific 12 m. north of Valparaiso. The river has a 
course of about 200 m., and its waters irrigate the best and 
most populous part of the province. Two other rivers the 
Ligua and Choapa traverse the province, the latter forming 
the northern boundary line. The capital is San Felipe, on the 
Aconcagua river; it had a population of 11,313 in 1895, and an 
estimated population of 11,660 in 1902. The other chief town 
is Santa Rosa de los Andes (est. pop. 6854), which is a principal 
station on the Transandine branch of the state railway. The 
only port in the province is Los Vilos, in lat. 32 S., from which 
a railway 40 m. long runs north-east to the valley of the Choapa. 
Another short line connects Cabildo, in the valley of the Ligua, 
with the state railway. 

ACONCIO, GIACOMO (1492-1566?), pioneer of religious tolera- 
tion, was born at Trent, it is said, on the 7th of September 
1492. He was one of the Italians like Peter Martyr and Bernar- 
dino Ochino who repudiated papal doctrine and ultimately found 
refuge in England. Like them, his revolt against Romanism 
took an extremer form than Lutheranism, and after a temporary 
residence in Switzerland and at Strassburg, he arrived in England 
soon after EKzabeth's accession. He had studied law and 
theology, but his profession was that of an engineer, and in this 
capacity he found employment with the English government. 
He was granted an annuity of 60 on the 27th of February 1560, 
and letters of naturalization on the 8th of October 1561 (Co/. 
Stale Papers, Dom. Ser., Addenda, 1547-1566, p. 495), and wasfor 
some time occupied with draining Plumstead marshes, for which 



object various acts of parliament were passed at this time (Lords' 
Journals, vol. i., and Commons' Journals, vol. i., passim). In 
1564 he was sent to report on the fortifications of Berwick (Co/. 
St. Pap. For. Ser. 1564-1565, passim; Acts P.C., 1558-1570, 
p. 146); his report is now in the Record Office (C.S.P. For., 
1564-1565, No. 512). 

But his real importance depends upon his contribution to the 
history of religious toleration. Before reaching England he had 
published a treatise on the methods of investigation, De Methodo, 
hoc est, de recte investigandarum tradendarumque Scientiarum 
ratione (Basel, 1558, 8vo); and his critical spirit placed him 
outside all the recognized religious societies of his time. On his 
arrival in London he had joined the Dutch Reformed Church 
in Austin Friars, but he was " infected with Anabaptistical and 
Arian opinions " and was excluded from the sacrament by 
Grindal, bishop of London. The real nature of his heterodoxy 
is revealed in his Stratagemata Satanae, published in 1565 and 
translated into various languages. The " stratagems of Satan " 
"are the dogmatic creeds which rent the Christian church. Aconcio 
sought to find the common denominator of the various creeds; 
this was essential doctrine, the rest was immaterial. To arrive 
at this common basis, he had to reduce dogma to a low level, 
and his result was generally repudiated. Even Selden applied 
to Aconcio the remark ubi bene, nil melius; ubi male, nemo 
pejus. The dedication of such a work to Queen Elizabeth illus- 
trates the tolerance or religious laxity during the early years of 
her reign. Aconcio found another patron in the earl of Leicester, 
and died about 1566. 

AUTHORITIES. Cough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ. Strype's 
Grindal, pp. 62, 66; Bayle's Dictionnaire ; G. Tiraboschi, Storia 
della lett. italiana (Florence, 1805-1813); Osterreichisches Biogr. 
Lexikon ; Nouvelle biogr. generate ; Diet. Nat. Biogr. (A. "F. P.) 

ACONITE (Aconitum)i a genus of plants belonging to the 
natural order Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, commonly 
known as aconite, monkshood or wolfsbane, and embracing 
about 60 species, chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the 
northern hemisphere. They are distinguished by having one 
of the five blue or yellow coloured sepals (the posterior one) in 
the form of a helmet; hence the English name monkshood. 
Two of the petals placed under the hood of the calyx are sup- 
ported on long stalks, and have a hollow spur at their apex, 
containing honey. They are handsome plants, the tall stem 
being crowned by racemes of showy flowers. Aconitum Napellus, 
common monkshood, is a doubtful native of Britain, and is of 
therapeutic and toxicological importance. Its roots have occa- 
sionally been mistaken for horse-radish. The aconite has a short 
underground stem, from which dark-coloured tapering roots 
descend. The crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to 
new plants. When put to the h'p, the juice of the aconite root 
produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. The horse-radish 
root, which belongs to the natural order Cruciferae, is much 
longer than that of the aconite, and it is not tapering; its colour 
is yellowish, and the top of the root has the remains of the leaves 
on it. 

Many species of aconite are cultivated in gardens, some having 
blue and others yellow flowers. Aconitum lycoctonum, wolfsbane, 
is a yellow-flowered species common on the Alps of Switzerland. 
The roots of Aconitum ferox supply the famous Indian (Nepal) 
poison called bikh, bish or nabee. It contains considerable 
quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which is the most 
deadly poison known. Aconitum palmatum yields another of 
the celebrated bikh poisons. The root of Aconitum luridum, of 
the Himalayas, is said to be as virulent as that of A. ferox or 
A . Napellus. As garden plants the aconites are very ornamental, 
hardy perennials. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil, 
and will grow beneath the shade of trees. They are easily propa- 
gated by divisions of the root or by seeds; great care should be 
taken not to leave pieces of the root about owing to its very 
poisonous character. 

Chemistry. The active principle of Aconitum Napellus is the 
alkaloid aconitine, first examined by P. L. Geiger and Hesse 
(Ann., 1834, 7, p. 267). Alder Wright and A. P. Luff obtained 



152 



ACONTIUS ACORN 



apoaconitine, aconine and benzoic acid by hydrolysis; while, in 
1892, C. Ehrenberg and A. Purfiirst (Journ. Prat. Chem., 1892, 
45 , p. 604) observed acetic acid as a hydroly tic product. This, and 
allied alkaloids, have formed the subject of many investigations 
by Wyndham Dunstan and his pupils in England, and by Martin 
Freund and Paul Beck in Berlin. But their constitution is not 
yet solved, there even being some divergence of opinion as to 
their empirical formulae. Aconitine (GsI^NOjs, according to 
Dunstan; C^H^NOu, according to Freund) is a crystalline 
base, soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly in water; its alco- 
holic solution is dextrorotatory, but its salts are laevorotatory. 
When heated it loses water and forms pyraconitine. Hydrolysis 
gives acetic acid and benzaconine, the chief constituent of the 
alkaloids picraconitine and napelline; further hydrolysis gives 
aconine. Pseudaconitine, obtained from Aconitum ferox, gives 
on hydrolysis acetic acid and veratrylpseudaconine, the latter 
of which suffers further hydrolysis to veratric acid and pseud- 
aconine: Japaconitine, obtained from the Japanese aconites, 
known locally as " kuza-uzu," hydrolyses to japbenzaconine,' 
which further breaks down to benzoic acid and japaconine. 
Other related alkaloids are lycaconitine and myoctonine which 
occur in wolfsbane, Aconitum lycoctonum. The usual test for 
solutions of aconitine consists in slight acidulation with acetic 
acid and addition of potassium permanganate, which causes the 
formation of a red crystalline precipitate. In 1905, Dunstan and 
his collaborators discovered two new aconite alkaloids, indaconi- 
tine in " mohri " (Aconitum chasmanthum, Stapf), and bikh- 
aconitine in " bikh " (Aconitum spicatum); he also proposes to 
classify these alkaloids according to whether they yield benzoic 
or veratric acid on hydrolysis (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, pp. 
1620, 1650). 

From the root of Aconitum Napellus are prepared a liniment 
and a tincture. The dose of the latter (Brit. Pharmacop.) is of 
importance as being exceptionally small, for it is not advisable 
to give more than at most five drops at a time. The official 
preparation is an ointment which contains one part of the alka- 
loid in fifty. It must be used with extreme care, and in small 
quantities, and it must not be used at all where cuts or cracks are 
present in the skin. 

Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine. Aconite first stimu- 
lates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch and tempera- 
ture, if applied to the skin, broken or unbroken, or to a mucous 
membrane; the initial tingling therefore gives place to a long- 
continued anaesthetic action. Taken internally aconite acts 
very notably on the circulation, the respiration and the nervous 
system. The pulse is slowed, the number of beats per minute 
being actually reduced, under considerable doses, to forty, or 
even thirty, per minute. The blood-pressure synchronously 
falls, and the heart is arrested in diastole. Immediately before 
arrest the heart may beat much faster than normally, though 
with extreme irregularity, and in the lower animals the auricles 
may be observed occasionally to miss a beat, as in poisoning by 
veratrine and colchicum. The action of aconitine on the circu- 
lation is due to an initial stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory 
centre in the medulla oblongata (at the root of the vagus nerves), 
and later to a directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and 
muscular fibres of the heart itself. The fall in blood-pressure is 
not due to any direct influence on the vessels. The respiration 
becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory 
centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this action, 
the respiration being arrested before the action of the heart. 
Aconite further depresses the activity of all nerve-terminals, 
the sensory being affected before the motor. In small doses it 
therefore tends to relieve pain, if this be present. The activity 
of the spinal cord is similarly depressed. The pupil is at first 
contracted, and afterwards dilated. The cerebrum is totally 
unaffected by aconite, consciousness and the intelligence re- 
maining normal to the last. The antipyretic action which con- 
siderable doses of aconite display is not specific, but is the 
result of its influence on the circulation and respiration and of its 
slight diaphoretic action. 

Therapeutics. The indications for its employment are limited, 



but definite. It is of undoubted value as a local anodyne in 
sciatica and neuralgia, especially in ordinary facial or trigeminal 
neuralgia. The best method of application is by rubbing in a 
small quantity of the aconitine ointment until numbness is felt, 
but the costliness of this preparation causes the use of the 
aconite liniment to be commonly resorted to. This should be 
painted on the affected part with a camel's hair brush dipped in 
chloroform, which facilitates the absorption of the alkaloid. 
Aconite is indicated for internal administration whenever it 
desirable to depress the action of the heart in the course of a 
fever. Formerly used in every fever, and even in the septic states 
that constantly followed surgical operations in the pre-Listerian 
epoch, aconite is now employed only in the earliest stage of the 
less serious fevers, such as acute tonsilitis, bronchitis and, 
notably, laryngitis. The extreme pain and rapid swelling of the 
vocal cords with threatened obstruction to the respiration 
that characterize acute laryngitis may often be relieved by the 
sedative action of this drug upon the circulation. In order to 
reduce the pulse to its normal rate in these cases, without at the 
same time lessening the power of the heart, the drug must be 
given in doses of about two minims of the tincture every half- 
hour and then every hour until the pulse falls to the normal rate. 
Thereafter the drug must be discontinued. It is probably never 
right to give aconite in doses much larger than that named. 
There is one condition of the heart itself in which aconite is 
sometimes useful. Whilst absolutely contra-indicated in all 
cases of valvular disease, it is of value in cases of cardiac hyper- 
trophy with over-action. But the practitioner must be assured 
that neither valvular lesion nor degeneration of the myocardium 
is present. 

Toxicology. In a few minutes after the introduction of a 
poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene. The 
initial signs of poisoning are referable to the alimentary canal. 
There is a sensation of burning, tingling and numbness in the 
mouth, and of burning in the abdomen. Death usually super- 
venes before a numbing effect on the intestine can be observed. 
After about an hour there is severe vomiting. Much motor 
weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above de- 
scribed soon follow. The pulse and respiration steadily fail, 
death occurring from asphyxia. As in strychnine poisoning, 
the patient is conscious and clear-minded to the last. The 
only post-mortem signs are those of asphyxia. The treatment 
is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant emetic. 
The physiological antidotes are atropine and digitalin or 
strophanthin, which should be injected subcutaneously in 
maximal doses. Alcohol, strychnine and warmth must also 
be employed. 

ACONTIUS (Gr. Akontios), in Greek legend, a beautiful youth 
of the island of Ceos, the hero of a love-story told byCallimachus 
in a poem now lost, which forms the subject of two of Ovid's 
Heroides (xx., xxi.). During the festival of Artemis at Delos, 
Acontius saw Cydippe, a well-born Athenian maiden of whom 
he was enamoured, sitting in the temple of the goddess. He 
wrote on an apple the words, " I swear by the sacred shrine of 
the goddess that I will marry you," and threw it at her feet. She 
picked it up, and mechanically read the words aloud, which 
amounted to a solemn undertaking to carry them out. Unaware 
of this, she treated Acontius with contempt; but, although she 
was betrothed more than once, she always fell ill before the wed- 
ding took place. The Delphic oracle at last declared the cause 
of her illnesses to be the wrath of the offended goddess; where- 
upon her father consented to her marriage with Acontius (Aris- 
taenetus, Epistolae, i. 10; Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 
i., tells the story with different names). 

ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree; a word also used, by 
analogy with the shape, in nautical language, for a piece of wood 
keeping the vane on the mast-head. The etymology of the word 
(earlier akerne, and acharn) is well discussed in the New English 
Dictionary. It is derived from a word (Goth, akran) which 
meant " fruit," originally " of the unenclosed land," and so of 
the most important forest produce, the oak. Chaucer speaks of 
" achornes of okes." By degrees, popular etymology connected 



ACORUS CALAMUS ACOUSTICS 



153 



the word both with " corn " and " oak-horn," and the spelling 
changed accordingly. 

ACORUS CALAMUS, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, a plant of the 
natural order Araceae, which shares with the Cuckoo Pint (Arum) 
the representation in Britain of that order of Monocotyledons. 
The name is derived from acorus, Gr. o/copos, the classical 
name for the plant. It was the Calamus aromaticus of the 
medieval druggists and perhaps of the ancients, though the latter 
has been referred by some to the Citron grass, Andropogon 
Nardus. The spice " Calamus " or " Sweet-cane " of the Scrip- 
tures, one of the ingredients of the holy anointing oil of the Jews, 
was perhaps one of the fragrant species of A ndropogon. The plant 
is a herbaceous perennial with a long, branched root-stock 
creeping through the mud, about f inch thick, with short joints 
and large brownish leaf-scars. At the ends of the branches are 
tufts of flat, sword-like, sweet-scented leaves 3 or 4 ft. long 
and about an inch wide, closely arranged in two rows as in the 
true Flag (Iris); the tall, flowering stems (scapes), which very 
much resemble the leaves, bear an apparently lateral, blunt, 
tapering spike of densely packed, very small flowers. A long 
leaf (spathe) borne immediately below the spike forms an appar- 
ent continuation of the scape, though really a lateral outgrowth 
from it, the spike of flowers being terminal. The plant has a wide 
distribution, growing in wet situations in the Himalayas, North 
America, Siberia and various parts of Europe, including Eng- 
land, and has been naturalized in Scotland and Ireland. Though 
regarded as a native in most counties of England at the present 
day, where it is now found thoroughly wild on sides of ditches, 
ponds and rivers, and very abundantly in some districts, it is 
probably not indigenous. It seems to have been spread in western 
and central Europe from about the end of the i6th century by 
means of botanic gardens. The botanist Clusius (Charles de 
1'Escluse or Lecluse, 1526-1609) first cultivated it at Vienna 
from a root received from Asia Minor in 1574, and distributed 
it to other botanists in central and western Europe, and it was 
probably introduced into England about 1596 by the herbalist 
Gerard. It is very readily propagated by means of its branch- 
ing root-stock. It has an agreeable odour, and has been used 
medicinally. The starchy matter contained in its rhizome is 
associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair-powder. 
Sir J. E. Smith (Eng. Flora, ii. 158, 2nd ed., 1828) mentions it as 
a popular remedy in Norfolk for ague. In India it is used as an 
insectifuge, and is administered in infantile diarrhoea. It is an 
ingredient in pot-pourri, is employed for flavouring beer and is 
chewed to clear the voice; and its volatile oil is employed by 
makers of snuff and aromatic vinegar. The rhizome of Acorus 
Calamus is sometimes adulterated with that of Iris Pseudacorus, 
which, however, is distinguishable by its lack of odour, a stringent 
taste and dark colour. 

ACOSTA, JOSE DE (15397-1600), Spanish author, was born 
at Medina del Campo about the year 1 539. He joined the Jesuits 
in 1551, and in 1571 was sent as a missionary to Peru; he acted 
as provincial of his order from 1576 to 1581, was appointed 
theological adviser to the council of Lima in 1582, and in 1583 
published a catechism in Quichua and Aymara the first book 
printed in Peru. Returning to Spain in 1587, and placing him- 
self at the head of the opposition to Acquaviva, Acosta was im- 
prisoned in 1592-1593; on his submission in 1594 he became 
superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid, and in 1598 rector of the 
Jesuit college at Salamanca, where he died on the I5th of Feb- 
ruary 1600. His treatise De natura novi orbis libri duo (Sala- 
manca, 1588-1589) may be regarded as the preliminary draft of 
his celebrated Hisloria natural y moral de las Indias (Seville, 
1590) which was speedily translated into Italian (1596), French 
(1597), Dutch (1598), German (1601), Latin (1602) and English 
(1604). The Hi'storia is in three sections: books I. and II. deal 
with generalities; books III. and IV. with the physical geography 
and natural history of Mexico and Peru; books V., VI. and VII. 
with the religious and political institutions of the aborigines. 
Apart from his sophistical defence of Spanish colonial policy, 
Acosta deserves high praise as an acute and diligent observer 
whose numerous new and valuable data are set forth in a vivid 



style. Among his other publications are De procuranda salute 
Indorum libri sex (Salamanca, 1588), De Christo revelato libri 
novem (Rome, 1590), De temporibus novissimis libri quatuor 
(Rome, 1590), and three volumes of sermons issued respectively 
in 1596, 1597 and 1599. 

AUTHORITIES. Jps6 R. Carricido, El P. Jose de Acosta y su 
importancia en la literatura cientifica espanola (Madrid, 1899); C. 
Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus, Premiere 
Partie (Brussels and Paris, 1890), vol. i., col. 31-42; and Edward 
Grimston's translation of the Historia reprinted (1880) for the 
Hakluyt Society with introduction and notes by Sir Clements R. 
Markham. (J. F.-K.) 

ACOSTA, URIEL (d. 1647), a Portuguese Jew of noble family, 
was born at Oporto towards the close of the i6th century. His 
father being a convert to Christianity, Uriel was brought up in 
the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly observed the rites of the 
church till the course of his inquiries led him, after much painful 
doubt, to abandon the religion of his youth for Judaism. Passing 
over to Amsterdam, he was received into the synagogue, having 
his name changed from Gabriel to Uriel. His wayward dis- 
position found, however, no satisfaction in the Jewish fold. He 
came into conflict with the authorities of the synagogue and was 
excommunicated. Unlike Spinoza (who was about fifteen at 
the time of Acosta's death), Acosta was not strong enough to 
stand alone. Wearied by his melancholy isolation, he was 
driven to seek a return to the Jewish communion. Having re- 
canted his heresies, he was readmitted after an excommunication 
of fifteen years, but was soon excommunicated a second time. 
After seven years of exclusion, he once more sought admission, 
and, on passing through a humiliating penance, was again 
received. His vacillating autobiography, Exemplar Humanae 
Vitae, was published with a " refutation " by Limborch in 1687, 
and republished in 1847. In this brief work Acosta declares his 
opposition both to Christianity and Judaism, though he speaks 
with the more bitterness of the latter religion. The only authority 
which he admits is the lex naturae. Acosta was not an original 
thinker, but he stands in the direct line of the rational Deists. 
His history forms the subject of a tale and of a tragedy by 
Gutzkow. Acosta committed suicide in 1647. The significance 
of his career has been much exaggerated. 

ACOTYLEDONES, the name given by Antoine Laurent de 
Jussieu in 1789 to the lowest class in his Natural System of 
Botany, embracing flowerless plants, such as ferns, lycopods, 
horse-tails, mosses, liverworts, sea-weeds, lichens and fungi. 
The name is derived from the absence of a seed-leaf or cotyledon. 
Flowering plants bear a seed containing an embryo, with usually 
one or two cotyledons, or seed-leaves; while in flowerless plants 
there is no seed and therefore no true cotyledon. The term is 
synonymous with Cryptogams, by which it was replaced in later 
systems of classification. 

ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. O.KOVH.V to hear), a title frequently 
given to the science of sound, that is, to the description and 
theory of the phenomena which give rise to the sensation 
of sound (q.v.). The term " acoustics " might, however, with 
advantage be reserved for the aspect of the subject more im- 
mediately connected with hearing. Thus we may speak appro- 
priately of the acoustic quality of a room or hall, describing it 
as good or bad acoustically, according as speaking is heard in it 
easily or with difficulty. When a room has bad acoustic quality 
we can almost always assign the fault to large smooth surfaces 
on the walls, floor or ceiling, which reflect or echo the voice of 
the speaker so that the direct waves sent out by him at any 
instant are received by a hearer with the waves sent out previ- 
ously and reflected at these smooth surfaces. The syllables 
overlap, and the hearing is confused. The acoustic quality of 
a room may be improved by breaking up the smooth surfaces 
by curtains or by arrangement of furniture. The echo is then 
broken up into small waves, none of which may be sufficiently 
distinct to interfere with the direct voice. Sometimes a sound- 
ing-board over the head of a speaker improves the hearing 
probably by preventing echo from a smooth wall behind him. 
A large bare floor is undoubtedly bad for acoustics, for when 
a room is filled by an audience the hearing is much improved 



154 



ACQUI ACRE 



Wires are frequently stretched across a room overhead, probably 
with the idea that they will prevent the voice from reaching the 
roof and being reflected there, but there is no reason to suppose 
that they are efficient. The only cure appears to consist in 
breaking up the reflecting surfaces so that the reflexion shall be 
much less regular and distinct. Probably drapery assists by 
absorbing the sound to some extent, and thus it lessens the echo 
besides breaking it up. (J. H. P.) 

ACQUI, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the 
province of Alessandria; from the town of that name it is 21 m. 
S.S.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 13,786. Its warm sulphur springs 
are still resorted to; under the name of Aquae Statiellae they 
were famous in Roman times, and Paulus Diaconus and Liut- 
prand speak of the ancient bath establishment. In the neigh- 
bourhood of the town are remains of the aqueduct which sup- 
plied it. The place was connected by road with Alba Pompeia 
and Augusta Taurinorum. The tribe of the Statielli, to whom 
the district belonged, had joined the Romans at an early period, 
but was attacked in 173 and in part transferred to the north of 
the Po. The town possesses a fine Gothic cathedral. 

ACR&, or AQDIRY, a river of Brazil and principal tributary of 
the Purus, rising on the Bolivian frontier and flowing easterly 
and northerly to a junction with the Purts at 8 45' S. lat. The 
name is also applied to a district situated on the same river 
and on the former (1867) boundary line between Bolivia and 
Brazil. The region, which abounds in valuable rubber forests, 
was settled by Bolivians between 1870 and 1878, but was in- 
vaded by Brazilian rubber collectors during the next decade and 
became tributary to the rubber markets of Manaos and Para. 
In 1899 the Bolivian government established a custom-house at 
Puerto Alonso, on the Acre river, for the collection of export 
duties on rubber, which precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian 
settlers and finally brought about a boundary dispute between 
the two republics. In July 1899 the Acreanos declared their 
independence and set up a republic of their own, but in the 
following March they were reduced to submission by Brazil. 
Various disorders followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto 
Alonso with a military force. The boundary dispute was finally 
settled at Petropolis on the i7th of November 1903 through the 
purchase by Brazil of the rubber-producing territory south to 
about the nth parallel, estimated at more than 60,000 sq. m. 

ACRE, ' Akka, or ST JEAN D'ACRE, the chief town of a govern- 
mental district of Palestine which includes Haifa, Nazareth and 
Tiberias. It stands on a low promontory at the northern ex- 
tremity of the Bay of Acre, 80 m. N. N.W. from Jerusalem, and 
25 m. S. of Tyre. The population is about n,ooo; 8000 being 
Moslems, the remainder Christians, Jews, &c. It was long 
regarded as the " Key of Palestine," on account of its command- 
ing position on the shore of the broad plain that joins the inland 
plain of Esdraelon, and so affords the easiest entrance to the 
interior of the country. But trade is now passing over to Haifa, 
at the south side of the bay, as its harbour offers a safer road- 
stead, and is a regular calling -place for steamers. Business, 
rapidly declining, is still carried on in wheat, maize, oil, sesame, 
&c., in the town market. There are few buildings of interest, 
owing to the frequent destructions the town has undergone. 
The wall, which is now ruinous and has but one gate, dates from 
the crusaders: the mosque was built by Jezzar Pasha (d. 1804) 
from materials taken from Caesarea Palaestina: his tomb is 
within. Acre is the seat of the head of the Babist religion. 

History. Few towns have had a more chequered or calami- 
tous history. Of great antiquity, it is probably to be identified 
with the 'Aak of the tribute-lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. 
(c. 1500 B.C.), and it is certainly the Akka of the Tell el-Amarna 
correspondence. To the Hebrews it was known as Acco (Re- 
vised Version spelling), but it is mentioned only once in the 
Old Testament, namely Judges i. 31, as one of the places from 
which the Israelites did not drive out the Canaanite inhabitants. 
Theoretically it was in the territory of the tribe of Asher, and 
Josephus assigns it by name to the district of one of Solomon's 
provincial governors. Throughout the period of Hebrew domina- 
tion, however, its political connexions were always with Syria 



rather than with Palestine proper: thus, about 725 B.C. it joined 
Sidon and Tyre in a revolt against Shalmaneser IV. It had a 
stormy experience during the three centuries preceding the 
Christian era. The Greek historians name it Ake (Josephus 
calls it also Akre); but the name was changed to Ptolemais, 
probably by Ptolemy Soter, after the partition of the kingdom 
of Alexander. Strabo refers to the city as once a rendezvous for 
the Persians in their expeditions against Egypt. About 165 B.C. 
Simon Maccabaeus defeated the Syrians in many battles in 
Galilee, and drove them into Ptolemais. About 1 53 B.C. Alex- 
ander Hulas, son of Antiochus Epiphanes, contesting the Syrian 
crown with Demetrius, seized the city, which opened its gates 
to him. Demetrius offered many bribes to the Maccabees to 
obtain Jewish support against his rival, including the revenues 
of Ptolemais for the benefit of the Temple, but in vain. Jonathan 
threw in his lot with Alexander, and in 150 B.C. he was received 
by him with great honour in Ptolemais. Some years later, 
however, Tryphon, an officer of the Syrians, who had grown 
suspicious of the Maccabees, enticed Jonathan into Ptolemais 
and there treacherously took him prisoner. The city was also 
assaulted and captured by Alexander Jannaeus, by Cleopatra 
and by Tigranes. Here Herod built a gymnasium, and here the 
Jews met Petronius, sent to set up statues of the emperor in 
the Temple, and persuaded him to turn back. St Paul spent a 
day in Ptolemais. The Arabs captured the city in A.D. 638, 
and lost it to the crusaders in mo. The latter made the town 
their chief port in Palestine. It was re-taken by Saladin in 
1187, besieged by Guy de Lusignan in 1189 (see below), and 
again captured by Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191. In 1229 it 
was placed under the control of the knights of St John (whence 
one of its alternative names), but finally lost by the Franks in 
1291. The Turks under Sultan Selim I. captured the city in 1517, 
after which it fell into almost total decay. Maundrell in 1697 
found it a complete ruin, save for a khan occupied by some 
French merchants, a mosque and a few poor cottages. Towards 
the end of the i8th century it seems to have revived under 
the comparatively beneficent rule of Dhahar el- Amir, the local 
sheikh: his successor, Jezzar Pasha, governor of Damascus, 
improved and fortified it, but by heavy imposts secured for him- 
self all the benefits derived from his improvements. About 1780 
Jezzar peremptorily banished the French trading colony, in 
spite of protests from the French government, and refused to 
receive a consul. In 1799 Napoleon, in pursuance of his scheme 
for raising a Syrian rebellion against Turkish domination, ap- 
peared before Acre, but after a siege of two months (March-May) 
was repulsed by the Turks, aided by Sir W. Sidney Smith and a 
force of British sailors. Jezzar was succeeded on his death by 
his son Suleiman, under whose milder rule the town advanced in 
prosperity till 1831, when Ibrahim Pasha besieged and reduced 
the town and destroyed its buildings. On the 4th of November 
1840 it was bombarded by the allied British, Austrian and French 
squadrons, and in the following year restored to Turkish rule. 

Battle of Acre. The battle of 1189, fought on the ground 
to the east of Acre, affords a good example of battles of the 
Crusades. The crusading army under Guy of Lusignan, king of 
Jerusalem, which was besieging Acre, gave battle on the 4th of 
October 1189 to the relieving army which Saladin had collected. 
The Christian army consisted of the feudatories of the kingdom 
of Jerusalem, numerous small contingents of European crusaders 
and the military orders, and contingents from Egypt, Turkestan, 
Syria and Mesopotamia fought under Saladin. The Saracens 
lay in a semicircle east of the town facing inwards towards Acre. 
The Christians opposed them with crossbowmen in first line and 
the heavy cavalry in second. At Arsuf the Christians fought 
coherently; here the battle began with a disjointed combat 
between the Templars and Saladin's right wing. The crusaders 
were so far successful that the enemy had to send up reinforce- 
ments from other parts of the field. Thus the steady advance of 
the Christian centre against Saladin's own corps, in which the 
crossbows prepared the way for the charge of the men-at-arms, 
met with no great resistance. But the victors scattered to 
plunder. Saladin rallied his men, and, when the Christians 



ACRE ACRON 



began to retire with their booty, let loose his light horse upon 
them. No connected resistance was offered, and the Turks 
slaughtered the fugitives until checked by the fresh troops of the 
Christian right wing. Into this fight Guy's reserve, charged 
with holding back the Saracens in Acre, was also drawn, and, 
thus freed, 5000 men sallied out from the town to the north- 
ward; uniting with the Saracen right wing, they fell upon the 
Templars, who suffered severely in their retreat. In the end the 
crusaders repulsed the relieving army, but only at the cost of 
7000 men. (R. A. S. M.) 

ACRE, a land measure used by English-speaking races. 
Derived from the Old Eng. acer and cognate with the Lat. ager, 
Gr. &yp6s, Sans, ajras, it has retained its original meaning 
" open country," in such phrases as " God's acre," or a church- 
yard, " broad acres," &c. As a measure of land, it was first 
defined as the amount a yoke of oxen could plough in a day; 
statutory values were enacted in England by acts of Edward I., 
Edward III., Henry VIII. and George IV., and the Weights 
and Measures Act 1878 now defines it as containing 4840 sq. 
yds. In addition to this " statute " or " imperial acre," other 
" acres " are still, though rarely, used in Scotland, Ireland, 
Wales and certain English counties. The Scottish acre con- 
tains 6150-4 sq. yds.; the Irish acre 7840 sq. yds.; in Wales, 
the land measures erw (4320 sq. yds.), slang (3240 sq. yds.) and 
paladr are called " acres "; the Leicestershire acre (2308^ sq. 
yds.), Westmoreland acre (6760 sq. yds.) and Cheshire acre 
(10,240 sq. yds.) are examples of local values. 

ACRIDINE, Ci 3 H 9 N, in chemistry, a heterocyclic ring com- 
pound found in crude coal-tar anthracene. It may be separated 
by shaking out with dilute sulphuric acid, and then precipitating 
the sulphuric acid solution with potassium bichromate, the 
resulting acridine bichromate being decomposed by ammonia. 
It was first isolated in 1890 by C. Graebe and H. Caro (Ann., 
1871, 158, p. 265). Many synthetic processes are known for the 
production of acridine and its derivatives. A. Bernthsen (Ann., 
1884, 224, p. i) condensed diphenylamine with fatty acids, in the 
presence of zinc chloride. Formic acid yields acridine, and the 
higher homologues give derivatives substituted at the meso 
carbon atom, 

N N 

+HCOOH->C 6 H 5 /|\C 6 H S ->C,H4<|>C 8 H4 
CHO CH 

N N 

+CH a COOH-C 6 H 6 /|\C 6 H 6 -C 6 H 4 <|>C 6 H4 
COCH, C(CH,) 

Acridine may also be obtained by passing the vapour of phenyl- 
ortho-toluidine through a red-hot tube (C. Graebe, Ber., 1884, 
17, P- *37)', by condensing diphenylamine with chloroform, in 
presence of aluminium chloride (O. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 
102); by passing the vapours of orthoaminodiphenylmethane 
over heated litharge (O. Fischer) ; by heating salicylic aldehyde 
with aniline and zinc chloride to 260 C. (R. Mohlau, Ber., 1886, 
19, p. 2452) ; and by distilling acridone over zinc dust (C. Graebe, 
Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1735). 

Acridine and its homologues are very stable compounds of 
feebly basic character. They combine readily with the alkyl 
iodides to form alkyl acridinium iodides, which are readily trans- 
formed by the action of alkaline potassium ferricyanide to 
N-alkyl acridones. Acridine crystallizes in needles which melt at 
110 C. It is characterized by its irritating action on the skin, 
and by the blue fluorescence shown by solutions of its salts. On 
oxidation with potassium permanganate it yields acridinic acid 
(quinoline -o-/3-dicarboxylic acid) C9H 5 N(COOH) 2 . Numerous 
derivatives of acridine are known and may be prepared by 
methods analogous to those used for the formation of the 
parent base. For the preparation of the naphthacridines, see 
F.Ullmann, German Patents 117472, 118439, 12 7S86, 128754, and 
also Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 316, 2670. Phenyl-acridine is the parent 
base of chrysaniline, which is the chief constituent of the dye- 
stuff phosphine (a bye-product in the manufacture of rosauiline). 
Chrysaniline (diamino-phenylacridine) forms red-coloured salts, 



C 6 H 6 .NH-C,H 6 



which dye silk and wool a fine yellow; and the solutions of the 
salts are characterized by their fine yellowish-green fluorescence. 
It was synthesized by O. Fischer and G. Koerner (Ber., 1884, 
17, p. 203) by condensing ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with aniline, 
the resulting ortho-nitro-para-diamino-triphenylmethane being 
reduced to the corresponding orthoamino compound, which on 
oxidation yields chrysaniline. Benzoflavin, an isomer of chrys- 
aniline,! is also a dye-stuff, and has been prepared by K. Oehler 
(English Patent96i4)from meta-phenylenediamine and benzalde- 
hyde. These substances condense to form tetra-aminotriphenyl- 
methane, which, on heating with acids, loses ammonia and yields 
diaminodihydrophenylacridine, from which benzoflavin is ob- 
tained by oxidation. It is a yellow powder, soluble in hot water. 
The formulae of these substances are: 



H 2 N 



/\c/\/ 
I 
7 s 



NH ? 
Chrysaniline. 



v 

Benzoflavin. 



ACRO (or ACRON), HELENIUS, Roman grammarian and com- 
mentator, probably flourished at the end of the 2nd' century A.D. 
He wrote commentaries on Terence and perhaps Persius. A 
collection of scholia on Horace, originally anonymous in the 
earlier MSS., and on the whole not of great value, was wrongly 
attributed to him at a much later date, probably during the 
1 5th century. It has been published by Pauly (1861) and 
Hauthal (1866), together with the other Horace scholia. 

See Pseudoacronis Scholia in Horatium Vetustiora, ed. O. Keller 
(1902-1904). 

. ACROBAT (Gr. &KpoffaTelv, to walk on tiptoe), originally 
a rope-dancer; the word is now used generally to cover pro- 
fessional performers on the trapeze, &c., contortionists, balancers 
and tumblers. Evidence exists that there were very skilful 
performers on the tight-rope (funambuli) among the ancient 
Romans. Modern rope-walkers (e.g. Blondin) or wire-dancers 
generally use a pole, loaded at the ends, or some such assistance 
in balancing, and by shifting this are enabled to maintain, or 
readily to recover, their equilibrium^ 

ACR06ENAE (" growing at the apex "), an obsolete botanical 
term, originally applied to the higher Cryptogams (mosses and 
ferns), which were erroneously distinguished from the lower 
(Algae and Fungi) by apical growth of the stem. The lower 
Cryptogams were contrasted as Amphigenae (" growing all 
over "), a misnomer, as apical growth is common among them. 

ACROLITHS (Gr. d/cpoXifloi, i.e. ending in stone), statues 
of a transition period in the history of plastic art, in which the 
trunk of the figure was of wood, and the head, hands and feet of 
marble. The wood was concealed either by gilding or, more 
commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone were exposed. 
Acroliths are frequently mentioned by Pausanias, the best known 
specimen being the Athene Areia of the Plataeans. 

ACROMEGALY, the name given to a disease characterized 
by a true hypertrophy (an overgrowth involving both bony and 
soft parts) of the terminal parts of the body, especially of the 
face and extremities (Gr. aKpov, point, and (ityas, large). 
It is more frequent in the female sex, between the ages of 25 
and 40. Its causation is generally associated with disturbances 
in the pituitary gland, and an extract of this body has been tried 
in the treatment, as one of the recent developments in organo- 
therapeutics; thyroid extract has also been used, but without 
marked success, on the apparent analogy of acromegaly with 
myxoedema. 

ACRON, a Greek physician, born at Agrigentum in Sicily, 
was contemporary with Empedocles, and must therefore have 
lived in the 5th century before Christ. The successful measure of 
lighting large fires, and purifying the air with perfumes, to put 
a stop to the plague in Athens (430 B.C.), is said to have origin- 
ated with him; but this has been questioned on chronological 






i 5 6 



ACROPOLIS ACT 



grounds. Suidas gives the titles of several medical works written 
by him in the Doric dialect. 

ACROPOLIS (Gr. cUpos, top, TroXis, city), literally the upper 
part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally 
chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides, 
and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the 
nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower 
ground. The word Acropolis, though Greek in origin and asso- 
ciated primarily with Greek towns (Athens, Argos, Thebes, 
Corinth), may be applied generically to all such citadels (Rome, 
Jerusalem, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Hill at Edin- 
burgh). The most famous is that of Athens, which, by reason 
of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected 
upon it, is generally known without qualification as the Acropolis 
(see ATHENS). 

ACROPOLITA (AKROPOLITES), GEORGE (1217-1282), Byzan- 
tine historian and statesman, was born at Constantinople. At an 
early age he was sent by his father to the court of John Ducas 
Batatzes (Vatatzes), emperor of Nicaea, by whom and by his 
successors (Theodorus II. Lascaris and Michael VIII. Palaeo- 
logus) he was entrusted with important state missions. The 
office of " great logothete " or chancellor was bestowed upon him 
in 1244. As commander in the field in 1257 against Michael 
Angelus, despot of Epirus, he showed little military capacity. 
He was captured and kept for two years in prison, from which 
he was released by Michael Palaeologus. Acropolita's most 
important political task was that of effecting a reconciliation 
between the Greek and Latin Churches, to which he had been 
formerly opposed. In 1273 he was sent to Pope Gregory X., 
and in the following year, at the council of Lyons, in the 
emperor's name he recognized the spiritual supremacy of Rome. 
In 1282 he was sent on an embassy to John IL, emperor of 
Trebizond, and died in the same year soon after his return. His 
historical work (XpoviK?) 2vyypa<t>ii, Annales) embraces the period 
from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204) to its 
recovery by Michael Palaeologus (1261), thus forming a con- 
tinuation of the work of Nicetas Acominatus. It is valuable 
as written by a contemporary, whose official position as great 
logothete, military commander and confidential ambassador 
afforded him frequent opportunities of observing the course of 
events. Acropolita is considered a trustworthy authority as far 
as the statement of facts is concerned, and he is easy to under- 
stand, although he exhibits special carelessness in the construc- 
tion of his sentences. He was also the author of several shorter 
works, amongst them being a funeral oration on John Batatzes, 
an epitaph on his wife Eirene and a panegyric of Theodorus II. 
Lascaris of Nicaea. While a prisoner at Epirus he wrote two 
treatises on the procession of the Holy Ghost ('E/oropewis, Pro- 
cessio Spiritus Sancli). 

Editio princeps by Leo Allatius (1651), with the editor's famous 
treatise De Georgiis eorumque Scriptis; editions in the Bonn Corpus 
Scriplorum Hist. Byz., by I. Bekker (1836), and Migne, Patrologia 
Graeca, cxl. ; in the Teubner series by A. Heisenberg (1903), the 
second volume of which contains a full life, with bibliography; see 
also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 

ACROSTIC (Gr. a/cpos, at the end, and orixs, line or verse), a 
short verse composition, so constructed that the initial letters 
of the lines, taken consecutively, form words. The fancy for 
writing acrostics is of great antiquity, having been common 
among the Greeks of the Alexandrine period, as well as with 
the Latin writers since Ennius and Plautus, many of the argu- 
ments of whose plays were written with acrostics on their respec- 
tive titles. One of the most remarkable acrostics was contained 
in the verses cited by Lactantius and Eusebius in the 4th century, 
and attributed to the Erythraean sibyl, the initial letters of 
which form the words "IijcroOj Xptords Qtov w6s crcoriip: "Jesus 
Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour." The initials of the shorter 
form of this again make up the word Ixdvs (fish), to which a 
mystical meaning has been attached (Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 
18, 23), thus constituting another kind of acrostic. 

The monks of the middle ages, who wrote in Latin, were fond 
of acrostics, as well as the poets of the Middle High German 
period, notably Gottfried of Strassburg and Rudolph of Ems. 



The great poets of the Italian renaissance, among them Boc- 
caccio, indulged in them, as did also the early Slavic writers. 
Sir John Davies (1569-1626) wrote twenty-six elegant Hymns to 
Astraea, each an acrostic on " Elisabetha Regina " ; and Mistress 
Mary Page, in Fame's Route, 1637, commemorated 420 cele- 
brities of her time in acrostic verses. The same trick of com- 
position is often to be met with in the writings of more recent 
versifiers. Sometimes the lines are so combined that the final 
letters as well as the initials are significant. Edgar Allan Poe 
worked two names one of them that of Frances Sargent 
Osgood into verses in such a way that the letters of the names 
corresponded to the first letter of the first line, the second letter 
of the second, the third letter of the third, and so on. 

Acrostic verse has always been held in slight estimation from a 
literary standpoint. Dr Samuel Butler says, in his "Character of 
a Small Poet," " He uses to lay the outsides of his verses even, like 
a bricklayer, by a line of rhyme and acrostic, and fill the middle 
with rubbish." Addison (Spectator, No. 60) found it impossible 
to decide whether the inventor of the anagram or the acrostic 
were the greater blockhead; and, in describing the latter, says, 
" I have seen some of them where the verses have not only been 
edged by a name at each extremity, but have had the same name 
running down like a seam through the middle of the poem." 
And Dryden, in Mac Flecknoe, scornfully assigned Shadwell the 
rule of 

Some peaceful province in acrostic land. 

The name acrostic is also applied to alphabetical or " abece- 
darian " verses. Of these we have instances in the Hebrew 
psalms (e.g. Ps. xxv. and xxxiv.), where successive verses begin 
with the letters of the alphabet in their order. The structure of 
Ps. cxix. is still more elaborate, each of the verses of each of the 
twenty-two parts commencing with the letter which stands at 
the head of the part in our English translation. 

At one period much religious yerse was written in a form 
imitative of this alphabetical method, possibly as an aid to the 
memory. The term acrostic is also applied to the formation of 
words from the initial letters of other words. 'Ix^-*, referred to 
above, is an illustration of this. So also is the word " Cabal," 
which, though it was in use before, with a similar meaning, has, 
from the time of Charles II., been associated with a particular 
ministry, from the accident of its being composed of Clifford, 
Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale. Akin to this 
are the names by which the Jews designated their Rabbis; thus 
Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (better known as Maimonides) was 
styled " Rambam," from the initials R.M.B.M.; Rabbi David 
Kimchi (R.D.K.), " Radak," &c. 

Double acrostics are such as are so constructed, that not only 
initial letters of the lines, but also the middle or last letters, 
form words. For example: i. By Apollo was my first made. 
2. A shoemaker's tool. 3. An Italian patriot. 4. A tropical 
fruit. The initials and finals, read downwards, give the name 
of a writer and his nom de plume. Answer: Lamb, Elia. 

1. L yr E 

2. A w L 

3. M azzin I 

4. B anan A 

ACROTERIUM (Gr. aKpurypiov, the summit or vertex), in archi- 
tecture, a statue or ornament of any kind placed on the apex of 
a pediment. The term is often restricted to the plinth, which 
forms the podium merely for the acroterium. 

ACT (Lat. actus, actum), something done, primarily a volun- 
tary deed or performance, though any accomplished fact is often 
included. The signification of the word varies according to the 
sense in which it is employed. It is often synonymous with 
" statute " (see ACT OF PARLIAMENT). It may also refer to the 
result of the vote or deliberation of any legislature, the decision 
of a court of justice or magistrate, in which sense records, decrees, 
sentences, reports, certificates, &c., are called acts. 

In law it means any instrument in writing, for declaring or 
justifying the truth of a bargain or transaction, as: "I deliver 
this as my act and deed." The origin of the legal use of the word 
" act " is in the acta of the Roman magistrates or people, of their 



ACTA DIURNA ACTINOMYCOSIS 



157 



courts of law, or of the senate, meaning (i) what was done before 
the magistrates, the people or the senate; (2) the records of 
such public proceedings. 

In connexion with other words " act " is employed in many 
phrases, e.g. act of God, any event, such as the sudden, violent 
or overwhelming occurrence of natural forces, which cannot 
be foreseen or provided against. This is a good defence to a suit 
for non-performance of a contract. Act of honour denotes the 
acceptance by a third party of a protested bill of exchange for 
the honour of any party thereto. Act of grace denotes the grant- 
ing of some special privilege. 

In universities, the presenting and publicly maintaining a 
thesis by a candidate for a degree, to show his proficiency, is an 
act. " The Act " at Oxford, up to 1856 when it was abolished, 
was the ceremony held early in July for this purpose, and the 
expressions " Act Sunday," " Act Term " still survive. 

In dramatic literature, act signifies one of those parts into which 
a play is divided to mark the change of time or place, and to give 
a respite to the actors and to the audience. In Greek plays there 
are no separate acts, the unities being strictly observed, and the 
action being continuous from beginning to end. If the principal 
actors left the stage the chorus took up the argument, and con- 
tributed an integral part of the play, though chiefly in the form 
of comment upon the action. When necessary, another drama, 
which is etymologically the same as an act, carried on the history 
to a later time or in a different place, and thus we have the Greek 
trilogies or groups of three dramas, in which the same characters 
reappear. The Roman poets first adopted the division into acts, 
and suspended the stage business in the intervals between them. 
Their number was usually five, and the rule was at last laid down 
by Horace in the Ars Poelica 

Neve minor, neu sit quinto productior actu 
Fabula, quae posci vult, et spectata reponi. 
" If you would have your play deserve success, 
Give it five acts complete, nor more nor less." (Francis.) 

On the revival of letters this rule was almost universally observed 
by dramatists, and that there is an inherent convenience and 
fitness in the number five is evident from the fact that Shake- 
speare, who refused to be trammelled by merely arbitrary rules, 
adopts it in all his plays. Some critics have laid down rules as to 
the part each act should sustain in the development of the plot, 
but these are not essential, and are by no means universally 
recognized. In comedy the rule as to the number of acts has not 
been so strictly adhered to as in tragedy, a division into two acts 
or three acts being quite usual since the time of Moliere, who 
first introduced it. It may be well to mention here Milton's 
Samson Agonistes as a specimen in English literature of a 
dramatic work founded on a purely Greek model, in which, 
consequently, there is no division into acts. 

For " acting," as the art and theory of dramatic representation 
(or histrionics, from Lat. histrio, an actor), see the article DRAMA. 

ACTA DIURNA (Lat. acta, public acts or records; diurnus, 
daily, from dies), called also Acta Populi, Acta Publica and 
simply Ada or Diurna, in ancient Rome a sort of daily gazette, 
containing an officially authorized narrative of noteworthy 
events at Rome. Its contents were partly official (court news, 
decrees of the emperor, senate and magistrates), partly private 
(notices of births, marriages and deaths). Thus to some extent 
it filled the place of the modern newspaper ("<?") The origin of 
the Acta is attributed to Julius Caesar, who first ordered.the keep- 
ing and publishing of the acts of the people by public officers 
(59 B.C.; Suetonius, Caesar, 20). The Acta were drawn up from 
day to day, and exposed in a public place on a whitened board 
(see ALBUM). After remaining there for a reasonable time they 
were taken down and preserved with other public documents, 
so that they might be available for purposes of research. The 
Acta differed from the Annals (which were discontinued in 133 
B.C.) in that only the greater and more important matters were 
given in the latter, while in the former things of less note were 
recorded. Their publication continued till the transference of 
the seat of the empire to Constantinople. There are no genuine 
fragments extant. 



Leclerc, Des journaux chez les Remains (1838); Renssen, De 
Diurnis aliisque Romanorum Actis (1857); Hubner, De Senatus 
Populique Romani Actis (1860); Gaston Bpissier, Tacitus and other 
Roman Studies (Eng. trans., W. G. Hutchison, 1906), pp. 197-229. 

ACTAEON, son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a famous Theban 
hero and hunter, trained by the centaur Cheiron. According to 
the story told by Ovid (Metam. iii. 131; see also Apollod iii. 4), 
having accidentally seen Artemis (Diana) on Mount Cithaeron 
while she was bathing, he was changed by her into a stag, and 
pursued and killed by his fifty hounds. His statue was often 
set up on rocks and mountains as a protection against excessive 
heat. The myth itself probably represents the destruction of 
vegetation during the fifty dog-days. Aeschylus and other tragic 
poets made use of the story, which was a favourite subject in 
ancient works of art. There is a well-known small marble group 
in the British Museum illustrative of the story. 

ACTA SENATUS, or COMMENTARII SENATUS, minutes of 
the discussions and decisions of the Roman senate. Before the 
first consulship of Julius Caesar (59 B.C.), minutes of the pro- 
ceedings of the senate were written and occasionally published, 
but unofficially; Caesar, desiring to tear away the veil of mystery 
which gave an unreal importance to the senate's deliberations, 
first ordered them to be recorded and issued authoritatively. 
The keeping of them was continued by Augustus, but their 
publication was forbidden (Suetonius, Augustus, 36). A young 
senator (ab actis senatus) was chosen to draw up these Acta, 
which were kept in the imperial archives and public libraries 
(Tacitus, Ann. v. 4). Special permission from the city praefect 
was necessary in order to examine them. For authorities see 
ACTA DIURNA. 

ACTINOMETER (Gr. axns, ray, ^frpov, measure), an instru- 
ment for measuring the heating and chemical effects of light. 
The name was first given by Sir John Herschel to an apparatus 
for measuring the heating effect of solar rays (Edin. Journ. 
Science, 1825); Herschel's instrument has since been discarded 
in favour of the pyrheliometer (Gr. irvp, fire, j}Xios, sun). 
(See RADIATION.) The word actinometer is now usually applied 
to instruments for measuring the actinic or chemical effect 
of luminous rays; their action generally depends upon photo- 
chemical changes (see PHOTO-CHEMISTRY). Certain practical 
forms are described in the article PHOTOGRAPHY. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS (STREPTOTRICHOSIS), a chronic infective dis- 
ease occurring in both cattle and man. In both these groups it 
presents the same clinical course, being characterized by chronic 
inflammation with the formation of granulomatous tumours, 
which tend to undergo suppuration, fibrosis or calcification. 
It used to be believed that this disease was caused by a single 
vegetable parasite, the Ray-Fungus, but there is now an over- 
whelming mass of observations to show that the clinical features 
may be produced by a number of different species of parasites, 
for which the generic name Streptothrix has been generally 
adopted. In 1899 the committee of the Pathological Society of 
London recommended that the term Streptotrichosis should be 
used as the appropriate clinical epithet of the large class of 
Streptothrix infections. And since that year the name Actino- 
mycosis has been falling into disuse, and in any case is only used 
synonymously with Streptotrichosis. For a further account 
of these parasites see the articles on BACTERIOLOGY and on 
PARASITIC DISEASES. 

Pathological Anatomy. The naked-eye appearance of the 
different organs affected by Streptothrix infection varies accord- 
ing to the duration and acuteness of the disease. In some 
tissues the appearance is that of simple inflammation, whereas 
in others it may be characteristic. The liver when affected 
shows scattered foci of suppuration, which may become aggre- 
gated into spheroidal masses, surrounded by a zone of inflam- 
mation. In the lungs the changes may be any that are produced 
by the following conditions, (i) An acute bronchitis. (2) A 
phthisical lung, grey nodules being scattered here and there 
almost exactly simulating tuberculous nodules. (3) An acute 
broncho-pneumonia with some interstitial fibrosis and a tend- 
ency to abscess formation. The most characteristic lesions are 



i 5 8 



ACTINOZOA ACTION 



in the skin. These appear as nodules, sarcomatous-looking, 
soft and pulpy. Their colour is mottled, yellow and purplish 
red. The skin over them is thinned out, and broken down in 
places to form one or two crateriform ulcers from which a clear 
sticky fluid exudes. The size varies from that of a pea to a 
small orange. The pus is characteristic, varying in consistency 
though usually viscid, and containing numerous minute specks. 

The disease is more common in males than in females, and 
more prevalent in Germany and Russia than in England. The 
infection is probably spread by grain (corn or barley), on which 
the fungus may often be found. In a great number of recorded 
cases the patient has been following agricultural pursuits. The 
disease can only be transmitted from one individual to another 
with considerable difficulty, and no case of direct transmission 
from animal to man has yet been noted. 

Clinical History. The course of actinomycosis is usually a 
chronic one, but occasionally the fungus gets into the blood, 
when the course is that of an acute infective disease or even 
pyaemia. The symptoms are entirely dependent on the organ 
attacked, and are in no way specially characteristic. During 
life a diagnosis of phthisis is continually made, and only a micro- 
scopic examination after death renders the true nature of the 
disease apparent. The nature of the skin lesion is the most 
evident, and here the parasite can be detected early in the 
illness. The only drug which appears to have any beneficial 
influence on the course of the disease is potassium iodide, and 
this has occasionally been used with great benefit. Surgical 
interference is usually needed, either excision of the part affected, 
or, where possible, a thorough scraping of the lesion and free 
application of antiseptics. 

ACTINOZOA, a term in systematic zoology, first used by 
H. M. D. de Blainville about 1834, to designate animals the 
organs of which were disposed radially about a centre. De 
Blainville included in his group many unicellular forms such as 
Noctiluca (see PROTOZOA), sea -anemones, corals, jelly-fish and 
hydroid polyps, echinoderms, polyzoa and rotifera. T. H. 
Huxley afterwards restricted the term. He showed that in de 
Blainville's group there were associated with a number of 
heterogeneous forms a group of animals characterized by being 
composed of two layers of cells comparable with the first two 
layers in the development of vertebrate animals. Such forms he 
distinguished as Coelentera, and showed that they had no special 
affinity with echinoderms, polyzoa, &c. He divided the Coelen- 
tera into a group Hydrozoa, in which the sexually produced 
embryos were usually set free from the surface of the body, 
and a group Actinozoa, in which the embryos are detached from 
the interior of the body and escape generally by the oral aper- 
ture. Huxley's Actinozoa comprised the sea-anemones, corals 
and sea-pens, on the one hand, and the Ctenophora on the other. 
Later investigations, whilst confirming the general validity of 
Huxley's conclusions, have slightly altered the limits and 
definitions of his groups. (See ANTHOZOA, COELENTERA, CTENO- 
PHORA and HYDROZOA.) (P. C. M.) 

ACTION, in law, a term used by jurists in three different 
senses: (i) a right to institute proceedings in a court of justice 
to obtain redress ' for a wrong (aclio nihil aliud est quam jus 
prosequendi in judicio quod alicui debetur, Bracton, de Legibus 
Angliae, bk. iii. ch. i., f. 98 b) ; (2) the proceeding itself (action n'est 
outer chose que loyall demande de son droit, Co. Litt. 285 (a)); (3) 
the particular form of the proceeding. The term is derived from 
the Roman law (actio), in which it is used in all three senses. In 
the history of Roman law, actions passed through three stages. 
The first period (terminated about 170 B.C. by the Lex Aebutia) 
is known as the system of legis actiones, and was based on the 
precepts of the XII. tables and used before the praetor urbanus. 
These actiones were five in number sacramenti, per judicis pos- 
tulationem, per condiclionem, per manus injectionem, per pignoris 
captionem. The first was the primitive and characteristic action 
of the Roman law, and the others were little more than modes 
of applying it to cases not contemplated in the original form, 
or of carrying the result of it into execution when the action had 
been decided. The legis actiones were superseded by the formulae, 



originated by the praetor peregrinus for the determination of 
controversies between foreigners, but found more flexible than 
the earlier system and made available for citizens by the Lex 
Aebutia. Under both these systems the praetor referred the 
matter in dispute to an arbiter (judex), but in the later he settled 
the formula (i.e. the issues to be referred and the appropriate 
form of relief) before making the order of reference. In the third 
stage, the formulary stage fell into disuse, and after A.D. 342 the 
magistrate himself or his deputy decided the controversy after 
the defending party had been duly summoned by a libellus. 

The classifications of actiones in Roman law were very numer- 
ous. The division which is still most universally recognized is 
that of actions in rem and actions in personam (Sohm, Roman 
Law, tr. by Ledlie, and ed. 277). An action in rem asserts a right 
to a particular thing against all the world. An action in per- 
sonam asserts a right only against a particular person. Perhaps 
the best modern example of the distinction is that made in 
maritime cases between an action against a ship after a collision 
at sea, and an action against the owners of the ship. 

In English law the term " action " at a very early date became 
associated with civil proceedings in the Court of Common Pleas, 
which were distinguished from pleas of the crown, such as in- 
dictments or informations and for suits in the Court of Chancery 
or in the Admiralty or ecclesiastical courts. The English action 
was a proceeding commenced by writ original at the common law. 
The remedy was of right and not of grace. The history of actions 
is the history of civil procedure in the courts of common law. 
As a result of the reform of civil procedure by the Judicature Acts 
the term " action " in English law now means at the High Court of 
Justice " a civil proceeding commenced by writ of summons or 
in such other manner as may be prescribed by rules of court " 
(e.g. by originating summons). The proceeding thus commenced 
ends by judgment and execution. This definition includes pro- 
ceedings under the Chancery, Admiralty and Probate jurisdic- 
tion of the High Court, but excludes proceedings commenced by 
petition, such as divorce suits and bankruptcy and winding-up 
matters, as well as criminal proceedings in the High Court or 
applications for the issue of the writs of mandamus, prohibition, 
habeas corpus or certiorari. The Judicature Acts and Rules 
have had the effect of abolishing all the forms of " action " used 
at the common law and of creating one common form of legal 
proceeding for all ordinary controversies between subjects in 
whatever division of the High Court. The stages in an English 
action are the writ, by which the persons against whom relief 
is claimed are summoned before the court; the pleadings and 
interlocutory steps, by which the issues between the parties are 
adjusted; the trial, at which the issues of fact and law involved 
are brought before the tribunal; thejudgment, by which the relief 
sought is granted or refused; and execution, by which the law 
gives to the successful party the fruits of the judgment. 

The procedure varies according as the action is in the High 
Court, a county court or one of the other local courts of record 
which still survive; but there is no substantial difference in the 
incidents of trial, judgment and execution in any of these courts. 
The initial difference between actions in the High Court and the 
county court is that the latter are commenced by plaint lodged 
in the court, on which a summons is prepared by the court and 
served by its bailiff, whereas in the High Court the party pre- 
pares the writ and lodges it in court for sealing, and when it is 
sealed, himself effects the service. 

An action is said to " lie " when the law provides a remedy 
for some particular act or omission by a subject which infringes 
the legal rights of another subject. An act of such a character 
is said to give a " cause of action." In the action the person who 
alleges himself aggrieved claims a judgment of the court in his 
favour giving an adequate and appropriate remedy for the injury 
or damage which he has sustained by the infraction of his rights. 
As to the time within which an action must be brought, see 
LIMITATION, STATUTES OF. When the rights of a subject are in- 
fringed by the illegal action of the state, an action lies in England 
against the officers who have done the wrong, unless the claim 
be one arising out of breach of a contract with the state, or out 



ACTIUM ACTON 



of an " Act of State." For a breach by the state of a contract 
made between the state and a subject the remedy of the subject 
is, as a general rule, not by action against the agents of the state 
who acted for the state with reference to the making or breach of 
the contract, but against the Crown itself by the proceeding 
called Petition of Right (see PETITION). 

While as a generic term " action " in its proper legal sense 
includes suits by the Crown and " criminal actions " (see Co. Litt. 
284b; Bracton, de Legibus Angliae, bk. iii. ch. v. f. 1046; Brad- 
laugh v. Clarke, 1883, 8 App. Cas. 354, 361, 374), in popular 
language it is taken to mean a proceeding by a subject and is 
now rarely applied in England even by lawyers to criminal pro- 
ceedings. What are now known as " penal actions," i.e. pro- 
ceedings in which an individual who has not suffered personally 
by a breach of the law sues as a common informer for the statu- 
tory penalty either on his own benefit or on behalf also of the 
Crown (qui tarn pro rege quam'pro se ipso), bear some analogy to 
the actio popularis of Roman law, from which they are derived 
(see the statute 4 Hen. VII. 1488) ; but they are now treated 
for most purposes as civil and not as criminal proceedings. The 
law of Scotland follows the lines of the civil law, and the ex- 
pression " criminal action " is in use to distinguish proceedings to 
punish offences against the public as distinguished from civil 
action, brought to enforce a private right. 

In the United States, and the British colonies in which English 
law runs by settlement, charter, proclamation or statute, the 
nature of an action is substantially the same as in England. The 
differences between one state of the Union and another, and one 
colony and another, depend mainly on the extent to which the 
old procedure of the common law has been abolished, simplified 
or reformed by local legislation. 

AUTHORITIES. Roman Law: Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law, 
W. G. Ledlie (and ed., 1901). English Law: Pollock and Maitland, 
English Law; Holmes, The Common Law; Bullen and Leake, 
Prec. Pleadings (3rd ed. ; 6th ed. 1905). 

ACTIUM (mod. Punta), the ancient name of a promontory in 
the north of Acarnania (Greece) at the mouth of the Sinus 
Ambracius (Gulf of Arta) opposite Nicopolis, built by Augustus 
on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an 
ancient temple of Apollo Actius, which was enlarged by 
Augustus, who also, in memory of the battle, instituted or 
renewed the quinquennial games called Actia or Ludi Actiaci. 
Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the battle of 
Actium. There was on the promontory a small town, or rather 
village, also called Actium. 

History. Actium belonged originally to the Corinthian 
colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the worship of 
Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the 3rd century it fell 
to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their synods there. 
Actium is chiefly famous as the site of Octavian's decisive 
victory over Mark Antony (2nd of September 31 B.C.). This 
battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final 
conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been per- 
suaded by Cleopatra to retire to Egypt and give battle to mask 
his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization 
of his army would sufficiently account for his decision. The 
fleets met outside the gulf, each over 200 strong (the totals given 
by ancient authorities are very conflicting). Antony's heavy 
battleships endeavoured to close and crush the enemy with their 
artillery; Octavian's light and mobile craft made skilful 
use of skirmishing tactics. During the engagement Cleopatra 
suddenly withdrew her squadron and Antony slipped away 
behind her. His flight escaped notice, and the conflict remained 
undecided, until Antony's fleet was set on fire and thus 
annihilated. 

AUTHORITIES. Dio Cassius, 50.12-51 . 3 ; Plutarch, A ntonius, 62-68 ; 
Velleius Paterculus, ii. 84-85. C. Merivale, History of the Romans 
under the Empire, iii. pp. 313-325 (London, 1851) ; V. Gardthausen, 



ACT OF PARLIAMENT. An act of parliament may be re- 
garded as a declaration of the legislature, enforcing certain rules 



of conduct, or defining rights and conferring them upon or with- 
holding them from certain persons or classes of persons. The 
collective body of such declarations constitutes the statutes of 
the realm or written law of the British nation, in the widest sense, 
from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day. It is not, however, 
till the earlier half of the I3th century that, in a more limited 
constitutional sense, the statute-book is generally held to open, 
and the parliamentary records only begin to assume distinct out- 
lines late in the reign of Edward I. It gradually became a fixed 
constitutional principle that an act of parliament, to be valid, 
must express concurrently the will of the entire legislature. 
It was not, however, till the reign of Henry VI. that it became 
customary, as now, to introduce bills into parliament in the form 
of finished acts; and the enacting clause, regarded by constitu- 
tionalists as the first perfect assertion, in words, of popular right, 
came into general use as late as the reign of Charles II. It is 
thus expressed in the case of all acts other than those granting 
money to the crown: " Be it enacted by the King's most 
excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present 
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same." 
Where the act is a money grant the enacting clause is prefaced 
by the words, " Most gracious Sovereign, we, Your Majesty's 
most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in Parliament assembled, 
towards making good the supply 1 which we have cheerfully 
granted to Your Majesty in this session of Parliament, have 
resolved to grant unto Your Majesty the sums hereinafter 
mentioned ; and do therefore most humbly beseech Your 
Majesty that it may be enacted, &c." The use of the pre- 
amble with which acts are usually prefaced is thus quaintly 
set forth by Lord Coke: " The rehearsal or preamble of the 
statute is a good meane to find out the meaning of the statute, 
and, as it were, a key to open the understanding thereof " (Co. 
Litt. 7ga). Originally the collective acts of each session formed 
but one statute, to which a general title was attached, and for 
this reason an act of parliament was up to 1892 generally cited 
as the chapter of a particular statute, e.g. 24 and 25 Viet. c. 101. 
Titles were, however, prefixed to individual acts as early as 1488. 
Now, by the Short Titles Act 1892, it is optional to cite most 
important acts up to that date by their short titles, either indi- 
vidually or'collectively. Most modern acts have borne short titles 
independently of the act of 1892. (See PARLIAMENT; STATUTE.) 

ACTON (JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG ACTON), 
IST BARON (1834-1902), English historian, only son of Sir Richard 
Acton, yth baronet, and grandson of the Neapolitan admiral, 
Sir J. F. E. Acton, 6th baronet (q.v.), was born at Naples on the 
loth of January 1834. His grandfather, who had succeeded 
in 1791 to the baronetcy and family estates in Shropshire, 
previously held by the English branch of the Acton family, 
represented a younger branch which had transferred itself first 
to France and then to Italy, but by the extinction of the elder 
branch the admiral became head of the family; his eldest son, 
Richard, had married Marie Louise Pelline, the daughter and 
heiress of Emerich Joseph, due de Dalberg (q.i>.), a naturalized 
French noble of ancient German lineage who had entered the 
French service under Napoleon and represented Louis XVIII. 
at the congress of Vienna in 1814, and after Sir Richard Acton's 
death in 1837 she became (1840) the wife of the 2nd Earl Gran- 
ville. > Coming of a Roman Catholic family, young Acton was 
educated at Oscott till 1848 under Dr (afterwards Cardinal) 
Wiseman, and then at Edinburgh, and at Munich under Dol- 
linger, whose lifelong friend he became. He had wished to go to 
Cambridge, but for a Roman Catholic this was then impossible. 
By DoUinger he was inspired with a deep love of historical re- 
search and a profound conception of its functions as a critical 
instrument. He was a master of the chief foreign languages, 
and began at an early age to collect a magnificent historical 
library, with the object, never in fact realized, of writing a great 
History of Liberty. In politics he was always an ardent Liberal. 

1 Where the grant is not of supply, the preamble varies a little, 
e.g. in the Prince of Wales's Children Act 1889. 



i6o 



ACTON 



Without being a notable traveller, he spent much time in the 
chief intellectual centres of Europe, and in the United States, 
and numbered among his friends such men as Montalembert, 
De Tocqueville, Fustel de Coulanges, Bluntschli, von Sybel 
and Ranke. He was attached to Lord Granville's mission to 
Moscow, as British representative at the coronation of Alexander 
II. in 1856. In 1859 Sir John Acton settled in England, at his 
country house, Aldenham, in Shropshire. He was returned to 
the House of Commons in that year for the Irish borough of 
Carlow, and became a devoted admirer and adherent of Mr 
Gladstone; but he was practically a silent member, and his 
parliamentary career came to an end after the general election 
of 1865, when, having headed the poll for Bridgnorth, he t was 
unseated on a scrutiny ; he contested Bridgnorth again in 1868, 
but without success. Meanwhile he had become editor of the 
Roman Catholic monthly paper, the Rambler, in 1859, on J. H. 
Newman's retirement from the editorship ; and in 1862 he 
merged this periodical in the Home and Foreign Review. His 
contributions at once gave evidence of his remarkable wealth of 
historical knowledge. But though a sincere Roman Catholic, 
his whole spirit as a historian was hostile to ultramontane 
pretensions, and his independence of thought and liberalism 
of view speedily brought him into conflict with the Roman 
Catholic hierarchy. As early as August 1862, Cardinal Wiseman 
publicly censured the Renew; and when in 1864, after Dollinger's 
appeal at the Munich Congress for a less hostile attitude towards 
historical criticism, the pope issued a declaration that the 
opinions of Catholic writers were subject to the authority of the 
Roman congregations, Acton felt that there was only one way of 
reconciling his literary conscience with his ecclesiastical loyalty, 
and he stopped the publication of his monthly periodical. He 
continued, however, to contribute articles to the North British 
Review, which, previously a Scottish Free Church organ, had 
been acquired by friends in sympathy with him, and which for 
some years (until 1872, when it ceased to appear) actively pro- 
moted the interests of a high-class Liberalism in both temporal 
and ecclesiastical matters; he also did a good deal of lecturing 
on historical subjects. In 1865 he married the Countess Marie, 
daughter of the Bavarian Count Arco- Valley, by whom he had 
one son and three daughters. In 1869 he was raised to the 
peerage by Gladstone as Baron Acton ; he was an intimate 
friend and constant correspondent of the Liberal leader, and the 
two men had the very highest regard for one another. Matthew 
Arnold used to say that "Gladstone influences all round him 
but Acton; it is Acton who influences Gladstone." 

In 1870 came the great crisis in the Roman Catholic world 
over the promulgation by Pius IX. of the dogma of papal infalli- 
bility. Lord Acton, who was in complete sympathy on this 
subject with Bellinger (<?..), went to Rome in order to throw 
all his influence against it, but the step he so much dreaded was 
not to be averted. The Old Catholic separation followed, but 
Acton did not personally join the seceders, and the authorities 
prudently refrained from forcing the hands of so competent 
and influential an English layman. In 1874, when Gladstone 
published his pamphlet on The Vatican Decrees, Lord Acton 
wrote during November and December a series of remarkable 
letters to The Times, illustrating Gladstone's main theme by 
numerous historical examples of papal inconsistency, in a way 
which must have been bitter enough to the ultramontane party, 
but demurring nevertheless to Gladstone's conclusion and in- 
sisting that the Church itself was better than its premisses 
implied. Acton's letters led to another storm in the English 
Roman Catholic world, but once more it was considered prudent 
by the Vatican to leave him alone. In spite of his reservations, 
he regarded "communion with Rome as dearer than life." 
Thenceforth he steered clear of theological polemics. He de- 
voted himself to persistent reading and study, combined with 
congenial society. With all his capacity for study he was a man 
of the world, and a man of affairs, not a bookworm. Little in- 
deed came from his pen, his only notable publications being a 
masterly essay in the Quarterly Review of January 1878 on 
"Democracy in Europe" ; two lectures delivered at Bridgnorth in 



1877 on " The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The His- 
tory of Freedom in Christianity" these last the only tangible 
portions put together by him of his long-projected "History of 
Liberty"; and an essay on modern German historians in the 
first number of the English Historical Review, which he helped 
to found (1886). After 1879 he divided his time between London, 
Cannes and Tegernsee in Bavaria, enjoying and reciprocating 
the society of his friends. In 1872 he had been given the hono- 
rary degree of doctor of philosophy by Munich University; in 

1888 Cambridge gave him the honorary degree of LL.D., and in 

1889 Oxford the D.C.L.; and in 1890 he was made a felloe 
of All Souls. His reputation for learning had gradually been 
spread abroad, largely through Gladstone's influence. The latter 
found him a valuable political adviser, and in 1892, when the 
Liberal government came in, Lord Acton was made a lord-in- 
waiting. Finally, in 1895, on the death of Sir John Seeley, Lord 
Rosebery appointed him to the Regius Professorship of Modern 
History at Cambridge. The choice was an excellent one. His 
inaugural lecture on "The Study of History," afterwards pub- 
lished with notes displaying a vast erudition, made a great im- 
pression in the university, and the new professor's influence on 
historical study was felt in many important directions. He 
delivered two valuable courses of lectures, on the French Revolu- 
tion and on Modern History, but it was in private that the 
effects of his teaching were most marked. The great Cambridge 
Modern History, though he did not live to see it, was planned 
under his editorship, and all who came in contact with him 
testified to his stimulating powers and his extraordinary range of 
knowledge. He was taken ill, however, in 1901, and died on 
the igth of June 1902, being succeeded in the title by his son, 
Richard Maximilian Dalberg Acton, 2nd Baron Acton (b.i87o). 
Lord Acton has left too little completed original work to rank 
among the great historians ; his very learning seems to have 
stood in his way; he knew too much and his literary conscience 
was too acute for him to write easily, and his copiousness of 
information overloads his literary style. But he was one of the 
most deeply learned men of his time, and he will certainly be 
remembered for his influence on others. His extensive library, 
formed for use and not for display, and composed largely of books 
full of his own annotations, was bought immediately after his 
death by Mr Andrew Carnegie, and presented to Mr John Morley, 
by whom it was forthwith given to the university of Cambridge. 

See Mr Herbert Paul's excellent Introductory Memoir to the 
interesting volume of Lord Acton's Letters to Mrs Drew (1904), and 
the authorities cited there; also Dom Gasquet's Lord Acton and his 
Circle (1906). A Bibliography of the Works of Lord Acton, by W. A.- 
Shaw, was published by the Royal Historical Society in 1903. The 
Edinburgh Review of April 1903 contains a luminous essay; and 
Mr Bryce has a chapter on Acton in his Studies of Contemporary 
Biography (1903). Lord Acton's Lectures on Modern History, edited 
by J. N. Figgis and R. V. Laurence, appeared in 1906; and his 
History of Freedom and other Essays and Historical Essays and Studies 
(by the same editors) in 1907. (H. CH.) 

ACTON, SIR JOHN FRANCIS EDWARD, BART. (1736-1811), 
prime minister of Naples under Ferdinand IV., was the son of 
Edward Acton, a physician at Besancon, and .was born there in 
1736, succeeding to the title and estates in 1791, on the death of 
his cousin in the third degree, Sir Richard Acton of Aldenham 
Hall, Shropshire. He served in the navy of Tuscany, and in 
1775 commanded a frigate in the joint expedition of Spain and 
Tuscany against Algiers, in which he displayed such courage 
and resource that he was promoted to high command. In 1779 
Queen Maria Carolina of Naples persuaded her brother the Grand- 
Duke Leopold of Tuscany to allow Acton, who had been recom- 
mended to her by Prince Caramenico, to undertake the re- 
organization of the Neapolitan navy. The ability displayed by 
him in this led to his rapid advancement. He became com- 
mander-in-chief of both services, minister of finance, and finally 
prime minister. His policy was devised in concert with the 
English ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, and aimed at sub- 
stituting the influence of Austria and Great Britain for that of 
Spain, at Naples, and consequently involved open opposition 
to France and the French party in Italy. The financial and 
administrative measures which were the outcome of a policy 



ACTON ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 



161 



which necessitated a great increase of armament made him 
intensely unpopular, and in December 1798 he shared the flight 
of the king and queen. For the reign of terror which followed 
the downfall of the Parthenopean Republic, five months later, 
Acton has been held responsible. In 1804 he was for a short time 
deprived of the reins of government at the demand of France; 
but he was speedily restored to his former position, which he held 
till, in February 1806, on the entry of the French into Naples, 
he had to flee with the royal family into Sicily. He died at 
Palermo on the I2th of August 1811. 

He had married, by papal dispensation, the eldest daughter 
of his brother, General Joseph Edward Acton (b. 1737), who 
was in the Neapolitan service, and left three children, the elder 
son, Sir Richard, being the father of the first Lord Acton. 
The second son, Charles Januarius Edward (1803-1847), after 
being educated in England and taking his degree at Magdalene 
College, Cambridge, in 1823, entered the Academia Ecclesiastica 
at Rome. He left this with the rank of prelate, in 1828 was 
secretary to the nuncio at Paris and was made vice-legate 
of Bologna shortly afterwards. He became secretary of the 
congregation of the Disciplina Regolare, and auditor of the 
Apostolic Chamber under Gregory XVI., by whom he was 
made a cardinal in 1842. Cardinal Acton was protector of the 
English College at Rome, and had been mainly instrumental 
in the increase, in 1840, of the English vicariates-general 
to eight, which paved the way for the restoration of the 
hierarchy by Pius IX. in 1850. He died on the 23rd of June 
1847. 

ACTON, an urban district in the Baling parliamentary division 
of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 9 m. W. of St. 
Paul's Cathedral. Pop. (1861) 3151; (1901) 37,744. Its ap- 
pearance is now wholly that of a modern residential suburb. 
The derivation offered for its name is from Oak-town, in refer- 
ence to the extensive forest which formerly covered the locality. 
The land belonged from early times to the see of London, a grant 
being recorded in 1220. Henry III. had a residence here. At 
the time of the Commonwealth Acton was a centre of Puritanism. 
Philip Nye (d. 1672) was rector; Richard Baxter, Sir Matthew 
Hale (Lord Chief- Justice), Henry Fielding the novelist and 
John Lindley the botanist (d. 1865) are famous names among 
residents here. Acton Wells, of saline waters, had considerable 
reputation in the i8th century. 

ACT ON PETITION, the term for a part of the procedure in 
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division, now of infrequent 
occurrence. It was more freely used in the old Admiralty and 
Divorce courts before the Judicature Acts. (See PLEADING.) 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. This book of the Bible, which 
now stands fifth in the New Testament, was read at first as the 
companion and sequel of the Gospel of Luke. Its separation was 
due to growing consciousness of the Gospels as a unit of sacred 
records, to which Acts stood as a sort of appendix. Historically 
it is of unique interest and value: it has no fellow within the 
New Testament or without it. The so-called Apocryphal Acts 
of certain apostles, while witnessing to the impression produced 
by our Acts as a type of edifying literature, only emphasize this 
fact. It is the one really primitive Church history, primitive in 
spirit as in substance; apart from it a connected picture of 
the Apostolic Age would be impossible. With it, the Pauline 
Epistles are of priceless historical value; without it, they would 
remain bafflingly fragmentary and incomplete, often even mis- 
leading. 

i. Plan and Aim. All agree that the Acts of the Apostles is 
the work of an author of no mean skill, and that he has exercised 
careful selection in the use of his materials, in keeping with a 
definite purpose and plan. It is of moment, then, to discover 
from his emphasis, whether by iteration or by fulness of scale, 
what objects he had in mind in writing. Here it is not needful 
to go farther back than F. C. Baur and the Tubingen school, with 
its theory of sharp antitheses between Judaic and Gentile Chris- 
tianity, of which they took the original apostles and Paul respect- 
ively as typical. Gradually their statement of this position 
underwent serious modifications, as it became realized that 
1.6 



neither Jewish nor Gentile Christianity was a uniform genus, 
but included several species, and that the apostolic leaders 
from the first stood for mutual understanding and unity. Hence 
the Tubingen school did its chief work in putting the needful 
question, not in returning the correct answer. Their answer 
could not be correct, because, as Ritschl showed (in his Altkath. 
Kirche, 2nded., 1857), their premisses were inadequate. Still the 
attitude created by the Tubingen theory largely persists as a 
biassing element in much that is written about Acts. On the 
whole, however, there is a disposition to look at the book more 
objectively and to follow up the hints as to its aim given by the 
author in his opening verses. Thus (i) his second narrative is 
the natural sequel to his first. As the earlier one set forth in 
orderly sequence (Ka0erjs) the providential stages by which Jesus 
was led, " in the power of the Spirit," to begin the establishment 
of the consummated Kingdom of God, so the later work aims 
at setting forth on similar principles its extension by means of 
His chosen representatives or apostles. This involves emphasis 
on the identity of the power, Divine and not merely human, 
expressed in the great series of facts from first to last. Thus (2) 
the Holy Spirit appears as directing and energizing throughout 
the whole struggle with the powers of evil to be overcome in 
either ministry, of Master or disciples. But (3) the continuity 
is more than similarity of activity resting on the same Divine 
energy. The working of the energy in the disciples is condi- 
tioned by the continued life and volition of their Master at His 
Father's right hand in heaven. The Holy Spirit, " the Spirit of 
Jesus," is the living link between Master and disciples. Hence 
the pains taken to exhibit (i. 2, 4 f. 8, ii. i ff., cf. Luke xxiv. 49) 
the fact of such spiritual solidarity, whereby their activity means 
His continued action in the world. And (4) the scope of this 
action is nothing less than humanity (ii. 5 ff.), especially within 
the Roman empire. It was foreordained that Messiah's witnesses 
should be borne by Divine power through all obstacles and to 
ever-widening circles, until they reached and occupied Rome 
itself for the God of Israel now manifest (as foretold by Israel's 
own prophets) as the one God of the one race of mankind. 
(5) Finally, as we gather from the parallel account in Luke xxiv. 
46-48, the divinely appointed method of victory is through 
suffering (Acts xiv. 22). This explains the large space devoted 
to the tribulations of the witnesses, and their constancy amid 
them, after the type of their Lord Himself. It forms one side 
of the virtual apologia for the absence of that earthly prosperity 
in which the pagan mind was apt to see the token of Divine 
approval. Another side is the recurring exhibition of the fact 
that these witnesses were persecuted only by those whose action 
should create no bias against the persecuted. Their foes were 
chiefly Jews, whose opposition was due partly to a stiff-necked 
disinclination to bow to the wider reading of their own religion 
to which the Holy Spirit had from of old been pointing (cf. 
the prominence given to this idea in Stephen's long speech) 
and partly to jealousy of those who, by preaching the wider 
Messianic Evangel, were winning over the Gentiles, and particu- 
larly proselytes, in such great numbers. 

Such, then, seem to be the author's main motifs. They make 
up an account fairly adequate to the manifoldness of the book; 
yet they may be summed up in three ideas, together constituting 
the moral which this history of the expansion of Christianity 
aims at bringing home to its readers. These are the universality 
of the Gospel, the jealousy of national Judaism, and the Divine 
initiative manifest in the gradual stages by which men of Jewish 
birth were led to recognize the Divine will in the setting aside 
of national restrictions, alien to the universal destiny of the 
Church. The practical moral is the Divine character of the 
Christian religion, as evinced by the manner of its extension in 
the empire, no less than by its original embodiment in the 
Founder's life and death. Thus both parts of the author's work 
alike tend to produce assured conviction of Christianity as of 
Divine origin (Luke i. i, 4; Acts i. i f.). 

This view has the merit of giving the book a practical religious 
aim a sine qua non to any theory of an early Christian writing. 
Though meant for men of pagan birth in the first instance, it is 

5 






162 



ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 



to them as inquirers or even converts, such as " Theophilus, " 
that the argument is addressed. In spite of all difficulties, this 
religion is worthy of personal belief, even though it mean oppo- 
sition and suffering. Among the features of the occasion which 
suggested the need of such an appeal was doubtless the existence 
of persecution by the Roman authorites, perhaps largely at the 
instigation of local Judaism. To meet this special perplexity, 
the author holds up the picture of early days, when the great 
protagonist of the Gospel constantly enjoyed protection at the 
hands of Roman justice. It is implied that the present distress 
is but a passing phase, resting on some misunderstanding; 
meantime, the example of apostolic constancy should yield strong 
reassurance. The Acts of the Apostles is in fact an Apology for 
the Church as distinct from Judaism, the breach with which is 
accordingly traced with great fulness and care. 

From this standpoint Acts no longer seems to end abruptly. 
Whether as exhibiting the Divine leading and aid, or as recording 
the impartial and even kindly attitude of the Roman State 
towards the Christians, the writer has reached a climax. " He 
wished, " as Harnack well remarks, " to point out the might of 
the Holy Spirit in the apostles, Christ's witnesses; and to show 
how this might carried the Gospel from Jerusalem to Rome and 
gained for it entrance into the pagan world, whilst the Jews in 
growing degree incurred rejection. In keeping with this, verses 
26-28 of chapter xxviii. are the solemn closing verses of the work. 
But verses 30, 31 are an appended observation. " 

Yet the writer is, in fact, ending up most fitly on one of his 
keynotes, in that he leaves Paul preaching in Rome itself, " un- 
molested. " " Paulus Romae, apex Evangelii. " 

The full force of this is missed by those who, while rejecting 
the idea that the author had in reserve enough Pauline history 
to furnish another work, yet hold that Paul was freed from the 
imprisonment amid which Acts leaves him (see PAUL). But for 
those, on the other hand, who see in the writer's own words in 
xx. 38, uncontradicted by anything in the sequel, a broad hint 
that Paul never saw his Ephesian friends again, the natural view 
is open that the sequel to the two years' preaching was too well 
known to call for explicit record. Nor would such silence touch- 
ing Paul's speedy martyrdom be disingenuous, any more than 
on the theory that martyrdom overtook him several years later. 
The writer views Paul's death (like the horrors of Nero's Vatican 
Gardens in 64) as a mere exception to the rule of Roman policy 
heretofore illustrated. Not even by the Roman authorities were 
some of Nero's acts regarded as precedents. 

2. Authorship. External evidence, which is relatively early and 
widespread (e.g. Muratorian Canon, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement 
and Origen), all points to Luke, the companion and fellow- 
worker of Paul (Philem. 24), who probably accompanied him 
as physician also (Col. iv. 14). It must be noted too that evidence 
for his authorship of the third Gospel counts also for Acts. This 
carries us back at least to the second quarter of the 2nd century 
(Justin, Dial. 103, and most probably Marcion), when A.ovKai> 
no doubt stood at the head of the Gospel, especially where 
it was used side by side with the others. We have every reasori 
to trust the Church's tradition at this time, particularly as Luke 
was not prominent enough as an associate of Paul to suggest the 
theory as a guess. Nor does Eusebius, who knew the ante- 
Nicene literature intimately, seem to know of any other view 
ever having been held. If, then, the traditional Lucan author- 
ship is to be doubted, it must be on internal evidence only. The 
form of the book, however, in all respects favours Luke, who 
was of non- Jewish birth (see Col. iv. 12-14 compared with 10 f.), 
and as a physician presumably a man of culture. The medical 
cast of much of its language, which is often of a highly technical 
nature, points strongly the same way; 1 while the early tradition 
that Luke was born in the Syrian Antioch admirably suits the 

1 This argument, first worked out by Dr W. K. Hobart, The 
Medical Language of St Luke (Dublin, 1882), but hitherto neglected 
by many Continental scholars, has been urged afresh by Harnack, 
Lukas der Arzt (Leipzig, 1906; Eng. trans., London, 1907), to which 
reference may be made for all matters connected with Lucan author- 
ship; comp. also R. J. Knowling in The Expositor's Greek Testa- 
ment. 



fulness with which the origin of the Antiochene Church and its 
place in the further extension of the Gospel are described (see 
LUKE). Again, the attitude of Acts towards the Roman Empire 
is just what would be expected from a close comrade of Paul 
(cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen, 
1895), but was hardly likely to be shared by one of the next 
generation, reared in an atmosphere of resentment, first at Nero's 
conduct and then at the persecuting policy of the Flavian Caesars 
(see REVELATION). Finally, the book itself seems to claim to 
be written by a companion of Paul. In chap. xvi. 10 the writer, 
without any previous warning, passes from the third person to 
the first. Paul had reached Troas. There he saw a vision invit- 
ing him to go to Macedonia. " But when he saw the vision, 
straightway -we sought f o go forth into Macedonia. " Thence- 
forth " we " re-emerges at certain points in the narrative until 
Rome is reached. Irenaeus (iii. 14. i) quotes these passages as 
proof that Luke, the author, was a companion of the apostle. 
The minute character of the narrative, the accurate description 
of the various journeyings, the unimportance of some of the 
details, especially some of the incidents of the shipwreck, are 
strong reasons for believing that the narrative is that of an eye- 
witness. If so, we can scarcely help coming to the conclusion 
that this eye-witness was the author of the work; for the style 
of this eye-witness is exactly the style of the writer who 
composed the previous portions (see Harnack, op. cit., reinforc- 
ing the argument as already worked out by B. Weiss, 1893, and 
especially by Sir J. C. Hawkins in Horae Synopticae, 1899, PP- 
143-147). Most scholars admit that the " we " narrative is that 
of a personal companion of Paul, who was probably none other 
than Luke, in view of his traditional authorship of Acts. But 
many suppose that the tradition arose from confused remem- 
brance of the use by a later author of Luke's " we " document 
or travel-diary. This supposition would compel us to believe 
either that the skilful writer of Acts was so careless as to incor- 
porate a document without altering its form, or that " we " is 
introduced intentionally. In the latter case we must suppose 
either that the writer was an eye-witness, or that he wished to 
be thought an eye-witness. E. Zeller, a follower of Baur, adopted 
this latter alternative, and P. W. Schmiedel adheres to it. In- 
deed it is hard to see how it can be avoided on the theory that 
the author of Acts used a travel-document by another hand 
(see below, Sources). On the whole, then, the most tenable 
theory is that the writer of the " we " sections was also the 
author of Acts; and that he was Luke, Paul's companion during 
most of his later ministry, and also his " counterpart," "as a 
Hellene, who yet had personal sympathy with Jewish primitive 
Christianity " (Harnack, op. cit. p. 103; see also LUKE). 

3. Sources. So far from the recognition of a plan in Acts 
being inimical to a quest after the materials used in its composi- 
tion, one may say that it points the way thereto, while it keeps 
the literary analysis within scientific limits. The more one 
realizes the standpoint of the mind pervading the book as a 
whole, the more one feels that the speeches in the first part of 
Acts (e.g. that of Stephen) and indeed elsewhere, too are not 
" free compositions " of our author, the mere outcome of dra- 
matic idealization such as ancient historians like Thucydides 
or Polybius allowed themselves. The Christology, for instance 
of the early Petrine speeches is such as a Gentile Christian writing 
c. 80 A.D. simply could not have imagined. Thus we are forced 
to assume the use of a certain amount of early Judaeo-Christian 
material, akin to that implied also in the special parts of the 
Third Gospel. Paul Feine (Eine vorkanonische Ueberlicfcnmg 
des Lukas, 1891) suggested that a single document explains this 
material in both works, as far as Acts xii. Others maintain 
that at any rate two sources underlie Acts i.-xii., or even i.-xv. 
(see A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte, p. 131 ff.). In particular 
we can recognize a source embodying the traditions of the 
largely Hellenistic Church of Antioch, a secondary gloss from 
which may survive in the Bezan addition to xi. 27, " when we 
were assembled. " Further, if our author was a careful inquirer 
(Luke i. 3), especially if he was in the habit of taking down in 
writing what he heard from different witnesses, this may explain 



ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 



163 



some of the phenomena.' Such a man as Luke would have rare 
facilities for collecting Palestinian materials, varying no doubt 
in accuracy, but all relatively primitive, whether in Antioch or 
in Caesarea, where he probably resided for some two years in 
contact with men like Philip the Evangelist (xxi. 8). There and 
elsewhere he might also learn a good deal from John Mark, Peter's 
friend (i Pet. v. 13; Acts xii. 12). In any case the study of 
sources (Quellenkritik) is a comparatively new one, and the 
resources of analysis, linguistic in particular, are by no means 
exhausted. One important analogy exists for the way in which 
our author would handle any written sources he may have had 
by him, namely, the manner in which he uses Mark's Gospel 
narrative in compiling his own Gospel. Guided by this objective 
criterion, and safeguarded by growing insight into the author's 
plastic aim, we need not despair of reaching large agreement as 
to the nature of the sources lying behind the first half of Acts. 

In the second or strictly Pauline half we are confronted by 
the so-called "we" passages. Of these two main theories are 
possible: (i) that which sees in them traces of an earlier docu- 
ment whether entries in a travel-diary, or a more or less 
consecutive narrative written later; and (2) that which would 
regard the "we" as due to the author's breaking instinctively 
into the first person plural at certain points where he felt himself 
specially identified with the history. On the former hypothesis, 
it is still in debate whether the "we" document does or does 
not lie behind more of the narrative than is definitely indicated 
by the formula in question (e.g. cc. xiii.-xv., xxi. ig-xxvi.). 
On the latter, it may well be questioned whether the presence or 
absence of "we" be not due to psychological causes, rather 
than to the writer's mere presence or absence. 1 That is, he may 
be writing sometimes as a member of Paul's mission at the 
critical stages of onward advance, sometimes rather as a witness 
absorbed in his hero's words and deeds (so "we" ceases between 
xx. 15 and xxi. i). Naturally he would fall into the former 
attitude mostly when recording the definitive transition of Paul 
and his party from one sphere of work to another (xvi. 10 ff., 
xx. 5 ff., xxvii. i ff.). At such times the whole "mission" was 
as one man in its movements. 

4. Historical Value. The question of authorship is largely 
bound up with that as to the quality of the contents as history. 
Acts is divided into two distinct parts. The first (i.-xii.) deals 
with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, and with Peter as 
central figure at any rate in cc. i.-v. " Yet in cc. vi.-xii.," as 
Harnack' 2 observes, "the author pursues several lines at once. 
(i) He has still in view the history of the Jerusalem community 
and the original apostles (especially of Peter and his missionary 
labours); (2) he inserts in vi. i ff. a history of the Hellenistic 
Christians in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the 
first tends towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the 
Antiochene community; (3) he pursues the activity of Philip 
in Samaria and on the coast . . . ; (4) lastly, he relates the 
history of Paul up to his entrance on the service of the young 
Antiochene church. In the small space of seven chapters he 
pursues all these lines and tries also to connect them together, 
at the same time preparing and sketching the great transition 
of the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world. As historian, 
he has here set himself the greatest task." No doubt gaps abound 
in these seven chapters. " But the inquiry as to whether what 
is narrated does not even in these parts still contain the main 
facts, and is not substantially trustworthy, is not yet con- 
cluded." The difficulty is that we have but few external means 
of testing this portion of the narrative (see below, Date). Some 
of it may well have suffered partial transformation in oral tradi- 
tion before reaching our author; e.g. the nature of the Tongues 
at Pentecost does not accord with what we know of the gift 
>f "tongues" generally. The second part pursues the history 






1 This view has received Harnack's support, op. cit. 89 f. 

- A postelgeschichte (1908), p. 46. Harnack finds that our sense of 
the trustworthiness of the book " is enhanced by a thorough study 
of the chronological procedure of its author, both where he speaks 
and where he keeps silence." In this aspect the book " as a whole 
is according to the aims of the author and in reality a historical 
work " (p. 41 ; cf. pp. I-2O, 222 ff.). 



of the apostle Paul; and here we can compare the statements 
made in the Acts with the Epistles. The result is a general 
harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and 
there are many minute coincidences. But attention has been 
drawn to two remarkable exceptions. These are, the account 
given by Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as com- 
pared with Acts; and the character and mission of the apostle 
Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts. 

In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's move- 
ments until he returns to his native province of Syria-Cilicia 
(see PAUL) do not really amount to more than can be explained 
by the different interests of Paul and our author respectively. 
But it is otherwise as regards the visits of Gal. ii. i-io and Acts 
xv. If they are meant to refer to the same occasion, as is usually 
assumed, 3 it is hard to see why Paul should omit reference to 
the public occasion of the visit, as also to the public vindication 
of his policy. But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given 
in Gal. ii. 9 f. and Acts xv. 20 f., are not at all the same. 4 Nay 
more, if Gal. ii. i-io = Acts xv., the historicity of the "Relief 
visit" of Acts xi. 30, xii. 25, seems definitely excluded by Paul's 
narrative of events before the visit of Gal. ii. i ff. Accordingly. 
Sir W. M. Ramsay and others argue that the latter visit itself 
coincided with the Relief visit, and even see in Gal. ii. 10 witness 
thereto. 

But why, then, does not Paul refer to the public charitable 
object of his visit? It seems easier therefore to admit that the 
visit of Gal. ii. i ff. is one altogether unrecorded in Acts, owing 
to its private nature as preparing the way for public develop- 
ments with which Acts is mainly concerned. In that case it 
would fall shortly before the Relief visit, to which there may be 
tacit explanatory allusion, in Gal. ii. 10 (see further PAUL); 
and it will be shown below that such a conference of leaders in 
Gal. ii. i ff. leads up excellently both to the First Mission Journey 
and to Acts xv. 

We pass next to the Paul of Acts. Paul insists that he was 
appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to the Cir- 
cumcision; and that circumcision and the observance of the 
Jewish law were of no importance to the Christian as such. His 
words on these points in all his letters are strong and decided. 
But in Acts it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles. 
It is Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the in- 
tolerable burden of the Law as a means of salvation (xv. 10 f., 
cf. i). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between 
Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal. ii. ii ff.). The brethren in 
Antioch send Paul and Barnabas up to Jerusalem to ask the 
opinion of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and 
carry back the decision to Antioch. Throughout the whole of 
Acts Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the 
Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile the Jewish 
Christians to himself by personally observing the law of Moses. 
He circumcises the semi-Jew, Timothy; and he performs his 
vows in the temple. He is particularly careful in his speeches 
to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this 
the letters of Paul are very different from Acts. In Galatians 
he claims perfect freedom in principle, for himself as for the 
Gentiles, from the obligatory observance of the law; and neither 
in it nor in Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to 
which the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem. The 
narrative of Acts, too, itself implies something other than what 
it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so much, if 
he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law? 

There is, nevertheless, no essential contradiction here, only 
such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the stand- 
points and aims of the two writers amid their respective 

'Though this view had the support of J. B. Lightfoot, it should 
be remembered that this was before the " South Galatian " theory 
as to the date of Paul's work among the Galatians came to prevail. 

4 Harnack, indeed, argues (op. cit. pp. 188 ff.) that the Abstinences 
defined for Gentiles were in the original text of Acts xv. 20 purely 
moral, and had no reference to Jewish scruples as to eating blood. 
He regards "what is strangled' (irwxriv) as originally a mistaken 
gloss, which crept into the text. External evidence is against this, 
nor does it seem demanded by the context; in fact xv. 21 rather 
goes against it. 



164 



ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 



historical conditions. Peter's function in relation to the Gentiles 
belongs to the early Palestinian conditions, before Paul's dis- 
tinctive mission had taken shape. Once Paul's apostolate a 
personal one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of 
" the Twelve " has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval, 
Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of the 
two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two shall 
not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible usages 
(Acts xv.). Paul, on his side, clearly implies that Peter felt 
with him that the Law could not justify (Gal. ii. 15 ff.), and 
argues that it could not now be made obligatory in principle 
(cf. " a yoke," Acts xv. 10); yet for Jews it might continue for 
the time (pending the Parousia) to be seemly and expedient, 
especially for the sake of non-believing Judaism. To this he 
conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so far as his Gentile apos- 
tolate was not involved (i Cor. ix. 19 ff.). There is no reason 
to doubt that Peter largely agreed with him, since he acted in this 
spirit in Gal. ii. n f., until coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to 
draw back for expediency's sake. This incident it simply did 
not fall within the scope of Acts (see below) to narrate, since 
it had no abiding effect on the Church's extension. As to Paul's 
submission of the issue in Acts xv. to the Jerusalem conference, 
Acts does not imply that Paul would have accepted a decision 
in favour of the Judaizers, though he saw the value of getting a 
decision for his own policy in the quarter to which they were 
most likely to defer. If the view that he already had an under- 
standing with the " Pillar " Apostles, as recorded in Gal. ii. i-io 
(see further PAUL), be correct, it gives the best of reasons why he 
was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts xv. Paul's 
own " free " attitude to the Law, when on Gentile soil, is just 
what is implied by the hostile rumours as to his conduct in 
Acts xxi. 21, which he would be glad to disprove as at least 
exaggerated (ib. 24 and 26). What is clear is that such lack of 
formal accord as here exists between Acts and the Epistles, tells 
against its author's dependence on the latter, and so favours his 
having been a comrade of Paul himself. 

The speeches in Acts deserve special notice. Did its author 
follow the plan adopted by all historians, of his age, or is he an 
Speeches. exce pti n ? Ancient historians (like many of modern 

times) used the liberty of working up in their own 
language the speeches recorded by them. They did not dream 
of verbal fidelity; even when they had more exact reports before 
them, they preferred to mould a speaker's thoughts to their own 
methods of presentation. Besides this, some did not hesitate to 
give to the characters of their history speeches which were never 
uttered. The method of direct speech, so useful in producing 
a vivid idea of what is supposed to have passed through the mind 
of the speaker, was used to give force to the narrative. Now 
how far has the author of Acts followed the practice of his con- 
temporaries? Some of his speeches are evidently but summaries 
of thoughts which occurred to individuals or multitudes. Others 
claim to be reports of speeches really delivered. But all these 
speeches have to a large extent the same style, the style also of 
the narrative. They have been passed though one editorial 
mind, and some mutual assimilation in phraseology and idea 
may well have resulted. They are, moreover, all of them, the 
merest abstracts. The speech of Paul at Athens, as given by 
Luke, would not occupy more than a minute or two in delivery. 
But these circumstances, while inconsistent with verbal accuracy, 
do not destroy authenticity; and in most of the speeches (e.g. 
xiv. 15-17) there is a varied appropriateness as well as an allusive- 
ness, pointing to good information (see under Sources). There 
is no evidence that any speech in Acts is the free composition of 
its author, without either written or oral basis; and in general 
he seems more conscientious than most ancient historians 
touching the essentials of historical accuracy, even as now 
understood. 

Objections to the trustworthiness of Acts on the ground of its 
miracles require to be stated more discriminately than has some- 
Mirades. times been the case. Particularly is this so as regards 

the question of authorship. As Harnack observes 
(Lukas der Arzt, p. 24), the " miraculous" or supernormal ele- 



ment is hardly, if at all, less marked in tne " we " sections, which 
are substantially the witness of a companion of Paul (and where 
efforts to dissect out the miracles are fruitless), than in the rest 
of the work. The scientific method, then, is to consider each 
" miracle " on its own merits, according as we find reason to 
suppose that it has reached our author more or less directly. But 
the record of miracle as such cannot prejudice the question of 
authorship. Even the form in which the gift of Tongues at 
Pentecost is conceived does not tell against a companion of Paul, 
since it may have stood in his source, and the first outpouring 
of the Messianic Spirit may soon have come to be thought of as 
unique in some respects, parallel in fact to the Rabbinic tradition 
as to the inauguration of the Old Covenant at Sinai (cf. Philo, 
De decem oraculis, 9, ii, and the Midrash on Ps. 'Ixviii. ii). 

Finally as to such historical difficulties in Acts as still perplex 
the student of the Apostolic age, one must remember the possi- 
bilities of mistake intervening between the facts and the accounts 
reaching its author, at second or even third hand. Yet it must 
be strongly emphasized, that recent historical research at the 
hands of experts in classical antiquity has tended steadily to 
verify such parts of the narrative as it can test, especially those 
connected with Paul's missions in the Roman Empire. That is 
no new result; but it has come to light in greater degree of 
recent years, notably through Sir W. M. Ramsay's researches. 
The proofs of trustworthiness extend also to the theological 
sphere. What was said above of the Christology of the Petrine 
speeches applies to the whole conception of Messianic salvation, 
the eschatology, the idea of Jesus as equipped by the Holy Spirit 
for His Messianic work, found in these speeches, as also to titles 
like " Jesus the Nazarene " and " the Righteous One " both in 
and beyond the Petrine speeches. These and other cases in 
which we are led to discern very primitive witness behind Acts, 
do not indeed give to such witness the value of shorthand notes or 
even of abstracts based thereon. But they do support the theory 
that our author meant to give an unvarnished account of such 
words and deeds as had come to his knowledge. The perspective 
of the whole is no doubt his own; and as his witnesses probably 
furnished but few hints for a continuous narrative, this perspec- 
tive, especially in things chronological, may sometimes be faulty. 
Yet when one remembers that by 70-80 A.D. it must have been 
a matter of small interest by what tentative stages the Messianic 
salvation first extended to the Gentiles, it is surely surprising 
that Acts enters into such detail on the subject, and is not content 
with a summary account of the matter such as the mere logic of 
the subject would naturally suggest. In any case, the very differ- 
ence of the perspective of Acts and of Galatians, in recording the 
same epochs in Paul's history, argues such an independence in 
the former as is compatible only with an early date. 

Quellenkritik, then, a distinctive feature of recent research 
upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as 
an honest narrative by a companion of Paul. In addition, we 
may also count among recent gains a juster method of judging 
such a book. For among the results of the Tubingen criticism 
was what Dr W. Sanday calls " an unreal and artificial standard, 
the standard of the igth century rather than the ist, of Germany 
rather than Palestine, of the lamp and the study rather than of 
active life." This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences 
between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. In 
the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to men like 
Mommsen, Ramsay, Blass and Harnack, trained amid othe 
methods and traditions than those which had brought the con- 
structive study of Acts almost to a deadlock. 

5. Dale. External evidence now points to the existence 
Acts at least as early as the opening years of the 2nd century. 
As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally for Acts, it 
existence in Marcion's day (120-140) is now assured. Further, 
the traces of it in Polycarp " and Ignatius, 2 when taken together, 
are highly probable; and it is even widely admitted that the 
resemblance of Acts xiii. 22, and i Ciem. xviii. i, in features no 

1 Polyc. ad Philipp. i. 2, Acts ii. 24; ii. I, Acts x. 42; ii. 3, Ac 
xx. 35; vi. 3, Acts vii. 52. 

2 Ign. ad Magn. v. i, Acts i. 25; ad Smyrn. iii. 3, Acts x. 41. 



ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 



165 



found in the Psalm (Ixxxix. 20) quoted by each, can hardly be 
accidental. That is, Acts was probably current in Antioch and 
Smyrna not later than c. A.D. 115, and perhaps in Rome as early 
as c. A.D. 96. 

With this view internal evidence agrees. In spite of some 
advocacy of a date prior to A.D. 70, the bulk of critical 
opinion is decidedly against it. The prologue to Luke's Gospel 
itself implies the dying out of the generation of eye-witnesses 
as a class. A strong consensus of opinion supports a date about 
A.D. So; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 70 and 75 
seems no less possible. Of the reasons for a date in one of the 
earlier decades of the 2nd century, as argued by the Tubingen 
school and its heirs, several are now untenable. Among these 
are the supposed traces of 2nd-century Gnosticism and " hier- 
archical " ideas of organization; but especially the argument 
from the relation of the Roman state to the Christians, which 
Ramsay has reversed and turned into proof of an origin prior 
to Pliny's correspondence with Trajan on the subject. Another 
fact, now generally admitted, renders a 2nd-century date yet 
more incredible; and that is the failure of a writer devoted to 
Paul's memory to make palpable use of his Epistles. Instead of 
this he writes in a fashion that seems to traverse certain things 
recorded in them. If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the 
later works of Josephus, we should have to place the book 
about A.D. 100. But this is far from being the case. 

Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are cited. 
(i)The circumstances attending the death of Herod Agrippa I. in 
A.D. 44. Here Acts xii. 21-23 ' s largely parallel to Jos. Antt. xix. 
8. 2 ; but the latter adds an omen of coming doom, while Acts alone 
gives a circumstantial account of the occasion of Herod's public 
appearance. Hence the parallel, when analysed, tells against de- 
pendence on Josephus. So also with (2) the cause of the Egyptian 
pseudo-prophet in Acts xxi. 37 f., Jos. Jewish War, ii. 13. 5, Antt. xx. 
8.6; for the numbers of his followers do not agree with either of 
Jqsephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts alone calls them 
Sicarii. With these instances in mind, it is natural to regard (3) 
the curious resemblance as to the (non-historical) order in which 
Theudas and Judas of Galilee are referred to in both as accidental, 
the more so that again there is difference as to numbers. Further, 
to make out a case for dependence at all, one must assume the 
mistaken order (as it may be) in Gamaliel's speech as due to gross 
carelessness in the author of Acts an hypothesis unlikely in itself. 
Such a mistake was far more likely to arise in oral transmission of 
the speech, before it reached Luke at all. 

6. Place. The place of composition is still an open question. 
For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favour; and 
Blass combined both views in his theory of two editions (see 
below, Text). But internal evidence points strongly to the 
Roman province of Asia, particularly the neighbourhood of 
Ephesus. Note the confident local allusion in xix. 9 to " the 
school of Tyrannus " not " a certain Tyrannus," as in the in- 
ferior text and in xix. 33 to " Alexander " ; also the very minute 
topography in xx. 13-15. At any rate affairs in that region, 
including the future of the church of Ephesus (xx. 28-30), are 
treated as though they would specially interest " Theophilus " 
and his circle; also an early tradition makes Luke die in the 
adjacent Bithynia. Finally it was in this region that there 
arose certain early glosses (e.g. on xix. 9, xx. 15), probably the 
earliest of those referred to below. How fully in correspondence 
with such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the 

. Church against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman 
policy to its harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength 
of Judaism in " Asia " (cf. Rev. ii. 9, iii. 9, and see Sir W. M. 
Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches, ch. xii.). 

7. Text. The apparatus criticus of Acts has grown consider- 
ably of recent years; yet mainly in one direction, that' of the so- 
called " Western text." This term, which our growing knowledge, 
especially of the Syriac and other Eastern versions, is rendering 
more and more unsatisfactory, stands for a text which used to 
be connected almost exclusively with the " eccentric " Codex 
Bezae, and is comparable to a Targum on an Old Testament book. 
But it is now recognized to have been very widespread, in both 
east and west, for some 200 years or more from as early as the 
middle of the 2nd century. The process, however, of sifting out 
the readings of all our present witnesses MSS., versions, Fathers 



has not yet gone far enough to yield any sure or final result as 
to the history of this text, so as to show what in its extant forms 
is primary, secondary, and so on. Beginnings have been made 
towards grouping our authorities; but the work must go on 
much further before a solid basis for the reconstruction of its 
primitive form can be said to exist. The attempts made at such 
a reconstruction, as by Blass (1895, 1897) and Hilgenfeld (1899), 
are quite arbitrary. The like must be said even of the contribu- 
tion to the problem made by August Pott, 1 though he has helped 
to define one condition of success the classification of the strata 
in " Western " texts and has taken some steps in the right 
direction, in connexion with the complex phenomena of one 
witness, the Harklean Syriac. 

Assuming, however, that the original form of the " Western " 
text had been reached, the question of its historical value, i.e. 
its relation to the original text of A cts, would yet remain. On this 
point the highest claims have been made by Blass. Ever since 
1894 he held that both the " Western " text of Acts (which he 
styles the text) and its rival, the text of the great uncials 
(which he styles the a text), are due to the author's own hand. 
Further, that the former (Roman) is the more original of the two, 
being related to the latter (Antiochene) as fuller first draft to 
severely pruned copy. But even in its later form, that " ft stands 
nearer the Grundschrift than a, but yet is, like a, a copy from it," 
the theory is really untenable. In sober contrast of Blass's 
sweeping theory stand the views of Sir W. M. Ramsay. Already 
in The Church in the Roman Empire (1893) he held that the Codex 
Bezae rested on a recension made in Asia Minor (somewhere 
between Ephesus and S. Galatia), not later than about the middle 
of the 2nd century. Though " some at least of the alterations 
in Codex Bezae arose through a gradual process, and not through 
the action of an individual reviser," the revision in question 
was the work of a single reviser, who in his changes and additions 
expressed the local interpretation put upon Acts in his own time. 
His aim, in suiting the text to the views of his day, was partly to 
make it more intelligible to the public, and partly to make it more 
complete. To this end he "added some touches where surviving 
tradition seemed to contain trustworthy additional particulars," 
such as the statement that Paul taught in the lecture-room of 
Tyrannus " from the fifth to the tenth hour." In his later work, 
on St Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (1895), Ramsay's 
views gain both in precision and in breadth. The gain lies chiefly 
in seeing beyond the Bezan text to the " Western " text as a 
whole. 

Generally speaking, then, the text of Acts as printed by West- 
cottandHort, on the basis of the earliest MSS. (**B), seems as near 
the autograph as that of any other part of the New Testament; 
whereas the " Western " text, even in its earliest traceable forms, 
is secondary. This does not mean that it has no historical value 
of its own. It may well contain some true supplements to the 
original text, derived from local tradition or happy inference 
a few perhaps from a written source used by Luke. Certain of 
these may even date from the end of the ist century, and the 
larger part of them are probably not later than the middle of the 
and. But its value lies mainly in the light cast on ecclesiastical 
thought in certain quarters during the epoch in question. The 
nature of the readings themselves, and the distribution of the 
witness for them, alike point to a process involving several stages 
and several originating centres of diffusion. The classification 
of groups of " Western " witnesses has already begun. When 
completed, it will cast light, not only on the origin and growth of 
this type of text, but also on the exact value of the remaining 
witnesses to the original text of Acts and further on the early 
handling of New Testament writings generally. Acts, from its 
very scope, was least likely to be viewed as sacrosanct as regards 
its text. Indeed there are signs that its undogmatic nature caused 
it to be comparatively neglected at certain times and places, as, 
e.g., Chrysostom explicitly witnesses. 

LITERATURE. An account of the extensive and varied literature 
that has gathered round Acts may be found in two representative 



1 Der abendldndische Text der Apostelgeschichte u. die Wir-quelle 
(Leipzig, 1900). See a review in the Journal of Theol. Studies, ii. 439 ff. 



i66 



ACTUARY ADAIR 



commentaries, viz., H. H. Wendt's edition of Meyer (1899), and 
that by R. J. Knowling in Tlie Expositor's Greek Testament, vol. 
ii. (1900), supplemented by his Testimony of St Paul to Christ 
(1905). See also J. Moffatt, The Historical New Testament (1901). 
412 ft., 655 ff. ; C. Clemen, Die Apostelgesch. im Lichte der netteren 
Forschungen (Giessen, 1905); and A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte 
(1908). (J- V. B.) 

ACTUARY. The name of actuarius, sc. scriba, in ancient 
Rome, was given to the clerks who recorded the Acta Publica of 
the senate, and also to the officers who kept the military accounts 
and enforced the due fulfilment of contracts for military supplies. 
In its English form the word has undergone a gradual limita- 
tion of meaning. At first it seems to have denoted any clerk or 
registrar; then more particularly the secretary and adviser of any 
joint-stock company, but especially of an insurance company; 
and it is now applied specifically to one who makes those calcula- 
tions as to the probabilities of human life, on which the practice 
of life assurance and the valuation of reversionary interests, 
deferred annuities, &c., are based. The first mention of the word 
in law is in the Friendly Societies Act of 1819, where it is used 
in the vague sense, " actuaries, or persons skilled in calculation," 
but it has received .still further recognition in the Friendly 
Societies Act of 1875 and the Life Assurance Companies Act of 
1 870. The word has been used with precision since the establish- 
ment of the " Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ire- 
land " in 1848. The Quarterly Journal, Charter of Incorporation, 
and by-laws of this society may be usefully consulted for particu- 
lars as to the requirements for membership (see also ANNUITY). 
The registrar in the Lower House of Convocation is also called 
the actuary. 

ACUMINATE (from Lat. acumen, point), sharpened or 
pointed, a woid used principally in botany and ornithology, to 
denote the narrowing or lance-shaping of a leaf or of a bird's 
feather into a point, generally at the tip, though sometimes 
(with regard to a leaf) at the base. The poet William Cowper 
used the word to denote sharp and keen despair, but other 
authors, Sir T. Browne, Bacon, Bulwer, &c., use it to explain 
a material pointed shape. 

ACUNA, CHRISTOVAL DE (1597-1:. 1676), Spanish missionary 
and explorer, was born at Burgos in 1597. He was admitted 
a Jesuit in 1612, and afterwards sent on mission work to Chile 
and Peru, where he became rector of the college of Cuenca. In 
1639 he accompanied Pedro Texiera in his second exploration 
of the Amazon, in order to take scientific observations, and draw 
up a report for the Spanish government. The journey lasted 
ten months; and on the explorer's arrival in Peru, Acuna pre- 
pared his narrative, while awaiting a ship for Europe. The king 
of Spain, Philip IV., received the author coldly, and it is said 
even tried to suppress his book, fearing that the Portuguese, 
who had just revolted from Spain (1640), would profit by its 
information. After occupying the positions of procurator of 
the Jesuits at Rome and censor (calificador) of the Inquisition 
at Madrid, Acuna returned to South America, where he died, 
probably soon after 1675. His Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran 
Rio de las Amazonas was published at Madrid in 1641; French 
and English translations (the latter from the French, appeared 
in 1682 and 1698. 

ACUPRESSURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and premere, to 
press), the name given to a method of restraining haemorrhage, 
introduced by Sir J. Y. Simpson, the direct pressure of a metallic 
needle, either alone or assisted by a loop of wire, being used to 
close the vessel near the bleeding point. 

ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, to 
prick), a form of surgical operation, performed by pricking the 
part affected with a needle. It has long been used by the Chinese 
in cases of headaches, lethargies, convulsions, colics, &c. (See 
SURGERY.) 

ADABAZAR, an important commercial town in the Khoja Hi 
sanjak of Asia Minor, situated on the old military road from 
Constantinople to the east, and connected by a branch line with 
the Anatolian railway. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 10,000; Chris- 
tians, 8000). It was founded in 1540 and enlarged in 1608 by 
the settlement in it of an Armenian colony. There are silk and 



linen industries, and an export of tobacco, walnut-wood, cocoons 
and vegetables for the Constantinople market. Imports are 
valued at 80,000 and exports at 480,000. 

See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1890-1900). 
ADAD, the name of the storm-god in the Babylonian-Assyrian 
pantheon, who is also known as Ramman (" the thunderer "). 
The problem involved in this double name has not yet been 
definitely solved. Evidence seems to favour the view that 
Ramman was the name current in Babylonia, whereas Adad was 
more common in Assyria. To judge from analogous instances 
of a double nomenclature, the two names revert to two different 
centres for the cult of a storm-god, though it must be confessed 
that up to the present it has been impossible to determine 
where these centres were. A god Hadad who was a prominent 
deity in ancient Syria is identical with Adad, and in view of this 
it is plausible to assume for which there is also other evidence 
that the name Adad represents an importation into Assyria 
from Aramaic districts. Whether the same is the case with 
Ramman, identical with Rimmon, known to us from the Old 
Testament as the chief deity of Damascus, is not certain though 
probable. On the other hand the cult of a specific storm-god 
in ancient Babylonia is vouched for by the occurrence of the sign 
Im the " Sumerian " or ideographic writing for Adad-Ramman 
as an element in proper names of the old Babylonian period. 
However this name may have originally been pronounced, so 
much is certain, that through Aramaic influences in Baby- 
lonia and Assyria he was identified with the storm-god of the 
western Semites, and a trace of this influence is to be seen in 
the designation Amurru, also given to this god in the religious 
literature of Babylonia, which as an early name for Palestine 
and Syria describes the god as belonging to the Amorite 
district. 

The Babylonian storm-god presents two aspects in the hymns, 
incantations and votive inscriptions. On the one hand he 
is the god who, through bringing on the rain in due season, 
causes the land to become fertile, and, on the other hand, the 
storms that he sends out bring havoc and destruction. He is 
pictured on monuments and seal cylinders with the lightning 
and the thunderbolt, and in the hymns the sombre aspects of 
the god on the whole predominate. His association with the 
sun-god, Shamash, due to the natural combination of the two 
deities who alternate in the control of nature, leads to imbuing 
him with some of the traits belonging to a solar deity. In Syria 
Hadad is hardly to be distinguished from a solar deity. The 
process of assimilation did not proceed so far in Babylonia and 
Assyria, but Shamash and Adad became in combination the 
gods of oracles and of divination in general. Whether the will 
of the gods is determined through the inspection of the liver of 
the sacrificial animal, through observing the action of oil bubbles 
in a basin of water or through the observation of the movements 
of the heavenly bodies, it is Shamash and Adad who, in the ritual 
connected with divination, are invariably invoked. Similarly 
in the annals and votive inscriptions of the kings, when oracles 
are referred to, Shamash and Adad are always named as the 
gods addressed, and their ordinary designation in such instances 
is bele biri, " lords of divination." The consort of Adad-Ramman 
is Shala, while as Amurru his consort is called Aschratum. (See 
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION.) (M. JA.) 

ADAGIO (Ital. ad agio, at ease), a term in music to indicate 
slow time; also a slow movement in a symphony, sonata, &c., 
or an independent piece, such as Mozart's pianoforte " Adagio 
in B minor." 

ADAIR, JOHN (d. 1722), Scottish surveyor and map-maker 
of the 1 7th century. Nothing is known of his parentage, birth- 
place or early life. His name first came before the public in 
1683, when a prospectus was published in Edinburgh entitled An 
Account of the Scottish Atlas, stating that " the Privy Council 
Scotland has appointed John Adair, mathematician and skilfull 
mechanick, to survey the shires." In 1686 an act of tonna| 
was passed in Adair's favour. He was then employed on a survey 
of the Scottish coast and two years later was made a fellow of 
the Royal Society. Two other acts of tonnage were passed for 






ADALBERON ADAM 



167 



Adair, one in 1695 'and the other in 1705. In 1703 he published 
the first part of his Description of the Sea Coasts and Islands of 
Scotland, for the use of seamen. The second part never appeared. 
He is thought to have died in London about the end of 1722. 
He must have lost a considerable amount of money in the execu- 
tion of his work, and in 1723 some remuneration was made to his 
widow by the government. Some of his work is preserved in 
the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh and in the King's Library 
of the British Museum, London. 

ADALBERON, or ASCELIN (d. 1030 or 1031), French bishop 
and poet, studied at Reims and became bishop of Laon in 977. 
When Laon was taken by Charles, duke of Lorraine, in 988, he 
was put into prison, whence he escaped and sought the protec- 
tion of Hugh Capet, king of France. Winning the confidence 
of Charles of Lorraine and of Arnulf, archbishop of Reims, he 
was restored to his see; but he soon took the opportunity to 
betray Laon, together with Charles and Arnulf, into the hands 
of Hugh Capet. Subsequently he took an active part in ecclesi- 
astical affairs, and died on the igth of July 1030 or 1031. Adal- 
beron wrote a satirical poem in the form of a dialogue dedicated 
to Robert, king of France, in which he showed his dislike of Odilo, 
abbot of Cluny, and his followers, and his objection to persons 
of humble birth being made bishops. ' The poem was first pub- 
lished by H. Valois in the Carmen panegyricum in laudem Beren- 
garii (Paris, 1663), and in modern times by J. P. Migne in the 
Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844). Adalberon must 
not be confounded with his namesake, Adalberon, archbishop 
of Reims (d. 988 or 989). 

See Richer, Histariarum libri III. et IV., which appears in the 
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores. Band iii. (Hanover 
and Berlin, 1826-1892) ; A. Olleris, (Euvres de Gerbert pape sous le 
nom de Sylvestre II. (Paris, 1867) ; Histoire litteraire de la France, 
tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869). 

ADALBERT, or ADELBERT (c. 1000-1072), German arch- 
bishop, the most famous ecclesiastic of the nth century, was 
the son of Frederick, count of Goseck, a member of a noble Saxon 
family. He was educated for the church, and began his clerical 
career at Halberstadt, where he attained to the dignity of provost. 
Having attracted the notice of the German king, Henry III., 
Adalbert probably served as chancellor of the kingdom of Italy, 
and in 1045 was appointed archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, 
his province including the Scandinavian countries, as well as 
a larger part of North Germany. In 1046 he accompanied 
Henry to Rome, where he is said to have refused the papal chair; 
and in 1052 he was made legate by Pope Leo IX., and given the 
right to nominate bishops in his province. He sought to increase 
the influence of his archbishopric, sent missionaries to Finland, 
Greenland and the Orkney Islands, arid aimed at making Bremen 
a patriarchal see for northern Europe, with twelve suffragan 
bishoprics. He consolidated and increased the estates of the 
church, exercised the powers of a count, denounced simony and 
initiated financial reforms. The presence of this powerful and 
active personality, who was moreover a close friend of the 
emperor, was greatly resented by the Saxon duke, Bernard II., 
who regarded him as a spy sent by Henry into Saxony. Adalbert, 
who wished to free his lands entirely from the authority of the 
duke, aroused further hostility by an attack on the privileges of 
the great abbeys, and after the emperor's death in 1056 his lands 
were ravaged by Bernard. He took a leading part in the govern- 
ment of Germany during the minority of King Henry IV., and 
was styled pair onus of the young king, over whom he appears 
to have exercised considerable influence. Having accompanied 
Henry on a campaign into Hungary in 1063, he received large 
gifts of crown estates, and obtained the office of count palatine in 
Saxony. His power aroused so much opposition that in 1066 
the king was compelled to assent to his removal from court. In 
1069 he was recalled by Henry, when he made a further attempt 
to establish a northern patriarchate, which failed owing to the 
hostility of the papacy and the condition of affairs in the Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms. He died at Goslar on the i6th or i7th of 
March 1072, and was buried in the cathedral which he had built 
at Bremen. Adalbert was a man of proud and haughty bearing, 
with large ideas and a strong, energetic character. He made 



Bremen a city of importance, and it was called by his biographer, 
Adam of Bremen, the New Rome. 

See Adam of Bremen, GestaHammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, 
edited by J. M. Lappenberg, in the Monumenta Germaniae historica. 
Scriptores. Band vii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); C.Grunhagen, 
Adalbert Erzbischof von Hamburg und die Idee eines Nordischen 
Patriarchal (Leipzig, 1854). 

ADALBERT (originally VOYTECH), (c. 950-997), known as 
the apostle of the Prussians, the son of a Bohemian prince, was 
born at Libice (Lobnik, Lubik), the ancestral seat near the 
junction of the Cidlina and the Elbe. He was educated at the 
monastery of Magdeburg; and in 983 was chosen bishop of 
Prague. The extreme severity of his rule repelled the Bohemians, 
whom he vainly strove to wean from their national customs and 
pagan rites. Discouraged by the ill-success of his ministry, he 
withdrew to Rome until 993, when, in obedience to the command 
of the pope, he returned to his own people. Finding little amend- 
ment, however, in their course of living, he soon afterwards went 
again to Rome, and obtained permission from the pope to devote 
himself to missionary labours, which he carried on chiefly in 
North Germany and Poland. While preaching in Pomerania 
(997) he was assassinated by a heathen priest. 

See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du-moyen dge, 
Bio.-Bibl. (1905); Bolland, Ada Sanctorum, April 23; H. G. Voigt, 
Adalbert von Prag (1898), a thoroughly exhaustive monograph. 

ADALIA (med. Anlaliyah; the crusaders' Satalia), the ancient 
Attalia (q.v.), the largest seaport on the south coast of Asia 
Minor, though in point of trade it is now second to Mersina. 
The unsuitability of the harbour for modern steamers, the bad 
anchorage outside and the extension of railways from Smyrna 
have greatly lessened its former importance as an emporium for 
west central Anatolia. It is not connected by a chaussee with any 
point outside its immediate province, but it has considerable 
importance as the administrative capital of a rich and isolated 
sanjak. Adalia played a considerable part in the medieval 
history of the Levant. Kilij Arslan had a palace there. The 
army of Louis VII. sailed thence for Syria in 1148, and the fleet 
of Richard of England rallied there before the conquest of Cyprus. 
Conquered by the Seljuks of Konia, and made the capital of the 
province of Tekke, it passed after their fall through many hands, 
including those of the Venetians and Genoese, before its final 
occupation by the Ottoman Turks under Murad II. (1432). In 
the i8th century, in common with most of Anatolia, its actual 
lord was a Dere Bey. The family of Tekke Oglu, domiciled near 
Perga, though reduced to submission in 1812 by Mahmud II., 
continued to be a rival power to the Ottoman governor till within 
the present generation, surviving by many years the fall of the 
other great Beys of Anatolia. The records of the Levant (Turkey) 
Company, which maintained an important agency here till 1825, 
contain curious information as to the local Dere Beys. The 
present population of Adalia, which includes many Christians 
and Jews, still living, as in the middle ages, in separate quarters, 
the former round the walled mina or port, is about 25,000. The 
port is served by coasting steamers of the local companies only. 
Adalia is an extremely picturesque, but ill-built and backward 
place. The chief thing to see is the city wall, outside which runs 
a good and clean promenade. The government offices and the 
houses of the better class are all outside the walls. 

See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie.et de la Pisidie, \. 
(1890). (D. G. H.) 

ADAM, the conventional name of the first created man 
according to the Bible. 

1. The Name. The use of " Adam " (DIN) as a proper name 
is an early error. Properly the word adam designated man as 
a species; with the article prefixed (Gen. ii. 7, 8, 16, iv. i; and 
doubtless ii. 20, iii. 17) it means the first man. Only in Gen. iv. 
25 and v. 3-5 is adam a quasi-proper name, though LXX. and 
Vulgate use " Adam " (A5a/i) in this way freely. Gen. ii. 7 
suggests a popular Hebrew derivation from addmah, " the 
ground." Into the question whether the original story did not 
give a proper name which was afterwards modified into " Adam " 
important as this question is we cannot here enter. 

2. Creation of Adam. For convenience, we shall take " Adam " 






i68 



ADAM 



as a symbol for " the first man," and inquire first, what does 
tradition say of his creation? In Gen. ii. 4^-8 we read thus: 
''At the time when Yahweh-Elohim 1 made earth and heaven, 
earth was as yet without bushes, no herbage was as yet sprouting, 
because Yahweh-Elohim had not caused it to rain upon the earth, 
and no men were there to till the ground, but a stream 2 used to 
go up from the earth, and water all the face of the ground, then 
Yahweh-Elohim formed the man of dust of the ground, 3 and 
blew into his nostrils breath of life, 4 and the man became a living 
being. And Yahweh-Elohim planted a garden 6 in Eden, east- 
ward; and there he put the man whom he had formed." (See 
EVE.) 

How greatly this simple and fragmentary tale of Creation 
differs from that in Gen. i. i-ii. 40 (see COSMOGONY) need hardly 
be mentioned. Certainly the priestly writer who produced the 
latter could not have said that God modelled the first man out 
of moistened clay, or have adopted the singular account of the 
formation of Eve in ii. 21-23. The latter story in particular (see 
EVE) shows us how childlike was the mind of the early men, 
whose God is not " wonderful in counsel " (Isa. xxviii. 29), and 
fails in his first attempt to relieve the loneliness of his favourite. 
For no beast however mighty, no bird however graceful, was a 
fit companion for God's masterpiece, and, apart from the serpent, 
the animals had no faculty of speech. All therefore that Adam 
could do, as they passed before him, was to name them, as a 
lord names his vassals. But here arises a difficulty. How came 
Adam by the requisite insight and power of observation? For 
as yet he had not snatched the perilous boon of wisdom. Clearly 
the Paradise story is not homogeneous. 

3. How the Animals were named. Some moderns, e.g. von 
Bohlen, Ewald, Driver (in Genesis, p. 55, but cp. p. 42), have 
found in ii. 19, 20 an early explanation of the origin of language. 
This is hardly right. The narrator assumes that Adam and Eve 
had an innate faculty of speech. 6 They spoke just as the birds 
sing, and their language was that of the race or people which 
descended from them. Most probably the object of the story 
is, not to answer any curious question (such as, how did human 
speech arise, or how came the animals by their names?), but to 
dehort its readers or hearers from the abominable vice referred 
to in Lev. xviii. 23.' There may have been stories in circulation 
like that of Ea-bani ( 8), and even such as those of the Skidi 
Pawnee, in which " people " marry animals, or become animals. 
Against these it is said (ver. 206) that " for Adam he found no 
helper (qualified) to match him." 

4. Three Riddles. Manifold are the problems suggested by the 
Eden-story (see EDEN; PARADISE). For instance, did the original 
story mention two trees, or only one, of which the fruit was 
taboo? In iii. 3(cp. w. 6, ii) only " the tree in the midst of 
the garden " is spoken of, but in ii. 9 and iii. 22 two trees are 
referred to, the fruit of both of which would appear to be taboo. 
To this we must add that in ii. 17 " the tree of the knowledge of 
good and evil " appears to have the qualities of a " tree of life," 
except indeed to Adam. This passage seems to give us the key 
to the mystery. There was only one tree whose fruit was for- 
bidden; it might be called either " the tree of life " or " the 
tree of knowledge," but certainly not " the tree of knowledge 
of good and evil." 8 The words " life " and " knowledge " 
( = " wisdom ") are practically equivalent; perfect knowledge 

1 The English Bible gives " the LORD GOD." This, however, does 
not adequately represent the Hebrew. 

3 See commentaries of Gunkel and Cheyne. As in v.io, the ocean- 
stream is meant. (See EDEN.) 

3 A widely spread mythic representation. (Cp. COSMOGONY.) 

4 See an illustration from Naville's Book of the Dead (Egyptian) in 
Jewish Cyclopaedia, {. I74a. 

1 Or park. (See PARADISE.) 

6 The later Jews, however, supposed that before the Fall the 
animals could speak, and that they had all one language (Jubilees, 
iii. 28; Jos. Antiquities, i. I, 4). 

7 Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus, referring to Dorsey, Traditions of 
the Skidi Pawnee, pp. 2, 80 ff. 

8 " Good and evil " may be a late marginal gloss. See further 
Ency. Bib. col. 3578, and the commentaries (Driver leaves the 
phrase); also Jastrow, Relig. of Bab. and Ass. p. 553; Sayce, 
Hibbert Lectures, p. 242. 



(so primitive man believed) would enable any being to escape 
death (an idea spiritualized in Prov. iii. 18). 

Next, which of the trees is the " tree of life "? Various sacred 
trees were known to the Semitic peoples, such as the fig-tree 
(cp. iii. 7), which sometimes appears, conventionalized, as a 
sacred tree. 9 But clearly the tree referred to was more than a 
" sacred tree "; it was a tree from whose fruit or juice, as culture 
advanced, some intoxicating drink was produced. The Gao- 
kerena of the Iranians 10 is exactly parallel. At the resurrection, 
those who drink of the life-giving juice of this plant will obtain 
" perfect welfare/' including deathlessness. It is not, however, 
either from Iran or from India that the Hebrew tree of life is 
derived, but from Arabia and Babylonia, where date-wine (cp. 
Enoch xxiv. 4) is the earliest intoxicant. Of this drink it may 
well have been said in primitive times (cp. Rig Veda, ix. 90. 5, 
of Soma) that it " cheers the heart of gods " (in the speech of 
the vine, Juclg. ix. 13). Later writers spoke of a " tree of 
mercy," distilling the " oil of life," "i.e. the oil that heals, but 
4 Esdr. ii. 12 (cp. viii. 53) speaks of the " tree of life," and Rev. 
xxii. 2 (virtually) of " trees of life," whose leaves have a healing 
virtue (cp. Ezek. xlvii. 12). The oil-tree should doubtless be 
grouped with the river of oil in later writings (see PARADISE). 
Originally it was enough that there should be one tree of life, i.e. 
that heightened and preserved vitality. 

A third enigma why no "fountain of life "? The references 
to such a fountain in Proverbs (xiii. 14, &c.) prove that the idea 
was familiar, 1 ' 2 and in Rev. xxii. i we are told that the river of 
Paradise was a " river of water of life " (see PARADISE). The 
serpent, too, in mythology is a regular symbol of water. Possibly 
the narrator, or redactor, desired to tone down the traces of 
mythology. Just as the Gathas (the ancient Zoroastrian hymns) 
omit Gaokerena, and the Hebrew prophets on the whole avoid 
mythological phrases, so this old Hebrew thinker prunes the 
primitive exuberance of the traditional myth. 

5. The Serpent. The keen-witted, fluently speaking serpent 
gives rise to fresh riddles. How comes it that Adam's ruin is 
effected by one of those very " beasts of the field " which he 
had but lately named (ii. 19), that in speech he is Adam's equal 
and in wisdom his superior? Is he a pale form of the Babylonian 
chaos-dragon, or of the serpent of Iranian mythology who sprang 
from heaven to earth to blight the " good creation "? It is true 
that the serpent of Eden has mythological affinities. In iii. 14, 
15, indeed, he is degraded into a mere typical snake, but iii. 1-5 
shows that he was not so originally. He is perhaps best regarded, 
in the light of Arabian folk-lore, as the manifestation of a demon 
residing in the tree with the magic fruit. 13 He may have been a 
prince among the demons, as the magic tree was a prince 
among the plants. Hence perhaps his strange boldness. For 
some unknown reason he was ill disposed towards Yahweh- 
Elohim (see iii. 36), which has suggested to some that he may be 
akin to the great enemy of Creation. To Adam and Eve, how- 
ever, he is not unkind. He bids them raise themselves in the 
scale of being by eating the forbidden fruit, which he declares 
to be not fatal to life but an opener of the eyes, and capable of 
equalizing men with gods (iii. 4, 5). To the phrase " ye shall 
be as gods " a later writer may have added " knowing good and 
evil," but " to be as gods " originally meant " to live the life 
of gods wise, powerful, happy." The serpent was in the main 
right, but there is one point which he did not mention, viz. that 
for any being to retain this intensified vitality the eating of the 

9 See illustration in Toy's Ezekiel (Sacred Books of the Old 
Testament), p. 182. 

"Gaokerena is'the mythic white haoma p\a.nt(Zendavesla,Vendidad, 
xx. 4; Bundahish, xxvii. 4). It is an idealization of the yellow 
haoma of the mountains which was used in sacrifices (Yasna, x. 
6-10). It corresponds to the soma plant (Asclepias acida) of the 
ancient Aryans of India. On the illustrative value of Gaokerena see 
Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, pp. 400-439. 

" See Life of Adam and Eve (apocryphal), 36, 40; Apocal. Mas. 

9; Secrets of Enoch, viii. 7, xxii. 8, 9. " Oil of life," in a Bab. hymn, 



'> Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, ed. 3, p. 526. 

" Cp. the Bab. myths of Adapa and of the Descent of Ishtar. 

18 W. R. Smith, Relig. of Semites, pp. 133, 442; Ency. Bib., 

"Serpent," 3.4- 



ADAM 



169 



fruit would have to be constantly renewed. Only thus could 
even the gods escape death. 1 

6. The Divine Command broken. The serpent has gone the 
right way to work; he comprehends woman's nature better 
than Adam comprehends that of the serpent. By her curiosity 
Eve is undone. She looks at the fruit; then she takes and eats; 
her husband does the same (iii. 6). The consequence (ver. 7) 
may seem to us rather slight: "they knew (became sensible) 
that they were naked, and sewed fig-leaves together, and made 
themselves girdles (aprons)." But the real meaning is not slight; 
the sexual distinction has been discovered, and a new sense 
of shame sends the human pair into the thickest shades, when 
Yahweh-Elohim walks abroad. The God of these primitive 
men is surprised: " Where art thou? " By degrees, he obtains 
a full confession not from the serpent, whose speech might 
not have been edifying, but from Adam and Eve. The sentences 
which he passes are decisive, not only for the human pair and the 
serpent, but for their respective races. Painful toil shall be the 
lot of man; subjection and pangs that of woman. 2 The serpent 
too (whose unique form preoccupied the early men) shall be 
humiliated, as a perpetual warning to man who is henceforth 
his enemy of the danger of reasoning on and disobeying the 
will of God. 

7. Versions of the Adam-story. Theologians in all ages have 
allegorized this strange narrative. 3 The serpent becomes the 
inner voice of temptation, and the saying in iii. 15 becomes an 
anticipation of the final victory of good over evil a view which 
probably arose in Jewish circles directly or indirectly affected 
by the Zoroastrian eschatology. But allegory was far from 
the thoughts of the original narrators. Another version of the 
Adam-story is given by Ezekiel (xxviii. 11-19), for underneath 
the king of Tyre (or perhaps Missor) 4 we can trace the majestic 
figure of the first man. This Adam, indeed, is not like the first 
man of Gen. ii.-iii., but more like the "bright angel" who is 
the first man in the Christian Book of Adam (i. 10; Malan, p. 12). 
He dwells on a glorious forest-mountain (cp. Ezekiel xxxi. 8, 
1 8), and is led away by pride to equalize himself with Elohim 
(cp. xxviii. 2, 2 Thess. ii. 4), and punished. And with this 
passage let us group Job xv. 7, 8, where Job is ironically de- 
scribed as vying with the first man, who was " brought forth 
before the hills" (cp. Prov. viii. 25) and " drew wisdom to him- 
self " by " hearkening in the council of Elohim." No reference is 
made in Job to this hero's fall. The omission, however, is re- 
paired, not only in Ezek. xxviii. 16, but also in Isa. xiv. 12-15, 
where the king, whose name is given in the English Bible as 
" Lucifer " (or margin, " day-star "), " son of the morning," and 
who, like the other king in Ezekiel, is threatened with death, is 
a copy of the mythical Adam. 

The two conceptions of the first man are widely different. The 
passages last referred to harmonize with the account given in 
Gen. i. 26, for " in our image " certainly suggests a being equal 
in brightness and in capacities to the angels a view which, as 
we know, became the favourite one in apocryphal and Haggadic 
descriptions of the Adam before the Fall. And though the 
priestly writer, to whom the first Creation-story in its present 
form is due, says nothing about a sacred mountain as the dwell- 
ing-place of the first-created man, yet this mountain belongs to 
the type of tradition which the passage, Gen. i. 26-28, imperfectly 
but truly represents. The glorious first man of Ezekiel, and the 
god-like first men of the cosmogony (cp. Ps. viii. 5) who held the 
regency of the earth, 6 require a dwelling-place as far above the 
common level of the earth as they are themselves above the child- 
like Adam of the second creation-narrative (Gen. ii.). On this 
sacred mountain, see COSMOGONY. 

1 Note the food and drink of the gods in the Babylonian Adapa 
(or Adamu?) myth. 

2 The mortality of man forms no part of the curse (cp. iii. 19, 
" dust thou art "). 

3 See H. Schultz, Alttest. Theologie, ed. 4, pp. 679 ff., 720; 
)river, Genesis, p. 44. 

4 See Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus. 

6 Cp. the " fair shepherd " Yirna of the Avesta (Vend, ii.), the first 
lan and the founder of civilization to the Iranians, though not like 
the Yama of the Vedas. 



8. Origin of the Adam-story. That the Hebrew story of the 
first man in both its forms is no mere recast of a Babylonian 
myth, is generally admitted. The holy mountain is no doubt 
Babylonian, and the plantations of sacred trees, one of which 
at least has magic virtue, can be paralleled from the monuments 
(see EDEN). But there is no complete parallel to the description 
of Paradise in Gen. ii., or to the story of the rib, or to that of 
the serpent. The first part of the latter has definite Arabian 
affinities; the second is as definitely Hebrew. We may now 
add that the insertion of iii. 7 (from " were opened") to 19 
a passage which has probably supplanted a more archaic and 
definitely mythological passage may well have been the conse- 
quence of the change in the conception of the first man referred 
to above. Still there are four Babylonian stories which may 
serve as partial illustrations of the Hebrew Adam-story. 

The first is contained in a fragment of a cosmogony in Berossus, 
now confirmed in the main by the sixth tablet of the Creation- 
epic. It represents the creation of man as due to one of the in- 
ferior gods who (at Bel's command) mingled with clay the blood 
which flowed from the severed head of Bel (see COSMOGONY). 
The three others are the myths of Adapa, 6 Ea-bani and Etana. 
As to Adapa, it may be mentioned here that Fossey has shown 
reason for holding that the true reading of the name is Adamu. 
It thus becomes plausible to hold that " Adam " in Gen. ii.-iii. 
was originally a proper name, and that it was derived from 
Babylonia. More probably, however, this is but an accidental 
coincidence; both adam and adamu may come from the same 
Semitic root meaning " to make." Certainly Adamu (if it is nc f 
more convenient to write " Adapa ") was not regarded as the 
progenitor of the human race, like the Hebrew Adam. He was, 
however, certainly a man one of those men who were not, of 
course, rival first-men, but were specially created and endowed. 
Adamu or Adapa, we are told, received from his divine father 
the gift of wisdom, 7 but not that of everlasting life. He had a 
chance, however, of obtaining the gift, or at least of eating the 
food and drinking the water which makes the gods ageless and 
immortal. But through a deceit practised upon him by his 
divine father Ea, he supposed the food and drink offered to him 
on a certain occasion by the gods to be " food of death," " water 
of death," just as Adam and Eve at first believed that the fruit 
of the magic tree would produce death (Gen. iii. 4, 5). 

The second story is that of Ea-bani, 8 who was formed by the 
goddess Arusu ( = the mother-goddess Ishtar) of a lump of clay 
(cp. Gen. ii. 7). This human creature, long-haired and sensual, 
was drawn away from a savage mode of life by a harlot, and 
Jastrow, followed by G. A. Barton, Worcester and Tennant, 
considers this to be parallel to the story which may underlie 
the account of the failure of the beasts, and the success of the 
woman Eve, as a " help-meet " for Adam. This, however, is 
most uncertain. 

The third is that of Etana. 9 Here the main points are that 
Etana is induced by an eagle to mount up to heaven, that he may 
win a boon from the kindly goddess Ishtar. Borne by the eagle, 
he soared high up into the ether, but became afraid. Downward 
the eagle and his burden fell, and in the epic of Gilgamesh we 
find Etana in the nether world. According to Jastrow, this 
attempted ascension was an offence against the gods, and his fall 
was his punishment. We are not told, however, that Etana 
had the impious desire of Ezekiel's first man, and if he fell, it was 
through his own timidity (contrast Ezek. xxviii. 16). But cer- 
tainly the myth does help us to imagine a story in which, for 
some sin against the gods, some favoured hero was hurled down 
from the divine abode, and such a story may some day be dis- 
covered. 

To these illustrations it is unsafe to add the scene on a cylinder 
preserved in the British Museum, representing two figures, a 

6 See Jastrow, Re!, of Bab. and Ass. pp. 548-554; R. J. Harper, 
in Academy, May 30, 1891; Jensen, Keilinschr. Bibliothek, vi. 93 ff. 

7 The wisdom was probably to qualify him as a ruler. It is too 
much to say with Hommel that " Adapa is the archetype of the 
Johannine Logos." 

8 Jastrow, op. cit. p. 474 ff. ; Jensen, Keil. Bibl. vi. 120 ff. 
' Jastrow, p. 522 f.; Jensen, vi. 112 ff. 



170 



ADAM 



man (with horns) and perhaps a woman, both clothed, on either 
side of a fruit-tree, towards which they stretch out their hands. 1 
For the meaning of this is extremely problematical. Some better 
monumental illustration may some day be found, for it is clear 
that the Babylonian sacred literature had much to tell of offences 
against the gods in the primeval age. 

The student may naturally ask, Whence did the Israelites (a 
comparatively young people) obtain the original myth ? It is 
most probable that they obtained it through the mediation either 
of the Canaanites or of the North Arabians. Babylonian influence, 
as is now well known, was strongly felt for many centuries in 
Canaan, and even the cuneiform script was in common use 
among the high officials of the country. When the Israelites 
entered Canaan, they would learn myths partly of Babylonian 
origin. North Arabian influence must also have been strong among 
the Israelites, at least while they sojourned in North Arabia. From 
the Kenites, at any rate, they may have received, not only a 
strong religious impulse, but a store of tales of the primitive 
age, and these stories too may have been partly influenced by 
Babylonian traditions. We must allow for stages of development 
both among the Israelites and among their tutors. 

9. Biblical References to the Adam-story. It is remarkable how 
little influence the Adam-story has had on the earlier parts of the 
Old Testament. The garden of Eden is referred to in Isa. li. 3, 
Ezek. xxxvi. 35, Joel ii. 5; cp. Ezek. xxviii. 13, xxxi. 8, 9, 16, 
18, all of which are later. And it is mostly in the " humanistic " 
book of Proverbs that we find allusions to the " tree of life " 
'Prov. iii. 18, xi. 30, xiii. 12, xv. 4), and to the " fountain of 
life " perhaps (see 4) an omitted portion of the old Paradise- 
story (Prov. x. n, xiii. 14, xiv. 27, xvi. 22), the only other 
Biblical reference (apart from Rev. xxi. 6) being in that exquisite 
passage, Ps. xxxvi. 9. One can hardly be surprised at . this. 
The Adam-story is plainly of foreign origin, and could not please 
the greater pre-exilic prophets. In late post-exilic times, how- 
ever, foreign tales, even if of mythical origin, naturally came 
into favour, especially as religious symbols. If even now philo- 
sophers and theologians cannot resist the temptation to allegorize, 
how inevitable was it that this course should be pursued by early 
Jewish theologians! 

10. Incipient Reflexion on the Story. Let us give some instances 
of this. In Enoch Ixix. 6 we find the story of Eve's temptation 
read in the light of that of the fallen angels (Gen. vi. i, 2,4) who 
conveyed an evil knowledge to men, and so subjected mankind 
to mortality. Evidently the writer fears culture. Elsewhere 
eating the fruit of the " tree of wisdom " is given as the cause of 
the expulsion of the human pair. In the Wisdom of Solomon 
(x. i, 2) we find another view. Here, as in Ezekiel, the first man 
is pre-eminently wise and strong; though he transgressed, wisdom 
rescued him, i.e. taught him repentance (cp. Life of Adam and 
Eve, 1-8). Elsewhere (ii. 24; cp. Jos. Ant. i. i, 4) death is 
traced to the envy of the devil, still implying an exalted view of 
Adam. It is held that, but for his sin, Adam would have been 
immortal. Clearly the Jewish mind is exposed to some fresh 
foreign influences. As in the Talmud and the Jerusalem Targum, 
the serpent has even become the devil, i.e. Satan. The period of 
syncretism has fully come, and Zoroastrianism in particular, 
more indirectly than directly, is exercising an attractive power 
upon the Jews. For all that, the theological thinking is char- 
acteristically Jewish, and such guidance as Jewish thinkers 
required was mainly given by Greek culture. On this subject 
see further EVE, 5. 

1 1 . Growth of a Theology. Let us now turn to the Apocalypses 
of Baruch and of Ezra (both about 70 A.D.). Different views 
are here expressed. According to one (xvii. 3, xix. 8, xxiii. 4) 
the sin of Adam was the cause of physical death; according to 
another (liv. 15, Ivi. 6), only of premature physical death, while 
according to a third (xlviii. 42, 43) it is spiritual death which is 
to be laid to his account. Of these three views, it is only the 

1 See Smith and Sayce, Chaldaean Genesis, p. 88 ; Delitzsch, Wo lag 
das Parodies ? p. 90; Babel and Bible, Eng. trans., p. 56, with note 
on pp. 114-118; Zimmern, Die Keilinschr. und das A.T., ed. 3, 
p. 529 ; Jeremias, Das Alte Test, im Lichte d. Allen Orient, pp. 104-106. 



second which harmonizes with Gen. ii.-iii. In one of the two 
passages which express it we are also told that each member of 
the human race is " the Adam of his own soul." Adam, like 
Satan in Ecclus. xxi. 27, has become a psychological symbol. 
Truly, a worthy development of the seed-thoughts of the original 
narrator, and (must we not add ?) entirely opposed to any 
doctrine of Original Sin. 

In 4 Ezra, too, we find no real endorsement of such a doctrine. 
It is true, not only physical death (iii. 7), but spiritual, is traced 
to the act of Adam (iii. 21, 22, iv. 30, 31, vii. 118-121). But 
two modifying facts should be noticed. One is that Adam is 
said to have had from the first a wicked heart, owing to which 
he fell, and his posterity likewise, into sin and guilt. All men 
have the same seed of evil in them that Adam had; they sin 
and die, like him. The other is that, according to iii. 7-12, 
there are at least two ages of the world. The first ended with 
the Flood, so that any consequences of Adam's sin were, strictly 
speaking, of limited duration. The second began with righteous 
Noah and his household, " of whom came all righteous men." 
It was the descendants of these who " began again to do un- 
godliness more than the former ones." Doubtless the problem 
of evil is most imperfectly treated, even from the writer's point 
of view. But it would be cruel to pick holes in a writer whose 
thinking, like that of St Paul, is coloured by emotion. 

At this point we might well make more than a passing reference 
to St Paul (Rom. v. 14; i Cor. xv. 22, 45, 47), whose doctrine of 
sin is evidently of mixed origin. But we cannot find space for 
this here. In compensation let it be mentioned that in Rev. 
xii. 9 (cp. xx. 2) the " great dragon," who persecuted the woman 
" clothed with the sun," is identified with " the old serpent, that 
is called the Devil and Satan." The identification is incorrect. 
But it may be noticed here that the phrase " the old serpent " 
sheds some light on the Pauline phrases " the first man Adam " 
and " the last Adam " (i Cor. xv. 45, 47). The underlying idea 
is that the new age (that of the new heaven and earth) will be 
opened by events parallel to those which opened the first age. 
As the old serpent deceived man of old, so shall it be again. 
And as at the head of the first age stands the first Adam, whose 
doings affected all his descendants to their harm, so at the head 
of the second shall stand the second Adam, whose actions shall 
be potent for good. There is reason to suspect that the expres- 
sion " the second Adam " is the coinage either of St Paul or of 
some one closely connected with him (as Prof. G. F. Moore has 
shown), for there is no prool that such terms as " the last," or 
" the second Adam," were generally current among the Jews. 

12. Jewish Legends. The parallelism between the first and 
second Adam in i Cor. xv. 45 is a parallelism of contrast. Jewish 
legends, however, suggest another sort of parallelism. The 
Haggadah gives the most extravagant descriptions of the glory 
of Adam before his fall. The most prominent idea is that being 
in the image of God the God whose essence is light he must 
have had a luminous body (like the angels). " I made thee of 
the light," says God in the Book of Adam and Eve (Malan, p. 16), 
" and I willed to bring children of light from thee." Similarly 
in Baba batra, 580, v/e read, " he was of extraordinary beauty 
and sun-like brightness." So glorious was he that even the 
angels were commanded through Michael to pay homage to 
Adam. Satan, disobeying, was cast out of heaven; hence his 
ill-will towards Adam (Life of Adam and Eve, 13-17; cp. 
Koran, xvii. 63, xx. 115, xxxviii. 74). 

It only remains to give due honour to one of the most beautiful 
of legends, that of the deliverance of Adam's spirit from the 
nether world by the Christ, the earliest form of which is a 
Christian interpolation iaApoc. Moses, 42 (cp. Malan, Adam and 
Eve, iv. 15, end). We may compare a partly parallel passage in 
37, where the agent is Michael, and notice that such legendary 
developments were equally popular among Jews and Christians. 

AUTHORITIES. On the apocryphal Books of Adam, see Hort, 
Diet, of Chr. Biography, i. 37 ff. In English we have Malan's trans- 
lation of the Ethiopic Book of Adam (1882), and Issaverden's 
translation of another Book of Adam from the Armenian (Venice, 
1901). In German, see Fuchs's translations in Kautzsch's Die 
Apokryphen, ii. 506 ff. For full bibliography see Schurer, Gesch. 






ADAM 



171 



des jiid. Volkes, ed. 3, iii. 288 f. On Jewish and Mahommedan 
iegends, see Jewish Cyclopaedia, " Adam." On the belief in the 
Fall, see Tennant, The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall, and Original 
Sin (1903). . (T. K. C.) 

ADAM OF BREMEN, historian and geographer, was probably 
born in Upper Saxony (at Meissen, according to one tradition) 
before 1043- He came to Bremen about 1067-1068, most likely 
on the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, and in the 24th year 
of the latter's episcopate (io43?-io72); in 1069 he appears as 
a canon of this cathedral and master of the cathedral school. 
Not long after this he visited the king of Denmark, Sweyn 
Estrithson, in Zealand; on the death of Adalbert, in 1072, he 
began the Historia Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae, which he finished 
about 1075. He died on the I2th of October of a year unknown, 
perhaps 1076. Adam's Historia known also as Gesta Hamma- 
burgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Bremensium praesulum Historia, 
and Historia ecclesiasticais a primary authority, not only for 
the great diocese of Hamburg-and-Bremen, but for all North 
German and Baltic lands (down to 1072), and for the Scandi- 
navian colonies as far as America. Here occurs the earliest 
mention of Vinland, and here are also references of great interest 
to Russia and Kiev, to the heathen Prussians, the Wends and 
other Slav races of the South Baltic coast, and to Finland, Thule 
or Iceland, Greenland and the Polar seas which Harald Hardrada 
and the nobles of Frisia had attempted to explore in Adam's 
own day (before 1066). Adam's account of North European 
trade at this time, and especially of the great markets of Jumne 
at the mouth of the Oder, of Birka in Sweden and of Ostrogard 
(Old Novgorod?) in Russia, is also of much value. His work, 
which places him among the first and best of German annalists, 
consists of four books or parts, and is compiled partly from 
written records and partly from oral information, the latter 
mainly gathered from experience or at the courts of Adalbert and 
Sweyn Estrithson. Of his minor informants he names several, 
such as Adelward, dean of Bremen, and William the Englishman, 
" bishop of Zealand," formerly chancellor of Canute the Great, 
and an intimate of Sweyn Estrithson. The fourth (perhaps the 
most important) book of Adam's History, variously entitled 
Libellus de Situ Daniae et reliquarum quae trans Daniam sunl 
regionum, Descriplio Insularum Aquilonis, &c., has often been 
considered, but wrongly, as a separate work. 

Ten MSS. exist, of which the chief are (1-2) Copenhagen, Royal 
Library, Old Royal Collection, No. 2296, of I2th to I3th cents.; 
No. 718, of isth cent.; (3) Leyden University, Voss. Lat. 123, of 
nth cent.; (4) Rome, Vatican Library, 2010; (5) Vienna, Hof- 
u. Staatsbibliothek, 413, of I3th cent.; (6) Wolfenbuttel, Ducal 
Library, Gud. 83, of 1 5th cent. 

There are 15 editions of the Historia, in whole or part; the first 
published at Copenhagen, 1579 (the first of the Libellus or Descriptio 
Ins. Aquil. appeared at Stockholm in 1615), the best at Hanover, 
1846 (by Lappenberg, in Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum ; reissued 
by L. Weiland, 1876), and at Paris, 1884 (in Migne's Patrologia 
Latina, cxlvi.). There are also three German versions, and one 
Danish; the best is by J. C. M. Laurent 1 (and W. Wattenbach) in 
Geschichtsschreiberd.deutsch, Vorzeit, part vii. (1850 and 1888). See 
also J. Asmussen, De fontibus Adami Bremensis, 1834; Lappenberg 
in Pertz, Archiv, vi, 770; Aug. Bernard, De Adamo Bremensi (Paris, 
1895); Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 514-548 (1901). 

ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288), French trouvere, 
was born at Arras. His patronymic is generally modernized 
to La Halle, and he was commonly known to his contemporaries 
as Adam d' Arras or Adam le Bossu, sometimes simply as Le 
Bossu d'Arras. His father, Henri de le Hale, was a well-known 
citizen of Arras, and Adam studied grammar, theology and 
music at the Cistercian abbey of Vaucelles, near Cambrai. Father 
and son had their share in the civil discords in Arras, and for a 
short time took refuge in Douai. Adam had been destined for 
the church, but renounced this intention, and married a certain 
Marie, who figures in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and 
jeux-partis. Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II., 
count of Artois; and then was attached to Charles of Anjou, 
brother of Charles IX., whose fortunes he followed in Egypt, 
Syria, Palestine and Italy. At the court of Charles, after he 
became king of Naples, he wrote his Jeu de Robin el Marion, the 
most famous of his works. He died between 1285 and 1288. 
Adam's shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which a 



transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is given 
in Coussemaker's edition. His Jeu de Robin et Marion is cited 
as the earliest French play with music on a secular subject. The 
pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the knight, and re- 
mained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based on an old 
chanson, Robin m'aime, Robin m'a. It consists of dialogue varied 
by refrains already current in popular song. The melodies to 
which these are set have the character of folk-music, and are 
more spontaneous and melodious than the more elaborate music 
of his songs and motets. A modern adaptation, by Julien 
Tiersot, was played at Arras by a company from the Paris Opera 
Comique on the occasion of a festival in 1896 in honour of Adam 
de le Hale. His other play, Lejeu Adan or Lejeu de la Feuillee 
(c. 1262), is a satirical drama in which he introduces himself, 
his father and the citizens of Arras with their peculiarities. 
His works include a Conge, or satirical farewell to the city of 
Arras, and an unfinished chanson de geste in honour of Charles of 
Anjou, Le roi de Sidle, begun in 1282; another short piece, Le 
jeu du pelerin, is sometimes attributed to him. 

The only MS. which contains the whole of Adam's work is the 
La Valliere MS. (No. 25,566) in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, 
dating from the latter half of the I3th century. Many of his pieces 
are also contained in Douce MS. 308, in the Bodleian Library, 
Oxford. His CEuvres 'completes (1872) were edited by E. de Cousse- 
maker. See also an article by Paulin Paris in the Histoire litteraire 
de la France (vol. xx. pp. 638-675) ; G. Raynaud, Recueil des motets 
franfais des XII' el XIII' siecles (1882); Canchons el Partures des 
. . . Adan delle Hale (Halle, 1900), a critical edition by Rudolf 
Berger; an edition of Adam's twojeux in Monmerque and Michel's 
Theatre franfais au moyen Age (1842); E. Langlois, Le jeu de Robin 
et Marion (1896), with a translation in modern French; A. Guesnon, 
La Satire a Arras au XIII' siecle (1900) ; and a full bibliography of 
works on the subject in No. 6 of the Bibliotheque de bibliographies 
critiques, by Henri Guy. 

ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741-1809), Scottish writer on Roman 
antiquities, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres, 
in Morayshire. From his earliest years he showed uncommon 
diligence and perseverance in classical studies, notwithstanding 
many difficulties and privations. In 1757 he went to Edinburgh, 
where he studied at the university. His reputation as a classical 
scholar secured him a post as assistant at Watson's Hospital 
and the headmastership in 1761. In 1764 he became private 
tutor to Mr Kincaid, afterwards Lord Provost of Edinburgh, by 
whose influence he was appointed (in 1768) to the rectorship of 
the High School on the retirement of Mr Matheson, whose sub- 
stitute he had been for some time before. From this period he 
devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office and to the 
preparation of his numerous works on classical literature. His 
popularity and success as a teacher are strikingly illustrated by 
the great increase in the number of his pupils, many of whom 
subsequently became distinguished men, among them being Sir 
Walter Scott, Lord Brougham and Jeffrey. He succeeded in 
introducing the study of Greek into the curriculum of the school, 
notwithstanding the opposition of the university headed by 
Principal Robertson. In 1780 the university of Edinburgh 
conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws. 
He died on the i8th of December 1809, after an illness of five 
days, during which he occasionally imagined himself still at 
work, his last words being, " It grows dark, boys, you may go." 
Dr Adam's first publication was his Principles of Latin and 
English Grammar (1772), which, being written in English in- 
stead of Latin, brought down a storm of abuse upon him. This 
was followed by his Roman Antiquities (1791), A Summary of 
Geography and History (1794) and a Compendious Dictionary of 
the Latin Tongue (1805). The MS. of a projected larger Latin 
dictionary, which he did not live to complete, lies in the library 
of the High School. His best work was his Roman Antiquities, 
which has passed through a large number of editions and received 
the unusual compliment of a German translation. 

See An A ccount of the Life and Character of A . A ., by A. Henderson 
(1810). 

ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853), British general, was 
the son of the Rt. Hon. W. Adam of Blair- Adam, lord-lieutenant 
of Kinross-shire. He was gazetted an ensign at the age of four- 
teen and was subsequently educated at Woolwich. He became 



172 



ADAM 



captain in 1 799, and served with the Coldstream Guards in Egypt 
(1801). In 1805, having purchased the intermediate steps of 
promotion, he obtained command of the 2ist Foot, with which 
regiment he served in the Mediterranean from 1805 to 1813, 
taking part in the battle of Maida in 1806. In 1813 he accom- 
panied the British corps sent to Catalonia, in which he com- 
manded a brigade. He fought a gallant action at Biar (April 
12, 1813), and on the following day won further distinction at 
Castalla. In the action of Ordal, on the I2th of September, 
Adam received two severe wounds. He returned to England to 
recover, and was made a major-general in 1814. At Waterloo, 
Adam's brigade, of which the 52nd under Colborne (see SEATON, 
LORD) formed part, shared with the Guards the honour of re- 
pulsing the Old Guard. For his services he was made a K.C.B., 
and received also Austrian and Russian orders. During the long 
peace which followed, Sir Frederick Adam was successively 
employed at Malta, in the Ionian Islands as lord high commis- 
sioner (1824-1831) and from 1832 to 1837 as governor of Madras. 
He became K.C.M.G. in 1820, G.C.M.G. four years later, lieu- 
tenant-general in 1830, a privy councillor in 1831, G.C.B. in 
1840, and full general in 1846. He died suddenly on the 1 7th of 
August 1853. 

ADAM, JULIETTE (1836- ), French writer, known also 
by her maiden name of Juliette Lamber, was born at Verberie 
(Oise) on the 4th of October 1836. She has given an account 
of her childhood, rendered unhappy by the dissensions of her 
parents, in Le roman de man enhance et de ma jeunesse (Eng. 
trans., London and New York, 1902). In 1852 she married a 
doctor named La Messine, and published in 1858 her Idi.es 
antiproudhoniennes sur I' amour, lafemme et le mariage, in defence 
of Daniel Stern (Mme. d'Agoult) and George Sand. On her 
husband's death she married in 1868 Antoine Edmond Adam 
(1816-1877), prefect of police in 1870, and subsequently life- 
senator; and she established a salon which was frequented by 
Gambetta and the other republican leaders against the conserva- 
tive reaction of the 'seventies. In the same interest she founded 
in 1879 the Nouvelle Revue, which she edited for the first eight 
years, and in the administration of which she retained a pre- 
ponderating influence until 1899. She wrote the notes on foreign 
politics, and was unremitting in her attacks on Bismarck and in 
her advocacy of a policy of revanche. Mme. Adam was also 
generally credited with the authorship of papers on various 
European capitals signed " Paul Vasili," which were in reality 
the work of various writers. The most famous of her numerous 
novels is Pa'ienne (1883). Her reminiscences, Mes premieres 
armes lilteraires et politiques (1904) and Mes sentiments et nos 
idees avant 1870 (1905), contain much interesting gossip about 
her distinguished contemporaries. 

ADAH, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759), French sculptor, 
known as Adam I'aine, was born in Nancy, son of Jacob Sigisbert 
Adam, a sculptor of little repute. Adam was thirty-seven when, 
on his election to the Academy, he exhibited at the Salon the 
model of the group of " Neptune and Amphitrite " for the centre 
of the fountain at Versailles, and thereafter found much em- 
ployment in the decoration of the royal residences. Among 
his more important works are " Nymphs and Tritons," " The 
Triumph of Neptune stilling the Waves," " Hunter with Lion 
in his Net," a relief for the chapel of St Adelaide, " The Seine 
and the Marne " in stone for St Cloud, " Hunting " and " Fish- 
ing," marble groups for Berlin, " Mars embraced by Love " and 
" The enthusiasm of Poetry." Adam restored with much ability 
the twelve statues (Lycomedes) found in the so-called Villa of 
Marius at Rome, and was elected a member of the Academy of 
St Luke. Several of his most important works were executed 
for Frederick the Great in Prussia. 

His brother, also a sculptor, NICOLAS SEBASTIEN ADAM (1705- 
1778), known as Adam le jeune, born in Nancy, worked under 
equal encouragement. His first work of importance was his 
" Prometheus chained, devoured by a Vulture," executed in 
plaster in 1738, and carved in marble in 1763 as his " reception 
piece " when he was elected into the Academy. He produced the 
reliefs of the " Birth " and " Agony of Christ " for the Oratory 



in Paris, but his chief works are the " Mausoleum of Cardinal 
de Fleury " and, in particular, the tomb of Catherine Opalinska, 
queen of Poland (wife of King Stanislaus), at Nancy. 

A third brother, FRANCOIS GASPARD BALTHASAH ADAM (1710- 
1761), born in Nancy, became the first sculptor of Frederick the 
Great and the head of the atelier of sculpture founded by that 
monarch, and passed the greater part of his life in Berlin. His 
chief works adorn the gardens and palaces of Sans Souci and 
Potsdam. 

The work of the brothers Adam was too ornate in style to win 
the approval of the school that immediately followed them, and 
found its principal opponents in Bouchardon and Pigalle. 

See Dussieux, Artistes frangais & I'etranger (Paris, 1855, 8vo); 
Archives de I' art fran^ais, documents, vol. i. pp. 117-180, chiefly for; 
works executed for the king of Prussia; Mariette, Abecedario; 
Emile de la Chavignerie and Auvray, Dictionnaire general des 
artistes de I'ecole fran^aise (Paris, 1882), mainly for works executed; 
Lady Dilke, French Architects and Sculptors of the iSth century 
(London, 410, 1900). 

ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622), German divine and biographer, 
was born at Grotkau in Silesia after 1550, and educated in the 
college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant. In 1 598 he went 
to Heidelberg, where he held various scholastic appointments. 
He wrote the biographies of a number of German scholars of 
the i6th century, mostly theologians, which were published in 
Heidelberg and Frankfort (5 vols., 1615-1620). He dealt with 
only twenty divines of other countries. All his divines are 
Protestants. His industry as a biographer is commended by 
P. Bayle, who acknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours; 
and his biographies, though they have faults, are still useful. 

ADAM, PAUL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris 
on the 7th of December 1862. He was prosecuted for his first 
novel, Chair molle (1885), but was acquitted. He collaborated 
with Jean Moreas in Le the chez Miranda (1886), and with Moreas 
and Gustave Kahn he founded the Symboliste, coming forward 
as one of the earliest defenders of symbolism. Among his numer- 
ous novels should be noted Le mystere des joules (2 vols., 1895), 
a study in Boulangism, Lettres de Malaisie (1897), a fantastic 
romance of imaginary future politics. In 1899 he began a novel- 
sequence, giving the history of the Napoleonic campaigns, the 
restoration and the government of Louis Philippe, comprising 
La force (1899), L'enfant d'Austerlitz (1901), La ruse (1902), and 
Ausoleil de Juillet (1903). In 1900 he wrote a Byzantine romance, 
Basile et Sophia. 

ADAM, ROBERT (1728-1792), British architect, the second 
son of William Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, and the most cele- 
brated of four brothers, John, Robert, James and William 
Adam, was born at Kirkcaldy in 1 7 28. For few famous men have 
we so little biographical material, and contemporary references 
to him are sparse. He certainly studied at the university of 
Edinburgh, and probably received his first instruction in archi- 
tecture from his father, who gave proofs of his own skill and 
taste in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (now demolished). His 
mother was the aunt of Dr W. Robertson, the first English 
historian of Charles V., and in 1750 we find Robert Adam living 
with her in Edinburgh, and making one of the brilliant literary 
coterie which adorned it at that period. Somewhere between 
1750 and 1754 he visited Italy, where he spent three years study- 
ing the remains of Roman architecture. There he was struck 
with the circumstance that practically nothing had survived of 
the Greek and Roman masterpieces except public buildings, and 
that the private palaces, which Vitruvius and Pliny esteemed so 
highly, had practically vanished. One example of such work, 
however, was extant in the ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalato, 
in Dalmatia, and this he visited in July 1757, taking with him 
the famous French architect and antiquary, C. L. Clerisseau, and 
two experienced draughtsmen, with whose assistance, after being 
arrested as a spy, he managed in five weeks to accumulate a 
sufficient number of measurements and careful plans and surveys 
to produce a restoration of the entire building in a fine work 
which he published in 1764, The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian, 
ffc. Considering the shortness of the time occupied and the 
obstacles placed in his way by the Venetian governor and the 



ADAM 



population of the place, the result was amazing. The influence 
of these studies was apparent directly and indirectly in much of 
his subsequent work, which, indeed, was in great measure founded 
upon them. 

After his return to England he seems to have come rapidly 
to the front, and in 1762 he was appointed sole architect to the 
king and the Board of Works. Six years later he resigned this 
office, in which he was succeeded by his brother James, who 
however, held the office jointly with another, and entered 
parliament as member for the county of Kinross. In 1768 he 
and his three brothers leased the ground fronting the Thames, 
upon which the Adelphi now stands, for 1200 on a ninety-nine 
years' lease, and having obtained, with the assistance of Lord 
Bute, the needful act of parliament, proceeded, in the teeth of 
public opposition, to erect the ambitious block of buildings 
which is imperishably associated with their name, indicating its 
joint origin by the title Adelphi, from the' Greek dSeX(oi, the 
Brothers. The site presented attractive possibilities. A steep 
hill led down Buckingham Street to the river-side, and the plan 
was to raise against it, upon a terrace formed of massive arches 
and vaults and facing the river, a dignified quarter of fine streets 
and stately buildings, suggestive of the Spalato ruins. In spite 
of many difficulties, pecuniary and otherwise (the undertaking 
was completed from the proceeds of a lottery), money was 
raised and the work pushed on; in five years the Adelphi 
terrace stood complete, and the fine houses were eagerly sought 
after by artists and men of letters. Splendid, however, as the 
terrace and its houses are, both in conception and execution, 
the underground work which upholds them is perhaps more 
remarkable still. The vast series of arched vaults has been 
described by a modern writer as a very town, which, during the 
years that they were open, formed subterranean streets leading 
to the river and its wharves. In many places the arches stand 
in double tiers. In time these " streets " obtained a bad name 
as the haunt of suspicious characters, and they have long been 
enclosed and let as cellars. Between 1773 and 1778 the brothers 
issued a fine series of folio engravings and descriptions of the 
designs for many of their most important works, which included 
several great public buildings and numberless large private 
houses; a fine volume was published in 1822. For the remain- 
ing years of Robert's life the practice of the firm was the most 
extensive in the country; his position was unquestioned, and 
when he died in 1792 he was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey 
almost as a matter of course. 

The art of Robert Adam was extraordinarily many-sided and 
prolific, and it is difficult to give a condensed appreciation of it. 
As an architect he was strongly under Roman and Italian in- 
fluences, and his style and aims were exotic rather than native. 
But this does not detract from their merit, nor need it diminish 
our estimate of his genius. It was, indeed, the most signal 
triumph of that genius that he was able so to mould and adapt 
classical models as to create a new manner of the highest charm 
and distinction. Out of simple curvilinear forms, of which he 
principally preferred the oval, he evolved combinations of extra- 
ordinary grace and variety, and these entered into every detail 
of his work. In his view the architect was intimately concerned 
with the furniture and the decorations of a building, as well as 
with its form and construction, and this view he carried rigor- 
ously into practice, and with astonishing success. Nothing was 
too small and unimportant for him summer-houses and dog- 
kennels came as readily to him as the vast fagades of a terrace 
in town or a great country house. But he never permitted 
minute details to obscure the main lines of a noble design. 
Whatever care he might have expended upon the flowing curves 
of a moulding or a decoration, it was strictly kept in its place; 
it contributed its share and no more to the total effect. He made 
a distinct step forward in giving shape to the idea of imparting 
the unity of a single imposing structure to a number of private 
houses grouped in a block which is so characteristic a feature 
of modern town building, and though at times he failed in the 
breadth of grasp needful to carry out such an idea on a large 
scale, he has left us some fine examples of what can be accom- 



plished in this direction. A delightful but theoretically unde- 
sirable characteristic of his work is the use of stucco. Upon it 
he moulded delicate forms in subtle and beautiful proportions. 
His " compo " was used so successfully that the patent was in- 
fringed: many of his moulds still exist and are in constant use. 
That most difficult feature, the column, he handled with enthusi- 
asm and perfect mastery; he studied and wrote of it with minute 
pains, while his practice showed his grasp of the subject by all 
avoidance of bare imitation of the classic masters who first 
brought it to perfection. His work might be classic in form, but 
it was independently developed by himself. It would be im- 
possible here to give a list of the innumerable works which he 
executed. In London, of course, the Adelphi stands pre-emi- 
nent; the screen and gate of the Admiralty and part of Fitzroy 
Square are by him, Portland Place, and much of the older 
portion of Finsbury Circus, besides whole streets of houses in 
the west end. There are the famous country houses of Lord 
Mansfield at Caen Wood, Highgate and Luton Hoo, and decora- 
tions and additions to many more. 

Robert Adam with, there is reason to suspect, some help from 
his brother James has left as deep and enduring a mark upon 
English furniture as upon English architecture. Down to his time 
carving was the dominant characteristic of the mobiliary art, but 
thenceforward the wood-worker declined in importance. French 
influence disposed Robert Adam to the development of painted 
furniture with inlays of beautiful exotic woods, and many of his 
designs, especially for sideboards, are extremely attractive, mainly 
by reason of their austere simplicity. Robert Adam was no doubt 
at first led to turn his thoughts towards furniture by his desire 
to see his light, delicate, graceful interiors, with their large sense 
of atmosphere and their refined and finished detail, filled with 
plenishings which fitted naturally into his scheme. His own 
taste developed as he went on, but he was usually extremely 
successful, and cabinetmakers are still reproducing his most 
effective designs. In his furniture he made lavish use of his 
favourite decorative motives wreaths and paterae, the honey- 
suckle, and that fan ornament which he used so constantly. 
Thus an Adam house is a unique product of English art. From 
facade to fire-irons, from the chimneys to the carpets, every- 
thing originated in the same order of ideas, and to this day an 
Adam drawing-room is to English what a Louis Seize room is 
to French art. In nothing were the Adams more successful 
than in mantelpieces and doors. The former, by reason of their 
simplicity and the readiness with which the " compo " orna- 
ments can be applied and painted, are still made in cheap forms 
in great number. The latter were most commonly executed in 
a rich mahogany and are now greatly sought after. The extent 
to which the brothers worked together is by no means clear 
indeed, there is an astonishing dearth of information regarding 
this remarkable family, and it is a reproach to English art litera- 
ture that no biography of Robert Adam has ever been published. 
John Adam succeeded to his father's practice as an architect in 
Edinburgh. James Adam studied in Rome, and eventually was 
closely associated with Robert; William is variously said to 
have been a banker and an architect. (J. P.-B.) 

ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839), British lawyer and politician, 
eldest son of John Adam of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, and 
nephew of the architect noticed above, was born on the 2nd of 
August 1751, studied at the universities of Edinburgh and 
Glasgow, and passed at the Scottish bar in 1773. Soon after- 
wards he removed to England, where he entered parliament 
in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the common law bar. He 
withdrew from parliament in 1795, entered it again in 1806 
as representative of the united counties of Clackmannan and 
Kinross, and continued a member, with some interruptions, till 
1811. He was a Whig and a supporter of the policy of Fox. 
At the English bar he obtained a very considerable practice. 
He was successively attorney and solicitor-general to the prince 
of Wales, one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren 
Hastings, and one of the counsel who defended the first Lord 
Melville when impeached. During his party's brief tenure of 
office in 1806 he was chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall, and 



174 



ADAMANT ADAMS 



was afterwards a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Kinross- 
shire. In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer in Scotland, 
and was chief commissioner of the newly established jury-court 
for the trial of civil causes, from 1815 to 1830, when it was merged 
in the permanent supreme tribunal. He died at Edinburgh on 
the iyth of February 1839. 

ADAMANT (from Gr. aBatias, untameable), the modern 
diamond (q.v.), but also a name given to any very hard substance. 
The Greek word is used by Homer as a personal epithet, and 
by Hesiod for the hard metal in armour, while Theophrastus 
applies it to the hardest crystal. By an etymological confusion 
with the Lat. adamare, to have an attraction for, it also came 
to be associated with the loadstone; but since the term 
was displaced by " diamond " it has had only a figurative and 
poetical use. 

ADAMAWA, a country of West Africa, which lies roughly 
between 6 and 11 N., and 11 and 15 E., about midway 
between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad. It is now divided 
between the British protectorate of Nigeria (which includes the 
chief town Yola, q.v.) and the German colony of Cameroon. This 
region is watered by the Benue, the chief affluent of the Niger, 
and its tributary the Faro. Another stream, the Yedseram, 
flows north-east to Lake Chad. The most fertile parts of the 
country are the plains near the Benue, about 800 ft. above the 
sea. South and east of the river the land rises to an elevation 
of 1600 ft., and is diversified by numerous hills and groups of 
mountains. These ranges contain remarkable rock formations, 
towers, battlements and pinnacles crowning the hills. Chief of 
these formations is a gigantic pillar some 450 ft. high and 150 ft. 
thick at the base. It stands on the summit of a high conical 
hill. Mount Alantika, about 25 miles south-south-east of Yola, 
rises from the plain, an isolated granite mass, to the height of 
6000 ft. The country, which is very fertile and is covered with 
luxuriant herbage, has many villages and a considerable popu- 
lation. Durra, ground-nuts, yams and cotton are the principal 
products, and the palm and banana abound. Elephants are 
numerous and ivory is exported. In the eastern part of the 
country the rhinoceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with 
crocodiles and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing 
some resemblance to the seal. 

Adamawa is named after a Fula Emir Adama, who in the early 
years of the igth century conquered the country. To the Hausa 
and Bornuese it was previously known as Fumbina (or South- 
land). The inhabitants are mainly pure negroes such as the 
Durra, Batta and Dekka, speaking different languages, and all 
fetish-worshippers. They are often of a very low type, and some 
of the tribes are cannibals. Slave-trading was still active among 
them in the early years of the 2oth century. The Fula (?..), 
who first came into the country about the isth century as nomad 
herdsmen, are found chiefly in the valleys, the pagan tribes 
holding the mountainous districts. There are also in the country 
numbers of Hausa, who are chiefly traders, as well as Arabs and 
Kanuri from Bornu. The emir of Yola, in the period of Fula lord- 
ship, claimed rights of suzerainty over the whole of Adamawa, 
but the country, since the subjection of the Fula (c. 1900), has 
consisted of a number of small states under the control of the 
British and Germans. Garua on the upper Benue, 65 m. east of 
Yola, is the headquarters of the German administration for the 
region and the chief trade centre in the north of Adamawa. Yoko 
is one of the principal towns in the south of the country, and in 
the centre is the important town of Ngaundere. After Heinrich 
Barth, who explored the country in 1851, the first traveller to 
penetrate Adamawa was the German, E. R. Flegel (1882). It 
has since been traversed by many expeditions, notably that of 
Baron von Uechtritz and Dr Siegfried Passarge (1893-1894). 

An interesting account of Adamawa, its peoples and history, is 
given by Heinrich Barth in his Travels in North and Central Africa 
(new edition, London, 1890), and later information is contained in 
S. Passarge's Adamawa (Berlin, 1895). (See also CAMEROON and 
NIGERIA, and the bibliographies there given.) 

ADAMITES, or ADAMIANS, a sect of heretics that flourished in 
North Africa in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Basing itself prob- 
ably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, this sect 



pretended that its members were re-established in Adam's state 
of original innocency. They accordingly rejected the form of 
marriage, which, they said, would never have existed but for sin, 
and lived in absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they 
did, their actions could be neither good nor bad. During the 
middle ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not 
itself exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren and 
Sisters of the Free Spirit. 

ADAMNAN, or ADOMNAN (c. 624-704), Irish saint and 
historian, was born at Raphoe, Donegal, Ireland, about the 
year 624. In 679 he was elected abbot of Hy or lona, being 
ninth in succession from the founder, St Columba. While on a 
mission to the court of King Aldfrith of Northumberland in 686, 
he was led to adopt the Roman rules with regard to the time for 
celebrating Easter and the tonsure, and on his return to lona he 
tried without success to enforce the change upon the monks. He 
died on the 23rd of September 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of 
St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of 
great interest and value. The best editions are those published 
by W. Reeves (1857, new edit. Edinburgh, 1874) and by J. T. 
Fowler (Oxford, 1894). Adamnan's other well-known work, 
De Locis Sanctis (edited by P. Geyer, Itinera Hierosolymilana 
saeculi,ui.-viii., &c., 1898; vol. 39 of Bienna Corpus Script. Ecc. 
Latin) was based, according to Bede, on information received 
from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from the Holy 
Land, was wrecked on the west coast of Britain, and was enter- 
tained for a time at lona. This was first published at Ingolstadt 
in 1619 by J. Gretser, who also defended Baronius' acceptance 
of Arculf's narrative against Casaubon. An English translation 
by G. J. R. Macpherson, Arculfus' Pilgrimage in the Holy Land, 
was published by the Pilgrim's Text Society (London, 1889). 

For full bibliography see U. Chevalier, Repert. des sources 
historiques (1903), p. 40. 

ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882), Scottish naturalist 
and palaeontologist, the second son of Francis Adams of Ban- 
chory, Aberdeen, was born on the 2ist of March 1827, and was 
educated to the medical profession. As surgeon in the Army 
Medical Department from 1848 to 1873, he utilized his oppor- 
tunities for the study of natural history in India and Kashmir, in 
Egypt, Malta, Gibraltar and Canada. His observations on the 
fossil vertebrata of the Maltese Islands led him eventually to give 
special study to fossil elephants, on which he became an ac- 
knowledged authority. In 1872 he was elected F.R.S. In 1873 
he was chosen professor of zoology in the Royal College of Science, 
Dublin, and in 1878 professor of natural history in Queen's 
College, Cork, a post which he held until the close of his life. He 
died at Queenstown on the 29th of July 1882. 

PUBLICATIONS. Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley andMalta 
(London, 1870); other works of travel; Monograph on the British 
Fossil Elephants (Palaeontographical Soc.), (London. 1877-1881). 

ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886), American diplo- 
matist, son of John Quincy Adams, and grandson of John 
Adams, was born in Boston on the i8th of August 1807. His 
father, having been appointed minister to Russia, took him in 
1809 to St Petersburg, where he acquired a perfect familiarity 
with French, learning it as his native tongue. After eight years 
spent in Russia and England, he attended the Boston Latin 
School for four years, and in '1825 graduated at Harvard. He 
lived two years in the executive mansion, Washington, during 
his father's presidential term, studying law and moving in a 
society where he met Webster, Clay, Jackson and Randolph. 
Returning to Boston, he devoted ten years to business and study, 
and wrote for the North American Review. He also undertook 
the management of his father's pecuniary affairs, and actively 
supported him in his contest in the House of Representatives 
for the right of petition and the anti-slavery cause. In 1835 he 
wrote an effective and widely read political pamphlet, entitled, 
after Edmund Burke's more famous work, An Appeal from the 
New to the Old Whigs. He was a member of the Massachusetts 
general court from 1840 to 1845, sitting for three years in the 
House of Representatives and for two years in the Senate; 
and in 1846-1848 he edited a party journal, the Boston Whig. 
In 1848 he was prominent in politics as a " Conscience Whig," 



ADAMS 






presiding over the Buffalo Convention which formed the Free 
Soil party and nominated Martin Van Buren for president and 
himself for vice-president. He was a Republican member of 
the Thirty-Sixth Congress, which assembled on the sth of 
December 1859, and during the second session, from the 3rd of 
December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861, he represented Massa- 
chusetts in the Congressional Committee of Thirty-three at the 
time of the secession of seven of the Southern states. His selec- 
tion by the chairman of this committee, Thomas Corwin, to 
present to the full committee certain propositions agreed upon 
by two-thirds of the Republican members, and his calm and able 
speech of the 3ist of January 1861 in the House, served to make 
him conspicuous before congress and the country. Together 
with William H. Seward, he stood for the Republican policy of 
concession; and, while he was criticized severely and charged 
with inconsistency in view of his record as a "Conscience Whig," 
he was of the same mind as President Lincoln, willing to con- 
cede non-essentials, but holding rigidly to the principle, properly 
understood, that there must be no extension of slavery. He 
believed that as the Republicans were the victors they ought to 
show a spirit of conciliation, and that the policy of righteousness 
was likewise one of expediency, since it would have for its result 
the holding of the border slave states with the North until the 
4th of March, when the Republicans could take possession of the 
government at Washington. With the incoming of the new 
administration Secretary Seward secured for Adams the appoint- 
ment of minister to Great Britain. So much sympathy was 
shown in England for the South that his path was beset with 
difficulties ; but his mission was to prevent the interference of 
Great Britain in the struggle; and while the work of Lincoln, 
Seward and Sumner, and the cause of emancipation, tended 
to this end, the American minister was insistent and unyielding, 
and knew how to present his case forcibly and with dignity. 
He laboured with energy and discretion to prevent the sailing of 
the "Alabama"; and, when unsuccessful in this, he persistently 
urged upon the British government its responsibility for the 
destruction of American merchant vessels by the privateer. In 
his own diary he shows that underneath his calm exterior 
were serious trouble and keen anxiety; and, in fact, the strain 
which he underwent during the .Civil War made itself felt in later 
years. Adams was instrumental in getting Lord John Russell 
to stop the "Alexandra," and it was his industry and pertinacity 
in argument and remonstrance that induced Russell to order 
the detention in September 1863 of the two ironclad rams in- 
tended for the Confederate States. Adams remained in Eng- 
land until May 1868. His last important work was as a member, 
in 1871-1872, of the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva which dis- 
posed of the "Alabama" claims. His knowledge of the subject 
and his fairness of mind enabled him to render his country and 
the cause of international arbitration valuable service. He died 
at Boston on the 2ist of November 1886. 

He edited the works of John Adams (10 vols., 1850-1856), and the 
Memoirs oj John Quincy Adams (lavols., 1874-1877). See the excellent 
biography (Boston, 1900), in the "American Statesmen Series," 
by his son, Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (J. F. R.) 

ADAMS, HENRY (1838- ), American historian, son of 
Charles Francis Adams and grandson of John Quincy Adams, was 
born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the i6th of February 1838. 
He graduated at Harvard in 1858, and from 1861 to 1868 was 
private secretary to his father. From 1870 to 1877 he was 
assistant professor of history at Harvard and from 1870 to 1876 
was editor of the North American Review. He is considered to 
have been the first (in 1874-1876) to conduct historical seminary 
work in the United States. His great work is his History of the 
United States (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889-1891), which is incom- 
parably the best work yet published dealing with the administra- 
tions of Presidents Jefferson and Madison. It is particularly 
notable for its account of the diplomatic relations of the United 
States during this period, and for its essential impartiality. 
Adams also published : Life of Albert Gallalin (1879), John 
Randolph (1882) in the "American Statesmen Series," and 
Historical Essays (1891) ; besides editing Documents Relating 



to New England Federalism (1877), and the Writings of Albert 
Gallalin (3 volumes, 1879). In collaboration with his elder 
brother Charles Francis Adams, Jr., he published Chapters oj 
Erie and Other Essays (1871), and, with H. C. Lodge, Ernest 
Young and J. L. Laughlin, Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (1876). 

His elder brother, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1833-1894), a 
graduate of Harvard (1853), practised law, and was a Demo- 
cratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general 
court. In 1872 he was nominated for vice-president by the 
Democratic faction that refused to support Horace Greeley. 

Another brother, CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, Jr. (1835- ), 
born in Boston on the 27th of May 1835, graduated at Harvard 
in 1856, and served on the Union side in the Civil War, 
receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier-general in the regular 
army. He was president of the Union Pacific railroad from 
1884 to 1890, having previously become widely known as an 
authority on the management of railways. In 1900-1901 he 
was president of the American Historical Association. Among 
his writings are : Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878); 
Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892) ; a biography 
of his father, Charles Francis Adams (1900) ; Lee at Appomattox 
and Other Papers (1902) ; Theodore Lyman and Robert Charles 
Winthrop, Jr., Two Memoirs (1906) ; and Three Phi Beta Kappa 
Addresses (1907). . 

Another brother, BROOKS ADAMS (1848- ), born in Quincy, 
Massachusetts, on the 24th of June 1848, graduated at Harvard 
in 1870, and until 1881 practised law. His writings include : 
The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887) ; The Law of Civiliza- 
tion and Decay (1895) ; America's Economic Supremacy (1900) ; 
and The New Empire (1902). 

ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852- ), American economist, 
was born at Davenport, Iowa, on the 3ist of December 1852. 
He was educated at Iowa College and Johns Hopkins University, 
of which latter he was fellow and lecturer (1880-1882). He was 
afterwards a lecturer in Cornell University, and in 1887 became 
professor of political economy and finance in the university of 
Michigan. He also became statistician to the Interstate Com- 
merce Committee and was in charge of the transportation 
department in the 1900 census. His principal works are The 
State in Relation to Industrial Action (1887); Taxation in the 
United States, 1787 to 1816 (1884) ; Public Debts (1887) ; The 
Science of Finance (1888) ; Economics and Jurisprudence (1897). 

ADAMS, HERBERT (1858- ), American sculptor, was 
born at West Concord, Vermont, on the 28th of January 1858. 
He was educated at the Worcester (Massachusetts) Institute of 
Technology, and at the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and in 
1885-1890 he was a pupil of Antonin Mercie in Paris. In 1890- 
1898 he was an instructor in the art school of Pratt Institute, 
Brooklyn, New York. In 1906 he was elected vice-president 
of the National Academy of Design, New York. He experi- 
mented successfully with some polychrome busts and tinted 
marbles, notably in the "Rabbi's Daughter" and a portrait of 
Miss Julia Marlowe, the actress ; and he is at his best in his 
portrait busts of women, the best example being the study, 
completed in 1887, of Miss A. V. Pond, whom he afterwards 
married. Among his other productions are a fountain for Fitch- 
burg, Massachusetts (1888) ; a number of works for the Con- 
gressional Library, Washington, including the bronze doors 
("Writing ") begun by Olin Warner, and the statue of Professor 
Joseph Henry ; memorial tablets for the Boston State House ; 
a memorial to Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Mass.; 
statues of Richard Smith, the type-founder, in Philadelphia, 
and of William Ellery Channing, in Boston (1902) ; and the 
Vanderbilt memorial bronze doors for St Bartholomew's Church, 
New York. 

ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American his- 
torian and educationalist, was born at Shutesbury (near 
Amherst), Massachusetts, on the i6th of April 1850. He 
graduated at Amherst, at the head of his class, in 1872 ; and 
between 1873 and 1876 he studied political science, history and 
economics at Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, re- 
ceiving the degree of Ph.D.at Heidelberg in 1876, with the highest 



ADAMS 



honours (summa cum laude). From 1876 almost until his death 
he was connected with the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 
Maryland, being in turn a fellow, an associate in history (1878- 
1883), an associate professor (1883-1891) and after 1891 pro- 
fessor of American and institutional history. In addition he 
was lecturer on history in Smith College, Northampton, Massa- 
chusetts, in 1878-1881, and for many years took an active part 
in Chautauqua work. In 1884, also, he was one of the founders of 
the American Historical Association, of which he was secretary 
until 1900. In 1882 he founded the " Johns Hopkins University 
Studies in Historical and Political Science," and at the time of his 
death some forty volumes had been issued under his editorship. 
After 1887 he also edited for the United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion the series of monographs entitled " Contributions to Ameri- 
can Educational History," he himself preparing the College of 
William and Mary ( 1887) , and Thomas Jefferson and the University 
of Virginia (1888). It was as a teacher, however, that Adams 
rendered his most valuable services, and many American his- 
torical scholars owe their training and to a considerable extent 
their enthusiasm to him. He died at Amherst, Massachusetts, 
on the 3<Dth of July 1901. 

In addition to the monographs mentioned above, he 
published: Maryland's Influence in Founding a National 
Commonwealth (1877); Methods, of Historical Study (1884); 
Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States 
(1885); and the Life and Writings of Jared Sparks (2 vols., 
Boston, 1893), his most important work. 

See Herbert B. Adams: Tributes of Friends (Baltimore, 1902), 
extra volume (xxiii.) of "Studies in Historical and Political Science." 

ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United 
States of America, was born on the 3Oth of October 1735 in what 
is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts. His father, a farmer, 
also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent from 
Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, to 
Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston 
Adams. Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 17 55, 
and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in the 
office of Rufus Putnam. In 1758 he was admitted to the bar. 
From an early age he developed the habit of writing descriptions 
of events and impressions of men. The earliest of these is his 
report of the argument of James Otis in the- superior court of 
Massachusetts as to the constitutionality of writs of assistance. 
This was in 1761, and the argument inspired him with zeal for 
the cause of the American colonies. Years afterwards, when an 
old man, Adams undertook to write out at length his recollections 
of this scene; it is instructive to compare the two accounts. 
John Adams had none of the qualities of popular leadership 
which were so marked a characteristic of his second cousin, 
Samuel Adams; it was rather as a constitutional lawyer that he 
influenced the course of events. He was impetuous, intense 
and often vehement, unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his 
whole soul to the cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his 
pride of opinion and his inborn contentiousness were serious 
handicaps to him in his political career. These qualities were 
particularly manifested at a later period as, for example, during 
his term as president. He first made his influence widely felt 
and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs 
during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765. 
In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the 
town of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts 
legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in draw- 
ing up instructions to their representatives; in August 1765 he 
contributed anonymously four notable articles to the Boston 
Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 as A Disser- 
tation on the Canon and Feudal Law), in which he argued that 
the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was a part of 
the never-ending struggle between individualism and corporate 
authority; and in December 1765 he delivered^, speech before 
the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp 
Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being without 
representation in parliament, had not assented to it. In 1768 
he removed to Boston. Two years later, with that degree of 



moral courage which was one of his distinguishing characteristics, 
as it has been of his descendants, he, aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr., 
defended the British soldiers who were arrested after the "Boston 
Massacre," charged with causing the death of four persons, in- 
habitants of the colony. The trial resulted in an acquittal of the 
officer who commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers; 
but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. These 
claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the hand and 
released. Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in taking the 
unpopular side in this case met with its just reward in the follow- 
ing year, in the shape of his election to the Massachusetts House 
of Representatives by a vote of 418 to 118. 

John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from 
1774 to 1778. In June 1775, withaview to promoting the union 
of the colonies, lie seconded the nomination of Washington as 
commander-in-chief of the army. His influence in congress was 
great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a 
separation of the colonies from Great Britain. On the 7th of 
June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by 
Richard Henry Lee (q.v.) that " these colonies are, and of a right 
ought to be, free and independent states," and no man 
championed these resolutions (adopted on the 2nd of July) so 
eloquently and effectively before the congress. On the 8th of 
June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, Franklin, 
Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of Independence; 
and although that document was by the request of the committee 
written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John Adams who occupied 
the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. Before this 
question had been disposed of, Adams was placed at the head of 
the Board of War and Ordnance, and he also served on many 
other important committees. 

In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede Silas 
Deane in the American commission there. But just as he em- 
barked that commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance, 
and soon after his arrival he advised that the number of com- 
missioners be reduced to one. His advice was followed and he 
returned home in time to be elected a member of the convention 
which framed the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the 
organic law of that commonwealth. With James Bowdoin and 
Samuel Adams, he formed a sub-committee which drew up the 
first draft of that instrument, and most of it probably came 
from John Adams's pen. Before this work had been completed 
he was again sent to Europe, having ben chosen on the 27th of 
September 1779 as minister plenipotentiary for negotiating a 
treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain. 
Conditions were not then favourable for peace, however; the 
French government, moreover, did not approve of the choice, 
inasmuch as Adams was not sufficiently pliant and tractable 
and was from the first suspicious of Vergennes; and subse- 
quently Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and 
Henry Laurens were appointed to co-operate with Adams. 
Jefferson, however, did not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took 
little part in the negotiations. This left the management of 
the business to the other three. Jay and Adams distrusted the 
good faith of the French government. Outvoting Franklin, 
they decided to break their instructions, which required them 
to ' make the most candid confidential communications on all 
subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of France; 
to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce 
without their knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to 
govern yourself by their advice and opinion "; and, instead, 
they dealt directly with the British commissioners, without con- 
sulting the French ministers. Throughout the negotiations 
Adams was especially determined that the right of the United 
States to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be 
recognized. Political conditions in Great Britain, at the moment, 
made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity with the British 
ministry, and eventually the American negotiators were able to 
secure a peculiarly favourable treaty. This preliminary treaty 
was signed on the 3oth of November 1782. Before these 
negotiations began, Adams had spent some time in the Nether- 
lands. In July 1780 he had been authorized to execute the 



ADAMS 



177 



duties previously assigned to Henry Laurens, and at the Hague 
was eminently successful, securing there recognition of the 
United States as an independent government (April 19, 1782), 
and negotiating both a loan and, in October 1782, a treaty of 
amity and commerce, the first of such treaties between the 
United States and foreign powers after that of February 1778 
with France. 

In 1785 John Adams was appointed the first of a long line 
of able and distinguished American ministers to the court of 
St James's. When he was presented to his former sovereign, 
George III. intimated that he was aware of Mr Adams's lack of 
confidence in the French government. Replying, Mr Adams ad- 
mitted it, closing with the outspoken sentiment: " I must avow 
to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own 
country " a phrase which must have jarred upon the monarch's 
sensibilities. While in London Adams published a work entitled 
A Defence of the Constitution of Government of the United States 
(1787). In this work he ably combated the views of Turgot 
and other European writers as to the viciousness of the frame- 
work of the state governments. Unfortunately, in so doing, 
he used phrases savouring of aristocracy which offended 'many of 
his countrymen, as in the sentence in which he suggested that 
" the rich, the well-born and the able " should be set apart from 
other men in a senate. Partly for this reason, while Washing- 
ton had the vote of every elector in the first presidential 
election of 1789, Adams received only thirty-four out of sixty- 
nine. As this was the second largest number he was declared 
vice-president, but he began his eight years in that office (1780- 
1797) with a sense of grievance and of suspicion of .many of the 
leading men. Differences of opinion with regard to the policies 
to be pursued by the new government gradually led to the forma- 
tion of two well-defined political groups the Federalists and 
the Democratic-Republicans and Adams became recognized 
as one of the leaders, second only to Alexander Hamilton, of the 
former. 

In 1796, on the refusal of Washington to accept another 
election, Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jeffer- 
son; though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had 
asked that an equal vote should be cast for Adams arid Thomas 
Pinckney, the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order 
that Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded 
altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney should 
in fact receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in accordance 
with the system then obtaining, be elected president, though he 
was intended for the second place on the Federalist ticket. 
Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1797-1801) were marked 
by a succession of intrigues which embittered all his later life; 
they were marked, also, by events, such as the passage of the 
Alien and Sedition Acts, which brought discredit on the Federal- 
ist party. Moreover, factional strife broke out within the party 
itself; Adams and Hamilton became alienated, and members 
of Adams's own cabinet virtually looked to Hamilton rather 
than to the president as their political chief. The United States 
was, at this time, drawn into the vortex of European complica- 
tions, and Adams, instead of taking advantage of the militant 
spirit which was aroused, patriotically devoted himself to 
securing peace with France, much against the wishes of Hamilton 
and of Hamilton's adherents in the cabinet. In 1800, Adams 
was again the Federalist candidate for the presidency, but the 
distrust of him in his own party, the popular disapproval of the 
Alien and Sedition Acts and the popularity of his opponent, 
Thomas Jefferson, combined to cause his defeat. He then re- 
tired into private life. On the 4th of July 1826, on the fiftieth 
anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, 
he died at Quincy. Jefferson died on the same day. In 1764 
Adams had married Miss Abigail Smith (1744-1818), the 
daughter of a Congregational minister at Weymouth, Massa- 
chusetts. She was a woman of much ability, and her letters, 
written in an excellent English style, are of great value to 
students of the period in which she lived. President John 
Quincy Adams was their eldest son. 

AUTHORITIES. C. F. Adams, The Works of John Adams, with 



Life (10 vols., Boston, 1850-1856) ; John and Abigail Adams, Familiar 
Letters during the Revolution (Boston, 1875); J. T. Morse, John 
Adams (Boston, 1885: later edition, 1899), in the " American States- 
men Series"; and Mcllen Chamberlain, John Adams, the States- 
man of the Revolution; with other Essays and Addresses (Boston, 
1898). (E. CH.) 

ADAMS, JOHN COUCH (1819-1892), British astronomer, was 
born at Lidcot farmhouse, Laneast, Cornwall, on the 5th of June 
1819. His father, Thomas Adams, was a tenant farmer; his 
mother, Tabitha Knill Grylls, inherited a small estate at Bad- 
harlick. From the village school at Laneast he went, at the age 
of twelve, to Devonport, where his mother's cousin, the Rev. 
John Couch Grylls, kept a private school. His promise as a 
mathematician induced his parents to send him to the university 
of Cambridge, and in October 1839 he entered as a sizar at St 
John's College. He graduated B.A. in 1843 as the senior wrangler 
and first Smith's prizeman of his year. While still an under- 
graduate he happened to read of certain unexplained irregularities 
in the motion of the planet Uranus, and determined to investi- 
gate them as soon as possible, with a view to ascertaining whether 
they might not be due to the action of a remote undiscovered 
planet. Elected fellow of his college in 1843, he at once proceeded 
to attack the novel problem. It was this: from the observed 
perturbations of a known planet to deduce by calculation, assum- 
ing only Newton's law of gravitation, the mass and orbit of an 
unknown disturbing body. By September 1845 ne obtained his 
first solution, and handed to Professor Challis, the director of 
the Cambridge Observatory, a paper giving the elements of what 
he described as " the new planet." 

On the 2ist of October 1845 he left at Greenwich Observatory, 
for the information of Sir George Airy, the astronomer-royal, a 
similar document, still preserved among the archives. A fort- 
night afterwards Airy wrote asking for information about a point 
in the solution. Adams, who thought the query unessential, did 
not reply, and Airy for some months took no steps to verify 
by telescopic search the results of the young mathematician's 
investigation. Meanwhile, Leverrier, on the loth of November 
1845, presented to the French Academy a memoir on Uranus, 
showing that the existing theory failed to account for its motion. 
Unaware of Adams's work, he attempted a like inquiry, and on 
the ist of June 1846, in a second memoir, gave the position, but 
not the mass or orbit, of the disturbing body whose existence 
was presumed. The longitude he assigned differed by only i 
from that predicted by Adams in the document which Airy 
possessed. The latter was struck by the coincidence, and men- 
tioned it to the Board of Visitors of the Observatory, James 
Challis and Sir John Herschel being present. Herschel, at the 
ensuing meeting of the British Association early in September, 
ventured accordingly to predict that a new planet would shortly 
be discovered. Meanwhile Airy had in July suggested to Challis 
that the planet should be sought for with the Cambridge equa- 
torial. The search was begun by a laborious method at the end 
of the month. On the 4th and i2th of August, as afterwards 
appeared, the planet was actually observed; but owing to the 
want of a proper star-map it was not then recognized as planet- 
ary. Leverrier, still ignorant of these occurrences, presented 
on the 3ist of August 1846 a third memoir, giving for the first 
time the mass and orbit of the new body. He communicated 
his results by letter to Dr Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, who 
at once examined the suggested region of the heavens. On the 
23rd of September he detected near the predicted place a small 
star unrecorded in the map, and next evening found that it had 
a proper motion. No doubt remained that " Leverrier's planet " 
had been discovered. On the announcement of the fact, Herschel 
and Challis made known that Adams had already calculated 
the planet's elements and position. Airy then at length published 
an account of the circumstances, and Adams's memoir was 
printed as an appendix to the Nautical Almanac. A keen contro- 
versy arose in France and England as to the merits of the two 
astronomers. In the latter country much surprise was expressed 
at the apathy of Airy; in France the claims made for an unknown 
Englishman were resented as detracting from the credit due to 
Leverrier's achievement. As the indisputable facts became 



i 7 8 



ADAMS 



known, the world recognized that the two astronomers had in- 
dependently solved the problem of Uranus, and ascribed to each 
equal glory. The new planet, at first called Leverrier by F. Arago, 
received by general consent the neutral name of Neptune. Its 
mathematical prediction was not only an unsurpassed intellectual 
feat; it showed also that Newton's law of gravitation, which Airy 
had almost called in question, prevailed even to the utmost 
bounds of the solar system. 

The honour of knighthood was offered to Adams when Queen 
Victoria visited Cambridge in 1847; but then, as on a subsequent 
occasion, his modesty led him to decline it. The Royal Society 
awarded him its Copley medal in 1848. In the same year the 
members of St John's College commemorated his success by 
founding in the university an Adams prize, to be given biennially 
for the best treatise on a mathematical subject. In 1851 he 
became president of the Royal Astronomical Society. His lay 
fellowship at St John's College came to an end in 1852, and the 
existing statutes did not permit of his re-election. But Pembroke 
College, which possessed greater freedom, elected him in the 
following year to a lay fellowship, and this he held for the rest 
of his life. In 1858 he became professor of mathematics 
at St Andrews, but lectured only for a session, when he 
vacated the chair for the Lowndean professorship of astronomy 
and geometry at Cambridge. Two years later he succeeded 
Challis as director of the Observatory, where he resided until 
his death. 

Although Adams's researches on Neptune were those which 
attracted widest notice, the work he subsequently performed 
in relation to gravitational astronomy and terrestrial magnetism 
was not less remarkable. Several of his most striking contribu- 
tions to knowledge originated .in the discovery of errors or 
fallacies in the work of his great predecessors in astronomy. 
Thus in 1852 he published new and accurate tables of the moon's 
parallax, which superseded J. K. Burckhardt's, and supplied 
corrections to the theories of M. C. T. Damoiseau, G. A. A. 
Plana and P. G. D. de Pontecoulant. In the following year his 
memoir on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion 
partially invalidated Laplace's famous explanation, which had 
held its place unchallenged for sixty years. At first, Leverrier, 
Plana and other foreign astronomers controverted Adams's 
result; but its soundness was ultimately established, and its 
fundamental importance to this branch of celestial theory has 
only developed further with time. For these researches the 
Royal Astronomical Society awarded him its gold medal in 1866. 
The great meteor shower of 1866 turned his attention to the 
Leonids, whose probable path and period had already been 
discussed by Professor H. A. Newton. Using a powerful and 
elaborate analysis, Adams ascertained that this cluster of 
meteors, which belongs to the solar system, traverses an elon- 
gated ellipse in 335 years, and is subject to definite perturbations 
from the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. These 
results were published in 1867. Ten years later, when Mr. G. W. 
Hill of Washington expounded a new and beautiful method for 
dealing with the problem of the lunar motions, Adams briefly 
announced his own unpublished work in the same field, which, 
following a parallel course had confirmed and supplemented 
Hill's. In 1874-1876 he was president of the Royal Astronomical 
Society for the second time, when it fell to him to present the 
gold medal of the year to Leverrier. The determination of the 
constants in Gauss's theory of terrestrial magnetism occupied 
him at intervals for over forty years. The calculations involved 
great labour, and were not published during his lifetime. They 
were edited by his brother, Professor W. Grylls Adams, and 
appear in the second volume of the collected Scientific Papers. 
Numerical computation of this kind might almost be described 
as his pastime. The value of the constant known as Euler's, 
and the Bernoullian numbers up to the 6and, he worked out to 
an unimagined degree of accuracy. For Newton and his writings 
he had a boundless admiration; many of his papers, indeed, 
bear the cast of Newton's thought. He laboured for many years 
at the task of arranging and cataloguing the great collection of 
Newton's unpublished mathematical writings, presented in 1872 



to the university by Lord Portsmouth, and wrote the account 
of them issued in a volume by the University Press in 1888. 
The post of astronomer-royal was offered him in 1881, but he 
preferred to pursue his peaceful course of teaching and research 
in Cambridge. He was British delegate to the International 
Prime Meridian Conference at Washington in 1884, when he 
also attended the meetings of the British Association at Montreal 
and of the American Association at Philadelphia. Five years 
later his health gave way, and after a long illness he died at the 
Cambridge Observatory on the 2ist of January 1892, and was 
buried in St Giles's cemetery, near his home. He married in 
1863 Miss Eliza Bruce, of Dublin, who survived him. An inter- 
national committee was formed for the purpose of erecting a 
monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey; and there, 
in May 1895, a portrait medallion, by Albert Bruce Joy, was 
placed near the grave of Newton, and adjoining the memorials 
of Darwin and of Joule. His bust, by the same sculptor, stands 
opposite that of Sir John Herschel in the hall of St John's College, 
Cambridge. Herkomer's portrait is in Pembroke College; and 
Mogford's, painted in 1851, is in the combination room of St 
John's. Another bust, taken in his youth, belongs to the Royal 
Astronomical Society. A memorial tablet, with an inscriplion 
by Archbishop Benson, is placed in the Cathedral at Truro; 
and Mr Passmore Edwards erected a public institute in his 
honour at Launceston, near his birthplace. 

The Scientific Papers of John Couch Adams, 4to, vol. i. (1896), and 
vol. ii. (1900), edited by William Grylls Adams and Ralph Allen 
Sampson, with a memoir by Dr J. W. L. Glaisher, were published 
by the Cambridge University Press. The first volume contains his 
previously published writings; the second those left in manuscript, 
including the substance of his lectures on the Lunar Theory. A col- 
lection, virtually complete, of Adams's papers regarding the dis- 
covery of Neptune was presented by Mrs Adams to the library of 
St John's College. A description of them by Professor Sampson 
was inserted in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society 
(vol. liv. p. 143). Consult: Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc., liii. 
184; Observatory, xv. 174; Nature, xxxiv. 565, xlv. 301; Astr. 
Journal, No. 254; R. Grant, Hist, of Physical Astronomy, p. 168; 
Edinburgh Review, No. 381, p. 72. 

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848), eldest son of President 
John Adams, sixth president of the United States, was born on 
the nth of July 1767, in tnat part of Braintree that is now 
Quincy, Massachusetts, and was named after John Quincy (1689- 
1767), his mother's grandfather, who was for many years a 
prominent member of the Massachusetts legislature. In 1778, 
and again in 1780, young Adams accompanied his father to 
Europe; studying in Paris in 1778-1779 and at the university of 
Leiden in 1780. In 1780, also, he began to keep that diary 
which forms so conspicuous a record of the doings of himself 
and his contemporaries. In 1781, at the age of fourteen, he 
accompanied Francis Dana (1743-1811), American envoy to 
Russia, as his private secretary; but Dana was not received 
by the Russian government, and in 1782 Adams joined his father 
at Paris, where he acted as " additional secretary " to the 
American commissioners in the negotiation of the treaty of peace 
which concluded the War of American Independence. Instead 
of accompanying his father to London, he, of his own choice, 
returned to Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard College in 
1787, three years later was admitted to practise at the bar and 
at once opened an office in Boston. A series of papers written 
by him in which he controverted some of Thomas Paine's doc- 
trines in the Rights of Man, and later another series in which 
he ably supported the neutral policy of the administration 
toward France and England, led to his appointment by Wash- 
ington as minister to the Netherlands in May 1794. There was 
little for him to do at the Hague, but in the absence of a minister 
at London, he transacted certain public business with the 
English foreign secretary. In 1796 Washington appointed him 
minister to Portugal, but before his departure thither his father 
John Adams became president and changed his destination to 
Berlin (1797). While there, he negotiated (1799) a treaty of 
amity and commerce with Prussia. On Thomas Jefferson's 
election to the presidency in 1800, the elder Adams recalled his 
son, who returned home in 1801. The next year, he was elected 






ADAMS 



179 



to the Massachusetts senate, and in 1803 was sent to Washington 
as a member of the Senate of the United States. 

Up to this time, John Quincy Adams was regarded as belong- 
ing to the Federalist party, but he now found its general policy 
displeasing to him, was frowned upon, as the son of his father, 
by the followers of Alexander Hamilton, and found himself 
nearly powerless as an unpopular member of an unpopular 
minority. He was not now, and indeed never was, a strict 
party man. On the first important question that came before 
him in the Senate, the acquisition of Louisiana, he voted with 
the Republicans, regardless of the opposition of his own section. 
In December 1807 he warmly seconded Jefferson's suggestion 
of an embargo and vigorously urged instant action, saying: 
" The president has recommended the measure on his high 
responsibility. I would not consider, I would not deliberate; 
I would act!" Within five hours the Senate had passed the 
Embargo Bill and sent it to the House. The support of a measure 
so unpopular in New England caused him to be hated by the 
Federalists there and cost him his seat in the Senate; his suc- 
cessor was chosen on the 3rd of June 1808, several months before 
the usual time of filling the vacancy, and five days later Adams 
resigned. In the same year he attended the Republican con- 
gressional caucus which nominated Madison for the presidency, 
and thus definitely joined the Republicans. From 1806 to 1809 
Adams was professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard. 

In 1809 President Madison sent Adams to Russia to represent 
the United States. He arrived at St Petersburg at the psycho- 
logical moment when the tsar had made up his mind to break 
with Napoleon. Adams therefore met with a favourable recep- 
tion and a disposition to further the interests of American com- 
merce in every possible way. On the outbreak of the war 
between the United States and England in 1812, he was still at 
St Petersburg. In September of that year, the Russian govern- 
ment suggested that the tsar was willing to act as mediator 
between the two belligerents. Madison precipitately accepted 
this proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to 
act as commissioners with Mr Adams; but England would have 
nothing to do with it. In August 1814, however, these gentle- 
men, with Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell, began negotiations 
with English commissioners which resulted in the signature of 
the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of December of that year. After 
this Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the return of 
Napoleon from Elba, and then went to London, where, with 
Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin, he negotiated (1815) a " Con- 
vention to Regulate Commerce and Navigation." Soon after- 
wards he became U.S. minister to Great Britain, as his father 
had been before him, and as his son, Charles Francis Adams, 
was after him. After accomplishing little in London, he 
returned to the United States in the summer of 1817 to become 
secretary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe. 

As secretary of state, Adams played the leading part in two 
most important episodes, the acquisition of Florida and the 
promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine. Ever since the acquisi- 
tion of Louisiana successive administrations had sought to 
include a part at least of Florida in that purchase. In 1819, 
after long negotiations, Adams succeeded in bringing the Spanish 
minister to the point of signing a treaty in which the Spaniards 
abandoned all claims to territory east of the Mississippi, and the 
United States relinquished all claim to what is now known as 
Texas. Before the Spanish government ratified the treaty in 
1820, Mexico, including Texas, had thrown off allegiance to the 
mother country, and the United States had occupied Florida by 
force of arms. The Monroe Doctrine (q.v.) rightly bears the name 
of the president who in 1823 assumed the responsibility for its 
promulgation; but it was primarily the work of John Quincy 
Adams. The eight years of Monroe's presidency (1817-1825) 
are known as the " Era of Good Feeling." As his second term 
drew to a close, there was a great lack of good feeling among his 
official advisers, three of whom Adams, secretary of state, 
Calhoun, secretary of war, and Crawford, secretary of the 
treasury aspired to succeed him in his high office. In addition, 
Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were also candidates. Calhoun 



was nominated for the vice-presidency. Of the other four, 
Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, 
and Clay 37; as no one had a majority, the decision was made 
by the House of Representatives, which was confined in its 
choice to the three candidates who had received the largest 
number of votes. Clay, who was speaker of the House of Repre- 
sentatives, and had for years assumed a censorious attitude 
toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams and thereby 
secured his election on the first ballot. A few days later Adams 
offered Clay the secretaryship of state, which was accepted. 
The wholly unjust and baseless charge of " bargain and corrup- 
tion " followed, and the feud thus created between Adams and 
Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States. 

Up to this point Adams's career had been almost uniformly 
successful, but his presidency (1825-1829) was in most respects 
a failure, owing to the virulent opposition of the Jacksonians; 
in 1828 Jackson was elected president over Adams. It was 
during his administration that irreconcilable differences devel- 
oped between the followers of Adams and the followers of Jack- 
son, the former becoming known as the National Republicans, 
who with the Anti-Masons were the precursors of the Whigs. 
In 1829 Adams retired to private life in the town of Quincy; 
but only for a brief period, for in 1830, largely by Anti-Masonic 
votes, he was elected a member of the national House of Repre- 
sentatives. On its being suggested to him that his acceptance 
of this position would degrade an ex-president, Adams replied 
that no person could be degraded by serving the people as a 
representative in congress or, he added, as a selectman of his 
town. His service in congress from 1831 until his death is, in 
some respects, the most noteworthy part of his career. Through- 
out he was conspicuous as an opponent of the extension of slavery, 
though he was never technically an abolitionist, and in particular 
he was the champion in the House of Representatives of the 
right of petition at a time when, through the influence of the 
Southern members, this right was, in practice, denied by that 
body. His prolonged fight for the repeal of the so-called " Gag 
Laws " is one of the most dramatic contests in the history of 
congress. The agitation for the abolition of slavery, which really 
began in earnest with the establishment of the Liberator by 
William Lloyd Garrison in 1831, soon led to the sending of 
innumerable petitions to congress for the abolition of slavery 
in the District of Columbia, over which the Federal government 
had jurisdiction, and for other action by congress with respect 
to that institution. These petitions were generally sent to 
Adams for presentation. They aroused the anger of the pro- 
slavery members of congress, who, in 1836, brought about the 
passage of the first " Gag Rule," the Pinckney Resolution, 
presented by Henry L. Pinckney, of South Carolina. It pro- 
vided that all petitions relating to slavery should be laid on the 
table without being referred to committee or printed; and, in 
substance, this resolution was re-adopted at the beginning of 
each of the immediately succeeding sessions of congress, the 
Patton Resolution being adopted in 1837, the Atherton Resolu- 
tion, or " Atherton Gag," in 1838, and the Twenty-first Rule in 
1840 and subsequently until repealed. Adams contended that 
these " Gag Rules " were a direct violation of the First Amend- 
ment to the Federal Constitution, and refused to be silenced on 
the question, fighting for repeal with indomitable courage, in 
spite of the bitter denunciation of his opponents. Each year 
the number of anti-slavery petitions received and presented by 
him increased; perhaps the climax was in 1837, when Adams 
presented a petition from twenty-two slaves, and, when threat- 
ened by his opponents with censure, defended himself with 
remarkable keenness and ability. At each session, also, the 
majority against him decreased until in 1844 his motion to repeal 
the Twenty-first Rule was carried by a vote of 108 to 80 and his 
battle was won. On the 2ist of February 1848, after having 
suffered a previous stroke of apoplexy, he fell insensible on 
the floor of the Representatives' chamber, and two days later 
died. Few men in American public life have possessed more 
intrinsic worth, more independence, more public spirit and more 
ability than Adams, but throughout his political career he was 






i8o 



ADAMS 



handicapped by a certain reserve, a certain austerity and cool- 
ness of manner, and by his consequent inability to appeal to the 
imaginations and affections of the people as a whole. He had, 
indeed, few intimate political or personal friends, and few men 
in American history have, during their lifetime, been regarded 
with so much hostility and attacked with so much rancour by 
their political opponents. 

AUTHORITIES. 1. T. Morse, John Quincy Adams (Boston, 1883; 
new edition, 1899); Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of John 
Quincy Adams (Boston, 1858); C. F. Adams (ed.), Memoirs of John 
Quincy Adams, comprising portions of his diary from 1795 to 1848 
(12 vols., Philadelphia, 1874-1877). (E. CH.) 

ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803), American statesman, was 
born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September 1722. 
He was a second cousin to the elder John Adams. His father, 
whose Christian name was also Samuel, was a wealthy and 
prominent citizen of Boston, who took an active part in 
the politics of the town, and was a member of the Caucus (or 
Caulker's) Club, with which the political term "caucus" is 
said to have originated; his mother was Mary Fifield. Young 
Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1740, and three years 
later, on attaining the degree of A.M., chose for his thesis, 
"Whether it be Lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the 
Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." Which side he 
took, and how the argument proceeded, is not known, but the 
subject was one which well forecasted his career. He began the 
study of law in response to his father's advice; he discontinued 
it in response to his mother's disapproval. He repeatedly failed 
in business, notably as manager of a malt-house, largely because 
of his incessant attention to politics; but in the Boston town- 
meeting he became a conspicuous example of the efficiency of 
that institution for training in statecraft. He has, indeed, been 
called the "Man of the Town Meeting." About 1748 he began 
to take an important part in the affairs of the town, and became 
a leader in the debates of a political club which he was largely 
instrumental in organizing, and to whose weekly publication, 
the Public Advertiser, he contributed numerous articles. From 
1756 to 1764 he was one of the town's tax-collectors, but in this 
office he was unsuccessful, his easy business methods resulting 
in heavy arrears. 

Samuel Adams first came into wider prominence at the begin- 
ning of the Stamp Act episode, in 1 764, when as author of Boston's 
instructions to its representatives in the general court of Massa- 
chusetts he urged strenuous opposition to taxation by act of 
parliament. The next year he was for the first time elected to 
the lower house of the general court, in which he served until 
1774, after 1766 as clerk. As James Otis's vigour and influence 
declined, Adams took a more and more prominent place in the 
revolutionary councils; and, contrary to the opinion of Otis and 
Benjamin Franklin, he declared that colonial representation in 
parliament was out of the question and advised against any form 
of compromise. Many of the Massachusetts revolutionary docu- 
ments, including the famous "Massachusetts Resolves" and the 
circular letter to the legislatures of the other colonies, are from 
his pen; but owing to the fact that he usually acted as clerk to 
the House of Representatives and to the several committees 
of which he was a member, documents were written by him 
which expressed the ideas of the committee as a whole. There 
can be no question, however, that Samuel Adams was one of 
the first, if not the first, of American political leaders to deny 
the legislative power of parliament and to desire and advocate 
separation from the mother country. 

To promote the ends he had in view he suggested non-im- 
portation, instituted the Boston committees of correspondence, 
urged that a Continental Congress be called, sought out and 
introduced into public service such allies as John Hancock, 
Joseph Warren and Josiah Quincy, and wrote a vast number of 
articles for the newspapers, especially the Boston Gazette, over 
a multitude of signatures. He was, in fact, one of the most 
voluminous and influential political writers of his time. His 
style is clear, vigorous and epigrammatic; his arguments are 
characterized by strength of logic, and, like those of other 
patriots, are, as the dispute advances, based less on precedent 



and documentary authorities and more on " natural right." 
Although he lacked oratorical fluency, his short speeches, like 
his writings, were forceful; his plain dress and unassuming ways 
helped to make him extremely popular with the common people, 
in whom he had much greater faith than his cousin John had; 
and, above all, he was an eminently successful manager of men. 
Shrewd, wily, adroit, unfailingly tactful, an adept in all the arts 
of the politician, he is considered to have done more than any 
other one man, in the years immediately preceding the War 
of Independence, to mould and direct public opinion in his 
community. 

The intense excitement which followed the "Boston Massacre" 
Adams skilfully used to secure the removal of the soldiers from 
the town to a fort in the harbour. He it was, also, who managed 
the proceedings of the "Boston Tea Party," and later he was 
moderator of the convention of Massachusetts towns called to 
protest against the Boston Port Bill. One of the objects of the 
expedition sent by Governor Thomas Gage to Lexington (q.v.) 
and Concord on April 18-19, 1775, was the capture of Adams and 
John Hancock, temporarily staying in Lexington, and when 
Gage issued his proclamation of pardon on June 1 2 he excepted 
these two, whose offences, he said, were "of too flagitious a 
Nature to admit of any other Consideration than that of condign 
Punishment." 

As a delegate to the Continental Congress, from 1774 to 1781, 
Samuel Adams continued vigorously to oppose any concession to 
the British government; strove for harmony among the several 
colonies in the common cause; served on numerous committees, 
among them that to prepare a plan of confederation; and signed 
the Declaration of Independence. But he was rather a de- 
structive than a constructive statesman, and his most important 
service was in organizing the forces of revolution before 1775. 
In 1779 he was a member of the convention which framed the 
constitution of Massachusetts that was adopted in 1780, and is 
still, with some amendments, the organic law of the commonwealth 
and one of the oldest fundamental laws in existence. He was 
one of the three members of the sub-committee which actually 
drafted that instrument; and although John Adams is generally 
credited with having performed the principal part of that task, 
Samuel Adams was probably the author of most of the bill of 
rights. In 1788, Samuel Adams was a member of the Massa- 
chusetts convention to ratify the Constitution of 'the United 
States. When he first read that instrument he was very much 
opposed to the consolidated government which it provided, but 
was induced to befriend it by resolutions which were passed at 
a mass meeting of Boston mechanics or "tradesmen" his own 
firmest supporters and by the suggestion that its ratification 
should be accompanied by a recommendation of amendments 
designed chiefly to supply the omission of a bill of rights. With- 
out his aid it is probable that the constitution would not have 
been ratified by Massachusetts. From 1789 to 1794 Adams was 
lieutenant-governor of his state, and from 1794 to 1797 was 
governor. After the formation of parties he became allied with 
the Democratic-Republicans rather than with the Federalists. 
He died on the 2nd of October 1803, at Boston. 

AUTHORITIES. Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams (3 vols., 
Boston, 1865), by W. V. Wells, Adams's great-grandson a valuable 
biography, containing a mass of information, but noticeably biassed ; 
I, K. Hosmer's Samuel Adams (Boston, 1885), an excellent short 
biography in the "American Statesmen Series"; M. C. Tyler's 
Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897) ; 
and H. A. Gushing (ed.), The Writings of Samuel Adams (4 vols., 
New York, 1904-1908). (E. CH.) 

ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655), English divine, was, in 1612, 
"a preacher of the gospel at Wellington," in Bedfordshire, where 
he is found until 1614, and whence issued his Heaven and Earth 
Reconciled, The Devil's Banquet and other works. In 1614-1615 
he was at Wingrave, in Buckinghamshire, probably as vicar, and 
published a number of works in quick succession; in 1618 he held 
the preachership at St Gregory's, under St Paul's Cathedral, and 
was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henry Montague, the lord 
chief justice of England. These bare facts we gather from 
epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title-pages. 



ADAMS ADAMSON 



181 



These epistles show him to have been on the most friendly terms 
with some of the 'foremost men in state and church, though his 
ardent protestantism offended Laud and hindered his preferment. 
His " occasionally " printed sermons, when collected in 1629, 
placed him beyond all comparison in the van of the preachers of 
England, and had something to do with shaping John 
Bunyan. He equals Jeremy Taylor in brilliance of fancies, and 
Thomas Fuller in wit. Robert Southey calls him " the prose 
Shakespeare of Puritan theologians." His numerous works dis- 
play great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in 
their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms and puns. 

His works were edited in J. P. Nichol's Puritan Divines, by 
J. Angus and T. Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862). 

ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 1620), English navigator, was born at 
Gillingham, near Chatham, England. When twelve years old 
he was apprenticed to the seafaring life, afterwards entering 
the British navy, and later serving the company of Barbary 
merchants for a number of years as master and pilot. Attracted 
by the Dutch trade with India, he shipped as pilot major with 
a little fleet of five ships despatched from the Texel in 1598 by a 
company of Rotterdam merchants. The vessels, boats ranging 
from 75 to 250 tons and crowded with men, were driven to the 
coast of Guinea, where the adventurers attacked the island of 
Annabon for supplies, and finally reached the straits of Magellan. 
Scattered by stress of weather the following spring the " Charity," 
with Adams on board, and the " Hope," met at length off the 
coast of Chile, where the captains of both vessels lost their lives 
in an encounter with the Indians. In fear of the Spaniards, the 
remaining crews determined to sail across the Pacific. On this 
voyage the " Hope " was lost, but in April 1600 the " Charity," 
with a crew of sick and dying men, was brought to anchor off the 
island of Kiushiu, Japan. Adams was summoned to Osaka and 
there examined by lyeyasu, the guardian of the young son of 
Taiko Sama, the ruler, who had just died, His knowledge of ships 
and shipbuilding, and his nautical smattering of mathematics, 
raised him in the estimation of the shogun, and he was subse- 
quently presented with an estate at Hemi near Yokosuka; but 
was refused permission to return to England. In 1611 news 
came to him of an English settlement in Bantam, and he wrote 
asking for help. In 1613 Captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in 
the ship " Clove " with the object of establishing a trading factory 
for the East India Company, and after obtaining the necessary 
concessions from the shogun, Adams postponed his voyage home 
(permission for which had now been given him) in order to take 
a leading part, under Richard Cocks, in the organization of this 
new English settlement. He had already married a Japanese 
woman, by whom he had a family, and the latter part of his life 
was spent in the service of the English trading company, for 
whom he undertook a number of voyages to Siam in 1616, and 
Cochin China in 1617 and 1618. He died on the. i6th of May 
1620, some three years before the dissolution of the English 
factory. His Japanese title was Anjin Sama, and his memory 
was preserved in the naming of a street in Yedo, Anjin Cho (Pilot 
Street), and by an annual celebration on June 15 in his honour. 

See England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. W. Hillary 
(1905) ; Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, ed. by 
N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams's Letters reprinted from 
Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt 
Society, 1850); Diary of Richard Cocks, with preface by N. Mura- 
kami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883); R. 
Hildreth's Japan (1855) ; J. Harris's Navigantium atque Ilinerantium 
BMiotheca (1764), i. 856; Voyage of John Saris, ed. by Sir E. M. 
Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900) ; Asiatic Society of Japan Trans- 
actions, xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four more hitherto 
unpublished letters of Adams are' given ; Collection of State Papers; 
East Indies, Cltina and Japan. The MS. of his logs writtqfh during 
his voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. 

ADAMS, a township in the extreme N. of Berkshire county, 
N.W. Massachusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 23 sq. m. Pop. 
(1880) 5591; (1890) 9213; (1900) 11,134, of whom 4376 were 
foreign-born; (1910, census) 13,026. It includes a portion 
of the valley of the Hoosac river, extending to the Hoosac 
Range on the E., and on the W. to Mt. Williams (3040 ft.), and 
^reylock Mountain (3535 ft.), partly in Williamstown, and the 



f 



highest point in the state. The valley portion is level and con- 
tains several settlement centres, the largest of which, a busy 
industrial village (manufactures of cotton and paper), bears the 
same name as the township, and is on a branch of the Boston 
and Albany railroad. The village is the nearest station to Grey- 
lock, which can be easily ascended, and affords fine views of the 
Hoosac and Housatonic valleys, the Berkshire Hills and the 
Green Mountains; the mountain has been a state timber reser- 
vation since 1898. The township's principal industry is the manu- 
facture of cotton goods, the value of which in 1905 ($4,621,261) 
was 84-1% of the value of the township's total factory pro- 
ducts; in 1905 no other place in the United States showed so 
high a degree of specialization in this industry. The township 
(originally "East Hoosuck") was surveyed and defined in 1749. 
Fort Massachusetts, at one time within its bounds, was de- 
stroyed in 1746 by the French. An old Indian trail between the 
Hudson and Connecticut valley ran through the township, and 
was once a leading outlet of the Berkshire country. Adams was 
incorporated in 1778, and was named in honour of Samuel Adams, 
the revolutionary leader. Part of Adams was included in the 
new township of Cheshire in 1793, and North Adams was set off 
as a separate township in 1878. 

ADAM'S APPLE, the movable projection, more prominent 
in males than females, formed in the front part of the throat by 
the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. The name was given from a 
legend that a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged in Adam's' throat. 
The "Adam's apple" is one of the particular points of attack 
in the Japanese system of self-defence known as jiu-jitsu. 

ADAM'S BRIDGE, or RAMA'S BRIDGE, a chain of sandbanks 
extending from the island of Manaar, near the N.W. coast of 
Ceylon to the island of Rameswaram, off the Indian coast, and 
lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S.W. and Palk Strait 
on the N.E. It is more than 30 m. long and offers a serious 
impediment to navigation. Some of the sandbanks are dry; 
and no part of the shoal has a greater depth than 3 or 4 ft. at 
high water, except three tortuous and intricate channels which 
have recently been dredged to a sufficient depth to admit the 
passage of vessels, so as to obviate the long journey round the 
island of Ceylon which was previously necessary. Geological 
evidence shows that this gap was once bridged by a continuous 
isthmus which according to the temple records was breached 
by a violent storm in 1480. Operations for removing the ob- 
stacles in the channel and for deepening and widening it were 
begun as long ago as 1838. A service of the British India Steam 
Navigation Company's steamers has been established between 
Negapatam and Colombo through Palk Strait and this narrow 
passage. 

ADAM SCOTUS (fl. 1180), theological writer, sometimes called 
Adam Anglicus or Anglo-Scotus, was born in the south of 
Scotland in the first half of the iath century. About 1150 he 
was a Premonstratensian canon at St Andrews, and some 
twenty years later abbot and bishop of Candida Casa (Whithorn) 
in Galloway. He gained a European reputation for his writings, 
which are of mystico-ascetic type, and include an account of the 
Premonstratensian order, a collection of festival sermons, and 
a Soliloquia de instructione discipuli, formerly attributed to his 
contemporary, Adam of St Victor. 

ADAMSON, PATRICK (1537-1592), Scottish divine, arch- 
bishop of St Andrews, was born at Perth. He studied philo- 
sophy, and took the degree of M.A. at St Andrews. After being 
minister of Ceres in Fife for three years, in 1566 he set out for 
Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir James Macgill, the clerk- 
general. In June of the same year he wrote a Latin poem on 
the birth of the young prince James, whom he described as 
serenissimus princeps of France and England. The French court 
was offended, and he was confined for six months. He was 
released only through the intercession of Queen Mary of Scotland 
and some of the principal nobility, and retired with his pupil to 
Bourges. .He was in this city at the time of the massacre of St 
Bartholomew at Paris, and lived concealed for seven months in 
a public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his 
charity to a heretic, was thrown from the roof. While in this* 



182 



ADAMSON ADANA 



" Sepulchre," he wrote his Latin poetical version of the book 
of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same language. In 1572 
or 1573 he returned to Scotland, and became minister of Paisley. 
In 1575 he was appointed by the General Assembly one of the 
commissioners to settle the jurisdiction and policy of the church; 
and the following year he was named, with David Lindsay, to 
report their proceedings to the earl of Morton, then regent. In 
1576 his appointment as archbishop of St Andrews gave rise 
to a protracted conflict with the Presbyterian party in the 
Assembly. He had previously published a catechism in Latin 
verse dedicated to the-king, a work highly approved even by his 
opponents, and also a Latin translation of the Scottish Confession 
of Faith. In 1 578 he submitted himself to the General Assembly, 
which procured him peace for a little time, but next year fresh 
accusations were brought against him. He took refuge in St 
Andrews Castle, where " a wise woman," Alison Pearson, who 
was ultimately burned for witchcraft, cured him of a serious 
illness. In 1 583 he went as James's ambassador to the court of 
Elizabeth, and is said to have behaved rather badly. On his 
return he took strong parliamentary measures against Presby- 
terians, and consequently, at a provincial synod held at St 
Andrews in April 1586, he was accused of heresy and excom- 
municated, but at the next General Assembly the sentence was 
remitted as illegal. In 1587 and 1588, however, fresh accusa- 
tions were brought against him, and he was again excommuni- 
cated, though afterwards on the inducement of his old opponent, 
Andrew Melville, the sentence was again remitted. Meanwhile 
he had published the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the book 
of Revelation in Latin verse, which he dedicated to the king, 
complaining of his hard usage. But James was unmoved by 
his application, and granted the revenue of his see to the duke of 
Lennox. For the rest of his life Adamson was supported by 
charity; he died in 1592. His recantation of Episcopacy (ispo) 
is probably spurious. Adamson was a man of many gifts, 
learned and eloquent, but with grave defects of character. His 
collected works, prefaced by a fulsome panegyric, in the course 
of which it is said that " he was a miracle of nature, and rather 
seemed to be the immediate production of God Almighty than 
born of a woman," were produced by his son-in-law, Thomas 
Wilson, in 1619. 

ADAMSON, ROBERT (1852-1902), Scottish philosopher, was 
born in Edinburgh on the igih of January 1852. His father 
was a solicitor, and his mother was the daughter of Matthew 
Buist, factor to Lord Haddington. In 1855 Mrs Adamson was 
left a widow with small means, and devoted herself entirely to 
the education of her six children. Of these, Robert was successful 
from the first. At the end of his school career he entered the 
university of Edinburgh at the age of fourteen, and four years 
later graduated with first-class honours in mental philosophy, 
with prizes in every department of the faculty of Arts. He 
completed his university successes by winning the Tyndall- 
Bruce scholarship, the Hamilton fellowship (1872), the Ferguson 
scholarship (1872) and the Shaw fellowship (1873). After a short 
residence at Heidelberg (1871), where he began his study of 
German philosophy, he returned to Edinburgh as assistant first 
to Henry Calderwood and later to A. Campbell Fraser; he 
joined the staff of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (gth ed.) (1874) 
and studied widely in the Advocates' Library. In 1876 he came 
to England as successor to W. S. Jevons in the chair of logic and 
philosophy, at Owens College, Manchester. In 1883 he received 
the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1893 he went to Aberdeen, 
and finally in 1895 to the chair of logic at Glasgow, which he 
held till his death on the sth of February 1902. His wife, 
Margaret Duncan, the daughter of a Manchester merchant, was 
a woman of kindred tastes, and their union was entirely happy. 

It is matter for regret to the student that Adamson's active 
labours in the lecture room precluded him from systematic pro- 
duction. His writings consisted of short articles, of which many 
appeared in the Encyclopaedia Brilannica (gth ed.) and in Mind, 
a volume on Kant and another on Fichte. At the time of his 
death he was writing a History of Psychology, and had promised 
a work on Kant and the Modern Naturalists. Both in his life 



and in his writings he was remarkable for impartiality. It was 
his peculiar virtue that he could quote his opponents without 
warping their meaning. From this point of view he would have 
been perhaps the first historian of philosophy of his time, had his 
professional labours been less exacting. Except during the first 
few years at Manchester, he delivered his lectures without manu- 
scripts. In 1903, under the title The Development of Modern 
Philosophy and Other Essays, his more important lectures were 
published with a short biographical introduction by Prof. W. R. 
Sorley of Cambridge University (see Mind, xiii. 1904, p. 73 foil.). 
Most of the matter is taken verbatim from the note-book of 
one of his students. Under the same editorship there appeared, 
three years later, his Development of Greek Philosophy. In 
addition to his professional work, he did much administrative 
work for Victoria University and the university of Glasgow. In 
the organization of Victoria University he took a foremost part, 
and, as chairman of the Board of Studies at Owens College, 
he presided over the general academical board of the Victoria 
University. At Glasgow he was soon elected one of the repre- 
sentatives on the court, and to him were due in large measure 
the extension of the academical session and the improved 
equipment of the university. 

Throughout his lectures, Adamson pursued the critical and his- 
torical method without formulating a constructive theory of his own. 
He felt that any philosophical advance must be based on the Kantian 
methods. It was his habit to make straight for the ultimate issue, 
disregarding half-truths and declining compromise. He left a hypo- 
thesis to be worked out by others; this done, he would criticize with 
all the rigour of logic, and with a profound distrust of imagina- 
tion, metaphor and the attitude known as the will-to-believe. As 
he grew older his metaphysical optimism waned. He felt that the 
increase of knowledge must come in the domains of physical science. 
But this empirical tendency as regards science never modified his 
metaphysical outlook. He has been called Kan tian a nd Neo-Kantian , 
Realist and Idealist (by himself, for he held that appearance and 
reality are co-extensive and coincident). At the same time, in his 
criticism of other views he was almost typical of Hegelian idealism. 
All processes of reasoning or judgment (i.e. all units of thought) are 
(l) analysable only by abstraction, and (2) are compound of deduc- 
tion and induction, i.e. rational and empirical. An illustration of 
his empirical tendency is found in his attitude to the Absolute and 
the Self. The " Absolute " doctrines he regarded as a mere disguise 
of failure, a dishonest attempt to clothe ignorance in the pretentious 
garb of mystery. The Self as a primary, determiningentity, he would 
not therefore admit. He represented an empiricism which, so far 
from refuting, was -actually based on, idealism, and yet was alert to 
expose the fallacies of a particular idealist construction (see his 
essay in Ethical Democracy, edited by Dr Stanton Coit). 

ADAM'S PEAK, a mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from 
Colombo, in N. lat. 6 55', E. long. 80 30'. It rises steeply to 
a height of 7352 feet, and commands a magnificent prospect. 
Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform, 74 ft. by 
24, on which there is a hollow, resembling the form of a human 
foot, 5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; and this has been consecrated 
as the footprint of Buddha. The margin of this supposed footprint, 
is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy protects it 
from the weather. It is held in high veneration by the Sinhalese, 
and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred spot, where a 
priest resides to receive their offerings and bless them on their 
departure. By the Mahommedans the impression is regarded 
as that of the foot of Adam, who here, according to their tradition, 
fulfilled a penance of one thousand years; while the Hindus 
claim it as that of their god Siva. 

ADANA. (i) A vilayet in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which ' 
includes the ancient Cilicia. The mountain districts are rich in 
unexploited mineral wealth, and the fertile coast-plain, which 
produces cotton, rice, cereals, sugar and much fruit, and affords 
abundant pasturage, is well watered by the rivers that descend 
from the Taurus range. Imports and exports pass through 
Mersina (q.ii.). (2) The chief town of the vilayet, situated in the 
alluvial plain about 30 m. from the sea in N. lat. 37 r', E. long. 
35 18', on the right bank of the Seihan (Sihun, ant. Sarus), 
which is navigable by small craft as far as the town. Adana is 
connected with Tersus and Mersina by a railway built in 1887, 
and has a magnificent stone bridge, which carries the road to 
Missis and the east, and dates in parts from the time of Justiniaji, 
but was restored first in 743 A.D. and called Jisr al-Walid after 



ADANSON ADDAX 



the Omayyad caliph of that name, and again in 840 by the 
Caliph Mutasim. There are, also, a ruined castle founded by 
Harun al-Rashid in 782, fine fountains, good buildings, river-side 
quays, cotton mills and an American mission with church and 
schools. Adana, which retains its ancient name, rose to import- 
ance as a station on the Roman military road to the East, and 
was at one time a rival of Tarsus. The town was largely rebuilt 
by Mansur in 758, and during subsequent centuries it often 
changed hands and suffered many vicissitudes. Its position, 
commanding the passage of the mountains to the north of Syria, 
rendered it important as a military station in the contest between 
the Egyptians and the Turks in 1832. After the defeat of the 
Turkish army at Konia it was granted to Ibrahim Pasha, 
and though the firman announcing his appointment named him 
only muhassil, or collector of the crown revenue, it continued to 
be held by the Egyptians till the treaty of July 1840 restored 
it to the Porte. The chief productions of the province are 
cotton, corn, sesame and wool, which are largely exported. The 
population of the town is greatly mixed, and, having a large 
element of nomads in it, varies much from time to time. At its 
maximum it reaches nearly 50,000. (D. G. H.) 

ADANSON, MICHEL (1727-1806), French naturalist, of 
Scottish descent, was born on the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in 
Provence. After leaving the College Sainte Barbe in Paris, he 
was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Reaumur and Bernard 
de Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes. At the end of 
1748 he left France on an exploring expedition to Senegal, which 
from the unhealthiness of its climate was a terra incognita to 
naturalists. His ardour remained unabated during the five years 
of his residence in Africa. He collected and described, in greater 
or less detail, an immense number of animals and plants; col- 
lected specimens of every object of commerce; delineated maps 
of the country; made systematic meteorological and astrono- 
mical observations; and prepared grammars and dictionaries 
of the languages spoken on the banks of the Senegal. After his 
return to Paris in 1754 he made use of a small portion of the 
materials he had collected in his Histoire naturelle du Senegal 
(Paris, 1757). This work has a special interest from the essay 
op shells, printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his 
universal method, a system of classification distinct from those 
of Buffon and Linnaeus. He founded his classification of all 
organized beings on the consideration of each individual organ. 
As each organ gave birth to new relations, so he established a 
corresponding number of arbitrary arrangements. Those beings 
possessing the greatest number of similar organs were referred 
to one great division, and the relationship was considered more 
remote in proportion to the dissimilarity of organs. In 1763 he 
published his Families naturelles des plantes. In this work he 
developed the principle of arrangement above mentioned, which, 
in its adherence to natural botanical relations, was based on the 
system of J. P. Tournefort, and had been anticipated to some 
extent nearly a century before by John Ray. The success of 
this work was hindered by its innovations in the use of terms, 
which were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular sexual 
system of Linnaeus; but it did much to open the way for the 
establishment, by means principally of A. L. de Jussieu's Genera 
Planlarum (1789), of the natural method of the classification of 
plants. In 1774 Adanson submitted to the consideration of the 
Academy of Sciences an immense work, extending to all known 
beings and substances. It consisted of 27 large volumes of 
manuscript, employed in displaying the general relations of all 
these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes more, 
occupied with the alphabetical . arrangement of 40,000 species; 
a vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with their explanations; 
and a number of detached memoirs, 40,000 figures and 30,000 
specimens of the three kingdoms of nature. The committee to 
which the inspection of this enormous mass was entrusted strongly 
recommended Adanson to separate and publish all that was 
peculiarly his own, leaving out what was merely compilation. 
He obstinately rejected this advice; and the huge work, at 
which he continued to labour, was never published. He had been 
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1750, and he 



latterly subsisted on a small pension it had conferred on him. 
Of this he was deprived in the dissolution of the Academy by 
the Constituent Assembly, and was consequently reduced to such 
a depth of poverty as to be unable to appear before the French 
Institute when it invited him to take his place among its mem- 
bers. Afterwards he was granted a pension sufficient to relieve 
his simple wants. He died at Paris after months of severe 
suffering, on the 3rd of August 1806, requesting, as the only' 
decoration of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from the 
fifty-eight families he had differentiated " a touching though 
transitory image," says Cuvier, " of the more durable monument 
which he has erected to himself in his works." Besides the books 
already mentioned he published papers on the ship-worm, the 
baobab tree, the Adansonia digitata of Linnaeus, the origin of 
the varieties of cultivated plants, and gum-producing trees. 

ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to), a process of 
fitting, or modifying, a thing to other uses, and so altering its 
form or original purpose. In literature there may be, e.g., an 
adaptation of a novel for a drama, or in music an arrangement 
of a piece for two hands into one for four, &c. In biology, ac- 
cording to the doctrine of evolution, adaptation plays a prominent 
part as the process by which an organism or species of organisms 
becomes modified to suit the conditions of its life. Every change 
in a living organism involves adaptation; for in all cases life 
consists in a continuous adjustment of internal to external 
relations. Every living organism reacts to its environment; 
if the reaction is unfavourable, disability leading to ultimate 
extinction is the result. If the reaction is favourable, its result 
is called an adaptation. How far such adaptations are produced 
afresh in each generation, whether or no their effects are trans- 
mitted to descendants and so directly modify the stock, to what 
extent adaptations characteristic of a species or variety have 
come about by selection of individuals capable, in each genera- 
tion, of responding favourably, or how far by the selection of 
individuals fortuitously suitable to the environment, or, how 
far, possibly by the inheritance of the responses to the environ- 
ment, are problems of biology not yet definitely solved. 

ADDA (anc. Addua), a river of North Italy. Its true source 
is in some small lakes near the head of the Fraele glen, but its 
volume is increased by the union with several smaller streams, 
near the town of Bormio, at the Raetian Alps. Thence it flows 
first S.W., then due W., through the fertile Valtellina (q.v.), 
passing Tirano, where the Poschiavino falls in on the right, and 
Sondrio, where is the junction with the Malero, right. It falls 
into the Lake of Como, at its northern end, and mainly forms that 
lake. On issuing from its south-eastern or Lecco arm, it crosses 
the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course of about 
150 m., joins the Po, 8 m. above Cremona. The lower course of 
the Adda was formerly the boundary between the territories of 
Venice and of Milan; and on its banks several important battles 
have been fought, notably that of Lodi, where Napoleon defeated 
the Austrians in 1796. (W. A. B. C.) 

ADDAMS, JANE (1860- ), American sociologist, was born 
at Cedarville, Illinois, on the 6th of September 1860. After 
graduating at Rockford (Illinois) Female Seminary (now Rock- 
ford College) in 1881, she spent several years in the study of 
economic and sociological questions in both Europe and America, 
and in 1889 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr established in Chicago, 
Illinois, the social settlement known as Hull House, of which she 
became the head-worker. The success of this settlement, which 
became a great factor for good in the city, was principally due to 
Miss Addams's rare executive skill and practical common-sense 
methods. Her personal participation in the life of the community 
is exemplified in her acceptance of the office of inspector of streets 
and alleys under the municipal government. She became widely 
known as a lecturer and writer on social problems and published 
Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), Newer Ideals of Peace 
(1907), and The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909). 

ADDAX, a genus of antelopes, with one species (A. nasomacu- 
latus) from North Africa and Arabia. It is a little over 3 ft. 
high, yellowish white in colour, with a brown mane and a 
fringe of the same hue on the throat. Both sexes carry horns, 



1 84 



ADDER ADDISON 



which are ringed and form an open spiral. The addax is a desert 
antelope, and in habits probably resembles the gemsbuck. It is 
hunted by the Arabs for its flesh and to test the speed of their 
horses and greyhounds; it is during these hunting parties that 
the young are captured for menagerie purposes. 

ADDER, a name for the common viper ( Viper a cevus), ranging 
from Wales to Saghalien island, and from Caithness to the north 
of Spain. The puff-adder (Bitis s. Echidna arietans) of nearly 
the whole of Africa, and the death-adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) 
from Australia to the Moluccas, are both very poisonous (see 
VIPER). The word was in Old Eng. natdre, later nadder or 
naddre; in the i4th century " a nadder " was, like" a napron," 
wrongly divided into " an adder." It appears with the generic 
meaning of " serpent " in the older forms of many Teutonic 
languages, cf. Old High Ger. natra; Goth, nadrs. It is 
thus used in the Old Eng. version of the Scriptures for the 
devil, the " serpent " of Genesis. 

ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1710), English essayist, poet and 
man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison, later dean of 
Lichfield, was born at his father's rectory of Milston in Wiltshire, 
on the ist of May 1672. After having passed through several 
schools, the last of which was the Charterhouse, he went to 
Oxford when he was about fifteen years old. He was first 
entered a commoner of Queen's College, but after two years was 
elected to a demyship of Magdalen College, having been recom- 
mended by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master's 
degree in 1693, and subsequently obtained a fellowship which 
he held until 1711. His first literary efforts were poetical, and, 
after the fashion of his day, in Latin. Many of these are pre- 
served in the Musae Anglicanae (1691-1699), and obtained aca- 
demic commendation from academic sources. But it was a poem 
in the third volume of Dryden's Miscellanies, followed in the 
next series by a translation of the fourth Georgic, which brought 
about his introduction to Tonson the bookseller, and (probably 
through Tonson) to Lord Somers and Charles Montagu. To both 
of these distinguished persons he contrived to commend himself 
by An Account of the Greatest English Poets (1694), An Address to 
King William (1695), after Namur, and a Latin poem entitled 
Pax Gulielmi (1697), on the peace of Ryswick, with the result 
that in 1699 he obtained a pension of 300 a year, to enable 
him (as he afterwards said in a memorial addressed to the crown) 
" to travel and qualify himself to serve his Majesty." In the 
summer of 1699 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the 
purpose of learning the language, he remained till the end of 
1700; and after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switzerland, 
on his way home, he was stopped by receiving notice that he was 
to attend the army under Prince Eugene, then engaged in the 
war in Italy, as secretary from the king. But his Whig friends 
were already tottering in their places; and in March 1702 the 
death of King William at once drove them from power and put 
an end to the pension. Indeed Addison asserted that he never 
received but one year's payment of it, and that all the other 
expenses of his travels were defrayed by himself. He was able, 
however, to visit a great part of -Germany, and did not reach 
Holland till the spring of 1703. His prospects were now suffi- 
ciently gloomy: he entered into treaty, oftener than once, for an 
engagement as a travelling tutor; and the correspondence in 
one of these negotiations has been preserved. Tonson had recom- 
mended him as the best person to attend in this character Lord 
Hertford, the son of the duke of Somerset, commonly called 
" The Proud." The duke, a profuse man in matters of pomp, 
was economical in questions of education. He wished Addison 
to name the salary he expected; this being declined, he an- 
nounced, with great dignity, that in addition to travelling 
expenses he would give a hundred guineas a year; Addison 
accepted the munificent offer, saying, however, that he could 
not find his account in it otherwise than by relying on his Grace's 
future patronage; and his Grace immediately intimated that 
he would look out for some one else. In the autumn of 1703 
Addison returned to England. 

The works which belong to his residence on the continent 
were the earliest that showed him to have attained maturity 



of skill and genius. There is good reason for believing that 
his tragedy of Cato, whatever changes it may afterwards have 
suffered, was in great part written while he lived in France, that 
is, when lie was about twenty-eight years of age. In the winter 
of 1701, amidst the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across 
Mt. Cenis, he composed, wholly or partly, his rhymed Letter 
from Italy to Charles Montagu. This contains some fine touches 
of description, and is animated by a noble tone of classical 
enthusiasm. While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues nn 
Medals, which, however, were not published till after his death. 
These have much liveliness of style and something of the gay 
humour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more 
strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning 
or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parallels between passages 
cf the Roman poets and figures or scenes which appear in ancient 
sculptures, Addison opened the easy course of inquiry which 
was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and this, with the appa- 
ratus of spirited metrical translations from the classics, gave the 
work a likeness to his account of his travels. This account, 
entitled Remarks on Several Parts of Italy, &c. (1705), he sent 
home for publication before his own return. It wants altogether 
the interest of personal narrative: the author hardly ever 
appears. The task in which he chiefly busies himself is that of 
exhibiting the illustrations which the writings of the Latin poets, 
and the antiquities and scenery of Italy, mutually give and re- 
ceive. Christian antiquities and the monuments of later Italian 
history had no interest for him. 

With the year 1704 begins a second era in Addison's life, 
which extends to the summer of 1710, when his age was thirty- 
eight. This was the first term of his official career; and though 
very barren of literary performance, it not only raised him from 
indigence, but settled definitely his position as a public man. 
His correspondence shows that, while on the continent, he had 
been admitted to confidential intimacy by diplomatists and 
men of rank; immediately on his return he was enrolled in the 
Kit-Cat Club, and brought thus and otherwise into communica- 
tion with the gentry of the Whig party. Although all accounts 
agree in representing him as a shy man, he was at least saved 
from all risk of making himself disagreeable in society, by his 
unassuming manners, his extreme caution and that sedulous 
desire to oblige, which his satirist Pope exaggerated into a 
positive fault. His knowledge and ability were esteemed so 
highly as to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of 
his usefulness in public business; and the literary fame he had 
already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommending 
him to public employment. Though the Whigs were out of 
office, the administration which succeeded them was, in all its 
earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and uncertain that 
the influence of their leaders was not entirely lost. Not long 
after Marlborough's great victory at Blenheim, it is said that 
Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed to Lord Halifax a 
desire to have the great duke's fame extended by a poetical 
tribute. Halifax seized the opportunity of recommending 
AddisoVi as the fittest man for the duty; stipulating, we are told, 
that tne service should not be unrewarded, and doubtless satisfy- 
ing the minister that his protege possessed other qualifications 
for office besides dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Cam- 
paign (December 1704), the poem thus written to order, was 
received with extraordinary applause; and it is probably as 
good as any that ever was prompted by no more worthy in- 
spiration. It has, indeed, neither the fiery spirit which Dryden 
threw into occasional pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish 
that would have been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make 
such uses of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing; 
and in the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several 
others, there is even something of force and imagination. 

The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends was 
faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of another 
celebrated man, John Locke; and Addison was appointed one 
of the five commissioners of appeal in Excise. The duties of the 
place must have been as light for him as they had been for his 
predecessor, for he continued to hold it with all the appointments 






ADDISON 



185 



he subsequently received from the same ministry. But there 
is no reason for believing that he was more careless than other 
public servants in his time; and the charge of incompetency 
as a man of business, which has been brought so positively 
against him, cannot easily be true as to this first period of his 
official career. Indeed, the specific allegations refer exclusively 
to the last years of his. life; and, if he had not really shown 
practical ability in the period now in question, it is not easy to 
see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth, of social or fashion- 
able liveliness and of family interest, could have been promoted, 
for several years, from office to office, as he was, till the fall of 
the administration to which he was attached. In 1 706 he became 
one of the under-secretaries of state, serving first under Sir 
Charles Hedges, who belonged to the Tory section of the govern- 
ment, and afterwards under Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's 
son-in-law, and a zealous follower of Addison's early patron, 
Soraers. The work of this office, however, like that of the 
commissionership, must often have admitted of performance 
by deputy; for in 1707, the Whigs having become stronger, 
Lord Halifax was sent on a mission to the elector of Hanover ; 
and, besides taking Vanbrugh the dramatist with him as king- 
at-arms, he selected Addison as his secretary. In 1708 Addison 
entered parliament, sitting at first for -Lostwithiel, but after- 
wards for Malmesbury, which he represented from 1710 till his 
death. Here unquestionably he did fail. What part he may 
have taken in the details of business we are not informed; but 
he was always a silent member, unless it be true that he once 
attempted to speak and sat down in confusion. In 1708 Lord 
Wharton, the father of the notorious duke, having been named 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Addison became his secretary, re- 
ceiving also an appointment as keeper of records. This event 
happened only about a year and a half before the dismissal of 
the ministry. 

But there are letters showing that Addison made himself 
acceptable to some of the best and most distinguished persons 
in Dublin; and he escaped without having any quarrel with 
Swift, his acquaintance with whom had begun some time before. 

In his literary history those years of official service are almost 
a blank, till we approach their close. Besides furnishing a pro- 
logue to Steele's comedy of The Tender Husband (1705), he 
admittedly gave him some assistance in its composition; he 
defended the government in an anonymous pamphlet on The 
Present State of the War (1707); he united compliments to the 
all-powerful Marlborough with indifferent attempts at lyrical 
poetry in his opera of Rosamond; and during the last few 
months of his tenure of office he contributed largely to the Taller. 
His entrance on this new field nearly coincides with the beginning 
of a new period in his life. Even the coalition-ministry of 
Godolphin was too Whiggish for the taste of Queen Anne; and 
the Tories, the favourites of the court, gained, both in parlia- 
mentary power and in popularity out of doors, by a combination 
of lucky accidents, dexterous management and divisions and 
double-dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the 
prosecution of Addison's old friend Sacheverell completed the 
ruin of the Whigs; and in August 1710 an entire revolution in 
the ministry had been completed. The Tory administration 
which succeeded kept its place till the queen's death in 1714, 
and Addison was thus left to devote four of the best years of his 
life, from his thirty-ninth year to his forty-third, to occupations 
less lucrative than those in which his time had recently been 
frittered away, but much more conducive to the extension of 
his own fame and to the benefit of English literature. Although 
our information as to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we 
are entitled to believe that he was now independent of literary 
labour. He speaks, in an extant paper, of having had (but lost) 
property in the West Indies; and he is understood to have 
inherited something from a younger brother, who had been 
governor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for 10,000, the 
estate of Bilton, near Rugby the place which afterwards be- 
came the residence of Mr Apperley, better known by his assumed 
name of " Nimrod." 

During those four years he produced a few political writings. 



Soon after the fall of the ministry, he started the Whig Examiner 
in opposition to the Tory Examiner, then conducted by Prior, 
and afterwards the vehicle of Swift's most vehement invectives 
against the party he had once belonged to. These are certainly 
the most ill-natured of Addison's writings, but they are neither 
lively nor vigorous, and the paper died after five numbers (i4th 
September to i2th October 1710). There is more spirit in his 
allegorical pamphlet, The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff. 

But from the autumn of 1710 till the end of 1714 his principal 
employment was the composition of his celebrated periodical 
essays. The honour of inventing the plan of such compositions, 
as well as that of first carrying the idea into execution, belongs 
to Richard Steele, who had been a schoolfellow of Addison at the 
Charterhouse, continued to be on intimate terms with him after- 
wards and attached himself with his characteristic ardour to 
the same political party. When, in April 1709, Steele published 
the first number of the Taller, Addison was in Dublin, and knew 
nothing of the design. He is said to have detected his friend's 
authorship only by recognizing, in the sixth number, a critical 
remark which he remembered having himself communicated to 
Steele. Shortly afterwards he began to furnish hints and sugges- 
tions, assisted occasionally and finally wrote regularly. Accord- 
ing to Mr Aitken (Life of Sleele, i. 248), he contributed 42 out 
of the total of 271 numbers, and was part-author of 36 more. 
The Taller exhibited, in more ways than one, symptoms of being 
an experiment. For some time the projector, imitating the news- 
sheets in form, thought it prudent to give, in each number, news 
in addition to the essay; and there was a want, both of unity 
and of correct finishing, in the putting together of the literary 
materials. Addison's contributions, in particular, are in many 
places as lively as anything he ever wrote; and his style, in its 
more familiar moods at least, had been fully formed before he 
returned from the continent. But, as compared with his later 
pieces, these are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches 
are to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out of them. 
In his invention of incidents and characters, one thought after 
another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, as if he were putting 
his own powers to the test or trying the effect of various kinds of 
objects on his readers; his most ambitious flights, in the shape of 
allegories and the like, are stiff and inanimate; and his favourite 
field of literary criticism is touched so slightly, as to show that he 
still wanted confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public. 

The Taller was dropped in January 1711, but only to be 
followed by the Spectator, which was begun on the ist day of 
March, and appeared every week-day till the 6th day of December 
1712. It had then completed the 555 numbers usually collected 
in its first seven volumes, and of these Addison wrote 274 to 
Steele's 236. He co-operated with Steele constantly from the 
very opening of the series; and they devoted their whole space 
to the essays. They relied, with a confidence which the extra- 
ordinary popularity of the work fully justified, on their power of 
exciting the interest of a wide audience by pictures and reflexions 
drawn from a field which embraced the whole compass of ordi- 
nary life and ordinary knowledge, no kind of practical themes 
being positively excluded except such as were political, and all 
literary topics being held admissible, for which it seemed possible 
to command attention from persons of average taste and infor- 
mation. A seeming unity was given to the undertaking, and 
curiosity and interest awakened on behalf of the conductors, 
by the happy invention of the Spectator's Club, for which Steele 
made the first sketch. The figure of Sir Roger de Coverley, how- 
ever, the best even in the opening group, is the only one that was 
afterwards elaborately depicted; and Addison was the author of 
most of the papers in which his oddities and amiabilities are so 
admirably delineated. Six essays are by Steele, who gives Sir 
Roger's love-story, and one paper by Budgell describes a hunting 
party. 

To Addison the Spectator owed the most natural and elegant, 
if not the most original, of its humorous sketches of human 
character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satires 
on ridiculous features in manners and on corrupt symptoms in 
public taste; these topics, however, making up a department 



i86 



ADDISON 



in which Steele was fairly on a level with his more famous co- 
adjutor. But Steele had neither learning, nor taste, nor critical 
acuteness sufficient to qualify him for enriching the series with 
such literary disquisitions as those which Addison insinuated so 
often into the lighter matter of his essays, and of which he gave 
an elaborate specimen in his criticism on Paradise Lost. Still 
farther beyond the powers of Steele were those speculations on 
the theory of literature and of the processes of thought analogous 
to it, which, in the essays " On the Pleasures of the Imagination," 
Addison prosecuted, not, indeed, with much of philosophical 
depth, but with a sagacity and comprehensiveness which we shall 
undervalue much unless we remember how little of philosophy 
was to be found in any critical views previously propounded in 
England. To Addison, further, belong those essays which (most 
frequently introduced in regular alternation in the papers of 
Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious meditation, 
and tread the elevated ground with a step so graceful as to allure 
the reader irresistibly to follow; sometimes, as in the " Walk 
through Westminster Abbey," enlivening solemn thought by 
gentle sportiveness; sometimes flowing on with an uninterrupted 
sedateness of didactic eloquence, and sometimes shrouding 
sacred truths in the veil of ingenious allegory, as in the " Vision 
of Mirza." While, in short, the Spectator, if Addison had not 
taken part in it, would probably have been as lively and humor- 
ous as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have 
wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of posterity, 
by being at once lower in its moral tone, far less abundant in 
literary knowledge and much less vigorous and expanded in 
thinking. In point of style, again, the two friends resemble each 
other so closely as to be hardly distinguishable, when both are 
dealing with familiar objects, and writing in a key not rising 
above that of conversation. But in the higher tones of thought 
and composition Addison showed a mastery of language raising 
him very decisively, not above Steele only, but above all his con- 
temporaries. Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, in any 
age of English literature, has united, so strikingly as he did, the 
colloquial grace and ease which mark the style of an accom- 
plished gentleman, with the power of soaring into a strain of 
expression nobly and eloquently dignified. 

On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the Guar- 
dian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end in October, 
with its 1 7 5th number. To this series Addison gave 53 papers, 
being a very frequent writer during the latter half of its progress. 
None of his essays here aim so high as the best of those in the 
Spectator; but he often exhibits both his cheerful and well- 
balanced humour and his earnest desire to inculcate sound 
principles of literary judgment. In the last six months of the 
year 1714, the Spectator received its eighth and last volume; 
for which Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison 
to have contributed 24 of the 80 papers. Most of these form, in 
the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and of their manner, 
a contrast to the majority of his essays in the earlier volumes; 
but several of them, both in this vein and in one less lofty, are 
among the best known, if not the finest, of all his essays. Such 
are the " Mountain of Miseries " ; the antediluvian novel of 
" Shalum and Hilpa"; the " Reflections by Moonlight on the 
Divine Perfections." 

In April 1713 Addison brought on the stage, very reluctantly, 
as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy of Cato. 
Its success was dazzling; but this issue was mainly owing to the 
concern which the politicians took in the exhibition. The Whigs 
hailed it as a brilliant manifesto in favour of constitutional free- 
dom. The Tories echoed the applause, to show themselves 
enemies of despotism, and professed to find in Julius Caesar a 
parallel to the formidable Marlborough. Even with such ex- 
trinsic aids, and the advantage derived from the established 
fame of the author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good 
dramatic work, unless in an age in which dramatic power and 
insight were almost extinct. It is poor even in its poetical 
elements, and is redeemed only by the finely solemn tone of its 
moral reflexions and the singular refinement and equable smooth- 
ness of its diction. That it obtained the applause of Voltaire 



must be ascribed to the fact that it was written in accordance 
with the rules of French classical drama. 

The literary career of Addison might almost be held as closed 
soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred in August 
1714, when he had lately completed his 42nd year. His own 
life extended only five years longer; and in this closing portion 
of it we are reminded of his more vigorous days by nothing but 
a few happy inventions interspersed in political pamphlets, 
and the gay fancy of a trifling poem on Kneller's portrait of 
George I. 

The lord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the 
elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the queen's 
demise, were, as a matter of course, the leading Whigs. They 
appointed Addison to act as their secretary. He next held, for 
a very short time, his former office under the Irish lord-lieu- 
tenant; and, late in 1716. he was made one of the lords of trade. 
In the course of the previous year had occurred the first of the 
only two quarrels with friends, into which the prudent, good- 
tempered and modest Addison is said to have ever been betrayed. 
His adversary on this occasion was Pope, who, a few years 
before, had received, with an appearance of humble thankfulness, 
Addison 's friendly remarks on his Essay on Criticism (Spectator, 
No. 253); but who, though still very young, was already very 
famous, and beginning to show incessantly his literary jealousies 
and his personal and party hatreds. Several little misunder- 
standings had paved the way for a breach, when, at the same 
time with the first volume of Pope's Iliad, there appeared a 
translation of the first book of the poem bearing the name of 
Thomas Tickell. Tickell, in his preface, disclaimed all rivalry 
with Pope, and declared that he wished only to bespeak favour- 
able attention for his contemplated version of the Odyssey. But 
the simultaneous publication was awkward; and Tickell, though 
not so good a versifier as Pope, was a dangerous rival, as being 
a good Greek scholar. Further, he was Addison's under-secre- 
tary and confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he 
was, does appear to have said (quite truly) that Tickell's trans- 
lation was more faithful than the other. Pope's anger could 
not be restrained. He wrote those famous lines in which he de- 
scribes Addison under the name of Atticus; and although it 
seems doubtful whether he really sent a copy to Addison himself, 
he afterwards went so far as to profess a belief that the rival 
translation was really Addison's own. Addison, it is pleasant 
to observe, was at the pains, in his Freeholder, to express hearty 
approbation of the Iliad of Pope, who, on the contrary, after 
Addison's death, deliberately printed his matchlessly malignant 
verses in the" Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot." In 1716 there was acted, 
with little success, Addison's comedy of The Drummer, or the 
Haunted House. It contributes very little to his fame. From 
September 1715 to June 1716 he defended the Hanoverian 
succession, and the proceedings of the government in regard 
to the rebellion, in a paper called the Freeholder, which he 
wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the 55th number. It is 
much better tempered, not less spirited and much more able in 
thinking than his Examiner. The finical man of taste does 
indeed show himself to be sometimes weary of discussing con- 
stitutional questions; but be aims many enlivening thrusts at 
weak points of social life and manners; and the character of 
the Fox-hunting Squire, who is introduced as the representative 
of the Jacobites, is drawn with so much humour and force that 
we regret not being allowed to see more of him. 

In August 1716, when he had completed his 44th year, Addison 
married Charlotte, countess-dowager of Warwick, a widow of 
fifteen years' standing. She seems to have forfeited her jointure 
by the marriage, and to have brought her husband nothing but 
the occupancy of Holland House at Kensington. The assertion 
that the courtship was a long one is probably as erroneous as 
the contemporary rumour that the marriage was. unhappy. 
Such positive evidence as exists tends rather to the contrary. 
What seems clear is, that, from obscure causes, among which 
it is alleged a growing habit of intemperance was one, Addison's 
health was shattered before he took the last, and certainly the 
most unwise, step in his ascent to political power. 



ADDISON'S DISEASE 



187 



a, 
hir 



I 



For a considerable time dissensions had existed in the ministry; 
and these came to a crisis in April 1717, when those who had 
been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of the opposition. 
Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole anticipated dismissal 
by resignation. There was now formed, under the leadership 
f General Stanhope and Lord Sunderland, an administration 
ich, as resting on court-influence, was nicknamed the "German 
nistry." Sunderland, Addison's former superior, became one 
the two principal secretaries of state; and Addison him- 
f was appointed as the other. His elevation to such a post 
,d been contemplated on the accession of George I., and pre- 
inted, we are told, by his own refusal; and it is asserted, on 
e authority of Pope, that his acceptance now was owing only 
the influence of his wife. Even if there is no ground, as there 
obably is not, for the allegation of Addison's inefficiency in 
details of business, his unfitness for such an office in such 
ircumstances was undeniable and glaring. It was impossible 
that a government, whose secretary of state could not open 
his lips in debate, should long face an opposition headed by 
Robert Walpole. The decay of Addison's health, too, was going 
on rapidly, being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by 
anxiety, if no worse causes were at work. Ill-health was the 
reason assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation which 
he laid before the king in March 1718, eleven months after his 
ipointment. He received a pension of 1500 a year. 
Not long afterwards the divisions in the Whig party alienated 
im from his oldest friend. The Peerage Bill, introduced in 
February 1719, was attacked, on behalf of the opposition, in a 
weekly paper called the Plebeian, written by Steele. Addison 
answered the attack in the Old Whig, and this bellum plusquam 
civile as Johnson calls it was continued, with increased 
.crimony, through two or three numbers. How Addison, who 
s dying, felt after this painful controversy we are not told 
rectly; but the Old Whig was excluded from that posthumous 
collection of his works (1721-1726) for which his executor Tickell 
had received from him authority and directions. It is said that 
the quarrel in politics rested on an estrangement which had been 
growing for some years. According to a rather nebulous story, 
for which Johnson is the popular authority, Addison, or Addison's 
lawyer, put an execution for 100 in Steele's house by way of 
reading his friend a lesson on his extravagance. This well-meant 
interference seems to have been pardoned by Steele, but his 
letters show that he resented the favour shown to Tickell by 
Addison and his own neglect by the Whigs. 

The disease under which Addison laboured appears to have 
been asthma. It became more violent after his retirement from 
office, and was now accompanied by dropsy. His deathbed was 
placid and resigned, and comforted by those religious hopes 
which he had so often suggested to others, and the value of 
which he is said, in an anecdote of doubtful authority, to have 
now inculcated in a parting interview with his step-son. He died 
at Holland House on the i7th of June 1719, six weeks after 
having completed his 47th year. His body, after lying in state, 
was interred in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. 

Addison's life was written in 1843 by LucyAikin. This was reviewed 
by Macaulay in July of the same year. A more modern study is that 
m the " Men of Letters " series by W. J. Courthope (1884). There 
is a convenient one- volume edition of the Spectator, by Henry Morley 
(Routledge, 1868), and another in 8 vols. (1897-1898) by G. Gregory 
Smith. Of the Taller there is an edition by G. A. Aitkeri in 8 vols. 
(1898). A complete edition of Addison's works (based upon Kurd) 
is included in Bohn's British Classics. (W. S. ; A. D.) 

ADDISON'S DISEASE, a constitutional affection manifesting 
itself in an exaggeration of the normal pigment of the skin, 
asthenia, irritability of the gastro-intestinal tract, and weakness 
and irregularity of the heart's action: these symptoms being 
due to loss of function of the suprarenal glands. It is important 
to note, however, that Addison's Disease may occur without 
pigmentation, and pigmentation without Addison's Disease. 
The condition was first recognized by Dr Thomas Addison of 
Guy's Hospital, who in 1855 published an important work on 
The Constitutional and Local Effects of Diseases of the Suprarenal 
Capsules. Sir Samuel Wilks worked zealously in obtaining re- 



cognition for these observations in England, and Brown-Sequard 
in France was stimulated by this paper to investigate the 
physiology of these glands. Dr Trousseau, many years later, 
first called the condition by Addison's name. Dr Headlam 
Greenhow worked at the subject for many years and embodied 
his observations in the Croonian Lectures of 1875. But from 
this time on no further work was undertaken until the discovery 
of the treatment of myxoedema by thyroid extract, and the 
consequent researches into the physiology of the ductless glands. 
This stimulated renewed interest in the subject, and work was 
carried on in many countries. But it remained for Schafer and 
Oliver of University College, London, to demonstrate the in- 
ternal secretion of the suprarenals, and its importance in normal 
metabolism, thereby confirming Addison's original view that 
the disease was due to loss of function of these glands. They 
demonstrated that these glands contain a very powerful extract 
which produces toxic effects when administered to animals, and 
that an active principle " adrenalin " can be separated, which 
excites contraction of the small blood vessels and thus raises 
blood pressure. The latest views of this disease thus stand: (i) 
that it is entirely dependent on suprarenal disease, being the 
result of a diminution or absence of their internal secretion, or else 
of a perversion of their secretion; or (2) that it is of nervous 
origin, being the result of changes in or irritation of the large 
sympathetic plexuses in the abdomen; or else (3) that it is a 
combination of glandular inadequacy and sympathetic irritation. 
The morbid anatomy shows (i) that in over 80% of the 
cases the changes in the suprarenals are those due to tuber- 
culosis, usually beginning in the medulla and resulting in more 
or less caseation; and that this lesion is bilateral and usually 
secondary to tuberculous disease elsewhere, especially of the 
spinal column. In the remaining cases (2) simple atrophy has 
been noted, or (3) chronic interstitial inflammation which would 
lead to atrophy: and finally (4) an apparently normal condition 
of the glands, but the neighbouring sympathetic ganglia diseased 
or involved in a mass of fibrous tissue. Other morbid conditions 
of the suprarenals do not give rise to the symptoms of Addison's 
Disease. 

The onset of the disease is extremely insidious, a slow but 
increasing condition of weakness being complained of by the 
patient. There is a feeble and irregular action of the heart 
resulting in attacks of syncope which may prove fatal. Blood 
pressure is extremely low. From time to time there may be 
severe attacks of nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea. The best 
known symptom, but one which only occurs after the disease 
has made considerable progress, is a gradually increasing pig- 
mentation of the skin, ranging from a bronzy yellow to brown 
or even occasionally black. This pigmentation shows itself (i) 
over exposed parts, as face and hands; (2) wherever pigment 
appears normally, as in the axillae and round the nipples; (3) 
wherever pressure is applied, as round the waist; and (4) occa- 
sionally on mucous membranes, as in the mouth. 

The patient's temperature is usually somewhat subnormal. 
The disease is found in males far more commonly than in females, 
and among the lower classes more than the upper. But this 
latter fact is probably due to poor nourishment and bad hygienic 
conditions rendering the poorer classes more susceptible to 
tuberculosis. 

The diagnosis, certainly in the early stages of the disease, and 
often in the later, is by no means easy. Pigmentation of the skin 
occurs in many conditions as in normal pregnancy, uterine 
fibroids, abdominal growths, certain cases of heart disease, 
exophthalmic goitre, &c., and after the prolonged use of certain 
drugs as arsenic and silver. But the presence of a low blood 
pressure with weakness and irritability of the heart and some 
of the preceding symptoms render the diagnosis fairly certain. 
The latest researches on the subject tend to indicate a more 
certain diagnosis in the effect on the blood pressure of adminis- 
tering suprarenal extract, the blood pressure of the normal 
subject being unaffected thereby, that of the man suffering from 
suprarenal inadequacy being markedly raised. The disease is 
treated by promoting the general health in every possible way ; 






ADDRESS ADELAIDE 



by diet; by tonics, especially arsenic and strychnine; by atten- 
tion to the hygienic conditions; and always by the adminis- 
tration of one of the many preparations of the suprarenal gland 
extract. 

"ADDRESS, THE," an English parliamentary term for the 
reply of the Houses of Parliament (and particularly of the House 
of Commons) to the speech of the sovereign at the opening 
of a new parliament or session. There are certain formalities 
which distinguish this stage of parliamentary proceedings. The 
" king's speech " itself is divided into three sections: the first, 
addressed to " My Lords and Gentlemen," touches on foreign 
affairs; the second, to the " Gentlemen of the House of Com- 
mons," has reference to the estimates; the third, to " My 
Lords and Gentlemen," outlines the proposed legislation for 
the session. Should the sovereign in person open parliament, 
he does so in the House of Lords in full state, and the speaker 
and members of the House of Commons are summoned there 
into the royal presence. The sovereign then reads his speech. 
If the sovereign is not present in person, the speech is read by 
commission. The Commons then return to their House, and an 
address in answer is moved in both Houses. The government 
of the day selects two of its supporters in each House to move 
and second the address, and when carrying out this honourable 
task they appear in levee dress. Previous to the session of 1890- 
1891, the royal speech was answered paragraph by paragraph, but 
" the address " is now moved in the form of a single resolution, 
thanking the sovereign for his most gracious speech. The debate 
on the address is used as a means of ranging over the whole 
government policy, amendments being introduced by the opposi- 
tion. A defeat on an amendment to the address is generally 
regarded by the government as a vote of no-confidence. After 
the address is agreed to it is ordered to be presented to the 
sovereign. The thanks of the sovereign for the address are then 
conveyed to the Lords by the lord steward of the household and 
to the Commons by the comptroller of the household. 

ADELAER, or ADELER (Norwegian for " eagle "), the surname 
of honour given on his ennoblement to Kurt Sivertsen (1622- 
1675), the famous Norwegian-Danish naval commander. He 
was born at Brevig in Norway, and at the age of fifteen 
became a cadet in the Dutch fleet under van Tromp, after a 
few years entering the service of the Venetian Republic, which 
was engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1645 he 
had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in various 
victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved his most 
brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the I3th of May 1654. 
when, with his own vessel alone, he broke through the line of 
Turkish galleys, sank fifteen of them, and burned others, causing 
a loss to the enemy of 5000 men. The following day he entered 
Tenedos, and compelled the complete surrender of the Turks. 
On returning to Venice he was crowned with honours, and became 
admiral-lieutenant in 1660. Numerous tempting offers were 
made to him by other naval powers, and in 1661 he left Venice 
to return to the Netherlands. Next year he was induced, by 
the offer of a title and an enormous salary, to accept the 
command of the Danish fleet from Frederick III. Under 
Christian V. he took the command of the combined Danish 
fleets against Sweden, but died suddenly on the 5th of November 
1675 at Copenhagen, before the expedition set out. When in the 
Venetian service, Adelaer was known by the name of Curzio 
Suffrido Adelborst (i.e. Dutch for " naval cadet "). 

ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931-999), queen of Italy and 
empress, was the daughter of Rudolph II. of Burgundy and of 
Bertha, daughter of Duke Burchard of Swabia. On the death of 
Rudolph in 937, his widow married Hugh, king of Italy, to whose 
son Lothair Adelaide was at the same time betrothed. She was 
married to him in 947; but after an unhappy union of three 
years Lothair died (November 22, 950). The young widow, re- 
markable for her character and beauty, was seized by Lothair's 
successor, Berengar II., margrave of Ivrea, who, angered probably 
at her refusal to marry his son Adalbert and thus secure his title 
to the Italian kingdom, kept her in close confinement at Como. 
After four months (August 951), she escaped, and took refuge at 



Canossa with Atto, count of Modena-Reggio (d. 981). Mean- 
while Otto I., the German king, whose English wife Edgitha 
had died in 946, had formed the design of marrying her and 
claiming the Italian kingdom in her right, as a step towards the 
revival of the empire of Charlemagne. In September 951, 
accordingly, he appeared in Italy, Adelaide willingly accepted 
his invitation to meet him at Pavia and at the close of the 
year the fateful union was celebrated. From the first her part 
in German affairs was important. To her are ascribed the in- 
fluences which led in 953 to the revolt of Ludolf, Otto's son by 
his first marriage, the crushing of which in the following year 
established Adelaide's power. On the 2nd of February 962 she 
was crowned empress at Rome by Pope John XII. immediately 
after her husband, and she accompanied Otto in 966 on his third 
expedition to Italy, where she remained with him for six years. 
After Otto I.'s death (May 7, 973), Adelaide exercised for some 
years a controlling influence over her son, the new emperor, 
Otto II. The causes of their subsequent estrangement are ob- 
scure, but it was possibly due to the empress's lavish expenditure 
in charity and church building, which endeared her to ecclesiastics 
but was a serious drain on the imperial finances. In 978 she left 
the court and lived partly in Italy, partly with her brother 
Conrad, king of Burgundy, by whose mediation she was ulti- 
mately reconciled to her son. In 983, shortly before his death, 
she was appointed his viceroy in Italy; and was successful, in 
concert with the empress Theophano, widow of Otto II., and 
Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, in defending the right of her infant 
grandson, Otto III., to the German crown against the pretensions 
of Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria. In June 984 the 
infant king was handed over by Henry to the care of the two 
empresses; but the masterful will of Theophano soon obtained 
the upper hand, and until the death of the Greek empress, on the 
1 5th of June 991, Adelaide had no voice in German affairs. She 
now assumed the regency, in concert with ishop Willigis and a 
council of princes of the Empire, and held it until in 995 Otto 
was declared of age. In 996 the young king went to Italy to 
receive the imperial crown; and from this date Adelaide ceased 
to concern herself with worldly affairs, but devoted herself to 
pious exercises, to intimate correspondence with the abbots 
Majolus and Odilo of Cluny, and the foundation of churches 
and religious houses. She died on the 1 7th of December 999, and 
was buried in the convent of SS. Peter and Paul, her favourite 
foundation, at Salz in Alsace. She was proclaimed a saint by 
the grateful German clergy; but her name has never found a 
place in the Roman calendar. Like her daughter-in-law Theo- 
phano and other exalted ladies of this period, Adelaide possessed 
considerable literary attainments (liter atissima craf), and her 
knowledge of Latin was of use to Otto I., who only learned the 
language late in life and remained to the end a poor scholar. 

By the emperor Otto I. she had four children: Otto II. 
(d. 983), Mathilda, abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 999), Adelheid 
(Adelaide), abbess of Essen (d. 974), and Liutgard, who married 
Conrad II., duke of Franconia, and died in 955. 

Adelaide's life (Vita or Epiiaphium Adalheidae imperatricis) was 
written by St Odilo of Cluny. It is valuable only for the latter 
years of the empress, after she had retired from any active share in 
the world's affairs. The rest of her life is merely outlined, though 
her adventures in escaping from Berengar are treated in more detail. 
The best edition is in Duchesne, Bibliotheca Cluniacensis, pp. 353- 
362. See Giov. Batt. Semeria, Vita politico-religiosa di s. Adeleida, 
&c. (Turin, 1842); Jul. Bentzingcr, Das Leben der Kaiserin Adelheid 
. . . wahrend der Regierung Ottos III., Inaug. Dissertation (Breslau, 
1883); J. J. Dey, Hist, de s. Adelaide, fife. (Geneva, 1862); F. P 
Wimmer, Kaiserin Adelheid, Gemahlin Ottos I. des Grossen (Regensb. 
1889); Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart and 
Berlin, 1904). Further references in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources 
historiques (Paris, 1903). 

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia. It is situated in 
the county to which it gives name, on the banks of the river 
Torrens, 7 m. from its mouth. Its site is a level plain, near the 
foot of the Mount Lofty range, in which Mount Lofty itself 
reaches 2334 ft. The broad streets of the city intersect at right 
angles. It is divided into North Adelaide, the residential, and 
South Adelaide, the business quarter. A broad strip of park 



ADELARD ADELSBERG 



189 



lands lies between them, through which runs the river Torrens, 
crossed by five bridges and greatly improved by a dam on the 
west of the city. The banks are beautifully laid out. Broad, 
belts of park lands surround both North and South Adelaide, 
and as the greater portion of these lands is planted with fine 
shady trees, this feature renders Adelaide one of the most 
attractive cities in Australasia. South Adelaide is bounded by 
four broad terraces facing north, south, east and west. The 
main thoroughfare, King William Street, runs north and south, 
passing through Victoria Square, a small park in the centre of 
the city. Handsome public buildings are numerous. Govern- 
ment House stands in grounds on the north side of North Ter- 
race, with several other official buildings in the vicinity; but 
the majority are in King William Street. Here are the town 
hall, with the lofty Albert Tower, and the general post office, 
with the Victoria Tower which, with the old and new Govern- 
ment offices, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Francis Xavier 
and the court houses, surround Victoria Square. On North 
Terrace are the houses of parliament, and the institute, containing 
a public library and museum. Here is also Adelaide University, 
established by an act of 1874, and opened in 1876. The existing 
buildings were opened in 1882. Munificent gifts have from time 
to time assisted in the extension of its scope, as for example that 
of Sir Thomas Elder (d. 1897), who took a leading part in the 
foundation of the university. This gift, among other provisions, 
enabled the Elder Conservatorium of Music to be established, 
the building for which was opened in 1000. In 1903 a building 
for the schools of engineering and science was opened. The total 
number of students in the university approaches 1000. To the 
east of the university is the building in which the exhibition was 
held in commemoration of the jubilee of the colony in 1887. 
This building is occupied by the Royal Agricultural and Horti- 
cultural Society, a technical museum, &c. The school of mines 
and industries (1903) stands east of this again. The buildings 
of the numerous important commercial, social and charitable 
institutions add to the dignity of the city. The Anglican cathe- 
dral of St Peter (1878) is in North Adelaide. The Botanical 
Park, which has an area of 84 acres, lies on the south bank of 
the Torrens, on the east of the city. It includes the Zoological 
Garden, is beautifully laid out and forms one of the most 
attractive features of Adelaide. The city has a number of 
good statues, chief among which are copies of the Farnese 
Hercules (Victoria Square) and of Canova's Venus (North 
Terrace), statues of Queen Victoria and Robert Burns, Sir Thomas 
Elder's statue at the university, and a memorial (1905) over the 
grave of Colonel Light, founder of the colony, in Light Square. 
Adelaide is governed by a mayor and six aldermen elected by 
the whole body of the ratepayers, and is the only Australian city 
in which the mayor is so elected. The chief industries are the 
manufacture of woollen, earthenware and iron goods, brewing, 
starch-making, flour-milling and soap-boiling. Adelaide is also 
the central share market of Australia, for West Australian gold- 
mines, for the silver-mines at Broken Hill, and for the copper- 
mines at Wallaroo, Burra Burra and Moonta; while Port 
Adelaide, on the neighbouring shore of St Vincent Gulf, ranks 
as the third in the Commonwealth. Adelaide is the terminus 
of an extensive railway system, the main line of which runs 
through Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane to Rockhampton. In 
summer the climate is often oppressively hot under the influence 
of winds blowing from the interior, but the proximity of the sea 
on the one side and of the mountains on the other allows the 
inhabitants to avoid the excessive heat; at other seasons, 
however, the climate is mild and pleasant; with a mean annual 
rainfall of 20-4 ins. The vice-regal summer residence is at 
Marble Hill, on the Mount Lofty range. Adelaide was founded 
in 1836 and incorporated in 1843. It received its name at the 
desire of King William I V. , in honour of Queen Adelaide. Round 
the city are many pleasant suburbs, connected with it by rail 
and tramways; the chief of these are Burnside, Beaumont, 
Unley, Mitcham, Goodwood, Plymton, Hindmarsh, Prospect, 
St Peters, Norwood and Kensington. Glenelg is a favourite 
watering-place. The population of the city proper was 39,240 






in 1901; of the city and suburbs within a lo-miles radius, 
162,261. 

ADELARD (or AETHELARD) of Bath (i2th century), English 
scholastic philosopher, and one of the greatest savants of 
medieval England. He studied in France at Laon and Tours, 
and travelled, it is said, through Spain, Italy, North Africa and 
Asia Minor, during a period of seven years. At a time when 
Western Europe was rich in men of wide knowledge and intel- 
lectual eminence, he gained so high a reputation that he was 
described by Vincent de Beauvais as Philosophus Anglomm. 
He lived for a time in the Norman kingdom of Sicily and returned 
to England in the reign of Henry I. From the Pipe Roll (31 
Henry I. 1130) it appears that he was awarded an annual grant 
of money from the revenues of Wiltshire. The great interest of 
Adelard in the history of philosophy lies in the fact that he made 
a special study of Arabian philosophy during his travels, and, 
on his return to England, brought his knowledge to bear on the 
current scholasticism of the time. He has been credited with a 
knowledge of Greek, and it is said that his translation of Euclid's 
Elements was made from the original Greek. It is probable, 
however, from the nature of the text, that his authority was an 
Arabic version. This important work was published first at 
Venice in 1482 under the name of Campanus of Novara, but the 
work is always attributed to Adelard. Campanus may be re- 
sponsible for some of the notes. It became at once the text-book 
of the chief mathematical schools of Europe, though its critical 
notes were of little value. His Arabic studies he collected under 
the title Perdifficiles Quaestiones Nalurales, printed after 1472. 
It is in the' form of a dialogue between himself and his favourite 
nephew, and was dedicated to Richard, bishop of Bayeux from 
1113 to 1133. He wrote also treatises on the astrolabe (a copy 
of this is in the British Museum), on the abacus (three copies 
exist in the Vatican library, the library of Leiden University 
and the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris), translations of the 
Kharismian Tables and an Arabic Introduction to Astronomy. 
His great contribution to philosophy proper was the De Eodem 
et Diver so (On Identity and Difference), which is in the form of 
letters addressed to his nephew. In this work philosophy and 
the world are personified as Philosophia and Philocosmia in 
conflict for the soul of man. Philosophia is accompanied by the 
liberal arts, represented as Seven Wise Virgins; the world 
by Power, Pleasure, Dignity, Fame and Fortune. The work 
deals with the current difficulties between nominalism and 
realism, the relation between the individual and the genus or 
species. Adelard regarded the individual as the really existent, 
and yet, from different points of view, as being himself the genus 
and the species. He was either the founder or the formulator 
of the doctrine of indifference, according to which genus and 
species retain their identity in the individual apart altogether 
from particular idiosyncrasies. For the relative importance 
of this doctrine see article SCHOLASTICISM. 

See Jourdain, Recherches sur les tradtictions d'Aristote (2nd ed., 
1843); Haureau, Philosophic scolastique (2nd ed., 1872), and works 
appended to art. SCHOLASTICISM. 

ADELSBERG (Slovene Postojina), a market-town in Carniola, 
Austria, 30 m. S.S.W. of Laibach by rail. Pop. (1900) 3636, 
mostly Slovene. About a mile from the town is the entrance 
to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, the largest and 
most magnificent in Europe. The cavern is divided into four 
grottoes, with two lateral ramifications which reach to the dis- 
tance of about a mile and a half from the entrance. The river 
Poik enters the cavern 60 ft. below its mouth, and is heard 
murmuring in its recesses. In the Kaiser-Ferdinand grotto, the 
third of the chain, a great ball is annually held on Whit- Monday, 
when the chamber is brilliantly illuminated. The Franz- Joseph- 
Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and the farthest from 
the entrance, is 665 ft. in length, 640 ft. in breadth and more 
than 100 ft. high. Besides the imposing proportions of its 
chambers, the cavern is remarkable for the variegated beauty 
of its stalactite formations, some resembling transparent drapery, 
others waterfalls, trees, animals or human beings, the more 
grotesque being called by various fanciful appellations. These 



ADELUNG ADENES 



subterranean wonders were known as far back as 1213, but the 
cavern remained undiscovered in modern times until 1816, and 
it is only in still more recent times that its vast extent has been 
fully ascertained and explored. The total length of the passages is 
now estimated at over sJ m. The connexion with the Ottokar 
grotto was established in 1890. The Magdalene grotto, about an 
hour's walk to the north, is celebrated for the extraordinary 
subterranean amphibian, the proteus dnguinus, first discovered 
there. It is about a foot in length, lives on snails and worms 
and is provided with both lungs and gills. 

ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1732-1806), German 
grammarian and philologist, was born at Spantekow, in Pomer- 
ania, on the 8th of August 1732, and educated at the public 
schools of Anklam and Klosterbergen, and the university of 
Halle. In 1759 he was appointed professor at the gymnasium of 
Erfurt, but relinquished this situation two years later and went 
to reside in a private capacity at Leipzig, where he devoted him- 
self to philological researches. In 1787 he received the appoint- 
ment of principal librarian to the elector of Saxony at Dresden, 
where he continued to reside until his death on the loth of 
September 1806. 

The writings of Adelung are very voluminous, and there is not 
one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit some proofs of the 
genius, industry and erudition of the author. By means of his 
excellent grammars, dictionary and various works on German 
style, he contributed greatly towards rectifying the ortho- 
graphy, refining the idiom and fixing the standard of his native 
tongue. His German dictionary Grammalisch-kritisches Worter- 
buch der hochdeutschen Mundarl (1774-1786) bears witness to 
tha patient spirit of investigation which Adelung possessed in so 
remarkable a degree, and to his intimate knowledge of the history 
of the different dialects on which modern German is based. No 
man before Jakob Grimm (q.v.) did so much for the language of 
Germany. Shortly before his death he issued Mithridates, oder 
allgemcine S prachenkunde (1806). The hint of this work appears 
to have been taken from a publication, with a similar title, pub- 
lished by Konrad von Gesner (1516-1565) in 1555; but the plan 
of Adelung is much more extensive. Unfortunately he did not 
live to finish what he had undertaken. The first volume, which 
contains the Asiatic languages, was published immediately after 
his death; the other two were issued under the superintendence 
of Johann Severin Vater (1771-1826). Of the very numerous 
works by Adelung the following may be noted: Directorium 
diplomaticum (Meissen, 1802); Deutsche Sprachlehre fiir Schulen 
(Berlin, 1781), and the periodical, Magazin fur die deutsche 
Sprache (Leipzig, 1782-1784). 

ADEMPTION (Lat. ademptio, from adimere, a taking away), 
in law, a revocation of a grant or bequest (see LEGACY). 

ADEN, a seaport and territory in Arabia, politically part of 
British India, under the governor of Bombay. The seaport is 
situated in 12 45' N. lat., and 45 4' E. long., on a peninsula 
near the entrance to the Red Sea, 100 m. E. of the strait of 
Bab-el-Mandeb. The peninsula of Aden consists chiefly of a 
mass of barren and desolate volcanic rocks, extending five miles 
from east to west, and three from its northern shore to Ras 
Sanailah or Cape Aden, its most southerly point; it is connected 
with the mainland by a neck of flat sandy ground only a few feet 
high; and its greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776 ft. 
above the level of the sea. The town is built on the eastern 
coast, in what is probably the crater of an extinct volcano, and 
is surrounded by precipitous rocks that form an admirable 
natural defence. There are two harbours, an outer, facing the 
town, protected by the island of Sirah, but now partially choked 
with mud; and an inner, called Aden Back-bay, or, by the 
Arabs, Bandar Tawayih, on the western side of the peninsula, 
which at all periods of the year admits vessels drawing less 
than 20 ft. On the whole, Aden is a healthy place, although 
it suffers considerably from the want of good water, and the heat 
is often very intense. From time to time additional land on the 
mainland has been acquired by cession or purchase, and the 
adjoining island of Perim, lying in the actual mouth of the 
strait, was permanently occupied in 1857. Farther inland, 



and along the coast, most of the Arab 'chiefs are under the 
political control of the British government, which pays them 
regular allowances. The area of the peninsula is only 15 sq. m., 
but the total area of British territory is returned at 80 sq. m., 
including Perim (5 sq. m.), and that of the Aden Protectorate 
is about 9000 sq. m. The seaport of Aden is strongly fortified. 
Modern science has converted " Steamer Point " into a seem- 
ingly impregnable position, the peninsula which the " Point " 
forms to the whole crater being cut off by a fortified line which 
runs from north to south, just to the east of the coal wharfs. 
The administration is conducted by a political resident, who is 
also the military commandant. All food requires to be imported, 
and the water-supply is largely derived from condensation. A 
little water is obtained from wells, and some from an aqueduct 
7 m. long, constructed in 1867 at a cost of 30,000, besides an 
irregular supply from the old reservoirs. 

From its admirable commercial and military position, Aden 
early became the chief entrepot of the trade between Europe and 
Asia. It is the 'Apa/Sia tvdalfjiuv of the Periplus. It was known 
to the Romans as Arabia Felix and Attanae, and was captured 
by them, probably in the year 24 B.C. In 1513 it was unsuccess- 
fully attacked by the Portuguese under Albuquerque, but sub- 
sequently it fell into the hands of the Turks in 1538. In the 
following century the Turks themselves relinquished their con- 
quests in Yemen, and the sultan of Sana established a supremacy 
over Aden, which was maintained until the year 1735, when 
the sheikh of Lahej, throwing off his allegiance, founded a line 
of independent sultans. In 1837 a ship under British colours 
was wrecked near Aden, and the crew and passengers grievously 
maltreated by the Arabs. An explanation of the outrage being 
demanded by the Bombay government, the sultan undertook to 
make compensation for the plunder of the vessel, and also agreed 
to sell his town and port to the English. Captain Haines of the 
Indian navy was sent to complete these arrangements, but the 
sultan's son refused to fulfil the promises that his father had 
made. A combined naval and miltary force was thereupon 
despatched, and the place was captured and annexed to British 
India on the i6th of January 1839. The withdrawal of the 
trade between Europe and the East, caused by the discovery of 
the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and the misgovern- 
ment of the native rulers, had gradually reduced Aden to a state 
of comparative insignificance; but about the time of its capture 
by the British the Red Sea route to India was reopened, and 
commerce soon began to flow in its former channel. Aden was 
made a free port, and was chosen as one of the coaling stations 
of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company. Its im- 
portance as a port of call for steamers and a coaling station has 
grown immensely since the opening of the Suez Canal. It also 
conducts a considerable trade with the interior of Arabia, and 
with the Somali coast of Africa on the opposite side of the Red 
Sea. The submarine cables of the Eastern Telegraph Company 
here diverge on the one hand to India, the Far East and 
Australia, and on the other hand to Zanzibar and the Cape. 

In 1839 the population was less than 1000, but in 1901 it had 
grown to 43, 974. The gross revenue(i9Oi-i9O2) was Rs. 37,25,915. 
There are three printing-presses, of which one is in the gaol and 
the other two belong to a European and a Parsee firm of mer- 
chants. The port is visited yearly by some 1300 steamers with a 
tonnage of 25 million tons. The principal articles of import are 
coffee, cotton-piece goods, &c., grain, hides, coal, opium, cotton- 
twist and yarn. The exports are, in the main, a repetition of 
the imports. Of the total imports nearly one-third come from 
the east coast of Africa, and another third from Arabia. Of the 
total exports, nearly one- third again go to the east coast of 
Africa. The Aden brigade belongs to the western army corps 
of India. 

ADENES (ADENEZ or ADANS), surnamed LE ROI, French 
trouvere, was born in Brabant about 1240. He owed his educa- 
tion to the kindness of Henry III., duke of Brabant, and he re- 
mained in favour at court for some time after the death (1261) of 
his patron. In 1 269 he entered the service of Guy de Dampierre, 
afterwards count of Flanders, probably as roi des menestrels, 






ADENINE ADHEMAR 



191 



and followed him in the next year on the abortive crusade in 
Tunis in which Louis IX. lost his life. The expedition returned 
by way of Sicily and Italy, and Adenes has left in his poems 
some very exact descriptions of the places through which he 
passed. The purity of his French and the absence of provincial- 
isms point to a long residence in France, and it has been suggested 
that Adenes may have followed Mary of Brabant thither on 
her marriage with Philip the Bold. He seems, however, to have 
remained in the service of Count Guy, although he made frequent 
visits to Paris to consult the annals preserved in the abbey 
of St Denis. The poems written by Adenes are four: the 
Enfances Ogier, an enfeebled version of the Chevalerie Ogicr de 
Danemarche written by Raimbert de Paris at the beginning of 
the century; Berte aus granspies, the history of the mother of 
Charlemagne, founded on well-known traditions which are also 
preserved in the anonymous Chronique de France, and in the 
Chronique rimee of Philippe Mousket; Bueves de Comarchis, 
belonging to the cycle of romance gathered round the history of 
Aimeri de Narbonne; and a long roman d'aventures, Cleomades, 
borrowed from Spanish and Moorish traditions brought into 
France by Blanche, daughter of Louis IX., who after the death 
of her Spanish husband returned to the French court. Adenes 

ibably died before the end of the 1 3th century. 
The romances of Adenes were edited for the Academic Imperiale 

Royale of Brussels by A. Scheler and A. van Hasselt in 1874; 
Berte was rendered into modern French by G. Hecq (1897) and by 
R. Perie(i9Oo) ; Cleomades, by Le Chevalier de Chatelain (1859). See 
also the edition of Berte by Paulin Paris (1832); an article by the 
same writer in the Hist, litt. de la France, vol. xx. pp. 679-718; 
Leon Gautier, Les epopees Jrangaises, vol. iii., &c. 

ADENINE, or 6-AniNO-PURiN, CsHsNs, in chemistry, a basic 
substance which has been obtained as a decomposition product 
of nuclein, and also from the pancreatic glands of oxen. It has 
been synthesized by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1897, 30, p. 2238) by 
heating 2.6.8-trichlorpurin with 10 times its weight of ammonia 
for six hours at 100 C.; by this means 6-amino-2.8-dichlor- 
purin is obtained, which on reduction by means of hydriodic 
acid and phosphonium iodide is converted into adenine. In 
1898 E. Fischer also obtained it from 8-oxy-2.6-dichlorpurin 
(Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104). It crystallizes in long needles; forms 
salts C 6 H 6 N 5 -2HI and (CsHiNs^-ftSO^^O, and is converted 
by nitrous acid into hypoxanthine or 6-oxypurin. On heating 
with hydrochloric acid at 180-200 C. it is decomposed; the 
products of the reaction being glycocol), ammonia, formic acid 
and carbon dioxide. Various methyl derivatives of adenine have 
been described by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104) and 
by M. Kruger (Zeit. fur physiol. Chemie, 1894, 18, p. 434). For 
the constitution of adenine see PURIN. 

ADENOIDS, or ADENOID GROWTHS (from Gr. d5ec oaSijs, glandu- 
lar), masses of soft, spongy tissue between the back of the nose 
and throat, occurring mostly in young children; blocking the 
air- way, they prevent the due inflation of the lungs and the 
proper development of the chest. The growths are apt to keep 
up a constant catarrh near the orifice of the ventilating tubes 
which pass from the throat to the ear, and so render the child 
dull of hearing or even deaf. They also give rise to asthma, and 
like enlarged tonsils with which they are often associated 
they impart to the child a vacant, stupid expression, and hinder 
his physical and intellectual development. They cause his 
voice to be " stuffy," thick, and unmusical. Though, except in 
the case of a cleft palate, they cannot be seen with the naked 
eye, they are often accompanied by a visible and suggestive 
granular condition of the wall at the back of the throat. Their 
presence may easily be determined by the medical attendant 
gently hooking the end of the index-finger round the back of 
the soft palate. If the tonsils are enlarged it is kinder to post- 
pone this digital examination of the throat until the child is 
under the influence of an anaesthetic for operation upon the 
tonsils, and if adenoids are present they can be removed at the 
same time that the tonsils are dealt with. Though the disease 
is a comparatively recent discovery, the pioneer in its treatment 
being Meyer of Copenhagen, it has probably existed as long as 
tuberculosis itself, with which affection it is somewhat distantly 



connected. In the unenlightened days many children must have 
got well of adenoids without operation, and even at the present 
time it by no means follows that because a child has these post- 
nasal vegetations he must forthwith be operated on. The con- 
dition is very similar to that of enlarged tonsils, where with time, 
patience and attention to general measures, operation is often 
rendered unnecessary. But if the child continues to breathe 
with his mouth open and to snore at night, if he remains deaf 
and dull, and is troubled with a chronic " cold in his head," the 
question of thorough exploration of the naso-pharynx and of 
a surgical operation should most certainly be considered. In 
recent years the comparatively simple operation for their re- 
moval has been very frequently performed, and, as a rule, with 
marked benefit, but this treatment should always be followed 
by a course of instruction in respiratory exercises; the child 
must be taught regularly to fill his lungs and make the tidal air 
pass through the nostrils. These respiratory exercises may be 
resorted to before operation is proposed, and in some cases they 
may render operative treatment unnecessary. Operations should 
not be performed in cold weather or in piercing east winds, 
and it is advisable to keep the child indoors for a day or two 
subsequent to its performance. To expose a child just after 
operating on his throat to the risks of a journey by train or 
omnibus is highly inadvisable. Although the operation is not 
a very painful one, it ought not to be performed upon a child 
except .under the influence of chloroform or some other general 
anaesthetic. (E.O.*) 

ADEPT (if used as a substantive pronounced adept, if as 
an adjective adept; from Lat. odeptus, one who has attained), 
completely and fully acquainted with one's subject, an expert. 
The word implies more than acquired proficiency, a natural 
inborn aptitude. In olden times an adept was one who was 
versed in magic, an alchemist, one who had attained the great 
secrets of the unknown. 

ADERNO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 22 m. 
N.W. of the town of that name. Pop. (1901) 25,859. It occupies 
the site of the ancient Adranon, which took its name from 
Adranos, a god probably of Phoenician origin, in Roman times 
identified with Vulcan, whose chief temple was situated here, 
and was guarded by a thousand huge gods; there are perhaps 
some substructures of this building still extant outside the town. 
The latter was founded about 400 B.C. by Dionysius I.; very 
fine remains of its walls are preserved. For a time it was the 
headquarters of Timoleon, and it was the first town taken by the 
Romans in the First Punic War (263 B.C.). In the centre of the 
modern town rises the castle, built by Roger I.; in the chapel 
are frescoes representing his granddaughter, Adelasia, who 
founded the convent of St Lucia in 1157, taking the veil. The 
columns in the principal church are of black lava. 

See P. Russo, Illustrazione storica di Adernb (Aderno, 1897). 

ADEVISM, a term introduced by Max Miiller to imply the 
denial of gods (Sans, deva), on the analogy of Atheism, the 
denial of God. Max Miiller used it particularly in connexion 
with the Vedanta philosophy for the correlative of ignorance or 
nescience (Gifford lectures, 1892, c. ix.). 

ADHEMAR DE CHABANNES (c. 9 88-c. 1030), medieval his- 
torian, was born about 988 at Chabannes, a village in the French 
department of Haute-Vienne. Educated at the monastery of 
St Martial at Limoges, he passed his life as a monk, either at this 
place or at the monastery of St Cybard at Angouleme. He died 
about 1030, most probably at Jerusalem, whither he had gone 
on a pilgrimage. Adhemar's life was mainly spent in writing 
and transcribing chronicles, and his principal work is a his- 
tory entitled Chronicon Aquitanicum el Francicum or Historia 
Francorum. This is in three books and deals with Prankish 
history from the fabulous reign of Pharamond, king of the Franks, 
to A.D. 1028. The two earlier books are scarcely more than a 
copy of the Gesta regum Francorum, but the third book, which 
deals with the period from 814 to 1028, is of considerable his- 
torical importance. This is published in the Monumcnla Ger- 
maniae historica. Scriplores. Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826- 
1892). He also wrote Commemoratio abbatum Lemovicensium 






192 



ADHEMAR ADIRONDACKS 



basilicae S. Martialis apostoli (848-1029) and Epistola ad 
Jordanum Lemovicensem episcopum et alias de aposlolatu S. 
Martialis, both of which are published by J. P. Migne in the 
Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844-1855). 

See F. Arbellot, ittude historiaue et litteraire sur Ademar de Cha- 
bannes (Limoges, 1873); J. F. E. Castaigne, Dissertation sur le lieu 
de naissance et sur la famille du chroniqueur Ademar, moine de 
I'abbaye de St Cybard d'Angouttme (Angoulgme, 1850). 

ADHEMAR (ADEMAR, AIMAR, AELARZ) DE MONTEIL (d. 
1098), one of the principal personages of the first crusade, was 
bishop of Puy en Velay from before 1087. At the council of 
Clermont in 1095 he showed great zeal for the crusade, and hav- 
ing been named apostolic legate by the pope, he accompanied 
Raymond IV., count of Toulouse, to the east. He negotiated 
with Alexis Comnenus at Constantinople, re-established at Nicaea 
some discipline among the crusaders, caused the siege of Antioch 
to be raised and died in that city of the plague on the ist of 
August 1098. 

See the article by C. Kohler in La Grande Encyclopedic; Biblio- 
graphic du Velay (1902), 640-650. 

ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere), the process of 
adhering or clinging to anything. In a figurative sense, adhesion 
(like "adherent") is used of any attachment to a party or move- 
ment; but the word is also employed technically in psychology, 
pathology and botany. In psychology Bain and others use it of 
association of ideas and action; in pathology an adhesion is an 
abnormal union of surfaces; and in botany "adhesion" is used of 
dissimilar parts, e.g. in floral whorls, in opposition to "cohesion," 
which applies to similar parts, e.g. of the same whorl. 

ADIAPHORISTS (Gr. d&d<opos, indifferent) . The Adiaphorist 
controversy among Lutherans was an issue of the provisional 
scheme of compromise between religious parties, pending a 
general council, drawn up by Charles V., sanctioned at the diet 
of Augsburg, 1 5th of May 1548, and known as the Augsburg 
Interim. It satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants. As 
head of the Protestant party the young elector Maurice of 
Saxony negotiated with Melanchthon and others, and at Leipzig, 
on the 22nd of December 1548, secured their acceptance of the 
Interim as regards adiaphora (things indifferent), points neither 
enjoined nor forbidden in Scripture. This sanctioned jurisdic- 
tion of Catholic bishops, and observance of certain rites, while 
all were to accept justification by faith (relegating sola to the 
adiaphora). This modification was known as the Leipzig In- 
terim; its advocates were stigmatized as Adiaphorists. Pas- 
sionate opposition was led by Melanchthon's colleague, Matth. 
Flacius, on the grounds that the imperial power was not the 
judge of adiaphora, and that the measure was a trick to bring 
back popery. From Wittenberg he fled, April 1549, to Magde- 
burg, making it the headquarters of rigid Lutheranism. Practi- 
cally the controversy was concluded by the religious peace 
ratified at Augsburg (Sept. 25, 1555), which left princes a free 
choice between the rival confessions, with the right to impose 
either on their subjects; but much bitter internal strife was 
kept up by Protestants on the theoretical question of adiaphora; 
to appease this was one object of the Formula Concordiae, 1577. 
Another Adiaphorist controversy between Pietists and their 
opponents, respecting the lawfulness of amusements, arose in 
1681, when Anton Reiser (1628-1686) denounced the opera as 
antichristian. 

See arts, by J. Gottschick in A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1896) ; 
by Fritz in I. Goschler's Diet. Encyelop. de la Theol. Calk. (1858); 
other authorities in I. C. L. Gieseler, Ch. Hist. (N. York ed., 1868, 
vol. iv.) ; monograph by Erh. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich 
und historisch untersucht (1809), from the rigorist point of view. 

ADIGE (Ger. Etsch, anc. Alhesis), a considerable river in North 
Italy. The true source of the Adige is in some small lakes on 
the summit of the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and it is 
swollen by several other streams, near Glurns, where the roads 
over the Ofen and the Stelvio Passes fall in. It thence flows east 
to Meran, and then south-east to Botzen, where it receives the 
Eisak (6 ft.), and becomes navigable. It then turns south-west, 
and, after receiving the Noce (right) and the Avisio (left), leaves 
Tirol, and enters Lombardy, 13 m. south of Rovereto. After 
traversing North Italy, in a direction first southerly and then 



easterly, it falls into the Adriatic at Porto Fossone, a few miles 
north of the mouth of the Po. The most considerable towns on 
its banks (south of Botzen) are Trent and Rovereto, in Tirol, 
and Verona and Legnago, in Italy. It is a very rapid river, 
and subject to sudden swellings and overflowings, which cause 
great damage to the surrounding country. It is navigable from 
the heart of Tirol to the sea. In Lombardy it has a breadth 
of 200 yds., and a depth of 10 to 16 ft., but the strength of the 
current renders its navigation very difficult, and lessens its 
value as a means of transit between Germany and Italy. The 
Adige has a course of about 220 m., and, after the Po, is the 
most important river in Italy. In Roman times it flowed, in its 
lower course, much farther north than at present, along the 
base of the Euganean hills, and entered the sea at Brondolo. 
In A.D. 587 the river broke its banks, and the main stream took 
its present course, but new streams opened repeatedly to the 
south, until now the Adige and the Po form conjointly one 
delta. (W. A. B. C.) 

ADIPOCERE (from the Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a 
substance into which animal matter is sometimes converted, 
and so named by A. F. Fourcroy, from its resemblance to both 
fat and wax. When the Cimetiere des Innocens at Paris was 
removed in 1786-1787, great masses of this substance were found 
where the coffins containing the dead bodies had been placed 
very closely together. The whole body had been converted 
into this fatty matter, except the bones, which remained, but 
were extremely brittle. Chemically, adipocere consists princi- 
pally of a mixture of fatty acids, glycerine being absent. Saponi- 
fication with potash liberates a little ammonia (about i%), 
and gives a mixture of the potassium salts of palmitic, margaric 
and oxymargaric acids. The insoluble residue consists of lime, 
&c., derived from the tissues. The artificial formation of adipo- 
cere has been studied; it appears that it is not formed from 
albuminous matter, but from the various fats in the body 
collecting together and undergoing decomposition. 

ADIRONDACKS, a group of mountains in north-eastern 
New York, U.S.A., in Clinton, Essex, Franklin and Hamilton 
counties, often included by geographers in the Appalachian 
system, but pertaining geologically to the Laurentian highlands 
of Canada. They are bordered on the E. by Lake Champlain, 
which separates them from the Green Mountains. Unlike the 
Appalachians, the Adirondacks do not form a connected range, 
but consist of many summits, isolated or in groups, arranged 
with little appearance of system. There are about one hundred 
peaks, ranging from 1200 to 5000 ft. in height; the highest peak, 
Mt. Marcy (called by the Indians Tahawus or "cloud-splitter"), 
is near the eastern part of the group and attains an elevation of 
5344 ft. Other noted peaks are M'Intyre (5210 ft.), Haystack 
(4918), Dix (4916) and Whiteface (4871). These mountains, 
consisting of various sorts of gneiss, intrusive granite and gabbro, 
have been formed partly by faulting but mainly by erosion, the 
lines of which have been determined by the presence of faults 
or the presence of relatively soft rocks. Lower Palaeozoic strata 
lap up on to the crystalline rocks on all sides of the mountain 
group. The region is rich in magnetic iron ores, which though 
mined for many years are not yet fully developed. Other 
mineral products are graphite, garnet used as an abrasive, pyrite 
and zinc ore. The mountains form the water-parting between the 
Hudson and the St Lawrence rivers. On the south and south- 
west the waters flow either directly into the Hudson, which rises 
in the centre of the group, or else reach it through the Mohawk. 
On the north and east the waters reach the St Lawrence by way 
of Lakes George and Champlain, and on the west they flow directly 
into that stream or reach it through Lake Ontario. The most 
important streams within the area are the Hudson, Black, 
Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, Saranac and Ausable rivers. 
The region was once covered, with the exception of the higher 
summits, by the Laurentian glacier, whose erosion, while perhaps 
having little effect on the larger features of the country, has 
greatly modified it in detail, producing lakes and ponds, whose 
number is said to exceed 1300, and causing many falls and rapids 
in the streams. Among the larger lakes are the Upper and Lower 



ADIS ABABA ADJUTANT 



Saranac, Big and Little Tupper, Schroon, Placid, Long, Raquette 
and Blue Mountain. The region known as the Adirondack 
Wilderness, or the Great North Woods, embraces between 5000 
and 6000 sq. m. of mountain, lake, plateau and forest, which 
for scenic grandeur is almost unequalled in any other part of the 
United States. The mountain peaks are usually rounded and 
easily scaled, and as roads have been constructed over their 
slopes and in every direction through the forests, all points of 
interest may be easily reached by stage. Railways penetrate 
the heart of the region, and small steamboats ply upon the 
larger lakes. The surface of most of the lakes lies at an elevation 
of over 1500 ft. above the sea; their shores are usually rocky 
and irregular, and the wild scenery within their vicinity has 
made them very attractive to the tourist. The mountains are 
easily reached from Plattsburgh, Port Kent, Herkimer, Malone 
and Saratoga Springs. Every year thousands spend the summer 
months in the wilderness, where cabins, hunting lodges, villas 
and hotels are numerous. The resorts most frequented are in 
the vicinity of the Saranac and St Regis lakes and Lake 
Placid. In the Adirondacks are some of the best hunting and 
fishing grounds in the eastern United States. Owing to the 
restricted period allowed for hunting, deer and small game are 
abundant, and the brooks, rivers, ponds and lakes are well 
stocked with trout and black bass. At the head of Lake Placid 
stands Whiteface Mountain, from whose summit one of the finest 
views of the Adirondacks may be obtained. Two miles south- 
east of this lake, at North Elba, is the old farm of the abolitionist 
John Brown, which contains his grave and is much frequented 
by visitors. Lake Placid is the principal source of the Ausable 
river, which for a part of its course flows through a rocky chasm 
from 100 to 175 ft. deep and rarely over 30 ft. wide. At the 
head of the Ausable Chasm are the Rainbow Falls, where the 
stream makes a vertical leap of 70 ft. Another impressive 
feature of the Adirondacks is Indian Pass, a gorge about eleven 
miles long, between Mt. M'Intyre and Wallface Mountain. 
The latter is a majestic cliff rising vertically from the pass to 
a height of 1300 ft. Keene Valley, in the centre of Essex county, 
is another picturesque region, presenting a pleasing combination 
of peaceful valley and rugged hills. Though the climate during 
the winter months is very severe the temperature sometimes 
falling as low as -42 F. it is beneficial to persons suffering 
from pulmonary troubles, and a number of sanitariums have 
been established. The region is heavily forested with spruce, 
pine and broad-leaved trees. Lumbering is an important 
industry, but it has been much restricted by the creation of a 
state forest preserve, containing in 1907, 1,401,482 acres, and 
by the purchase of large tracts for game preserves and recreation 
grounds by private clubs. The so-called Adirondack Park, 
containing over 3,000,000 acres, includes most of the state 
preserve and large areas held in private ownership. 

For a description of the Adirondacks, see S. R. Stoddard, The 
Adirondacks Illustrated (24th ed., Glen Falls, 1894); and E. R. 
Wallace, Descriptive Guide to the Adirondacks (Syracuse, 1894). For 
geology and mineral resources consult the Reports of the New York 
State Geologist and the Bulletins of the New York State Museum. 

ADIS ABABA ("the new flower"), the capital of Abyssinia 
and of the kingdom of Shoa, in 9 i' N., 38 56' E., 220 m. W. by 
S. of Harrar, and about 450 m. S.W. of Jibuti on the Gulf of 
Aden. Adis Ababa stands on the southern slopes of the Entotto 
range, at an altitude of over 8000 ft., on bare, grassy undulations, 
watered by small streams flowing S.S.E. to the Hawash. It is 
a large straggling encampment rather than a town, with few 
buildings of any architectural merit. The Gebi or royal enclosure 
completely covers a small hill overlooking the whole neighbour- 
hood, while around it are the enclosures of the abuna and principal 
nobles, and the residences of the foreign ministers. The principal 
traders are Armenians and Hindus. About a mile north-east of 
the palace is the military camp. On the hills some five miles to 
the north, 1 500 ft. above the camp, are the ruins of an old fortress, 
and the churches of St Raguel and St Mariam. The town is in 
telegraphic communication with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. 
It was founded by Menelek II. in 1892 as the capital of his king- 
* 7 






'93 

dom in succession to Entotto, a deserted settlement some ten 
or twelve miles north of Adis Ababa. 

ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectivus, added), a word used 
chiefly in its grammatical sense of limiting or defining the noun 
to which it refers. Formerly grammarians used not to separate 
a noun from its adjective, or attribute, but spoke of them to- 
gether as a noun-adjective. In the art of dyeing, certain colours 
are known as adjective colours, as they require mixing with 
some basis to render them permanent. " Adjective law " is that 
which relates to the forms of procedure, as opposed to " sub- 
stantive law," the rules of right administered by a court. 

ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat. 
adjurnare, to put off until or summon for another day) , the act 
of postponing a meeting of any private or public body, par- 
ticularly of parliament, or any business, until another time, or 
indefinitely (in which case it is an adjournment sine die). The 
word applies also to the period during which the meeting or 
business stands adjourned. 

ADJUDICATION (Lat. adjudicatio; adjudicare, to award), 
generally, a trying or determining of a case by the exercise of 
judicial power; a judgment. In a more technical sense, in 
English and American law, an adjudication is an order of the 
bankruptcy courts by which a debtor is adjudged bankrupt and 
his property vested in a trustee. It usually proceeds from a 
resolution of the creditors or where no composition or scheme of 
arrangement has been proposed by the debtor. It may be said 
to consummate bankruptcy, for not till then does a debtor's 
property actually vest in a trustee for division among the 
creditors, though from the first act of bankruptcy till adjudica- 
tion it is protected by a receiving order. As to the effect which 
adjudication has on the bankrupt, see under BANKRUPTCY. 
The same process in Scots law is called sequestration. In Scots 
law the term " adjudication " has quite a different meaning, 
being the name of that action by which a creditor attaches the 
heritable, i.e. the real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir, 
in order to appropriate it to himself either in payment or security 
of his debt. The term is also applied to a proceeding of the 
same nature by which the holder of a heritable right, labouring 
under any defect in point of form, gets that defect supplied by 
decree of a court. 

ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, zndjungere, to join), that which 
is joined on to another, not an essential part, and inferior to it 
in mind or function, but which nevertheless amplifies or modifies 
it. Adverbs and adjectives are adjuncts to the words they 
qualify. Learning, says Shakespeare, is an " adjunct to our- 
self " (Love's Labour's Lost, IV. iii. 314). Twelve members of 
the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris are called " adjuncts." 

ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad-juxtare, derived from juxla, 
near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from 
Justus, right), regulating, adapting or settling; in commercial 
law, the settlement of a loss incurred at sea on insured goods. 
The calculation of the amounts to be made good to and paid by 
the several interests is a complicated matter. It involves much 
detail and arithmetic, and requires a full and accurate knowledge 
of the principles of the subject. Such adjustments are made by 
men called adjusters, who make the subject their profession. In 
Great Britain they are for the most part members of the Average 
Adjusters' Association (1870), a body which has done much 
careful work with a view to making and keeping the practice 
uniform and in accord with right principles. This association 
has gradually formulated, at their annual meetings, a body of 
practical rules which the individual members undertake to 
observe. (See AVERAGE and INSURANCE, Marine.) 

ADJUTAGE (from Fr. ajutage, from ajouter, to join on; an 
older English form was " adjustage "), a mouthpiece or nozzle, 
so formed as to facilitate the outflow of liquids from a vessel or 
pipe. (See HYDRAULICS.) 

ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjulare, to aid), a helper or junior 
in command, one who assists his superior, especially an officer 
who acts as an assistant to the officer commanding a corps of 
troops. In the British army the appointment of adjutant is held 
by a captain or lieutenant. The adjutant acts as staff officer to 

5 



ADJUTANT-GENERALADMIRAL 



194 

the commanding officer, issues his orders, superintends the work 
of the orderly room and the general administration of the corps, 
and is responsible for musketry duties and the training of recruits. 
Regular officers are appointed as adjutants to all units of the 
auxiliary forces. On the European continent the word is not 
restricted to the lower units of organization; for example, in 
Germany the Adjutantur includes all " routine " as distinct from 
" general " staff officers in the higher units, and the aides-de- 
camp of royal persons and of the higher commanders are also 
styled adjutant-generals, fliigel-adjutanten, &c. For the so-called 
adjutant bird see JABIRU. 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL, an army official, originally (as 
indicated by the word) the chief assistant (Lat. adjuvare) 
staff-officer to a general in command, but now a distinct high 
functionary at the head of a special office in the British and 
American war departments. In England the second military 
member of the Army Council is styled adjutant-general to the 
forces. He is a general officer and at the head of his department 
of the War Office, which is charged with all duties relative to 
personnel. The adjutant-general of the United States army is 
one of the principal officers in the war department, the head of 
the bureau for army correspondence, with the charge of the 
records, recruiting, issue of commissions, &c. Individual Ameri- 
can states also have their own adjutant-general, with cognate 
duties regarding the state militia. In many countries, such as 
Germany and Russia, the term has retained its original meaning 
of an officer on the personal staff, and is the designation of per- 
sonal aides-de-camp to the sovereign. 

By a looseness of translation, the superintendents of provinces, 
in the order of Jesuits, who act as officials under the superin- 
tendence of and auxiliary to the general, are sometimes called 
adjutants-general. 

ADLER, FELIX (1851- ), American educationalist, was 
born at Alzey, Germany, on the I3th of August 1851. His 
father, a Jewish rabbi, emigrated to the United States in 1857, 
and the son graduated at Columbia College in 1870. After 
completing his studies at Berlin and Heidelberg, he became, in 
1874, professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature at Cornell 
University. In 1876 he established in New York City the Society 
for Ethical Culture, to the development and extension of which 
he devoted a great deal of time and energy, and before which he 
delivered a regular Sunday lecture. In 1902 he became professor 
of political and social ethics at Columbia University. He also 
acted as one of the editors of the International Journal of Ethics. 
Under his direction the Society for Ethical Culture became an 
important factor in educational reform in New York City, 
exercising through its technical training school and kinder- 
garten (established in January 1878) a wide influence. Dr Adler 
also took a prominent part in philanthropic and social reform 
movements, such as the establishment of a system of district 
nursing, the erection of model tenement houses, and tenement 
house reform. He published Creed and Deed (1877), The Moral 
Instruction of Children (1892), Life and Destiny (1903), Marriage 
and Divorce (1905), and The Religion of Duty (1905). 

ADHETUS, in Greek legend, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in 
Thessaly. By the aid of Apollo, who served him as a slave 
either as a punishment for having slain the Cyclopes, or out of 
affection for his mortal master he won the hand of Alcestis, 
the most beautiful of the daughters of Pelias, king of lolcus. 
When Admetus was attacked by an illness that threatened to 
lead to his premature death, Apollo persuaded the Moerae (Fates) 
to prolong his life, provided any one could be found to die in his 
place. His parents refused, but Alcestis consented. She is 
said to have been rescued from the hands of Death by Heracles, 
who arrived upon the scene at an opportune moment; a later 
story represents her as cured of a dangerous illness by his skill. 

Homer, Iliad, ii. 715; Apollodorus, i. 9; Euripides, Alcestis; 
Plutarch, Amatorius, 17; Dissel, Der Mythus von Admetos und 
Alkestis, progr. Brandenburg, 1882. 

ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve), the perform- 
ance or management of affairs, a term specifically used in law for 
the administration or disposal of the estate of a deceased person 



(see WILL OR TESTAMENT). It is also used generally for " govern- 
ment," and specifically for " the government " or the executive 
ministry, and in such connexions as theadmmistration(administer- 
ing or tendering) of the sacraments, justice, oaths, medicines, &c. 

Letters of Administration. Upon the death of a person intestate 
or leaving a will to which no executors are appointed, or when 
the executors appointed by the will cannot or will not act, the 
Probate Division of the High Court is obliged to appoint an 
administrator who performs the duties of an executor. This is 
done by the court granting letters of administration to the 
person entitled. Grants of administration may be either general 
or limited. A general grant is made where the deceased has 
died intestate. The order in which general grants of letters will 
be made by the court is as follows: (i) The husband, or widow, 
as the case may be; (2) the next of kin; (3) the crown; (4) a 
creditor; (5) a stranger. Since the Land Transfer Act 1897, the 
administrator is the real as well as the personal representative 
of the deceased, and consequently when the estate to be ad- 
ministered consists wholly or mainly of reality the court will 
grant administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of 
kin. In the absence of any heir or next of kin the crown is 
entitled to the personality as bona vacantia, and to the reality 
by escheat. If a creditor claims and obtains a grant he is com- 
pelled by the court to enter into a bond with two sureties 
that he will not prefer his own debt to those of other creditors. 
The more important Cases of grants of special letters of ad- 
ministration are the following: 

Administration cum testamenlo annexo, where the deceased 
has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the executor 
appointed has died or refuses to act. In this case the court will 
make the grant to the person (usually the residuary legatee) 
with the largest beneficial interest in the estate. 

Administration de bonis non administratis: this occurs in two 
cases (a) where the executor dies intestate after probate with- 
out having completely administered the estate; (b) where an 
administrator dies. In the first case the principle of administra- 
tion cum testamento is followed, in the second that of general 
grants in the selection of the person to whom letters are granted 

Administration durante minore aetate, when the executor or 
the person entitled to the general grant is under age. 

Administration durante absentia, when the executor or ad- 
ministrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year. 

Administration pendenle lite, where there is a dispute as to the 
person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the court 
appoints an administrator till the question has been decided. 

ADMINISTRATOR, in English law, the person to whom the 
Probate Division of the High Court of Justice (formerly the 
ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court) acting in the sover- 
eign's name, commits the administration (q.v.) of the goods of a 
person deceased, in default of an executor. The origin of ad- 
ministrators is derived from the civil law. Their establishment 
in England is owing to a statute made in the 3ist year of Edward 
I- ( r 33)- Till then no office of this kind was known besides 
that of executor; in default of whom, the ordinary had the 
disposal of goods of persons intestate, &c. (See also EXECUTORS, 
and, for intestate estates, INTESTACY.) ^ 

ADMINISTRATOR, in Scots law, is a person legally empowered 
to act for another whom the law presumes incapable of acting for 
himself, as a father for a pupil child. 

ADMIRAL, the title of the general officer who commands a 
fleet, or subdivision of a fleet. The origin of the word is un- 
doubtedly Arabic. In the 1 2th century the Mediterranean states 
which had close relations with the Moslem powers on the shores 
or in the islands of that sea, found the title amir or emir 
in combination with other words used to describe men in au- 
thority; the amir-al-mumenin prince of the faithful or amir- 
al-bahr commander of the sea. They took the substantive 
" amir " and the article " al " to form one word, " amiral " or 
"ammiral" or " almirante." The Spaniards made mirama- 
molin, out of amiral-mumenin, in the same way. " Amiral," 
the name of an eastern ruler, became familiar to the northern 
nations during the crusades. Layamon, writing in the early 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 



years of the I3th century, speaks of the " ammiral of Babilon," 
and the word was for long employed in this sense. As a naval 
title it was first taken by the French from the Genoese during 
the crusade of 1 249. By the end of the I3th century it had come 
to be used in England as the name of the officer who commanded 
the Cinque Port ships. The English form " admiral " arose from 
popular confusion with the Latin admirabilis. Such errors were 
naturally produced by the fantastic etymology of the middle 
ages. In Spain, Alphonso the Wise of Castile, in his code of 
laws, the Siete Partidas (Seven Divisions), accounts for the 
Spanish form " almirante " by its supposed derivation from 
the Latin admirari, since the admiral is " to be admired " for 
the difficulties and dangers he overcomes, and because he is the 
chief of those who see the wonders of the Lord in the deep 
mirabilia ejus (sc. Domini) in profundo. Both in Spanish and in 
Elizabethan English the word has been applied to the flagship 
of an officer commanding a fleet or part of one. The Spanish 
almiranta is the ship of the second in command, and the capilana 
of the first. In this sense it is not uncommonly found in the 
narratives of Elizabethan voyages or campaigns, and it is so 
used by Milton in Paradise Lost " the mast of some tall 
ammiral." 

As the title of an office it was borne by the great military, 
judicial and administrative officer known in France as grand 
amiral; in England as lord high admiral; in Spain as almirante 
mayor. His functions, which were wide, have been generally 
absorbed by the crown, or the state, and have been divided 
among judicial and administrative officials (see NAVY, History; 
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION). 
The title of admiral is still borne as an hereditary honour by the 
descendants of Columbus, the dukes of Veraqua, in Spain. It is 
a purely honorific distinction representing the admiralship of 
the islands and Ocean Sea, conferred on the discoverer by the 
Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. 

In the staff of a modern navy the admirals correspond to the 
general officers in the army. Where, as in Russia, the grand 
admiralship is annexed to the crown, the highest rank is that of 
lieutenant admiral general. In Great Britain there is the rank 
of admiral of the fleet, corresponding to field-marshal. It is, 
however, little more than an honorary distinction. The three 
active ranks are those of admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral, 
corresponding to general, lieutenant-general and major-general 
in the army. They are found in all navies under very slightly 
varied forms. The only difference which is not one of mere 
spelling is in the equivalent for rear-admiral, which is centre 
amiral in French, and in other navies of the continent of Europe 
involves some slight variation of the word " centre " (first used 
at the time of the French Revolution). The vice- and rear- 
admiral of Great Britain are again honorary titles, without the 
active functions, conferred in compliment on senior naval officers. 
" Admiral " is also the name given to the chief of fishery fleets. 
On the banks of Newfoundland it was given to officials who had 
powers conferred by the state. In the case of an ordinary fishing- 
fleet in European waters, it is of private origin, and is of merely 
customary use. 

AUTHORITIES. Sir N. Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal Navy; 
La Ronciere, Histoire de la marine fran$ aise ; Yonge, Geschiedenis 
van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen; C. Fernandez Duro, Historia de 
la' Armada de Castilea. (D. H.) 

ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION, i. The Administrative 
System. That the navy (q.v.) is the only real defence of the 
British islands has been recognized by English people ever since 
the days of King Offa, who died in 796, leaving to his successors 
the admirable lesson that " he who would be secure on land must 
be supreme at sea." The truth of the lesson thus learnt is sanc- 
tioned by all the experience of English history, and parliament 
has repeatedly enforced the fact. The navy is the only force that 
British can sa f e S uar d the British islands from hostile descents; 
Empire. it is the only force that can protect their vast sea-borne 
commerce and food supplies; by giving safety to the 
home country it sets British troops free for operations abroad, 
and makes their passage secure; and thus, as also by giving 



command of the sea, the fleet is the means by which the empire 
is guarded and has become a true imperial bond. It is natural 
for British admiralty administration to be taken here as the 
type of an efficient system. 

British naval administration is conducted by the Board of 
Admiralty, and the function of that board is the maintenance 
and expansion of the fleet in accordance with the policy 
of the government, and the supplying of it with trained B " ara of 
officers and men; its distribution throughout the Admiralty. 
world; and its preservation in readiness and efficiency 
in all material and personal respects. The character of the 
Admiralty Board is peculiar to the British constitution, and it 
possesses certain features which distinguish it from other depart- 
ments of the state. The business it conducts is very great and 
complex, and the machinery by which its work is done has grown 
with the expansion of that business. The whole system of naval 
administration has been developed historically, and is not the 
product of the organizing skill of one or a few individuals, but 
an organic growth possessing marked and special characteristics. 
The Admiralty Board derives its character from the fact that it 
represents the lord high admiral, and that its powers and opera- 
tion depend much more upon usage than upon those instruments 
which actually give it authority, and which, it may be remarked, 
are not in harmony among themselves. The executive operations 
are conducted by a series of civil departments which have under- 
gone many changes before reaching their present constitution 
and relation to the Board. The salient characteristic of the 
admiralty is a certain flexibility and elasticity with which it 
works. Its members are not, in a rigid sense, heads of depart- 
ments. Subject to the necessary and constitutional supremacy 
of the cabinet minister at their head, they are jointly and co- 
equally " commissioners for executing the office of high admiral 
of the United Kingdom, and of the territories thereunto belong- 
ing, and of high admiral of the colonies and other dominions." 
The members of the Board are in direct and constant communi- 
cation with the first lord and with one another, as also with the 
civil departments which work under their control. It was en- 
joined by James I. that the principal officers and commissioners 
of the navy should be in constant communication among them- 
selves, consulting and advising " by common council and argu- 
ment of most voices," and should live as near together as could 
conveniently be, and should meet at the navy office at least twice 
a week. This system of intercommunication still exists in a 
manner which no system of minutes could give; and it may be 
remarked, as illustrative of the flexibility of the system, that a 
Board may be formed on any emergency by two lords and a 
secretary, and a decision arrived at then and there. Such an 
emergency board was actually constituted some years ago on 
board the admiralty yacht in order to deal on the instant with 
an event which had just occurred in the fleet. At the same time 
it must be remarked that, in practice, the first lord being person- 
ally responsible under the orders in council, the operations of 
the Board are dependent upon his direction. 

The present system of administering the navy dates from 
the time of Henry VIII. The naval business of the country had 
so greatly expanded in his reign that we find the 
Admiralty and Navy Board reorganized or established; 
and it is worthy of remark that there existed at the time an 
ordnance branch, the navy not yet being dependent in that 
matter upon the War Department. 1 The Navy Board adminis- 
tered the civil departments under the admiralty, the directive 
and executive duties of the lord high admiral remaining with 
the admiralty office. A little later the civil administration was 
vested in a board of principal officers subordinate to the lord 
high admiral, and we can henceforth trace the work of civil 

1 The Board of Ordnance was originally instituted for the navy, 
but eventually fell into military hands, to the detriment of the navy 
the only navy of any nation that has not full authority over its 
own ordnance. In 1653, according to Oppenheim, it was, owing to 
its inefficiency, placed under the admiralty. In 1632 it appears to 
have been independent, but " still retained that evil pre-eminence 
in sloth and incapacity it had already earned and has never since 
lost." 



History, 






196 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 



administration being conducted under the navy and victualling 
boards apart from, but yet subject to, the admiralty itself. This 
was a system which continued during the time of all the great 
wars, and was not abolished until 1832, when Sir James Graham, 
by his reforms, put an end to what appeared a divided control. 
Whatever may have been the demerits of that system, it sufficed 
to maintain the navy in the time of its greatest achievements, 
and through all the wars which were waged with the Spaniards, 
the Dutch and the French. The original authority for the 
present constitution of the Admiralty Board is found in a 
declaratory act (Admiralty Act 1690), in which it is enacted 
that " all and singular authorities, jurisdictions and powers 
which, by act of parliament or otherwise, had been lawfully 
vested " in the lord high admiral of England had always apper- 
tained, and did and should appertain, to the commissioners for 
executing the office for the time being " to all intents and pur- 
poses as if the said commissioners were lord high admiral of 
England." The admiralty commission was dissolved in 1701, 
and reconstituted on the death of Prince George of Denmark, 
lord high admiral in 1709. From that time forward, save for a 
short period in 1827-1828, when the duke of Clarence was lord 
high admiral, the office has remained in commission. 

A number of changes have been made since the amalgamation 
of the admiralty and the Navy Board by Sir James Graham in 
1832 (see NAVY, History), but the general principle remains the 
same, and the constitution of the Admiralty Board and civil 
departments is described below. The Board consists of the 
first lord and four naval lords with a civil lord, who in theory 
are jointly responsible, and are accustomed to meet sometimes 
daily, but at all times frequently; and the system developed 
provides for the subdivision of labour, and yet for the co-ordi- 
nated exertion of effort. The system has worked well in practice, 
and has certainly won the approval and the admiration of many 
statesmen. Lord George Hamilton said, before the Royal 
Commission on Civil Establishments, 1887, that " It has this 
advantage, that you have all departments represented round a 
table, and that if it is necessary to take quick action, you can 
do in a few minutes that which it would take hours under 
another system to do "; and the report of the Royal Commis- 
sion of 1889 remarked that " The constitution of the Board of 
Admiralty appears to us well designed, and to be placed under 
present regulations on a satisfactory footing." 

The special characteristics of the Admiralty Board which have 
been described are accompanied by a very peculiar and note- 
Powers worthy feature, which is not without relation to the 
untrammelled and undefined operations of the ad- 
miralty. This feature arises from the discrepancy between the 
admiralty patent and the orders in council, for the admiralty 
is not administered according to the terms of the patent which 
invests it with authority, and its operations raise a singular point 
in constitutional law. 

The legal origin of the powers exercised by the first lord and 
the Board itself is indeed curiously obscure. Under the patent 
the full power and authority are conferred upon " any two or 
more " of the commissioners, though, in the patent of Queen 
Anne, the grant was to " any three or more of you." It was 
under the Admiralty Act 1832 that two lords received the 
necessary authority to legalize any action of the Board; but 
already, under an act of 1822, two lords had been empowered 
to sign so long as the Board consisted of six members. We 
therefore find that the legal authority of the Board under the 
patent is vested in the Board; but in the order in council of the 
1 4th of January 1869 the sole responsibility of the first lord was 
officially laid down, and in the order in council of the igth of 
March 1872 the first lord was made " responsible to your Majesty 
and to parliament for all the business of the admiralty. " As a 
matter of fact, the authority of the first lord, independent of his 
colleagues, had existed in an undefined manner from ancient 
times. Before a select committee of the House of Commons in 
1 86 1 the duke of Somerset stated that he considered the first 
lord responsible, that he had always " acted under that impres- 
sion," and that he believed " all former first lords were of this 



opinion " ; while Sir James Graham said that " the Board of 
Admiralty could never work, whatever the patent might be, 
unless the first lord were supreme, and did exercise constantly 
supreme and controlling authority." It is not, therefore, sur- 
prising to find that there has been undoubtedly direct govern- 
ment without a Board. Thus, in the operations conducted 
against the French channel ports in 1803-1 804, Lord Melville, then 
first lord, took steps of great importance without the knowledge 
of his colleagues, though he afterwards bowed to their views, 
which did not coincide with his own. Again, when Lord Gambier 
was sent to Copenhagen in 1807, he was instructed to obey all 
orders from the king, through the principal secretary of state for 
war, and in this way received orders to attack Copenhagen, 
which were unknown to all but the first lord. In a similar way 
the secretary of the admiralty was despatched to Paris in 1815 
with instructions to issue orders as if from the Board of Admiralty 
when directed to do so by the foreign secretary who accompanied 
him, and these orders resulted in Napoleon's capture. These 
instances were cited, except the first of them, by Sir James 
Graham before the select committee of the House of Commons 
in 1 86 1, in order to illustrate the elastic powers under the patent 
which enabled the first lord to take immediate action in matters 
that concerned the public safety. It is not surprising that this 
peculiar feature of admiralty administration should have at- 
tracted adverse criticism, and have led some minds to regard 
the Board as " a fiction not worth keeping up." 

Between 1860 and 1870 the sittings of the Board ceased to 
have the effective character they had once possessed. During 
the administration of Mr Childers, 1 first lord from 1868 to 1871 
in Mr Gladstone's cabinet, a new system was introduced by 
which the free intercommunication of the members of the Board 
was hampered, and its sittings were quite discontinued. The 
case of the " Captain " led, however, to a return to the older 
practice. The " Captain " was a low freeboard masted turret 
ship, designed by Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, R.N. Competent 
critics believed that she would be unsafe, and said so before she 
was built; but the admiralty of Lord Derby's cabinet of 1866 
gave their consent to her construction. She was commissioned 
early in 1870, and capsized in the Bay of Biscay on the 7th of 
September of that year. Mr Childers, who was nominally re- 
sponsible for allowing her to be commissioned, distributed blame 
right and left, largely upon men who had not approved of the 
ship at all, and had been exonerated from all share of responsi- 
bility for allowing her to be built. The disaster was justly held 
to show that a civilian first lord cannot dispense with the advan- 
tage of constant communication with his professional advisers. 
When Mr Childers retired from the admiralty in March 1871, 
his successor, Mr Goschen (Viscount Goschen), reverted to the 
original system. It cannot be said, however, that the question 
of ultimate responsibility is well defined. The duke of Somerset, 
Sir James Graham and Sir Charles Wood, afterwards Lord 
Halifax, held the view that the first lord was singly and person- 
ally responsible for the sufficiency of the fleet. Sir Arthur 
Hood expressed before the House of Commons committee in 
1888 the view that the Board collectively were responsible; 
whilst Sir Anthony Hoskins assigned the responsibility to the 
first lord alone with certain qualifications, which is a just and 
reasonable view. 

2. Admiralty Organization. Under the organization which 
now exists, the Board of Admiralty consists of the first lord, 
the first and second naval lords, the additional naval lord and 
controller, the junior naval lord and the civil lord, who are 
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, and 
with them are the parliamentary and financial secretary and 
the permanent secretary. As has been explained, the first lord 
is responsible under the orders in council to the crown and to 
parliament for all admiralty business. In the hands of the 

1 Admiral Sir Cooper Key, when director of naval ordnance 
during Mr Childers' administration, observed to the writer that no 
first lord of the admiralty knew so little of the working of the ad- 
miralty as Mr Childers, because, owing to the discontinuance of 
board meetings, he lost the great advantage of hearing the dis- 
cussion. (R. v. H.) 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 



197 



other lords and secretaries rest duties very carefully denned, 
and they direct the civil departments which are the machinery 
of naval administration. The first naval lord, the second naval 
lord and the junior naval lord are responsible to the first lord 
in relation to so much of the business concerning the personnel 
of the navy and the movements and condition of the fleet as is 
confided to them, and the additional naval lord or controller is 
responsible in the same way for the material of the navy; while 
the parliamentary secretary has charge of finance and some other 
business, and the civil lord of all shore works i.e. docks, build- 
ings, &c. and the permanent secretary of special duties. The 
first lord of the admiralty is the cabinet minister through whom 
the navy receives its political direction in accordance with im- 
perial policy. He is the representative of the navy in parliament, 
which looks to him for everything concerned with naval affairs. 
The members of the Board are his advisers; but if their advice 
is not accepted, they have no remedy except protest or resigna- 
tion. It cannot be denied that the responsibility of the members 
of the Board, if their advice should be disregarded, must cease, 
and it is sufficiently obvious that the remedy of resignation will 
not always commend itself to those whose position and advance- 
ment depend upon the favour -of the government. Something 
will be said a little later concerning the working of the system 
and the relation of the first lord to the Board in regard to the 
navy estimates. In addition to general direction and supervision, 
the first lord has special charge of promotions and removals from 
the service, and of matters relating to honours and rewards, as 
well as the appointments of flag officers, captains and other 
officers of the higher ranks. With him rests also the nomination 
for the major part to naval cadetships and assistant clerkships. 

Apart from the first lord, the first naval lord is the most 
important officer of the Board of Admiralty. It seems to be 
unquestionable that Sir James Graham was right in describing 
the senior naval lord as his " first naval adviser." Theoretically, 
the first naval lord is responsible for the personnel of the fleet; 
but in practice he is necessarily concerned with the material 
also as soon as it is put into commission, and with the actual 
commissioning of it. It is correct to say that he is chiefly con- 
cerned with the employment of the fleet, though his advice has 
weight in regard to its character and sufficiency, and is always 
sought in relation to the shipbuilding programme. Broadly 
speaking, the first naval lord's duties and authority cover the 
fighting efficiency and employment of the fleet, and upon him 
and upon the controller the naval business of the country largely 
falls. He directs the operations of the admiral superintendent 
of naval reserves in regard to ships, the hydrographer, the 
director of naval ordnance, so far as the gunnery and torpedo 
training establishments are concerned, and the naval intelligence 
department, and he has charge of all matters relating to dis- 
cipline. The mobilization of the fleet, both in regard to personnel 
and material, also falls to him, and among a mass of other busi- 
ness in his department are necessary preparations for the pro- 
tection of trade and the fisheries. It will thus be seen that the 
first naval lord is the chief officer of the Board of Admiralty, 
and that the operations of the other members of the Board all 
have relation to his work, which is no other than preparation 
for war. It may here be remarked that it appears most necessary 
to change the naval lords frequently, so that there may always be 
in the Board some one who possesses recent touch with the 
service afloat. 

The second naval lord may be regarded as the coadjutor of 
the first naval lord, with whose operations his duties are very 
closely related, though, like every other member of the Board, 
he is subordinate only to the first lord. The duties of the second 
naval lord are wholly concerned with the personnel of the fleet, 
the manning of the navy and mobilization. In his hands rests 
the direction of naval education, training and the affairs of the 
royal marine forces. The training establishments and colleges 
are in his hands. He appoints navigating officers and lieutenants 
to ships (unless they be to command), sub-lieutenants, midship- 
men and cadets, engineer officers, gunners and boatswains, 
and supervises the management of the reserve. In his province 



is the mobilization of the personnel, including the coastguard 
and the royal naval reserve. Necessarily, the first and second 
naval lords work together, and upon occasion can replace each 
other. 1 

Most important are the duties that fall to the additional naval 
lord and controller. He has charge of everything that concerns 
the material of the fleet, and his operations are the complement 
of the work of the first naval lord. A great number of civil 
departments are directed by the controller, and his survey and 
supervision extend to the dockyards and building establishments 
of the fleet. He submits plans to the Board for new ships, and is 
responsible for carrying into effect its decisions in regard to all 
matters of construction and equipment. The building operations 
both in the dockyards and in private yards are therefore under 
his supervision. In regard to all these matters the director of 
naval construction and the engineer-in-chief are the heads of 
the civil departments that carry on the work. Again, the con- 
troller is responsible in regard to armament both gunnery and 
torpedo and it is the work of his department to see to all 
gunnery and torpedo fittings, and to magazines, shell-rooms 
and electric apparatus. The officer in immediate charge of 
this branch of the controller's work, under his direction, is the 
director of naval ordnance. In regard to work at the dockyards 
(q.v.) the controller is aided by the director of dockyards. He 
supervises this officer in preparing the programme of work done 
in the dockyards, the provision of the material required and its 
appropriation to particular work in accordance wrth the pro- 
gramme. Other officers who conduct great operations under 
the authority and responsibility of the controller are the director 
of stores, who maintains all necessary supplies of coal and 
stores at home and abroad, and examines the store accounts of 
ships, and the inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who has 
charge of the accounts of dockyard expenditure and seeing that 
outlay is charged as directed. In regard to the navy estimates, 
the controller, through his subordinates, is responsible for the 
preparation and administration of the votes for shipbuilding and 
naval armaments, except in regard to some sub-headings of the 
former, and thus in recent years for the expenditure of some- 
thing like 15,000,000 or over. 

The junior naval lord has in his hands the very important 
duties that are concerned with the transport, medical and 
victualling services, as well as the regulation of hospitals, the 
charge of coaling arrangements for the fleet and other duties 
that conduce to the practical efficiency of the navy. He also 
appoints chaplains, naval instructors, medical officers (except in 
special cases) and officers of the accountant branch. A vast 
business in regard to the internal economy of ships greatly occu- 
pies the junior lord. He has charge, for example, of uniforms, 
prize-money, bounties, naval savings banks, and pensions to 
seamen and marines and the widows of naval and marine 
officers. The work of the junior naval lord places under his 
direction the director of transports, the director-general of the 
medical department, the director of victualling, and, in regard 
to particular matters, the director of stores, the accountant- 
general, the chaplain of the fleet, and the Intelligence Depart- 
ment, so far as the junior lord's department is concerned. 

The civil lord supervises, through the director of works, the 
Department of Works, dealing with admiralty buildings and 
works, construction and labour, contracts and purchases of 
building stores and land. He is also responsible for the civil 
staff of the naval establishments, except in regard to certain 
officials, and for duties connected with Greenwich Hospital, 
compassionate allowances, charitable funds, and business of like 
character. The accountant-general, in regard to these matters, 
is directed by him, and the director of Greenwich Hospital is 
under his authority. 

The parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible for 
the finance of the department, the navy estimates and matters 
of expenditure generally, and is consulted in regard to all matters 
involving reference to the treasury. His position in regard to 

1 The drawback is, that a naval lord can only go on leave by 
throwing all his work on a colleague already overweighted with work. 



198 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 



estimates and expenditure is very important, and the accountant- 
general is his officer, while he has financial control over the 
director of contracts. The financial secretary also examines 
proposals for new expenditure. 

A most important official of the Board is the permanent 
secretary, whose office has been described as the " nerve-centre " 
of the admiralty, since it is the channel through which papers 
for the lords of the admiralty pass for the intercommunication 
of departments and for the correspondence of the Board. The 
tradition of admiralty procedure largely rests with the perma- 
nent secretary, and it is most important that he should be 
chosen from one of the branches, and should have served in as 
many of them as possible, in order that he may possess a thorough 
knowledge of the theory and practice of the admiralty system. 
In addition to the secretarial duties of the permanent secretary's 
department, the permanent secretary has charge of the military, 
naval and legal branches, each under a principal clerk, the civil 
branch and the record office. The various branches deal with 
matters concerning the commissioning of ships and the distribu- 
tion of the fleet, and the manning and discipline of the navy, 
with other associated matters, being the channels for the opera- 
tions of the naval lords. It is a highly important function of 
the department of the permanent secretary to preserve the 
inter-related working of the various departments, and to keep 
unbroken the thread of administration when a new Board is 
constituted. 

3. Business and Responsibility. The manner in which the 
Admiralty Board conducts the great operations under its charge 
has been indicated. It would be impossible here to describe 
it in detail, though something concerning the civil departments, 
which are the machinery of naval administration, will be found 
below. It will, however, indicate the character of admiralty 
administration if we explain to some extent the conditions 
which surround the preparation of the estimates and the ship- 
building programme, the more so because this matter has been 
the battle-ground of critics and supporters of the admiralty. 
It has already been pointed out that the naval lords, if they 
dissent from the estimates that are presented, have no remedy 
but that of protest or resignation. Into the controversies that 
have arisen as to the responsibility of the several lords it is 
unnecessary to enter here. The Admiralty Board possesses, in 
fact, the character of a council, and its members can only be 
held responsible for their advice. It has even been contended 
that, in the circumstances, it should not be incumbent upon 
them to sign the navy estimates, and there have been instances 
in which the estimates have been presented to parliament 
without the signature of certain naval lords. It is in any case 
obvious, as has been explained above, that the ultimate responsi- 
bility must always rest with the first lord and the cabinet, by 
whom the policy of the country is shaped and directed. In the 
report of the Hartington Commission in 1890 (the chairman of 
which became 8th duke of Devonshire) to inquire into the 
civil and professional administration of the Naval and Military 
Departments, and the relation of these departments to each 
other and to the treasury, the following recommendation 
occurs: "On the first lord alone should rest the responsibility 
of deciding on the provision to be made for the naval re- 
quirements of the empire, and the existence of a council should 
be held in no degree to diminish that responsibility." 

Two conditions primarily rule the determination as to the 
strength of the navy. They are, the foreign policy of the cabinet, 
and, on the ground of practical expediency, the amount of money 
available. "The estimates and strength of the navy," said 
Rear-Admiral Hotham before the select committee on the navy 
estimates, 1888, " are matters for the cabinet to determine." 
" Expense," said Sir Anthony Hoskins, " governs everything." 
The needs of the empire and financial considerations, as it is 
scarcely necessary to remark, may prove to be antithetical 
conditions governing the same problem, and in practice it follows 
that the Admiralty Board directs its operations in accordance 
with the views of the government, but limited by the public 
funds which are known to be available. Such considerations 



suggest a practical limitation of responsibility, so far as the 
several lords of the admiralty are concerned, but it may be 
presumed to be their duty individually or collectively to place 
their views before the first lord; and Lord George Hamilton 
told the select committee of 1888 that, if his colleagues should 
represent to him that a certain expenditure was indispensable 
for the efficiency of the service, he would recognize that all 
financial considerations should be put on one side. The commis- 
sioners reported that this was the only common-sense view of the 
matter, and that it was difficult to see on what other footing 
the control of navy expenditure, consistently with responsibility 
to parliament, could be placed. 

Two practical considerations are bound up with the shipbuild- 
ing programme the carrying forward of the work in hand and 
the new construction to be begun, since it is absolutely necessary 
that proper provision should be made for the employment and 
distribution of labour in the dockyards, and for the purchase of 
necessary materials. Through the director of naval construction 
and the director of dockyards, the controller is kept informed as 
to the progress of work and the amount of labour required, as 
also in regard to the building facilities of the yards. These 
matters, in a general way, must form a subject of discussion 
between the first naval lord and the controller, who will report 
on the subject to the first lord. The accountant-general, as the 
financial officer of the Board, will be called upon to place the 
proposed estimates upon a financial basis, and when the views 
of the cabinet are known as to the amount of money available, the 
several departments charged with the duty of preparing the 
various votes will proceed with that work. The financial basis 
alluded to is, of course, found in the estimates of the previous 
year, modified by the new conditions that arise. There has been 
in past times a haphazard character in our shipbuilding pro- 
grammes, but with the introduction of the Naval Defence Act of 
1889, which looked ahead and was not content with hand-to- 
mouth provision, a better state of things has grown up, and, 
with a larger sense of responsibility, a policy characterized by 
something of continuity has been developed. Certainly the 
largest factor in the better state of things has been the growth 
of a strong body of public opinion as to the supreme value of the 
navy for national and imperial welfare. 

Another important and related matter that comes before the 
Board of Admiralty is the character and design of ships. The 
naval members of the Board indicate the classes and qualities 
desired, and it is the practice that the sketch-design, presented 
in accordance with the instructions, is fully discussed by the first 
naval lord and the controller, and afterwards by the Board. The 
design then takes further shape, and when it has received the final 
sanction of the Board it cannot be altered without the sanction 
of the same authority. A similar procedure is found in the other 
business of the Admiralty Board, such as shore-works, docks and 
the preparation of offensive and defensive plans of warfare the 
last being a very important matter that falls into the operations 
of the Naval Intelligence Department, which has been described, 
though not with perfect accuracy, and certainly in no large sense, 
as " the brain of the navy." That department is under the 
direction of the first naval lord. 

The shipbuilding programme may be described as the corner- 
stone of the executive business of the admiralty, because upon it 
depends very largely the preparation of all the other votes relat- 
ing to numbers, stores, victualling, clothing, &c. But if the 
Admiralty Board is responsible through the first lord for the 
preparation of the estimates, it is also charged with the business 
of supervising expenditure. In this matter the financial secretary 
plays a' large part, and is directed to assist the spending depart- 
ment of the admiralty in their duty of watching the progress of 
their liabilities and disbursements. Some notes on admiralty 
finance will be found below (section 4). The shipbuilding votes 
set the larger machinery of the admiralty in motion. The execu- 
tive departments, except in regard to the hulls and machinery 
of ships and the special requirements of the director of works, 
do not make purchases of stores, that work resting with the 
director of navy contracts. Most of the important executive and 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 



199 



spending branches are in the department of the controller, and 
it will be well, while we are dealing with the material side of the 
navy, to describe briefly their character and duties. The civil 
branches of the navy tributary to the controller are those of the 
director of naval construction, the engineer-in-chief, the directors 
of naval ordnance, of dockyards and of stores, and the inspector 
of dockyard expense accounts. The first duty of the controller 
is, as has been explained, in relation to the design and construc- 
tion of ships and their machinery, and the executive officials who 
have charge of that work are the director of naval construction 
and the engineer-in-chief, whose operations are closely inter- 
related. A vast administrative stride has been made in this 
particular branch of the admiralty. The work of design and con- 
struction now go forward together, and the admiralty designers 
are in close touch with the work in hand at the dockyards. This 
has been largely brought about by the institution, in 1883, of the 
royal corps of naval constructors, whose members interchange 
their duties between the designing of ships at the admiralty 
and practical work at the dockyards. It is through the director 
of naval construction that many of the spending departments 
are set in motion, since he is responsible both for the design of 
ships and for their construction. ' It deserves to be noticed, how- 
ever, that a certain obscurity exists in regard to the relative 
duties of the director of naval construction and the director of 
dockyards touching constructive works in the yards. The former 
officer has also charge of all the work given out to contract, 
though it is the business of the dockyard officials to certify that 
the conditions of the contract have been fulfilled. In all this 
work the director of naval construction collaborates with the 
engineer-in-chief, who is an independent officer and not a sub- 
ordinate, and whose procedure in regard to machinery closely 
resembles that adopted in the matter of contract-built ships. 

The director of naval ordnance is another officer of the Con- 
troller's Department whose operations are very closely related 
to the duties of the director 6f naval construction, and the rela- 
tion is both intimate and sustained, for in the Ordnance Depart- 
ment everything that relates to guns, gun-mountings, magazines, 
torpedo apparatus, electrical fittings for guns, and other elec- 
trical fittings is centred. A singular feature of this branch of 
administration is that the navy long since lost direct control of 
ordnance matters, through the duties connected with naval 
gunnery, formerly in the hands of the master-general of the 
ordnance, and those of the Board of Ordnance a department 
common to the sea and land services being vested in 1835 in 
the secretary of state for war. A more satisfactory state of things 
has grown up through the appointment of the director of naval 
ordnance, taking the place of the naval officer who formerly 
advised the director of artillery at the War Office. Expenditure 
on ordnance has also been transferred from the army to the navy 
estimates, and a Naval Ordnance Store Department has been 
created. It cannot be said that the condition is yet satisfactory, 
nor can it be until the navy has control of and responsibility for 
its own ordnance. The assistant-director of torpedoes is an 
officer instituted at the admiralty within recent years, and his 
duty is to assist the director of naval ordnance in all torpedo 
matters. 

The director of dockyards replaced the surveyor of dockyards 
in 1885, at about which time the inspector of dockyard expense 
accounts was instituted. It is upon the director of dockyards 
(g.v.) that the responsibility of the controller devolves in regard 
to the management of dockyards and naval establishments at 
home and abroad, and to the performance of work in these estab- 
lishments, ship and boat building, maintenance, repairs and 
refits. In this department the programme for work in the dock- 
yards is prepared, as well as certain sections of the navy estimates. 

We now come to the Stores Department, with the director of 
stores as its chief. This officer, about the year 1869, took over 
the storekeeping duties previously vested in the storekeeper- 
general. The Naval Store Department is charged with the cus- 
tody and issue of naval, as distinguished from victualling and 
ordnance stores, to be used in naval dockyards and establish- 
ments for the building, fitting and repairing of warships. It 



has, however, no concern with stores that belong to the Depart- 
ment of Works. The business of the director of stores is also to 
receive and issue the stores for ships of all classes in commission 
and reserve, and he deals with a vast array of objects and 
materials necessary for the fleet, and with coals and coaling. 
He frames the estimates for his department, but his purchases 
are made through the director of navy contracts. In practice 
the main business of the Stores Department is to see to the pro- 
vision of stores for the navy, and to the proper supply of these 
at all the establishments, and for this purpose its officials direct 
the movements of storeships, and arrange for the despatch of 
colliers, the director being charged to be " careful to provide 
for His Majesty's ships on foreign stations, and for the necessary 
supplies to foreign yards." Another important business of the 
director of stores is the examination of the store accounts of 
ships as well as some other accounts. Although the director of 
stores is really in the department of the controller, he is super- 
vised in regard to the coaling of the fleet by the junior naval lord. 
The inspector of dockyard expense accounts has been alluded 
to. He is the officer charged with keeping a record of expendi- 
ture at the dockyards and of supervising expense accounts. 

It may be useful to add a note concerning the spending of the 
money. Within the controller's department, as has been ex- 
plained, are centred the more important spending 
branches of the admiralty. While the work of design- tun."' 
ing ships and preparing plans is in progress, the director 
of stores, the director of dockyards and other officials of that 
department concerned are making preparation for the work. 
The necessary stores, comprising almost every imaginable class 
of materials, are brought together, and the director of stores is 
specially charged to obtain accurate information in regard to re- 
quirements. He is not, however, a purchasing officer, that work 
being undertaken by the director of navy contracts, who is con- 
cerned with the whole business of supply, except in regard to 
hulls and machinery of ships built by contract, and the special 
requirements of the director of works. At the same time, the 
civil departments of the admiralty being held responsible for the 
administration of the votes they compile, it is their duty to watch 
the outlay of money, and to see that it is well expended, the ac- 
countant-general being directed to assist them in this work. The 
system is closely jointed and well administered, but it possesses 
a very centralized character, which interferes to some extent 
with flexible working, and with the progress of necessary repairs, 
especially in foreign yards. In so far as ships given out to con- 
tract are concerned (and the same is the case in regard to pro- 
pelling machinery built by contract), the director of navy con- 
tracts plays no part, the professional business being conducted 
through the controller of the navy, who is advised thereon by the 
director of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief. The 
work conducted in private establishments is closely watched by 
the admiralty officials, and is thoroughly tested, but, mutatis 
mutandis, the system in regard to contract-built ships is practi- 
cally the same as that which prevails in the dockyards. 

4. Naval Finance: The Accountant-General's Department. 
The subject of naval finance is one of great complexity and of 
vast importance. The. large sums of money with which the 
admiralty deals in the way of both estimates and expenditure, 
amounting recently to about 30,000,000 annually, implies the 
existence of the great organization which is found in the depart- 
ment of the accountant-general of the navy. Under the authority 
of the first lord, the parliamentary and financial secretary is 
responsible for the finance of the admiralty in general, and for 
the estimates and the expenditure, the accounts and the pur- 
chases, and for all matters which concern the relations of the 
admiralty to the treasury and to other departments of the 
government; and in all the practical and advisory work the 
accountant-general is his officer, acting as his assistant, with the 
director of naval contracts who, under the several lords, is con- 
cerned with the business of purchase. 

The organization of the accountant-general's department has 
undergone many changes, and the resulting condition is the out- 
come of various modifications which have had for their purpose 



200 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 



to give to this officer a measure of financial control. There 
have been various views as to what the duties of the accountant- 
general should be. After the reorganization of the admiralty 
by Sir James Graham in 1832, the accountant-general was re- 
garded as a recording and accounting officer, wholly concerned 
with receipt and expenditure. His duties were limited to the 
auditing of accounts, payments and expenditure generally. 
Owing to changes effected in 1869, which made the parliamentary 
secretary, assisted by the civil lord, responsible for finance at the 
admiralty, bringing the naval and victualling store departments 
into his charge, the accountant-general was invested with the 
power of criticizing these accounts financially, though he did not 
as yet possess any financial control, and the position was little 
changed by fresh rules made in 1876. It was not until 1880 that 
the powers of the accountant-general were enlarged in this direc- 
tion. It was then ordered that he should be consulted before 
any expenditure which the estimates had not provided for was 
incurred, and before any money voted was applied to other pur- 
poses than those for which it was provided. The effect of this 
order was not happy, for the accountant-general could not under- 
take these duties without setting up friction with the departments 
whose accounts he criticized. It was contemplated by the 
admiralty in 1885 to make the accountant-general the assistant 
of the financial secretary, and to raise him to the position of a 
permanent officer of finance instead of being an officer of account 
invested with imperfect authority in the direction of control. 
A select committee of the House of Commons reported that the 
accountant-general possessed no financial control over the de- 
partments, and that there was an urgent need for establishing 
such a control. At the time the position of that officer did not 
enable him to exercise any sufficient general supervision over 
expenditure, and there was no permanent high official expressly 
charged with finance. Accordingly, after being submitted to 
a departmental committee, a fresh arrangement was made in 
November 1885, whereby the accountant-general, under the 
authority of the financial secretary, was given a direct share in the 
preparation of the estimates. His written concurrence was re- 
quired before the final approval of the votes, and each vote was 
referred to him for his approval or observations, and he was to 
exercise a financial review of expenditure and to see that it was 
properly accounted for. He became, in fact, " the officer to be 
consulted on all matters involving an expenditure of naval 
funds." It was believed that economical administration would 
result; but much opposition was raised to the principle that was 
involved of submitting the proposals of responsible departments 
to the inexpert criticism of a financial authority. Mr Main, assist- 
ant accountant-general, stated before the Royal Commission on 
Civil Establishments, 1887, that the effect had been to develop 
a tendency to withhold information or to afford only partial 
information, as well as to cause friction when questions were 
raised affecting expenditure, accompanied by protests, even in 
those cases in which these questions were manifestly of a legiti- 
mate character. The result was discouraging, and in the opinion 
of Mr Main had done much to weaken financial control and to 
defeat the purpose of the order. It is unnecessary to detail the 
various changes that have been made by the institution of dock- 
yard expense accounts in the department of the controller, and 
by various other alterations introduced. The treasury instituted 
an independent audit of store accounts which greatly affected 
the position of the accountant-general, and the Royal Commission 
on Civil Establishments reported that the Board of Admiralty 
were of opinion that they could dispense with the accountant- 
general's review altogether. The commission was, however, of 
opinion that the accountant-general should be the permanent 
assistant and adviser, on all matters involving the outlay of 
public money, of the financial secretary. 

The operations of the accountant-general are now conducted 
in accordance with the order in council of the i8th of November 
1885, and of an office memorandum issued shortly afterwards. 
He thus acts as deputy and assistant of the parliamentary and 
financial secretary, and works with a finance committee within 
the admiralty, of which the financial secretary is president and 



the accountant-general himself vice-president. The duties of 
the department are precisely defined as consisting in the criticism 
of the annual estimates as to their sufficiency before they are 
passed, and in advising the financial and parliamentary secre- 
tary as to their satisfying the ordinary conditions of economy. 
The accountant-general also reviews the progress of liabilities 
and expenditure, and in relation to dockyard expenditure he 
considers the proposed programme of construction as it affects 
labour, material and machinery. He further reviews current 
expenditure, or the employment of labour and material, as dis- 
tinguished from cash payments of the yard, as well as proposals 
for the spending of money on new work or repairs of any kind for 
which estimates are currently proposed. The accountant-general's 
department has three principal divisions: the estimates division, 
the navy pay division, and the invoices and claims division. In 
the first of these is the ledger branch, occupied with the work of 
accounts under the several votes and sub-heads of votes, and with 
preparing the navy appropriation account, as well as the esti- 
mates and liabilities branch, in which the navy estimates are 
largely prepared after having been proposed and worked out in 
the executive departments of the admiralty. There are also 
ships' establishments and salaries branches. The navy pay 
division includes the full and half-pay branch and a registry 
section. There is also the seamen's pay branch, which audits 
ships' ledgers and wages, and has charge of all matters concerning 
the wages of seamen. The victualling audit is also in this branch, 
and is concerned with payments for savings in lieu of victual- 
ling and some other matters. Further, the navy pay division 
examines ships' ledgers, and is concerned with the service, char- 
acters, ages, &c., of men as well as with allotments and pensions. 
The third division of the accountant-general's department, 
known as that of invoices and claims, conducts a vast amount 
of clerical work through many branches, and is concerned with 
the management of naval savings banks and matters touching 
prize-money and bounties. 

The importance of this great department of the admiralty 
cannot be overrated. It is, in the first place, of supreme im- 
portance that the navy estimates should be placed upon a sound 
financial basis; and in practice the Board requires the concur- 
rence of the accountant-general to the votes before they are 
approved, and thus in greater or less degree this officer is con- 
cerned in the preparation of every one of the votes. He does not 
concern himself with matters of larger policy outside the domain 
of finance, and it must be confessed that there appears to be 
something anomalous in his " review " of naval expenditure. 
It is, however, a mark of the flexibility or elasticity of the ad- 
miralty system that in practice the operations of the accountant- 
general's department work easily, and that admiralty finance is 
recognized as having been placed upon a sound and efficient 
basis. There are important financial officers outside the ac- 
countant-general's department concerned with assisting the 
controller. The inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who 
is entirely in the controller's department, enables him to exercise 
careful supervision over expenditure and the distribution of 
funds to special purposes. This work, however, though highly 
important, is merely one part of the system of financial control. 
Within recent years the bonds have been considerably tightened, 
and the work is untainted by corruption. It is true that in 
exercising rigid supervision over expenditure the work has 
become more centralized than is desirable, and it is a mark of 
change within recent years that local officers have been in larger 
measure deprived of independent powers. This, indeed, is a 
necessary condition of financial control, or at least a condition 
which it is not easy to change where rigid control is necessary. 

5. Mobilization of the Fleet. By the mobilization of the fleet 
is meant the placing of naval resources upon a war footing, in 
readiness in all material and personal respects for hostile opera- 
tions. A complete mobilization for purposes of practice in peace 
time would dislocate seafaring life in a manner which would be 
justifiable only by actual war. Thus no country in peace 
manoeuvres calls out all its naval reserves, or makes use of the 
auxiliary cruisers merchant ships for which a subvention is 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 



201 



paid, and which are constructed with a view to use in warfare. 
Experience has shown that when vessels are commissioned they 
are liable to numerous small breakdowns of their machinery if 
they are manned by crews who have no familiarity with them. 
Many accidents of this kind had occurred in the British navy at 
manoeuvres, though it could not be shown that the vessel was 
defective, or that the crew was either untrained or negligent. 
These experiments led the admiralty to adopt a new system in 
1904, designed to obviate the risk that vessels would be crippled 
at a critical moment by want of acquaintance on the part of 
the crew with their machinery. Under this system all vessels 
which are considered to be available for war are divided into two 
classes: first, those in full commission which constitute the 
different squadrons maintained at all times; and secondly, those 
which form the reserve and are kept in partial commission or 
rather partially manned though in commission. These are kept 
at the home ports Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth in re- 
serve squadrons under a flag-officer who will command them in 
war. Each vessel has a captain, a second in command, and a 
proportion of other officers including engineer, navigating and 
torpedo officers. Two-fifths of her full complement of crew are 
always on board, and they include the most skilled men needed 
for the proper management of the machinery of all kinds more 
especially that of the torpedoes and guns. These vessels go to 
sea for periodical practice. When therefore the fleet must be 
mobilized for war it will only be necessary to fill up the number 
of trained men by the less skilled hands from the naval barracks 
occupied by the sailors not belonging to any particular ship, or 
from the naval reserve. All ranks of the navy are placed on a 
roster by which they successively serve in ships in full commission, 
are quartered in the naval barracks and drafted from them to 
the ships of the reserve, from which they return to the sea-going 
ships. It is calculated that there are always men enough in the 
barracks to complete the crews of a small squadron for emer- 
gency service without disturbing the regular routine of the peace 
establishment. The British admiralty may claim that though 
the machinery at its command in the past was not perfect it 
has commonly been able to send a squadron to sea more rapidly 
than any other power in Europe. Much depends on the arrange- 
ment of the stores as well as the disposition of the men. The 
introduction at the end of the i8th century of the businesslike 
practice of keeping the fittings of each ship together by them- 
selves, did much to facilitate the rapid mobilization of a portion 
of the British fleet in 1790 which impressed all Europe. The 
prompt manning of a special service squadron in 1895 i n conse- 
quence of the troubles then arising in connexion with the former 
South African Republic, showed that even before its plans for 
mobilization were completed the admiralty had its resources 
well in hand. (R .V. H.) 

As regards the navies of countries other than Great Britain, 
their government is in the hands of ministers or departments 

variously constituted. The Russian admiralty is a 
countries, highly organized bureau, divided into departments, and 

under the supreme control of a high admiral, usually a 
grand duke of the Imperial House. The German admiralty was, 
till 1872, a branch of the War Office, though governed by a vice- 
admiral under a naval prince of the reigning family. In 1872 it 
was severed from the War Office, though remaining an appanage 
thereof, and a general of the army was placed at its head. The 
French minister of marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls 
the navy of France on a highly centralized system of adminis- 
tration; but the departments are well organized, and work well. 
The Italian fleet is governed on principles analogous to the 
French, but with a large admixture of the English representative 
element. The American system is worth describing in more detail. 
The president of the United States is commander-in-chief of 
the navy a constitutional prerogative which he seldom asserts. 
united The Navy Department is administered by a civilian 
states secretary of the navy a cabinet officer appointed by 
iavyDe- tjj e president who exercises general supervision. 

Next in authority is the assistant-secretary, also a 
civilian nominee, who acts as an assistant, and has, besides, cer- 



tain specific duties, including general supervision of the marine 
corps, naval militia and naval stations beyond the continental 
limits of the United States. The details of administration are 
supervised by the chiefs of bureaus, of which there are eight. 
They are appointed by the president from the navy list for a 
period of four years, and have the rank of rear-admiral while 
serving in this capacity. They have direct control of the business 
and correspondence pertaining to their respective bureaus; 
and orders emanating from them have the same force as though 
issued by the secretary. 

The bureau of navigation is the executive, or military, bureau, 
and as such promulgates and enforces the orders and regulations 
prescribed by the secretary; it has general direction of the 
procurement, education, assignment and discipline of the per- 
sonnel. It also controls the movements of ships, including the 
authorization of manoeuvres and drills, such as target practice. 
The bureau of equipment has charge of all electrical appliances, 
compasses, charts and fuel, and generally all that relates to 
the equipment of vessels, exclusive of those articles that come 
naturally under the cognizance of other bureaus. It has charge 
of the naval observatory, where the Ephemeris is prepared annu- 
ally, and of the hydrographic office, where charts, sailing direc- 
tions, notices to mariners, &c., are issued. The bureau of ord- 
nance has charge of the gun factory, proving ground, and torpedo 
station, and all naval magazines; all the details that pertain 
to the manufacture, tests, installation or storage of all offensive 
and defensive apparatus, including armour, ammunition hoists, 
ammunition rooms, &c., though much of the actual installation 
is performed by the bureau of construction after consultation 
with the bureau of ordnance. The bureau of construction and 
repair has charge of the designing, building and repairing of 
hulls of ships, including turrets, spars and many other acces- 
sories. It builds all boats, has charge of the docking of vessels 
and the care of ships in reserve. The chief of this bureau is 
usually a naval constructor. The bureau of steam engineering 
has charge of all that relates to the designing, building and 
repairing of steam machinery, and of all the steam connexions 
on board ship. The bureau of supplies and accounts procures 
and distributes provisions, clothing and supplies of the pay 
department afloat, and acts as the purchasing agent for all 
materials used at naval stations, except for the medical depart- 
ment and marine corps. It also has charge of the disbursement 
of money and keeping of accounts. The chief of this bureau is 
a pay officer. The bureau of medicine and surgery has charge of 
all naval hospitals, dispensaries and laboratories, and of all 
that pertains to the care of sick afloat and ashore. The chief of 
this bureau is a medical officer. The bureau of yards and docks 
has charge of construction and maintenance of wet and dry 
docks, buildings, railways, cranes, and generally all permanent 
constructions at naval stations. The chief of this bureau is often 
a civil engineer. 

Under the cognizance of the secretary's office is the office of 
the judge-advocate-general, an officer selected by the president 
from the navy list for a term of four years, with the rank of 
captain while so serving. He is legal adviser to the department, 
and reviews the records of all courts and statutory boards. 
Under the cognizance of the assistant-secretary's office is the 
office of naval intelligence, which collates information on naval 
matters obtainable at home and abroad. The staff is composed 
of naval officers on shore duty, the senior in charge being usually 
a captain, and known as chief intelligence officer. Several 
boards are employed under the various bureaus, or directly as 
advisers to the secretary. Some are permanent in character, 
while others are composed of officers employed on other duty, 
and are convoked periodically or when required. The naval 
policy board is composed of officers of high rank, and meets once 
a month; its duties conform to those of the general staff in 
armies. The board of construction consists of the chiefs of 
bureaus of ordnance, equipment, construction and repair, 
steam engineering, and the chief intelligence officer. Its duty 
is to advise the secretary in all matters relating to the con- 
struction policy in detail. The general construction policy is 



202 



ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION * 



suggested by the naval policy board. The board of inspection 
and survey is composed of representatives of all bureaus, who in- 
spect vessels soon after commission and on return from a cruise, 
and report on the condition of the ship and efficiency of its per- 
sonnel; it also conducts the official trials of new vessels. The 
boards for the examination of officers for promotion are com- 
posed of officers of the corps to which the candidate belongs 
and of medical officers. Every officer is examined professionally, 
morally and physically at each promotion. The Navy Depart- 
ment is located at Washington, D.C., and occupies a building 
together with the State and War Departments (the latter being 
charged solely with army affairs). 

The personnel (see also under NAVY) is limited in number by 
law. The engineer corps was abolished in 1899, the then en- 
gineer-officers becoming line officers in their respective relative 
grades. Line officers are the military and executive branch, 
and are required besides to perform engineer duties. They are 
graduates of the Naval Academy. Vacancies occurring in the 
construction corps are filled from the graduates of the Naval 
Academy having the highest standing in scholarship, who are 
given a two years' graduate course, generally abroad, on being 
graduated from the Academy, and are then appointed assistant 
naval constructors. All other staff officers are appointed 
directly from civil life by the president, from candidates passing 
prescribed examinations. Each representative and delegate in 
Congress has authority to nominate a candidate for naval cadet 
whenever his congressional district has no representative in 
the Naval Academy. The candidate must be a resident of the 
district which the congressman represents, between fifteen and 
twenty years old, and must pass prescribed mental and physical 
examinations. The president is allowed ten representatives 
at the Academy at all times, appointed " at large," and one 
appointed from the District of Columbia. 

The course of instruction at the Academy is four years, each 
comprising eight months' study, three months' practice cruise, 
and one month's furlough. At the expiration of four years, 
cadets are sent to cruising ships for two years' further instruc- 
tion, and are then commissioned ensigns. After three years' 
further sea service, ensigns are promoted to lieutenants (junior 
grade). After this, promotion is dependent upon seniority 
alone, the senior officer in any grade being promoted to the lowest 
number in the next higher grade when a vacancy occurs in the 
higher grade, and not before. All officers are retired on three- 
fourths sea pay at the age of sixty-two, or whenever a board of 
medical officers certifies that an officer is not physically qualified 
to perform all duties of his grade. A few officers are allowed to 
retire voluntarily in certain circumstances, tostimulate promotion. 
Any officer on the retired list may be ordered by the secretary 
to such duty as he may be able to perform: this is a legal pro- 
vision to provide for emergencies. Promotion in the staff corps 
is dependent upott seniority, though relative rank in the lower 
grades in some corps somewhat depends upon promotion of line 
officers of the same length of service, and accounts for the exist- 
ence of staff officers in the same grade having different ranks. 
All sea-going officers, after commission, are required to spend 
three years at sea, and are then usually employed on shore-duty 
for a time, according to the needs of the service short terms of 
shore-duty thereafter alternating with three-year cruises. This 
rule is adhered to as strictly as circumstances will permit. 
Shore-duty includes executive or distinctly professional duties 
in the Navy Department, under its bureaus, and at navy yards 
and stations; inspection of ordnance, machinery, dynamos, &c., 
under construction by private firms; duty on numerous tempo- 
rary or permanent boards; instructors at the Naval Academy; 
recruiting duty; charge of branch hydrographic offices; in- 
spection duty in the lighthouse establishment; at state nautical 
schools; as attach6s with United States legations; and many 
others. Naval constructors (usually), civil engineers and pro- 
fessors of mathematics are continuously employed on shore-duty 
connected with their professions, the Naval Observatory, 
Nautical Almanac and the Naval Academy employing most of 
the last. 



Warrant officers (boatswains, gunners, carpenters, sailmakers, 
warrant machinists and pharmacists) are appointed by the 
secretary, preference being given to enlisted men in the navy 
who have shown marked ability for the positions. They must 
be between twenty-one and thirty-five years of age, and pass an 
examination. After serving satisfactorily for one year under an 
acting appointment, they receive warrants that secure the 
permanency of their office. Ten years after appointment, 
boatswains, gunners, carpenters and sailmakers are eligible for 
examination for a commission as chief-boatswain, &c., and as 
such they rank with, but next after, ensigns. Mates are rated 
by the secretary from seamen or ordinary seamen. They have 
no relative rank, but take precedence of all petty officers. Their 
duties approximate to those of boatswains, though they seldom 
serve on large cruising vessels. Clerks to pay officers are ap- 
pointed by the secretary on the nominations of the pay officers. 
They have no rank and are not promoted or retired. Their 
appointments are revoked when their services are no longer 
needed. 

Boys between fifteen and seventeen years old of good char- 
acter, who can read and write and pass the physical examination, 
may enlist for the term of their minority. They enlist as third- 
class apprentices, and are given six months' instruction at a 
training station, and thence go to sea in apprentice training 
vessels. When proficient they are transferred to regular cruising 
vessels as second class, and when further qualified are rated first 
class. All other enlistments are for four years. Recruits must 
speak English. Landsmen are usually sent to sea on special 
training-ships until proficient, and are then sent into general 
service. Raw recruits may enlist as landsmen, or coal-passers 
or mess attendants. Ordinary seamen must have served two 
years, and seamen four years before the mast, prior to first 
enlistment as such; and before enlistment in any other rating 
allowed on first enlistment, applicants must prove their ability 
to hold such rating. Landsmen, coal-passers, &c., as soon as 
they become proficient, are advanced to higher grades, and, if 
American citizens, may eventually become petty officers (ranking 
with army non-commissioned officers), with acting appointments. 
In twelve months, or as soon thereafter as proficiency is estab- 
lished, the acting appointment is made permanent, and an acting 
appointment for the next higher grade is issued, &c. Permanent 
appointments are not revokable except by sentence of court- 
martial, and a man re-enlists in that rating for which he held a 
permanent appointment in his previous enlistment. All persons 
re-enlisting within four months after expiration of previous 
enlistment are entitled to a bounty equal to four months' pay, 
and in addition receive a " continuous service certificate," 
which entitles them to higher pay and to other special considera- 
tions. The same is true for each re-enlistment. When an en- 
listed man completes thirty years' service and is over fifty years 
of age he may retire on three-fourths pay. 

The Marine corps (see MARINES) is a wholly separate military 
body, but it is under the control of the Navy Department. 

United States naval vessels are, as a rule, built at private yards 
under contracts awarded after competition. The government 
is not committed to any fixed policy or building programme. 
Each year the secretary recommends certain new construction. 
The final action rests with Congress, which must appropriate 
money for the new ships before the construction can be com- 
menced. Repairing and reconstruction are usually done at 
government navy yards. 

Ships in commission are distributed among five stations: (i) 
the North Atlantic, i.e. the Atlantic coast of the United States, 
Central America, and South America as far as the Amazon, also 
the West Indies; (2) the South Atlantic, i.e. the remainder of the 
Atlantic coast of South America and both coasts of South Africa; 
(3) the European, comprising the coast of Europe, including 
the inland seas, and the North Atlantic coast of Africa; (4) the 
Asiatic station, comprising the coast of Asia, including the 
islands north of the equator, also the east coast of North Africa; 
(5) the Pacific station, comprising the Pacific coast of North and 
South America, and Australia and the adjacent islands lying 



ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF 



203 



south of the equator. Each station is commanded by a flag 
officer, and the number of ships under the command varies 
according to circumstances. Ships in commission on special 
service, such as training, gunnery, surveying ships, &c., are 
not attached to stations. The shore stations of the navy are 
enumerated in the article on DOCKYARDS. (W. T. S.) 

ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF. The High Court of Ad- 
miralty of England was the court of the deputy or lieutenant 
of the admiral. It is supposed in the Black Book of the Admiralty 
to have been founded in the reign of Edward I.; but it would 
appear, from the learned discussion of R. G. Marsden, that it was 
established as a civil court by Edward III. in the year 1360; the 
power of the admiral to determine matters of discipline in the 
fleet, and possibly questions of piracy and prize, being somewhat 
earlier. Even then the court as such took no formal shape; but 
the various admirals began to receive in their patents express 
grants of jurisdiction with powers to appoint lieutenants or de- 
puties. At first there were separate admirals or rear-admirals of 
the north, south and west, each with deputies and courts. A list 
of them was collected by Sir H. Spelman. These were merged in 
or absorbed by one high court early in the isth century. Sir 
Thomas Beaufort, afterwards earl of Dorset and duke of Exeter 
(appointed admiral of the fleet 1407, and admiral of England, 
Ireland and Aquitaine 1412, which latter office he held till his 
death in 1426), certainly had a court, with a marshal and other 
officers, and forms of legal process mandates, warrants, citations, 
compulsories, proxies, &c. Complaints of encroachment of 
jurisdiction by the Admiralty Courts led to the restraining acts, 
13 Ric. II. c. 5 (1389), 15 Ric. II. c. 3 (1391) and 2 Hen. IV. c. n 
(1400). 

The original object of the institution of the courts or court seems 
to have been to prevent or punish piracy and other crimes upon 
the narrow seas and to deal with questions of prize; 
U a but civil jurisdiction soon followed. The jurisdiction 

in criminal matters was transferred by the Offences 
at Sea Act 1536 to the admiral or his deputy and three 
or four other substantial persons appointed by the lord chan- 
cellor, who were to proceed according to the course of the common 
law. By the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, cognizance of 
crimes committed within the jurisdiction of the admiralty was 
given to the central criminal court. By an act of 1844 it has been 
also given to the justices of assize; and crimes done within the 
jurisdiction of the admiralty are now tried as crimes committed 
within the body of a county. See also the Criminal Law Con- 
solidation Acts of 1861. 

From the time of Henry IV. the only legislation affecting the 
civil jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty till the time of 
Queen Victoria is to be found in an act of 1540, enabling the 
admiral or his lieutenant to decide on certain complaints of 
freighters against shipmasters for delay in sailing, and one of 
1562, giving the lord high admiral of England, the lord warden 
of the Cinque Ports, their lieutenants and judges, co-ordinate 
power with other judges to enforce forfeitures under that act 
a very curious and miscellaneous statute called " An Act for the 
Maintenance of the Navy. " 

In an act of 1534, with regard to ecclesiastical appeals from 
the courts of the archbishops to the crown, it is provided that the 
appeal shall be to the king in Chancery, " and that upon every 
such appeal a commission shall be directed under the great seal 
to such persons as shall be named by the king's highness, his heirs 
or successors, like as in cases of appeal from the Admiralty 
Court. " The appeal to these " persons, " called delegates, con- 
tinued until it was transferred first to the privy council and then 
to the judicial committee of the privy council by acts of 1832 
and 1833. 

The early jurisdiction of the court appears to have been exer- 
cised very much under the same procedure as that used by the 
courts of common law. Juries are mentioned, sometimes of the 
county and sometimes of the county and merchants. But the 
connexion with foreign parts led to the gradual introduction of 
a procedure resembling that coming into use on the continent 
and based on the Roman civil law. The Offences at Sea Act 



1536 states the objection to this application of the civil law to 
the trial of criminal cases with much force: " After the course 
of the civil laws, the nature whereof is that before any judgment 
of death can be given against the offenders, either they must 
plainly confess their offences (which they will never do without 
torture or pain), or else their offences be so plainly and directly 
proved by witness indifferent such as saw their offences com- 
mitted, which cannot be gotten but by chance at few times. " 

The material enactments of the restraining statutes were as 
follows: An act of 1389 (13 Ric. II. c. 5) provided that " the 
admirals and their deputies shall not meddle from 
henceforth of anything done within the realm, but only 
of a thing done upon the sea, as it hath been used in 
the time of the noble prince king Edward, grandfather of our lord 
the king that now is. " Theactof 1391 (15 Ric. II. c. 3) provided 
that " of all manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and other 
things rising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as 
by water, and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court 
shall have no manner of cognizance, power, nor jurisdiction; 
but all such manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and all other 
things rising within the bodies of counties, as well by land as by 
water, as afore, and also wreck of the sea, shall be tried, deter- 
mined, discussed and remedied by the laws of the land, and not 
before nor by the admiral, nor his lieutenant in any wise. Never- 
theless, of the death of a man, and of a maihem done in great 
ships, being and hovering in the main stream of great rivers, only 
beneath the [bridges] of the same rivers [nigh] to the sea, and in 
none other places of the same rivers, the admiral shall have 
cognizance, and also to arrest ships in the great flotes for the 
great voyages of the king and of the realm; saving always to 
the king all manner of forfeitures and profits thereof coming; 
and he shall have also jurisdiction upon the said flotes, during 
the said voyages only; saving always to the lords, cities, and 
boroughs, their liberties and franchises. " The act of 1400 (2 
Hen. IV. c. u) adds nothing by way of definition or restriction, 
but merely gives additional remedies against encroachments, 
providing heavy fines for those who improperly sue in the court, 
and those officials of the court who improperly assert juris- 
diction. It was repealed by the Admiralty Court Act 1861. 
The statutes of Richard, except the enabling part of the second, 
were repealed by the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879. 
The formation of a High Court of Justice rendered them obsolete. 

In the reign of James I. the chronic controversies between the 
courts of common law and the Admiralty Court as to the limits 
of their respective jurisdictions reached an acute stage. We find 
the records of it in the second volume of Marsden's Select Pleas 
in the Court of Admiralty, and in Lord Coke's writings: Reports, 
part xiii. 51; Institutes, part iv. chap. 22. In this latter passage 
Lord Coke records how, notwithstanding an agreement asserted 
to have been made in 1575 between the justices of the King's 
Bench and the judge of the admiralty, the judges of the common 
law courts successfully maintained their right to prohibit suits 
in admiralty upon contracts made on shore, or within havens, 
or creeks, or tidal rivers, if the waters were within the body of 
any county, wheresoever such contracts were broken, for torts 
committed within the body of a county, whether on land or 
water, and for contracts made in parts beyond the seas. It is 
due to the memory of the judges of Lord Coke's time to say that, 
at any rate as regards contracts made in partibus transmarinis, 
the same rule appears to have been applied at least as early as 
1544, the judges then holding that " for actions transitory abroad 
action may lie at common law. " 

All the while, however, the patents of the admiralty judge 
purported to confer on him a far ampler jurisdiction than the 
jealousy of the other courts would concede to him. 
The patent of the last judge of the court, Sir Robert 
Joseph Phillimore, dated the 23rd of August 1867, 
styles him " Lieut. Off 1 . Princ 1 . and Commissary Gen 1 , and Special 
in our High Court of Admiralty of Eng. and President and Judge 
of the same, " and gives to him power to take cognizance of " all 
causes, civil and maritime, also all contracts, complaints, offences 
or suspected offences, crimes, pleas, debts, exchanges, accounts, 



Judge's 
patent. 



204 



ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF 



policies of assurance, loading of ships, and all other matters and 
contracts which relate to freight due for the use of ships, trans- 
portation, money or bottomry; also all suits civil and maritime 
between merchants or between proprietors of ships and other 
vessels for matters in, upon, or by the sea, or public streams, or 
fresh-water ports, rivers, nooks and places overflown whatsoever 
within the ebbing and flowing of the sea and high-water mark, or 
upon any of the shores or banks adjacent from any of the first 
bridges towards the sea through England and Ireland and the 
dominions thereof, or elsewhere beyond the seas." Power is also 
given to hear appeals from vice-admirals; also "to arrest . . . 
according to the civil laws and ancient customs of our high court 
. . . all ships, persons, things, goods, wares and merchandise"; 
also " to enquire by the oaths of honest and lawful men 
. . . of all . . . things which . . . ought to be enquired after, 
and to mulct, arrest, punish, chastise and reform "; also " to 
preserve the public streams of our admiralty as well for the pre- 
servation of our royal navy, and of the fleets and vessels of our 
kingdom . . . as of whatsoever fishes increasing in the rivers" ; 
also " to reform nets too straight and other unlawful engines and 
instruments whatsoever for the catching of fishes "; also to take 
cognizance " of the wreck of the sea ... and of the death, 
drowning and view of dead bodies," and the conservation of the 
statutes concerning wreck of the sea and the office of coroner 
[1276], and concerning pillages [1353], and " the cognizance of 
mayhem " within the ebb and flow of the tide; all in as ample 
manner and form as they were enjoyed by Dr David Lewis 
[judge from 155810 1584], Sir Julius Caesar, and the other judges 
in order (22 in all) before Sir Robert Phillimore. This form of 
patent differs in but few respects from the earlier Latin patents 
tempore Henry VIII. except that they have a clause non 
obstantibus statutis. 

As has been said, however, the contention of the common law 
judges prevailed, and the Admiralty Court (except for a tem- 
porary revival under Cromwell) sank into comparative 
insignificance during the lyth century. The great 
maritime wars of the i8th century gave scope to the 
exercise of its prize jurisdiction; and its international import- 
ance as a prize court in the latter half of the i8th and the first 
part of the ipth centuries is a matter of common historical 
knowledge. There were upwards of 1000 prize causes each year 
between 1803 and 1811, in some years upwards of 2000. 

There were other great judges; but Sir William Scott, after- 
wards Lord Stowell, is the most famous. Before his time there 
were no reports of admiralty cases, except Hay and Marriott's 
prize decisions. But from his time onwards there has been a 
continuous stream of admiralty reports, and we begin to find 
important cases decided on the instance as well as on the 
prize side. 

In the reign of Queen Victoria, two enabling statutes, 1840 and 
1861, were passed and greatly enlarged the jurisdiction of the 
court. The manner in which these statutes were administered 
by Dr Stephen Lushington and Sir R. J. Phillimore, whose tenure 
of office covered the whole period of the queen's reign till the 
creation of the High Court of Justice, the valuable assistance 
rendered by the nautical assessors from the Trinity House, the 
great increase of shipping, especially of steam shipping, and the 
number and gravity of cases of collision, salvage and damage 
to cargo, restored the activity of the court and made it one of 
the most important tribunals of the country. In 1875, by the 
operation of the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, the High 
Court of Admiralty was with the other great courts of England 
formed into the High Court of Justice. The principal officers 
of the court in subordination to the judge were the registrar (an 
office which always points to a connexion with canon or civil 
law), and the marshal, who acted as the maritime sheriff, having 
for his baton of office a silver oar. The assistance of the Trinity 
Masters, which has been already mentioned, was provided for 
in the charter of incorporation of the Trinity House. These 
officers and their assistance have been preserved in the High 
Court of Justice. 

Till the year 1859 the practitioners in the High Court of 



Modern 
progress 



Admiralty were the same as those in the ecclesiastical courts 
and distinct from those who practised in the ordinary courts. 
Advocates took the place of barristers, and proctors 
of solicitors. The place of the attorney-general was ^^ / 
taken by the king's or queen's advocate-general, and the court. 
that of the treasury solicitor by the king's or queen's 
procurator or proctor. There were also an admiralty advocate 
and an admiralty proctor. The king's advocate also repre- 
sented the crown in the ecclesiastical courts, and was its 
standing adviser in matters of international and foreign law. 
The king's advocate led the bar of his courts, and before the 
privy council took precedence of the attorney-general. The 
admiralty advocate or advocate to his majesty in his office of 
admiralty represented specially the lords of the admiralty. In 
the Admiralty Court he ranked next after the king's advocate. 

In an act of 1859 the practice was thrown open to barristers 
and to attorneys and solicitors. 

Upon the next vacancy after the courts were thrown open, 
the crown altered the precedence and placed the queen's advo- 
cate after the attorney- and solicitor-general. There were two 
holders of the office under these conditions, Sir R. J. Phillimore 
and Sir Travers Twiss. The office was not filled up after the 
resignation of the latter. The admiralty had, when the courts 
were thrown open, a standing counsel for the ordinary courts 
and a solicitor. Questions soon arose as to the respective claims 
of the admiralty advocate and the counsel to the admiralty, 
and their acuteness was increased when the courts were fused 
into one High Court of Justice. Upon the resignation of Sir 
James Parker Deane the office of admiralty advocate was not 
filled up. In like manner the proctor to the admiralty has 
disappeared. The office of king's or queen's proctor has been 
kept alive but amalgamated with that of the solicitor for the 
treasury. That officer uses the title of king's proctor when he 
appears in certain matrimonial causes. 

The last holder of the office of standing counsel to the ad- 
miralty was Alexander Staveley Hill, K.C.,M.P. Since his death 
the office, like those of the king's or queen's advocate and the 
admiralty advocate, has not been filled up; and the ordinary 
law officers of the crown with the assistance of a junior counsel 
to the admiralty (a barrister appointed by the attorney-general) 
perform the duties of all these offices. 

The judge advocate of the fleet is a practising barrister whose 
function it is to advise the admiralty on all matters connected 
with courts-martial. Though section 61 of the Naval judge 
Discipline Act 1866 recognizes the possibility of his Advocate 
presence at a court-martial, he does not nowadays J, the 
attend, but is represented by his deputy or by an 
officiating deputy judge advocate appointed ad hoc by the 
admiralty, the commander-in-chief of the fleet or squadron 
who convenes the court-martial, or, if no such appointment 
is made, by the president of the court-martial. But though the 
judge advocate of the fleet does not actually attend the courts- 
martial very responsible duties are imposed upon him. By a 
minute of the Board passed in 1884 (which is still in force) all 
proceedings of courts-martial on officers and men of the royal 
navy, excepting those where the prisoner pleads guilty and no 
evidence is taken, are to be referred to him, with a view to the 
consideration of (a) the charge, (b) the evidence on which the 
finding is based, and (c) the legality of the sentence, and he writes 
a minute on each case for the information of the lords commis- 
sioners of the admiralty with regard to these points. He has no 
power to modify a sentence, a power which is reserved to the 
admiralty by 53 (i) of the Naval Discipline Act 1866, except 
in the case of a death sentence, which can only be remitted by 
the crown. All cases where the prisoner has pleaded guilty are 
examined in the admiralty, and if in any case there is any reason 
to think that there has been any informality or that the prisoner 
has not understood the effect of his plea, such case is submitted 
to the judge advocate of the fleet for his opinion. The judge 
advocate of the fleet receives no fees but is remunerated by a 
salary of 500 per annum. 

The existence of a deputy judge of the fleet appointed by 



ADMIRALTY ISLANDS ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 205 



the admiralty has been recognized by the king's regulations, but 
no such officer had been appointed up to 1908. 

In accordance with the provisions of 61 of the Naval Disci- 
pline Act 1866, in the absence of the judge advocate of the fleet 
and his deputy, an officiating judge advocate is appointed for 
each court-martial. His duties are described in detail by the 
king's regulations, but may be summed up as consisting of 
seeing that the charges are in order, pointing out any informalities 
or defects in the charges or in the constitution of the court, seeing 
that any witness required by prosecutor or prisoner is summoned, 
keeping the minutes of the proceedings, advising on matters of 
law which arise at any time after the warrant for the court- 
martial is issued, drawing up the findings and sentence, and 
forwarding the minutes when completed to the admiralty. The 
officiating judge advocate is usually the secretary of the flag- 
officer convening the court-martial or some other officer of the 
accountancy branch. He is remunerated for his services by a 
fixed fee for each day the court sits. 

Ireland. The High Court of Admiralty of Ireland, being 
formed on the same pattern as the High Court in England, sat 
in the Four Courts, Dublin, having a judge, a registrar, a marshal 
and a king's or queen's advocate. In peace time and war time 
alike it exercised only an instance jurisdiction, though in 1793 
it claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction (see ADMIRALTY JURIS- 
DICTION). No prize commission ever issued to it. By the Irish 
Judicature Act of 1877 it was directed that it should be amalga- 
mated with the Irish High Court of Justice upon the next 
vacancy in the office of judge, and this subsequently took place. 
There was no separate lord high admiral for Ireland. 

Scotland. At the Union, while the national functions of the 
lord high admiral were merged in the English office it was pro- 
vided by the Act of Union that the Court of Admiralty in Scot- 
land should be continued " for determination of all maritime 
cases relating to private rights in Scotland competent to the 
jurisdiction of the Admiralty Court." This court continued till 
1831 , when its civil jurisdiction was given to the Court of Session 
and the Sheriffs' Courts (see ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION). 

See Sir Travers Twiss, Black Book of the Admiralty, Rolls series; 
R. G. Marsden, Select Pleas in the Court of Admiralty, published 
by the Selden Society; Godolphin, View of the Admiral Juris- 
diction. (W. G. F. P.) 

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty islands lying 
north of New Guinea, between i and 3 S., and 146 and 148 
E., within the Bismarck Archipelago, belonging to Germany. 
The largest, Manus, is about 60 m. in length, and its highest 
point is about 3000 ft. above the sea; the others are very small, 
and rise little above sea-level. Most are of coral formation, but 
the hills of Manus are believed to be extinct volcanoes. The 
islands were discovered by the Dutch in 1616, and visited in 
1767 by Philip Carteret; but no landing seems to have been 
effected, owing to the surrounding reefs, until the arrival of the 
" Challenger " in 1875. The natives are of the Papuan type, but 
show signs of mixed origin. They are cannibals, and many 
murders of whites have taken place. 

ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION. The courts by which, as far 
as we know, admiralty jurisdiction in civil matters was first 
exercised were the following. In and throughout England the 
courts of the several admirals soon combined into one High 
Court of Admiralty (see ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF) . Within 
the territories of the Cinque Ports the Court of Admiralty of the 
Cinque Ports exercised a co-ordinate jurisdiction. In certain 
towns and places there were local courts of vice-admiralty. In 
Scotland there existed the Scottish High Court of Admiralty, in 
Ireland the Irish High Court of Admiralty. Of these courts 
that of the Cinque Ports alone remains untouched. The Scot- 
tish court was abolished, and its civil jurisdiction given to the 
Court of Session and to the courts of the sheriffs by the Court of 
Session Act 1830 not, however, till a decision given by it and 
the appeal therefrom to the House of Lords had established a 
remarkable rule of admiralty law in cases of collision (Hay v. le 
Neve, 1824, 2 Shaw, Sc. App. Cas. 395). The act states that the 
Court of Justiciary held cumulative jurisdiction with the Court of 



Admiralty in criminal matters. The local vice-admiralty courts 
in England had ceased to do much work when they were abol- 
ished by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835; the High Court 
became, with the other superior courts, a component part of 
the High Court of Justice by virtue of the Judicature Acts 
1873 and 1875. And the Irish court has in like manner become 
a part of the High Court of Justice in Ireland by virtue of the 
Judicature Act passed in 1877. 

As England first, and Great Britain afterwards, acquired 
colonies and possessions beyond seas, vice-admiralty courts 
were established. The earliest known was that in 
Jamaica, established in the year 1662. Some vice- ^^J/ ra y 
admiralty courts which were created for prize purposes courts. 
in the last century were suffered to expire after 1815. 
In the year 1863, when the act regulating the vice-admiralty 
courts was passed, there were vice-admiralty courts at Antigua, 
Bahamas, Barbadoes, Bermuda, British Columbia, British 
Guiana, British Honduras, Cape of Good Hope,Ceylon,Dominica, 
Falkland Islands, Gambia River, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, Grenada, 
Hong Kong, Jamaica, Labuan, Lagos, Lower Canada (otherwise 
Quebec), Malta, Mauritius, Montserrat, Natal, Nevis, New 
Brunswick, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New Zealand, 
Nova Scotia (otherwise Halifax), Prince Edward Island, Queens- 
land, St Christopher, St Helena, St Lucia, St Vincent, Sierra 
Leone, South Australia, Tasmania, Tobago, Trinidad, Van- 
couver's Island, Victoria, Virgin Islands (otherwise Tortola), and 
Western Australia, and (for matters of the slave trade only) 
Aden. By the act of 1867 one for the Straits Settlements was 
added. These courts have been regulated from time to time by 
the following statutes: 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 51, 26 and 27 Viet, 
c. 24 (Vice-Admiralty Courts Act 1863), already cited, and 30 
and 31 Viet. c. 45 (Vice- Admiralty Courts Act Amendment Act 
1867) ; and by the slave trade acts, of which the last and consoli- 
dating act was that of 1873. 

In 1890 the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act provided that, 
except in the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, St 
Helena and British Honduras, vice-admiralty courts should be 
abolished, and a substitution made of colonial courts of ad- 
miralty. There is power, however, reserved to the crown to 
erect through the admiralty in any British possession any vice- 
admiralty court, except in India or any British possession having 
a representative legislature. No vice-admiralty court so estab- 
lished can exercise any jurisdiction except for some purpose 
relating to prize, the royal navy, the slave trade, foreign enlist- 
ment, Pacific Islanders' protection, and questions relating to 
treaties or conventions on international law. Vice-admiralty 
courts exercised all usual admiralty jurisdiction, and in addition 
a certain revenue jurisdiction, and jurisdiction over matters of 
slave trade and prize and under the Pacific Islanders' Protection 
Act. The appeal from vice-admiralty courts used to lie to the 
High Court of Admiralty of England, but has been transferred 
to the king in council. 

By the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890, already referred 
to, every court of law in a British possession which 
is declared by its legislature to be such, or if there Co ^" ot 
be no such declaration, which has original unlimited Admiralty. 
civil jurisdiction, shall be a court of admiralty. 

There used at one time to be vice-admiralty courts for 
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay; but by the India High 
Courts Act 1861, 9, the admiralty jurisdiction is given 
to the High Courts of these places. 

Consular courts established in Turkey, China and Japan 
have had admiralty jurisdiction given to them, and c oasu i m 
by 12 of the Colonial Admiralty Courts Act any courts. 
court established by H.M. for the exercise of jurisdic- 
tion in any place outside H.M.'s dominion may have admiralty 
jurisdiction granted to it. 

By the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 
a federal supreme court, to be called the High Court of Australia. 
Australians created,and the parliament of the Common- 
wealth may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the 
High Court in matters of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. 



206 



ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 



There is a court of admiralty in the Isle of Man of which the 
water-bailiff is judge. He is also styled admiral. It is 
Man said to have jurisdiction in salvage and over other mari- 

time matters occurring within 3 leagues from the shore. 
Modern statutes have given admiralty jurisdiction to the City 
of London Court, the Court of Passage and to the county courts 
in the following matters : Salvage, where the value 
of the salved property does not exceed 1000, or the 
Courts. claim for reward 300 ; towage, necessaries and wages, 
where the claim does not exceed 150; claims for 
damage to cargo, or by collision, up to 300 (and for sums above 
these prescribed limits by agreement between the parties); 
and claims arising out of breaches of charter parties and other 
contracts for carriage of goods in foreign ships, or torts in respect 
thereof, up to 300. This jurisdiction is restricted to subjects 
over which jurisdiction was possessed by the High Court of 
Admiralty at the time when the first of these acts was passed, 
except as regards the last branch of it (the "Aline," 1880, 5 Ex. 
Div. 227 ; R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 1892, i Q.B. 272). 
In analogy with the county court admiralty jurisdiction created 
in England, a limited admiralty jurisdiction has been given hi 
Ireland to the recorders of certain boroughs and the chairmen 
of certain quarter sessions ; and in salvage cases, where a county 
court in England would have jurisdiction, magistrates, recorders 
and chairmen of quarter sessions may have jurisdiction as official 
arbitrators (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, 547). In Scotland, 
admiralty suits in cases no exceeding the value of 25 are 
exclusively tried in the sheriff's court ; while over that limit the 
sheriff's court and the Court of Session have concurrent juris- 
diction. The sheriff has also criminal admiralty jurisdiction, 
but only as to crimes which he would be competent to try if 
committed on land (The Court of Session Act 1830, 21 and 22). 
By an act of 1821 an arbitral jurisdiction in cases of salvage 
was given to certain commissioners of the Cinque Ports. 

The appeal from county courts and commissioners is to the 
High Court of Justice, and is exercised by a divisional court 
of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. In 
cases arising within the Cinque Ports there is an optional 
appeal to the Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports. The appeal 
from the High Court of Justice is in ordinary admiralty matters, 
as in others, to the Court of Appeal, and from thence to the 
House of Lords. But it is specially provided by the Judicature 
Act 1891, as it was by the Prize Act 1864, that the appeal in 
prize cases shall be to the sovereign in council. 

The unfortunate provisions of the legislature, giving to the 
jurisdiction of county courts different money limits in admiralty 
equity and common law cases, make the distinction between 
cases coming under the admiralty jurisdiction and other civil 
cases of practical moment in those courts. Arguments full of 
learning and research have been addressed to the courts, and 
weighty decisions have been given, upon questions which would 
never have arisen if the county courts had not a larger money 
area of jurisdiction in admiralty cases than they have 
diction. *' m other matters (R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 
1892, i Q.B. 273; the "Zeta," 1893, App. Cas. 468). 
But as regards the high courts, whether in England, Scotland or 
Ireland, it is not now necessary to distinguish their civil admiralty 
jurisdiction from their ordinary civil jurisdiction, except for the 
purpose of seeing whether there can or cannot be process in 
rem. Not that every admiralty action can of right be brought 
in rem, but that no process in rem lies at the suit of a subject 
unless it be for a matter of admiralty jurisdiction one, for 
instance, that could in England have been tried in the High Court 
of Admiralty. Now these matters of admiralty jurisdiction with 
process in rem range themselves under four primary and four 
supplementary heads. The four primary are damage, salvage, 
bottomry, wages; and the four supplementary are extensions 
due to one or other of the statutes of 1840 (Admiralty Court) 
and 1861 (Admiralty Court Act). They are damage to cargo 
carried in a ship, necessaries supplied to a ship, mortgage of ship, 
and master's claim for wages and disbursements on account of a 
ship. In all these cases, primary and secondary, the process of 



Appeals. 



which a plaintiff can avail himself for redress, may be either in 
personam as in other civil suits, or by arrest of the ship, and, in 
cases of salvage and bottomry, the cargo. Whenever, also, the 
ship can be arrested, any freight due can also be attached, by 
arrest of the cargo to the extent only of the freight which it has 
to pay. For the purpose of ascertaining whether or not process 
in rem would lie, there have been distinctions as nice, and the 
line of admiralty jurisdiction has been drawn as carefully, as in 
the cases of the admiralty jurisdiction of the county courts (the 
"Thela," 1894, Prob. 280; the " Gas Float Whilton," 1897, App. 
Cas. 33 7) . There have been similar questions raised in the United 
States, from De Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Ramsay 
v. Allegre (1827, 12 Wheaton, 611), down to the quite modern 
cases which will be found quoted in the arguments and judg- 
ments in the "Gas Float Whitton." 

The disciplinary jurisdiction at one time exercised by the 
Admiralty Court, over both the royal navy and merchant vessels, 
may be said to be obsolete in time of peace, the last 
remnant of it being suits against merchantmen for a ^ p l 
flying flags appropriate to men-of-war (the "Minerva," 
1800, 3 C. Rob. 34), a matter now more effectively provided 
against by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. In time of war, 
however, it was exercised in some instances as long as the Ad- 
miralty Court lasted, and is now in consequence exercisable by 
the High Court of Justice (see Prize below). It was, perhaps, 
in consequence of its ancient disciplinary jurisdiction that the 
Admiralty Court was made the court to enforce certain portions 
of the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870. 

Finally, appeals from decisions of courts of inquiry, under 
the Merchant Shipping Act, cancelling or suspending the certifi- 
cates of officers in the merchant service, may be made to the 
Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of 
Justice. 

The admiralty jurisdiction in criminal matters extends over 
all crimes committed on board British ships at sea or in tidal 
waters, even though such tidal waters be well within 
foreign territory (R. v. Anderson, 1868, L.R. i C.C.R. 
161), but not over crimes committed on board foreign 
vessels upon the high seas (R. v. Serva, 1845, i Denison C.C. 
104). Whether it extended over crimes committed on foreign 
ships within territorial waters of the United Kingdom, and 
whether a zone of three miles round the shores of the United 
Kingdom was for such purpose territorial water, were the great 
questions raised in R. v. Keyn (the "Franconia," L.R. 2 Ex. 
Div. 126), and decided in the negative by the majority of the 
judges, rightly, as the writer of this article respectfully thinks. 
Since, then, however, the legislature has brought these waters 
within the jurisdiction of the admiralty by the Territorial Waters 
Jurisdiction Act 1878. Section 2 runs as follows : " An offence 
committed by a person, whether he is or is not a British subject, 
on the open sea within the territorial waters of British dominions, 
is an offence within the jurisdiction of the admiral, although 
it may have been committed on board or by means of a foreign 
ship, and the person who committed such offence may be ar- 
rested, tried and punished accordingly." By 7 the " juris- 
diction of the admiral " is denned as " including the jurisdiction 
of the admiralty of England or Ireland, or either of such juris- 
dictions as used in any act of parliament ; and for the purpose of 
arresting any person charged with an offence declared by this 
act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, the territorial 
waters adjacent to the United Kingdom, or any other part of 
her majesty's dominions, shall be deemed to be within the 
jurisdiction of any judge, magistrate or officer." And " terri- 
torial waters of her majesty's dominions " are defined as " in 
reference to the sea, meaning such part of the sea adjacent to 
the coast of the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other 
part of her majesty's dominions, as is deemed by international 
law to be within the territorial sovereignty of her majesty; and 
for the purpose of any offence declared by this act to be within 
the jurisdiction of the admiral, any part of the open sea within 
one marine league of the coast, measured from low-water mark, 
shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial waters of 



Criminal 
cases. 



ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 



her majesty's dominions." As to those portions of the sea and 
tidal waters which, by reason of their partially land-locked 
positions, are deemed to be in the body of a county, there is not 
admiralty jurisdiction, but crimes are tried as if they were com- 
mitted on land within the same county. 

Pirates, whatever flag they pretended to fly, were, from 1360 
onwards, wherever their crimes were committed, subject to the 
admiralty jurisdiction. The criminal jurisdiction of the ad- 
miralty was first exercised by the High Court of Admiralty; 
and then, by virtue of the Offences at Sea Act 1536, transferred 
to commissioners appointed under the great seal, among whom 
were to be the admiral or admirals, his or their deputies. Ad- 
miralty sessions were held for this purpose till 1834. Admiralty 
criminal jurisdiction is now, by virtue of the series of statutes, 
the Offences at Sea Act 1799, the Central Criminal Court Act 
1834, Offences at Sea Act 1844, and the criminal law consolida- 
tion acts passed in 1861, exercised by the Central Criminal Court 
and by the ordinary courts of assize. Special provision for trial 
in the colonies of. offences committed at sea has been made 
by an act of William III. (1698-1699), the Offences at Sea Act 
1806, and the Admiralty Offences (Colonial) Act 1849. 

The Admiralty Court had jurisdiction in matters of prize 
from very early times; and although since the middle of the 
1 7th century the instance, or ordinary civil jurisdiction 
of the court, has been kept distinct from the prize 
jurisdiction, they were originally both administered and regarded 
as being within the ordinary jurisdiction of the lord high admiral. 
The early records of the admiralty show that the origin of the 
prize jurisdiction is to be traced to the power given to the court 
of the admiral to try cases of piracy and " spoil," i.e. captures 
of foreign ships by English ships. The earliest recorded case of 
spoil tried before the admiral is in 1357, when the goods of a 
Portuguese subject, taken at sea by Englishmen from a French 
i ship which had previously spoiled a Portuguese, were awarded 
by the admiral as good prize to the English captors ; and 
Edward III. in a letter to the king of Portugal answering a com- 
plaint on the subject gives the admiral's decision as a reason 
for refusing their restoration. During the i6th century a very 
large part of the business of the Admiralty Court related to spoil 
and piracy, and the privy council often directed the judge of 
the court how to deal with the spoil cases, with regard to which 
foreigners who had suffered from attacks by English ships made 
petition for redress to the admiral or the council. The spoil 
suit at this time (causa spolii) was a civil proceeding resulting 
in a decree absolutoria, dismissing the defendant, or condemna- 
toria, ordering restoration to be made by him. In 1 585 the patent 
of Howard, the lord high admiral, authorized him to issue 
letters of reprisal against Spain; and an order in council regu- 
lating the conduct of those to whom such letters were issued 
provided by an additional article (1859) that all prizes were to be 
brought in without breaking of bulk for adjudication by the 
Admiralty Court. The court was also resorted to at this time 
by captors, sailing under commissions granted by the allies of 
England, such as the king of France and the Dutch. About the 
middle of the i7th century separate sittings of the court for 
instance and prize business began, perhaps because of the con- 
flicting claims to droits of Charles II. and the duke of York as lord 
high admiral; and privateering under royal commission took 
the place of the former irregular "spoiling." The account 
which Lord Mansfield gave of the records of the Admiralty Court, 
that there were no prize act books earlier than 1641, or prize 
sentences earlier than 1648, and that before 1690 the records 
were in confusion, must be qualified by the correction that 
there are in existence prize sentences (on paper, not parchment) 
as early as 1589. 

Although the courts of common law hardly ever seem to have 
interfered with or disputed the admiralty prize jurisdiction, its 
exclusive nature was not finally admitted till 1782; but long 
previously royal ordinances (1512, 1602) and statutes (1661, 
giving an alternative of commissioners, 1670, 1706) had given 
the Admiralty Court the only express jurisdiction over prize. 
The same statute of Anne and acts of 1739 and 1744 give prize 



207 

jurisdiction to any court of admiralty, and the courts of ad- 
miralty for the colonies and plantations in North America. 

It has been a disputed question whether the prize jurisdiction 
of the court was inherent, i.e. coming within the powers given 
by the general patent of the judge, in which no express mention 
of it is made, or whether it required a special commission. Upon 
this subject the judgment of Lord Mansfield in Undo v. Rodney 
(1782, Dougl. 612), the judgment of Mr Justice Story in De 
Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Marsden's Select Pleas 
of the Court of Admiralty (introduction), may be consulted. 
But the settled practice now and for a long time past has been 
for a special commission and warrant to be issued for this pur- 
pose. In connexion with this it is observable that in 1793 the 
Admiralty Court of Ireland claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction 
under its general patent; and it is said to have been the opinion 
of Sir W. Wynne that the Admiralty Court of Scotland had a 
similar right (Brown, Civil Law of Admiralty, vol. ii. 211, 212). 
Any jurisdiction of the Scottish court over prize of war was 
transferred to the English court by the Court of Session Act 1825, 
57. As to the Irish court, by the Act of Union it was pro- 
vided that there should remain in Ireland an instance court of 
admiralty for the determination of causes civil and maritime 
only. 

In 1864 the constitution and procedure of prize courts, which 
had until then been prescribed by occasional acts passed for 
each war as it arose, were for the first time made permanent by 
the Naval Prize Act, by which the High Court of Admiralty 
and every admiralty or vice-admiralty court, or any other court 
exercising admiralty jurisdiction in British dominions, if for the 
time being authorized to exercise prize jurisdiction, were made 
prize courts. The High Court of Admiralty was given jurisdic- 
tion throughout British dominions as a prize court, and, as such, 
power to enforce any order of a vice-admiralty prize court and 
the judicial committee of the privy council in prize appeals 
this power mutatis mutandis being also given to vice-admiralty 
prize courts. An appeal was given from any prize court to the 
sovereign in council. Prize courts were given jurisdiction in 
cases of captures made in a land expedition or an expedition 
made conjointly with allied forces, and power to give prize 
salvage on recaptured ships and prize bounty; and a form of 
procedure was prescribed. The High Court was also given ex- 
clusive jurisdiction as a prize court over questions of ransom 
and petitions of right in prize cases, and power to punish masters 
of ships under convoy disobeying orders or deserting convoy. 
By the Naval Discipline Act 1866, power to award damages 
to convoyed ships exposed to danger by the fault of the officer 
in charge of the convoy was also given to the High Court. Under 
other statutes it had power to try questions of booty of war 
when referred to it by the crown, in the same way as prize 
causes, and claims of king's ships for salvage on recaptures from 
pirates, which could be condemned as droits of admiralty, sub- 
ject to the owner's right to receive them on paying one-eighth of 
the value, and also power to seize and restore prizes captured by 
belligerents in vfolation of British neutrality, or by a ship equipped 
in British ports contrary to British obligations of neutrality. 

All jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty has since 
passed to the High Court of Justice, which is made a prize court 
under the Naval Prize Act, with all the powers of the Admiralty 
Court in that respect; and all prize causes and matters within 
the jurisdiction of that court as a prize court are assigned to 
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division; and an appeal 
from it as a prize court lies only to the king in council (Judicature 
Acts 1873 and 1891). 

By an act of 1894 further provision is made for the consti- 
tution of prize courts in British possessions. A commission, 
warrant or instruction from the crown or the admiralty may 
be issued at any time, even in peace; and upon such issue, 
subject to instructions from the crown, the vice-admiral of the 
possessions on being satisfied by information from a secretary 
of state that war has broken out between Great Britain and a 
foreign state, may make proclamation to that effect, and the 
commission or warrant comes into effect. The commission or 



208 



ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 



warrant may authorize a vice-admiralty court or colonial court 
of admiralty to act as a prize court, or establish a vice-admiralty 
court for that purpose, and may be revoked or altered at any 
time. The court is authorized to act as a prize court during the 
war, and shall after its conclusion continue to act as such, and 
finally dispose of all matters and things arising during the war, 
including all penalties and forfeitures incurred therein. Rules 
of court may also be made by order in council for regulating, 
subject to the Naval Prize Act, the procedure and practice of 
prize courts under that act, the duties and conduct of their 
officers and practitioners, and the fees and costs therein (Prize 
Courts Act 1894, 2, 3). This latter power has been exercised; 
and prize rules for the High Court of Justice and the vice- 
admiralty prize courts were framed in 1898 (Statutory Rules and 
Orders, 1898). 

AUTHORITIES. Marsden, Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty, 
Selden Society, London, 1892 and 1897; Zouch, Jurisdiction of the 
Admiralty of England asserted', Robinson, Collectanea Maritima; 
Brown, Admiralty; Edwardes, Admiralty; Phillimore, International 
Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi.; Pritchard, Admiralty Digest, tit. 
Jurisdiction. (W. G. F. P.) 

UNITED STATES 

The source of admiralty jurisdiction in the United States 
is Article 3, 2 of the United States Constitution: "The 
judicial power shall extend to all cases of admiralty and mari- 
time jurisdiction." The United States Supreme Court has 
declared that by virtue of these words the admiralty jurisdiction 
extends not only to the high seas but to the great lakes and the 
rivers connecting them, and to all public navigable waters in 
the United States (the " Genesee Chief" v. Fits-Hugh, 12 Howards 
U.S. Rep. 443), including even interstate canals (Ex. p. Boyer, 
109 U.S. Rep. 629, the "Robert W. Parsons" [1903] 191 U.S. 
1 7) , and is not confined to tide waters. The American colonies 
had vice-admiralty courts with an admiralty jurisdiction equal to 
the largest claimed by the English admiralty courts even under 
Edward III. When they became states they delegated to the 
federal government their several " admiralty and maritime 
jurisdiction," using these words in the sense understood in every 
country in Europe, England excepted, and in the sense in which 
they had then been used in the colonies for a long time, and 
without reference to the very narrow jurisdiction of the English 
admiralty courts then existing (Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards 
U.S. Rep. 441). 

It is settled as to the United States admiralty jurisdiction not 
that it is " co-equal with that of the original English, or that of 
continental European admiralty, but is rather that defined by 
the statutes of Richard II., under the construction given to them 
by contemporary or immediately subsequent courts of admir- 
alty " (2 Parsons Adm. 176), and that it embraced all maritime 
contracts, torts, injuries or offences (De Lovio v. Boil, 2 Galli- 
sons Rep. 398; Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards U.S. Rep. 441), and 
that it has never been restricted by the action of the common 
law courts as in England under Lord Coke (2 Parsons Adm. 
1 66 n.; Waring v. Clark; De Lovio v. Boif}. 

Original admiralty jurisdiction was by the Judiciary Act of 
1789 (U.S. Rev. Stats. 563) granted to the United States dis- 
trict courts exclusively, except that concurrent original juris- 
diction was given to United States circuit courts over seizures 
for slave trading, and condemnations of property used by persons 
in insurrection ( 629; 5309), and in the coolie trade ( 2159), 
and by the act of the 3rd of March 1901 ; the supreme court of the 
District of Columbia is given the same jurisdiction as the district 
and circuit courts. The Supreme Court of the United States has 
no original jurisdiction in admiralty. All suits are brought in 
the first instance in the district court. Appeals lie, both on the 
law and on the facts, from a final decree of that court to the 
circuit court of appeals only, except in cases involving the juris- 
diction of the court, the constitutionality of a law of any state 
or of the United States, or the validity or construction of any 
treaty of the United States, and except cases of prize and capital 
or infamous crime, in which cases of appeal lies directly to the 
supreme court. In cases of gravity and importance the Supreme 
Court may by certiorari review the judgment of the circuit court of 



appeals, but such cases are rare (re Lau Ov> Bew, 141 U.S. Rep. 
587; Benedict's The American Admiralty, 607). Formerly the 
Judiciary Act authorized an appeal from the district court to the 
circuit court, and thence to the Supreme Court. But the act of the 
3rd of March 1891 (Ch. 517) abolished this and created the circuit 
court of appeals, making it the final appellate court in admiralty, 
except as above stated. In any case where the district judge 
is unable to perform his duties or is disqualified by reason of 
interest or of relationship, or has acted as counsel for one of the 
parties to the action, it may be removed to the circuit court in 
that district (U.S. Rev. Stats. 587, 589 and 601). These are 
now the only cases in which admiralty suits can come before the 
circuit court (Benedict's Adm. 321). 

The subject matter in cases of contract determines the juris- 
diction (the "General Smith," 4 Wheaton U.S. Rep. 438), and 
not the presence or absence of tide, salt water, current, nor that 
the water be an inland basin or land-locked, or a river, nor by 
its being a harbour, or a port within the body of the county, nor 
that a remedy exists at common law. The admiralty courts have 
jurisdiction over all matters that concern owners and proprietors 
of ships as such; possessory actions and petitory actions to 
try title of a ship; cases of mariners' wages, wharfage, dock- 
age, lighterage, stevedores, contracts of affreightment, charter 
parties, rights of passengers as such (the "Moses Taylor," 71 
U.S. Rep. 411), pilotage, towage, maritime liens and loans, 
bottomry, respondentia and hypothecation of ship and cargo, 
marine insurance, average, jettison, demurrage, collisions, con- 
sortship, bounties, survey and sale of vessel, salvage, seizures 
under the laws of impost navigation or trade, cases of prize, 
ransom, condemnation, restitution and damages; assaults, 
batteries, damages and trespasses on the high seas and navigable 
waters of the United States; but not suits in rem for duties 
(Benedict's Adm. 3O3a). 

The U.S. Supreme Court has held in Peoples Ferry Co. 
v. Beers, 20 Howards U.S. Rep. 393, and in a series of subse- 
quent cases that a contract to build a vessel is not a maritime 
contract (the "Robert W. Parsons "). Contracts to furnish cargo 
for ships and to furnish ships to carry the cargoes are maritime 
contracts (Graham v. Oregon R. 6* N. Co., [1905] 135 Fed. Rep. 
608). 

Whenever there is a maritime lien, even though created by 
state statute as to a ship in her home port, it may be enforced 
by suit in rem in admiralty in the federal courts (the " General 
Smith"; the " Lotlaivanna," 21 Wallace Rep. 558, Benedict's 
Adm. 270). In all suits by material men for supplies and 
repairs or other necessaries for a foreign ship, the libellant may 
proceed against the ship and freight in rem or against the master 
or owner in personam (i2th Admiralty Rule; Benedict's Adm. 
268; the " General Smith "). Actions in rem and in personam 
may be joined in the same libel (Newell v. Norton, 3 Wallace 
257; the " Normandie," 40 Fed. Rep. 590). But a contract to 
furnish fishermen with clothing, tobacco and other personal 
effects for use on a voyage is not a maritime contract, and a court 
of admiralty has no jurisdiction to enforce it in rem (the " May 
F. Chisholm," 1904; 129 Fed. Rep. 814). The state courts 
have no jurisdiction in rem over any maritime contract or tort 
(the " Lottawanna," the "Belfast," 7 Wallace Rep. 624). Ad- 
miralty jurisdiction in tort depends on locality; it must have 
occurred on the high seas or other navigable waters within 
admiralty cognizance (2 Parsons Adm. 347; the "Plymouth," 
3 Wallace Rep. 20; the "Genesee Chief" v. Fitz-Hugh, the 
" Blackheath," [1903] 122 Fed. Rep. 112). 

The U.S. Supreme Court in the " Harrisburg " (119 U.S. 199) 
and the " Alaska " (130 U.S. 207), after some conflict of opinion, 
held that the admiralty courts have no jurisdiction under the 
general admiralty law to try an action for damages for negli- 
gence on the high seas, causing death of a human being, while 
there was no act of Congress and no statute of the state to which 
the vessel belonged giving such right of action (Benedict's Adm. 
2 7 S-309a), nor where such statute is that of a foreign country 
(Rundell v. Compagnie Gtnirale, [1899] 94 Fed. Rep. 366). 

Admiralty has jurisdiction in cases of spoliation and piracy, 



ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 



collision and proceedings by owners to limit their liability under 
U.S. Rev. Stats. 4281-9. 

The United States admiralty courts have always had jurisdic- 
tion in matters of prize (The Prize Cases, 2 Black U.S. Rep. 635). 
The district courts have exclusive original jurisdiction (except 
that circuit courts also have jurisdiction when prize is taken 
from persons in insurrection), and the supreme court of the 
District of Columbia now has concurrent jurisdiction (U.S. v. 
Sampson, 1902, 187 U.S. 436) and appeals are direct to the 
Supreme Court. Special commissioners are appointed on the 
breaking out of hostilities to act under the orders of the district 
courts (U.S. Rev. Stats. 4621, Prize Rule 9; Benedict's Adm. 
509; 680 Pieces Merchandise, 2 Sprague 233). These commis- 
sioners take the depositions of witnesses and report to the court 
the evidence upon which it adjudicates. Proceedings in prize 
cases must be in conformity with admiralty proceedings, where 
the seizure is on land (Union Insurance Co. v. U.S., 6 Wallace 
759; 2 Parsons Adm. 174). The district courts have all the 
powers of a court of admiralty whether as instance or prize courts 
(Glass v. sloop " Betsy," 3 Dallas 6). To adjudicate in matters 
of prize is one of the ordinary functions of that court (Benedict's 
Adm. 509). 

The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over crimes and 
offences committed upon vessels belonging to citizens of the 
United States on the high seas or any arm of the sea or any 
waters within the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the 
United States (U.S. Rev. Stats. 5339). High seas include the 
great lakes (U.S. v. Rogers, 150 U.S. 249). (j. A. BA.) 

OTHER COUNTRIES 

In France, and in Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece 
countries which have adopted codes based on the Code Napo- 
Fraace, ^ on t ' le c i y il> or , as it would have been formerly 
ana called in England, the " instance," jurisdiction of 

countries the admiralty is exercised by the ordinary tribunals, 
France"* an ^ there are no separate courts of admiralty for 

this purpose. France and some other countries 
have special commercial tribunals, which deal with shipping 
matters, but also with ordinary commercial cases. France 
has also tribunaux maritimes commerciaux (Code disciplinaire et 
penal de la marine marchande du 24 mars 1852, loi du n mars 
1891) to deal with maritime offences. Austria adopts the 
French law in commercial matters. Italy had tribunals of com- 
merce, but has given them up. She has, however, by Art. 14 
of her Merchant Shipping Code, given jurisdiction to captains 
of ports to decide collision cases when the sum in dispute does 
not exceed 200 lire. 

In Germany there are no special tribunals for admiralty 
matters. Kammern fur Handelssachen, commercial courts, have 
Germany. been established in Berlin and some of the principal 

seaports. These deal with shipping matters, but also 
with all other commercial suits. 

In Denmark, Sweden and Norway there is a maritime code 
which came into force in Sweden in 1891, in Denmark in 1892, 

and in Norway in 1893. This was intended to be one 
navian coc ^ e ^ or tne three countries; but each country as it 
nations. finally adopted the code made some modifications of its 

own. Under this code there are in Norway permanent 
maritime courts for each town presided over by the judge 
of the inferior local civil court (civile underdommer) , or if there 
be more than one such judge then by the president, with two 
assessors chosen out of a list. Temporary local courts, con- 
sisting of the same judge with two other members of nautical 
skill and knowledge, can be constituted in districts where there 
are no permanent courts. Appeals lie to the supreme court 
(Hoiesleref). In Denmark maritime cases are brought before 
the local courts constituted for maritime and commercial causes 
(So-og-Handelsret). In Sweden maritime cases are brought 
before local courts of first instance consisting of a judge and 
assessors. There is an intermediate appeal to courts of second 
instance, and then to the supreme court, which finally decides 
upon all causes civil and commercial. 



209 

Maritime cases in Holland are tried by the ordinary civil 
tribunals, with the same right of appeal. 

" By the maritime law of nations universally and immemori- 
ally received there is an established method of determination 
whether the capture be or be not lawful prize. Before 
the ship or goods can be disposed of by the captor 
there must be a regular judicial proceeding wherein diction. 
both parties may be heard and condemnation there- 
upon as prize in a court of admiralty judging by the law of 
nations and treaties. ... If the sentence of the court of ad- 
miralty is thought to be erroneous, there is in every maritime 
country a superior court of review. ..." (duke of Newcastle's 
letter to M. Michell, secretary to the embassy of the king of 
Prussia, 1753). "So far as belligerent states do not make a 
practice of giving up the taking of booty at sea . . . they are 
required by international law to establish prize tribunals and 
thus give to their proceedings in the matter of prize a judicial 
character" (v. Holtzendorff, Rechlslexikon, tit. "Prisengerichte"). 

In France till the death of the duke of Montmorency in 1632 
prize matters were adjudicated upon by the admiral. The duke 
had sold the office of admiral some years before his death to 
Cardinal Richelieu; but about the period of the duke's death 
the office of admiral appears to have been abolished, and one 
of grand master of navigation established in lieu. This new 
office was first held by Cardinal Richelieu and continued till 
1695. The grand master took the admiral's place in matters of 
prize; but in 1659 a commission of councillors of state and 
masters of requests was appointed to assist the grand master 
and form a Conseil des Prises. From this conseil there was an 
appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. When the office of admiral was 
restored in 1695 he exercised lu's jurisdiction in prize matters 
with the assistance of the Conseil des Prises. The appeal was 
then given to the Conseil Royal des Finances. The Ordonnance 
sur la marine of August 1681 regulated the procedure. This 
system continued till the Revolution. The last Conseil des 
Prises was appointed in 1778. A law of the I4th of February 
1793 abolished the Conseil des Prises and gave cognizance of 
prize matters "provisionally" to the tribunals of commerce. 
On the 8th of November 1793 (18 Brumaire, an II.) this jurisdic- 
tion was taken from the tribunals of commerce and given to the 
Conseil Exfcutif. Later it was given to the Comite de Salut 
Public. On the 25th of October 1795 (3 Brumaire, an IV.) the 
jurisdiction was restored to the tribunals of commerce. This 
was again altered on the 27th of March 1800 (6 Germinal, an 
VIII.), when a Conseil des Prises was established, consisting of 
nine councillors of state, a commissary of the government and 
a secretary, all nominated by the First Consul. 

On the nth of June 1806 an appeal was given to the Conseil 
d'Etat. It was disputed among French jurists whether the 
Conseil des Prises was to be considered as a body actuated only 
by political considerations or one exercising what the French 
term an " administrative jurisdiction "; which is, as nearly as a 
parallel to it can be found in England, administration of justice 
between individuals and the state. 

As most of the cases arising out of the great wars had been 
dealt with, an ordinance of the gth of January 1815 suppressed 
the Conseil des Prises and directed the Comili du conlentieux of 
the Conseil d'Etat to prepare the remaining prize matters for 
decision by the Conseil d'Etat. Such prize matters (probably 
including captures for trading in slaves) as required to be dealt 
with till 1854, appear to have been dealt with by this body; 
an ordinance of the gth of September 1831 directing that the pro- 
ceedings before the Conseil d'Etat should be private, was held to 
show that the jurisdiction was not political but administrative. 

An Imperial decree, however, of the i8th of July 1854 restored 
the Conseil des Prises, with appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. This 
was for the war with Russia. A similar decree was published 
on the gth of May 1859 for the war with Austria in Italy. 

On the 28th of November 1861 a further decree ordered that 
the Conseil instituted in 1859 should so long as it was kept in 
being decide all prize matters; and this Conseil has decided on 
prizes taken in the wars with Mexico and Germany and in Cochin 



210 



ADMISSION ADOLESCENCE 



China. It consists of seven judges and a commissary of the 
government. An appeal to the government in the Conseil d'fital 
can be brought within three months. It is then decided by 
I' Assemble du Conseil d'tat. 

Under the First Empire there were commissions des ports, 
commissions colonials and commissions consulaires, established 
mainly to collect materials for the Conseil des Prises, but 
sometimes, v/hcu the ship and cargo were clearly those of the 
enemy, proceeding to actual condemnation. 

In Prussia Regulations of the 2oth of June 1864 established a 
prize council consisting of a president and six associates with a 
law officer. An appeal was given to an upper prize council 
(v. Holtzendorff, Rechtskxikon, tit. " Prisengerichte ") 

By a law of the German empire of the 3rd of May 1884 the 
legality of prizes > made during war has to be decided by prize 
courts, and the imperial government is authorized to determine 
the particulars as to the seat of such courts, their members and 
their proceedings (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1884, p. 49). Prize courts 
were established under this law on the occasion of the East 
African blockade in 1889 (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1889, pp. 5 sqq.). 

In Italy Art. 14 of the Merchant Shipping Code provides that 
prize matters shall be tried by a special commission established 
by royal decree. On the occasion of the war with Austria such 
a special commission was established by royal decree of the zoth 
of June 1866. For the war with Abyssinia a fresh commission 
was established by royal decree of the i6th of August 1896. The 
composition of this commission, which was slightly different in 
character from that established in 1866, was as follows: (a) a 
first president of a court of appeal or a retired one, or a president 
of a section of the council of state or of cassation; (b) two general 
officers of the navy; (c) a member of the " contentious part " of 
the diplomatic service; (d) two councillors of a court of appeal; 
(e) a captain of a port, with a commissary of the government 
and a secretary; five to be a quorum. There was no appeal; 
but the ordinary right to have recourse to the Court of Cassation 
at Rome, if the prize commission proceeded without jurisdiction 
or in excess of jurisdiction, was preserved. 

By an ordinance of the 27th of March 1895 regulating the 
whole matter of prize in Russia, two sorts of prize tribunals of 
first instance were contemplated port tribunals and fleet 
tribunals. The latter are for captures made by ships of the fleet, 
and are to be composed of some of the principal officers of the 
fleet. The former are to have presidents named by the emperor 
from among those " qui font partie de r administration maritime 
judiciaire"; the other members are to be appointed by the 
ministers of the navy, justice and foreign affairs. The court of 
appeal is formed by the council of the admiralty with the addition 
of two members of the senate and a nominee of the minister of 
foreign affairs (Clunet, 1904, p, 271). 

On the occasion of the Russo-Japanese war, port tribunals 
were established under the authority of this ordinance by the 
lord high admiral, the Grand Duke Alexis, on the I3th of 
March 1904, at Sebastopol Port Alexander III., Port Arthur 
and Vladivostock (Clunet, 1904, p. 479; London Gazette, 22nd 
March 1904). Many cases were heard before these tribunals 
and on appeal. 

The procedure in prize cases under the old law of Spain is 
described in Abreu (Felix Joseph de Abreu y Bertodano), Tratado 
juridico Politico sobre Presas de Mar (Cadiz, 1746). On the 
occasion of the war with the United States the Spanish govern- 
ment published a proclamation stating the circumstances in 
which captures were to be made and prizes taken; but infor- 
mation is lacking as to the particular constitution of the prize 
court or courts. 

In Greece prize questions are apparently left to be tried by the 
ordinary tribunals. See decision of Civil Tribunal of Athens, 
1898, No. 3385 (reported Clunet, 1900, p. 826). 

Turkey during her war of 1877 with Russia established a prize 
court and a court of appeal. The ordinance establishing these 
courts is set out in the London Gazette of the 6th of July 1877. 

Japan established, in the war (1904-5) with Russia, prize 
courts at Sasebo and Yokosco with a court of appeal at Tokyo. 



Advocates were heard before these courts, and the procedure 
seems generally to have been modelled upon European patterns. 

AUTHORITIES. Clunet, Journal du droit international prive, 
cited shortly as Clunet; v. Holzendorff, Rechtslexikpn, Leipzig, 1881 ; 
De Pistoye et Duverdy, Traite des prises maritime!, Paris, 1855, 
vol. ii., tit. viii.; Phillimore, International Law, vol. i., vol. iii. 
part xi. ; Autran, Code international de I'abordage, de V assistance, et 
du sauvetage maritime!, Paris, 1902; Raikes, The Maritime Codes 
of Spain and Portugal (1896), of Holland and Belgium (1898), of Italy 
(1900), London. (W. G. F. P.) 

ADMISSION, in law, a statement made out of the witness-box 
by a party to legal proceedings, whether civil or criminal, or by 
some person whose statements are binding on that party against 
the interest of that party. (See EVIDENCE.) 

ADO (d. 874), archbishop of Vienne in Lotharingia, belonged 
to a famous Prankish house, and spent much of his middle life 
in Italy. He held his archiepiscopal see from 850 till his death 
on the 1 6th of December 874. Several of his letters are extant 
and reveal their writer as 'an energetic man of wide sympathies 
and considerable influence. Ado's principal works are a Martyro- 
logium (printed inter al. in Migne, Patrolog. lat. cxxiii. pp. 181- 
420; append, pp. 419-436), anoT chronicle, Chronicon sive Brevia- 
rium chronicorum de sex mundi aetatibus de Adamo usque ad ann. 

869 (in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 20-138, and Pertz, Monumenta Germ. 
ii. pp. 315-323, &c.). Ado's chronicle is based on that of Bede, 
with which he combines extracts from the ordinary sources, 
forming the whole into a consecutive narrative founded on the 
conception of the unity of the Roman empire, which he traces 
in the succession of the emperors, Charlemagne and his heirs 
following immediately after Constantine and Irene. " It is, " 
says Wattenbach, " history from the point of view of authority 
and preconceived opinion, which exclude any independent 
judgment of events. " Ado wrote also a book on the miracles 
(Miracula) of St Bernard, archbishop of Vienne (gth century), 
published in the Bollandist Ada Sanctorum; a life or Mar- 
tyrium of St Desiderius, bishop of Vienne (d. 608), written about 

870 and published in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 435-442; and a life of 
St Theudericus, abbot of Vienne (563), published in Mabillon, 
Ada Sanct. i. pp. 678-681,- Migne, cxxiii. pp. 443-450, and re- 
vised in Bollandist Ada Sanct. 29th Oct. xii. pp. 840-843. 

See W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, vol. i. (Stutt- 
gart and Berlin, 1904). 

ADOBE (pronounced a-d6-be; also corrupted to dobie; from 
the Span, adobar, to plaster, traceable through Arabic to an 
Egyptian hieroglyph meaning " brick "), a Spanish- American 
word for the sun-dried clay used by the Indians for building in 
some of the south-western states of the American Union, this 
method having been imported in the i6th century by Spaniards 
from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction is made between the 
smaller " adobes, " which are about the size of ordinary baked 
bricks, and the larger " adobines, " some of which are as much as 
from one to two yards long. 

ADOLESCENCE (Lat. adolescentia, from adolescere, to grow 
up, past part, adultus, grown up, Eng. " adult "), the term 
now commonly adopted for the period between childhood and 
maturity, during which the characteristics mental, physical and 
moral that are to make or mar the individual disclose them- 
selves, and then mature, in some cases by leaps and bounds, in 
others by more gradual evolution. The annual rate of growth, 
in height, weight and strength, increases to a marked extent 
and may even be doubled. The development in the man takes 
place in the direction of a greater strength, in the woman towards 
a fitter form for maternity. The sex sense develops, the love of 
nature and religion, and an overmastering curiosity both in- 
dividual and general. This period of life, so fraught with its 
power for good and ill, is accordingly the most important and 
by far the most difficult for parents and educationists to deal 
with efficiently. The chief points for attention may be briefly 
indicated. Health depends mainly on two factors, heredity, or 
the sum total of physical and mental leanings of the individual, 
and environment. In an ideal system of training these two 
factors will be so fitted in and adapted to one another, that 
what is weak or unprovided for in the first will be amply com- 
pensated for in the second. 



ADOLPH OF NASSAU ADOLPHUS FREDERICK 



211 



In an ideal condition children should be brought up in the 
country as much as possible rather than in the town. Though 
adults may live where they like within very wide limits and take 
no harm, children, even of healthy stock, living in towns, are 
continually subject to many minor ills, such as chronic catarrh, 
tonsilitis,bronchitis,and even the far graver pneumonia. Removed 
to healthier conditions in the country their ailments tend to 
disappear, and normal physical development supervenes. The 
residence should be on a well-drained soil, preferably near the sea 
in the case of a delicate child, on higher ground for those of more 
robust constitution. The child should be lightly clad in woollen 
garments all the year round, their thickness being slightly greater 
in winter than in summer. An abundance of simple well-cooked 
food in sufficient variety, ample time at table, where an atmo- 
sphere of light gaiety should be cultivated, and a period free from 
restraint both before and after meals, should be considered 
fundamental essentials. As regards the most suitable kinds of 
food milk and fruit should be given in abundance, fresh meat 
once a day, and fish or eggs once a day. Bread had better be 
three days old, and baked in the form of small rolls to increase 
the ratio of crust to crumb. Both butter and sugar are good 
foods, and should be freely allowed in many forms. 

The exercise of the body must be duly attended to. Nowa- 
days this is provided for in the shape of games, some being 
optional, others prescribed, and such sports as boating, swim- 
ming, fencing, &c. But severe exercise should only be allowed 
under adequate medical control, and should be increased very 
gradually. In the case of girls, let them run, leap and climb 
with their brothers for the first twelve years or so of life. But 
as puberty approaches, with all the change, stress and strain 
dependent thereon, their lives should be appropriately modified. 
Rest should be enforced during the menstrual periods of these 
earlier years, and milder, more graduated exercise taken at other 
times. In the same way all mental strain should be diminished. 
Instead of pressure being put on a girl's intellectual education 
at about this time, as is too often the case, the time devoted to 
school and books should be diminished. Education should be 
on broader, more fundamental lines, and much time should be 
passed in the open air. With regard to the mental training of 
both sexes two points must be borne in mind. First, that an 
ample number of hours should be set on one side for sleep, up to 
ten years of age not less than eleven, and up to twenty years not 
less than nine. Secondly, that the time devoted to "book- 
work " should be broken up into a number of short periods, very 
carefully graduated to the individual child. 

In every case where there is a family tendency towards any 
certain disease or weakness, that tendency must determine the 
whole circumstances of the child's life. That diathesis which is 
most serious and usually least regarded, the nervous excitable 
one, is by far the most important and the most difficult to deal 
with. Every effort should be made to avoid the conditions in 
which the hereditary predisposition would be aroused into 
mischievous action, and to encourage development on simple 
unexciting lines. The child should be confined to the school- 
room but little and receive most of his training in wood and field. 
Other diatheses the tuberculous, rheumatic, &c. must be dealt 
with in appropriate ways. 

The adolescent is prone to special weaknesses and moral per- 
versions. The emotions are extremely unstable, and any stress 
put on them may lead to undesirable results. Warm climates, 
tight-fitting clothes, corsets, rich foods, soft mattresses, or in- 
dulgences of any kind, and also mental over-stimulation, are 
especially to be guarded against. The day should be filled with 
interests of an objective in contradistinction to subjective 
kind, and the child should retire to bed at night healthily fatigued 
in mind and body. Let there be confidence between mother and 
daughter, father and son, and, as the years bring the bodily 
changes, those in whom the children trust can choose the fitting 
moments for explaining their meaning and effect, and warning 
against abuses of the natural functions. 

For bibliography see CHILD. 

ADOLPH OF NASSAU (c. 1255-1298), German king, son of 



Walram, count of Nassau. He appears to have received a good 
education, and inherited his father's lands around Wiesbaden 
in 1276. He won considerable fame as a mercenary in many 
of the feuds of the time, and on the 5th of May 1292 was chosen 
German king, in succession to Rudolph I., an election due rather 
to the political conditions of the time than to his personal 
qualities. He made large promises to his supporters, and was 
crowned on the ist of July at Aix-la-Chapelle. Princes and 
towns did homage to him, but his position was unstable, and the 
allegiance of many of the princes, among them Albert I., duke of 
Austria, son of the late king Rudolph, was merely nominal. 
Seeking at once to strengthen the royal position, he claimed 
Meissen as a vacant fief of the Empire, and in 1294 allied himself 
with Edward I., king of England, against France. Edward 
granted him a subsidy, but owing to a variety of reasons 
Adolph did not take the field against France, but turned his 
arms against Thuringia, which he had purchased from the 
landgrave Albert II. This bargain was resisted by the sons of 
Albert, and from 1294 to 1296 Adolph was campaigning in 
Meissen and Thuringia. Meissen was conquered, but he was not 
equally successful in Thuringia, and his relations with Albert of 
Austria were becoming more strained. He had been unable to 
fulfil the promises made at his election, and the princes began to 
look with suspicion upon his designs. Wenceslaus II., king of 
Bohemia, fell away from his allegiance, and his deposition was 
decided on, and was carried out at Mainz, on the 23rd of May 
1298, when Albert of Austria was elected his successor. The 
forces of the rival kings met at Gollheim on the 2nd of July 
1 298, where Adolph was killed, it is said by the hand of Albert. 
He was buried at Rosenthal, and in 1309 his remains were 
removed to Spires. 

See F. W. E. Roth, Geschichte des Romischen Konigs Adolf I. von 
Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1879); V. Domeier, Die Absetzung Adolf s von 
Nassau (Berlin, 1889); L. Ennen, Die Wahl des Konigs Adolf von 
Nassau (Cologne, 1866); L. Schmid, Die Wahl des Grafen Adolj 
von Nassau zum Romischen Kdnig; B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der 
deutschen Geschichte, Band i. (Berlin, 1901). 

ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862), English lawyer 
and author, was the son of John Adolphus (1768-1845), a well- 
known London barrister who wrote a History of England to 
1783 (1802), a History of France from if go (1803) and other 
works. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at 
St. John's College, Oxford. In 1821 he published Letters to 
Richard. Heber, Esq., in which he discussed the authorship of the 
then anonymous Waverley novels, and fixed it upon Sir Walter 
Scott. This conclusion was based on the resemblance of the 
novels in general style and method to the poems acknowledged 
by Scott. Scott thought at first that the letters were written 
by Reginald Heber, afterwards bishop of Calcutta, and the 
discovery of J. L. Adolphus's identity led to a warm friend- 
ship. Adolphus was called to the bar in 1822, and his Circuiteers, 
an Eclogue, is a parody of the style of two of his colleagues on 
the northern circuit. He became judge of the Marylebone 
County Court in 1852, and was a bencher of the Inner Temple. 
He was the author of Letters from Spain in 1856 and 1857 (1858), 
and was completing his father's History of England at the time 
of his death on the 24th of December 1862. 

ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden, was 
born at Gottorp on the I4th of May 1710. His father was 
Christian Augustus (1673-1726), duke of Schleswig-Holstein- 
Gottorp, bishop of Ltibeck, and administrator, during the war 
of 1700-1721, of the duchies of Holstein-Gottorp for his nephew 
Charles Frederick; his mother was Albertina Frederica of Baden- 
Durlach. From 1727 to 1750 he was bishop of Lubeck, and 
administrator of Holstein-Kiel during the minority of Duke 
Charles Peter Ulrich, afterwards Peter III. of Russia. In 1743 
he was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the " Hat " 
faction in order that they might obtain better conditions of 
peace from the empress Elizabeth, whose fondness for the 
house of Holstein was notorious (see SWEDEN, History). During 
his whole reign (1751-1771) Adolphus Frederick was little more 
than a state decoration, the real power being lodged in the 
hands of an omnipotent riksdag, distracted by fierce party 



212 



ADONI ADOPTIANISM 



strife. Twice he endeavoured to free himself from the intoler- 
able tutelage of the estates. The first occasion was in 1755 
when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrica, sister 
of Frederick the Great, he tried to regain a portion of the attenu- 
ated prerogative, and nearly lost his throne in consequence. 
On the second occasion, under the guidance of his eldest son, 
the crown prince Gustavus, afterwards Gustavus III., he suc- 
ceeded in overthrowing the tyrannous "Cap " senate, but was 
unable to make any use of his victory. He died of surfeit at 
Stockholm on the i2th of February 1771. 

See R. Nisbet Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries, vol. i. 
(London, 1895). (R. N. B.) 

ADONI, a town of British India, in the Bellary district of 
Madras, 307 m. from Madras by rail. It has manufactures of 
carpets, silk and cotton goods, and several factories for ginning 
and pressing cotton. The hill-fort above, now in ruins, was an 
important seat of government in Mahommedan times and is 
frequently mentioned in the wars of the i8th century. Pop. 
(1901) 30,416. 

ADONIJAH (Heb. Adoniyyahoi Adoniyyahu, " Yah is Lord "), 
a name borne by several persons in the Old Testament, the 
most noteworthy of whom was the fourth son of David. He 
was born to Haggith at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; i Ch. iii. 2). 
The natural heir to the throne, on the death of Absalom, he 
sought with the help of Joab and Abiathar to seize his birth- 
right, and made arrangements for his coronation (i Kings i. 5 ff.). 
Hearing, however, that Solomon, with the help of Nathan the 
prophet and Bathsheba, and apparently with the consent of 
David, had ascended the throne, he fled for safety to the horns 
of the altar. Solomon spared him on this occasion (i Kings i. 
50 ff.), but later commanded Benaiah to slay him (ii. 13 ff.), 
because with the approval of Bathsheba he wished to marry 
Abishag, formerly David's concubine, and thus seemed to have 
designs on the throne. 

ADONIS, in classical mythology, a youth of remarkable 
beauty, the favourite of Aphrodite. According to the story in 
Apollodorus (iii. 14. 4), he was the son of the Syrian king Theias 
by his daughter Smyrna (Myrrha), who had been inspired by 
Aphrodite with unnatural love. When Theias discovered the 
truth he would have slain his daughter, but the gods in pity 
changed her into a tree of the same name. After ten months 
the tree burst asunder and from it came forth Adonis. Aphro- 
dite, charmed by his beauty, hid the infant in a box and handed 
him over to the care of Persephone, who afterwards refused to 
give him up. On an appeal being made to Zeus, he decided that 
Adonis should spend a third of the year with Persephone and a 
third with Aphrodite, the remaining third being at his own dis- 
posal. Adonis was afterwards killed by a boar sent by Artemis. 
There are many variations in the later forms of the story (notably 
in Ovid, Metam. x. 298). The name is generally supposed to 
be of Phoenician origin (from adon " lord "), Adonis himself 
being identified with-Tammuz (but see F. Diimmler in Pauly- 
Wissowa's Real-encyklopddie, who does not admit a Semitic 
origin for either name or cult). The name Abobas, by which 
he was known at Perga in Pamphylia, certainly seems connected 
with abub (a Semitic word for " flute "; cf. " ambubaiarum 
collegia " in Horace, Satires, i. 2. i). (See also ATTIS.) 

Annual festivals, called Adonia, were held in his honour at 
Byblus, Alexandria, Athens and other places. Although there 
were variations in the ceremony itself and in its date, the central 
idea was the death and resurrection of Adonis. A vivid descrip- 
tion of the festival at Alexandria (for which Bion probably 
wrote his Dirge of Adonis) is given by Theocritus in his fifteenth 
idyll, the Adoniazusae. On the first day, which celebrated the 
union of Adonis and Aphrodite, their images were placed side by 
side on a silver couch, around them all the fruits of the season, 
" Adonis gardens " in silver baskets, golden boxes of myrrh, 
cakes of meal, honey and oil, made in the likeness of things 
that creep and things that fly. On the day following the image 
of Adonis was carried down to the shore and cast into the sea 
by women with dishevelled hair and bared breasts. At the same 
time a song was sung, in which the god was entreated to be 



propitious in the coming year. This festival, like that at Athens, 
was held late in summer; at Byblus, where the mourning 
ceremony preceded, it took place in spring. 

It is now generally agreed that Adonis is a vegetation spirit, 
whose death and return to life represent the decay of nature in 
winter and its revival in spring. He is born from the myrrh- 
tree, the oil of which is used at his festival; he is connected 
with Aphrodite in her character of vegetation-goddess. A 
special feature of the Athenian festival was the " Adonis gar- 
dens," small pots of flowers forced to grow artificially, which 
rapidly faded (hence the expression was used to denote any 
transitory pleasure). The dispute between Aphrodite and Perse- 
phone for the possession of Adonis, settled by the agreement 
that he is to spend a third (or half) of the year in the lower world 
(the seed at first underground and then reappearing above it), 
finds a parallel in the story of Tammuz and Ishtar (see APHRO- 
DITE). The ceremony of the Adonia was intended as a charm 
to promote the growth of vegetation, the throwing of the gardens 
and images into the water being supposed to procure a supply of 
rain (for European parallels see Mannhardt). It is suggested 
(Frazer) that Adonis is not a god of vegetation generally, but 
specially a corn-spirit, and that the lamentation is not for the 
decay of vegetation in winter, but for the cruel treatment of 
the corn by the reaper and miller (cf. Robert Burns's John 
Barleycorn). 

An important element in the story is the connexion of Adonis 
with the boar, which (according to one version) brings him into 
the world by splitting with his tusk the bark of the tree into 
which Smyrna was changed, and finally kills him. It is probable 
that Adonis himself was looked upon as incarnate in the swine, 
so that the sacrifice to him by way of expiation on special occa- 
sions of an animal which otherwise was specially sacred, and its 
consumption by its worshippers, was a sacramental act. Other 
instances of a god being sacrificed to himself as his own enemy 
are the sacrifice of the goat and bull to Dionysus and of the 
bear to Artemis. The swine would be sacrificed as having 
caused the death of Adonis, which explains the dislike of Aphro- 
dite for that animal. It has been observed that whenever swine- 
sacrifices occur in the ritual of Aphrodite there is reference to 
Adonis. In any case, the conception of Adonis as a swine-god 
does not contradict the idea of him as a vegetation or corn 
spirit, which in many parts of Europe appears in the form of a 
boar or sow. 

AUTHORITIES. H. Brugsch, Die Adonifklage und das Linoslied 
(Berlin, 1852); Greve, De Adonide (Leipzig, 1877) ;W. H. Engel, 
Kypros, ii. (1841), still valuable; W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feld- 
kulte, ii. (1905); M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipzig, 1906); 
articles in Roscher's Lexikon and Pauly-Wissowa's Encyklopddie; 
J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. (2nd ed.), p. 115,' and Adonis, 
Attis and Osiris (1906) ; L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek Stales, ii. 
p. 646; W. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, new ed., 1894, 
pp. 191, 290, 411), who, regarding Adonis as the swine-god, char- 
acterizes the Adonia as an annual piacular sacrifice (of swine), "in 
which the sacrifice has come to be overshadowed by its popular and 
dramatic accompaniments, to which the Greek celebration, not 
forming part of the state religion, was limited." 

ADONIS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order 
Ranunculaceae, known commonly by the names of pheasant's 
eye and Flos Adonis. They are annual or perennial herbs with 
much divided leaves and yellow or red flowers. Adonis autum- 
nalis has become naturalized in some parts of England; the petals 
are scarlet with a dark spot at the base. An early flowering 
species, Adonis vernalis, with large bright yellow flowers, is well 
worthy of cultivation. It prefers a deep light soil. The name 
is also given to the butterfly, Mazarine or Clifton Blue (Polyom- 
matus Adonis). 

ADOPTIANISM. As the theological doctrine of the Logos 
which bulks so largely in the writings of the apologists of the 
znd century came to the front, the trinitarian problem became 
acute. The necessity of a constant protest against polytheism 
led to a tenaciou? insistence on the divine unity, and the task 
was to reconcile this unity with the deity of Jesus Christ. Some 
thinkers fell back on the " modalistic " solution which regards 
"Father" and "Son" as two aspects qf the same subject: 



ADOPTION 



213 



but a simpler and more popular method was the " adoptianist " 
or humanitarian. Basing their views on the synoptic Gospels, 
and tracing descent from the obscure sect of the Alogi, the 
Adoptianists under Theodotus of Byzantium tried to found a 
school at Rome c. 185, asserting that Jesus was a man, filled 
with the Holy Spirit's inspiration from his baptism, and so 
attaining such a perfection of holiness that he was adopted by 
God and exalted to divine dignity. Theodotus was excommuni- 
cated by the bishop of Rome, Victor, c. 195, but his followers 
lived on under a younger teacher of the same name and under 
Artemon, while in the East similar views were expounded by 
Beryllus of Bostra and Paul of Samosata, who undoubtedly 
influenced Lucian of Antioch and his school, including Arius 
and, later, Nestorius. 

There is thus a traceable historical connexion between the 
early adoptian controversy and the struggle in Spain at the end 
of the 8th century, to which that name is usually given. It was 
indeed only a renewal, under new conditions, of the conflict 
between two types of thought, the rational and the mystical, 
the school of Antioch and that of Alexandria. The writings of 
Theodore of Mopsuestia had become well known in the West, 
especially since the strife over the " three chapters " (544-553), 
and the opposition of Islam also partly determined the form 
of men's views on the doctrine of Christ's person. We must 
further remember the dyophysitism which had been sanctioned 
at the council of Chalcedon. About 780 Elipandus (b. 718), 
archbishop of Toledo, revived and vehemently defended the 
expression Christus Filius Dei adoptivus, and was aided by his 
much more gifted friend Felix, bishop of Urgella. They held 
that the duality of natures implied a distinction between two 
modes of sonship in Christ the natural or proper, and the 
adoptive. In support of their views they appealed to scripture 
and to the Western Fathers, who had used the term " adoption " 
as synonymous with " assumption " in the orthodox sense; 
and especially to Christ's fraternal relation to Christians the 
brother of God's adopted sons. Christ, the firstborn among 
many brethren, had a natural birth at Bethlehem and also a 
spiritual birth begun at his baptism and consummated at his 
resurrection. .Thus they did not teach a dual personality, nor 
the old Antiochene view that Christ's divine exaltation was 
due to his sinless virtue; they were less concerned with old 
disputes than with the problem as the Chalcedon decision 
had left it the relation of Christ's one personality to his two 
natures. 

Felix introduced adoptian views into that part of Spain which 
belonged to the Franks, and Charlemagne thought it necessary 
to assemble a synod at Regensburg (Ratisbon), in 792, before 
which the bishop was summoned to explain and justify the new 
doctrine. Instead of this he renounced it, and confirmed his 
renunciation by a solemn oath to Pope Adrian, to whom the 
synod sent him. The recantation was probably insincere, for 
on returning to his diocese he taught adoptianism as before. 
Another synod was held at Frankfort in 794, by which the new 
doctrine was again formally condemned, though neither Felix 
nor any of his followers appeared. 

In this synod Alcuin of York took part. A friendly letter 
from Alcuin, and a controversial pamphlet, to which Felix re- 
plied, were followed by the sending of several commissions of 
clergy to Spain to endeavour to put down the heresy. Arch- 
bishop Leidrad (d. 816) of Lyons, being on one of these commis- 
sions, persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at Aix-la- 
Chapelle in 799. There, after six days' disputing with Alcuin, 
he again recanted his heresy. The rest of his life was spent under 
the supervision of the archbishop at Lyons, where he died in 
816. Elipandus, secure in his see at Toledo, never swerved 
from the adoptian views, which, however, were almost univer- 
sally abandoned after the two leaders died. 

In the scholastic discussions of the izth century the question 
came to the front again, for the doctrine as framed by Alcuin 
was not universally accepted. Thus both Abelard and Peter 
Lombard, in the interest of the immutability of the divine 
substance (holding that God could not " become " anything), 



gravitated towards a Nestorian position. The great opponent 
of their Christology, which was known as Nihilianism, was the 
German scholar Gerhoch, who, for his bold assertion of the 
perfect interpenetration of deity and humanity in Christ, was 
accused of Eutychianism. The proposition Deus non factus esl 
aliquid secundum quod esl homo was condemned by a synod of 
Tours in 1163 and again by the Lateran synod of 1179, but 
Adoptianism continued all through the middle ages to be a source 
of theological dispute. 



See A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, esp. vol. v. pp. 279-292 ; R. Ottley, 
The Doctrine of the Incarnation, vol. i. p. 228 ff., vol. ii. pp. 151-161 ; 
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk,, art. " Adoptianismus." (A. J. G.) 



ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptatio, from adoplare, to 
choose for oneself), the act by which the relations of paternity and 
filiation are recognized as legally existing between persons not so 
related by nature. Cases of adoption were very frequent among 
the Greeks and Romans, and the custom was accordingly very 
strictly regulated in their laws. In Athens the power of adoption 
was allowed to all citizens who were of sound mind, and who 
possessed no male offspring of their own, and it could be exercised 
either during lifetime or by testament. The person adopted, 
who required to be himself a citizen, was enrolled in the family 
and demus of the adoptive father, whose name, however, he did 
not necessarily assume. In the interest of the next of kin, whose 
rights were affected by a case of adoption, it was provided that 
the registration should be attended with certain formalities, and 
that it should take place at a fixed time the festival of the 
Thargelia. The rights and duties of adopted children were almost 
identical with those of natural offspring, and could not be re- 
nounced except in the case of one who had begotten children 
to take his place in the family of his adoptive father. Adopted 
into another family, children ceased to have any claim of kindred 
or inheritance through their natural father, though any rights 
they might have through their mother were not similarly affected. 
Among the Romans the existence of the patria potestas gave a 
peculiar significance to the custom of adoption. The motive to 
the act was not so generally childlessness, or the gratification of 
affection, as the desire to acquire those civil and agnate rights 
which were founded on the patria potestas. It was necessary, 
however, that the adopter should have no children of his own, 
and that he should be of such an age as to preclude reasonable 
expectation of any being born to him. Another limitation as to 
age was imposed by the maxim adoptio imitatur naturam, which 
required the adoptive father to be at least eighteen years older 
than the adopted children. According to the same maxim 
eunuchs were not permitted to adopt, as being impotent to beget 
children for themselves. Adoption was of two kinds according 
to the state of the person adopted, who might be either still under 
the patria potestas (alieni juris), or his own master (sui juris). In 
the former case the act was one of adoption proper, in the latter 
case it was styled adrogation, though the term adoption was also 
used in a general sense to describe both species. In adoption 
proper the natural father publicly sold his child to the adoptive 
father, and the sale being thrice repeated, the maxim of the 
Twelve Tables took effect, Si paler filium ter venunduit, filius 
a patre liber eslo. The process was ratified and completed by a 
fictitious action of recovery brought by the adoptive father 
against the natural parent, which the latter did not defend, and 
which was therefore known as the cessio in jure. Adrogation 
could be accomplished originally only by the authority of the 
people assembled in the Comitia, but from the time of Diocletian 
it was effected by an imperial rescript. Females could not be 
adrogated, and, as they did not possess the patria potestas, they 
could not exercise the right of adoption in either kind. The 
whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will be found in 
Justinian's Institutes, lib. i. tit. 11. 

In Hindu law, as in nearly every ancient system, wills were 
formerly unknown, and adoptions took their place. (See 
INDIAN LAW.) Adoption is not recognized in the laws of Eng- 
land, Scotland or the Netherlands, though there are legal means 
by which one may be enabled to assume the name and arms and 
to inherit the property of a stranger. (See NAME.) 



214 



ADORATION ADRA 



In France and Germany, countries which may be said to have 
embodied the Roman law in their jurisprudence, adoption is re- 
gulated according to the principles of Justinian, though with 
several more or less important modifications, rendered necessary 
by the usages of these countries respectively. Under French law 
the rights of adoption can be exercised only by those who are 
over fifty years of age, and who, at the time of adoption, have 
neither children nor legitimate descendants. They must also be 
fifteen years older than the person adopted. In German law the 
person adopting must either be fifty years of age, or at least 
eighteen years older than the adopted, unless a special dispen- 
sation is obtained. If the person adopted is a legitimate child 
the consent of his parents must be obtained; if illegitimate, the 
consent of the mother. Both in Germany and France the 
adopted child remains a member of his original family, and ac- 
quires no rights in the family of the adopter other than that of 
succession to the person adopting. 

In the United States adoption is regulated by the statutes of 
the several states. Adoption of minors is permitted by statute 
in many of the states. These statutes generally require some 
public notice to be given of the intention to adopt, and an order 
of approval after a hearing before some public authority. The 
consequence commonly is that the person adopted becomes, in 
the eyes of the law, the child of the person adopting, for all pur- 
poses. Such an adoption, if consummated according to the law 
of the domicile, is equally effectual in any other state into which 
the parties may remove. The relative status thus newly ac- 
quired is ubiquitous. (See Whitmore, Laws of Adoption; Ross 
v. Ross, 129 Massachusetts Reports, 243.) 

The part played by the legal fiction of adoption in the consti- 
tution of primitive society and the civilization of the race is so 
important, that Sir Henry S. Maine, in his Ancient Law, ex- 
presses the opinion that, had it never existed, the primitive 
groups of mankind could not have coalesced except on terms of 
absolute superiority on the one side and absolute subjection on 
the other. With the institution of adoption, however, one people 
might feign itself as descended from the same stock as the people 
to whose sacra gentilicia it was admitted; and amicable relations 
were thus established between stocks which, but for this ex- 
pedient, must have submitted to the arbitrament of the sword 
with all its consequences. 

ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to 
one's mouth "), primarily an act of homage or worship, which, 
among the Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the 
mouth, kissing it and then waving it in the direction of the 
adored object. The devotee had his head covered, and after 
the act turned himself round from left to right. Sometimes he 
kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods themselves, 
and Saturn and Hercules were adored with the head bare. By 
a natural transition the homage, at first paid to divine beings 
alone, came to be paid to monarchs. Thus the Greek and Roman 
emperors were adored by bowing or kneeling, laying hold of the 
imperial robe, and presently withdrawing the hand and pressing 
it to the lips, or by putting the royal robe itself to the lips. In 
Eastern countries adoration has ever been performed in an 
attitude still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by 
Cyrus, was to bend the knee and fall on the face at the prince's 
feet, striking the earth with the forehead and kissing the ground. 
This striking of the earth with the forehead, usually a fixed 
number of times, is the form of adoration usually paid to Eastern 
potentates to-day. The Jews kissed in homage. Thus in 
i Kings xix. 18, God is made to say, " Yet I have left me seven 
thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto 
Baal, and every mouth which hath not kissed him." And in 
Psalms ii. 12, " Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish from 
the way." (See also Hosea xiii. 2.) In England the ceremony 
of kissing the sovereign's hand, and some other acts which are 
performed kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration. 
Adoration is applied in the Roman Church to the ceremony of 
kissing the pope's foot, a custom which is said to have been intro- 
duced by the popes following the example of the emperor 
Diocletian. The toe of the famous statue of the apostle in 



St Peter's, Rome, shows marked wear caused by the kisses of 
pilgrims. In the Roman Church a distinction is made between 
Latria, a worship due to God alone, and Dulia or Hyperdulia, 
the adoration paid to the Virgin, saints, martyrs, crucifixes, &c. 
(See further HOMAGE.) 

ADORF, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 
3 m. from the Bohemian frontier, at an elevation of 1400 ft. 
above the sea, on the Plauen-Eger and Aue-Adorf lines of rail- 
way. Pop. 5000. It has lace, dyeing and tanning industries, 
and manufactures of toys and musical instruments; and there 
is a convalescent home for the poor of the city of Leipzig. 

ADOUR (anc. Aturrus or Adurus, from Celtic dour, water), 
a river of south-west France, rising in the department of Hautes 
Pyren6es, and flowing in a wide curve to the Bay of Biscay. It 
is formed of several streams having their origin in the massifs 
of the Pic d'Arbizon and the Pic du Midi de Bigorre, but during 
the first half of its course remains an inconsiderable river. In 
traversing the beautiful valley of Campan it is artificially aug- 
mented in summer by the waters of the Lac Bleu, which are 
drawn off by means of a siphon, and flow down the valley of 
Lesponne. After passing Bagneres de Bigorre the Adour enters 
the plain of Tarbes, and for the remainder of its course in the 
department of Hautes Pyrenees is of much less importance as 
a waterway than as a means of feeding the numerous irrigation 
canals which cover the plains on each side. Of these the oldest 
and most important is the Canal d'Alaric, which follows the 
right bank for 36 m. Entering the department of Gers, the 
Adour receives the Arros on the right bank and begins to de- 
scribe the large westward curve which takes it through the 
department of Landes to the sea. In the last-named depart- 
ment it soon becomes navigable, namely, at St Sever, after pass- 
ing which it is joined on the left by the Larcis, Gabas, Louts 
and Luy, and on the right by the Midouze, which is formed by 
the union of the Douze and the Midour, and is navigable for 
27 m.; now taking a south-westerly course it receives on the 
left the Gave de Pau, which is a more voluminous river than the 
Adour itself, and flowing past Bayonne enters the sea through 
a dangerous estuary, in which sandbars are formed, after a total 
course of 208 m., of which 82 are navigable. The mouth of 
the Adour has repeatedly shifted, its old bed being represented 
by the series of Hangs and lagoons extending northward as far 
as the village of Vieux Boucau, 22^ m. north of Bayonne, where 
it found a new entrance into the sea at the end of the I4th cen- 
tury. Its previous mouth had been 10 m. south of Vieux 
Boucau. The present channel was constructed by the engineer 
Louis de Foix in 1579. There is a depth over the bar at the 
entrance of loj to 16 ft. at high tide. The area of the basin of 
the Adour is 6565 sq. m. 

ADOWA (properly ADUA), the capital of Tigr6, northern 
Abyssinia, 145 m. N.E. of Gondar and 17 m. E. by N. of Axum, 
the ancient capital of Abyssinia. Adowa is built on the slope 
of a hill at an elevation of 6500 ft., in the midst of a rich agri- 
cultural district. Being on the high road from Massawa to 
central Abyssinia, it is a meeting-place of merchants from Arabia 
and the Sudan for the exchange of foreign merchandise with the 
products of the country. During the wars between the Italians 
and Abyssinia (1887-96) Adowa was on three or four occasions 
looted and burnt; but the churches escaped destruction. The 
church of the Holy Trinity, one of the largest in Abyssinia, 
contains numerous wall-paintings of native art. On a hill about 
2j m. north-west of Adowa are the ruins of Fremona, the 
headquarters of the Portuguese Jesuits who lived in Abys- 
sinia during the i6th and I7th centuries. On the ist of March 
1896, in the hills north of the town, was fought the battle of 
Adowa, in which the Abyssinians inflicted a crushing defeat on 
the Italian forces (see ITALY, History, and ABYSSINIA, History). 

ADRA (anc. Abdera), a seaport of southern Spain, in the 
province of Almeria; at the mouth of the Rio Grande de Adra, 
and on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 11,188. Adra is 
the port of shipment for the lead obtained near Berja, 10 m. 
north-east; but its commercial development is retarded by the 
lack of a railway. Besides lead, the exports include grapes, 



ADRAR ADRIAN 



215 



sugar and esparto. Fuel is imported, chiefly from the United 
Kingdom. 

ADRAR (Berber for "uplands"), the name of various dis- 
tricts of the Saharan desert, Northern Africa. Adrar Suttuf 
is a hilly region forming the southern part of the Spanish pro- 
tectorate of the Rio de Oro (?..). Adrar or Adrar el Jebli, 
otherwise Adghagh, is a plateau north-east of Timbuktu. It is 
the headquarters of the Awellimiden Tuareg (see TUAREG and 
SAHARA) . Adrar n' Ahnet and Adrar Adhaf ar are smaller regions 
in the Ahnet country south of Insalah. Adrar Temur, the 
country usually referred to when Adrar is spoken of, is in the 
western Sahara, 300 m. north of the Senegal and separated on the 
north-west from Adrar Suttuf by wide valleys and sand dunes. 
Adrar is within the French sphere of influence. In general 
barren, the country contains several oases, with a total popu- 
lation of about 10,000. In 1900 the oasis of Atar, on the western 
borders of the territory, was reached by Paul Blanchet, previ- 
ously known for his researches on ancient Berber remains in 
Algeria. (Blanchet died in Senegal on the 6th of October 1900, 
a few days after his return from Adrar.) Atar is inhabited by 
Arab and Berber tribes, and is described as a wretched spot. 
The other centres of population are Shingeti, Wadan and Ujeft, 
Shingeti being the chief commercial centre, whence caravans 
take to St Louis gold-dust, ostrich feathers and dates. A con- 
siderable trade is also done in salt from the sebkha of'Ijil, in the 
north-west. Adrar occupies the most elevated part of a plateau 
which ends westwards in a steep escarpment and falls to the east 
in a succession of steps. 

Adrar or Adgar is also the name sometimes given to the chief 
settlement in the oasis of Tuat in the Algerian Sahara. 

ADRASTUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Talaus, king of 
Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Sicyon. 
Having been driven from Argos by Amphiaraus, Adrastus fled 
to Sicyon, where he became king on the death of Polybus. After 
a time he became reconciled to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister 
Eriphyle in marriage, and returned to Argos and occupied the 
throne. In consequence of an oracle which had commanded 
him to marry his daughters to a lion and a boar, he wedded them 
to Polyneices and Tydeus, two fugitives, clad in the skins of 
these animals or carrying shields with their figures on them, 
who claimed his hospitality. He was the instigator of the famous 
war against Thebes for the restoration of his son-in-law Polyneices, 
who had been deprived of his rights by his brother Eteocles. 
Adrastus, followed by Polyneices and Tydeus, his two sons-in- 
law, Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, Hippomedon 
and Parthenopaeus, marched against the city of Thebes, and on 
his way is said to have founded the Nemean games. This is the 
expedition of the " Seven against Thebes," which the poets have 
made nearly as famous as the siege of Troy. As Amphiaraus 
had foretold, they all lost their lives in this war except Adrastus, 
who was saved by the speed of his horse Arion (Iliad, xxiii. 346) . 
Ten years later, at the instigation of Adrastus, the war was re- 
newed by the sons of the chiefs who had fallen. This expedition 
was called the war of the " Epigoni " or descendants, and entied 
in the taking and destruction of Thebes. None of the followers 
of Adrastus perished except his son Aegialeus, and this affected 
him so greatly that he died of grief at Megara, as he was leading 
back his victorious army. 

. Apollodorus iii. 6, 7 ; Aeschylus, Septem contra Thebas ; Euripides, 
fhoenissae, Supplices; Statius, Thebais; Herodotus v. 67. 

ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less correct: 
Hatria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri), a town and 
episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Rovigo, ism. 
E. by rail from the town of Rovigo. It is situated between 
the mouths of the Adige and the Po, about 135 m. from the sea 
and but 13 ft. above it. Pop. (1901) 15,678. The town occu- 
pies the site of the ancient Atria, which gave its name to the 
Adriatic. Its origin is variously ascribed by ancient writers, 
but it was probably a Venetian, i.e. Illyrian, not an Etruscan, 
foundation still less a foundation of Dionysius I. of Syracuse. 
Imported vases of the second half of the sth century B.C. prove 
the existence of trade with Greece at that period; and the town 



was famous in Aristotle's day for a special breed of fowls. Even 
at that period, however, the silt brought down by the rivers 
rendered access to the harbour difficult, and the historian 
Philistus excavated a canal to give free access to the sea. This 
was still open in the imperial period, and the town, which was 
a municipium, possessed its own gild of sailors; but its import- 
ance gradually decreased. Its remains lie from 10 to 20 ft. below 
the modern level. The Museo Civico and the Bocchi collection 
contain antiquities. 

See R. Schone, Le antichitd del Museo Bocchi di Adria (Rome, 
1878). (T. As.) 

ADRIAN, or HADRIAN (Lat. Hadrianus) , the name of six popes. 

ADRIAN I., pope from 772 to 795, was the son of Theodore, a 
Roman nobleman. Soon after his accession the territory that 
had been bestowed on the popes by Pippin was invaded by 
Desiderius, king of the Lombards, and Adrian found it necessary 
to invoke the aid of Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a 
large army, besieged Desiderius in his capital of Pavia, took 
that town, banished the Lombard king to Corbie in France 
and united the Lombard kingdom with the other Prankish 
possessions. The pope, whose expectations had been aroused, 
had to content himself with some additions to the duchy of 
Rome, and to the Exarchate, and the Pentapolis. In his contest 
with the Greek empire and the Lombard princes of Benevento, 
Adrian remained faithful to the Frankish alliance, and the 
friendly relations between pope and emperor were not disturbed 
by the difference which arose between them on the question 
of the worship of images, to which Charlemagne and the Gallican 
Church were strongly opposed, while Adrian favoured the views 
of the Eastern Church, and approved the decree of the council 
of Nicaea (787), confirming the practice and excommunicating 
the iconoclasts. It was in connexion with this controversy 
that Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri Carolini, to which 
Adrian replied by letter, anathematizing all who refused to 
worship the images of Christ, or the Virgin, or saints. Notwith- 
standing this, a synod, held at Frankfort in 794, anew condemned 
the practice, and the dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's 
death. An epitaph written by Charlemagne in verse, in which 
he styles Adrian " father," is still to be seen at the door of the 
Vatican basilica. Adrian restored the ancient aqueducts of 
Rome, and governed his little state with a firm and skilful hand. 

ADRIAN II., pope from 867 to 872, was a member of a noble 
Roman family, and became pope in 867, at an advanced age. 
He maintained, but with less energy, the attitude of his prede- 
cessor. Rid of the affair of Lothair, king of Lorraine, by the 
death of that prince (869), he endeavoured in vain to mediate 
between the Frankish princes with a view to assuring to the 
emperor, Louis II., the heritage of the king of Lorraine. Photius, 
shortly after the council in which he had pronounced sentence 
of deposition against Pope Nicholas, was driven from the patri- 
archate by a new emperor, Basil the Macedonian, who favoured 
his rival Ignatius. An oecumenical council (called by the 
Latins the Sth) was convoked at Constantinople to decide this 
matter. At this council Adrian was represented by legates, 
who presided at the condemnation of Photius, but did not suc- 
ceed in coming to an understanding with Ignatius on the subject 
of the jurisdiction over the Bulgarian converts. Like his prede- 
cessor Nicholas, Adrian II. was forced to submit, at least in 
temporal affairs, to the tutelage of the emperor, Louis II., who 
placed him under the surveillance of Arsenius, bishop of Orta, 
his confidential adviser, and Arsenius's son Anastasius, the 
librarian. Adrian had married in his youth, and his wife and 
daughter were still living. They were carried off and assassin- 
ated by Anastasius's brother, Eleutherius, whose reputation, 
however, suffered but a momentary eclipse. Adrian died in 
872. 

ADRIAN III., pope, was born at Rome. He succeeded Martin 
II. in 884, and died in 885, on a journey to Worms. (L. D.*) 

ADRIAN IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope from 1154 to 1159, 
the only Englishman who has occupied the papal chair, was 
born before A.D. noo at Langley near St Albans in Hertford- 
shire. His father was Robert, a priest of the diocese of Bath, 



2l6 



ADRIAN 



who entered a monastery and left the boy to his own resources. 
Nicholas went to Paris and finally became a monk of the cloister 
of St Rufus near Aries. He rose to be prior and in 1137 was 
unanimously elected abbot. His reforming zeal led to the 
lodging of complaints against him at Rome; but these merely 
attracted to him the favourable attention of Eugenius III., 
who created him cardinal bishop of Albano. From 1152 to 
1 1 54 Nicholas was in Scandinavia as legate, organizing the affairs 
of the new Norwegian archbishopric of Trondhjem, and making 
arrangements which resulted in the recognition of Upsala as 
seat of the Swedish metropolitan in 1164. As a compensation 
for territory thus withdrawn the Danish archbishop of Lund was 
made legate and perpetual vicar and given the title of primate 
of Denmark and Sweden. On his return Nicholas was received 
with great honour by Anastasius IV., and on the death of the 
latter was elected pope on the 4th of December 1154. He at 
once endeavoured to compass the overthrow of Arnold of Brescia, 
the leader of anti-papal sentiment in Rome. Disorders ending 
with the murder of a cardinal led Adrian shortly before Palm 
Sunday 1155 to take the previously-unheard-of step of putting 
Rome under the interdict. The senate thereupon exiled Arnold, 
and the pope, with the impolitic co-operation of Frederick I. 
Barbarossa, was instrumental in procuring his execution. Adrian 
crowned the emperor at St Peter's on the i8th of June HSS> a 
ceremony which so incensed the Romans that the pope had to 
leave the city promptly, not returning till November 1156. 
With the aid of dissatisfied barons, Adrian brought William I. of 
Sicily into dire straits ; but a change in the fortunes of war led 
to a settlement (June 1156) not advantageous to the papacy 
and displeasing to the emperor. At the diet of Besancon in 
October 1157, the legates presented to Barbarossa a letter from 
Adrian which alluded to the beneficia conferred upon the em- 
peror, and the German chancellor translated this beneficia in 
the feudal sense. In the storm which ensued the legates were 
glad to escape with their lives, and the incident at length closed 
with a letter from the pope, declaring that by beneficium he 
meant merely bonum faclum. The breach subsequently became 
wider, and Adrian was about to excommunicate the emperor 
when he died at Anagnia on the ist of September 1159. 

A controversy exists concerning an embassy sent by Henry II. 
of England to Adrian in 1155. According to the elaborate 
investigation of Thatcher, the facts seem to be as follows. 
Henry asked for permission to invade and subjugate Ireland, in 
order to gain absolute ownership of that isle. Unwilling to grant 
a request counter to the papal claim (based on the forged Dona- 
tion of Constantine) to dominion over the islands of the sea, 
Adrian made Henry a conciliatory proposal, namely, that the 
king should become hereditary feudal possessor of Ireland while 
recognizing the pope as overlord. This compromise did not 
satisfy Henry, so the' matter [dropped; Henry's subsequent 
title to Ireland rested on conquest, not on papal concession, 
and was therefore absolute. The much-discussed bull Lauda- 
biliter is, however, not genuine. 

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed. (excellent biblio- 
graphy), and Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., under 

Hadrian IV."; also Oliver J. Thatcher, Studies concerning 
Adrian IV. (The University of Chicago: Decennial Publications, 
1st series, vol. iv., Chicago, 1903); R. Raby, Pope Adrian IV.: An 
Historical Sketch (London, 1849) ; and A.H.Tarleton,I,ifeo/A^zc/!o/ai 
Breakspear (London, 1896). 

ADRIAN V. (Ottobuono de' Fieschi), pope in 1276, was a 
Genoese who was created cardinal deacon by his uncle Innocent 

IV. In 1264 he was sent to England to mediate between Henry 
III. and his barons. He was elected pope to succeed Innocent 

V. on the nth of July 1276, but died at Viterbo on the i8th of 
August, without having been ordained even to the priesthood. 

ADRIAN VI. (Adrian Dedel, not Boyens, probably not Roden- 
burgh, 1450-1523), pope from 1522 to 1523, was born at Utrecht 
in March 1459, and studied under the Brethren of the Common 
Life either at Zwolle or Deventer. At Louvain he pursued 
philosophy, theology and canon law, becoming a doctor of theo- 
logy (1491), dean of St Peter's and vice-chancellor of the uni- 
versity. In 1507 he was appointed tutor to the seven-year-old 



Charles V. He was sent to Spain in 151 5 on a very important 
diplomatic errand ; Charles secured his succession to the see of 
Tortosa, and on the i4th of November 1516 commissioned him 
inquisitor-general of Aragon. During the minority of Charles, 
Adrian was associated with Cardinal Jimenes in governing 
Spain. After the death of the latter Adrian was appointed, on 
the i4th of March 1518, general of the reunited inquisitions of 
Castile and Aragon, in which capacity he acted till his departure 
from Tarragona for Rome on the 4th of August 1522 : he was, 
however, too weak and confiding to cope with abuses which 
Jimenes had been able in some degree to check. When Charles 
left for the Netherlands in 1520 he made Adrian regent'of Spain : 
as such he had to cope with a very serious revolt. In 1517 
Leo X. had created him cardinal priest SS. loannis et Pauli; 
on the gth Of January 1522 he was almost unanimously elected 
pope. Crowned in St Peter's on the 3ist of August at the age 
of s'ixty-three, he entered upon the lonely path of the reformer. 
His programme was to attack notorious abuses one by one ; but 
in his attempt to improve the system of granting indulgences 
he was hampered by his cardinals ; and reducing the number of 
matrimonial dispensations was impossible, for the income had 
been farmed out for years in advance by Leo X. The Italians 
saw in him a pedantic foreign professor, blind to the beauty of 
classical antiquity, penuriously docking the stipends of great 
artists. As a peacemaker among Christian princes, whom he 
hoped to unite in a protective war against the Turk, he was a 
failure: in August 1523 he was forced openly to ally himself 
with the Empire, England, Venice, &c., against France ; mean- 
while in 1522 the sultan Suleiman I. had conquered Rhodes. In 
dealing with the early stages of the Protestant revolt in Germany 
Adrian did not fully recognize the gravity of the situation. At 
the diet which opened in December 1522 at Nuremberg he was 
represented by Chieregati, whose instructions contain the frank 
admission that the whole disorder of the church had perchance 
proceeded from the Curia itself, and that there the reform should 
begin. However, the former professor and inquisitor-general 
was stoutly opposed to doctrinal changes, and demanded that 
Luther be punished for heresy. The statement in one of his 
works that the pope could err in matters of faith (" haeresim per 
suam determinationem aut Decrelalem asserendo ") has attracted 
attention ; but as it is a private opinion, not an ex cathedra 
pronouncement, it is held not to prejudice the dogma of papal 
infallibility. On the I4th of September 1523 he died, after a 
pontificate too short to be effective. 

Most of Adrian VI. 's official papers disappeared soon after hisdeath. 
He published Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum praesertim circa 
sacramenta (Paris, 1512, 1516, 1518, 1537; Rome, 1522), and Quaes- 
tiones quodlibeticae XII. (1st ed., Louvain, 1515). See L. Pastor, 
in Geschichte der Pdpste, vol. iv. pt. ii. ; Adrian VI. und Klemens 
VII. (Freiburg, 1907) ; also Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd 
ed., and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., under " Hadrian 
VI."; H. Hurter, Nomenclator lilerarius recentioris theologiae 
catholicae, torn. iv. (Innsbruck, 1899), 1027; The Cambridge Modern 
History, vol. ii. (1904), 19-21 ; H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition 
of Spain, vol. i. (1906); Janus, The Pope and the Council, 2nd ed. 
(London, 1869), 376. Biographies: A. Lepitre, Adrien VI. (Paris, 
1880); C. A. C. von Hofler, Papst Adrian VI. (Vienna, 1880); L. 
Casartelli, " The Dutch Pope," in Miscellaneous Essays (London, 
1906). (W. W. R.*) 

ADRIAN, SAINT, one of the praetorian guards of the emperor 
Galerius Maximian, who, becoming a convert to Christianity, 
was martyred at Nicomedia on the 4th of March 303. It is said 
that while presiding over the torture of a band of Christians he 
was so amazed at their courage that he publicly confessed his 
faith. He was imprisoned, and the next day his limbs were 
struck off on an anvil, and he was then beheaded, dying in his 
wife's, St Natalia's, arms. St Adrian's festival, with that of his 
wife, is kept on the 8th of September. He is specially a patron 
of soldiers, and is much reverenced in Flanders, Germany and 
the north of France. He is usually represented armed, with an 
anvil in his hands or at his feet. 

ADRIAN, a city and the county-seat of Lenawee county, 
Michigan, U.S.A., on the S. branch of Raisin river, near the S.E. 
corner of the state. Pop.(i89o) 8756 ; (1900) 9654, of whom 



ADRIANI ADRIANOPLE 



217 



1136 were foreign-born: (IQIO census) 10,763. It is served 
by five branches of the Lake Shore railway system, and by the 
Wabash, the Toledo and Western, and the Toledo, Detroit and 
Iron ton railways. Adrian is the seat of Adrian College (1859; 
co-educational), controlled by the Wesleyan Methodist Church 
in 1859-1867 and since 1867 by the Methodist Protestant Church, 
and having departments of literature, theology, music, fine arts, 
commerce and pedagogy, and a preparatory school; and of 
St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls; and i m. north 
of the city is the State Industrial Home for Girls (1879), for the 
reformation of juvenile offenders between the ages of ten and 
seventeen. Adrian has a public library. The city is situated in a 
rich farming region; is an important shipping point for live- 
stock, grain and other farm products; and is especially known 
as a centre for the manufacture of wire-fences. Among the other 
manufactories are flouring and grist mills, planing mills, foun- 
dries, and factories for making agricultural implements, United 
States mail boxes, furniture, pianos, organs, automobiles, toys 
and electrical supplies. The value of the city's factory products 
increased from $2,124,923 in 1900 to $4,897,426 in 1904, or 
130-5%; of the total value in 1904, $2,849,648 was the value 
of wire-work. The place was laid out as a town in 1828, and 
according to tradition was named in honour of the Roman 
emperor Hadrian. It was incorporated as a village in 1836, was 
made the county-seat in 1838 and was chartered as a city in 

1853- 

ADRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1513-1579), Italian his- 
torian, was born of a patrician family of Florence, and was 
secretary to the republic of Florence. He was among the de- 
fenders of the city during the siege of 1530, but subsequently 
joined the Medici party and was appointed professor of rhetoric 
at the university. At the instance of Cosimo I. he wrote a history 
of his own times, from 1536 to 15 74, in Italian, which is generally, 
but according to Brunei erroneously, considered a continuation 
of Guicciardini. De Thou acknowledges himself greatly indebted 
to this history, praising it especially for its accuracy. Adriani 
composed funeral orations in Latin on the emperor Charles V. 
and 'other noble personages, and was the author of a long letter 
on ancient painters and sculptors prefixed to the third volume 
of Vasari. His Istoria del suoi tempi was published in Florence 
in 1583; a new edition appeared also in Florence in 1872. 

See G. M. Mazzucchelli, Gli Scrittori d' Italia, i. p. 151 (Brescia, 
1753). 

ADRIANOPLE, a vilayet of European Turkey, corresponding 
with part of the ancient Thrace, and bounded on the N. by 
Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), E. by the Black Sea and the vilayet 
of Constantinople, S. by the Sea of Marmora and the Aegean 
Sea and W. by Macedonia. Pop. (1905) about 1,000,000; area, 
15,000 sq. m. The surface of the vilayet is generally mountain- 
ous, except in the central valley of the Maritza, and along the 
banks of its tributaries, the Tunja, Arda, Ergene, &c. On the 
west, the great Rhodope range and its outlying ridges extend as 
far as the Maritza, and attain an altitude of more than 7000 ft. 
in the summits of the Kushlar Dagh, Karluk Dagh and Kara- 
Balkan. Towards the Black Sea, the less elevated Istranja 
Dagh stretches from north-west to south-east; and the 
entire south coast, which includes the promontory of Gallipoli 
and the western shore of the Dardanelles, is everywhere hilly 
or mountainous, except near the estuaries of the Maritza, and 
of the Mesta, a western frontier stream. The climate is mild 
and the soil fertile; but political disturbances and the conserva- 
tive character of the people tend to thwart the progress of 
agriculture and other industries. The vilayet suffered severely 
during the Russian occupation of 1878, when, apart from the 
natural dislocation of commerce, many of the Moslem culti- 
vators emigrated to Asia Minor, to be free from their alien 
rulers. Through the resultant scarcity of labour, much land 
fell out of cultivation. This was partially remedied after the 
Bulgarian annexation of Eastern Rumelia, in 1885, had driven 
the Moslems of that country to emigrate in like manner to 
Adrianople; but the advantage was counterbalanced by the 
establishment of hostile Bulgarian tariffs. The important silk 



industry, however, began to revive about 1890, and dairy farm- 
ing is prosperous; but the condition of the vilayet is far less 
unsettled than that of Macedonia, owing partly to the prepon- 
derance of Moslems among the peasantry, and partly to the 
nearness of Constantinople, with its Western influences. The 
main railway from Belgrade to Constantinople skirts the Maritza 
and Ergene valleys, and there is an important branch line down 
the Maritza valley to Dedeagatch, and thence coastwise to 
Salonica. After the city of Adrianople (pop. 1905, about 80,000), 
which is the capital, the principal towns are Rodosto (35,000), 
Gallipoli (25,000), Kirk-Kilisseh (16,000), Xanthi (14,000), 
Chorlu (11,500), Demotica (10,000), Enos (8000), Gumuljina 
(8000) and Dedeagatch (3000). 

ADRIANOPLE (anc. Hadrianopolis; Turk. Edirne, or Edreneh; 
Slav. Odrin), the capital of the vilayet of Adrianople, Turkey 
in Europe; 137 m. by rail W.N.W. of Constantinople. Pop. 
(1905) about 80,000, of whom half are Turks, and half Jews, 
Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, &c. Adrianople ranks, after Con- 
stantinople and Salonica, third in size and importance among 
the cities of European Turkey. It is the see of a Greek arch- 
bishop, and of one Armenian and two Bulgarian bishops. It 
is the chief fortress near the Bulgarian frontier, being defended 
by a ring of powerful modern forts. It occupies both banks of 
the river Tunja, at its confluence with the Maritza, which is 
navigable to this point in spring and winter. The nearest sea- 
port by rail is Dedeagatch, west of the Maritza; Enos, at the 
river-mouth, is the nearest by water. Adrianople is on the rail- 
way from Belgrade and Sofia to Constantinople and Salonica. 
In appearance it is thoroughly Oriental a mass of mean, ir- 
regular wooden buildings, threaded by narrow tortuous streets, 
with a few better buildings. Of these the most important are 
the Idadieh school, the school of arts and crafts, the Jewish 
communal school; the Greek college, Zappeion; the Imperial 
Ottoman Bank and Tobacco Regie; a fire-tower; a theatre; 
palaces for the prefect of the city, the administrative staff of the 
second army corps and the defence works commission; a hand- 
some row of barracks; a military hospital; and a French 
hospital. Of earlier buildings, the most distinguished are the 
Eski Serai, an ancient and half-ruined palace of the sultans; 
the bazaar of Ali Pasha; and the 16th-century mosque of the 
sultan Selim II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish architecture. 

Adrianople has five suburbs, of which Kiretchhane and 
Yilderim are on the left bank of the Maritza, and Kirjik stands 
on a hill overlooking the city. The two last named are exclur 
sively Greek, but a large proportion of the inhabitants of Kiretch- 
hane are Bulgarian. These three suburbs - as well as the little 
hamlet of Demirtash, containing about 300 houses all occupied 
by Bulgars are all built in the native fashion; but the^ fifth 
suburb, Karagatch, which is on the right bank of the Maritza, 
and occupies the region between the railway station and the city, 
is Western in its design, consisting of detached residences in 
gardens, many of them handsome villas, and all of modern 
European type. In all the communities schools have multiplied, 
but the new seminaries are of the old non-progressive type. 
The only exception is the Hamidieh school for boys a govern- 
ment institution which takes both boarders and day-scholars. 
Like the- Lyceum of Galata Serai in Constantinople, it has two 
sets of professors, Turkish and French, and a full course of 
education in each language, the pupils following both courses. 
The several communities have each their own charitable institu- 
tions, the Jews being specially well endowed in this respect. 
The Greeks have a literary society, and there is a well-organized 
club to which members of all the native communities, as well as 
many foreigners, belong. 

The economic condition of Adrianople was much impaired 
by the war of 1877-78, and was just showing signs of recovery 
when, in 1885, the severance from it of Eastern Rumelia by a 
Customs cordon rendered the situation worse than ever. Adrian- 
ople had previously been the commercial headquarters of all 
Thrace, and of a large portion of the region between the Balkans 
and the Danube, how Bulgaria. But the separation of Eastern 
Rumelia isolated Adrianople, and transferred to Philippopolis at 



2l8 



ADRIATIC SEA ADULTERATION 



least two-thirds of its foreign trade which, as regards sea-borne 
merchandise, is carried on through the port of Burgas (q.v.). 
The city manufactures silk, leather, tapestry, woollens, linen 
and cotton, and has an active general trade. Besides fruits and 
agricultural produce, its exports include raw silk, cotton, opium, 
rose-water, attar of roses, wax and the dye known as Turkey 
red. The surrounding country is extremely fertile, and its 
wines are the best produced in Turkey. The city is supplied 
with fresh water by means of an aqueduct carried by arches over 
an extensive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge over the 
Tunja. 

Adrianople was originally known as Uskadama, Uskudama 
or Uskodama, but was renamed and enlarged by the Roman 
emperor Hadrian (117-138). In 378 the Romans were here 
defeated by the Goths. Adrianople was the residence of the 
Turkish sultans from 1361, when it was captured by Murad I., 
until 1453, when Constantinople fell. It was occupied by the 
Russians in 1829 and 1878 (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS). 

ADRIATIC SEA (ancient Adria or Hadria), an arm of the 
Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the Austro-Hungarian, 
Montenegrin and Albanian littorals, and the system of the 
Apennine mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent 
ranges. The name, derived from the town of Adria, belonged 
originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi. 
127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, Hippolytus, 736), but was 
gradually extended as the Syracusan colonies gained in import- 
ance. But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only 
extended as far as the Mons Garganus, the outer portion being 
called the Ionian Sea: the name was sometimes, however, 
inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum, the Sea of 
Sicily, the Gulf of Corinth and even the sea between Crete and 
Malta (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic extends N.W. from 40 to 
45 45' N., with an extreme length of nearly 500 m., and a mean 
breadth of about no m., but the Strait of Otranto, through 
which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45 m. 
wide. Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern 
part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open 
sea in this part to 90 m. The Italian shore is generally low, 
merging, in the north-west, into the marshes and lagoons on 
either hand of the protruding delta of the river Po, the sediment 
of which has pushed forward the coast-line for several miles 
within historic times. On islands within one of the lagoons 
opening from the Gulf of Venice, the city of that name has its 
unique situation. The east coast is generally bold and rocky. 
South of the Istrian peninsula, which separates the Gulfs of 
Venice and Trieste from the Strait of Quarnero, the island-fringe 
of the east coast extends as far south as Ra'gusa. The islands, 
which are long and narrow (the long axis lying parallel with the 
coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a 
few hundred feet, while on the mainland, notably in the magnifi- 
cent inlet of the Bocche di Cattaro, lofty mountains often fall 
directly to the sea. This coast, though beautiful, is somewhat 
sombre, the prevalent colour of the rocks, a light, dead grey, 
contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of 
the islands is luxuriant. The north part of the sea is very 
shallow, and between the southern promontory of Istria and 
Rimini the depth rarely exceeds 25 fathoms. Between Sebenico 
and Ortona a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable 
area of which exceeds 100 fathoms in depth. From a point be- 
tween Curzola and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano 
there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a 
few islets extends across the sea. The deepest part of the sea 
lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Ragusa, and west of Dur- 
azzo, where a large basin gives depths of 500 fathoms and 
upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below 
800. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 133 fathoms. 
The bora (north-east wind), and the prevalence of sudden squalls 
from this quarter or the south-east, are dangers to navigation in 
winter. Tidal movement is slight. (See also MEDITERRANEAN.) 
For the " Marriage of the Adriatic," or more properly "of the 
sea," a ceremony formerly performed by the doges of Venice, 
see the article BUCENTAUR. 



ADSCRIPT (from Lat. ad, on or to, and scribere, to write), 
something written after, as opposed to " subscript," which 
means written under. A labourer was called an " adscript of the 
soil " (adscriptus glebae) when he could be sold or transferred 
with it, as in feudal days, and as in Russia until 1861. Carlyle 
speaks of the Java blacks as a kind of adscripts. 

ADULLAM, a Canaanitish town in the territory of the tribe of 
Judah, perhaps the modern "Aid-el-Ma, 7 m. N.E. of Beit-Jibrin. 
It was in the stronghold (" cave " is a scribal error) of this town 
that David took refuge on two occasions (i Sam. xxii. i; 2 Sam. 
v. 17). The tradition that Adullam is in the great cave of 
Khareitun (St Chariton) is probably due to the crusaders. 
From the description of Adullam as the resort of " every one 
that was in distress," or " in debt," or " discontented," it has 
often been humorously alluded to, notably by Sir Walter Scott, 
who puts the expression into the mouth of the Baron of Brad- 
wardine in Waverley, chap. Ivii., and also of Balfour of Burley in 
Old Mortality. In modern political history the expression " cave 
of Adullam " (hence " Adullamites ") came into common use 
(being first employed in a speech by John Bright on the i3th of 
March 1866) with regard to the independent attitude of Robert 
Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke), Edward Horsman and their Liberal 
supporters in opposition to the Reform Bill of 1866. But others 
had previously used it in a similar connexion, e.g. President 
Lincoln in his second electoral campaign (1864), and the Tories 
in allusion to the Whig remnant who joined C. J. Fox in his 
temporary secession. From the same usage is derived the 
shorter political term " cave " for any body of men who secede 
from their party on some special subject. 

ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulterare, to defile or falsify), 
the act of debasing a commercial commodity with the object of 
passing it off as or under the name of a pure or genuine commodity 
for illegitimate profit, or the substitution of an inferior article 
for a superior one, to the detriment of the purchaser. Although 
the term is mainly used in connexion with the falsification of 
articles of food, drink or drugs, and is so dealt with in this article, 
the practice of adulteration extends to almost all manufactured 
products and even to unmanufactured natural substances, and 
(as was once suggested by John Bright) is an almost inseparable 
though none the less reprehensible -phase of keen trade 
competition. In its crudest forms as old as commerce itself, it 
has progressed with the growth of knowledge and of science, 
and is, in its most modern developments, almost a branch 
and that not the least vigorous one of applied science. From 
the mere concealment of a piece of metal or a stone in a loaf of 
bread or in a lump of butter, a bullet in a musk bag or in a piece 
of opium, it has developed into the use of aniline dyes, of anti- 
septic chemicals, of synthetic sweetening agents in foods, the 
manufacture of butter from cocoa-nuts, of lard from cotton-seed 
and of pepper from olive stones. Its growth and development 
has necessitated the employment of multitudes of scientific 
officers charged with its detection and the passing of numerous 
laws for its repression and punishment. While for all common 
forms of fraud the common law is in most cases considered 
strong enough, special laws against the adulteration of food 
have been found necessary in all civilized countries. A vigorous 
branch of chemical literature deals with it; there exist scientific 
societies specially devoted to its study; laboratories are main- 
tained by governments with staffs of highly trained chemists for 
its detection; and yet it not only develops and flourishes, but 
becomes more general, if less virulent and dangerous to health. 

There are numerous references to adulteration in the classics. 
The detection of the base metal by Archimedes in Hiero's crown, 
by the light specific gravity of the latter, is a well-known in- 
stance. Vitruvius speaks of the adulteration of minium with 
lime, Dioscorides of that of opium with other plant juices and 
with gum, Pliny of that of flour with white clay. Both in Rome 
and in Athens wine was often adulterated with colours and 
flavouring agents, and inspectors were charged with looking 
after it. 

In England, so far back as the reign of John (1203), a pro- 
clamation was made throughout the kingdom, enforcing the 



ADULTERATION 



219 



legal obligations of assize as regards bread; and in the following 
reign the statute (51 Hen. III. Stat. 6) entitled " the pillory and 
tumbrel " was framed for the express purpose of protecting the 
public from the dishonest dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, 
butchers and others. This statute is the first in which the adul- 
teration of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; it 
seems to have been enforced with more or less rigour until the 
time of Anne, when it was repealed (1709). According to the 
Liber Albus it was strictly observed in the days of Edward I., 
for it states that: " If any default shall be found in the bread 
of a baker in the city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a 
hurdle from the Guildhall to his own house through the great 
street where there be most people assembled, and through the 
great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf hanging 
from his neck; if a second time he shall be found committing 
the same offence, let him be drawn from the Guildhall through 
the great street of Cheepe in the manner aforesaid to the pillory, 
and let him be put upon the pillory, and remain there at least one 
hour in the day; and the third time that such default shall be 
found, he shall be drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and 
the baker made to foreswear the trade in the city for ever." The 
assize of 1634 provides that " if there be any manner of person 
or persons, which shall by any false wayes or meanes, sell any 
meale under the kinge's subjects, either by mixing it deceitfully 
or sell any musty or corrupted meal, which may be to the hurte 
and infection of man's body, or use any false weight, or any de- 
ceitful wayes or meanes, and so deceive the subject, for the first 
offence he shall be grievously punished, the second he shall 
loose his meale, for the third offence he shall suffer the judg- 
ment of the pillory and the fourth time he shall foreswere the 
town wherein he dwelleth." Vintners, spicers, grocers, butchers, 
regrators and others were subject to the like punishment for 
dishonesty in their commercial dealings it being thought that 
the pillory, by appealing to the sense of shame, was far more 
deterrent of such crimes than fine or imprisonment. In the reign 
of Edward the Confessor a knavish brewer of the city of Chester 
was taken round the town in the cart in which the refuse of the 
privies had been collected. Ale-tasters had to look after the ale 
and test it by spilling some on to a wooden seat, sitting on the 
wet place in their leathern breeches, the stickiness of the " resi- 
due obtained by evaporation " affording the evidence of purity 
or otherwise. If sugar had been added the taster adhered to the 
bench; pure malt beer was not considered to yield an adhesive 
extract. In 1553, the lord mayor of London ordered a jury of 
five or six vintners to rack and draw off the suspected wine of 
another vintner, and to ascertain what drugs or ingredients 
they found in the said wine or cask to sophisticate the same. 
At another time eight pipes of wine were ordered to be destroyed 
because, on racking off, bundles of weeds, pieces of sulphur match, 
and " a kind of gravel mixture sticking to the casks " had been 
found. 

Similar records have come down from the continental European 
countries. In 1390 an Augsburg wine-seller was sentenced to be 
led out of the city with his hands bound and a rope round his 
neck; in 1400 two others were branded and otherwise severely 
punished; in 1435 " were the taverner Christian Corper and 
his wife put in a cask in which he sold false wine, and then ex- 
posed in the pillory. The punishment was adjudged because 
they had roasted pears and put them into new sour wine, in 
order to sweeten the wine. Some pears were hung round their 
necks like unto a Paternoster." In Biebrich on the Rhine, in 
1482, a wine-falsifier was condemned to drink six quarts of his 
own wine; from this he died. In Frankfurt, casks in which false 
wine had been found were placed with a red flag on the knacker's 
cart, " the jailer marched before, the rabble after, and when they 
came to the river they broke the casks and tumbled the stuff 
into the stream." In France successive ordonnances from 1330 
to 1672 forbade the mixing of two wines together under the 
penalty of a fine and the confiscation of the wine. 

Modern British Legislation. In modern times the English 
parliament has dealt frequently with the subject of food adul- 
teration. In 1725 it was provided that " no dealer in tea or 



manufacturer or dyer thereof, or pretending so to be, shall 
counterfeit or adulterate tea, or cause or procure the same to be 
counterfeited or adulterated, or shall alter, fabricate or manu- 
facture tea with terra-japonica, or with any drug or drugs what- 
soever; nor shall mix or cause or procure to be mixed with tea 
any leaves other than the leaves of tea or other ingredients 
whatsoever, on pain of forfeiting and losing the tea so counter- 
feited, adulterated, altered, fabricated, manufactured or mixed, 
and any other thing or things whatsoever added thereto, or 
mixed or used therewith, and also the sum of 100." Six years 
afterwards, in 1730-1731, a further act was passed prescribing a 
penalty for " sophisticating " tea; it recites that several ill-dis- 
posed persons do frequently dye, fabricate or manufacture very 
great quantities of sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, and the leaves 
of tea that have been before used, or the leaves of other trees, 
shrubs or plants in imitation of tea, and do likewise mix, colour, 
stain and dye such leaves and likewise tea with terra-japonica, 
sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, and with other ingredients, and 
do sell and vend the same as true and real tea, to the prejudice 
of the health of his majesty's subjects, the diminution of the 
revenue and to the ruin of the fair trader. This act provides 
that for every pound of adulterated tea found in possession of 
any person, a sum of 10 shall be forfeited. It was followed by 
one passed in 1 766-1 767, which increased the penalty to imprison- 
ment for not less than six nor more than twelve months. As 
regards coffee, an act of 1718 recited that "divers evil-disposed 
persons have at the time or soon after the roasting of coffee 
made use of water, grease, butter or such-like materials, where- 
by the same is rendered unwholesome and greatly increased in 
weight," and a penalty of 20 is enacted. In 1803 an act refers 
to the addition of burnt, scorched or roasted peas, beans or 
other grains or vegetable substances prepared in imitation of 
coffee or cocoa, to coffee or cocoa, and fixes the penalty for the 
offence at 100, but subsequently permission was given to coffee 
or cocoa dealers also to deal in scorched or roasted corn, peas, 
beans or parsnips whole and not ground, crushed or powdared, 
under certain excise restrictions. An act passed in 1816 relating 
to beer and porter provides that no brewer of or dealer in or 
retailer of beer " shall receive or have in his possession, or make 
or mix with any worts or beer, any liquor, extract or other pre- 
paration for the purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer, 
other than brown malt, ground or unground, or shall have in his 
possession or use, or mix with any worts or beer any molasses, 
honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, coculus-indiae, grains of 
paradise, guinea-pepper or opium, or any extracts of these, or 
any articles or preparation whatsoever for or as a substitute for 
malt or hops." Any person contravening was liable to a penalty 
of 200, and any druggist selling to any brewer or retail dealer 
any colouring or malt substitute was to be fined 500. It was 
only in 1847 that brewers were allowed to make for their own 
use, from sugar, a liquor for darkening the colour of worts or 
beer and to use it in brewing. 

All the laws hitherto referred to were mainly passed in the 
interest of the inland revenue, and their execution was left 
entirely in the hands of the revenue officers. It was but natural 
that they should look primarily after the dutiable articles and 
not after those that brought no revenue to the state. About 
the middle of the igth century many articles, however, paid 
import duty; butter, for instance, paid 53. per hundredweight; 
cheese from is. 6d. to 2s. 6d.; [flour or meal of all kinds, 4$d.; 
ginger, xos. ; isinglass, 55. ; and so on. Sensational and doubtless 
largely exaggerated statements were from time to time published 
concerning the food supply of the nation. F. C. Accum (1760- 
1838) by his Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary 
Poisons (1820), and particularly an anonymous writer of a book 
entitled Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning unmasked, or 
Disease and Death in the Pot and the Bottle, in which the blood- 
empoisoning and life-destroying adulterations of wines, spirits, 
beer, bread, flour, tea, sugar, spices, cheesemongery, pastry, con- 
fectionery, medicines, &c. 6*c., are laid open to the public (1830), 
roused the public attention. In 1850 a physician, Dr. Arthur 
H. Hassall, had the happy idea of looking at ground coffee 



220- 



ADULTERATION 



through the microscope. Eminent chemists had previously 
found great difficulty in establishing any satisfactory chemical 
distinction between coffee, chicory and other adulterants of 
coffee; the microscope immediately showed the structural 
difference of the particles, however small. The results of 
Hassall's examinations were embodied in a paper which was read 
before the Botanical Society of London and was reported in 
The Times, 1850. A paper on the microscopic examination of 
sugar, showing the presence in that article of innumerable living 
mites, followed and attracted much attention. Hassall was in 
consequence commissioned by Thomas Wakley (1795-1862), 
the owner of the Lancet, to extend his examination to other 
articles of food, and for a period of nearly four years reports of 
the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission were regularly pub- 
lished, the names and addresses of hundreds of manufacturers 
and tradesmen selling adulterated articles being fearlessly given. 
The responsibility incurred was immense, but the assertions 
of the journal were so well founded upon fact that they were 
universally accepted as accurately representing the appalling 
state of the food supply. As instances may be cited, that of 
thirty-four samples of coffee only three were pure, chicory being 
present in thirty-one, roasted corn in twelve, beans and potato- 
flour each in one; of thirty-four samples of chicory, fourteen 
were adulterated with corn, beans or acorns; of forty-nine 
samples of bread, every one contained alum; of fifty-six samples 
of cocoa, only eight were pure; of twenty-six milks, fourteen 
were adulterated; of twenty-eight cayenne peppers, only four 
were genuine, thirteen containing red-lead and one vermilion; 
of upwards of one hundred samples of coloured sugar-confec- 
tionery, fifty-nine contained chromate.of lead, eleven gamboge, 
twelve red-lead, six vermilion, nine arsenite of copper and four 
white-lead. 

In consequence of the Lancet's disclosures a parliamentary 
committee was appointed in 1855, the labours of which resulted in 

1860 in the Adulteration of FoodandDrink Act, the first 
i860* act tnat dealt generally with the adulteration of food. 

The first section of this enacted " that every person 
who shall sell any article of food or drink with which, to the 
knowledge of such person, any ingredient or material injurious 
to the health of persons eating or drinking soch article has 
been mixed, and every person who shall sell as pure or unadul- 
terated any article of food or drink which is adulterated and 
not pure, shall for every such offence, on summary conviction, 
pay a penalty not exceeding 5 with costs." In the case of a 
second offence the name, place of abode and offence might be 
published in the newspapers at the offender's expense. As the 
act, however, left it optional to the district authorities to appoint 
analysts or not, and did not provide for the appointment of any 
officer upon whom should rest the duty of obtaining samples or 
of prosecuting offenders, it virtually remained a dead letter till 
1872 J 87 2 , when the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act 

came into force, prescribing a penalty not exceeding 
50 for the sale of injurious food and, for a second offence, im- 
prisonment for six months with hard labour. Inspectors were 
empowered to make purchases of samples to be submitted for 
analysis, but appointment of analysts was still left optional. 
The definition of an adulterated article given in that act was 
essentially that still accepted at the present time, namely, " any 
article of food or drink or any drug mixed with any other sub- 
stances, with intent fraudulently to increase its weight or bulk, 
without declaration of such admixture to any purchaser thereof 
before delivering the same." The adoption of the act was 
sporadic, and, outside London and a few large towns, the number 
of proceedings against offenders remained exceedingly small. 
Nevertheless complaints soon arose that it inflicted considerable 
injury and imposed heavy and undeserved penalties upon some 
respectable tradesmen, mainly owing to the " want of a clear 
understanding of what does and does hot constitute adultera- 
tion," and in some cases to conflicting decisions and the inex- 
perience of analysts. 

Again a parliamentary committee was appointed which took 
a mass of evidence, the outcome of its inquiries being the Sale 



of Food and Drugs Act 1875, which is in force at the present 
day, subject to amendments and additions made at J8J5 

later dates. This act avoided the term "adulteration" 
altogether and endeavoured to give a clearer description of 
punishable offences: 

Section 6. "No person shall sell to the purchaser any article 
of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance and 
quality of the article demanded by the purchaser under a penalty 
not exceeding 20; provided that an offence shall not be deemed 
to be committed under this section in the following cases: (i) 
where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been 
added to the food or drug because the same is required for the 
production or preparation thereof as an article of commerce, 
in a state fit for carriage or consumption, and not fraudulently 
to increase the bulk, weight or measure of the food or drug, or 
conceal the inferior quality thereof; (2) where the food or drug 
is a proprietary medicine, or is the subject of a patent in force 
and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the 
patent; (3) where the food or drug is compounded as in the 
act mentioned; (4) where the food or drug is unavoidably 
mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection 
or preparation." 

Section 8. " No person shall be guilty of any such offence as 
aforesaid in respect to the sale of an article of food or a drug 
mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health, 
and not intended fraudulently to increase its bulk, weight or 
measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of delivering 
such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the 
same a notice, by a label distinctly and legibly written or printed 
on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is 
mixed." 

The act made the appointment of analysts compulsory upon 
the city of London, the vestries, county quarter sessions and 
town councils or boroughs having a separate police establish- 
ment. For the protection of the vendor, samples that had been 
purchased by the inspectors for analysis were to be offered to be 
divided into three parts, one to be submitted to the analyst, 
the second to be given to the vendor to be dealt with by him as 
he might deem fit, and the third to be retained by the inspector, 
and, at the discretion of the magistrate hearing any summons, 
to be submitted, in case of dispute, to the commissioners of 
inland revenue for analysis by the chemical laboratory at 
Somerset House. The public analyst had to give a certificate, 
couched in a prescribed form, to the person submitting any 
sample for analysis, which certificate was to be taken as evidence 
of the facts therein stated, in order to render the proceedings as 
inexpensive as practicable. If the defendant in any prosecu- 
tion could prove to the satisfaction of the court that he had 
purchased the article under a warranty of genuineness, and 
that he sold it in the same state as when he purchased it, he was 
to be discharged from the prosecution, but no provision was 
made that in that event the giver of the warranty should be 
proceeded against. 

Section 6, quoted above, gave rise to an immense amount of 
litigation, and already in 1879 it was found necessary to pass 
an amending act, making it clear that if a purchase 1S79 

was effected by an inspector with the intent to get the 
purchased article analysed, he was as much " prejudiced " if 
obtaining a sophisticated article as a private purchaser who 
purchased for his own use and consumption. The amending act 
also dealt in some small measure with a difficulty which immedi- 
ately after passing the act was found to arise in ascertaining 
whether any article was " of the nature, substance and quality 
demanded by the purchaser " " in determining whether an 
offence has been committed under section 6 by selling spirits not 
adulterated otherwise than by the admixture of water, it shall 
be a good defence to prove that such admixture has not reduced 
the spirit more than twenty-five degrees under proof for brandy, 
whisky or rum, or thirty-five under proof for gin." Almost 
insuperable difficulties as to the meaning of " nature, substance 
and quality " subsequently arose as regards every conceivable 
food material. As it was obviously impossible for parliament 



ADULTERATION 



221 



to define every article, to lay down limits of composition within 
which it might vary, to specify the substances or ingredients 
that might enter into it, to limit the proportions of the unavoid- 
able impurities that might be contained in it, the duty to do all 
this was left to the individual analysts. An enormous number 
of substances had to be analysed until sufficient evidence had 
been accumulated for the giving of correct opinions or certifi- 
cates. Endless disputes unavoidably arose, friction with manu- 
facturers and traders, unfortunately also with the referees at 
the inland revenue, who for many years were altogether out of 
touch with the analysts. Conflicting decisions come to by 
various benches of magistrates upon similar cases, allowing 
of the legal sale of an article in one district which in another 
had been declared illegal, rendered the position of merchants 
often unsatisfactory. It was not recognized by parliament 
until almost a quarter of a century had elapsed that it was not 
enough to compel local authorities to get samples analysed, 
but that it was also the duty of parliament to lay down specific 
and clear instructions that might enable the officers to do their 
work. This has only been very partially done even at the 
present time. 

A curious condition of thing? arose out of the definition of 
" food " given in the act of 1875: " The term food shall include 
Difficul- every article used for food or drink by man, other than 
ties of drugs or water." It had been the practice of bakers 

t0 add alUm t0 thC fl Ur fr m which bread WaS 

manufactured, in order to whiten the bread, and to 
permit the use of damaged and discoloured flour. This practice 
had been strongly condemned by chemists and physicians, 
because it rendered the bread indigestible and injurious to 
health. Shortly after the passing of the Food Act this objec- 
tionable practice was stamped out by numerous prosecutions, and 
alumed bread now no longer occurs. A large trade, however, 
continued to be carried on in baking powders consisting of alum 
and sodium bicarbonate. It was naturally thought that, as 
baking powder is sold with the obvious intention that it may 
enter into food, the vendors could also be proceeded against. 
The high court, however, held that, baking powder in itself not 
being an article of food, its sale could not be an offence under 
the Food Act. This anomaly was removed by a later act. 

Under section 6 of the act of 1875 a defendant could be con- 
victed, even if he had no guilty knowledge of the fact that the 
article he had sold was adulterated. In the repealed Adultera- 
tion Act of 1872 the words " to the knowledge of " were inserted, 
and they were found fatal to obtaining convictions. The general 
rule of the law is that the master is not criminally responsible 
for the acts of his servants if they are done without his know- 
ledge or authority, but under the Food Act it was held (Brown 
v. Fool, 1892, 66 L.T. 649) that a master was liable for the 
watering of milk by one of his servants, although he had pub- 
lished a warning to them that they would be dismissed if found 
doing so. Milk might be adulterated during transit on the rail- 
way without the knowledge of the owner or receiver, and yet 
the vendor was liable to conviction. 

When it is brought to the knowledge of a purchaser that the 
article sold to him is not of the nature, substance or quality he 
demanded, the sale is not to the prejudice of the purchaser. 
The notice may be given verbally or by a label supplied with 
the article. A common law notice may also be given. In 
Sandys v. Small, 1878, 3 Q.B.D. 449, a publican had displayed 
a placard within the inn to the effect that the spirits sold in his 
establishment were watered. This was held, as it were, to con- 
tract him out of the Food Act. Similarly, in the case of butters 
that had been adulterated with milk, the vendors, by giving a 
general notice in the shop, evaded punishment under the act. 
A notice, is, however, of no avail if given under section 8 of the 
act, if the admixture has been made for fraudulent purposes. 
In Liddiart v. Reece, 44 J.P. 233, 1880, an inspector asked for 
coffee and received a packet with a label describing it as a 
mixture of coffee and chicory. It was sold at the price of 
coffee. It turned out to be a mixture containing 40% of 
chicory. The high court held that this was an excessive quan- 



tity, and was added for the purpose of fraudulently increasing 
the bulk or weight. In another case, however (Otter v. Edgley, 
l8 93, 57 J-P- 457), where an inspector had asked for French 
coffee and had been supplied with a mixture containing 60% 
of chicory, the article being labelled as a mixture, the 
high court held that there was no evidence of fraud, and, in 
the case of cocoa, a mixture containing as little as 30% 
of cocoa and 70% of starch and sugar, the label stating it 
to be a mixture, was held to have been legally sold (Jones 
v. Jones, 1894, 58 J.P. 653). In this case the label notifying 
the admixture was hidden by a sheet of opaque white paper, 
nor had the purchaser's attention been called to it, but the price 
of the article was much lower than that of pure cocoa. 

It is seen from these few instances, taken at random out of 
scores, that this clause of the act was far from clear and was 
very variously interpreted at the courts. The warranty clause 
(clause 25) also gave rise to an immense amount of litigation. 
In the earlier high court decisions a very narrow interpretation 
was given to the term " written warranty," but in later years 
a wider view prevailed. A general contract to supply a pure 
article is not a sufficient warranty unless with every delivery 
there is something to identify the delivery as part of the contract. 
An invoice containing merely a description of an article as 
" lard " or " pepper " is not a warranty; but if there be added 
the words " guaranteed pure " it is a sufficient warranty. A 
label upon an article is not in itself a warranty, but a label bear- 
ing the words " pure " or " unadulterated," coupled with an 
invoice which could be identified with the label, together were 
held to form an effective warranty. 

As many thousands of samples were annually submitted by 
inspectors under the act to the analysts who had been appointed 
in 237 boroughs and districts, a very large number of cases led 
to disputes of law or fact, about seventy high court cases being 
decided within eighteen years of the passing of the act. While 
these cases related to a variety of different articles and conditions, 
dairy produce, namely milk and butter, led to the greatest 
amount of litigation. It may seem to be a simple matter to 
ascertain whether a vendor of milk supplies his customer with 
milk of the " nature, substance and quality demanded," but 
milk is subject to great variations in composition owing to a 
large number of circumstances which will be considered below. 

Not many years after the passing of the Food Act of 1875 the 
sale of butter substitutes assumed very large proportions, and 
so seriously prejudiced dairy-farmers that, as regards these, an 
act was passed which was not exactly an amendment of the Sale 
of Food and Drugs Act, although it embodied a good many 
provisions of that act. It was called the Margarine Act 1887. 
It provided that every package of articles made in 
imitation of butter should be labelled " margarine " A ^' 
in letters 15 inches square. The vendor, however, 
was protected if he could show a warranty or invoice, whereas 
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act he was not protected by 
invoice merely. Inspectors might take samples of " any butter 
or substitute purporting to be butter " without going through 
the form of purchase. The maximum penalty was raised from 
20 as provided by the Food Act, to 50 in the case of a first 
and to 100 in the case of repeated conviction. The Margarine 
Act is the first statute that makes reference to and sanctions 
the use of preservatives, concerning which a good deal will 
have to be said farther on. 

In the course of twenty years of administration of the Food 
Acts so many difficulties had arisen in reference to the various 
points referred to, that in 1894 a select committee was Select 
appointed to inquire into the working of the various co'^u. 
acts and to report whether any, and if so what, amend- tee, 1894. 
ments were desirable. During three sessions the com- 
mittee sat and took voluminous evidence. They reported that 
where the acts had been well administered they had been most 
beneficial in diminishing adulteration offences. Forms of 
adulteration which were common prior to the passing of the 
1875 act, such as the introduction of alum into bread and the 
cplouring of confectionery with poisonous material, had almost 



222 



ADULTERATION 



entirely disappeared. A close connexion had been shown to 
exist between the extent of adulteration and the number of 
articles submitted for analysis under the acts, the proportion 
of adulterated samples being found to diminish as the number 
of samples taken relatively to the population increased. Thus, 
in 1890, in Somersetshire one sample had been analysed for every 
379 persons, the percentage of adulterated samples in those taken 
for analysis being as low as 3-6; in Gloucestershire one to 770 
persons with 6-2 of adulteration; in Bedfordshire one to 821 with 
7-1; in Derbyshire one to 3164 with 17-1 %, and in Oxford 
one sample to 14,963 inhabitants with no less than 41-7 % 
of adulterated samples. The number of samples of articles 
annually submitted to analysis, according to the returns obtained 
by the Local Government Board, steadily increased from the com- 
mencement onward. Whereas in 1877, 14,706 samples, and in 
1883, 19,648 samples were analysed, in 1904-1905 the number was 
no less than 84,678, or an average of one sample to 384 inhabitants 
for the whole country. In the five years 1877-1881 the pro- 
portion found adulterated was 16-2 %; in the following five 
years ending with 1886, the percentage was 13-9; in the five years 
ending 1891, the percentage was 11-7; and in the year 1904 
the percentage was only 8-5. The select committee found that 
wide local differences in the administration of the acts existed, 
and that in many parts of the country the local authorities 
had failed to exercise their powers. In one metropolitan district, 
eight members of the local authority had been convicted of 
offences under the acts, upon evidence obtained by their own 
inspector. The result was that the duties of the inspector of the 
acts were afterwards controlled by a committee of that local 
authority, who decided the cases in which prosecutions should 
be undertaken, and the administration of the acts was " little 
better than a farce." No power existed to compel local au- 
thorities to carry out the acts. The committee came to the con- 
clusion that in many cases the responsibility for the adulteration 
of articles of food did not rest with the retailer but with the whole- 
sale dealer or manufacturer; that the law punished petty offences 
and left great ones untouched; that it fined a small retailer and 
left the wholesale offender scot free. As regards warranty, they 
thought that the precedent created by the Margarine Act should 
be followed generally, and that invoices and equivalent docu- 
ments should have the force of warranties. They found that 
a considerable proportion of the food imports were adulterated, 
out of 890 samples of butter taken by the customs in 1895 no 
less than 106 being impure, and they recommended that in ad- 
dition to tea, which by section 30 of the act of 1875 was to be 
systematically analysed by the customs, prior to being passed 
for distribution, samples of all food imports should be taken and 
examined by the customs. The committee further found that 
the penalties imposed under the acts had for the most part been 
trifling and quite insufficient to serve as deterrents, the profits 
derived from the sale of adulterated articles being out of pro- 
portion great to the insignificant fines imposed, and they recom- 
mended that for the second offence the penalty of 5 should be 
the minimum one, and that in respect to third or subsequent 
offences imprisonment without the option of a fine might be in- 
flicted. The important question of food standards was considered 
at great length. The absence of legal standards or definitions 
of articles of food had occasioned great difficulty in numerous 
cases, but as no authority was provided by the existing acts that 
might fix such standards, they recommended the formation of 
a scientific authority or court of reference composed of repre- 
sentatives of the laboratory of the Inland Revenue, of the Local 
Government Board, the Board of Agriculture, the General 
Medical Council, the Institute of Chemistry, the Pharmaceutical 
Society, of other scientific men and of the trading and manu- 
facturing community, who should have the duty of fixing stand- 
ards of quality and purity of food to be confirmed by a secretary 
of state. 

The committee's deliberations and recommendations resulted 
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899. This unfortunately 
was not a comprehensive act superseding the previous acts, but 
was an additional and amending one, so that at the present time 



four food acts run parallel and are together in force, rendering the 
subject from a legal point of view one of extreme complexity. 
In this act the growing influence of the Board of Agri- 
culture and the desire to assist farmers and dairymen 
more decisively than previously are clearly apparent. 
Section i empowersthe customs to take samples of consignments 
of imported articles of food and enjoins them to communicate 
to the Board of Agriculture the names of the importers of adulter- 
ated goods, any article of food to be considered adulterated or 
impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance 
(other than preservative or colouring matter, of such a nature 
and such a quantity as not to render the article injurious to 
health), or if any part of it has been abstracted to the detriment 
of the article. Margarine or cheese containing margarine has 
to be conspicuously marked as such; condensed, separated or 
skim milk has to be clearly labelled " machine-skimmed milk " 
or " skimmed milk," as the case may be. The next sections give 
to the Local Government Board and the Board of Agriculture 
a roving commission to see that the acts are properly enforced 
throughout the kingdom so as to apply the acts more equally 
throughout the country than heretofore, and in default of local 
authorities carrying out their duties empower the government 
departments mentioned to execute and enforce the acts at the 
expense of the local authorities. The importance of a regular 
and conscientious control of the public food supply by the local 
authorities was thus for the first time, after forty years of ex- 
perimental legislation, fully acknowledged. In recognition of 
the great difficulties experienced for many years by analysts in 
their endeavour to fix minimum percentages for the fat and 
other milk constituents, and their inability to do so without 
statutory powers, the Board of Agriculture is authorized by 
section 4 to make regulations " for determining what deficiency 
in any of the normal constituents of genuine milk, cream, butter 
or cheese, or what addition of extraneous matter or proportion 
of water " in any of these materials shall raise a presump- 
tion, until the contrary is proved, that these articles are not 
genuine. In pursuance of these powers the Board of Agricul- 
ture did in 1901 issue their milk regulations, adopting officially 
the minima agreed upon by public analysts, and in 1902 the sale 
of butter regulations, which fixed 16 % as the maximum of 
water that might be contained in butter. It is important to 
note that the fact of a sample of milk falling short of the standard 
is not conclusive evidence of adulteration, [but it justifies the 
institution of proceedings and casts the onus of proving that 
the sample is genuine upon the defendant. The Margarine Act 
of 1887 was extended to margarine cheese, the obligatory 
labelling of margarine packages was more precisely regulated, 
margarine manufacturers and dealers in that article were com- 
pelled to keep a register open to inspection by the Board of 
Agriculture, showing the quantity and designation of each con- 
signment, and power was given to officers of the board to enter 
at all reasonable times manufactories of margarine and margarine 
cheese. The amount of butter-fat that might be present in 
margarine was limited to 10 %, while under the Margarine 
Act of 1887 an unlimited admixture might have been made, 
provided that the mixture, no matter how large the percentage 
of butter, was sold as margarine. As is further explained below, 
the difficulty of distinguishing without chemical aid between 
pure butter and margarine containing a considerable percentage 
of butter is very great, and fraudulent sales continued to be 
common after the passing of the Margarine Act. The labelling 
section of the Food Act 1875 ( 8), which had been systematic- 
ally circumvented, was modified, a label being no longer recog- 
nized as distinctly and legibly written or printed, unless it is so 
written or printed that the notice of mixture given by the label 
is not obscured by other matter on the label, though labels that 
had been continuously in use for at least seven years before the 
commencement of the act were not interfered with. In conse- 
quence of the admitted unfairness of asking for a portion of the 
contents of a properly labelled tin or package and then instituting 
proceedings because no declaration of admixture had been 
made, it was enacted that no person shall be required to sell any 



ADULTERATION 



223 



article exposed for sale in an unopened tin or packet, except in 
the unopened tin or packet in which it is contained. This re- 
moved a grievance which had long been felt both by retailers 
and manufacturers, and is a provision of growing importance 
with the continually increasing sale of articles put up in factories. 
The warranty provisions, which, as before stated, had given rise 
to much litigation, were more clearly defined. A notice that a 
defendant would rely for his defence upon a warranty had to be 
given within seven days of the' service of the summons or the 
defence would not be available, and the warrantor was em- 
powered to appear at the hearing and to give evidence so that 
no man's name could, as sometimes previously happened, be 
dragged into a case without due notice to him. A warranty or 
invoice given by a person resident outside the United Kingdom 
was no longer recognized as a defence, unless the defendant 
could prove that he had taken reasonable steps to ascertain 
and did in fact believe in the accuracy of the statement con- 
tained in the warranty. This prevented collusion between a 
foreign shipper and an importer; and, lastly, the definition of 
"food v was widened (in view of the baking-powder decision) 
so that the term food " shall include every article used for food 
or drink by man, other than drugs or water, and any article 
which ordinarily enters into or is used in the composition or 
preparation of human food, and shall also include flavoring 
matters and condiments." 

The act of 1899 embodies, with one exception, the most 
important recommendations of the Food Products Committee, 
the exception being the omission of instituting a board of refer- 
ence that might deal with difficulties as they arose, guide analysts 
and public authorities in fixing limits for articles other than milk 
and butter, and take up the important questions of preservatives 
and colouring matters and such like. An occurrence which 
almost immediately followed the passing of the act showed in 
the strongest manner the necessity of such guiding board 
namely, the outbreak of arsenical poisoning in the Midlands in 
the latter part of 1900. 

In the month of June 1900 there occurred, mainly in the 
Midlands but also in other parts of England and Wales, an out- 
break of an illness variously described as "alcoholism," 
iiTfoods. " peripheral neuritis " or "multiple neuritis." This 
affected about 6000 persons and resulted in about 70 
deaths. It was soon ascertained that the sufferers were all beer 
drinkers, and several of them were employees of a local brewery, 
the majority of whom had suffered, |for some months past. 
Although suspicion fell early upon beer, some considerable time 
elapsed before Dr E. S. Reynolds of Manchester discovered 
arsenic in dangerous proportions in the beer. Steps were im- 
mediately taken by brewers and sanitary authorities to ensure 
that this arsenical beer was withdrawn from sale, and, as a 
result, the epidemic came speedily to an end. In all instances 
where this epidemic of sickness had been traced to particular 
breweries, the latter had been users of brewing sugars glucose 
and invert sugar supplied by a single firm. The quantity of 
arsenic detected in specimens of these brewing sugars was in 
some cases very large, amounting to upward of four grains per 
pound. The implicated brewing sugars were found to have 
become contaminated by arsenic in course of their manufacture 
through the use of sulphuric acid, some specimens of which 
contained as much as 2-6% of arsenic. The acid had been 
made from highly arsenical iron pyrites, and as the manufac- 
turers of the glucose had not specifically contracted with the 
acid makers for pure acid, the latter, not knowing for what 
purpose the acid was to be used, had felt themselves justified in 
supplying impure acid. A royal commission was appointed in 
February 1901, with Lord Kelvin as chairman, to inquire into 
the matter, and an enormous amount of attention was naturally 
given to it by chemists and medical men. It was soon found that 
arsenic was very widely disseminated in two classes of food 
materials, namely, such as had been dried or roasted in gases 
resulting from the combustion of coal, and such as had been 
more or less chemically manufactured. All coal contains iron 
pyrites, and this mineral again is contaminated with arsenic. 



When the coal is burned the fumes are arsenical and part of the 
arsenic condenses and deposits. Malt dried in English malt 
kilns was found to be almost invariably arsenical, and there 
cannot be a doubt that English beers had for many years past 
been thus contaminated. At the present time coal virtually 
free from arsenic is selected for malting, or Newlands' process, 
consisting of the admixture with coal of lime which renders 
the arsenic non-volatile, is adopted, and malt free from all but 
the merest traces of arsenic is manufactured. Part of the 
arsenic remains in the coal-ashes and wherever these deposit 
arsenic can be traced. Sir Edward Frankland had, many years 
previously, detected arsenic in the London atmosphere. Chicory 
roasted with coal, steaks and chops grilled over an open fire, 
thus obtain a minute arsenical dosing. In sugar refineries 
carbonic acid gas is, at one stage of the process, passed through 
the liquor for the purpose of precipitating lime or strontia. 
When this carbonic acid is derived from coal the sugar often 
shows traces of arsenic. When arsenical malt or sugar infusion 
is fermented, as in brewing, the yeast precipitates upon itself a 
considerable proportion of the impurity, thus partly cleaning 
the beer, but all preparations made from yeast yeast-extracts 
resemble to some extent meat extracts, with which they are some- 
times fraudulently mixed are thus exposed to arsenical con- 
tamination. On the continent of Europe malt is not dried in 
kilns with direct access of combustion gases but on floors heated 
from beneath, and continental beers therefore have not been 
found arsenical. The second class of causes of contamination 
consists of chemicals. The most important chemical product is 
sulphuric acid. This used to be made from brimstone or native 
volcanic sulphur, which is virtually free from arsenic. But since 
about 1860 sulphuric acid has been more largely made from 
iron or copper pyrites. Pyrites-acid is always arsenical, but can, 
by suitable treatment, be easily freed from that impurity. For 
many purposes acid that has not been purified is employed. In 
the Leblanc process of manufacture the first step is the conver- 
sion of salt into sodium sulphate by sulphuric acid. The hydro- 
chloric acid which is formed carries with it most of the arsenic 
of the sulphuric acid. Wherever such hydrochloric acid is used 
it introduces arsenic; thus, in the separation of glycerin from 
soap lyes, the alkali of the latter is neutralized with hydrochloric 
acid and glycerin is in consequence frequently highly arsenical. 
So is the soda produced in the Leblanc process, and every one 
of the numerous soda salts made from soda is liable to receive 
its share. All acids liberated from their salts by sulphuric acid, 
such as phosphoric, tartaric, citric, boracic, may be, and some- 
times are, thus contaminated. All superphosphates, made by 
the action of crude sulphuric acid upon bones or other phosphatic 
materials, and sulphate of ammonia, made from gas-liquor and 
acid, that is to say, two of the most important manurial materials, 
are arsenical, and the poison is thus spread far and wide over 
meadows and fields, and can be traced in the soil wherever 
artificial manures have been applied. The crops sometimes take 
up arsenic to a slight extent, but happily the plant is more 
selective than man, and no serious amount of poison absorption 
appears to be possible. The risk of contamination is, of course, 
much greater with substances which, like glucose, are not 
further purified by crystallization, but retain whatever impurity 
is introduced into them. Glucose is not only used in beer, in 
which by legal enactments it is permitted to be used, but is also 
substituted for sugar in a number of food products, and is liable 
to carry into them its contamination. Sugar confectionery, 
jams and marmalade, honey, and such like, are often admixed 
with glucose. It is difficult to say in the present state of the 
law whether such admixture amounts to adulteration. It was 
clearly made originally for fraudulent purposes, but usage and 
high court decisions have gradually given the practice an air of 
respectability. Vinegar of sorts is also made from a glucose 
liquor produced by the action of sulphuric acid upon maize or 
other starchy material, and is, in its turn, exposed to arsenic 
contamination. There is hardly a chemical substance which 
has directly or indirectly come in to -con tact with sulphuric acid 
that is not at times arsenical. Thus, while artificial colours, 



224 



ADULTERATION 



now so much used for the dyeing of food products, are no longer 
prepared as was rosaniline (the parent substance of so many 
aniline dyes) at an early stage of its manufacture with arsenic 
acid, yet they are often contaminated indirectly from sulphuric 
acid. Furthermore, hardly any metal that results from the 
smelting of any ore with coal is free from arsenic, iron in par- 
ticular, as employed for pots and pans and implements, being 
highly arsenical. From the iron the many chemical preparations 
which contain or are made with the aid of iron salts may be 
arsenicated. The general presence of arsenic from some of these 
causes has been known for many years; outbreaks of arsenical 
poisoning have been due to it at various times, but neglect, 
forgetfulness and human shortsightedness let the matter go into 
oblivion, and it is safe to predict, in spite of all attention which 
has been given to the subject, of the panic which was created 
by the beer-poisoning outbreak, of the shock and injury caused 
to manufacturers of many kinds, and of the watchfulness 
aroused in officers of health and analysts, that as long as the 
production of food materials or substances that go into food 
materials is not left to the care of nature, and as long as man 
adds the products of his ingenuity to our food and drink, so long 
will " accidents," like the Manchester poisoning, from time to 
time recur. We now search for arsenic; some other time it is 
lead, or antimony, or selenium, that will do the mischief. Man 
does what he can according to his light, but he sees but a little 
patch of the sky of knowledge, while the plant or the animal 
building up its body from the plant has learned by inheritance 
to avoid the assimilation of matters noxious to it. Strictly 
speaking,' arsenical poisoning does not belong to the subject of 
adulteration. It is not due to wilfulmess but to stupidity, but 
it affords a lesson which cannot be taken too much to heart, 
that mankind, by relying too much upon " science " in feeding, 
is on a path that is fraught with considerable danger. 

To safeguard consumers, as far as practicable, the royal 
commission made important recommendations concerning 
amendments of the Food Acts; these, as at present interpreted 
and administered, were reported to be unsatisfactory for the 
purpose of protecting the consumer against arsenic and other 
deleterious substances in food. " As a rule public analysts 
receive samples in order that they may pronounce upon their 
genuineness or otherwise, knowing nothing of the local circum- 
stances which led to their being taken, of their origin or the 
reasons for sending them. The term ' genuine ' in this sense 
means that the analyst has not detected such objectionable 
substances as he has considered it necessary to look for in the 
sample submitted to him. Obviously, the value of the state- 
ment that the sample is ' genuine ' depends upon the extent to 
which the analyst has means of knowing what are the objection- 
able substances which it is liable to contain. In present circum- 
stances he has not sufficient information on this point." It 
was also pointed out that the application of the Food Acts to 
prevention of contamination of foods by deleterious substances 
was materially hindered by want of an official authority with 
the duty of dealing with the various medical, chemical and 
technical questions involved, and that the absence of official 
standards militated against the efficiency of the existing acts. 
The commission advised that a special officer be appointed by 
the Local Government Board to obtain by inquiries from various 
sources, such information as would enable the board to direct 
the work of local authorities in securing greater purity of food; 
and they further recommended that the board or court of refer- 
ence, which had been advised by the Committee on Food Pro- 
ducts Adulteration, should be established. Pending the estab- 
lishment of official standards in respect of arsenic under the 
Food Acts, they were of opinion that penalties should be imposed 
upon any vendor of beer or any other liquid food, or of any 
liquor entering into the composition of food, if that liquid be 
shown by adequate test to contain one-hundredth of a grain or 
more of arsenic in the gallon, and with regard to solid food, no 
matter whether it be consumed habitually in large or small 
quantities, or whether it be taken by itself (like golden syrup), or 
mixed with water or other substances (like chicory or yeast 



extract) if the substance contain one-hundredth of a grain of 
arsenic or more to the pound. The board of reference, most 
urgently needed for the protection of the public and for the 
guidance of manufacturers and officers, has yet to be created. 
While from time immemorial certain articles of food have 
been preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or by the addition 
of sugar and in some cases of saltpetre, during the last 
quarter of the igth century the use of chemicals acting 
more powerfully as antiseptics or preservatives ex- 
tended enormously, particularly in England. A very 
large fraction of the British food supply being obtained 
from abroad, a proportionately great difficulty exists in obtain- 
ing the food in an entirely fresh and untainted condition. While 
refrigeration and cold-storage has been the chief factor in enab- 
ling the meat and other highly perishable foods to be imported, 
other steps, ensuring preservation of goods that are collected 
from farmers and brought together at shipping ports, are neces- 
sary to prevent decomposition prior to such goods coming into 
cold store. Thus it is well-nigh impossible to collect butter 
from farms in Australia or New Zealand far distant from the 
coast without the addition of some chemical preservative. 
Heavily salted goods no longer appeal to the modern palate, and, 
with the progress of specialized labour, the inhabitants, especi- 
ally of great towns, have become accustomed to resort to manu- 
factured provisions instead of the home-made and home-cooked 
food. Manufacturers of many articles of preserved food gradu- 
ally adopted the use of chemical preservatives, and at the present 
time the practice has become so general that it may be said that 
practically every person in the United Kingdom who has passed 
the suckling stage consumes daily more or less food containing 
chemical preservatives. The Food Act allows of the addition 
of any ingredient, not injurious to health, if it be required for 
the production or preparation of the food, or as an article of 
commerce, in a state fit for carriage. The legality or otherwise 
of the use of chemical preservatives, therefore, hinges upon their 
innocuousness. Upon theoretical considerations it is clear that 
a substance which is capable of acting as an antiseptic must act 
injuriously upon bacteria, fungi or yeasts, and as the human 
body is, generally speaking, less resistant to poisons than the low 
organisms in question, it would seem to follow that antiseptics 
are bound to affect it injuriously. It is, of course, a question 
of dose and proportion. It has further been said that all anti- 
septics possess some sort of medicinal action, and however valu- 
able they may be in disease when administered under the control 
of a competent physician, they have no business to be given in- 
discriminately to sick and healthy alike by purveyors of food. 
The result of a general desire on the part of importers and manu- 
facturers of food materials, of the officers under the Food Act, 
of the medical profession and of the public, resulted after many 
years of agitation and complaint and after numerous conflicting 
magisterial decisions, in the appointment in 1899, by the presi- 
dent of the Local Government Board, of a departmental com- 
mittee to inquire into the use of preservatives and colouring 
matters in food, with the reference to report: first, whether the 
use of such materials or any of them, in certain quantities, is 
injurious to health, and, if so, in what proportion does their use 
become injurious, and, second, to what extent and in what 
amounts are they used at the present time. After the examina- 
tion of a great number of witnesses a report was issued in 1901. 
Perhaps the most important conclusion was that the instances 
of actual harm which were alleged to have occurred from the 
consumption of articles of food and drink chemically preserved 
were few in number, and were not at all supported by conclusive 
evidence. During the period which has elapsed since chemically 
preserved food has been used, the mortality as a whole has 
declined, and while this naturally cannot be put to the credit 
of the preservatives but is largely due to better feeding in conse- 
quence of the introduction of cheaper foods, which are rendered 
possible to some extent by the use of preservatives, it conclusively 
establishes the fact that no obvious harm has been done to the 
health of the community. The committee made certain recom- 
mendations which are the most authoritative pronouncements 



ADULTERATION 



225 



upon the subject. They are as follows: That the use of form- 
aldehyde or formalin, or preparations thereof, in food or 
drinks, be absolutely prohibited, and that salicylic acid be not 
used in a greater proportion than one grain per pint in liquid 
food and one grain per pound in solid food, its presence in all cases 
to be declared. That the use of any preservatives or colouring 
matter whatever in milk offered for sale in the United Kingdom 
be constituted an offence under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act. 
That the only preservative which it shall be lawful to use in 
cream be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid and borax, and 
in amount not exceeding 0-25% expressed as boric acid, 
the amount of such preservative to be notified by a label upon 
the vessel. That the only preservative permitted to be used in 
butter and margarine be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid 
and borax, to be used in proportions not exceeding 0-5 % 
expressed as boric acid. That in the case of all dietetic prepara- 
tions intended for the use of invalids or infants, chemical pre- 
servatives of all kinds be prohibited. 

As the most commonly used chemical preservative is boric 
acid, free or in the form of borax, which is extensively employed 
in butter, cream, ham, sausages, potted meats, cured 
fish, and sometimes in -jams and preserved fruit, the 
arguments for and against its employment deserve more detailed 
attention. It cannot be looked upon in the light of common 
adulteration because, in any case, the quantity used is but an 
inconsiderable fraction, and the cost of it is generally greater 
than that of the food itself. It is not used to hide any traces 
of decomposition that may have taken place or to efface its 
effects. On the other hand, it cannot be said to be " required 
for the production or preparation " of the articles with which 
it is mixed, since a fraction at leasfof similar articles are made 
without preservative. It enables food to be kept from decom- 
position, but it also lessens the need for cleanliness and encour- 
ages neglect and slovenliness in factories. It has no taste, or 
only a very slight one, hence does not manifest itself to the 
consumer in the same way as does common salt, and cannot 
therefore be avoided by him should he desire to do so. Its pre- 
servative action, that is, its potency, is very slight in comparison 
with most other preservatives; its potential injuriousness to 
man must be proportionately small. It is practically without 
interference upon salivary, peptic or tryptic digestion, unless 
given in large quantities. Experiments made by F. W. Tunni- 
cliffe and R. Rosenheim upon children showed that neither boric 
acid nor borax, administered in doses of from 15 to 23 grains 
per diem, exerted any influence upon proteid metabolism or 
upon the assimilation of phosphatized materials. The fat 
assimilation was, if anything, improved, and the body weight 
increased, and the general health and well-being was in no way 
affected. On the other hand, evidence was adduced that in some 
cases digestive disturbances, after continuous administration 
of from 15 to 40 grains, were observable, nausea and vomiting 
in some, and skin irritation, in one case resulting in complete 
baldness, in others. 

Although it is in most cases very difficult to trace any gastric 
disturbance to any particular article of food or one of its in- 
gredients, so as to exclude all other possible causes of disturbance, 
a fairly good case has been made out by a number of medical 
practitioners against boracic acid, taken in an ordinary diet 
and not for experimental purposes. The most exhaustive in- 
vestigation which has as yet been made was carried out by 
Dr H. W. Wiley, chief chemist to the United States department of 
agriculture. A large number of young men who had offered 
themselves as subjects for the investigations, were boarded as a 
special " hygienic table," but otherwise continued their usual 
vocations during the whole period of the experiment. They were 
placed upon their honour to observe the rules and regulations 
prepared by the department and to use no other food or drink 
than that provided, water excepted, and any water consumed 
away from the hygienic table was to be measured and reported. 
They were to continue their regular habits and not to indulge 
in any excessive amount of labour or exercise. Weight, tempera- 
ture and pulse rate were continuously recorded. The periods 
1.8 



during which the subjects of the experiment were kept under 
observation varied from .thirty to seventy days, periods of rest 
being given during which they were permitted to eat moderately 
at tables other than the experimental one. There was a good 
and ample diet. The observations were divided into three periods : 
the fore period, the preservative period and the after period, 
during the whole of which time the rations of each member 
were weighed or measured and the excreta collected. Before 
the " fore " period was commenced a note was made of the 
quantities of food voluntarily consumed by each of the candi- 
dates, and from these the proper amount necessary in each case 
to maintain a comparatively constant body weight was calcu- 
lated. When a suitable result was thus arrived at, the same 
quantity of food was given daily during the " preservative " 
and " after " periods. The preservative was given in the forms 
of borax and of boric acid, at first mixed with butter, but subse- 
quently in gelatine capsules. This was found to be necessary 
from the fact that when the preservative was mixed with the food 
and concealed in it some of the members of the table evinced 
dislike of the food with which it was supposed to be incorporated; 
those who thought that the preservative was in the butter were 
disposed to find the butter unpalatable, and the same was true 
with those who thought it might be in the milk or coffee, while, 
when the preservative was given openly, much less disturbance 
was created. The preservative was given at first in small doses 
such as might be consumed in commercial food that had been 
preserved with borax; gradually the quantities were increased 
in order to reach the limit of toleration for each individual. 
All food was weighed, measured and analysed, the same being 
the case with the excreta. The blood was examined periodically 
as regards colouring matter and number of corpuscles. Every- 
thing was done to keep up the general health of the members 
and to do away with all unfavourable mental influences due to 
the circumstances. During the time of the experiment analyses 
were made of 2 5 50 'food samples and 1175 samples each of 
urine and faeces. The general results were as follows: there was 
no tendency to excite diarrhoea, and the nitrogen-metabolism 
was but very little influenced, if anything being slightly de- 
creased. As regards phosphorus the combined results of all 
observations indicated that the preservative increased the 
excretion of phosphorus to a small extent, from 97-3 % 
in the " fore " period, to 103-1 in the " preservative " period. 
The metabolism of fat was uninfluenced; there was an increase 
of the solid matters in the faeces and a decrease of those in the 
urine, from which Dr Wiley concluded that the preservatives 
interfered with the process of digestion and absorption. No 
influence was exerted on the corpuscles and the haemoglobin 
of the blood. The effect of boracic acid and borax on the 
general health varied with the amount administered, quantities 
not exceeding half a gramme (7! grains) of boracic acid, or its 
equivalent of borax, producing no immediate effects, but the 
long-continued administration of such small doses seemed to 
produce the same results as the use of large doses over a shorter 
period. There was a tendency to diminish the appetite and to 
produce a feeling of fulness and uneasiness in the stomach and 
sometimes actual nausea, also one of fulness in the head mani- 
fested as a dull headache which disappeared when the preserva- 
tive was dropped. The continued administration of large doses, 
60 to 75 grains per day, resulted in most cases in loss of appetite, 
inability to perform work of any kind and general unfitness. 
In most cases 45 grains per day could be taken for some time, 
but gradually injurious effects were observed. In some cases 30 
and even 15 grains per day appeared to cause illness, but it is 
acknowledged that these persons may have been suffering from 
influenza. The administration of 7-5 grains was declared by 
Dr Wiley to be too much for the normal man to receive regularly, 
although for a limited period there might be no danger to health. 
Dr Wiley concludes his report: " It appears, therefore, that 
both boric acid and borax, when continuously administered in 
small doses for a long period or when given in large quantities 
for a short period, create disturbance of appetite, of digestion 
and of health." 



220 



ADULTERATION 



Dr Wiley's conclusions were adversely criticized by Dr O. 
Liebreich, who carefully studied on the spot all the conditions 
of the experiment and the documents relating to the investiga- 
tion. He pointed out that the results were so indefinite and the 
number of persons under control so small that " one case of self- 
deception or of forgetfulness only would throw into absolute 
uncertainty the solution of the whole question "; that no lasting 
injury to health was found in spite of transient disturbances 
attributed by Dr Liebreich to other causes, and that all persons 
declared themselves to be in better physical condition after 
seven months than they had been before. On the whole the 
balance of evidence seems to be that while no acute injury is 
likely to result from boron compounds in food, they are liable to 
produce slighter digestive interferences. 

Other chemical substances that are in use for the purpose of 
preserving food materials may be treated more shortly. Form- 
aldehyde, coming into commerce in the form of a 
4 % solution under the name of formalin, was for a 
time largely used in milk. It certainly has very great 
antiseptic properties, as little as i part in 50,000 parts check- 
ing the growth of organisms in milk for some hours, but as 
the substance combines with albuminous matters and hardens 
them to an extraordinary degree, rendering, for instance, gelatine 
perfectly insoluble in water, it exerts an inhibitory effect on 
the digestive ferments. It injures salivary, peptic and pancreatic 
digestion. A set of five kittens fed with milk containing i part 
in 50,000 of formaldehyde for seven weeks were strongly retarded 
in growth, three ultimately dying, while four control kittens fed 
on pure milk flourished. In even moderate doses formalin pro- 
duces severe pains in the abdomen and has caused death. It is 
now generally recognized as a substance that is admirably 
adapted for disinfecting a sick-room, but quite improper and 
unsuitable for food preservation. 

Salicylic acid or orthohydroxybenzoic acid is either obtained 
from oil of winter-green or is made synthetically by Kolbe's 
process from phenol and carbonic acid. Artificial 
SaWc^/fc salicylic ac id generally contains impurities (creasotic 
acids) which act very injuriously upon health. When 
pure, salicylic acid employed as a food preservative has never 
produced decided injurious effects, although administered by 
itself in fairly strong solution it acts as an irritant to the stomach 
and kidneys, and sometimes causes skin eruptions. It is a 
powerful drug in larger doses and requires careful administra- 
tion, especially as about 60 % of the persons to whom it is 
administered show symptoms known as " salicylism," namely, 
deafness, headache, delirium, vomiting, sometimes haemorrhage 
or heart-failure. It is doubtful whether pure salicylic acid 
produces these symptoms. When present in proportion of 
i to 1000 it inhibits the growth of moulds and yeasts. In 
jams 2 grains per pound and in beverages 7 grains to a gallon 
are considered by manufacturers to be sufficient for preservative 
purposes. It is used mainly in articles of food or drink containing 
sugar, that is to say, in jams and preserved fruit, lime and lemon 
juices, syrups, cider, British wines and imported lager. Its use 
in butter, potted meat, milk or cream, in which it was not in- 
frequently met with formerly, is now quite exceptional. It has 
already been stated that the preservative committee recom- 
mended its permissive use in small proportions. To some extent 
benzoic acid and benzoates have taken the place of salicylic 
acid and salicylates, partly because salicylic acid can readily 
be detected analytically, while benzoic acid is not quite easily 
discoverable. Its antiseptic potency is about equal to that of 
salicylic acid, and the arguments for or against its use are 
similar to those relating to the latter. 

For the preservation of meat and beer, lime juice and dried 
fruit, sulphur dioxide (sulphurous acid) and some of the sulphites 
have long been employed. Sulphuring of hops and disinfection 
of barrels by burning brimstone matches is an exceedingly old 
practice. Burning sulphur is well known as a gaseous disin- 
fectant of rooms, bacteria being killed in air containing i % 
of the gas. As the taste and smell of sulphurous acid and 
of sulphites are very pronounced it follows that but small 



quantities can be added to food or drink. About i part in 
4000 or 5000 of beer is the usual amount. While, in larger 
quantities, the sulphites have decided physiological activity 
and are apt to produce nephritis, there is not any evidence that 
they have ever caused injurious effects in alcoholic liquors. 
The excise authorities have tacitly sanctioned their employment 
in breweries, although the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 
1885 declares' that a brewer of beer shall not add any matter 
or thing thereto except finings or other matter or thing sanc- 
tioned by the commissioners of Inland Revenue, and although 
sulphites are used in all breweries, the Board of Inland Revenue 
do neither sanction nor interfere. An antiseptic with a pro- 
nounced taste is obviously a safer one in the hands of a non- 
medical person than one virtually devoid of taste, like boric, 
salicylic or benzoic acids or their salts. 

Sodium fluoride, a salt possessing powerfully antiseptic 
properties, but also at the same time clearly injurious to health 
and interfering with salivary and peptic digestion, has 
been found in butter, imported mainly from Brittany, pnserva- 
in quantities quite inadmissible in food under any tives. 
circumstances. A few other chemical preservatives 
are occasionally used. Hydrogen peroxide has been found 
effective in milk sterilization, and if the substance is pure, no 
serious objection can be raised against it. Saccharine, and 
other artificial sweetening agents, having antiseptic properties, 
are taking the place of sugar in beverages like ginger-beer 
and lemonade, but the substitution of a trace of a substance 
that provides sweetness without at the same time giving the 
substance and food value of sugar is strongly to be deprecated. 

The employment of chemical preservative matters in articles 
intended for human consumption threatens to become a grave 
danger to health or well-being. Each dealer in food contributes 
but a little; each one claims that his particular article of food 
cannot be brought into commerce without preservative, and 
each condemns the use of these substances by others. There is 
doubtless something to be said for the practice, but infinitely 
more against it. It cheapens food by allowing its collection in 
districts far away, but the chief gainer is not the public as a 
whole but the manufacturer and the wholesale merchant. Our 
body has by inheritance acquired habits and needs that are 
quite foreign to chemical interference. Some day, artificially 
prepared foods, containing liberal quantities of matters that are 
not now food ingredients, may conceivably compare with natural 
food products, but that day is not yet, and meantime it ought 
to be clearly the duty of the state to see that the evil is checked. 
The intention which has introduced this form of adulteration 
may be more or less beneficent, but in practice it is almost wholly 
evij. 

A similar criticism applies to the continually extending use of 
colouring matter in food. Civilized man requires his food not only 
to be healthy and tasty, but also attractive in appear- 
ance. It is the art of the cook to prepare dishes that ma " er 'ia 
please the eye. This is a difficult art, for the various toad. 
colouring matters which are naturally present in 
meat and fish, in fruit, legumes and green vegetables are 
of a delicate and changeable nature and easily affected or de- 
stroyed by cooking. Many years ago some artful, if stupid, cook 
found that green vegetables like peas or spinach, when cooked 
in a copper pan, by preference a dirty one, showed a far more 
brilliant colour than the same vegetables cooked in earthenware 
or iron. The manufacturer who puts up substances like peas 
in pots or tins for sale produces the same effect which the cook 
in her ignorance innocently obtained, by the wilful addition of 
a substance known to be injurious to health, namely, sulphate 
of copper. The copper combines with the chlorophyll, forming 
copper phyllocyanate, which, by reason of its insolubility in 
the gastric juice, is comparatively innocuous. Preserved peas 
and beans have been for so many years " coppered " in this 
manner that it is difficult to induce the public to accept these 
vegetables when possessed of their natural colour only. Several 
countries endeavoured to abolish the objectionable practice, 
but the public pressure has been too great, and to-day th 



ADULTERATION 



227 



practice is almost universal. In England the amount of copper 
corresponds to from one to two grains per pound of the vegetable 
calculated as crystallized copper sulphate. The opinion of 
the departmental committee was clearly expressed that the 
practice should be prohibited. No effect has been given to the 
recommendation. 

Milk is naturally almost white with a tint of cream colour. 
When adulterated with water this tint changes to a bluish one. 
To hide this tell-tale of a fraud, a yellow colouring matter used 
to be added by London milkmen. Very gradually this practice, 
which had its origin in fraud, has extended to all milk sold in 
London. The consumer, mis-educated into believing milk to be 
yellow, now requires it to be so. Large dairy companies have 
endeavoured to wean the public of its error, without success. 
From milk the practice extended to butter; natural butter is 
sometimes yellowish, mostly a faint fawn, and sometimes almost 
white. In agricultural districts this is well known and taken as 
a matter of course. In big towns, where the connexion of butter 
and the cow is not well known, the consumer requires butter to 
be of that colour which he imagines to be butter-colour. Anatto, 
turmeric, carrot-juice used formerly to be employed for colouring 
milk, butter and cheese, but of late certain aniline dyes, mostly 
quite as harmless physiologically as the vegetable dyes just men- 
tioned, are largely being used. The same aniline dyes are also 
employed in the manufacture of an imitation Demerara sugar 
from white beet sugar crystals. Aniline dyes are very frequently 
used by jam-makers; the natural colour of the fruit is apt to 
suffer in the boiling-pan, and unripe, discoloured or unsound 
fruit can be made brilliant and enticing by dye. The brilliant 
colours of cheap sugar confectionery are almost invariably pro- 
duced by artificial tar-colours. Most members of this class of 
colouring matters are quite harmless, especially in the small 
quantities that are required for colouring, but there are a few 
exceptions, picric acid, dinitrocresol, Martius-yellow, Bismarck 
brown and one of the tropaeolins being distinctly poisonous. 
On the whole, the employment of powerful aniline dyes is an 
advance as compared with the use of the vicious and often 
highly poisonous mineral colours which Hassall met with so 
frequently in the middle of the igth century. Mineral colours, 
with very few exceptions, are no longer used in food. Oxide of 
iron or ochre is still very often found in potted meats, fish sauces 
and chocolates; dioxide of manganese is admixed with cheap 
chocolates. All lump sugar of commerce is dyed. Naturally 
it has a yellow tint. Ultramarine is added to it and counteracts 
the yellowness. In the same way our linen is naturally yellow 
and only made to look white by the use of the blue-bag. 

The same idea underlies both practices, and indeed the use 
of all colouring matters in manufactured articles, namely, to 
make them look better than they would otherwise. Within 
bounds, this is a reasonable and laudable desire, but it also covers 
many sins poor materials, bad workmanship, faulty manu- 
facturing and often fraud. Like sugar, flour and rice are some- 
times blued to make them look white. All vinegar, most beers, 
all stout, are artificially coloured with burnt sugar or caramel. 
The line dividing the legitimate and laudable from the fraudu- 
lent and punishable is so thin and difficult to draw that neither 
the law nor its officers have ventured to draw it, and yet it is a 
matter which urgently requires regulation at the hands of the 
state. Practices which, when new, admit of regulation are 
almost ineradicable when they have become old and possessed 
of " vested rights." Recognizing this, the departmental com- 

ittee, like the royal commission on arsenical poisons, recom- 

lended that " means be provided, either by the establishment 
of a separate court of reference, or by the imposition of more 
direct obligation on the Local Government Board, to exercise 
supervision over the use of preservatives and colouring matters 
in foods and to prepare schedules of such as may be considered 
inimical to the public health." 

In close connexion with this subject is the occasional occur- 
rence of injurious metallic impurities in food-materials. Tin 
chloride is used in the West Indies to produce the yellow colour of 
Demerara sugar. The old processes of sugar-boiling left some of 






the brown syrup attached to the crystals, giving them both 
their colour and their delicious aroma; with the introduction 
of modern processes affording a much greater yield 
of highly refined sugar, white sugar only was the 
result. The consumer, accustomed to yellow sugar, 
had the colour artificially supplied by the action of the tin 
compound upon the sugar. At the present time all Demerara 
sugar, with the exception of that portion that is dyed with 
anih'ne dye, has had its colour artificially given it and conse- 
quently contains strong traces of tin. Soda-water, lemonade 
and other artificial aerated liquors are liable to tin or lead con- 
tamination, the former proceeding from the tin pipes and 
vessels, the latter from citric and tartaric acids and cream of 
tartar used as ingredients, these being crystallized by their 
manufacturers in leaden pans. Almost all " canned " goods 
contain more or less tin as a contamination from the tin-plate. 
While animal foods do not attack the tin to any great extent, 
their acidity being small, almost all vegetable materials, especi- 
ally fruits and tomatoes, powerfully corrode the tin covering 
of the plate, dissolving it and becoming impregnated with tin 
compounds. It is quite easy to obtain tin-reactions in abun- 
dance from every grain of tinned peaches, apples or tomatoes. 
These tin compounds are by no means innocuous; yet poisoning 
from tinned vegetable foods is of rare occurrence. On the whole, 
tin-plate is a very unsuitable material for the storage and preser- 
vation of acid goods. Certain enamels, used for glazing earthen- 
ware or for coating metal cooking pots, contain lead, which they 
yield to the food prepared in them. Food materials that have 
been in contact with galvanized vessels sometimes are contami- 
nated with zinc. Zinc is also not infrequently present in wines. 
The effect of the application of the food laws has been entirely 
beneficial. Not only has the percentage proportion of samples 
found adulterated largely declined, but the gross forms 
of adulteration which prevailed in the middle of the 
iQth century have almost vanished. Plenty of fraud Food Acts. 
still prevails, but poisoning by reckless admixture is 
of exceedingly rare occurrence. Whilst formerly milk was not 
infrequently adulterated with an equal bulk of water, few 
fraudulent milkmen now venture to exceed an addition of 10 
or 15%. A bird's-eye view over the effect is obtained from 
the following figures for England and Wales: 



Year. 


Number of Samples. 


Percentage 
of 
Adulteration. 


Examined. 


Adulterated. 


1877 
1879 
1884 
1889 
1894 

1899 
1904 


14,706 

17.049 
22,951 
26,956 
39.516 
53,056 
84,678 


2,826 
2,535 
3,3" 
3,096 
4,060 

4,970 

7,173 


19-2 
14-8 
14-4 

ii-S 
lio-3 
9.4 

8-5 



The details of the working of the Food Acts in 1904 in England 
and Wales are set out in the table on the next page. 

United States. Each separate state has food laws of its own. 
From the ist of January 1907 the "American National Pure 
Food Law," applicable to the United States generally, came 
into force, without superseding the State food laws, the only 
effect of the National Law being the legalization of shipments 
of any food which complies with the provisions of the National 
Law into any state from another state, even though the food 
is adulterated within the meaning of the state law. The law 
applies to every person in the United States who receives food 
from another state and offers it for sale in the original unbroken 
packages in which he receives it, and if it is adulterated or mis- 
branded within the meaning of the National Law he can be 
punished for having received it and offering it for sale in the 
original unbroken package to the same extent as the person who 
shipped it to him can be punished. The mere fact that he is a 
citizen of a state selling food within that state will not excuse 
him; and he will be subject to prosecution to the same extent 
as he would be if he uttered counterfeit money. Retailers, 



228 



ADULTERATION 



however, can protect themselves from prosecution when they 
sell goods in original unbroken packages by procuring a written 
guarantee, signed by the person from whom they received the 
goods, such guarantee stating that the goods are not adulterated 
within the meaning of the National Law. The guarantee must 
also contain the name and address of the wholesale vendor, 
but unless the parties signing the guarantee are residents of 
the United States the guarantee is void. The law affects all 
foods shipped from one state or district into another and also 
all foods intended for export to a foreign country. It also 
affects all food products manufactured or offered for sale in any 

Table showing working of British Food Acts, 1904. 





Samples 


Found 


Percentage 




Examined. 


Adulterated. 


Adulterated. 


Milk . . . 


36,413 


4,031 


ii-i 


Butter 


15.124 


867 


5-7 


Cheese 


2,176 


20 


0-9 


Margarine 
Lard . . . . 


1,169 
2,489 


83 
4 


7-1 

0-2 


Bread 


473 


i 


O-2 


Flour . . . . 


476 


3 


0-6 


Tea 


486 




t g 


Coffee 


2,55 


161 


6-3 


Cocoa 


477 


4 2 


8-8 


Sugar 


901 


49 


5'4 


Mustard . 


812 


39 


4-8 


Confectionery and Jam . 


1.303 


72 


5-5 


Pepper . 


2,393 


43 


1-8 


Wine 


308 


54 


17-5 


Beer 


1,065 


75 


7-0 


Spirits 


6,938 


832 


I2-O 


Drugs : 








Camphorated Oil 


395 


2 4 


6-1 


Sweet Spirit of Nitre . 


243 


66 


27-2 


Sulphur .... 


131 


7 


5'3 


Cream of Tartar . 


441 


88 


2O-O 


Glycerin. 


192 


21 


IO-9 


Rhubarb prepara- 








tions .... 


96 


5 


5'2 


Seidlitz Powders . 


81 


3 


3'7 


Linseed 


7 


i 


1-4 


Magnesia 
Mercury prepara- 


48 


9 


18-8 


tions .... 


28 


4 


14-3 


Cod Liver Oil 


2 45 


7 


2-9 


Iron Pills 


16 






Compound Liquorice 








Powder 


in 


2 


1-8 


Tincture of Iodine 


23 


4 


17-4 


Other Drugs 


1,124 


124 


I I'D 


Total Drugs . 


3.214 


365 


"3 


Other Articles : 








Ginger .... 


704 







Syrup and Treacle 


183 


"s 


4.4 


Baking Powder . 


281 


II 


3'9 


Vinegar .... 


773 


57 


7'4 


Arrowroot 


467 


3 


0-6 


Oatmeal . . . 


359 






Sago ..... 


227 


H 


6-2 


Olive Oil ... 


306 


9 


2-9 


Dripping and Fat 
Sundries. 


85 
2,496 


i 
329 


1-2 

13-2 


Total other Articles 


5,881 


432 


7'3 . 


All Articles 


84,678 


7,173 


8-5 



territory or the District of Columbia, wherever such foods may 
have been produced. The law does not affect foods manufac- 
tured and sold wholly within one state, nor such as have been 
shipped from another state but not in the original package. 
While thus the National Food Law is mainly intended to regulate 
the food traffic between the different states, and leaves to the 
states freedom to regulate their internal traffic, it must gradually 
tend to unify the present complicated state food legislation, 
and it is therefore here more usefully considered than would be 
the separate state laws. 

The definition of adulteration as set forth in sec. 7 is as 
follows: " For the purpose of this act an article shall be 
deemed to be adulterated: In the case of drugs: (i) If, when a 
drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the United States 



Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the stand- 
ard of strength, quality or purity, as determined by the test 
laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National 
Formulary official at the time of investigation; provided that 
no drug defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National 
Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision 
if the standard of strength, quality or purity be plainly stated 
upon the bottle, box or other container thereof although the 
standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down 
in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary. 
(2) If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard 
or quality under which it is sold. In the case of confectionery: 
If it contains terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow or other 
mineral substance or poisonous colour or flavour, or other 
ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, 
malt or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug. In the 
case of food: (i) If any substance has been mixed and packed 
with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality 
or strength. (2) If any substance has been substituted wholly 
or in part for the article. (3) If any valuable constituent of 
the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. (4) If it be 
mixed, coloured, powdered, coated or stained in a manner 
whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. (5) If it contain 
any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient 
which may render such article injurious to health: provided 
that when in the preparation of food products for shipment 
they are preserved by any external application applied in such 
manner that the preservation is necessarily removed mechanic- 
ally, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions for 
removal of said preservations shall be printed on the covering 
of the package, the provisions of the act shall be construed as 
applying only when said products are ready for consumption. 
(6) If it consists in whole or in part of .a filthy, decomposed or 
putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal 
unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the pro- 
duct of a diseased animal or one that has died otherwise than by 
slaughter. . . ." 

Wh'atever vagueness attaches to these definitions is intended 
to be removed by sees. 3 and 4, which provide that the secretaries 
of the Treasury, of Agriculture, and of Commerce and Labour 
" shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the 
provisions of the act, including the collection and examination 
of specimens of food and drugs," which examination " shall be 
made in the bureau of chemistry of the department of agricul- 
ture, or under the direction and supervision of such bureau, for 
the purpose of determining from such examinations whether 
such articles are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning 
of the act." Contravention of the act is punishable for the first 
offence by a fine not exceeding 500 dollars or i year's imprison- 
ment or both, and for each subsequent offence by a fine not less 
than 1000 dollars or i year's imprisonment or both. Under an 
act of congress, approved March 1903, the bureau of agriculture 
established standards of purity for food products, " to determine 
what are regarded as adulterations therein for the guidance of 
the officials of the various states and of the courts of justice." 
The elaborate set of food definitions and standards worked out 
under the guidance of the chief of the bureau, Dr H. W. Wiley, 
have also received legal sanction and form a corollary to the 
National Food Law. For each of the more important articles 
of food an official definition of its nature and composition has 
thus been established, of the utmost value to food officers, 
manufacturers and merchants not only in the United States 
but throughout the world. A few of these definitions may here 
find a place: 

" Lard is the rendered fresh fat from slaughtered healthy hogs. 
Leaf-lard is the lard rendered at moderately high temperatures 
from the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding that 
adherent to the intestines. Standard lard and standard leaf- 
lard are lard and leaf-lard respectively, free from rancidity, con- 
taining not more than i% of substances other than fatty acids, 
not fat, necessarily incorporated therewith in the process of 
rendering, and standard leaf-lard has an iodine number not 



ADULTERATION 



229 



greater than 60. Milk is the lacteal secretion obtained by the 
complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and 
kept, excluding that obtained within 15 days before and 5 days 
after calving. Standard milk is milk containing not less than 
1 2 % of total solids and not less than 85 % of solids not fat, nor 
less than 35 % of milk-fat. Standard skim-milk is skim-milk 
containing not less than 95 % of milk-solids. Standard con- 
densed milk and standard sweetened condensed milk are con- 
densed milk and sweetened condensed milk respectively, con- 
taining no less than 28 % of milk-solids, of which not less than 
one-fourth is milk-fat. Standard milk-fat or butter-fat has a 
Reichert-Meissl number not less than 24 and a specific gravity 
at 40 C. not less than 0-905. Standard butter is butter contain- 
ing not less than 82-5 % of butter-fat. Standard whole-milk 
cheese is cheese containing in the water-free substance not less 
than 50 % of butter-fat. Standard sugar contains at least 99-5 % 
of sucrose. Standard chocolate is chocolate containing not 
more than 3 % of ash insoluble in water, 3-5 % of crude fibre, 
and 9 % of starch, nor less than 45 % of cocoa-fat." 

Numerous other standards with details too technical for 
reproduction here have also been fixed. 

German Empire. The law of the i4th of May 1879, largely 
based upon the English Food and Drugs Act 1875, regulates 
the trade in food. Each town or district appoints a public 
analyst, and there is a state laboratory in Berlin directly under 
the control of the ministry of the interior with advisory functions. 
The ministry, under the advice of this department, issues from 
time to time regulations concerning the sale of or details specify- 
ing the mode of analysis of various products of food or drink. 
Both in the United States and in Germany, therefore, the execu- 
tive officers (public analysts) have some authoritative official 
department for guidance and information. 

PARTICULAR ARTICLES ADULTERATED 

We will now proceed to consider adulteration as practised 
during recent years in the more important articles of food. 

Milk. Milk adulteration means in modern times either 
addition of water, abstraction of cream, or both, or addition of 
chemical preservative. The old stories of the use of chalk or of 
sheep's brains are fables. Owing to the wide variation to which 
milk is naturally subjected in composition, it is exceedingly 
difficult to establish beyond doubt whether any given sample 
is in the state in which it came from the cow or has been im- 
poverished. The composition of cow's milk varies with many 
conditions, (i) The race of the animal: the large cows of the 
plains yielding a great quantity of poor milk, the smaller cows 
from hilly districts less amount of rich milk. Hence, milk from 
Dutch cows compares very unfavourably with that of Jerseys 
or short-horns. Watery and acid foods like mangolds and 
brewers' grains produce a more aqueous milk than do albuminous 
and fatty foods like oil-cakes. (2) Sudden change of food, of 
weather and of temperature. (3) Nervous disturbances to which 
even a cow is subject, as, for instance, at shows, may greatly 
influence the composition of the milk. The portion obtained 
at the beginning of a milking is poorer in fat than that yielded 
towards the end. Morning milk is as a rule poorer in fat than 
evening milk. Soon 'after calving the animal gives a richer 
product than at later periods, both the quantity and the com- 
position declining towards the end of the lactation. The varia- 
tions due to these different circumstances may be very great, 
as is seen from the following analyses, fairly representing the 
maximum, minimum and mean composition of the milk of single 
cows: 





Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Mean. 


Specific Gravity . ... 
Fat . . ' . ... 


I -0264 
1-67% 


1-0370 

6-4.7% 


1-0316 

2.CQ% 


Casein 
Albumen 
Milk Sugar(lactose) . 
Salts .... 
Water .... 


1-79% 
0-25% 

2-11% 

0-35% 
80-32% 


6-29% 

'44% 

6-12% 
1-21% 
90-69% 


3-02% 

0-50% 
478% 
0-71% 
87-40% 



In market milk such wide variations are not so liable to occur, 
as the milk from one animal tends to average that from another, 
but even in the milk from herds of cows the variations may be 
considerable. The average composition of genuine milk supplied 
by one of the largest dairy companies in London, as established 
by the analysis of 1 20,000 separate samples recorded by Dr P. 
Vieth, is fat 4- 1 %, other milk solids (" solids not fat " or " non- 
fatty solids ") 8-8 %, total dissolved matters (total solids) 12-9%, 
the variations being from 3-6 to 4-6 % in the fat and 8-6 to 9- 1 % 
in the solids not fat. It is clear that the 4-6 % of fat could be 
reduced, by skimming, to 3-0 %, and the 9-1 % of solids not fat 
to 8-5 % by addition of water, without bringing the composition 
of the milk thus adulterated outside that of genuine milk. In 
reality even wider limits of variation must be reckoned with, 
because small farmers sell the milk of single cows, and this, as 
shown above, may fluctuate enormously. The Board of Agri- 
culture, in pursuance of the powers conferred upon it by the 
Food Act 1899, issued in 1901 " The Sale of Milk Regulations," 
which provide that where a sample of milk (not being milk sold 
as skimmed or separated or condensed milk) contains less than 
3 % of milk-fat, or less than 8-5 % of non-fatty solids, it shall be 
presumed, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not 
genuine. But even in these cases it is open to the vendor to 
show, if he can, that the deficiency was due to natural causes or 
to unavoidable circumstances. The courts have held that when 
deviations are the result of negligence or ignorance the vendor is 
nevertheless liable to punishment. Thus, when a vendor omits 
to stir up the contents of a pan so as to prevent the cream from 
rising to the top, he may be punished, if by such omission the 
milk becomes altered in composition so as no longer to comply 
with the regulations; or, when a farmer allows an undue interval 
between the milkings whereby the composition of the milk may 
be affected, he may be liable for the consequences. As the 
limits embodied in the milk regulations were necessarily fixed at 
figures lower than those which are usually afforded by genuine 
milk, and as it is a comparatively simple matter to ascertain 
the percentage of fatty and non-fatty solids, a strong tendency 
exists to bring down commercial milk to the low limits of the 
regulations without coming into collision with the law. The fat 
of milk is its most valuable and most important constituent. 
The exact determination of the percentage of fat is therefore 
the chief problem of the milk-analyst. All analyses made prior 
to the year 1885 are more or less inexact, because a complete 
separation of the fat from the other milk constituents had rot 
been obtained. In that year M. A. Adams, by the simple and 
ingenious expedient of spreading a known volume of the milk 
to be analysed upon a strip of blotting-paper and extracting the 
paper, together with the dried milk, by a fat solvent, such as ether 
or benzene, succeeded in completely removing the fat from the 
other constituents. Since that time simpler and more rapid 
means have been based upon centrifugal separation of the fat. 
When a measured quantity of milk is mixed with strong sulphuric 
acid, which dissolves the casein and other nitrogenous constitu- 
ents of the milk, but leaves the fat-globules quite untouched, 
the latter can easily be separated in a centrifugal, in the form 
of an oil the volume of which can be ascertained in a suitably 
constructed and graduated glass vessel, and thus the percent- 
age ascertained very rapidly and accurately; such centrifugal 
contrivances constructed by H. Leffman, N.Gerber and others 
are now in general use in dairies, and cheese and butter factories. 
The amount of " total solids " contained in milk, that is to 
say, of all constituents other than water, is speedily ascertained 
by evaporating the water from a measured or weighed portion 
of milk and drying the residue obtained in a water-oven 
to constant weight. By subtracting from the percentage of 
total solids that of the fat the amount of " solids not fat " 
results, and by cautiously burning off the organic substances, 
the salts or mineral matters are left. When the percentage of 
" solids not fat " is less than 8-5 a simple proportion sum suffices 
to show what percentage of water must be present to reduce the 
" solids not fat " to the amount found. As the added water also 
reduces proportionately the percentage of mineral matter natural 






230 



ADULTERATION 



to normal milk (about 0-71 to 0-73%), the determination of the 
ash affords valuable assistance to the analyst. When the amount 
of ash is higher than normal, tests must be made for borax, soda 
or other mineral matters that are often added as preservatives 
or acid neutralizers. Borax is easily tested for by dissolving 
the milk ash in a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid, moisten- 
ing a strip of yellow turmeric paper with the solution and drying 
it, when, in the presence of even very minute quantities of borax, 
the yellow colouring matter of the turmeric paper will be changed 
into a brilliant red-brown. Formaldehyde (which in 40% water 
solution forms the formalin of commerce) in milk affords a bright 
purple colour when the milk containing it is mixed with sulphuric 
acid containing a trace of an iron salt. 

Condensed milk is milk that has been evaporated under re- 
duced pressure with or without the addition of sugar. Generally 
one part of condensed milk corresponds to three parts of the 
original milk. There is no case on record of adulteration of 
unsweetened condensed milk, but sweetened milk has in the past 
been frequently prepared either from machine-skimmed or partly 
skimmed milk and sold as whole-milk. As sweetened condensed 
milk is largely used by the poorer part of the population for the 
feeding of infants, and as the fat of milk is, as stated before, its 
most valuable constituent, this class of fraud was a particularly 
mischievous one, and led to the inclusion in the Food Act of 1899 
of a special proviso that every tin or other receptacle containing 
condensed, separated or skimmed milk must bear a conspicuous 
label showing the nature of the contents. As the bulk of con- 
densed milk consumed in England is imported from abroad, 
the customs authorities now exercise a strict supervision over 
the imports, and object to the importation of such condensed 
milk as contains less than 9% of milk-fat. The average compo- 
sition of sweetened condensed milk may be taken, with slight 
variations, to be: water 24-6%, fat 11-4%, casein and albumen 
10%, milk-sugar 11-7%, cane-sugar 40-3%, mineral matters 

2-0%. 

Cream. There are not any regulations nor official standards 
relating to this article, the value of which depends upon its 
contents in fat. Good stiff cream obtained by centrifugal 
skimming may contain as much as 60% of milk-fat, but generally 
dairymen's cream has only about 40%. On the other hand, 
milk that is abnormally rich in fat is in some places sold as 
cream. Attempts to compel dairymen to work up to any stated 
minimum of fat have failed, the English courts holding that 
cream is not an article that has any standard of quality, but 
varies with the character of the cows from which the milk is 
obtained and the food on which they are fed. Therefore, as re- 
gards the most important portion of cream, the amount of fat, 
adulteration does not exist unless there is a substitution for the 
milk-fat by an emulsified foreign fat, but cases of this descrip- 
tion are exceedingly rare. On the other hand, such additions of 
foreign materials, like starch paste or gelatine, which have for 
object the giving of an appearance of richness to a naturally 
poor and dilute article, are not uncommon. While formerly the 
sale of cream was entirely in the hands of milkmen, there has been 
of late a tendency to regard cream as an article coming within 
the range of grocery goods. To enable this perishable article to 
be kept in a grocery store it has to receive an addition of preser- 
vative, as a rule boric preservative, in excessive amount. The 
purchaser may take it that all cream sold by others than milk- 
men, and much of that even, is thus preserved and should be 
shunned. The limit of boric preservative that might be per- 
mitted, but which is nearly always exceeded, is one-quarter of 
i%. 

Butter. Of all articles of food butter has most fully received 
the attention of the sophisticator, because it is the most costly 
of the ordinary articles of diet, and because its composition is 
so intricate and variable that its analysis presents extraordinary 
difficulties and its nature exceptional and various opportunities 
for admixture with foreign substances. It is the intention of 
the producer of butter to separate the fatty portion of the milk 
as completely as is practicable from the other constituents of 
the milk without destroying the fat-globules. This can only 



be done by churning, by which operation the milk-globules are 
caused more or less to adhere to each other without losing their 
individual existence. Owing to this subdivision of the fat, and 
perhaps to the composition of the fat itself, butter is a more 
digestible fatty article of food than lard or oil. It is not possible 
by mechanical means to remove the whole of the water and curd 
of the milk from the butter; indeed " overworking " the butter 
with the object of removing the water as completely as possible 
ruins the structure to such an extent as to make the product 
unmerchantable. In well-made butter there are contained about 
85% of pure milk-fat, from 12 to 13% of water, and 2 or 3% of 
curd and albumen, milk-sugar or its product of transformation 
lactic acid, and phosphates and other milk-salts. In some kinds 
of butter, Russian for instance, the percentage of water is rather 
less. Generally, by churning at a low temperature, a drier, at 
higher temperatures a wetter, butter is obtained. The curd 
must be got rid of as completely as practicable if the product 
is to have reasonable keeping properties. To prevent rapid 
decomposition salt in various quantities is added. Considering 
that 100 Ib (10 gallons) of milk yield only from 3! to 4 Ib of 
properly made butter, it is obvious that a great inducement 
exists to increase the yield either by leaving an undue propor- 
tion of water or curd, or by adding an excessive quantity of salt. 
In some parts of Ireland the butter is worked up with warm 
brine into so-called pickle butter, whereby it becomes both 
watered and salted in one operation. Until lately, when the 
English Board of Agriculture fixed a limit of 16 for the percentage 
of water that may legitimately be present in butter, this kind 
of debasement could not easily be dealt with, but even now, 
where a legal water-limit exists, the addition of water either as 
such, or in the shape of milk or of condensed milk, is very com- 
monly practised, more or less care being taken not to exceed the 
legalized limit. It is obvious that there is an ample margin of 
profit for the mixer who starts with Russian butter containing 
10% of water and works it up with milk, fresh or condensed, to 
16%, all the other milk-constituents, namely, sugar, curd and 
salt, thus introduced counting as " butter " in the eyes of the 
law. A very considerable number of butter-factors in London 
and in other parts of England thus dilute dry butter and consider 
this a legitimate operation so long as they keep within the legal 
water-limit. Nay, they may even exceed this, if only they give 
to their adulterated article a euphonious name, which, while 
legally notifying the admixture, raises in the mind of the ignor- 
ant purchaser the belief that he is purchasing something particu- 
larly choice and excellent. " Milk-blended butter," with as 
much as 24 or more per cent of water and as little as 68 % of fat, 
is still largely sold to purchasers who think that they are obtain- 
ing extra value for their money; several attempts to deal with 
the scandal by legislature having led to no result. The intro- 
duction of water into butter is also practised on a large scale in 
the United States, where a branch of trade in " renovated " 
butter has sprung up. In the States a considerable quantity of 
butter is produced by small farmers, and by the time the product 
comes into the market the addition of chemical preservatives 
to prevent decomposition not being permitted the butter has 
so much deteriorated in quality that it fetches a very low price. 
It is bought up by factors, the fat melted out and washed, then 
again worked up with water and salt, care being generally taken 
to leave about 16% of water in the product, which finds a ready 
sale in England. It may here be pointed out that England 
imports an enormous quantity of butter from the continent 
of Europe, the colonies, Siberia and America, the imports, less 
exports, averaging during 1903-1906 no less than 203,300 tons 
annually, and the total consumption (home produce plus imports) 
366,441 tons, the consumption per head of population being 
19-2 Ib per annum. In butter, as in most other articles of food, 
adulteration with water is the most common, most profitable, 
and least risky form of fraud. Great fortunes are thus made out 
of water. 

There is an altogether different class of butter adulteratior 
which concerns itself with the substitution of other fatty matter 
for the whole or part of the really valuable portion of the butter- 






ADULTERATION 



231 



fat. Margarine is the legalized and therefore legitimate butter- 
surrogate, prepared by churning any suitable fat with milk into a 
cream, solidifying the latter by injection into cold water and 
working the lumps together, precisely as is done in the case of 
the churned cream of milk. The substitution of margarine for 
butter is frequent, in spite of all legal enactments directed against 
this fraud, the semblance between butter and margarine being 
so great that a trained palate is necessary to distinguish the 
two articles. Much more frequent and much more difficult to 
deal with is the sale of mixtures of butter and of margarine. In 
order to show the difficulties inherent to this subject, it will be 
necessary to consider the chemical nature of butter-fat, and to 
compare it with other fats that may enter into the composition 
of margarine. Butter-fat is butter freed from water, curd and 
salt and extraneous matter. Like the greater number of natural 
fats it consists of a mixture of triglycerides, that is, combinations 
of glycerin with substances of the nature of acids. These acids, 
in the case of fats other than butter-fat, are mainly oleic, palmitic 
and stearic acids. Butter-fat, in addition to these, contains 
other acids which sharply distinguish it from the vast majority 
of other fats and, with the exception of cocoa-nut oil, from those 
substances which are or may be used to mix with butter, by the 
circumstance that a considerable proportion of its acids, when 
separated by chemical means from the glycerin, are readily 
soluble in water, or may be easily volatilized either alone or in a 
current of steam, whereas the acids separated from the foreign 
fats are practically both insoluble and non- volatile. This funda- 
mental principle serves at once to distinguish, for example, 
between butter and margarine, and has been made use of by 
analysts not only for this purpose but also with a view to deter- 
mine the relative amounts of butter and margarine in a mixture 
of these substances. Thus butter-fat contains about 88%, more 
or less, of " insoluble fatty acids," while margarine contains 
about 95.5%; 5 grammes of butter-fat when chemically decom- 
posed yield an amount of volatile fatty acids which requires 
about 26 cubic centimetres (more or less) of deci-normal alkali 
solution for neutralization, while margarine requires mostly less 
than i cubic centimetre (Wollny or Reichert-Meissl method). 
There are other differences between the two kinds of fat: the 
specific gravity of butter-fat is higher than that of most other 
fats; its power of refracting a ray of light is less; the " iodine 
absorption " of butter-fat is smaller than that of many other 
fatty matters, and so on. But the composition of perfectly 
genuine butter-fat varies within somewhat wide limits. The milk 
from a cow fed on good and ample food in warm weather yields 
a fat that is rich in characteristic butter-constituents, while a 
poorly fed animal, kept in the open till late in the autumn, 
when the nights are cold, gives milk exceptionally poor in 
fat, the differences expressed as " insoluble fatty acids " 
lying between 86 and 91%, and in volatile acids, expressed as 
"Wollny" numbers, between 18 and 36. Generally, therefore, 
summer butter is rich and autumn butter poor in volatile acids, 
or, geographically, Australian butter is more frequently high, 
Siberian often exceedingly low in these acids. The food of the 
animal also may, under certain conditions, yield a notable pro- 
portion of its fatty matter to the butter; cows that have, for 
instance, been fed upon large quantities of cotton-seed cake 
yield butter in which the cotton-seed oil may be traced, and 
the same holds good with other fatty foods. All these, and other 
circumstances, combine to render the detection of small quan- 
tities of foreign fats that have been fraudulently added to butter 
almost a matter of impossibility. This is perfectly well known 
to unscrupulous butter dealers, and an enormous amount of 
adulteration is known to be practised. Even small amounts of 
adulteration could, nevertheless, often be discovered while 
argarine manufacturers employed considerable proportions 
of vegetable oils in their products, some of these oils furnishing 
characteristic chemical reactions allowing of their discovery. 
Here some firms of margarine manufacturers came to the aid of 
the butter-mixer and produced margarine containing nothing 
but animal fat, so-called " neutral " margarine being freely 
offered for fraudulent purposes. There is one fat besides butter 



which contains "volatile fatty acids," namely, cocoa-nut oil. 
Since means have been found to deprive this fat of its strong 
cocoa-nut odour and taste, it has largely been used in the adul- 
teration of butter, and margarine containing cocoa-nut oil and 
other fatty substances has freely been manufactured and sold 
specially for butter adulteration. The seat of this class of fraud 
is mainly in Holland. Analysts happily found means to detect 
this oil when present above 10%, and numerous prosecutions 
made mixers more careful. Abundant evidence, however, exists 
showing that the simultaneous addition of water or milk so as 
to keep the water limit below 16% and thatjof margarine entirely 
composed of animal fats below 10% leaves a large margin of 
profit with a very small chance of detection. For the moment 
at least analysis has had the worst of it in the battle between 
honesty and " business methods." 

Margarine itself is a legitimate article of commerce (when 
sold with due notice to the purchaser), but is frequently adulter- 
ated. As regards the fats used in its manufacture there does 
not exist any legal restriction, and as long as the fat is in a state 
fit for human consumption the manufacturer can make whatever 
mixture he pleases. In general there is no reason to think that 
any bad or disgusting fats are finding their way into the factories, 
which in most countries are under proper supervision ; the old 
stories about recovered grease from all sorts of offal are quite 
without foundation. But a considerable percentage of solid 
paraffin has been met with as an admixture of the fatty part of 
margarine. As the fatty portion of the article is the only one 
of value, some manufacturers make great efforts to produce 
margarine with as small a percentage of fatty matter as possible, 
either by incorporating excessive amounts of water or of milk 
margarines with over 30% of water being met with or by intro- 
ducing sugar, glucose, starch, gelatinous matter, in fact any- 
thing that is cheaper than fat. The English law imposes a 
limitation upon the percentage of butter-fat that may be con- 
tained in margarine, but at present at least the tendency of 
manufacturers is all for having as little butter or other valuable 
fat in margarine as is practicable, and not to err on the other 
side. For the purpose of facilitating the discovery of margarine 
when it has been fraudulently added to butter, some countries 
(Germany, Belgium, Sweden) insist upon the use of from 5 to 
10% of sesame oil (from the seed of Sesamum orientate or 5. 
indicum, belonging to the family of Bignoniaceae) in the manu- 
facture of such margarine as is to be consumed within the 
countries in question. This oil yields a characteristic red colour 
when it, or any mixture containing it, is shaken with an hydro- 
chloric solution of either sugar or furfurol, and is intended to 
serve as an "ear-marking" substance. The addition of a little 
starch or arrowroot, easily discoverable chemically or by the 
microscope, is also required by Belgium, but in the absence 
of any international agreement these ear-marking additions 
are of little practical use. It is, however, interesting to point 
out that, while complying with the regulations of the govern- 
ments, margarine manufacturers of the countries named have 
found an easy way of rendering the regulations quite nugatory: 
they add methyl-orange, a colouring matter which itself produces 
a red colour with acid and quite obscures tl>e red colour obtained 
by the official test for sesame oil. \ 

Cheese may be legitimately made from full-milk, milk that has 
been enriched by addition of cream, or from milk that has been 
more or less skimmed. It varies consequently very widely in 
composition, so-called cream cheese containing not less than 
60% of fat; Stilton upwards of 40%; Cheddar about 30%; 
Dutch, Parmesan and some Swiss and Danish less than 20%. 
The amount of water varies with the kind and age of the cheese 
and may be as low as 20 and as high as 60%. Under these 
circumstances it is impracticable to lay down any hard-and-fast 
rules as to the composition of cheese. When, however, cheese is 
made from skimmed milk and the fat is replaced by margarine, 
as is the case in so-called " filled " or margarine cheeses, the sale 
of these amounts to an adulteration, unless the presence of the 
foreign substance is declared. It may at first sight appear 
strange that the person who robs milk of its most valuable 



232 



ADULTERATION 



portion, the cream, may prepare a legitimate article of food from 
the remainder, while he who to that remainder adds something 
to replace the fat does an illegitimate a"ct, but it must be taken 
into consideration that the replacement is frequently made 
with fraudulent intent and that the ordinary purchaser cannot 
by taste or smell distinguish the adulterated from the genuine 
article, while there is no difficulty in recognizing skim-milk 
cheese. 

Lard. Between the years 1880 and 1890 a gigantic fraudulent 
trade in adulterated lard was carried on from the United States. 
A great proportion of the American lard imported into England 
was found to consist of a mixture of more or less real lard with 
cotton-seed oil and beef-stearine. Cotton-seed oil is one of the 
cheapest vegetable oils fit for human consumption, beef-stearine 
the hard residue obtained in the manufacture of oleo-margarine 
after the more fluid fat has been pressed from the beef fat. 
These mixtures were made so skilfully by large Chicago manu- 
facturers that for some years they escaped detection. A bill 
introduced in 1888 into- the American Senate to stop this im- 
posture directed general attention to the subject, and energetic 
measures, taken both in America and in England, quickly put 
an end to it. From the memorial presented in the United States 
Senate in support of the bill, it appeared that in about 1887 
the annual production of lard in the States was estimated at 
600 million pounds, of which more than 35% was adulterated. 
Compounds were made containing only a small quantity of lard 
or none at all, yet were sold as " choice refined lard " or under 
other eulogistic names. Many lard substitutes, chiefly made 
from cotton-seed oil, are still met with, but are mostly sold in a 
legitimate manner. From the germ of maize which must be 
separated from the starchy portion of the seed before the latter 
can be manufactured into glucose the oil (maize-oil) is ex- 
pressed, and this now is used as a lard adulterant, its detection 
being far more difficult than that of cotton-seed oil. 

Oils. For very many years all oils were considered to be com- 
posed of olein, that is to say, the triglyceride of oleic acid, with 
small quantities of impurities; chemists, therefore, to distin- 
guish oils of various origin, confined themselves to tests for 
these impurities, employing so-called colour reactions based 
upon the change of colour of the oil by various reagents such as 
sulphuric, nitric or phosphoric acids. These reactions were 
exceedingly indefinite and unsatisfactory and oil adulteration 
was prevalent and almost undiscoverable. It has been found, 
however, that th& old ideas concerning the believed uniformity 
in the nature and constitution of oils were erroneous. Some 
oils, indeed, do consist of olein, almond oil being a type, others 
contain a glyceride of an acid which is distinguished from oleic 
acid by containing one molecule less hydrogen, called linoleic 
acid. To this class belong cotton-seed and sesame oils. Others 
again include a glyceride of an acid containing still less hydrogen, 
linolenic acid (linseed and similar drying oils), and lastly the 
liver oils are still poorer in hydrogen. These various acids or 
the oils contained in them combine with various percentages of 
iodine, oleic acid absorbing the smallest proportion (about 80 %). 
For each oil the iodine absorption is a fairly constant quantity; 
this number, together with the determination of the amount 
of caustic alkali needed for complete saponification, the thermal 
rise with strong sulphuric acid or with bromine, the refraction of 
light and the specific gravity, now enable the analyst to form a 
fair idea of the nature of any sample under examination, and, 
in consequence of this advance in knowledge, adulteration of 
oils has much declined. The most common adulterant of the 
more valuable oils, like olive oil, is cotton-seed oil. The oils 
expressed from the sesame seed or the earth-nut (arachis oil) 
are also frequently admixed with olive oil. Almond oil is 
adulterated with the closely allied oils from the peach-kernel 
or the pine-seed. Deodorized paraffin hydrocarbons also enter 
sometimes as adulterants into edible oils. There is, however, 
a marked improvement in the purity of oils generally. 

Flour and bread as sold in England are almost invariably 
genuine. The old forms of adulteration^ such as the use of alum 
for the production of a white but indigestible loaf from bad 



flour, have disappeared. The only admixture which has been 
met with during recent years is maize-meal in American produce. 
This is of inferior food value to wheat-meal. 

Sugar in its various forms can hardly be said to be subject 
to adulteration by the addition of inferior substitutes. One 
single case of such substitution analogous to the proverbial 
but probably mythical sanding of sugar occurred between 1880 
and 1005 in England, some crushed marble having been found 
in a consignment of German sugar in a large British establish- 
ment. There have, however, been numerous prosecutions for 
a fraud of another class, namely, the substitution of dyed beetroot 
sugar for Demerara sugar. Formerly the sugar produced by the 
old imperfect and wasteful methods of manufacture was more 
or less yellow or brown from adhering molasses. Sugar, as now 
obtained, be it from cane or beet, is white; yet the public is so 
wedded to its customs that white sugar except as lump or castor 
sugar does not find a ready sale. The manufacturer is obliged 
to colour his product yellow by artificial means, that is to say, 
either by the addition of a little aniline dye, harmless in itself, 
or, as in the West Indies, mostly by the use of a small quantity 
of chloride of tin, so-called " bloomer. " European refined beet- 
sugar coloured with aniline dye to distinguish it from Demerara 
cane sugar is sold under the name of " yellow crystals. " These, 
although richer in real sugar than Demerara, are without the 
delicious aroma of cane syrup which belongs to the latter, and 
are not infrequently fraudulently substituted for Demerara. 

Marmalade and Jams. In the preparation of marmalade and 
jams, which articles were for a long time made from fruit and 
sugar only, a part of the sugar, from 10 to 15 %, is often now 
replaced by starch glucose. This material, consisting mainly 
of a mixture of dextrose and dextrin, is of much less sweetening 
power than ordinary sugar and mostly cheaper. It is said to 
prevent the crystallization which frequently used to occur in 
some jams. The use of glucose has been declared by the High 
Court (Smith v. Wisden, 1901) to be legitimate, the court holding 
that as there was no recognized standard for the composition of 
marmalade the addition of saccharine material not injurious 
to. health could not constitute an offence. Artificial colouring 
matters and chemical preservatives are almost constant in- 
gredients of jams. To such fruits which, when boiled with sugar, 
do not readily yield a jelly (strawberries, raspberries) an addi- 
tion of apple juice is frequently made in the manufacture of jam, 
without much objection; the pulp of the apple, however, is 
sometimes bodily added as an adulterant. 

Tea. In consequence of the proviso contained in the Food 
Act of 1875 tna t tea was to be examined by the Customs on 
importation, such tea as was found to be admixed with other 
substance or exhausted tea being refused entry into England, 
the adulteration of tea has been virtually suppressed. Great 
numbers of samples are annually examined by the Customs, 
and a not inconsiderable proportion of these are condemned 
because they are either damaged or dirty, their use for the 
manufacture of theine being permitted, only sound and genuine 
tea coming to the British public. The practice, very common 
a generation ago, of artificially colouring tea green with a 
mixture of Prussian blue and turmeric, has quite vanished 
with the decline of the consumption of green tea. 

Coffee. A few cases of artificially manufactured coffee berries, 
made from flour and chicory, have been observed, but it would 
not be fair to speak of a practice of adulteration regarding coffee 
berries. Not infrequently coffee is roasted with the addition 
of some fatty matter or paraffin or sugar, to give to the roasted 
coffee a glossy appearance. These additions as a rule are small 
in amount. Ground coffee is often sold adulterated with chicory, 
sugar or caramel. Other adulterations, reference to which is 
found in literature relating to the second half of the I9th century, 
do not seem now to occur. 

Cocoa and chocolate are liable to a number of fraudulent or 
questionable additions. In the cheaper qualities of cocoa-powder 
sugar and starch the latter in the form of sago flour or arrow- 
root are admixed in very large proportions, and, in order to 
give to such mixtures something like the appearance of genuine 






ADULTERATION 



233 



cocoa, red oxide of iron is added. This almost invariably is more 
or less arsenical. Cocoa-shell, a perfectly valueless material, is 
mixed in a very finely ground state with cocoa of the commoner 
kind. Owing to the enormous increase in the consumption of so- 
called chocolate-creams, which are masses of sugar confectionery 
coated with a cocoa-paste containing a large proportion of the 
fat of cocoa (cocoa-butter), the quantity of cocoa-butter that 
is obtained in the manufacture of cocoa-powders is no longer 
sufficient to cover the demand. Substitutes of cocoa-butter 
prepared from cocoa-nut oil are manufactured on a large scale, 
and all enter without acknowledgment into chocolates or choco- 
late creams. As there are not any regulations touching the 
composition of chocolate, sugar or starch or both are used in 
chocolate manufacture, and especially in that of chocolate 
powders in often excessive quantities. In the Dutch mode of 
manufacture of cocoa-powders an addition of from 3% to 4% of 
an alkaline salt is made for the purpose of rendering the cocoa 
" soluble, " or, more strictly, for putting it into such a physical 
condition that it does not settle in the cup. This addition does 
not, as is often alleged, render the cocoa alkaline, and is not 
made with any fraudulent object; .several countries, however, 
have passed regulations fixing the maximum of the addition 
which may thus legitimately be made. Most of the cocoa- 
powders sold in England are prepared in accordance with the 
Dutch method. 

Wine. If under this term a beverage is understood which 
consists of nothing but fermented grape juice, a great propor- 
tion of the wine consumed in England is not genuine wine. All 
port and sherry comes into commerce after having received an 
addition of spirit, generally made from potatoes; port and 
sherry would not be what they are and as they have been for 
generations unless they were thus fortified. The practice can 
now hardly be classed among adulterations. A well-fermented 
wine made from the juice of properly matured grapes does not 
require any added alcohol in order that it should keep; im- 
perfectly made wine is liable to turn sour; the addition of 
alcohol prevents this. French wines, both red and white, are 
hardly subject to adulteration. In wine-growing countries like 
France wine is so cheap and plentiful that it would be difficult 
to manufacture an imitation beverage cheaper than genuine 
wine. In Germany the conditions are different, the districts 
from which those wines that are exported are nominally derived 
being small and insufficient to cover the world's demands. The 
addition of sugar solution or of starch sugar is allowed within 
limits by German law, which not even requires that notification 
to the purchaser be made of the addition, and it is notorious 
that a very large proportion of the wine sold under the name of 
" hock " and some of that coming from the Moselle are thus 
diluted, sugared and lengthened, or, in plain terms, adulterated. 
Wines from the Palatinate which under their own names would 
not sell out of Germany are often passed off as hocks. As there 
is but little German red wine tKe law also permits this to be 
lengthened by the addition of white wine. For the removal of 
part of the acid from sour wine produced in bad vintages the 
addition of precipitated chalk is also permitted. Attention has 
been drawn in England to the very serious fact that German 
wines sometimes contain salts of zinc in small quantities. These 
are introduced by a fining agent protected by a German patent, 
consisting of solutions of sulphate of zinc and potassium ferro- 
cyanide, which, when added together in " suitable proportions," 
produce a precipitate of zinc-ferrocyanide which carries down 
all turbidity in the wine and is supposed to leave neither zinc 
nor ferrocyanide behind in solution. As a matter of fact, one or 
other of these highly objectionable substances is almost invari- 
ably left behind. The use of artificial colouring matters in wines 
does not appear now to occur. 

Beer cannot be said to be adulterated, although it is well 
known that materials often very different from these which the 
general public believe to be the proper raw materials for the 
manufacture of beer, namely, water, malt and hops, are largely 
used. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1885, sec. 4, 
beer is defined as any liquor " which is made or sold as a de- 



scription of beer, or as a substitute for beer, and which on analysis 
of a sample thereof shall be found to contain more than 2% of 
proof spirit. " That is to say, beer is legally anything that is sold 
as beer provided that it has 2% of proof spirit. There is not any 
restriction upon the materials that are employed provided that 
they are not positively poisonous. For Inland Revenue purposes, 
however, a prohibition has been made against the admixture of 
anything to beer after it has been manufactured, and excise 
prosecutions of publicans for watering beer are not infrequent. 
Formerly there was a restriction on the amount of salt that 
might be present in beer; this no longer exists. On the other 
hand it cannot be said that any injurious materials are being 
used by brewers, the brewing industry being, broadly speaking, 
most efficiently supervised and controlled by scientifically 
trained men. The addition to beer of bisulphate of lime, which 
is almost universally practised in England, is not an adulteration 
in the ordinary acceptation of the term. The thin beer which 
has taken the place of the strong ales of the past generation 
contains an insufficiency of alcohol to ensure keeping qualities, 
and it is difficult to see how modern English beers could be sold 
without the addition of some sort of preservative. 

TV on- Alcoholic Drinks. The same remark applies to a good 
many of so-called temperance beverages. Of these again it is 
hardly proper to speak as liable to adulteration. So-called soda- 
water is very often devoid of soda and is only carbonated water, 
but the term " soda-water " is a survival from the times when 
this was a medicinal beverage and when soda was prescribed 
to be present in definite amount by the pharmacopoeia. Potash 
and especially lithia waters very frequently contain only mere 
traces of the substances from which they derive their names. 
The sweetness of ginger-beer and often of lemonade is no longer 
due to sugar, as used to be the case, but to saccharine (the toluol 
derivative), which is possessed of sweetness but not of nourish- 
ment; and since, as an antiseptic, it may affect the digestion, 
its use in these beverages is to be deprecated. 

Vinegar ought to be the product obtained by the successive 
alcoholic and acetous fermentation of a sugary liquor. When 
this is obtained from malt or from malt admixed -with other grain 
the vinegar is called a malt vinegar. Often, however, acid 
liquors pass under that name which have been made by the 
action of a mineral acid upon any starchy material such as maize 
or tapioca, with or without the addition of beet sugar. Dilute 
acetic acid, obtained from wood, is very frequently used as a* 
adulterant of vinegar. When properly purified such acid is 
unobjectionable physiologically, but it is improper to sell it as 
vinegar. Adulteration of vinegar by sulphuric or other acids, 
formerly a common practice, is now exceedingly rare. 

Spirits. By the Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act, 
whisky, brandy and rum must not be sold of a less alcoholic 
strength than 25 under proof (corresponding to 43% of alcohol 
by volume), and gin 35 under proof (37% alcohol). For many 
years the only form of adulteration recorded by public analysts 
related to the alcoholic strength, the undue dilution of spirits 
with water being, of course, a profitable form of fraud. No ad- 
dition of any injurious matters to commercial spirits has been 
observed. It was, however, well known that a very considerable 
proportion of so-called brandies was not the product of the grape, 
but that spirits of other origin were frequently admixed with 
grape brandy. A report which appeared in 1902 in the Lancet 
on " Brandy, its production at Cognac and the supply of genuine 
brandy to this country, " served as a stimulus to public analysts 
to analyse commercial brandies, and convictions of retailers for 
selling so-called brandy followed. It was shown that genuine 
brandy made in the orthodox style from wine in pot-stills con- 
tained a considerable proportion of substances other than alcohol 
to which the flavour and character of brandy is due; among 
these flavouring materials combinations of a variety of organic 
acids with alcohols (chemically described as " esters ") pre- 
dominate. For the present a brandy is not considered genuine 
unless it contains in 100,000 parts (calculated free from water) 
at least 60 parts of " esters. :> As a consequence a trade has 
sprung up in artificially produced esters, sold for the purpose of 



234 



ADULTERY AD VALOREM 



adding them to any spirit to fraudulently convert it into a liquor 
passing as " brandy. " The inquiries into the nature of brandy 
led to investigations into whisky. Formerly whisky was made 
from grain only and obtained by pot-still distillation, that form 
of " still " yielding a product containing a comparatively large 
proportion of volatile matters other than alcohol. For many 
years past, however, improved stills so-called patent stills 
have been adopted, enabling manufacturers to obtain a purer 
and far stronger product, saving carriage and storage. Attempts 
were made in England in 1005-1907 to restrict the term "whisky" 
solely to the pot-still product. But the question was referred 
in 1908 to a Royal Commission which reported against such a 
restriction. A common form of adulteration of whisky is the 
addition to it of spirit made on the Continent mainly from 
potatoes. This spirit is almost pure alcohol and is quite devoid 
of the injurious properties which are popularly but falsely 
attributed to it. The substitution of this a very cheap and 
quite flavourless material for one which owes its value more 
to its flavour than to its alcoholic contents, is clearly fraudulent. 

Drugs. To the adulteration of drugs but very brief reference 
can here be made. It is satisfactory to record that but very 
few of the great number of drugs included in the pharmacopoeias 
are liable to serious adulteration, and there are very few cases on 
record during recent years where real fraudulent adulteration 
was involved. The numerous preparations used by druggists 
are mostly prepared in factories under competent and careful 
supervision, and the standards laid down in the British Pharma- 
copoeia are, broadly speaking, carefully adhered to. The occur- 
rence of unlooked-for impurities, such as that of arsenic in 
sodium-phosphate or in various iron preparations, can hardly 
be included in the list of adulterations. In the making up of 
prescriptions, however, a good deal of laxity is displayed; thus, 
the Local Government Board report of the years 1904-1905 refers 
to an instance of a quinine mixture containing 23 grains of 
quinine-sulphate instead of 240 grains. A certain latitude in 
the making up of physicians' prescriptions must necessarily be 
allowed, but much too frequently the reasonable limit of a 10% 
error over or under the amount of drug prescribed is exceeded. 
Certain perishable drugs, such as sweet spirits of nitre, or others 
liable to contain from their mode of manufacture metallic 
impurities, form the subjects of frequent prosecutions. The 
element of intentional fraud which characterizes many forms 
of food adulteration is happily generally absent in the case 
of drugs. (O. H.*) 

ADULTERY (from Lat. adulterium), the sexual intercourse 
of a married person with another than the offender's husband or 
wife. Among the Greeks, and in the earlier period of Roman 
law, it was not adultery unless a married woman was the offender. 
The foundation of the later Roman law with regard to adultery 
was the lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis passed by Augustus 
about 17 B.C. (See Dig. 48. 5; Paull. Rec. Sent. ii. 26; Brisson, 
Ad Leg. Jul. de Adult.) In Great Britain it was reckoned a 
spiritual offence, that is, cognizable by the spiritual courts only. 
The common law took no further notice of it than to allow the 
party aggrieved an action of damages. In England, however, 
the action for " criminal conversation," as it was called, was 
nominally abolished by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857; but 
by the 33rd section of the same act, the husband may claim 
damages from one who has committed adultery with his wife 
in a petition for dissolution of the marriage, or for judicial 
separation. In Ireland the action for criminal conversation is 
still retained. In Scotland damages may be recovered against 
an adulterer in an ordinary action of damages in the civil court, 
and the latter may be found liable for the expenses of an action 
of divorce if joined with the guilty spouse as a co-defender. 

Adultery on the part of the_wife is, by the law of England, a 
ground for divorce, but on the part of the husband must be either 
incestuous or bigamous, or coupled with cruelty or desertion for 
two or more years. In the United States adultery is everywhere 
ground of divorce, and there is commonly no prohibition against 
marrying the paramour or other re-marriage by the guilty party. 
Even if there be such a prohibition, it would be unavailing out 



of the state in which the divorce was granted; marriage being 
a contract which, if valid where executed, is generally treated 
as valid everywhere. Adultery gives a cause of action for 
damages to the wronged husband. It is in some states a criminal 
offence on the part of each party to the act, for which imprison- 
ment in the penitentiary or state prison for a term of years may 
be awarded. 

In England, a complete divorce or dissolution of the marriage 
could, until the creation of the Court of Probate and Divorce, 
be obtained only by an act of parliament. This procedure is 
still pursued in the case of Irish divorces. In Scotland a complete 
divorce may be effected by proceedings in the Court of Session, 
as succeeding to the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the commis- 
sioners. A person divorced for adultery is, by the law of Scot- 
land, prohibited from intermarrying with the paramour. In 
France, Germany, Austria and other countries in Europe, as 
well as in some of the states of the United States, adultery is 
a criminal offence, punishable by imprisonment or fine. (See 
DIVORCE.) 

AD VALOREM (Lat. for " according to value"), the term 
given in commerce to a duty which is levied by customs authori- 
ties on goods or commodities in proportion to their value. An 
ad valorem duty is the opposite of a specific duty, which is 
chargeable on the measure or weight of goods. The United 
States is' the one important country which has adopted in its 
tariff an extensive system of ad valorem duties, though it has 
not altogether disregarded specific duties; in some cases, indeed, 
the two are combined. Ad valorem duties, in the United States, 
are levied according to the saleable value of the goods in the 
country of their origin, and it is usual to require at the port of 
entry the production of an invoice with full particulars as to 
the place where, time when, and person from whom the goods 
were purchased, and the actual cost of the goods and the charges 
on them. Such an invoice is countersigned by the consul of the 
country for which the goods are intended. On arrival at the 
port of consignment the invoice is sworn to by the importer. 
The goods are then valued by an appraiser, and if the valuation 
of the appraiser exceeds that which appears on the invoice, 
double duty is levied, subject to appeal to a general appraiser 
and to boards of general appraisers. 

It has been argued that, theoretically, an ad valorem duty is 
preferable to a specific duty, inasmuch as it falls in proper 
proportion alike on the high-priced and low-priced grades of a 
commodity, and, no matter how the value of any article fluctu- 
ates, the rate of taxation automatically adjusts itself to the new 
value. In practice, however, ad valorem duties lead to great 
inequalities, and are very difficult to levy; while the relative 
value of two' commodities may remain apparently unchanged 
under an ad valorem duty, yet owing to the difference in the 
cost of production, or through the different proportions of 
fixed and circulating capital employed in their manufacture, 
an ad valorem tax will be felt much more severely by one com- 
modity than by another. Again, there is always a difficulty in 
obtaining a true valuation on the exported goods, for values 
from their very nature are variable; while specific duties remain 
steady, and the buyer can always ascertain exactly what he 
will have to pay. The opening to fraud is also very great, for 
where, as in the United States, the object of the duty is to keep 
out foreign goods, every valuation at the port of shipment will 
be looked upon with the utmost suspicion, while it will always 
be a temptation to the foreign seller to undervalue, a temptation 
in many cases encouraged by the importer, for it lessens his tax, 
while the seller's market is increased. The staff of appraisers 
which must necessarily be kept at each port of entry considerably 
raises the expense, to say nothing of the annoyance and delay 
caused both to importers and foreign shippers. 

The term " ad valorem " is used also of stamp duties. By the 
Stamp Act 1891 certain classes of instruments, e.g. awards, 
bills of exchange, conveyances or transfers, leases, &c., must be 
stamped in England with the proper ad valorem duty, that is, 
the duty chargeable according to the value of the subject matter 
of the particular instruments or writings. (See STAMP DUTIES.) 






ADVANCEMENT ADVERTISEMENT 



235 



ADVANCEMENT, a term technically used in English law for 
a sum of money or other benefit, given by a father during his 
lifetime to his child, which must be brought into account by the 
child on a distribution of the father's estate upon an intestacy 
on pain of his being excluded from participating in such distri- 
bution. The principle is of ancient origin; as regards goods 
and chattels it was part of the ancient customs of London and 
the province of York, and as regards land descending in copar- 
cenary it has always been part of the common law of England 
under the name of hotch-pot (q.v.). The general rule was estab- 
lished by the Statutes of Distribution. The conditions under 
which cases of advancement arise are as follows : There must be 
a complete intestacy; the intestate estate must be that of the 
father; and the advancement must have been made in the life- 
time of the father. Land which belongs or would belong to a 
child as heir at law or customary heir need not be brought in 
to the common fund, even though such land was given during 
the father's life. The widow can gain no advantage from any 
advancement. No child can be forced to account for his or her 
advancement, but in default thereof he will be excluded from a 
share in the intestate's estate. As to what is an advancement 
there has been much conflict of judicial opinion. According to 
one view, nothing is an advancement unless it be given "on 
marriage or to establish the child in life." The other and prob- 
ably the correct view is that any considerable sum of money 
paid to a child at that child's request is an advancement ; thus 
payment of a son's debts of honour has been held to be an 
advancement. On the other hand, trivial gifts and presents to a 
child are undoubtedly not advancements. 

ADVANTAGE, that which gives gain or helps forward in any 
way. The Fr. mianl (before) shows the origin and meaning 
of this word, the d having subsequently crept in and corrupted 
the spelling. It is often contracted to "vantage." In some 
games (e.g. lawn tennis) the term " vantage " is used technically 
in scoring ("deuce" and "vantage"; "vantage sets"). A 
position which gives a better chance of success than its surround- 
ings is called a " vantage ground." In an unfavourable sense 
the word " advantage " is used to express a mean use made of 
some favourable condition (e.g. to take advantage of another 
man's misfortunes). 

ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of 
the Saviour "), a holy season of the Christian church, the period 
of preparation for the celebration of the nativity or Christmas. 
In the Eastern church it lasts from St Martin's Day (nth of 
November), and in other churches from the Sunday nearest 
to St Andrew's Day (3oth of November) tilljChristmas. It is 
uncertain at what date the season began to be observed. A 
canon of a council at Saragossa in 380, forbidding the faithful 
to be absent from church during the three weeks from the I7th 
of December to the Epiphany, is thought to be an early reference 
to Advent. The first authoritative mention of it is in the Synod 
of Lerida (524), and since the 6th century it has been recognized 
as the beginning of the ecclesiastical year. With the view of 
directing the thoughts of Christians to the first coming of Christ 
as Saviour, and to his second coming as Judge, special lessons 
are prescribed for the four Sundays in Advent. From the 6th 
century the season was kept as a period of fasting as strict as 
that of Lent; but in the Anglican and Lutheran churches the 
rule is now relaxed. In the Roman Catholic church Advent is 
still kept as a season of penitence. Dancing and festivities are 
forbidden, fasting enjoined and purple vestments are worn in 
the church services. 

In many countries Advent was long marked by diverse 
popular observances, some of which even still survive. Thus in 
England, especially the northern counties, there was a custom 
(now extinct) for poor women to carry round the " Advent 
images," two dolls dressed one to represent Christ and the other 
the Virgin Mary. A halfpenny was expected from every one to 
whom these were exhibited, and bad luck was thought to menace 
the household not visited by the doll-bearers before Christmas 
Eve at the latest. 

In Normandy the farmers still employ children under twelve 



to run through the fields and orchards armed with torches, 
setting fire to bundles of straw, and thus it is believed driving 
out such vermin as are likely to damage the crops. In Italy 
among other Advent celebrations is the entry into Rome in the 
last days of Advent of the Calabrian pifferari or bagpipe players, 
who play before the shrines of the Holy Mother. The Italian 
tradition is that the shepherds played on these pipes when they 
came to the manger at Bethlehem to do homage to the Saviour. 

ADVENTISTS, SECOND, members of religious bodies whose 
distinctive feature is a belief in the imminent physical return of 
Jesus Christ. The first to bear the name were the followers of 
William Miller, and adherents have always been more numerous 
in America than in Europe. There is a body of Seventh Day 
Adventists who observe the old Sabbath (Saturday) rather than 
the Christian Sunday. They counsel abstemious habits, but 
set no time for the coming of Christ, and so are spared the per- 
petual disappointments that overtake the ordinary adventist. 
They have some 400 ministers and 60,000 members. 

ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat. adventicius, coming from abroad), 
a quality from outside, in no sense part of the substance or 
circumstance: a man's clothes, or condition of life, his wealth 
or his poverty, are called by Carlyle "adventitious wrappages," 
as being extrinsic, superadded and not a natural part of him. 
In botany the word means that which is not normal to the plant, 
which appears irregularly and accidentally, e.g. buds or roots 
out of place, or strange spots and streaks not native to the 
flower. 

ADVENTURE (from Lat. res advenlura, a thing about to 
happen), chance, and especially chance of danger ; so a hazard- 
ous enterprise or remarkable incident. Thus an " adventurer," 
from meaning one who takes part in some speculative course of 
action, came to mean one who lived by his wits and a person of 
no character. The word is also used in certain restricted legal 
connexions. Joint adventure, for instance, may be distinguished 
from partnership (q.v.) . A bill of adventure in maritime law (now 
apparently obsolete) is a writing signed by the shipmaster de- 
claring that goods shipped in his name really belong to another, 
to whom he is responsible. The bill of gross adventure in French 
maritime law is an instrument making a loan on maritime 
security. 

ADVERTISEMENT, or ADVERTISING (Fr. avertissement, warn- 
ing, or notice), the process of obtaining and particularly of 
purchasing publicity. The business of advertising is of very 
recent origin if it be regarded as a serious adjunct to other phases 
of commercial activity. In some rudimentary form the seller's 
appeal to the buyer must, however, have accompanied the earliest 
development of trade. Under conditions of primitive barter, 
communities were so small that every producer was in immediate 
personal contact with every consumer. As the primeval man's 
wolfish antipathy to the stranger of another pack gradually 
diminished, and as intercourse spread the infection of larger 
desires, the trapper could no longer satisfy his more complicated 
wants by the mere exchange of his pelts for his lowland neigh- 
bour's corn and oil. A began to accept from B the commodity 
which he could in turn deliver to C, while C in exchange for B's 
product gave to A what D had produced and bartered to C. The 
mere statement of such a transaction sufficiently presents its 
clumsiness, and the use of primitive forms of coin soon simplified 
the original process of bare barter. It is reasonable to suppose 
that as soon as the introduction of currency marked the abandon- 
ment of direct relations between purchaser and consumer an 
informal system of advertisement in turn rose to meet the need 
of publicity. At first the offer of the producer must have been 
brought to the trader's attention, and the trader's offer to the 
notice of the consumer, by casual personal contact, supplemented 
by local rumour. The gradual growth of markets and their de- 
velopment into periodical fairs, to which merchants from dis- 
tant places resorted, afforded, until printing was invented, the 
only means of extended advertisement. In England, during the 
3rd century, Stourbridge Fair attracted traders from abroad as 
well as from all parts of England, and it maybe conjectured that 
the crying of wares before the booths on the banks of the Stour 



236 



ADVERTISEMENT 



was the first form of advertisement which had any marked effect 
upon English commerce. As the fairs of the middle ages, with 
the tedious and hazardous journeys they involved, gradually 
gave place to a more convenient system of trade, the i5th century 
brought the invention of printing, and led the way to the modern 
development of advertising. The Americans, to whom the elab- 
oration of newspaper advertising is primarily due, had but just 
founded the first English-speaking community in the western 
hemisphere when the first newspaper was published in England. 
But although the first periodical publication containing news 
appeared in the month of May 1622, the first newspaper advert- 
isement does not seem to have been published until April 1647. 
It formed a part of No. 13 of Perfect Occurrences of Every Daie 
journall in Parliament, and other Moderate Intelligence, and it read 
as follows: 

A Book applauded by the Clergy of England, called The Divine 
Right of Church Government, Collected by sundry eminent Ministers 
in the Citie of London; Corrected and augmented in many places, 
with a briefe Reply to certain Queries against the Mimstery of 
England; Is printed and published for Joseph Hunscot and George 
Caivert, and are to be sold at the Stationers' Hall, and at the Golden 
Fleece in the Old Change. 

Among the Mercuries, as the weekly newspapers of the day 
were called, was the Mercurius Elencticus, and in its 45th number, 
published on the 4th of October 1648, there appeared the fol- 
lowing advertisement: 

The Reader is desired to peruse a Sermon, 
Entituled A Looking-Glasse for Levellers, 

Preached at St. Peters, Paules Wharf, on Sunday, Sept. 24th 1648, 

by Paul Knell, Mr. of Arts. Another Tract called A Reflex 

upon our Reformers, with a prayer for the Parliament. 

In an issue of the Mercurius Politicus, published by Marchmont 
Nedham, who is described as " perhaps both the ablest and the 
readiest man that had yet tried his hand at a newspaper," there 
appeared in January 1652 an advertisement, which has often 
been erroneously cited as the first among newspaper advertise- 
ments. It read as follows: 

Irenodia Gratulatoria, a heroic poem, being a congratulatory 
panegyrick for my Lord General's return, summing up his suc- 
cesses in an exquisite manner. To be sold by John Holden, in the 
New Exchange, London, Printed by Thomas Newcourt, 1652. 

The article " On the Advertising System," published in the 
Edinburgh Review for February 1843, contains the fullest account 
of early English advertising that has ever been given, and it has 
been very freely drawn upon by all writers who have since dis- 
cussed the subject. But it describes this advertisement in the 
Mercurius Politicus as " the very first," and the discovery of the 
two earlier instances above quoted was due to the researches of 
a contributor to Notes and Queries. 

In The Crosby Records, the commonplace-books of William 
Blundell, there is an interesting comment, dated 1659, on the 
lack of advertising facilities at that period 

It would be very expedient if each parish or village might have 
some place, as the church or smithy, wherein to publish (by papers 
posted up) the wants either of the buyer or tne seller, as such a 
field to be let, such a servant, or such a service, to be had, &c. 
There was a book published in London weekly about the year 
1657 which was called (as I remember) The Publick Advice. It gave 
information in very many of these particulars. 

A year later the same diarist says 

There is an office near the Old Exchange in London called the 
office of Publick Advice. From thence both printed and private 
information of this useful nature are always to be had. But what 
they print is no more than a leaf or less in a diurnal. I was in this 
office. The diurnal consisted of sixteen pages quarto in 1689. 

In No. 62 of the London Gazette, published in June 1666, the 
first advertisement supplement was announced 

An Advertisement Being daily prest to the Publication of 
Books, Medicines, and other things not properly the business of a 
Paper of Intelligence, This is to notifie, once for all, that we will not 
charge the Gazette with Advertisements, unless they be matter of 
State : but that a Paper of Advertisements will be forthwith printed 
apart, & recommended to the Publick by another hand. 

In No. 94 of the same journal, published in October 1666, 
there appeared a suggestion that sufferers from the Great Fire 
should avail themselves of this means of publicity 

Such as have settled in new habitations since the late Fire, and 
desire for the convenience of their correspondence to publish the 
place of their present abode, or to give notice of Goods lost or found, 



may repair to the corner House in Bloomsbury on the East Side of 
the Great Square, before the House of the Right Honourable the 
Lord Treasurer, where there is care taken for the Receipt and 
Publication of such Advertisements. 

The earlier advertisements, with the exception of formal 
notices, seem to have been concerned exclusively with either 
books or quack remedies. The first trade advertisement, which 
does not fall within either of these categories, was curiously 
enough the first advertisement of a new commodity, tea. The 
following advertisement appeared in the Mercurius Polilicus, 
No. 435, for September 1658 

That excellent and by all Physitians approved China Drink, called 
by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations Tay, alias Tee, is sold at the 
Sultaness Head, a cophee-house in Sweetings Rents, by the Royal 
Exchange, London. 

The history of slavery, of privateering and of many other 
curious incidents and episodes of English history during the i7th 
and 1 8th centuries might be traced by examination of the anti- 
quated advertisements which writers upon such subjects have 
already collected. In order that space may be found for some 
consideration of the practical aspects of modern advertising, the 
discussion of its gradual development must be curtailed. Nor 
is it necessary to preface this consideration by any laboured 
statement of the importance which advertising has assumed. 

It is a matter of common knowledge that several business 
houses are to be found in Great Britain, and a larger number 
in the United States, who spend not less than 50,000 a year in 
advertising, while one patent medicine company, operating both 
in England and the United States, has probably spent not less 
than 200,000 in Great Britain in one year, and an English cocoa 
manufacturer is supposed to have spent 150,000 in Great 
Britain. Some of the best works of artists as distinguished as 
Sir John Millais, Sir H. von Herkomer and Mr Stacy Marks have 
been scattered broadcast by advertisers. The purchase of Sir 
John Millais' picture " Bubbles " for 2200 by the proprietors 
of a well-known brand of soap is probably the most remarkable 
instance of the expenditure in this direction which an advertiser 
may find profitable. There are in London alone more than 350 
advertising agents, of whom upwards of a hundred are known 
as men in a considerable way of business. The statements which 
from time to time find currency in the newspapers with regard 
to the total amount of money annually spent upon advertising 
in Great Britain and in the United States are necessarily no better 
than conjectures, but no detailed statistics are required in order 
to demonstrate what every reader can plainly see for himself, 
that advertising has definitely assumed its position as a serious 
field of commercial enterprise. 

Advertising, as practised at the beginning of the 2oth century, 
may be divided into three general classes: 

1. Advertising in periodical publications. 

2. Advertising by posters, signboards (other than those placed 
upon premises where the advertised business is conducted), 
transparencies and similar devices. 

3. Circulars, sent in quantities to specific classes of persons to 
whom the advertiser specially desired to address himself. 

It may be noted at the outset that advertising in periodical 
publications exercises a reflex influence upon these publications. 
The daily, weekly and monthly publications of the day are accus- 
tomed to look to advertisements for so large a part of their 
revenue that the purchaser of a periodical publication receives 
much greater value for his money than he could reasonably expect 
from the publisher if the aggregate advertising receipts did not 
constitute a perpetual subsidy to the publisher. It is not to be 
supposed, however, that the receipts from the sale of a paper 
cover all its expenses and that the advertising revenue is all clear 
profit. The average newspaper reader would be amazed if he 
knew at how great a cost the day's news is laid before him. A 
dignified journal displays no inclination to cry from the house- 
tops the vastness of its expenditure, but from time to time an 
accident enables the public to obtain information in this con- 
nexion. The evidence taken by a recent Copyright Commission 
disclosed that the expenditure of the leading English journal 
upon foreign news alone amounted to more than 50,000 






ADVERTISEMENT 



237 



in the course of one year, and that a year not characterized 
by any great war to swell the ordinary volume of cable 
despatches. 

In the case of daily papers sold at the minimum price, it is not 
less obvious that the costliness of news service renders advertising 
revenue indispensable, for although these less important journals 
spend less money, the price at which they are supplied to the 
news agents is very small in proportion to the cost of their pro- 
duction. If, however, this thought be pursued to its logical con- 
clusion, the advertiser must admit that he in turn receives, from 
those among newspaper readers who purchase his wares, prices 
sufficiently high to cover the cost of his advertising. So that the 
reader is in the curious position of directly paying a certain price 
for his newspaper, receiving a newspaper fairly worth more than 
that price, while this price is supplemented by the indirect in- 
cidence of a sort of tax upon many of the commodities he con- 
sumes. On the other hand, a great part of the advertisements 
in a daily newspaper have themselves an interest and utility not 
less than that possessed by the news. The man who desires to 
hire a house turns to the classified lists which the newspaper 
publishes day after day, and servants and employers find one 
another by the same means. The theatrical announcements are 
so much a part of the news that even if a journal were not paid 
for their insertion they could not be altogether omitted without 
inconvenience to the reader. In the main, however, it is the 
advertiser who seeks the reader, not the reader who seeks the 
advertiser, and the care with which advertisements are prepared, 
and the certainty with which the success or failure of a trader 
may be traced to his skill or want of skill as an advertiser, show 
that the proper use of advertising is one of the most indispensable 
branches of commercial training. 

Before discussing in detail the methods of advertising in 
periodical publications it may be well to complete, for the use 
Poster of the general reader, a brief survey of the whole 
ana sign subject by examining the two other classes of advertise- 
ment. The most enthusiastic partisan of advertising 
will admit that posters and similar devices are very 
generally regarded by the public as sources of annoyance. A 
bold headline or a conspicuous illustration in a newspaper 
advertisement may for a moment force itself upon the reader's 
attention. In the French, and in some English newspapers, 
where an advertisement is often given the form of an item of 
news, the reader is distressed by the constant fear of being 
hoodwinked. He begins to read an account of a street accident, 
and finds at the end of the paragraph a puff of a panacea for 
bruises. The best English and American journals have refused 
to lend themselves to this sort of trickery, and hi no one of the 
best journals printed in the English language will there be found 
an advertisement which is not so plainly differentiated from news 
matter that the reader may avoid it if he sees fit to do so. On 
the whole, then, newspaper advertisements ask, but do not 
compel attention. The whole theory of poster advertising is, 
on the other hand, one of tyranny. The advertiser who pays 
for space upon a hoarding or wall, although he may encourage 
a form of art, deliberately violates the wayfarer's mind. A 
trade-mark or a catch-word presents itself when eye and thought 
are occupied with other subjects. Those who object to this class 
of advertisement assert, with some show of reason, that an 
advertisement has no more right to assault the eye in this fashion 
than to storm the ear by an inordinate din; and a man who 
came up behind another man in the street, placed his mouth 
close to the other's ear, and bawled a recommendation of some 
brand of soap or tobacco, would be regarded as an intolerable 
disturber of public peace and comfort. Yet if the owner of a 
house sees fit to paint advertisements upon his walls, his exercise 
of the jealously guarded rights of private property may not 
lightly be disturbed. For the most part, both law and public 
opinion content themselves with restraining the worst excesses 
of the advertiser, leaving many sensitive persons to suffer. 
The National Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Adver- 
tising (known as SCAPA), founded in 1803 in London, was organ- 
ized for purposes which it describes as follows: 



advertise- 
ments. 



The society aims at protecting the picturesque simplicity of rural 
and river scenery, and promoting a regard for dignity and propriety 
of aspect in towns with especial reference to the abuses of spec- 
tacular advertising. 

It seeks to procure legislation whereby local representative bodies 
would be enabled to exercise control, by means of by-laws framed 
with a view to enabling them, at any rate, to grant relief in cases of 
flagrant and acknowledged abuse. 

It is believed that, when regulation is applied in cases where local 
conditions are peculiarly favourable, the advantage will be so 
apparent that, by force of imitation and competition, the enforce- 
ment of a reasonable standard will gradually become common. 
The degree of restraint will, of course, depend upon the varying 
requirements of different places and positions. No hard-and-fast 
rule is suggested ; no particular class of advertisement is proscribed ; 
certainly no general prohibition of posters on temporary hoardings 
is contemplated. Within the metropolitan area sky signs have 
already been prohibited, and it is hoped that some corresponding 
check will be placed on the multiplication of the field boards which 
so materially diminish the pleasure or comfort of railway journeys. 

The society regards with favour the imposition of a moderate tax 
or duty for imperial or local purposes on exposed advertisements 
not coming within certain categories of obviously necessary notices. 
The difficulty of inducing a chancellor of the exchequer to move in 
a matter where revenue is not the primary consideration is not over- 
looked. But it is thought that any impost would materially reduce 
the volume of exposed advertisements, and would at once extinguish 
the most offensive and the most annoying class, i.e. the quack ad- 
vertisements by the road sides and the bills stuck by unauthorized 
persons on trees, walls and palings. 

Members are recommended to make it known that there exists 
an active repugnance to the present practice of advertising disfigure- 
ment, by giving preference, in private transactions, to makers and 
dealers who do not employ objectionable methods, and by avoid- 
ing, as far as possible, the purchase of wares which, in their individual 
opinion, are offensively puffed. Action on these lines is advised 
rather for its educational than for its immediately deterrent effect ; 
although, in the case of many of the more expensive commodities, 
makers would undoubtedly be much influenced by the knowledge 
that they would lose, rather than gain, custom. 

The foregoing proposals are based on the following estimate of 
the conditions of the problem. It is believed that the present 
Jicence causes discomfort or loss of enjoyment to many, and that, 
in the absence of authoritative restriction, it must grow far beyond 
'its present limits ; that beauty or propriety of aspect in town and 
country forms as real a part of the national wealth as any material 
product, and that to save these from impairment is a national 
interest; that the recent developments of vexatiously obtrusive 
advertising have not grown out of any necessities of honourable 
business, but are partly the result of a mere instinct of imitation, 
and partly are a morbid phase of competition by which both the 
consumers and the trade as a whole lose ; that restriction as regards 
the size and positions of advertising notices would not be a hardship 
to those who want publicity since all competitors would be treated 
alike, each would have the same relative prominence ; that, as large 
sums of public money are expended on ; institutions intended to 
develop the finer taste, and on edifices of elaborate design, it must 
be held inconsistent with established public policy to permit the 
sensibilities thus imparted to be wounded, and architectural effect 
to be destroyed at the discretion of a limited class. 

The influence of this society is to be seen in many of the 
restrictions which have been imposed upon advertisers since its 
work began. About a year after its foundation the London 
County Council abolished (under statutory powers obtained 
from Parliament) advertisements coming within the definition 
of sky-signs in the London Building Act of 1894. These specifica- 
tions are as follows: 

" Sky sign " means any word, letter, model, sign, device, or 
representation in the nature of an advertisement, announcement, 
or direction supported on or attached to any post, pole, standard, 
framework, or other support, wholly or in part upon, over, or above 
any building or structure, which, or any part of which, sky sign 
shall be visible against the sky from any point in any street or public 
way, and includes all and every part of any such post, pole, standard, 
framework, or other support. The expression " sky sign " shall also 
include any balloon, parachute, or similar device employed wholly 
or in part for the purposes of any advertisements or announcement 
on, over, or above any building, structure, or erection of any kind, 
or on or over any street or public way. 

The act proceeds to exclude from its restrictions flagstaffs, 
weathercocks and any solid signs not rising more than 3 feet 
above the roof. 

Another by-law of the London County Council, in great 
measure due to the observations made at coroners' inquests, 
protects the public against the annoyances and the perils to 



2 3 8 



ADVERTISEMENT 



traffic occasioned by flashlight and searchlight advertisements. 
This by-law reads as follows: 

No person shall exhibit any flashlight so as to be visible from any 
street and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any owner 
or occupier of premises permit or suffer any flashlight to be so ex- 
hibited on such premises. 

The expression " flashlight " means and includes any light used 
for the purpose of illuminating, lighting, or exhibiting any word, 
letter, model, sign, device, or representation in the nature of an 
advertisement, announcement, or direction which alters suddenly 
either in intensity, colour, or direction. 

No person shall exhibit any searchlight so as to be visible from 
any street, and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any 
owner or occupier of premises permit or suffer any searchlight to 
be so exhibited on such premises. 

The expression " searchlight " means and includes any light 
exceeding soo-candle power, whether in one lamp or lantern, or in 
a series of lamps or lanterns used together and projected as one 
concentrated light, and which alters either in intensity, colour, or 
direction. 

Advertising vans were so troublesome in London as to be 
prohibited in 1853; the "sandwich-man" has in the City 
of London and many towns been ousted from the pavement 
to the gutter, from the more crowded to the less crowded 
streets, and as the traffic problem in the great centres of 
population becomes more urgent, he will probably be altogether 
suppressed. 

Hoardings are now so restricted by the London Building Acts 
that new hoardings cannot, except under special conditions, 
be erected exceeding 1 2 feet in height, and no existing hoardings 
can be increased in height so as to exceed that limit. 

The huge signs which some advertisers, both in England 
and the United States, have placed in such positions as to 
mar the landscape, have so far aroused public antagonism 
that there is reason to hope that this form of nuisance will not 
increase. 

In 1899 Edinburgh obtained effective powers of control over 
all sorts of advertising in public places, and this achieve- 
ment has been followed by no little agitation in favour of a' 
Parliamentary enactment which should once for all do away 
with the defacing of the landscape in any part of the United 
Kingdom. 

In 1907 an act was passed (Advertisements Regulation Act) 
of a permissive character purely, under which a local authority 
is enabled to make by-laws, subject to the confirmation of the 
Home Secretary, regulating (i) the erection of hoardings, &c., 
exceeding 12 feet in height, and (2) the exhibition of advertise- 
ments which might affect the " amenities " of a public place or 
landscape. 

The English law with regard to posters has undergone very 
little change. The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 and 3 Viet, 
cap. 47) first put a stop to unauthorized posting, and the In- 
decent Advertisements Act of 1889 (3) penalized the public 
exposure of any picture or printed or written matter of an in- 
decent or obscene nature. But in general practice there is 
hardly any limitation to the size or character of poster advertise- 
ments, other than good taste and public opinion. On the other 
hand, public opinion is a somewhat vague entity, and there 
have been cases in which a conflict has arisen as to what public 
opinion 'really was, when its legally authorized exponent was in 
a position to insist on its own arbitrary definition. Such an 
instance occurred some few years ago in the case of a large poster 
issued by a well-known London music-hall. The Progressive 
majority on the London County Council, led by Mr (afterwards 
Sir) J. M'Dougall, a well-known " purity " advocate, took 
exception to this poster, which represented a female gymnast in 
" tights " posed in what was doubtless intended for an alluring 
and attractive attitude; and, in spite of any argument, the fact 
remained that the decision as to renewing the licence of this 
music-hall rested solely with the Council. In showing that it 
would have no hesitation in provoking even a charge of meddling 
prudery, the Council probably gave a salutary warning to people 
who were inclined to sail rather too near the wind. But in 
Great Britain and America, at all events (though a doubt may 
perhaps exist as to some Continental countries), the advertiser 



and the aitist are restrained, not only by their own sense of 
propriety, but by fear of offending the sense of propriety in their 
customers. 

Posters and placards in railway stations and upon public 
vehicles still embarrass the traveller who desires to find the 
name of a station or the destination of a vehicle. In respect of 
all these abuses it is a regrettable fact that unpopularity cannot 
be expected to deter the advertiser. If a name has once been 
fixed in the memory, it remains there long after the method of 
its impression has been forgotten, and the purpose of advertise- 
ments of the class under discussion is really no more than the 
fixing of a trade name in the mind. The average man or woman 
who goes into a shop to buy soap is more or less affected by 
.a vague sense of antagonism towards the seller. There is a 
rudimentary feeling that even the most ordinary transaction of 
purchase brings into contact two minds actuated by diametrically 
opposed interests. The purchaser, who is not asking for a soap 
he has used before, has some hazy suspicion that the shopkeeper 
will try to sell, not the article best worth the price, but the article 
which leaves the largest margin of profit; and the purchaser 
imagines that he in some measure secures himself against a bad 
bargain when he exercises his authority by asking for some 
specific brand or make of the commodity he seeks. If he has seen 
any one soap so persistently advertised that his memory retains 
its name, he will ask for it, not because he has any reason to 
believe it to be better or cheaper than others, but simply because 
he baffles the shopkeeper, and assumes an authoritative attitude 
by exerting his own freedom of choice. This curious and obscure 
principle of action probably lies at the root of all poster advertis- 
ing, for the poster does not set forth an argument as does the 
newspaper advertisement. It hardly attempts to reason with 
the reader, but merely impresses a name upon his memory. It 
is possible, by lavish advertising, to go so far in this direction 
that the trade-mark of a certain manufacturer becomes synony- 
mous with the name of a commodity, so that when the consumer 
thinks of soap or asks for soap, his concept inevitably couples 
the maker's name with the word " soap " itself. In order that 
the poster may leave any impression upon his mind, it must of 
course first attract his attention. The assistance which the 
advertiser receives from the artist in this connexion is discussed 
in the article POSTER. 

The fact that the verb " to circularize " was first used in 1848, 
sufficiently indicates the very recent origin of the practice of 
plying possible purchasers with printed letters and 
pamphlets. The penny postage was not established 
in England until 1840; the halfpenny post for circulars circular. 
was not introduced until 1855. In the United States 
a uniform rate of postage at two cents was not established until 
1883. In both countries cheap postage and cheap printing have 
so greatly encouraged the use of circulars that the sort of people 
whom the advertiser desires to reach those who have the most 
money to spend, and whose addresses, published in directories, 
indicate their prosperous condition are overwhelmed by trades- 
men's price-lists, appeals from charitable institutions, and other 
suggestions for the spending of money. The addressing of en- 
velopes and enclosing of circulars is now a recognized industry 
in many large towns both in Great Britain and in the United 
States. It seems, however, to be the opinion of expert advertisers 
that what is called " general circularizing " is unprofitable, and 
that circulars should only be sent to persons who have peculiar 
reason to be interested by their specific subject-matter. It may 
be noted, as an instance of the assiduity with which specialized 
circularizing is pursued, that the announcement of a birth, 
marriage or death in the newspapers serves to call forth a 
grotesque variety of circulars supposed to be adapted to the 
momentary needs of the recipient. 

In concluding this review of methods of advertising, other 
than advertisements in periodical publications, we may add 
that the most extraordinary attempt at advertisement which 
is known to exist is to be found at the churchyard at Godalming, 
Surrey, where the following epitaph was placed upon a tomb- 
stone: 



ADVERTISEMENT 



239 



Sacred 

To the memory of 
Nathaniel Godbold Esq. 

Inventor & Proprietor 
of that excellent medicine 

The Vegetable Balsam 
For the Cure of Consumptions & Asthmas. 

He departed this Life 
The i;th. day of Deer. 1799 

Aged 69 years. 
Hie Cineres, ubiqUe Fama. 

The preparation of advertisements for the periodical press 
has within the last twenty years or so become so important a 
AOver- tas ^ t ' lat a 8 reat number of writers and artists many 
Using in of the latter possessing considerable abilities gain a 
periodical livelihood from this pursuit. The ingenuity displayed 
' n mo ^ ern newspaper advertising is unquestionably 
due to American initiative. The English newspaper 
advertisement of twenty years ago consisted for the most 
part of the mere reiteration of a name. An advertiser who 
took a column's space supplied enough matter to fill an inch, 
and ingenuously repeated his statement throughout the column. 
Such departures from this childlike method as were made were for 
the most part eccentric to the point of incoherence. It may, how- 
ever, be said in defence of English advertisers, that newspaper 
publishers for a long time sternly discountenanced any attempt 
to render advertisements attractive. So long as an advertiser 
was rigidly confined to the ordinary single-column measure, and 
so long as he was forbidden to use anything but the smallest 
sort of type, there was very little opportunity for him to attract 
the reader's attention. The newspaper publisher must always 
remember that the public buy a newspaper for the sake of the 
news, not for the sake of the advertisements, and that if the ad- 
vertisements are relegated to a position and a scope, in respect 
of display, so inferior that they may be overlooked, the adver- 
tiser cannot afford to bear his share of the cost of publication. 
Of late The Times, followed by almost all newspapers in the 
United Kingdom, has given the advertiser as great a degree of 
liberty as he really needs, and many experienced advertisers in 
America incline to the belief that the larger licence accorded to 
American advertisers defeats its own ends. The truth would 
seem to be that the advertiser will always demand, and may 
fairly expect, the right to make his space as fantastic in appear- 
ance as that allotted to the editor. When some American editors 
see fit to print a headline in letters as large as a man's hand, and 
to begin half-a-dozen different articles on the first page of a 
newspaper, continuing one on page 2, another on page 4, and 
another on page 6, to the bewilderment of the reader, it can 
hardly be expected that the American advertiser should submit 
to any very strict code of decorum. The subject of the relation 
between a newspaper proprietor and his advertisers cannot be 
dismissed without reference to the notable independence of 
advertisers' influence, which English and American newspaper 
proprietors authorize their editors to display. Whenever an in- 
surance company or a bank goes wrong, the cry is raised that all 
the editors in Christendom had known for years that the directors 
were imbeciles and rogues, but had conspired to keep mute for 
the sake of an occasional advertisement. When the British 
public persisted, not long ago, in paying premium prices for the 
shares of over-capitalized companies, the crash had no sooner 
come than the newspapers were accused of having puffed pro- 
motions for the sake of the money received for publishing pros- 
pectuses. As a matter of fact, in the case of the best dailies in 
England and America, the editor does not stand at all in awe of 
the advertiser, and time after time the Money Article has ruth- 
lessly attacked a promotion of which the prospectus appeared 
in the very same issue. It is indeed to the interest of the ad- 
vertiser, as well as to the interest of the reader, that this inde- 
pendence should be preserved, for the worth of any journal as 
an advertising medium depends upon its possessing a bond fide 
circulation among persons who believe it to be a serious and 
honestly conducted newspaper. All advertisers know that the 
minor weeklies, which contain nothing but trade puffs, and are 
scattered broadcast among people who pay nothing for their 



copies, are absolutely worthless from the advertiser's point of 
view. The most striking difference between the periodical press 
of Great Britain and that of America is, that in the former country 
the magazines and reviews play but a secondary role, while in the 
United States the three or four monthlies possessing the largest 
circulation are of the very first importance as advertising 
mediums. One reason for this is that the advertisements in an 
American magazine are printed on as good paper, and printed 
with as great care, as any other part of the contents. There are 
probably very few among American magazine readers who do 
not habitually look through the advertising pages, with the cer- 
tainty that they will be entertained by the beauty of the adver- 
tiser's illustrations and the quaint curtness of his phrases. 
Another reason is that the American monthly magazine goes to 
all parts of the United States, while, owing to the time required 
for long journeys on even the swiftest trains, no American daily 
paper can have so general a circulation as The Times in the United 
Kingdom. In comparison with points on the Pacific coast, 
Chicago does not seem far from New York, yet, with the excep- 
tion of one frenzied and altogether unsuccessful attempt, no 
New York daily has ever attempted to force a circulation in 
Chicago. The American advertiser would, therefore, have to 
spend money on a great number of daily papers in order to 
reach as widespread a public as one successful magazine offers 
him. 

There is reason to believe that the English magazine publishers 
have erred gravely in taking what are known in the trade as 
" insets," consisting of separate cards or sheets printed at the 
advertiser's cost, and accepted by the publisher at a specific 
charge for every thousand copies. This system of insetting has 
the grave inconvenience that the advertiser finds himself com- 
pelled to print as many insets as the publisher asserts that he 
can use. The publisher, on the other hand, is somewhat at the 
mercy of too enthusiastic agents and employes, who estimate 
over-confidently the edition of the periodical which will probably 
be printed for a certain month, and advertisers have had reason 
to fear that many of their insets were wasted. The added weight 
and bulk of the insets cause inconvenience and expense to the 
newsdealer, as two or three insets printed upon cardboard are 
equivalent to at least sixteen additional pages. Some news- 
dealers have further complicated the inset question by threaten- 
ing to remove insets unless special tribute be paid to them; 
and with all these difficulties to be considered, many magazine 
publishers have seriously considered the advisability of alto- 
gether discontinuing the practice of taking insets, and of confin- 
ing their advertisements to the sheets they themselves print. 
In connexion with this subject, it may be added that many 
readers habitually shake loose bills out of a magazine before they 
begin to turn the pages, and that railway stations, railway 
carriages and even public streets are thus littered with trampled 
and muddy advertisements. The old practice of distributing 
handbills in the streets is dying a natural death, more or less 
hastened by local by-laws, and when the loose bills in magazines 
and cheap novels have ceased to exist no one will be the loser. 

Advertisements in the weekly press are on the whole more 
successful in England than in America. A few American 
weeklies cope successfully with the increasing competition of 
the huge Sunday editions of American daily papers. But even 
the most successful among them a paper for boys has hardly 
attained the prosperity of some among its English contemporaries 
in the field of weekly journalism. 

The merchant who turns to these pages for practical sugges- 
tions concerning the advertising of his own business, can be given 
no better advice than to betake himself to an established adver- 
tising agent of good repute, and be guided by his counsels. The 
chief part that he can himself play with advantage is to note 
from day to day whether the agent is obtaining advantageous 
positions for his announcements. Every advertiser will naturally 
prefer a right-hand page to a left-hand page, and the right side 
of the page to the left side of the page; while the advertiser 
who most indefatigably urges his claims upon the agent will, 
in the long run, obtain the largest share of the favours to be 



240 



ADVERTISEMENT 



distributed. To the merchant who inclines to consider adver- 
tising in connexion with the broader aspects of his calling, it 
may be suggested that a new channel of trade demands very 
serious attention. What is called m England " postal trade," 
and in America " mail order business," is growing very rapidly. 
Small dealers in both countries have complained very bitterly 
of the competition they suffer from the general dealers and 
from stores made up of departments which, under one roof, 
offer to the consumer every imaginable sort of merchandise. 
This general trading, which, on the one hand, seriously threatens 
the small trader, and on the other hand offers greater possibilities 
of profit to the proportionately small number of persons who 
can undertake business on so large a scale, becomes infinitely 
more formidable when the general dealer endeavours not only 
to attract the trade of a town, but to make his place of business 
a centre from which he distributes by post his goods to remote 
parts of the country. In America, where the weight of parcels 
carried by post is limited to 4 Ib, and where the private 
carrying companies are forced to charge a very much higher 
rate for carriage from New York to California than for shorter 
distances, the centralization of trade is necessarily limited; but 
it is no secret that, at the present moment, persons residing in 
those parts of the United Kingdom most remote from London 
habitually avail themselves of the English parcel post, which 
carries packages up to n Ib, in order to procure a great 
part of their household supplies direct from general dealers in 
London. A trading company, which conducts its operations 
upon such a scale as this, can afford to spend an almost un- 
limited sum in advertising throughout the United Kingdom, 
and even the trader who offers only one specific class of merchan- 
dise is beginning to recognize the possibility of appealing to the 
whole country. 

The following is a brief summary of the laws and regulations 

dealing with advertisements in public places in certain 

regulation ^ t ^ le coun tries of Continental Europe and in the 

United States of America, the chief authority for 

which is an official return issued by the British Home Office 

in 1903. 

France. The permission of the owner is alone required for 
the placing of advertisements on private buildings; but build- 
ings, walls, &c., belonging to_the government or local authorities 
are reserved exclusively for official notices, &c.; these alone 
can be printed on white paper, all others must be on coloured 
paper. Municipal authorities control the size, construction, &c., 
of hoardings used for advertising purposes, and the police have 
full powers over the exhibition of indecent or other objectionable 
advertisements. The Societe pour la protection des paysages, 
founded in 1901, has for one of its objects the prevention of 
advertisements which disfigure the scenery or are otherwise 
objectionable. 

Germany. By 43 of the Imperial Commercial Ordinance 
permission to post any trade advertisement in a public street, 
square, &c., must be first obtained from the local police. The 
police also control (by 55 of the Imperial Press Law 1874) 
advertisements which are not of a trade character, but this 
regulation does not affect the right of the federal legislatures 
to make regulations in regard to them (30). It would be 
impossible to give in any detail the police regulations as to 
advertisements which exist, e.g. in Prussia, but the following 
rules in force in Berlin may be given: Public advertisements in 
public streets and places may be posted only on the appliances, 
such as pillar posts, &c., provided for the purpose. Owners of 
property may post advertisements on their own property but 
only such as concern their own interests. Advertisements on 
public conveyances are forbidden. In 1902 a Prussian law was 
passed authorizing the police to forbid all advertisement hoard- 
ings, &c., which would disfigure particularly beautiful landscapes 
in rural districts. The Hesse-Darmstadt Act of 1902 prohibits 
the placing of any advertisements, posters, &c., on a monument 
officially protected under the act, if it would be likely to injure 
the appearance of the monument. As instances of the numerous 
local provisions against the abuse of advertising may be cited 



those of Augsburg and Liibeck, by which any advertisement that 
would injure the StadtbUd or appearance of the town may be 
prohibited and removed by the local authority (see G. Baldwin 
Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments, 1905). Full powers 
exist under the Imperial Criminal Code for the suppression of 
indecent or objectionable advertisements. 

Austria. Permission of the police is required for the exhibi- 
tion of printed notices in public places other than such as are of 
purely local or industrial interest, such as notices of entertain- 
ment, leases, sales, &c., or theatre programmes, and these can 
only be shown in places approved by the local authorities (Press 
Law 1862). The presj-police act as advertisement censors and 
determine whether an advertisement can be allowed or not. 
In Hungary there are no general laws or regulations, but the 
municipalities have power to issue ordinances dealing with the 
question. 

Italy. All control rests with the municipal and communal 
authorities, who may decide on the places where advertisements 
may or may not be posted, and can prevent hoardings being 
placed on or near ancient monuments or public buildings. 

Switzerland. The Federal Government has no authority to 
deal with this question; certain of the cantons have regulations, 
e.g. Lucerne prohibits the public advertising of inferior goods 
by means of a false description, Basel-Stadt gives the police the 
power of censoring all advertisements. Many of the communal 
authorities throughout Switzerland have special restrictions 
and regulations. In Zurich the police choose the advertising 
stations, in Berne the municipality possesses a monopoly of the 
right of erecting advertisements. The Society known as the 
Ligue pour la conservation de la Suisse pittoresque or Schweitzeri- 
scher Heimatschutz has for one of its objects the preservation of 
scenery from disfiguring advertisements. 

United States. There is no federal legislation on the subject, 
the matter being one for regulation by the states, which in most 
cases have left it to the various municipalities and other local 
authorities. With regard to indecent and objectionable advert- 
isements some states have special legislation on the matter, 
others are content with the ordinary criminal laws or police 
powers or with the law of nuisance or of trespass. Thus control 
can be exercised over such advertisements as are dangerous to 
public safety, health or morals. The state of New York prohibits 
advertisements of lotteries. It would be impossible to give in 
detail the different laws and regulations passed in the various 
states or by municipalities. The following are some of the more 
striking measures adopted in certain of the states. In Massa- 
chusetts no advertising signs or devices are allowed on the public 
highways. Power has been granted to city and town authorities 
to regulate advertisements in, near or visible from public parks. 
In the District of Columbia no advertisement is allowed which 
obstructs a highway, and all distribution of handbills, circulars, 
&c., in public streets, parks, &c., is prohibited. This prohibition 
against what are generally known as " dodgers " is very general 
in the local regulations throughout the states. In Illinois, city 
councils are empowered on the incorporation of the city to regu- 
late and prevent the use of streets, sidewalks and public grounds 
for signs, handbills and advertisements, &c., and also the exhibi- 
tion of banners, placards, in the streets or sidewalks. Chicago 
has a body of most stringent rules, but they apparently have 
been found impossible to enforce; thus no advertisement board 
more than 12 ft. square within 400 ft. of a public park or 
boulevard, no advertisements other than small ones relating to 
the business carried on in the premises where the advertisement 
is posted, or of sales, &c., are allowed in streets where three- 
quarters of the houses are " residences "only. Prohibition is 
also extended to the advertisements of those professing to cure 
diseases or giving notice of the sale of medicines. In Boston 
there are regulations prohibiting projecting or overhanging 
signs in the streets, and special rules as to the height at which 
street signs and advertisements must be placed. The distribu- 
tion of " dodgers " in the streets is prohibited. Advertisements 
for places of amusement must be approved by the committee OP 
licences. 



ADVICE ADVOCATE 



241 






France, Belgium, Italy and certain of the cantons in Switzer- 
land impose a tax on advertisements, as do certain of the United 
Taxation States of America, where the form is usually that of a 
licence duty on billposters or advertising agencies. 
In many cases in the United States this is imposed by the muni- 
cipalities. In every case both in Europe and America advertise- 
ments in newspapers are not subject to any tax. 

With regard to the literature of advertising, in addition to the his- 
torical article in the Edinburgh Review for February 1843, already 
mentioned, and that in the Quarterly Review for June 1855, the 
Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Advertising issue a jour- 
nal, A Beautiful World. The Journal of the Society of Comparative 
Legislation (N.S. xvi. 1906) contains an article by W.J.B. Byles on 
Foreign Law and the Control of Advertisements in Public Places. 
The advertisers' handbooks, issued by the leading advertising 
agents, will also be found to contain practical information of 
great use to the advertiser. (H. R. H.*; C. WE.) 

ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed), 
counsel given after consideration, or information from a distance 
giving particulars of something prospective ( e.g. " advice " of 
an imminent battle, or of a cargo due). In commerce it is a 
common word for a formal notice from one person concerned in 
a transaction to another. 

ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from adwcare, to summon, 
especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so 
generally to summon to one's assistance), a lawyer authorized to 
plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The word is used 
technically in Scotland (see ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF) in a sense 
virtually equivalent to the English term barrister, and a deriva- 
tive from the same Latin source is so used in most of the countries 
of Europe where the civil law is in force. The word adwcatus is 
not often useti among the earlier jurists, and appears not to 
have had a strict meaning. It is. not always associated with 
legal proceedings, and might apparently be applied to a supporter 
or coadjutor in the pursuit of any desired object. When it came 
to be applied with a more specific limitation to legal services, 
the position of the adwcatus was still uncertain. It was different 
from, and evidently inferior to, that of the juris-consultus, who 
gave his opinion and advice in questions of law, and may be 
identified with the consulting counsel of the present day. Nor 
is the merely professional advocate to be confounded with the 
more distinguished orator, or patronus, who came forward in 
the guise of the disinterested vindicator of justice. This dis- 
tinction, however, appears to have arisen in later times, when the 
profession became mercenary. By the lex Cincia, passed about 
two centuries B.C., and subsequently renewed, the acceptance 
of remuneration for professional assistance in lawsuits was pro- 
hibited. This law, like all others of the kind, was evaded. The 
skilful debater was propitiated with a present; and though he 
could not sue for the value of his services, it was ruled that any 
honorarium so given could not be demanded back, even though 
he died before the anticipated service was performed. The traces 
of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing practice of 
rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of services. 

The term adwcatus came eventually to be the word employed 
when the bar had become a profession, and the qualifications, 
admission, numbers and fees of counsel had become a matter 
of state regulation, to designate the pleaders as a class of pro- 
fessional men, each individual advocate, however, being still 
spoken of as patron in reference to the litigant with whose interest 
he was entrusted. The advocatus fisci, or fiscal advocate, was 
an officer whose function, like that of a solicitor of taxes at the 
present day, was connected with the collection of the revenue. 

The lawyers who practised in the English courts of common 
law were never officially known as advocates, the word being 
reserved for those who practised in the courts of the civil and 
canon law (see DOCTORS' COMMONS). There was formerly an 
important official termed his majesty's advocate-general, or more 
shortly, the king's advocate, who was the principal law officer 
of the crown in the College of Advocates or Doctors' Commons, 
and in the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. He discharged 
for these courts the duties which correspond to those of the 



solicitor of the treasury (see SOLICITOR). His opinion was taken 
by the foreign office on international matters, and on high 
ecclesiastical matters he was also consulted; all orders in council 
were submitted to him for approval. The office may now be 
said to be obsolete, for after the resignation of Sir Travers Twiss, 
the. last holder, in 1872, it was not filled up. There was also a 
second law officer of the crown in the admiralty court called the 
admiralty advocate. This office has long been vacant. Advo- 
cate is also the title still in use in some of the British colonies 
to denote the chief law officer of the crown there. For instance, 
in Sierra Leone (until 1896), Lagos and Cyprus he is called the 
king's advocate; in Malta, crown advocate; in Mauritius, 
procureur and advocate-general, and in the provinces of India 
advocate-general. In France, the awcats, as a body, were re- 
organized under the empire by a decree of the isth of December 
1810. There is, however, a distinction between awcats and 
avoues. The latter, whose number is limited, act as procurators 
or agents, representing the parties before the tribunals, draft 
and prepare for them all formal acts and writings, and prepare 
their lawsuits for the oral debates. The office of the awcat, on 
the other hand, consists in giving advice as to the law, and con- 
ducting the causes of his clients by written and oral pleadings. 
The number of awcats is not limited; every licentiate of law 
being entitled to apply to the corporation of avocats attached 
to each court, and aftet presentation to the court, taking the oath 
of office and passing three years in attendance on some older 
advocate, to have himself recognised as an advocate. 

In Germany the adwcat no longer forms a distinct class of 
lawyer. Since 1879, when a sweeping judicature act (Deutsche 
Justizgesetzgebung) reconstituted the judicial system, the adw- 
cat in his character of adviser, as distinguished from the pro- 
curator, who formerly represented the client in the courts, has 
become merged in the Rechtsanwalt, who has the dual character 
of counsellor and pleader. 

In the middle ages the word adwcatus (Fr. avoue, Ger. Vogt) 
was used on the continent as the title of the lay lord charged 
with the protection and representation in secular 
matters of an abbey. The office is traceable as early advocatus 
as the beginning of the sth century in the Roman ecciesiae. 
empire, the churches being allowed to choose defen- 
sores from the body of advocates to represent them in the courts. 
In the Prankish kingdom, under the Merovingians, these lay 
representatives of the churches appear as agentes, defensores 
and adwcati; and under the Carolingians it was made obli- 
gatory on bishops, abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials 
in every county where they held property. The office was not 
hereditary, the advocatus being chosen, either by the abbot alone, 
or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the count. The 
same causes that led to the development of the feudal system 
also affected the advocatus. In times of confusion churches and 
abbeys needed not so much a legal representative as an armed 
protector, while as feudal immunities were conceded to the 
ecclesiastical foundations, these required a representative to 
defend their rights and to fulfil their secular obligations to the 
state, e.g. to lead the ecclesiastical levies to war. A new class 
of adwcatus thus arose, whose office, commonly rewarded by a 
grant of land, crystallized into a fief, which, like other fiefs, had 
by the beginning of the nth century become hereditary. 

In France the adwcati (avougs) were of two classes (i) great 
barons, who held the advocateship of an abbey or abbeys rather 
as an office than a fief, though they were indemnified 
for the protection they afforded by a domain and r^ ac h 
revenues granted by the abbey: thus the duke of avow. 
Normandy was advocatus of nearly all the abbeys in 
the duchy; (2) petty seigneurs, who held their awueries as heredi- 
tary fiefs and often as their sole means of subsistence. The avoue 
of an abbey, of this class, corresponded to the vidame (q.v.) of a 
bishop. Their function was generally to represent the abbot in 
his capacity as feudal lord; to act as his representative in the 
courts of his superior lord; to exercise secular justice in the 
abbot's name in the abbatial court; to lead the retainers of the 
abbey to battle under the banner of the patron saint. 



ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF ADVOWSON 



242 

In England the word adwcatus was never used to denote an 
hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of the larger 
abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose functions 
England. anc ^ privileges were not dissimilar to those of the 
continental advocati. The word adwcatus, however, 
was in constant use in England to denote the patron of an 
ecclesiastical benefice, whose sole right of any importance was 
an hereditary one of presenting a parson to the bishop for in- 
stitution. In this way the hereditary right of presentation to a 
benefice came to be called in English an " advowson " (adwcatio). 

The adwcatus played a more important part in the feudal 
polity of the Empire and of the Low Countries than in France, 
where his functions, confined to the protection of the interests 
of religious houses, were superseded from the I3th century on- 
wards by the growth of the central power and the increasing 
efficiency of the royal administration. They had, indeed, long 
ceased to be effective for their original purpose; and from the 
time when their office became a fief they had taken advantage of 
their position to pillage and suppress those whom it was their 
function to defend. The medieval records, not in France only, 
are full of complaints by abbots of their usurpations, exactions 
and acts of violence. 

In Germany the title of adwcatus (Vogt) was given not only 
to the advocati of churches and abbeys, but to the officials 
appointed, from early in the middle ages, by the 
German emperor to administer their immediate domains, in 
Vogt. contradistinction to the counts, who had become 
hereditary princes of the Empire. The territory so 
administered was known as Vogtland {terra adwcatorum) , a 
name still sometimes employed to designate the strip of 
country which embraces the principalities of Reuss and adjacent 
portions of Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria. These imperial 
advocati tended in their turn to become hereditary. Sometimes 
the emperor himself assumed the title of Vogt of some particular 
part of his immediate domain. In the Netherlands as well as 
in Germany advocati were often appointed in the cities, by the 
overlord or by the emperor, sometimes to take the place of the 
bailiff (Ger. Schultheiss, Dutch schout, Lat. scultetus), some- 
times alongside this official. 

See Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. 1883, Niort), s. " Advocati "; A. 
Luchaire, Manuel des -institutions franfaises (Paris, 1892) ; Herzog- 
Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. Leipzig, 1896), s. " Advocatus ec- 
clesiae," where further references will be found. 

ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, the collective term by which 
what in England are called barristers are known in Scotland. 
They professionally attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh; 
but they are privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior 
courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute. They may 
act in cases of appeal before the House of Lords; and in some 
of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it is cus- 
tomary for those who practise as barristers to pass as advocates 
in Scotland. This body has existed by immemorial custom. 
Its privileges are constitutional, and are founded on no statute 
or charter of incorporation. The body formed itself gradually, 
from time to time, on the model of the French corporations of 
awcats, appointing like them by a general vote, a dean or doyen, 
who is their principal officer. It also differs from the English 
and Irish societies in that there is no governing body similar to 
the benchers, nor is there any resemblance to the quasi-collegiate 
discipline and the usages and customs prevailing in an inn of 
court. No curriculum of study, residence or professional train- 
ing was, until 1856, required on entering this profession; but 
the faculty have always had the power, believed to be liable to 
control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate for 
admission. The candidate undergoes two private examinations 
the one in general scholarship, in lieu of which, however, he 
may produce evidence of his having graduated as master of arts 
in a Scottish university, or obtained an equivalent degree in an 
English or foreign university; and the other, at the interval of 
a year, in Roman, private international and Scots law. He must, 
before the latter examination, produce evidence of attendance at 
classes of Scots law and conveyancing in a Scottish university, 



and at classes of civil law, public or international law, consti- 
tutional law and medical jurisprudence in a Scottish or other 
approved university. He has then to undergo the old academic 
form of the public impugnment of a thesis on some title of the 
pandects; but this ceremony, called the public examination, has 
degenerated into a mere form. A large proportion of the candi- 
date's entrance fees (amounting to 339) is devoted to the 
magnificent library belonging to the faculty, which literary 
investigators in Edinburgh find so eminently useful. 

ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, devil's advocate, the name popularly 
given to the promoter of the Faith (promoter fidei), and officer of 
the Sacred Congregation of Rites at Rome, whose duty is to 
prepare all possible arguments against the admission of any one 
to the posthumous honours of beatification and canonization. 
This functionary is first formally mentioned under Leo X.(isi3- 
1521) in the proceedings in connexion with the canonization of St 
Lorenzo Giustiniani. In 1631 Urban VIII. made his presence, 
either in person or by deputy, necessary for the validity of any 
act connected with the process of beatification or canonization 
(see CANONIZATION). The phrase, " devil's advocate," has by an 
easy transference come to be used of any one who puts himself 
up, or is put up, for the sake of promoting debate, to argue a 
case in which he does not necessarily believe. 

ADVOWSON, or ADVOWZEN (through O. Fr. adwuson, from 
Lat. adwcatio, a summons to), the right of presentation to 
a vacant ecclesiastical benefice, so called because the patron 
defends or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents. 
At what period the right of advowson arose is uncertain; it 
was probably the result of gradual growth. The earliest trace 
of the practice is found in the decree of the council of Orange, 
A.D. 441, which allowed a bishop, who had built a church in the 
diocese of another bishop, to nominate the clerk, but not to 
consecrate the church. The 1 23rd Novel of Justinian, promul- 
gated about the end of the 5th century, decreed " that if any 
man should erect an oratory, and desire to present a clerk thereto 
by himself or his heirs, if they furnish a competency for his live- 
lihood, and nominate to the bishop such as are worthy, they may 
be ordained." The S7th Novel empowered the bishop to examine 
them and judge of their qualifications, and, where those were 
sufficient, obliged him to admit the clerk. In England, for quite 
two centuries after its conversion, the clergy administered only 
pro tempore in the parochial churches, receiving their maintenance 
from the cathedral church, all the appointments within the dio- 
cese lying with the bishop. But in order to promote the building 
and endowment of parochial churches those who had contributed 
to their erection either by a grant of land, by building or by 
endowment, became entitled to present a clerk of their own 
choice to the bishop, who was invested with the revenues derived 
from such contribution. After the Norman Conquest, when the 
boundaries between church and state were more clearly marked, 
it became usual for patrons to appoint to livings not only without 
the consent, but even against the will, of the bishops. 

Advowsons are divided into two kinds, appendant and in gross. 
Originally the right of nominating 1 or presenting was annexed 
to the person who built or endowed the church, but the right 
gradually became annexed to the manor in which it was built, 
for the endowment was considered parcel of the manor, the 
church being built for the use of the inhabitants, and the tithes 
of the manor being attached to the church. Consequently 
where the right of patronage (the right of the patron to present 
to the bishop the person whom he has nominated to become 
rector' or vicar of the parish to the benefice of which he claims 
the right of advowson) remains attached to the manor, it is called 
an advowson appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance 

1 The distinction between nomination to a living and presentation 
is to be noted. Nomination is the power, by virtue of a manor or 
otherwise, to appoint a clerk to the patron of a benefice, to be by 
him presented to the ordinary. Presentation is the act of a patron 
in offering his clerk to the bishop, to be instituted in a benefice of 
his gift. Nomination and presentation, though generally used in 
law for the same thing, must be so distinguished, for it is possible 
that the rights of nomination may be in one person, and the rights 
of presentation in another. 



ADYE 



243 



or sale without any special conveyance. But where, as is often 
the case, the right of presentation has been sold by itself, and 
so separated from the manor, it is called an advowson in gross. 
An advowson may also be partly appendant, and partly in gross, 
e.g. if an owner granted to another every second presentment, 
the advowson would be appendant for the grantor's turn and 
in gross for the grantee's. 

Advowsons are further distinguished into presentative and 
collative. In a presentative advowson, the patron presents a 
clergyman to the bishop, with the petition that he be instituted 
into the vacant living. The bishop is bound to induct if he find 
the clergyman canonically qualified, and a refusal on his part 
is subject to an appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by patron 
or by presentee. In a collative advowson the bishop is himself 
the patron, either in his own right or in the right of the proper 
patron, which has lapsed to him through not being exercised 
within the statutory period of six months after the vacancy 
occurred. No petition is necessary in this case, and the bishop 
is said to collate to the benefice. Before 1898 there were also 
donative advowsons, but the Benefices Act 1898 made all dona- 
tions with cure of souls presentative. In a donative advowson, 
the sovereign, or any subject by special licence from the sover- 
eign, conferred a benefice by a simple letter of gift, without 
any reference to the bishop, and without presentation and in- 
stitution. The incumbent of such a living was to a great extent 
free from the jurisdiction of the bishop, who could only reach 
him through the action of an ecclesiastical court. 

The Benefices Act of 1898 did not make any substantial 
change in the legal character of advowsons, which remain 
practically the same as before the act. Briefly, it prevents the 
dealing with the right of presentation as a thing apart from the 
advowson itself; increases the power of the bishops to refuse 
the presentation of unfit persons, and removes several abuses 
which had arisen in the transfer of patronage. Under the pre- 
viously existing law, simony, or " the corrupt presentation of 
any person to an ecclesiastical benefice for gift, money or 
reward," renders the presentation void, and subjects the persons 
privy or party to it to penalties;, a presentation to a vacant 
benefice cannot be sold, and no clerk in holy orders can purchase 
for himself a next presentation. An advowson may, however, 
be sold during a vacancy, though that will not give the right 
to present to that vacancy; and a clerk may buy an advowson 
even though it be only an estate for life, and present himself on 
the next vacancy. Under the Benefices Act, advowsons may 
not be sold by public auction except in conjunction with landed 
property adjacent to the benefice; transfers of patronage must 
be registered in the registry of the diocese, and no such transfers 
can be made within twelve months after the last admission or 
institution to the benefice. Restrictions had also been imposed 
on the transfer of patronage of churches built under the Church 
Building Acts and New Parishes Acts, and on that of benefices 
in the gift of the lord chancellor, and sold by him in order to 
augment others; but agreements may be made as to the patron- 
age of such churches in favour of persons who have contri- 
buted to their building or enlargement without being void for 
simony. 

The right of presentation may be exercised by its owner 
whether he be an infant, executors, trustees, coparceners (who, 
if they cannot agree, present in turn in order of age) or mort- 
gagee (who must present the nominee of the mortgagor), or a 
bankrupt (who, although the advowson belongs to his creditors, 
yet has the right to present to a vacancy). Certain owners of 
advowsons are temporarily or permanently disabled from exer- 
cising the right which devolves upon other persons; and the 
crown as patron paramount of all benefices can fill all churches 
not regularly filled by other patrons. It thus presents to all 
vacancies caused by simoniacal presentations, or by the incum- 
bent having been presented to a bishopric or in benefices belong- 
ing to a bishopric when the see is vacant by the bishop's death, 
translation or deprivation. Where a presentation belongs to 
a lunatic, the lord chancellor presents for him. Where it belongs 
to a Roman Catholic the right is exercised in his behalf by the 



university of Oxford if the benefice be situate south of the river 
Trent, and by that of Cambridge if it be north of that river. 

Besides the qualifications required of a presentee by canon 
law, such as being of the canonical age, and in priest's orders 
before admission, sufficient learning and proper orthodoxy or 
morals, the Benefices Act requires that a year shall have elapsed 
since a transfer of the right of patronage, unless it can be shown 
that such transfer was not made in view of a probable vacancy; 
that the presentee has been a deacon for three years; and that 
he is not unfit for the discharge of his duties by reason of physical 
or mental infirmity or incapacity, grave pecuniary embarrass- 
ment, grave misconduct or neglect of duty in an ecclesiastical 
office, evil life, or conduct causing grave scandal concerning his 
moral character since his ordination, or being party to an illegal 
agreement with regard to the presentation; that notice of the 
presentation has been given to the parish of the benefice. Except 
by leave of the bishop or sequestrator, the incumbent of a seques- 
tered benefice cannot be presented. The act also gives to both 
patron and presentee an alternative mode of appeal against a 
bishop's refusal to institute or admit, except on a ground of 
doctrine or ritual, to a court composed of an archbishop of the 
province and a judge of the High Court nominated for that 
purpose by the lord chancellor, a course which, however, bars 
resort being had to the ordinary suits of duplex querela or action 
of quare impedit. In case of refusal of one presentee, a lay 
patron may present another, and a clerical patron may do so 
after an unsuccessful appeal against the refusal. 

Upon institution the church is full against everybody except 
the crown, and after six months' peaceable possession the clerk 
is secured in possession of the benefice, even though he may 
have been presented by a person who is not the proper patron. 
The true patron can, however, exercise his right to present at 
the next vacancy, and can reserve the advowson from an usurper 
at any time within three successive incumbencies so created 
adversely to his right, or within sixty years. Collation, which 
otherwise corresponds to institution, does not make the church 
full, and the true patron can dispossess the clerk at any time, 
unless he is a patron who collates. Possession of the benefice 
is completed by induction, which makes the church full against 
any one, including the crown. If the proper patron fails to exer- 
cise his right within six calendar months from the vacancy, the 
right devolves or lapses to the next superior patron, e.g. from an 
ordinary patron to the bishop, and if he makes similar default 
to the archbishop, and from him on similar default to the crown. 
If a bishopric becomes vacant after a lapse has accrued to it, 
it goes to the metropolitan; but in case of a vacancy of a 
benefice during the vacancy of the see the crown presents. Until 
the right of presentation so accruing to a bishop or archbishop 
is exercised, the patron can still effectually present but not if 
lapse has gone to the crown. 

(See also BENEFICE; GLEBE; INCUMBENT; VICAR.) 

AUTHORITIES. Burn, Ecclesiastical Law; Bingham's Origines 
Ecclesiasticae, or, the Antiquities of the English Church; Mirehouse, 
On Advowson; Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law. 

ADYE, SIR JOHN MILLER (1819-1000), British general, son 
of Major James P. Adye, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent, on the 
ist of November 1819. He entered the Royal Artillery in 1836, 
was promoted captain in 1846, and served throughout the 
Crimean War as brigade-major and assistant adjutant-general 
of artillery (C.B., brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel). In 
the Indian Mutiny he served on the staff in a similar capacity. 
Promoted brevet-colonel in 1860, he was specially employed in 
1863 in the N.W. frontier of India campaign, and was deputy- 
adjutant-general, Bengal, from 1863 to 1866, when he returned 
home. From 1870 to 1875 Adye was director of artillery and 
stores at the War Office. He was made a K.C.B. in 1873, and 
was promoted to be major-general and appointed governor of 
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1875, and surveyor- 
general of the ordnance in 1880. In 1882 he was chief of staff 
and second in command of the expedition to Egypt, and served 
throughout the campaign (G.C.B . and thanks of parliament) . He 
held the government of Gibraltar from 1883 to 1886. Promoted 



244 



ADYTUM AEDUI 



lieutenant-general in 1879, general and colonel commandant of 
the Royal Artillery in 1884, he retired in 1886. He unsuccess- 
fully contested Bath in the Liberal interest in 1892. He died 
on the 26th of August 1900. He was author of A Review of 
The Crimean War; The Defence of Cawnpore; A Frontier Cam- 
paign in Afghanistan; Recollections of a Military Life; and 
Indian Frontier Policy. 

ADYTUM, the Latinized form of aSvTOv (not to be entered), 
the innermost sanctuary in ancient temples, access to which was 
forbidden to all but the officiating priests. The most famous 
adytum in Greece was in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 

ADZE (from the Old Eng. adesa, of which the origin is un- 
known), a tool used for cutting and planing. It is somewhat 
like an axe reversed, the edge of the blade curving inward and 
placed at right angles to the handle. This shape is most suitable 
for planing uneven timber, as inequalities are " hooked off " by 
the curved blade. (See TOOLS.) 

ABACUS, in Greek legend, ancestor of the Aeacidae, was the 
son of Zeus and Aegina, daughter of the river-god Asopus. His 
mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of Oenone, which 
was afterwards called by her name. The island having been 
depopulated by a pestilence, Zeus changed the ants upon it into 
human beings (Ovid, Met. vii. 520), who were called Myrmidones 
(/uip/iTj/ces = ants) . Aeacus ruled over his people with such justice 
and impartiality that after his death he was made judge of the 
lower world together with Minos and Rhadamanthus. By his 
wife Endeis he was the father of Telamon and Peleus. His 
successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time of drought (Isocrates, 
Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by a temple at Aegina (Pau- 
sanias ii. 29). He himself erected a temple to Zeus Panhellenios 
and helped Poseidon and Apollo to build the walls of Troy. 

See Hutchinson, Aeacus, 1901. 

AECLANUM, an ancient town of Samnium, Italy, ism. E.S.E. 
of Beneventum, on the Via Appia (near the modern Mirabella). 
It became the chief town of the Hirpini after Beneventum had 
become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 B.C. by setting 
on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and 
new fortifications were erected. Hadrian, who repaired the Via 
Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has 
ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphi- 
theatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered. 
Two different routes to Apulia diverged at this point, one (Via 
Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern Ariano to 
Herdoniae, the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the 
Lacus Ampsanctus and going on to Aquilonia and Venusia; 
while the road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (mod. Avellini) 
may also follow an ancient line. H. Nissen (Italische Landes- 
kunde, Berlin, 1902, ii. 819) speaks of another road, which he 
believes to have been that followed by Horace, from Aeclanum 
to Trevicum and thence to Ausculum; but Th. Mommsen 
(Corpus Inscrip. Lot., Berlin, 1883, ix. 602) is more likely to be 
right in supposing that the road taken by Horace ran directly 
from Beneventum to Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though 
the course of this road is not yet determined in detail), and that 
the easier, though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of 
later date. 

AEDESIUS (d. A.D. 355), Neoplatonist philosopher, was born 
of a noble Cappadocian family. He migrated to Syria, attracted 
by the lectures of lamblichus, whose follower he became. Ac- 
cording to Eunapius, he differed from lamblichus on certain 
points connected with magic. He taught at Pergamum, his 
chief disciples being Eusebius and Maximus. He seems to have 
modified his doctrines through fear of Constantine. 

See Ritter and Preller, 552; Ritter's Geschichte der Philosophic; 
T. Whittaker, The Neoplatonists (Cambridge, 1901). 

AEDICULA (diminutive of Lat. aedis or aedes, a temple or 
house), a small house or temple, a household shrine holding 
small altars or the statues of the Lares and Penates. 

AEDILE (Lat. aedilis), in Roman antiquities, the name of 
certain Roman magistrates, probably derived from aedis (a 
temple), because they had the care of the temple of Ceres, where 
the plebeian archives were kept. They were originally two in 



number, called " plebeian " aediles. They were created in the 
same year as the tribunes of the people (494 B.C.), their persons 
were sacrosanct or inviolable, and (at least after 471) they were 
elected at the Comitia Tributa out of the plebeians alone. 
Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised 
certain police functions, were empowered to inflict fines and 
managed the plebeian and Roman games. According to Livy 
(vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations, an extra day 
was added to the Roman games; the aediles refused to bear 
the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to 
undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedile- 
ship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two 
" curule " aediles were appointed at first from the patricians 
alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from 
either at the Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the 
consul. Although not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting 
in a curule chair and wore the distinctive toga praetexta. They 
took over the management of the Roman and Megalesian games, 
the care of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing 
edicts as superintendents of the markets. But although the 
curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their 
functions gradually approximated and became practically 
identical. 

Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three 
heads: (i) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of 
temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; 
regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated 
buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths 
and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of 
gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, 
including the prevention of foreign superstitions. They also 
punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, 
or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provi- 
sions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and 
the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn 
for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of the 
games: superintendence and organization of the public games, 
as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals 
(e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often 
spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favour 
with a. view to official advancement. 

In 44 Caesar added two patrician aediles, called Cereales, 
whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply. Under 
Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its juridical 
functions and the care of the games being transferred to the 
praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the ap- 
pointment of a praefectus urbi. In the 3rd century A. D. it 
disappeared altogether. 

AUTHORITIES. Schubert, De Romanorum Aedilibus (1828) ; Hoff- 
mann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1842) ; Goll, De Aedilibus sub Caesarum 
Imperio (1860) ; Labatut, Les diles el les mceurs (1868) ; Marquardt- 
Mommsen, Handbuch der romischen Altertiimer, ii. (1888); Soltau, 
Die ursprungliche Bedeutung und Competenz der Aediles Plebis (Bonn, 
1882). 

AEDUI, HAEDUI or HEDUI (Gr. AMouoi), a Gallic people of 
Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the 
Arar (Sa6ne) and Liger (Loire). The statement in Strabo (ii. 3. 
192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis (Doubs) is 
incorrect. Their territory thus included the greater part of 
the modern departments of Sa6ne-et-Loire, C6te d'Or and 
Nievre. According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedi- 
tion of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century B.C. Before 
Caesar's time they had attached themselves to the Romans, 
and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of 
the Roman people. When the Sequani, their neighbours on 
the other side of the Arar, with whom they were continually 
quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with 
the assistance of a German chieftain named Ariovistus, the 
Aedui sent Divitiacus, the druid, to Rome to appeal to the 
senate for help, but his mission was unsuccessful. On his arrival 
in Gaul (58 B.C.), Caesar restored their independence. In spite 
of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar 
(B.C. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at Alesia 



AEGADIAN ISLANDS AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 



245 



were glad to return to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled 
their native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, and substituted 
a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augusto- 
dunum (mod. Autun). During the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 21), 
they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, 
but were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus, Ann. iii. 
43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from 
the emperor Claudius the distinction oi the jus honorum. The 
oration of Eumenius (q.v.), in which he pleaded for the restora- 
tion of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows 
that the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the 
Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobrelus (according to 
Mommsen, "judgment-worker"), who was elected annually, 
possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go 
beyond the frontier. Certain clienles, or small communities, 
were also dependent upon the Aedui. 

See A. E. Desjardins, Geographic de la Gaule, ii. (1876-1893) ; T. R. 
Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Caul (1899). 

AEGADIAN ISLANDS (Ital. I sole Egati; anc. Aegates In- 
sulae), a group of small mountainous islands off the western 
coast of Sicily, chiefly remarkable as the scene of the defeat 
of the Carthaginian fleet by C. Lutatius Catulus in 241 B.C., 
which ended the First Punic War. Favignana (Aegusa), the 
largest, pop. (1901) 6414, lies 10 m. S.W. of Trapani; Levanzo 
(Phorbantia) 8m. W.; while Maritime, the ancient Upa crjoxis, 
1 5 m. W. of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. 
They belonged to the Pallavicini family of Genoa until 1874, 
when they were bought by Signer Florio of Palermo. 

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, the general term for the prehistoric 
civilization, previously called " Mycenaean" because its existence 
was first brought to popular notice by Heinrich Schliemann's 
excavations at Mycenae in 1876. Subsequent discoveries, how- 
ever, have made it clear that MyCenae was not its chief centre 
in its earlier stages, or, perhaps, at any period; and, accordingly, 
it is more usual now to adopt a wider geographical title. 

I. History of Discovery and Distribution of Remains. Mycenae 
and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a 
prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the classical 
Greeks. The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, 
its gate with heraldic lions, and the great " Treasury of 
Atreus " had borne silent witness for ages before Schliemann's 
time; but they were supposed only to speak to the Homeric, or 
at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely Hellenic, civiliza- 
tion. It was not till Schliemann exposed the contents of the 
graves which lay just inside the gate (see MYCENAE), that 
scholars recognized the advanced stage of art to which pre- 
historic dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained. There 
had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 
1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might 
have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel 
graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that 
certain tributaries, represented e.g. in the XVIII th Dynasty tomb 
of Rekhmara at Egyptian Thebes as bearing vases of peculiar 
forms, were of some Mediterranean race, neither their precise 
habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined 
while so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the 
Mediterranean lands. Nor did the Aegean objects which were 
lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a 
sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths 
of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken 
seriously. Both at Sevres and Neuchatel Aegean vases have 
been exhibited since about 1840, the provenience being in the 
one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia. Ludwig 
Ross, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, 
called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as 
Insdsleine; but it was not till 1878 that C. T. Newton demon- 
strated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 
primitive structures were discovered in the island of Therasia 
by quarrymen extracting pozzolana for the Suez Canal works; 
and when this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neigh- 
bouring Santorin (Thera), by representatives of the French 
School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immedi- 



ately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone 
and metal objects, were found and dated by the geologist 
Fouque, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., by consideration 
of the superincumbent eruptive stratum. Meanwhile, in 1868, 
tombs at lalysus in Rhodes had yielded to M. A. Biliotti many 
fine painted vases of styles which were called later the third and 
fourth " Mycenaean "; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and 
presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than 
they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric 
of uncertain date. Nor was a connexion immediately detected 
between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb 
at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut " bee-hive " grave near the 
Argive Heraeum. 

Even Schliemann's first excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad 
(q.v.) did not excite surprise. But the " Burnt City " of his 
second stratum, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and 
vases, and a hoard of gold, silver and bronze objects, which the 
discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity which 
was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle 
of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves 
three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric 
period of Greece. It was recognized that the character of both 
the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not 
that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved 
by the identification of the Inselsteine and the lalysus vases with 
the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier 
Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relation between objects 
of art described by Homer and the Mycenaean treasure was 
generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while 
certainly posterior, the civilization of the Iliad was reminiscent 
of the Mycenaean. Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik 
in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, 
but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his " Lydian " city 
of the sixth stratum, which were not to be fully revealed till 
Dr W. Dorpfeld resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after the 
first explorer's death (see TROAD). But by laying bare in 1884 
the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns (<?..), Schlie- 
mann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric 
domestic life which was amplified two years later by Chr. 
Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae palace. Schliemann's work 
at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as 
had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one 
he had exposed. From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean 
sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the con- 
tinuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser 
graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's 
princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at 
Athens. In that year were excavated dome-tombs, most already 
rifled but retaining some of their furniture, at Arkina and Eleusis 
in Attica, at Dimini near Volo in Thessaly, at Kampos on the 
west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The 
richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, 
and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' 
work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, 
and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which 
remained an enigma till the excavation of Cnossus. In 1890 and 
1893 Stae's cleared out certain less rich dome-tombs at Thoricus 
in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut " bee-hives " or 
chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina 
and Salamis, at the Heraeum (see ARGOS) and Nauplia in the 
Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian 
Larissa. During the excavations on the Acropolis at Athens, 
terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style 
were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as 
had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the 
temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean. 
The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded 
in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in 
the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its 
neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation 
in the later Aegean periods. Prehistoric research had now begun 
to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean 



246 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 



islands, Antiparos, los, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all 
found to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean 
period. The series of Syran built graves, containing crouching 
corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the 
Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects, but 
not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British 
School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all 
the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic. A map of Cyprus in 
the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. 
Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than 
five-and-twenty settlements in and about the Mesaorea district 
alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, 
has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found 
outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, 
like that of Hissarlik, in central Phrygia and at Pteria' (q.i).), and 
the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into 
north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic 
specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyn- 
dacus, Sangarius and Halys. In Egypt in 1887 W. M. F. Petrie 
found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and 
farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no 
fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been 
recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris 
and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style 
which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of 
Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found 
at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially 
Cypriote pottery have been turned up during recent excavations 
of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund. South-eastern Sicily, 
ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 

1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear 
in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration 
from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia 
has Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded 
objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cadiz and from 
Saragossa. One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the 
Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages, 
viz. Crete, so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as 
the fountain-head of Aegean civilization, and probably for long 
its political and social centre. The island first attracted the 
notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes 
found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic 
monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna; but the first 
undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects 
extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 

1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the 
S. plain (Messara) by F. Halbherr. W. J. StiUman and H. 
Schliemann both made unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus, and 
A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeed- 
ing years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered 
evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things 
would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him 
to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not sus- 
pected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897-98 opened 
the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, 
for which see CRETE. Thus the " Aegean Area " has now come 
to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic 
peninsula with the Ionian isles, and Western Anatolia. Evidence 
is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Off- 
shoots are' found in the W. Mediterranean, in Sicily, Italy, 
Sardinia and Spain, and in the E. in Syria and Egypt. About 
the Cyrenaica we are still insufficiently informed. 

II. General Nature of the Evidence. For details of monumental 
evidence the articles on CRETE, MYCENAE, TIRYNS, TROAD, 
CYPRUS, &c., must be consulted. The most representative site 
explored up to now is Cnossus (see CRETE, sect. Archaeology), 
which has yielded not only the most various but the most 
continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight 
of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik, 
Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia, Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palai- 
kastro and Gournia. 

A. The internal evidence at present available comprises 



(1) Structures. Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built 
dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean isles, Greek 
mainland and N.W. Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small 
shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of 
one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro 
by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and 
frescoes. From like sources and from inlay-work we have also 
representations of palace's and houses. 

(2) Structural Decoration. Architectural features, such as 
columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, 
such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. 

(3) Furniture. (a) Domestic, such as vessels of all sorts and 
in many materials, from huge store-jars down to tiny unguent- 
pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, 
&c., these aU in stone or plastered terra-cotta. (b) Sacred, 
such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these 
we have also numerous pictorial representations, (c) Funerary, 
e.g. coffins in painted terra-cotta. 

(4) Artistic fabrics, e.g. plastic objects, carved in stone or ivory, 
cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or 
modelled in clay, faience, paste, &c. Very little trace has yet 
been found of large free sculpture, but many examples exist of 
sculptors' smaller work. Vases of all kinds, carved in marble 
or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, 
the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented 
with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decora- 
tion. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. 
Engraved objects in great number, e.g. ring-bezels and gems; 
and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these. 

(5) Weapons, tools and implements, in stone, clay and bronze, 
and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. 
Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body- 
armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, 
like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae. 

(6) Articles of personal use, e.g. brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, 
tweezers, &c., often found as dedications to a deity, e.g. in the 
Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived. 

(7) Written documents, e.g. clay tablets and discs (so far in 
Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, 
papyrus, &c.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends 
written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on 
stone or pottery. These show two main systems of script (see 
CRETE). 

(8) Excavated tombs, of either the pit or the grotto kind, in 
which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use 
and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or 
simple wrappings. 

(9) Public works, such as paved and stepped roadways, 
bridges, systems of drainage, &c. 

B. There is also a certain amount of external evidence to be 
gathered from 

(1) Monuments and records of other contemporary civiliza- 
tions, e.g. representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; 
imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non- Aegean lands; 
allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or 
Babylonian records. 

(2) Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations, especially 
the Hellenic, such as, e.g., those embodied in the Homeric poems, 
the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, &c. ; statements as to 
the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by 
Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus 
Siculus, &c. 

(3) Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, &c., in the Aegean 
area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which 
they were practised and indicating survival from earlier systems. 
There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to 
be considered. 

III. General Features of Aegean Civilization. The leading 
features of Aegean civilization, as deduced from the evidence, 
must be stated very briefly. 

(i) Political Organization. The great Cretan palaces and 
the fortified citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarlik, each 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 

GRAPHIC ART 



PLATE I. 




FIG. i FLYING FISH FRESCO, PHYLAKOPI. 

Cf. J.H S. Suppl. Papers, iv. 



FIG. 2. BULL, WITH LEAPING BULL-FIGHTER TIRYNS. 

Cf. Schliemann, Tiryns, Plate XIII. 





FIG. 4. MIDDLE MINOAN VASE,' CNOSSUS. 

B.S A. ix. i2c, Fig. 75. 





W 





FIG. 3 LAMP-STAND, PHYLAKOPI. 

Cf J B.S. Suppl Papers, iv Plate XXII. 
I. 246. 



FIG. 6. FILLER VASE. ZAKRO. 

J.H.S. vol. xxii. Plate XII 



FIG. 5. MINIATURE FRESCOES. SHOW- 
ING SPECTATORS AT ATHLETIC 
SPORTS, CNOSSUS. 

From Photo by Dr. A. J. Evans. 

By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. 



PLATE II. 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 

PLASTIC ART 



- 





FIG. 2. MARBLE IDOLS, AMORGOS; 6-n FIDDLE 
AND MALLET TYPES, 12-14, DEVELOPED TYPES. 

Man. 1901, 185, No. 146. 

By permission of the Royal Anlhrojx lopicnl Instilute 



JIG. i FAIENCE PLAQUE, CNOSSUS. 

B.S.A. ix. Plate III. 





FIG. 3. COLOURED BAS-RELIEF IN GESSO FIG. 4. MARBLE HEAD 

DURO, REPRESENTING MALE TORSO FROM AMORGOS (ASH- 

WITH FLEUR-DE-LIS COLLAR. MOLEAN MUSEUM). FIG. 5 BULL IN PAINTED PLASTER, CNOSSUS. 

B.S.A. vii. 17. Fig. 6. Photo by Dr A. J. Evans. 





FIGS. 6, 7. IVORY FIGURES AND HEADS OF ATHLETES, BULL-FIGHTERS OR ACROBATS, CNOSSUS. 

B.S.A. viii. Plates II. and III., and p. 72 sq. 

By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 



247 



Plena 




Map showing the distribution of 
AEGEAN SITES 



containing little more than one great residence, and dominating 
lower towns of meaner houses, point to monarchy at all periods. 
Independent local developments of art before the middle of the 
2nd millennium B.C. suggest the early existence of independent 
units in various parts, of which the strongest was the Cnossian. 
After that date the evidence goes strongly to show that one 
political dominion was spread for a brief period, or for two brief 
periods, over almost all the area (see later). The great number 
of tribute-tallies found at Cnossus perhaps indicates that the 
centre of power was always there. 

(2) Religion. The fact that shrines have so far been found 
within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that 
the kings kept religious power in their own hands; perhaps 
they were themselves high-priests. Religion in the area seems 
to have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest 
period, viz. the cult of a Divine Principle, resident in dominant 
features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, &c.) and control- 
ling fertility. This cult passed through an aniconic stage, from 
which fetishes survived to the last, these being rocks or pillars, 
trees, weapons (e.g. bipennis, or double war-axe, shield), &c. 
When the iconic stage was reached, about 2000 B.C., we find the 
Divine Spirit represented as a goddess with a subordinate young 
god, as in many other E. Mediterranean lands. The god was 
probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair 
represented the genius of Reproductive Fertility in its relations 
with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with doves, 
as uranic, at others with snakes, as chthonic. In the ritual 
fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts 
of plants and animals were sacred: sacrifice (not burnt, and 
human very doubtful), dedication of all sorts of offerings and 
simulacra, invocation, &c., were practised. The dead, who 
returned to the Great Mother, were objects of a sort of hero- 
worship. This early nature-cult explains many anomalous 
features of Hellenic religion, especially in the cults of Artemis 
and Aphrodite. (See CRETE.) 

(3) Social Organization. There is a possibility that features 
of a primeval matriarchate long survived; but there is no 
certain evidence. Of the organization of the people under the 
monarch we are ignorant. There are so few representations 
of armed men that it seems doubtful if there. can have been 
any professional military class. Theatral structures found at 
Cnossus and Phaestus, within the precincts of the palaces, 
were perhaps used for shows or for sittings of a royal assize, 
rather than for popular assemblies. The Cnossian remains 
contain evidence of an elaborate system of registration, account- 
keeping and other secretarial work, which perhaps indicates a 
considerable body of law. The life of the ruling class was 
comfortable and even luxurious from early times. Fine stone 
palaces, richly decorated, with separate sleeping apartments, 



large halls, ingenious devices for admitting light and air, sanitary 
conveniences and marvellously modern arrangements for supply 
of water and for drainage, attest this fact. Even the smaller 
houses, after the Neolithic period, seem also to have been of 
stone, plastered within. After 1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete 
had more than one story, fine stairways, bath-chambers, win- 
dows, folding and sliding doors, &c. In this later period, the 
distinction of blocks of apartments in some palaces has been 
held to indicate the seclusion of .women in harems, at least 
among the ruling caste. Cnossian frescoes show women grouped 
apart, and they appear alone on gems. Flesh and fish and 
many kinds of vegetables were evidently eaten, and wine and 
beer were drunk. Vessels for culinary, table, and luxurious 
uses show an infinite variety of form and purpose. Artificers' 
implements of many kinds were in use, bronze succeeding 
obsidian and other hard stones as the material. Seats are found 
carefully shaped to the human person. There was evidently 
olive- and vine-culture on a large scale in Crete at any rate. 
Chariots were in use in the later period, as is proved by the 
pictures of them on Cretan tablets, and therefore, probably, 
the horse also was known. Indeed a horse appears on a gem 
impression. Main ways were paved. Sports, probably more 
or less religious, are often represented, e.g. bull-fighting, dancing, 
boxing, armfd combats. 8 4 3 E 

(4) Commerce was practised to some extent in very early 
times, as is proved by the distribution of Melian obsidian over 
all the Aegean area and by the Nilotic influence on early Minoan 
art. We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos, Egypt and the 
Greek mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete. 
After 1600 B.C. there is very close intercourse with Egypt, and 
Aegean things find their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean 
(see below). No traces of currency have come to light, unless 
certain axe-heads, too slight for practical use, had that char- 
acter; but standard weights have been found, and representa- 
tions of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet 
proved (by being found outside the area) epistolary correspond- 
ence with other lands. Representations of ships are not common, 
but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings 
and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with masts. 
Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine 
motives in decoration. 

(5) Treatment of the Dead. The dead in the earlier period 
were laid (so far as we know at present) within cists constructed 
of upright stones. These were sometimes inside caves. After 
the burial the cist was covered in with earth. A little later, in 
Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into use, containing the 
remains of many burials. Possibly the flesh was boiled off the 
bones at once (" scarification "), or left to rot in separate cists 
awhile; afterwards the skeletons were collected and the cists 



248 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 



re-used. The coffins are of small size, contain corpses with the 
knees drawn up to the chin and are found in excavated chambers 
or pits. In the later period a peculiar " bee-hive " tomb became 
common, sometimes wholly or partly excavated, sometimes (as 
in the magnificent Mycenaean " Treasuries ") constructed dome- 
wise. The shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle are also a late 
type, paralleled in the later Cnossian cemetery. The latest 
type of tomb is a flatly vaulted chamber approached by a 
horizontal or slightly inclined way, whose sides converge above. 
At no period do the Aegean dead seem to have been burned. 
Weapons, food, water, unguents and various trinkets were laid 
with the corpse at all periods. In the Mycenae circle an altar 
seems to have been erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves 
were killed to bear the dead chiefs company. A painted sarco- 
phagus, found at Hagia Triada, also possibly shows a hero-cult 
of the dead. 

(6) Artistic Production. Ceramic art reached a specially high 
standard in fabric, form and decoration by the middle of the 
3rd millennium B.C. in Crete. The products of that period com- 
pare favourably with any potters' work in the world. The 
same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably of metal 
work. Modelling in terra-cotta, sculpture in stone and ivory, 
engraving on gems, were following it closely by the beginning of 
the 2nd millennium. After 2000 B.C. all these arts revived, and 
sculpture, as evidenced by relief work, both on a large and on a 
small scale, carved stone vessels, metallurgy in gold, silver and 
bronze, advanced farther. This art and those of fresco- and 
vase-painting and of gem-engraving stood higher about the 
iSth century B.C. than at any subsequent period before the 6th 
century. The manufacture, modelling and painting of faience 
objects, and the making of inlays in many materials were also 
familiar to Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a 
strong sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance 
and decorative effect, such as are seen in the best products of 
later Hellenic art. Architectural ornament was also highly 
developed. The richness of the Aegean capitals and columns 
may be judged by those from the " Treasury of Atreus " now set 
up in the British Museum; and of the friezes we have examples 
in Mycenaean and Cnossian fragments, and Cnossian paintings. 
The magnificent gold work of the later period, preserved to us at 
Mycenae and Vaphio, needs only to be mentioned. It should be 
compared with stone work in Crete, especially the steatite vases 
with reliefs found at Hagia Triada. On the whole, Aegean art, 
at its two great periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia 
respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts. 

IV. Origin, Nature and History of Aegean Civilization. The 
evidence, summarized above, though very various and volumin- 
ous, is not yet sufficient to answer all the questions which may 
be asked as to the origin, nature and history of this civilization, 
or to answer any but a few questions with absolute certainty. 
We shall try to indicate the extent to which it can legitimately 
be applied. 

A. Distinctive Features. The fact that Aegean civilization is 
distinguished from all others, prior or contemporary, not only 
by its geographical area, but by leading organic characteristics, 
has never been in doubt, since its remains came to be studied 
seriously and impartially. The truth was indeed obscured for 
a time by persistent prejudices in favour of certain alien Medi- 
terranean races long known to have been in relation with the 
Aegean area in prehistoric times, e.g. the Egyptians and especi- 
ally the Phoenicians. But their claims to be the principal 
authors of the Aegean remains grew fainter with every fresh 
Aegean discovery, and every new light thrown on their own 
proper products; with the Cretan revelations they ceased 
altogether to be considered except by a few Homeric enthusiasts. 
Briefly, we now know that the Aegean. civilization developed 
these distinctive features, (i) An indigenous script expressed 
in characters of which only a very small percentage are identical, 
or even obviously connected, with those of any other script. 
This is equally true both of the pictographic and the linear 
Aegean systems. Its nearest affinities are with the " Asianic " 
scripts, preserved to us by Hittite, Cypriote and south-west 



Anatolian (Pamphylian, Lycian and Carian) inscriptions. But 
neither are these affinities close enough to be of any practical 
aid in deciphering Aegean characters, nor is it by any means 
certain that there is parentage. The Aegean script may be, 
and probably is, prior in origin to the " Asianic "; and it may 
equally well be owed to a remote common ancestor, or (the small 
number of common characters being considered) be an entirely 
independent evolution from representations of natural objects 
(see CRETE). (2) An Art, whose products cannot be confounded 
with those of any other known art by a trained eye. Its obliga- 
tions to other contemporary arts are many and obvious, especi- 
ally in its later stages; but every borrowed form and motive 
undergoes an essential modification at the hands of the Aegean 
craftsman, and the product is stamped with a new character. 
The secret of this character lies evidently in a constant attempt 
to express an ideal in forms more and more closely approaching 
to realities. We detect the dawn of that spirit which afterwards 
animated Hellenic art. The fresco-paintings, ceramic motives, 
reliefs, free sculpture and toreutic handiwork of Crete have 
supplied the clearest proof of it, confirming the impression 
already created by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the 
Greek mainland (Mycenae, Vaphio, Tiryns). (3) Architectural 
plans and decoration. The arrangement of Aegean palaces is 
of two main types. First (and perhaps earliest in time), the 
chambers are grouped round a central court, being engaged one 
with the other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater 
oblongs are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally 
by pillars. Second, the main chamber is of what is known as 
the megaron type, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest of the 
plan by corridors, is entered from a vestibule on a short side, 
and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars and perhaps 
hypaethral; there is no central court, and other apartments 
form distinct blocks. For possible geographical reasons for this 
duality of type see CRETE. In spite of many comparisons made 
with Egyptian, Babylonian and " Hittite " plans, both these 
arrangements remain incongruous with any remains of prior or 
contemporary structures elsewhere. Whether either plan suits 
the " Homeric palace " does not affect the present question. 
(4) A type of tomb, the dome or " bee-hive," of which the grandest 
examples known are at Mycenae. The Cretan " larnax " coffins, 
also, have no parallels outside the Aegean. There are other 
infinite singularities of detail; but the above are more than 
sufficient to establish the point. 

B. Origin and Continuity. With the immense expansion of 
the evidence, due to the Cretan excavations, a question has 
arisen how far the Aegean civilization, whose total duration 
covers at least three thousand years, can be regarded as one 
and continuous. Thanks to the exploration of Cnossus, we now 
know that Aegean civilization had its roots in a primitive Neo- 
lithic period, of uncertain but very long duration, represented 
by a stratum which (on that site in particular) is in places nearly 
20 ft. thick, and contains stone implements and sherds of hand- 
made and hand-polished vessels, showing a progressive develop- 
ment in technique from bottom to top. This Cnossian stratum 
seems to be throughout earlier than the lowest layer at Hissarlik. 
It closes with the introduction of incised, white-filled decoration 
on pottery, whose motives are presently found reproduced in 
monochrome pigment. We are now in the beginning of the 
Bronze Age, and the first of Evans's " Minoan " periods (see 
CRETE). Thereafter, by exact observation of stratification, 
eight more periods have been distinguished by the explorer of 
Cnossus, each marked by some important development in the 
universal and necessary products of the potter's art, the least 
destructible and therefore most generally used archaeological 
criterion. These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose 
close, by the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean 
Age is conventionally held to end. Iron came into general Aegean 
use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a 
body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins 
of the earlier dominion. The important point is this, that 
throughout the nine Cnossian periods, following the Neolithic 
Age (named by Evans, " Minoan I. i, 2, 3; II. i, 2, 3; III. i. 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 



249 



2, 3 " ; see CRETE), there is evidence of a perfectly orderly 
and continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic art. From 
one stage to another, fabrics, forms and motives of decoration 
develop gradually; so that, at the close of a span of more than 
two thousand years, at the least, the influences of the beginning 
can still be clearly seen and no trace of violent artistic intrusion 
can be detected. This fact, by itself, would go far to prove 
that the civilization continued fundamentally and essentially 
the same throughout. It is, moreover, supported by less abun- 
dant remains of other arts. That of painting in fresco, for in- 
stance, shows the same orderly development from at any rate 
Period II. 2 to the end. About institutions we have less certain 
knowledge, there being but little evidence for the earlier periods; 
but in the documents relating to religion, the most significant of 
all, it can at least be said that there is no trace of sharp change. 
We see evidence of a uniform Nature Worship passing through all 
the normal stages down to theoanthropism in the latest period. 
There is no appearance of intrusive deities or cult-ideas. We 
may take it then (and the fact is not disputed even by those 
who, like Dorpfeld, believe in one thorough racial change, at 
least, during the Bronze Age) that the Aegean civilization was 
indigenous, firmly rooted and strong enough to persist essen- 
tially unchanged and dominant in its own geographical area 
throughout the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. This conclusion 
can hardly entail less than a belief that, at any rate, the mass 
of those who possessed this civilization continued racially the 
same. 

There are, however, in certain respects at certain periods, 
evidences of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of 
small conquering castes, which adopted the superior civilization 
of the conquered people and became assimilated to the latter. 
The earliest palace at Cnossus was built probably in Period II. 
i or 2. It was of the type mentioned first in the description 
of palace-plans above. Before Period III. i it was largely re- 
built, and arguments have been brought forward by Dorpfeld 
to show that features of the second type were then introduced. 
A similar rebuilding took place at the same epoch at Phaestus, 
and possibly at Hagia Triada. Now the second type, the 
" megaron " arrangement, characterizes peculiarly the palaces 
discovered in the north of the Aegean area, at Mycenae, Tiryns 
and Hissarlik, where up to the present no signs of the first type, 
so characteristic of Crete, have been observed. These northern 
" megara " are all of late date, none being prior to Minoan III. i. 
At Phylakope, a " megaron " appears only in the uppermost 
Aegean stratum, the underlying structures being more in con- 
formity with the earlier Cretan. At the same epoch a notable 
change took place in the Aegean script. The pictographic 
characters, found on seals and discs of Period II. in Crete, had 
given way entirely to a linear system by Period III. That 
system thenceforward prevailed exclusively, suffering a slight 
modification again in III. 2 and 3. 

These and other less well marked changes, say some critics, 
are signs of a racial convulsion not long after 2000 B.C. An old 
race was conquered by a new, even if, in matters of civilization, 
the former capta victorem cepit. For these races respectively 
Dorpfeld suggests the names " Lycian " and " Carian, " the 
latter coming in from the north Aegean, where Greek tradition 
remembered its former dominance. These names do not greatly 
help us. If we are to accept and profit by Dorpfeld's nomen- 
clature, we must be satisfied that, in their later historic habitats, 
both Lycians and Carians showed unmistakable signs of having 
formerly possessed the civilizations attributed to them in pre- 
historic times signs which research has hitherto wholly failed 
to find. The most that can be said to be capable of proof is 
the infiltration of some northern influence into Crete at the end 
of Minoan Period II. ; but it probably brought about no change 
of dynasty and certainly no change in the prevailing race. 

A good deal of anthropometric investigation has been devoted 
to human remains of the Aegean epoch, especially to skulls and 
bones found in Crete in tombs of Period II. The result of this, 
however, has not so far established more than the fact that 
the Aegean races, as a whole, belonged to the dark, long-headed 



Homo Medilerraneus, whose probable origin lay in mid-eastern 
Africa a fact only valuable in the present connexion in so far 
as it tends to discredit an Asiatic source for Aegean civilization. 
Not enough evidence has been collected to affect the question 
of racial change during the Aegean period. From the skull- 
forms studied, it would appear, as we should expect, that the 
Aegean race was by no means pure even in the earlier Minoan 
periods. It only remains to be added that there is some ground 
for supposing that the language spoken in Crete before the later 
Doric was non-Hellenic, but Indo-European. This inference 
rests on three inscriptions in Greek characters but non-Greek 
language found in E. Crete. The language has some apparent 
affinities with Phrygian. The inscriptions are post-Aegean by 
many centuries, but they occur in the part of the island known 
to Homer as that inhabited by the Eteo-Cretans, or aborigines. 
Their language may prove to be that of the Linear tablets. 

C. History of Aegean Civilization. History of an inferential 
and summary sort only can be derived from monuments in the 
absence of written records. The latter do, indeed, exist in the 
case of the Cretan civilization and in great numbers; but they 
are undeciphered and likely to remain so, except in the im- 
probable event of the discovery of a long bi-lingual text, partly 
couched in some familiar script and language. Even in that 
event, the information which would be derived from the Cnossian 
tablets would probably make but a small addition to history, 
since in very large part they are evidently mere inventories of 
tribute and stores. The engraved gems probably record divine 
or human names. (See CRETE.) 

(i) Chronology. The earliest chronological datum that we 
possess is inferred from a close similarity between certain Cretan 
hand-made and polished vases of Minoan Period I. i and others 
discovered by Petrie at Abydos in Egypt and referred by him 
to the 1st Dynasty. He goes so far as to pronounce the latter 
to be Cretan importations, their fabric and forms being unlike 
anything Nilotic. If that be so, the period at which stone im- 
plements were beginning to be superseded by bronze in Crete 
must be dated before 4000 B.C. But it will be remembered that 
below all Evans's " Minoan " strata lies the immensely thick 
Neolithic deposit. To date the beginning of this earliest record 
of human production is impossible at present. The Neolithic 
stratum varies very much in depth, ranging from nearly 20 ft. 
to 3 ft., but is deepest on the highest part of the hillock. Its 
variations may be due equally to natural denudation of a stratum 
once of uniform depth, or to the artificial heaping up of a mound 
by later builders. Even were certainty as to these alternatives 
attained, we could only guess at the average rate of accumula- 
tion, which experience shows to proceed very differently on 
different sites and under different social and climatic conditions. 
In later periods at Cnossus accumulation seems to have proceeded 
at a rate of, roughly, 3 ft. per thousand years. Reckoning by 
that standard we might push the earliest Neolithic remains back 
behind 10,000 B.C.; but the calculation would be worthy of little 
credence. 

Passing by certain fragments of stone vessels, found at Cnossus, 
and coincident with forms characteristic of the IVth Pharaonic 
Dynasty, we reach another fairly certain date in the synchronism 
of remains belonging to the Xllth Dynasty (c. 2500 B.C. accord- 
ing to Petrie, but later according to the Berlin School) with 
products of Minoan Period II. 2. Characteristic Cretan pottery 
of this period was found by Petrie in the Fayum in conjunction 
with Xllth Dynasty remains, and various Cretan products of the 
period show striking coincidences with Xllth Dynasty styles, 
especially in their adoption of spiraliform ornament. The spiral, 
however, it must be confessed, occurs so often in natural objects 
(e.g. horns, climbing plants, shavings of wood or metal) that too 
much stress must not be laid on the mutual parentage of spirali- 
form ornament in different civilizations. A diorite statuette, 
referable by its style and inscription to Dynasty XIII., was dis- 
covered in deposit of Period II. 3 in the Central Court, and a 
cartouche of the "Shepherd King," Khyan, was also found at 
Cnossus. He is usually dated about 1900 B.C. This brings us 
to the next and most certain synchronism, that of Minoan Periods 



250 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 



III. i, 2, with Dynasty XVIII. (c. 1600-140x5 B.C.). This co- 
incidence has been observed not only at Cnossus, but previously, 
in connexion with discoveries of scarabs and other Egyptian 
objects made at Mycenae, lalysus, Vaphio, &c. In Egypt itself 
Kefti tributaries, bearing vases of Aegean form, and themselves 
similar in fashion of dress and arrangement of hair to figures on 
Cretan frescoes and gems of Period III., are depicted under this 
and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. Rekhmara tomb at Thebes). 
Actual vases of late Minoan style have been found with remains 
of Dynasty XVIII., especially in the town of Amenophis IV. 
Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna; while in the Aegean area itself 
we have abundant evidence of a great wave of Egyptian influence 
beginning with this same Dynasty. To this wave were owed in 
all probability the Nilotic scenes depicted on the Mycenae 
daggers, on frescoes of Hagia Triada and Cnossus, on pottery of 
Zakro, on the shell-relief of Phaestus, &c. ; and also many forms 
and fabrics, e.g. certain Cretan coffins, and the faience industry 
of Cnossus. These serve to date, beyond all reasonable question, 
Periods III. 1-2 in Crete, the shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle, 
the Vaphio tomb, &c., to the i6th and isth centuries B.C., and 
Period III. 3 with the lower town at Mycenae, the majority of 
the sixth stratum at Hissariik, the lalysus burials, the upper 
stratum at Phylakope, &c., to the century immediately suc- 
ceeding. 

The terminus ad quern is less certain iron does not begin to 
be used for weapons in the Aegean till after Period III. 3, and 
then not exclusively. If we fix its introduction to about 1000 
B.C. and make it coincident with the incursion of northern tribes, 
remembered by the classical Greeks as the Dorian Invasion, we 
must allow that this incursion did not altogether stamp out 
Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its area. 
But it finally destroyed the Cnossian palace and initiated the 
" Geometric '' Age, with which, for convenience at any rate, we 
may close the history of Aegean civilization proper. 

(2) Annals. From these and other data the outlines of primi- 
tive history in the Aegean may be sketched thus. A people, 
agreeing in its prevailing skull-forms with the Mediterranean 
race of N. Africa, was settled in the Aegean area from a remote 
Neolithic antiquity, but, except in Crete, where insular security 
was combined with great natural fertility, remained in a savage 
and unproductive condition until far into the 4th millennium 
B.C. In Crete, however, it had long been developing a certain 
civilization, and at a period more or less contemporary with 
Dynasties XI. and XII. (2500 B.C. ?) the scattered communities 
of the centre of the island coalesced into a strong monarchical 
state, whose capital was at Cnossus. There the king, probably 
also high priest of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone 
palace, and received the tribute of feudatories, of whom, prob- 
ably, the prince of Phaestus, who commanded the Messara plain, 
was chief. The Cnossian monarch had maritime relations with 
Egypt, and presently sent his wares all over the S. Aegean (e.g. 
to Melos in the earlier Second City Period of Phylakope) and to 
Cyprus, receiving in return such commodities as Melian obsidian 
knives. A system of pictographic writing came into use early 
in this Palace period, but only a few documents, made of durable 
material, have survived. Pictorial art of a purely indigenous 
character, whether on ceramic material or plaster, made great 
strides, and from ceramic forms we may legitimately infer also 
a high skill in metallurgy. The absence of fortifications both 
at Cnossus and Phaestus suggest that at this time Crete was in- 
ternally peaceful and externally secure. Small settlements, in 
very close relation with the capital, were founded in the east of 
the island to command fertile districts and assist maritime 
commerce. Gournia and Palaikastro fulfilled both these ends: 
Zakro must have had mainly a commercial purpose, as the 
starting-point for the African coast. The acme of this dominion 
was reached about the end of the 3rd millennium B.C., and there- 
after there ensued a certain, though not very serious, decline. 
Meanwhile, at other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly, 
it appears, on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g. 
Tiryns and Hissariik, other communities of the early race began 
to arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the 



more advanced culture of Crete, in proportion to their nearness 
of vicinity. Early Hissariik shows less Cretan influence and 
more external (i.e. Asiatic) than early Melos. The inner Greek 
mainland remained still in a backward state. Five hundred 
years, later about 1600 B.C. we observe that certain striking 
changes have taken place. The Aegean remains have become 
astonishingly uniform over the whole area; the local ceramic 
developments have almost ceased and been replaced by ware of 
one general type both of fabric and decoration. The Cretans 
have stayed their previous decadence, and are once more pos- 
sessors of a progressive civilization. They have developed a 
more convenient and expressive written character by stages of 
which one is best represented by the tablets of Hagia Triada. 
The art of all the area gives evidence of one spirit and common 
models ; in religious representations it shows the same anthropo- 
morphic personification and the same ritual furniture. Objects 
produced in one locality are found in others. The area of Aegean 
intercourse has widened and become more busy. Commerce 
with Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and 
Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun 
to penetrate into Syria, inland Asia Minor, and the central and 
western Mediterranean lands, e.g. Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. 
There can be little doubt that a strong power was now fixed in one 
Aegean centre, and that all the area had come under its political, 
social and artistic influence. 

How was this brought about, and what was the imperial 
centre? Some change seems to have come from the north; 
and there are those who go so far as to say that the centre 
henceforward was the Argolid, and especially " golden " Mycenae, 
whose lords imposed a new type of palace and a modification 
of Aegean art on all other Aegean lands. Others again cite the 
old-established power and productivity of Crete; the immense 
advantage it derived from insularity, natural fertility and geo- 
graphical relation to the wider area of east Mediterranean 
civilizations; and the absence of evidence elsewhere for the 
gradual growth of a culture powerful enough to dominate the 
Aegean. They point to the fact that, even in the new period, the 
palm for wealth and variety of civilized production still remained 
with Crete. There alone we have proof that the art of writing 
was commonly practised, and there tribute- tallies suggest an 
imperial organization; there the arts of painting and sculpture 
in stone were most highly developed ; there the royal residences, 
which had never been violently destroyed, though remodelled, 
continued unfortified; whereas on the Greek mainland they 
required strong protective works. The golden treasure of the 
Mycenae graves, these critics urge, is not more splendid than 
would have been found at Cnossus had royal burials been spared 
by plunderers, or been happened upon intact by modern ex- 
plorers. It is not impossible to combine these views, and place 
the seat of power still in Crete, but ascribe the Renascence there 
to an influx of new blood from the north, large enough to instil 
fresh vigour, but too small to change the civilization in its 
essential character. 

If this dominance was Cretan, it was short-lived. The security 
of the island was apparently violated not long after 1500 B.C., 
the Cnossian palace was sacked and burned, and Cretan art 
suffered an irreparable blow. As the comparatively lifeless 
character which it possesses in the succeeding period (III. 3) 
is coincident with a similar decadence all over the Aegean area, 
we can hardly escape from the conclusion that it was due to the 
invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at least the Greek mainland 
and isles) by some less civilized conquerors, who remained 
politically dominant, but, like their forerunners, having no 
culture of their own, adopted, while they spoiled, that which 
they found. Who these were we cannot say; but the prob- 
ability is that they too came from the north, and were pre- 
cursors of the later " Hellenes." Under their rule peace was 
re-established, and art production became again abundant 
among the subject population, though of inferior quality. The 
Cnossian palace was re-occupied in its northern part by chieftains 
who have left numerous rich graves; and general commercial 
intercourse must have been resumed, for the uniformity of the 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 

RELIGION 



PLATE III. 





FIG. i. LION-GUARDED GODDESS AND FIG. 2. MALE DIVINITY BE- FIG. 3. GOLD SIGNET FROM ACROPOLIS 

SHRINE, ON A CLAY SEALING FROM TVVEEN LIONS, ON A LENTOID TREASURE, MYCENAE, SHOWING THE GOD 

CNOSSUS. GEM FROM KYDONIA, CRETE. DESS BENEATH A SACRED TREE, WITH 
B.S./l. vii. 29, Fig. o. J.H.S. ai. 163, Fig. . ADORANTS AND SACRED EMBLEMS. 

J.H.S. xxi. 108, Fig. 4. 





FIG. 5. CLAY SEALINGS FROM ZAKRO, WITH MINOTAUR TYPES. 

B.S.A. vii. 133, Fig. 45. 



FIG. 4 BIRDS ON A TRIAD OF 
PILLARS, CNOSSUS. 

B.S.A. viii. 29, Fig. 14. 





FIG. 6 DUAL PILLAR WORSHIP, ON A GOLD SIGNET 
RING, CNOSSUS. 

J.H.S. xxi. 170, Fig. 48. 




FIG. 7. FAIENCE FIGURE OF THE GODDESS, WITH 

SERPENT ATTRIBUTES, CNOSSUS. 
I. 250. B.S.A. ix. 75, Fig. 54. 



FIG. 8 FACADE OF SMALL TEMPLES, COMPLETED 
FROM A FRESCO PAINTING, CNOSSUS. 

J.H.S. xxi. 193, Fig. 66. 
By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. 



PLATE IV. 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 

TYPES AND COSTUMES, ETC. 





FIG. i. TESSERAE OF PORCELAIN MOSAIC IN FORM OF HOUSES 
AND TOWERS, CNOSSUS. B.s.A. via. is, Pi*. 8. 



FIG, 2. CUP-BEARER, CNOSSUS 

Pholc by Dr A. J. Evans 






FIGS. 3, 5. IVORY HEADS 
FROM SPATA (ATTICA). 
Reichcl, Homerische Waflen, 1901, p. 103. 
By permission of A. Holder, Vienna. 



FIG. 4. FRESCO PAINTING 
OF GIRL, CNOSSUS. 

B.S.A. vii. 57, Fig. 17. 



FIG. 5. See FIG. 3. 




FIG. 6. FAIENCE FIGURE 
OF FEMALE VOTARY 
OF SNAKE-GODDESS 
CNOSSUS. 

B.S.A. a. 77, Fig. 56. 



FIG. 7 KEFTIU (CRETAN) 
BEARING AEGEAN 
VASE AS TRIBUTE TO 
PHARAOH. 

From H. R. Hall, Oldest Civilization 
in Greece (1901). 

By permission of the Society for the 
Promotion of Hellenic Studies. 




AEGEAN SEA AEGINA 



251 



decadent Aegean products and their wide distribution become 
more marked than ever. 

About 1000 B.C. there happened a final catastrophe. The 
palace at Cnossus was once more destroyed, and never rebuilt 
or re-inhabited. Iron took the place of Bronze, and Aegean art, 
as a living thing, ceased on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean 
isles including Crete, together with Aegean writing. In Cyprus, 
and perhaps on the south-west Anatolian coasts, there is some 
reason to think that the cataclysm was less complete, and Aegean 
art continued to languish, cut off from its fountain-head. Such 
artistic faculty as survived elsewhere issued in the lifeless 
geometric style which is reminiscent of the later Aegean, but 
wholly unworthy of it. Cremation took the place of burial of 
the dead. This great disaster, which cleared the ground for 
a new growth of local art, was probably due to yet another in- 
cursion of northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors, 
but possessed of superior iron weapons those tribes which later 
Greek tradition and Homer knew as the Dorians. They crushed 
a civilization already hard hit; and it took two or three centuries 
for the artistic spirit, instinct in the Aegean area, and probably 
preserved in suspended animation by the survival of Aegean 
racial elements, to blossom anew. On this conquest seems to 
have ensued a long period of unrest and popular movements, 
known to Greek tradition as the Ionian Migration and the Aeolic 
and Dorian " colonizations "; and when once more we see the 
Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by Hellenes, though it has 
not lost all memory of its earlier culture. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Much of the evidence is contained in archaeo- 
logical periodicals, especially Annual of Ike British School at Athens 
(1900- ); Monumenti Antichi and Rendiconti d. R. Ac. d. Lincei 
(1901- ); Ephemeris Archaiologike (1885- ); Journal of 
Hellenic Studies, Alhenische Mittheilungen, Bulletin de correspondance 
hellenique, American Journal of Archaeology, &c. (all since about 
1885). SPECIAL WORKS: H. Schliemann's books (seeScnuEMANN), 
summarized by C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations (1891); 
Chr. Tsountas, Mvicfjuai (1893); Chr. Tsountas and J. I. Manatt, 
The Mycenaean Age (1897); G. Perrot and Ch. Chipiez, Histoire de 
/'art dans I'antiquite, vol. vi. (1895); W. DSrpfeld, Troja (1893) and 
Troja und Ilios (1904) ; A. Furtwangler and G. Loschke, Mykenische 
Vasen (1886); A. S. Murray, Excavations in Cyprus (1900); W. 
Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (1901 foil.); H. R. Hall, The Oldest 
Civilization of Greece (1901); A. J. Evans, " Mycenaean Tree and 
Pillar Cult " in Journ. Hell. Studies (1901) and " Prehistoric Tombs 
of Knossos " in Archaeologia (1905); F. Noack, Homerische Palaste 
(1903); Excavations at Phylakopi, by members of the British 
School at Athens (1904) ; Harriet A. Boyd (Mrs Hawes), Excavations 
at Gournia (1907); D. G. Hogarth, "Aegean Religion" in 
Hastings' Diet, of Religions (1906). For a recent view of the place 
of Aegean civilization in the history of Hellenic culture see Die 
Hellenische Kultur by F. Baumgarten, &c. (1905). Various 
summaries, controversial articles, &c., formerly quoted, are now 
superseded by recent discoveries. See also CRETE, MYCENAE, 
TROAD, CERAMICS, PLATE, &c. (D. G. H.) 

AEGEAN SEA, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, being the 
archipelago between Greece on the west and Asia Minor on the 
east, bounded N. by European Turkey, and connected by the 
Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora, and so with the Black Sea. 
The name Archipelago (q.v.) was formerly applied specifically to 
this sea. The origin of the name Aegean is uncertain. Various 
derivations are given by the ancient grammarians one from 
the town of Aegae; another from Aegea, a queen of the Amazons 
who perished in this sea; and a third from Aegeus, the father 
of Theseus, who, supposing his son dead, drowned himself in it. 
The following are the chief islands: Thasos, in the extreme 
north, off the Macedonian coast; Samothrace, fronting the 
Gulf of Saros; Imbros and Lemnos, in prolongation of the 
peninsula of Gallipoli (Thracian Chersonese); Euboea, the largest 
of all, lying close along the east coast of Greece; the Northern 
Sporades, including Sciathos, Scopelos and Halonesos, running 
out from the southern extremity of the Thessalian coast, and 
Scyros, with its satellites, north-east of Euboea; Lesbos and 
Chios; Samos and Nikaria; Cos, with Calymnos to the north; 
all off Asia Minor, with the many other islands of the Sporades; 
and, finally, the great group of the Cyclades, of which the largest 
are Andros and Tenos, Naxos and Pares. Many of the Aegean 
islands, or chains of islands, are actually prolongations of pro- 
montories of the mainland. Two main chains extend right 



across the sea the one through Scyros and Psara (between which 
shallow banks intervene) to Chios and the hammer-shaped 
promontory east of it; and the other running from the south- 
eastern promontory of Euboea and continuing the axis of that 
island, in a southward curve through Andros, Tenos, Myconos, 
Nikaria and Samos. A third curve, from the south-easternmost 
promontory of the Peloponnese through Cerigo, Crete, Carpathos 
and Rhodes, marks off the outer deeps of the open Mediterranean 
from the shallow seas of the archipelago, but the Cretan Sea, in 
which depths occur over 1000 fathoms, intervenes, north of the 
line, between it and the Aegean proper. The Aegean itself is 
naturally divided by the island-chains and the ridges from which 
they rise into a series of basins or troughs, the deepest of which 
is that in the north, extending from the coast of Thessaly to 
the Gulf of Saros, and demarcated southward by the Northern 
Sporades, Lemnos, Imbros and the peninsula of Gallipoli. The 
greater part of this trough is over 600 fathoms deep. The pro- 
fusion of islands and their usually bold elevation give beauty 
and picturesqueness to the sea, but its navigation is difficult 
and dangerous, notwithstanding the large number of safe and 
commodious gulfs and bays. Many of the islands are of volcanic 
formation; and a well-defined volcanic chain bounds the Cretan 
Sea on the north, including Milo and Kimolos, Santorin (Thera) 
and Therasia, and extends to Nisyros. Others, such as Paros, 
are mainly composed of marble, and iron ore occurs in some. 
The larger islands have some fertile and well-watered valleys 
and plains. The chief productions are wheat, wine, oil, mastic, 
figs, raisins, honey, wax, cotton and silk. The people are em- 
ployed in fishing for coral and sponges, as well as for bream, 
mullet and other fish. The men are hardy, well built and hand- 
some; and the women are noted for their beauty, the ancient 
Greek type being well preserved. The Cyclades and Northern 
Sporades, with Euboea and small islands under the Greek shore, 
belong to Greece; the other islands to Turkey. 

AEGEUS, in Greek legend, son of Pandion and grandson of 
Cecrops, was king of Athens and the father of Theseus. He was 
deposed by his nephews, but Theseus defeated them and re- 
instated his father. When Theseus set out for Crete to deliver 
Athens from the tribute to the Minotaur he promised Aegeus 
that, if he were successful, he would change the black sail carried 
by his ship for a white one. But, on his return, he forgot to 
hoist the white sail, and his father, supposing that his son had 
lost his life, threw himself from a high rock on which he was 
keeping watch into the sea, which was afterwards called the 
Aegean. The Athenians honoured him with a statue and a 
shrine, and one of the Attic demes was named after him. 

Plutarch, Theseus; Pausanias i. 22; Hyginus, Fab. 43; Catullus 
Ixiv. 207. 

AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA), an island of Greece in the Saronic 
Gulf, 20 m. from the Peiraeus. Tradition derives the name from 
Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the 
island. In shape Aegina is triangular, 8 m. long from N.W. to 
S.E., and 6 m. broad, with an area of about 41 sq. m. The 
western side consists of stony but fertile plains, which are well 
cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, 
vines, almonds and figs. The rest of the island is rugged and 
mountainous. The southern end rises in the conical Mount Oros, 
and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow 
fertile valleys on either side. From the absence of marshes the 
climate is the most healthy in Greece. The island forms part 
of the modern nomos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms 
an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance. 
The chief town is Aegina, situated at the north-west end of the 
island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants. 
Capo dTstria, to whom there is a statue in the principal square, 
erected there a large building, intended for a barracks, which was 
subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school. The 
museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the 
collection was transferred to Athens in 1834. 

Antiquities. The archaeological interest of Aegina is centred 
in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner 
of the island. Excavations were made on its site in 1811 by 



252 



AEGINA 



Baron Haller von Hallerstein and the English architect C. R. 
Cockerell, who discovered a considerable amount of sculpture 
from the pediments, which was bought in 1812 by the crown 
prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the Glypto- 
thek at Munich after the figures had been restored by B. Thor- 
valdsen. Their restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient 
parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and 
the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering. 
Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the 
figures. That according to which they were set up at Munich 
was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each 
pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a 'fallen 
warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel- 
ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the 
composition; the corners were filled with fallen warriors. In 1901 
Professor Furtwangler began a more systematic excavation of 
the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a 
fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments in Munich, 
have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain 
in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality. Accord- 
ing to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards 
the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions, 
into a series of groups of two or three figures each. A figure of 
Athena still occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set 
farther forward than in the old reconstruction. On each side of 
this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants 
over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose 
opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other 
figures also the bowmen especially face towards the angles, 
and so give more variety to the composition. The western 
pediment, which is more conservative in type, represents the 
earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the 
eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to 
episodes in the Trojan war. There are also remains of a third 
pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but 
never placed on the temple. For the character of the sculptures 
see GREEK ART. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable 
for the unsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the 
cella into the opisthodomus. This opisthodomus was completely 
fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it 
to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine). 

It was disputed in earlier times whether the temple was 
dedicated to Zeus or Athena. Inscriptions found by the recent 
excavations seem to prove that it must be identified as the shrine 
of the local goddess Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with 
Britomartis and Dictynna. 

The excavations have laid bare several other buildings, includ- 
ing an altar, early propylaea, houses for the priests and remains 
of an earlier temple. The present temple probably dates from 
the time of the Persian wars. In the town of Aegina itself are 
the remains of another temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one 
column of this still remains stahding, and its foundations are 
fairly preserved. 

AUTHORITIES. Antiquities of Ionia (London, 1797), ii. pi. ii.-vii.; 
C. R. Cockerell, The Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius at Aegina, &c. 
(London, 1860); Ch. Gamier, Le Temple de Jupiter Panhellenien a 
Egine (Paris, 1884) ; Ad. Furtwangler and others, Aegina, Heiligtum 
der Aphaia (Munich, 1906), where earlier authorities are collected 
and discussed. , (E. GR.) 

History. (i) Ancient. Aegina, according to Herodotus (v. 83), 
was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally 
subject. The discovery in the island of a number of gold orna- 
ments belonging to the latest period of Mycenaean art suggests 
the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina 
for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and 
Lacedaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, 
vol. xiii. p. 195). It is probable that the island was not dorized 
before the pth century B.C. One of the earliest facts known to 
us in its history is its membership in the League of Calauria, 
which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) 
Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was 
probably an organization of states which were still Mycenaean, 
for the suppression of the piracy which had sprung up in the 



Aegean as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the 
Mycenaean princes. It follows, therefore, that the maritime 
importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is 
usually stated, on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon (q.v.) 
of Argos established a mint in Aegina. Though this statement 
is probably to be rejected, it may be regarded as certain that 
Aegina was the first state of European Greece to coin money. 
Thus it was the Aeginetans who, within thirty or forty years of 
the invention of coinage by the Lydians (c. 700 B.C.), introduced 
to the western world a system of such incalculable value to 
trade. The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and 
measures was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek 
world is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance 
of the island. It appears to have belonged to the Eretrian 
league; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with Samos, 
a leading member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of 
King Amphicrates (Herod, iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier 
half of the 7th century B.C. In the next century Aegina is one 
of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Nau- 
cratis (q.v.), and it is the only state of European Greece that has 
a share in this factory (Herod, ii. 178). At the beginning of the 
5th century it seems to have been an entrep6t of the Pontic 
grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly (Herod, vii. 
147). Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th 
centuries B.C., e.g. Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina 
founded no colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers 
(viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this 
statement. 

The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost 
exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state 
of Athens. The history of these relations, as recorded by 
Herodotus (v. 79-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical 
problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces back the 
hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the 
goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetans had carried 
off from Epidaurus, their parent state. The Epidaurians had 
been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian 
deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian 
olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal 
of the Aeginetans to continue these offerings, the Athenians 
endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was miracu- 
lously frustrated according to the Aeginetan version, the 
statues fell upon their knees, and only a single survivor returned 
to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades' 
widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is 
assigned by Herodotus for this " old feud "; recent writers, e.g. 
J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon 
and Peisistratus, c. 570 B.C. It may be questioned, however, 
whether the whole episode is not mythical. A critical analysis 
of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetio- 
logical traditions, explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the 
kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use 
of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the 
change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the 
Ionian style. The account which Herodotus gives of the hostili- 
ties between the two states in the early years of the 5th century 
B.C. is to the following effect. Thebes, after the defeat by 
Athens about 507 B.C., appealed to Aegina for assistance. The 
Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images 
of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subse- 
quently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged 
the sea-board of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make 
reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they 
should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and con- 
tent themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, 
when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues 
for the restoration of Hippias. In 491 B.C. Aegina was one of 
the states which gave the symbols of submission (" earth and 
water ") to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to 
punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I. (<?.t'.), one of the 
Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who 
were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful ; 



AEGINA 



253 



WK 

NORTH TERRACE WALL 

I 



SOUTH TERR ACE WALL 





Reproduced by permission, from Furtwiinglt 
Aegina , das Heiligtum der Aphaia 




LOWER TERRACE WALL 



THE SANCTUARY OF APHAEA 
Yards 



Metres 
10 



V.E.R.Fiechter.del. 

but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a 
second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, 
seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens 
as hostages. After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of 
the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the 
Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a 
festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot 
with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the 
island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, 
and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy 
vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian 
force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engage- 
ment followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated. Subse- 
quently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the 
Athenian fleet. All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of 
Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the 
interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 B.C. and the 
invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 B.C. (cf. Herod, vi. 49 
with 94). There are difficulties in this story, of which the follow- 
ing are the principal: (i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies 
that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 B.C., 
nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. 



Emery Walker, so. 

Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after 507 
B.C. down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 B.C. 
(ii.) It is only for two years (490 and 491) out of the twenty-five 
that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no 
incidents are recorded in the period between Marathon and 
Salamis, seeing that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the 
war is described as the most important one then being waged 
in Greece (Herod, vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens 
would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the lonians in 498 
B.C. if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is an 
incidental indication of time, which points to the period after 
Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by 
Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years 
that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to 
Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod, v. 89). As the 
final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty 
years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 B.C. as 
the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of 
hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the 
building of the 200 triremes " for the war against Aegina " on 
the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Constitution of 
Athens as 483-482 B.C. (Herod, vii. 144; Ath. Pol. 22. 7). It is 



254 



AEGINETA AEGISTHUS 



probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracin, 
back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebe 
and Aegina (c. 507) and in putting the episode of Nicodromu 
before Marathon. Overtures were unquestionably made b 
Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 B.C., but they came ti 
nothing. The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomati 
form of " sending the Aeacidae." The real occasion of the out 
break of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostage 
some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lastec 
from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this wa 
is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to recorc 
after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able 
to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to 
the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians 
were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was neces 
sary. It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the 
naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers 
on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490-480 
(Eusebius, Chron. Can. p. 337). 

In the repulse of Xerxes it is possible that the Aeginetans 
played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. 
The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would 
naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina 
rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was 
awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to 
have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as oi 
the Athenian (Herod, viii. 91). There are other indications, too, 
of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of 
defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to 
credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by 
Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. GREEK 
HISTORY, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the 
philo-laconian policy of Cimon (q.ii.) secured Aegina, as a member 
of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian 
foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of 
Cimon in 461, led to what is sometimes called the First Pelopon- 
nesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth 
and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens 
after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 
B.C.). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents. By the terms of 
the Thirty Years' Truce (445 B.C.) Athens covenanted to restore 
to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead 
letter. In the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.) 
Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a cleruchy 
in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, 
on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new 
home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. 1 A force 
landed under Nicias in 424, and put most of them to the 
sword. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander 
restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the 
island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for opera- 
tions against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness, 
however, was at an end. The part which it plays hence- 
forward is insignificant. 

It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely to 
the development of the Athenian navy. It is probable that the 
power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years 
after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as 
relatively, to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of 
Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been 
principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from 
the war with Persia. Her medism in 491 is to be explained by 
her commercial relations with the Persian Empire. She was 
forced into patriotism in spite of herself, and the glory won at 
Salamis was paid for by the loss of her trade and the decay of 
her marine. The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a 
state we should look in vain for an analogous case in the history 
of the modern world finds an explanation in the economic 
conditions of the island, the prosperity of which rested upon 
a basis of slave-labour. It is impossible, indeed, to accept 
Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the 
. ' Pericles called Aegina the "eye-sore" (M,^) of the Peiraeus. 



number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that the 
number must have been out of all proportion to that of the 
free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does 
but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole. 

The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple. 
So long as the island retained its independence the government 
was an oligarchy. There is no trace of the heroic monarchy 
and no tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while 
it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the 
same time, that it could count upon little support.J 

(2) Modern. Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the 
successive dominations of Macedon, the Aetolians, Attalus of 
Pergamum and Rome. In 1537 the island, then a prosperous 
Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barba- 
rossa (Khair-ed-Din). One of the last Venetian strongholds in 
the Levant, it was ceded by the treaty of Passarowitz (1718) to 
the Turks. In 1826-1828 the town became for a time the capital 
of Greece and the centre of a large commercial population (about 
10,000), which has dwindled to about 4300. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Herodotus loc. cit.; Thucydides i. 105, 108, 
ii. 27, iv. 56, 57. For the criticism of Herodotus's account of the 
relations of Athens and Aegina, Wilamowitz, Aristoteles und Athen 
ii. 280-288, is indispensable. See also Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi.' 
11. 102-120. (E. M. W.) 

AEGINETA, PAULUS, a celebrated surgeon of the island of 
Aegina, whence he derived his name. According to Le Clerc's 
calculation, he lived in the 4th century of the Christian era; 
but Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus) places him with more prob- 
ability in the 7th. The title of his most important work, as 
given by Suidas, is 'ETTITO^S 'larpidys Bi/3Xta 'Eirra (Synopsis 
of Medicine in Seven Books), the 6th book of which, treating 
of operative surgery, is of special interest for surgical history. 
The whole work in the original Greek was published at 
Venice in 1528, and another edition appeared at Basel in 1538. 
Several Latin translations have been published, and an 
excellent English version, with commentary, by Dr F. Adams 
(1844-1848). 

AEGIS (Gr. Aigis), in Homer, the shield or buckler of Zeus, 

Fashioned for him by Hephaestus, furnished with tassels and 

bearing the Gorgon's head in the centre. Originally symbolical 

of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from iuaau, signifying 

rapid, violent motion. When the god shakes it, Mount Ida is 

wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are smitten with 

tear. He sometimes lends it to Athene and (rarely) to Apollo. 

[n the later story (Hyginus, Poet. Astronom. ii. 13) Zeus is said 

to have used the skin of the goat Amaltheia (aiyis = goat-skin) , 

which suckled him in Crete, as a buckler when he went forth to 

do battle against the giants. Another legend represents the aegis 

as a fire-breathing monster like the Chimaera, which was slain 

>y Athene, who afterwards wore its skin as a cuirass (Diodorus 

Siculus iii. 70). It appears to have been really the goat's skin 

used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would 

generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially 

envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in front and 

>ehind to be attached to the shield under the left arm. Hence, 

>y transference, it would be employed to denote at times the 

shield which it supported, and at other times a cuirass, the 

purpose of which it in part served. In accordance with this 

double meaning the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as 

an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, sometimes 

as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels 

of Homer, usually with the Gorgon's head in the centre. It is 

often represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes 

and warriors, and_on cameos and vases. 

See F. G. Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre (1857); L. Preller 

Jriechische Mylhologie, i. (1887); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Real- 

ncydopadie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, Daremberg and 

saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites, and Smith's Dictionary of Greek 

nd Roman Antiquities (yd ed., 1890). 

AEGISTHUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Thyestes by his 
wn daughter Pelopia. Having been exposed by his mother to 
onceal her shame, he was found by shepherds and suckled by a 
oat whence his name. His uncle Atreus, who had married 



AEGOSPOTAMI .ELFRIC 



255 



Pelopia, took him to Mycenae, and brought him up as his own 
son. When he grew up Aegisthus slew Atreus, and ruled jointly 
with his father over Mycenae, until they weie deposed by 
Agamemnon on his return from exile. After the departure of 
Agamemnon to the Trojan war, Aegisthus seduced his wife 
Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra). and with her 
assistance slew him on his return. Eight years later his murder 
was avenged by his son Orestes. 

Homer, Od. iii. 263, iv. 517; Hyginus, Fab. 87. 

AEGOSPOTAMI (i.e. " Goat Streams "), a small creek issuing 
into the Hellespont, N.E. of-Sestos, the scene of the decisive 
battle in 405 B.C. by which Lysander destroyed the last Athenian 
armament in the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). The township of 
that name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 
4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant. 

jELFRIC, called the " Grammarian " (c. 955-1020?), English 
abbot and author, was born about 955. He was educated in the 
Benedictine monastery at Winchester under ^Ethelwold, who 
was bishop there from 963 to 984. jEthelwold had carried on 
the tradition of Dunstan in his government of the abbey of 
Abingdon, and at Winchester he continued his strenuous efforts. 
He seems to have actually taken part in the work of teaching. 
jElfric no doubt gained some reputation as a scholar at Win- 
chester, for when, in 987, the abbey of Cernel (Cerne Abbas, 
Dorsetshire) was finished, he was sent by Bishop jElfheah 
(Alphege), ^Ethelwold's successor, at the request of the chief 
benefactor of the abbey, the ealdorman ^Ethelmaer, to teach the 
Benedictine monks there. He was then in priest's orders. 
/Ethelmaer and his father ^Ethelweard were both enlightened 
patrons of learning, and became iElfric's faithful friends. It 
was at Cernel, and partly at the desire, it appears, of ^Ethel- 
weard, that he planned the two series of his English homilies 
(ed. Benjamin Thorpe, 1844-1846, for the ^Elfric Society), com- 
piled from the Christian fathers, and dedicated to Sigeric, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury (990-994). The Latin preface to the first 
series enumerates some of ^Elfric's authorities, the chief of whom 
was Gregory the Great, but the short list there given by no means 
exhausts the authors whom he consulted. In the preface to the 
first volume he regrets that except for Alfred's translations 
Englishmen had no means of learning the true doctrine as ex- 
pounded by the Latin fathers. Professor Earle (A.S. Literature, 
1884) thinks he aimed at correcting the apocryphal, and to 
modern ideas superstitious, teaching of the earlier Blickling 
Homilies. The first series of forty homilies is devoted to plain 
and direct exposition of the chief events of the Christian year; 
the second deals more fully with church doctrine and history. 
/Elfric denied the immaculate birth of the Virgin (Homilies, ed. 
Thorpe, ii. 466) , and his teaching on the Eucharist in the Canons 
and in the Sermo de sacrificio in die pascae (ibid. ii. 262 seq.) was 
appealed to by the Reformation writers as a proof that the early 
English church did not hold the Roman doctrine of transub- 
stantiation. 1 His Latin Grammar and Glossary" 1 were written 
for his pupils after the two books of homilies. A third series of 
homilies, the Lives of the Saints, dates from 996 to 997. Some 
of the sermons in the second series had been written in a kind of 
rhythmical, alliterative prose, and in the Lives of the Saints (ed. 
W. W. Skeat, 1881-1900, for the Early English Text Society) 
the practice is so regular that most of them are arranged as 
verse by Professor Skeat. By the wish of ^Ethelweard he also 
began a paraphrase 3 of parts of the Old Testament, but under 
protest, for the stories related in it were not, he thought, suitable 
for simple minds. There is no certain proof that he remained 
at Cernel. It has been suggested that this part of his life was 

_ * See A Testimonie of Antiquitie, shewing the auncient fayth in the 
Church of England touching the sacrament of the body and bloude of 
the Lord here publikely preached, printed by John Day (1567). It 
was quoted in John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (ed. 1610). 

1 Ed. J. Zupitza in Sammlung englischer Denkmaler (vol. i., Berlin, 
1880). 

3 Edited by Edward Thwaites as Heptateuchus (Oxford, 1698) ; 
modern edition in Grein's Bibliothek der A . S. Prosa (vol. i. Cassel and 
Gottingen, 1872). See also B. Assmann, Abl JElfric's . . . Esther 
(Halle, 1885), and Abt Mfric's Judith (in Anglia, vol. x.). 



chiefly spent at Winchester; but his writings for the patrons of 
Cernel, and the fact that he wrote in 998 his Canons * as a pastoral 
letter for Wulfsige, the bishop of Sherborne, the diocese in which 
the abbey was situated, afford presumption of continued resi- 
dence there. He became in 1005 the first abbot of Eynsham 
or Ensham, near Oxford, another foundation of ./Ethelmaer's. 
After his elevation he wrote an abridgment for his monks of 
jEthelwold's De consuetudine monachorum, 6 adapted to their 
rudimentary ideas of monastic life; a letter to Wulfgeat of 
Ylmandun 6 ; an introduction to the study of the Old and New 
Testaments (about 1008, edited by William L'Isle in 1623); 
a Latin life of his master .flJthelwold 7 ; a pastoral letter for 
Wulfstan, archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, in Latin 
and English; and an English version of Bede's De Temporibus.* 
The Colloquium* a Latin dialogue designed to serve his 
scholars as a manual of Latin conversation, may date from his 
life at Cernel. It is safe to assume that the original draft of 
this, afterwards enlarged by his pupil, ^Elfric Bata, was by 
.iElfric, and represents what his own scholar days were like. 
The last mention of /Elfric Abbot, probably the grammarian, 
is in a will dating from about 1020. 

There have been three suppositions about ^Elfric. (i) He was 
identified with ./Elfric (995-1005), archbishop of Canterbury. 
This view was upheld by John Bale (///. Maj. Brit. Scriptorum 
. . . 2nd ed., Basel, 1557-1559; vol. i. p. 149, s.v. Alfric); by 
Humphrey Wanley (Cataiogus librorum septentrionalium, &c., 
Oxford, 1705, forming vol. ii. of George Hickes's Antiquae 
literaturae septentrionalis) ; by Elizabeth Elstob, The English- 
Saxon Homily on the Birthday of St Gregory (1709; new edition, 
1839); and by Edward Rowe Mores, jElfrico, Dorobernensi, 
archiepiscopo, Commentarius (ed. G. J. Thorkelin, 1789), in 
which the conclusions of earlier writers on Alfric are reviewed. 
Mores made him abbot of St Augustine's at Dover, and finally 
archbishop of Canterbury. (2) Sir Henry Spelman, in his Concilia 
. . . (1639, vol. i. p. 583), printed the Canones ad Wulsinum 
episcopum, and suggested ^Elfric Putta or Putto, archbishop of 
York, as the author, adding some note of others bearing the 
name. The identity of ^Elfric the grammarian with JElfric 
archbishop of York was also discussed by Henry Wharton, 
in Anglia Sacra (1691, vol. i. pp. 125-134), in a dissertation 
reprinted in J. P. Migne's Palrologia (vol. 139, pp. 1459-70, 
Paris, 1853). (3) William of Malmesbury (De gestis pontificum 
anglorum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Rolls Series, 1870, p. 406) 
suggested that he was abbot of Malmesbury and bishop of 
Crediton. The main facts of his career were finally elucidated 
by Eduard Dietrich in a series of articles contributed to C. W. 
Niedner's Zeitschrift fur hislorische Theologie (vols. for 1855 and 
1856, Gotha), which have formed the basis of all subsequent 
writings on the subject. 

Sketches of /Elfric's career are in B. Ten Brink's Early English 
Literature (to Wiclif) (trans. H. M. Kennedy, New York, 1883, pp. 
105-1 12), and by J. S. Westlake in The Cambridge History of English 
Literature (vol. i., 1907, pp. 116-129). An excellent bibliography 
and account of the critical apparatus is given in Dr R. Wulker's 
Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsdchsischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 
1885, pp. 452-480). See also the account by Professor Skeat in Pt. iv. 
pp. 8-6 1 of his edition of the Lives of the Saints, already cited, which 
gives a full account of the MSS., and a discussion of jElfric's sources, 
with further bibliographical references; and^Elfric, a New Study of 
his Life and Writings, by Miss C. L. White (Boston, New York and 
London, 1898) in the " Yale Studies in English." Alcuini Interro- 
gationes Sigewulfi Presbyteri in Genesin (ed. G. E. McLean, Halle, 
1883) is attributed to yElfric by its editor. There are other isolated 
sermons and treatises by ^Elfric, printed in vol. iii. of Grein's Bibl. 
v. A.S. Prosa. 



4 Printed by Benjamin Thorpe in Ancient Laws and Institutes of 
England (1840), with the later pastoral for Wulfstan. 

5 See E. Breck, A Fragment of JElfric; translation of Mlhelwold's 
De Consuetudine Monachorum and its relation to other MSS. (Leipzig, 
1887). 

6 llmington, on the borders of Warwickshire and Gloucestershire. 

7 Included by J. Stevenson in the Chron. Monast. de Abingdon 
(vol. ii. pp. 253-266, Rolls Series, 1858). 

8 See Oswald Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft 
(vol. iii., 1866, pp. xiv.-xix. and pp. 233 el seq.) in the Rolls Series. 

9 See an article by J. Zupitza in theZeitschrij 'tfiir deutsches Altertum 
(vol. xix., new series, 1887). 



256 



AELIA CAPITOLINA AEMILIA VIA 



AELIA CAPITOLINA, the city built by the emperor Hadrian, 
A.D. 131, and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of Jeru- 
salem (q.v.), which was in ruins when he visited his Syrian 
dominions. Aelia is derived from the emperor's family name, 
and Capitolina from that of Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a 
temple was built on the site of the Jewish temple. 

AELIAN (AELIANUS TACTICUS), Greek military writer of 
the 2nd century A.D., resident at Rome. He is sometimes 
confused with Claudius Aelianus, the Roman writer referred to 
below. Aelian's military treatise, Tcum/ci) Gecopia, is dedicated 
to Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and 
the date A.D. 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of 
Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practised by the 
Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims 
to have consulted all the best authorities, the chief of which was 
a. lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief 
value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding 
works on the, art of war, and in the fulness of his technical 
details in matters of drill. Critics of the i8th century Guichard 
Folard and the prince de Ligne were unanimous in thinking 
Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but both on his immediate 
successors, the Byzantines, and on the Arabs, who translated 
the text for their own use, Aelian exercised a great influence. 
The emperor Leo VI. incorporated much of Aelian's text in 
his own work on the military art. The Arabic version of Aelian 
was made about 1350. In spite of its academic nature, the 
copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the 
highest value to the army organizers of the i6th century, who 
were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the 
semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian 
phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid 
masses of pikemen and the " squadrons " of cavalry of the 
Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 
i6th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill 
and tactics. Moreover, his works, with those of Xenophon, 
Polybius, Aeneas and Arrian, were minutely studied by every 
soldier of the i6th and lyth centuries who wished to be master 
of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the 
real author of most of Arrian's Tactica, and that the TO/CTIKI) 
Gewpio, is a later revision of this original, but the theory is not 
generally accepted. 

The first edition of the Greek text is that of Robortelli (Venice, 
1552); the Elzevir text (Leiden, 1613) has notes. The text in 
W. Rustow and H. Kochly's Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller (1855) is 
accompanied by a translation, notes and reproductions of the original 
illustrations. A Latin translation by Theodore Gaza of Thessalonica 
was included in the famous collection Veteres de re militari scriptores 
(Rome and Venice, 1487, Cologne, 1528, &c.). The French transla- 
tion of Machault, included in his Milices des Grecs et Remains (Paris, 
1615) and entitled De la Sergenterie des Grecs, a German translation 
from Theodore Gaza (Cologne, 1524), and the English version of Jo. 
B(ingham), which includes a drill manual of the English troops in 
the Dutch service, Tacticks of Aelian (London, 1616), are of import- 
ance in the military literature of the period. A later French transi- 
tion by Bouchard de Bussy, La Mihce des Grecs ou Tactique d'ltlien 
(Paris, 1737 and 1757); Baumgartner's German translation in his 
incomplete Sammlune oiler Knegsschriftsteller der Griechen (Mann- 
heim and Frankenthal, 1779), reproduced in 1786 as Von Schlachtord- 
nungen, and Viscount Dillon's English version (London, 1814) may 
also be mentioned. See also R. Forster, Studien zu den griechischen 
Taktikern (Hermes, xii., 1877, pp. 444-449); F. Wustenfeld, Das 
Heerwesen der Muhammedaner und die arabische Uebersetzung 
der Taktik des Aelianus (Gottingen, 1880); M. Jahns, Gesck. der 
Kriegswissenschaften, i. 95-97 (Munich, 1889); Rustow and Kochly, 
Gesch. des griechischen Kriegswesens (1852); A. de Lort-Serignah, 
La Phalange (1880); P. Serre, Etudes sur I'histoire militaireet mari- 
time des Grecs et des Romains (1887); K. K. Miiller, in Pauly- 
Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894). 

AELIAN (CLAUDIUS AELIANUS), Roman author and teacher 
of, rhetoric, born at Praeneste, flourished under Septimius 
Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus (d. 222). He 
spoke Greek so perfectly that he was called " honey-tongued " 
(fie\iy\<j}<T(ros); although a Roman he preferred Greek authors, 
and wrote in Greek himself. His chief works are: On the Nature 
of Animals, curious and interesting stories of animal life, fre- 
quently used to convey moral lessons (ed. Schneider, 1784; 
Jacobs, 1832); Various History for the most part preserved 



only in an abridged form consisting mainly of anecdotes of 
men and customs (ed. Lunemann, 1811). Both works are valu- 
able for the numerous excerpts from older writers. Considerable 
fragments of two other works On Providence and Divine Mani- 
festations are preserved in Suidas; twenty Peasants' Letters, 
after the manner of Alciphron but inferior, are also attributed 
to him. 

Editio princeps of complete works by Gesner, 1556; Hercher, 1864- 
1866. English translation of the Various History only by Fleming, 
1576, and Stanley, 1665 ; of the Letters by Quillard (French), 1895. 

.ffiLRED, AILRED, ETHELRED . (1109-1166), English theo- 
logian, historical writer and abbot of Rievaulx, was born at 
Hexham about the year 1 109. In his youth he was at the court 
of Scotland as an attendant of Henry, son of David I. He was 
in high favour with that sovereign, but renounced the prospect 
of a bishopric to enter the Cistercian house of Rievaulx in 
Yorkshire, which was founded in 1131 by Walter Espec. Here 
^Elred remained for some time as master of the novices, but 
between the years 1142 and 1146 was elected abbot of Revesby 
in Lincolnshire and migrated thither. In 1146 he became abbot 
of Rievaulx. He led a life of the severest asceticism, and was 
credited with the power of working miracles; owing to his 
reputation the numbers of Rievaulx were greatly increased. 
In 1164 he went as a missionary to the Picts of Galloway. He 
found their religion at a low ebb, the regular clergy apathetic 
and sensual, the bishop little obeyed, the laity divided by the 
family feuds of their rulers, unchaste and ignorant. He induced 
a Galwegian chief to take the habit of religion, and restored 
the peace of the country. Two years later he died of a decline, 
at Rievaulx, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. In the year 
1191 he was canonized. His writings are voluminous and have 
never been completely published. Amongst them are homilies 
" on k the burden of Babylon in Isaiah "; three books " on 
spiritual friendship "; a life of Edward the Confessor; an 
account of miracles wrought at Hexham, and the tract called 
Relatio de Standardo. This last is an account of the Battle of 
the Standard (1138), better known than the similar account by 
Richard of Hexham, but less trustworthy, and in places obscured 
by a peculiarly turgid rhetoric. 

See the Vita Alredi in John of Tynemouth's Nova Legenda Anglie 
(ed. C. Horstmann, 1901, vol. i. p. 41), whence it was taken by 
Capgrave. From Cajpgrave the work passed into the Bollandist 
Acta Sanctorum (Jan. ii. p. 30). This life is anonymous, but of an 
early date. The most complete printed collection of /Elred's works 
is in Migne's Patrologia Latina, vol. cxcv. ; but this does not include 
the Miracula Hagulstaldensis Ecclesiae which are printed in I. Raine's 
Priory of Hexham, vol. i.(Surtees Society, 1864). A complete list of 
works attributed to jdred is given in T. Tanner's Bibliotheca Britan- 
nico-Hibernica ( 1 748) , pp.'247-2 J j.8. The Relatio de Standardo has been 
critically edited by R. Hewlett in Chronicles, &c., of Stephen, Henry 
II. and Richard I., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886). (H. W. C. D.) 

AEMILIA VIA, or AEMILIAN WAY. (i) A highroad of Italy, 
constructed in 187 B.C. by the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus, from 
whom it takes its name; it ran from Ariminum to Placentia, a 
distance of 176 m. almost straight N.W., with the plain of the 
Po (Padus) and its tributaries on the right, and the Apennines 
on the left. The 7gth milestone from Ariminum found in the 
bed of the Rhenus at Bononia records the restoration of the 
road by Augustus from Ariminum to the river Trebia in 2 B.C. 
(Notiz. Scav., 1902, 539). The bridge by which it crossed the 
Sillaro was restored by Trajan in A.D. 100 (Notizie degli Scam, 
1888, 621). The modern highroad follows the ancient line, and 
some of the original bridges still exist. After Augustus, the road 
gave its name to the district which formed the eighth region of 
Italy (previously known as Gallia or Provincia Ariminum), at 
first in popular usage (as in Martial), but in official language as 
early as the 2nd century; it is still in use (see EMILIA). The 
district was bounded on the N. by the Padus, E. by the Adriatic, 
S. by the river Crustumium (mod. Conca), and W. by the Apen- 
nines and the Ira (mod. Staffora) at Iria (mod. Voghera), and 
corresponds approximately with the modern district. 

(2) A road constructed in 109 B.C. by the censor M. Aemilius 
Scaurus from Vada Volaterrana and Luna to Vada Sabatia and 
thence over the Apennines to Dertona (Tortona), where it joined 



AEMILIUS AENESIDEMUS 



257 



the Via Postumia from Genua to Cremona. We must, however 
(as Mommsen points out in C.I.L. v. p. 885), suppose that the 
portion of the coast road from Vada Volaterrana to Genua at 
least must have existed before the construction of the Via 
Postumia in 148 B.C. Indeed Polybius (iii. 39. 8) tells us (and 
this must refer to the time of the Gracchi if not earlier) that the 
Romans had in his time built the coast road from the Rhone to 
Carthago Nova; and it is incredible that the coast road in Italy 
itself should not have been constructed previously. It is, how- 
ever, a very different thing to open a road for traffic, and so to 
construct it that it takes its name from that construction in 
perpetuity. (T. As.) 

AEMILIUS, PAULUS (PAOLO EMILIO ) (d. 1529), Italian his- 
torian, was born at Verona. He obtained such reputation in his 
own country that he was invited to France in the reign of 
Charles VIII., in order to write in Latin the history of the kings 
of France, and was presented to a canonry in Notre Dame. He 
enjoyed the patronage and support of Louis XII. He died at 
Paris on the 5th of May 1529. His De Rebus gestis Francorum 
was translated into French in 1581, and has also been translated 
into Italian and German. 

AENEAS, the famous Trojan hero, son of Anchises and 
Aphrodite, one of the most important figures in Greek and 
Roman legendary history. In Homer, he is represented as the 
chief bulwark of the Trojans next to Hector, and the favourite 
of the gods, who frequently interpose to save him from danger 
(Iliad, v. 311). The legend that he remained in the country 
after the fall of Troy, and founded a new kingdom (Iliad, xx. 
308; Hymn to Aphrodite, 196) is now generally considered to be 
of comparatively late origin. The story of his emigration is 
post-Homeric, and set forth in its fullest development by Virgil 
in the Aeneid. Carrying his aged father and household gods on 
his back and leading his little son Ascahius by the hand, he makes 
his way to the coast, his wife Creusa being lost during the con- 
fusion of the flight. After a perilous voyage to Thrace, Delos, 
Crete and Sicily (where his father dies), he is cast up by a storm, 
sent by Juno, on the African coast. Refusing to remain with 
Dido, queen of Carthage, who in despair puts an end to her life, 
he sets sail from Africa, and after seven years' wandering lands 
at the mouth of the Tiber. He is hospitably received by Latinus, 
king of Latium, is betrothed to his daughter Lavinia, and founds 
a city called after her, Lavinium. Turnus, king of Rutuli, a 
rejected suitor, takes up arms against him and Latinus, but is 
defeated and slain by Aeneas on the river Numicius. The story 
of the Aeneid ends with the death of Turnus. According to 
Livy (i. i. 2), Aeneas, after reigning a few years over Latium, 
is slain by the Rutuli; after the battle, his body cannot be found, 
and he is supposed to have been carried up to heaven. He 
receives divine honours, and is worshipped under the name of 
Jupiter Indiges (Dionysius Halic. i. 64). 

See J. A. Hild, La Legende d"nee avant Vergile (1883) ; F. Cauer, 
De Fabulis Graecis ad Romam conditam pertinentibus (1884) and Die 
Romische Aeneassage, von Naevius bis Vergilius (1886); G. Boissier, 
"La Legende d'Enee " in Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 1883; 
A. Forstemann, Zur Geschichte des Aeneasmythus (1894); articles 
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (new ed., 1894); Reseller's 
Lexicon der Mythologie; Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des 
antiquiles; Preller's Griechische und romische Mythologie; and 
especially Schwegler, Romische Geschichte (1867). 

Romances. The story of Aeneas, as a sequel to the legend of 
Troy, formed the subject of several epic romances in the middle 
ages. The Roman d' Eneas (c. 1160, or later), of uncertain 
authorship (attributed by some to Benoit de Sainte-More), the 
first French poem directly imitated from the Aeneid, is a fairly 
:lose adaptation of the original. The trouvere, however, omits 
he greater part of the wanderings of Aeneas, and adorns his 
arrative with gorgeous descriptions, with accounts of the mar- 
vellous properties of beasts and stones, and of single combats 
among the knights who figure in the story. He also elaborates 
the episodes most attractive to his audience, notably those of 
~)ido and Aeneas and Lavinia, the last of whom plays a far 
Qore important part than in the Aeneid. Where possible, he 
iibstitutes human for divine intervention, and ignores the idea 

1.9 



of the glorification of Rome and Augustus, which dominates 
the Virgilian epic. On this work were founded the Eneide or 
Eneit (between 1180 and 1190) of Heinrich von Veldeke, written 
in Flemish and now only extant in a version in the Thuringian 
dialect, and the Eneydos, written by William Caxton in 1490. 

See Eneas, ed. J. Salverda de Grave (Halle, 1891); see also A. 
Peij, Essai sur li romans d' Eneas (Paris, 1856); A. Duval in Hist. 
litteraire de la France, xix. ; Veldeke's Eneide, ed. Ettmtiller (Leipzig, 
1852) and O. Behaghel (Heilbronn, 1882); Eneydos, ed. F. J. Furni- 
vall (1890). For Italian versions see E. G. Parodi in Studi di 
filologia romanza (v. 1887). 

AENEAS TACTICUS (4th century B.C.), one of the earliest 
Greek writers on the art of war. According to Aelianus Tacticus 
and Polybius, he wrote a number of treatises ("Yiroij.vrina.Ta.) 
on the subject; the only one extant deals with the best methods 
of defending a fortified city. An epitome of the whole was made 
by Cineas, minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The work is 
chiefly valuable as containing a large number of historical illus- 
trations. Aeneas was considered by Casaubon to have been a 
contemporary of Xenophon and identical with the Arcadian 
general Aeneas of Stymphalus, whom Xenophon (Hellenica, 
vii. 3) mentions as fighting at the battle of Mantinea (362 B.C.). 

Editions in I. Casaubon's (1619), Gronovius' (1670) and Ernesti's 
(1763) editions of Polybius; also separately, with notes, by J. C. 
Orelli (Leipzig, 1818). Other texts are those of W. Riistow and 
H. Kochly (Griechische Kriegsschriflsteller, vol. i. Leipzig, 1853) and 
A. Hug, Prolegomena Critica ad Aeneae . , . editionem (Zurich 
University, 1874). See also Count Beausobre, Commentaires sur 
la defense des places a' Aeneas (Amsterdam, 1757); A. Hug, Aeneas 
von Stymphalos (Zurich, 1877) ; C. C. Lange, De Aeneae commentario 
poliorcetico (Berlin, 1879) ; M. H. Meyer, Observationes in Aeneam 
Tacticum (Halle, 1835); Haase, in Jahns Jahrbuch, 1835, xiv. i; 
Max Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenschafien, i. pp. 26-28 (Munich, 
1889); Ad. Bauer, in Zeitschrift fur allg. Geschichte, &c., 1886, i.; 
T. H. Williams in American Journal of Philology, xxv. 4; E. 
Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894). 

AENESIDEMUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Cnossus in 
Crete and taught at Alexandria, probably during the first 
century B.C. He was the leader of what is sometimes known as 
the third sceptical school and revived to a great extent the 
doctrine of Pyrrho and Timon. His chief work was the Pyr- 
rhonian Principles addressed to Lucius Tubero. His philosophy 
consisted of four main parts, the reasons for scepticism and 
doubt, the attack on causality and truth, a physical theory and 
a theory of morality. Of these the two former are important. 
The reasons for doubt are given in the form of the ten " tropes ": 

(1) different animals manifest different modes of perception; 

(2) similar differences are seen among individual men; (3) even 
for the same man, sense-given data are self-contradictory, 
(4) vary from time to time with physical changes, and (5) accord- 
ing to local relations; (6) and (7) objects are known only in- 
directly through the medium of air, moisture, &c., and are in a 
condition of perpetual change in colour, temperature, size and 
motion; (8) all perceptions are relative and interact one upon 
another; (9) our impressions become less deep by repetition 
and custom; and (10) all men are brought up with different 
beliefs, under different laws and social conditions. Truth varies 
infinitely under circumstances whose relative weight cannot be 
accurately gauged. There is, therefore, no absolute knowledge, 
for every man has different perceptions, and, further, arranges 
and groups his data in methods peculiar to himself; so that the 
sum total is a quantity with a purely subjective validity. The 
second part of his work consists in the attack upon the theory 
of causality, in which he adduces almost entirely those considera- 
tions which are the basis of modern scepticism. Cause has no 
existence apart from the mind which perceives; its validity is 
ideal, or, as Kant would have said, subjective. The relation 
between cause and effect is unthinkable. If the two things 
are different, they are either simultaneous or in succession. If 
simultaneous, cause is effect and effect cause. If not, since 
effect cannot precede cause, cause must precede effect, and there 
must be an instant when cause is not effective, that is, is not 
itself. By these and similar arguments he arrives at the funda- 
mental principle of Scepticism, the radical and universal opposi- 
tion of causes; iravrl \6yt? \6yos dm/carat. Having reached 



AEOLIAN HARP AEQUI 



this conclusion, he was able to assimilate the physical theory 
of Heraclitus, as is explained in the Hypotyposes of Sextus 
Empiricus. For admitting that contraries co-exist for the 
perceiving subject, he was able to assert the co-existence of 
contrary qualities in the same object. Having thus disposed 
of the lideas of truth and causality, he proceeds to undermine 
the ethical criterion, and denies that any man can aim at Good, 
Pleasure or Happiness as an absolute, concrete ideal. All 
actions are product of pleasure and pain, good and evil. The 
end of ethical endeavour is the conclusion that all endeavour 
is vain and illogical. The main tendency of this destructive 
scepticism is essentially the same from its first crystallization 
by Aenesidemus down to the most advanced sceptics of to-day 
(see SCEPTICISM). For the immediate successors of Aenesidemus 
see AGRIPPA, SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. See also CARNEADES and 
ARCESILAUS. Of the Hvpp&vfioi \oyoi nothing remains; we 
have, however, an analysis in the Myriobiblion of Photius. 

See Zeller's History of Greek Philosophy; E. Saisset, jEnesideme, 
Pascal, Kant; Ritter and Preller, 364-370. 

AEOLIAN HARP (Fr. harpe eolienne; Ger. Aolsharje, 
Windharfe; Ital. arpa d" Eolo), a stringed musical instrument, 
whose name is derived from Aeolus, god of the wind. The 
aeolian harp consists of a sound-box about 3 ft. long, 5 in. 
wide, and 3 in. deep, made of thin deal, or preferably of pine, 
and having beech ends to hold the tuning-pins and hitch-pins. 
A dozen or less catgut strings of different thickness, but 
tuned in exact unison, and left rather slack, are attached to 
the pins, and stretched over two narrow bridges of hard wood, 
one at each end of the sound-board, which is generally pro- 
vided with two rose sound-holes. To ensure a proper passage 
for the wind, another pine board is placed over the strings, 
resting on pegs at the ends of the sound-board, or on a con- 
tinuation of the ends raised from i to 3 in. above the strings. 
Kaufmann of Dresden and Heinrich Christoph Koch, who im- 
proved the aeolian harp, introduced this contrivance, which was 
called by them Windfang and Windflugel; the upper board was 
prolonged beyond the sound-box in the shape of a funnel, in 
order to direct the current of air on to the strings. The aeolian 
harp is placed across a window so that the wind blows obliquely 
across the strings, causing them to vibrate in aliquot parts, i.e. 
(the fundamental note not being heard) the half or octave, the 
third or interval of the twelfth, the second octave, and the 
third above it, in fact the upper partials of the strings in regular 
succession. With the increased pressure of the wind, the dis- 
sonances of the nth and i3th overtones are heard in shrill dis- 
cords, only to give place to beautiful harmonies as the force of 
the wind abates. The principle of the natural vibration of 
strings by the pressure of the wind was recognized in ancient 
times; King David, we hear from the Rabbinic records, used to 
hang his kinnor (kithard) over his bed at night, when it sounded 
in the midnight breeze. The same is related of St Dunstan of 
Canterbury, who was in consequence charged with sorcery. The 
Chinese at the present day fly kites of various sizes, having 
strings stretched across apertures in the paper, which produces 
the effect of an aerial chorus. 

See Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis, where the aeolian 
harp is first described (1602-1608), p. 148; Mathew Young, Bishop 
of Clonfert, Enquiry into the Principal Phenomena of Sounds and 
Musical Strings, pp. 170-182 (London, 1784); Gottingen Pocket 
Calendar (1792); Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon, 
article " Aeolsharfe." An illustration is given in Rees' Encyclo- 
pedia, plates, vol. ii. Misc. pi. xxv. (K. S.) 

AEOLIS (AEOLIA), an ancient district of Asia Minor, colonized 
at a very early date by Aeolian Greeks. The name was applied 
to the coast from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lectum, 
i.e. between Ionia to S. and Troas to N. The Aeolians founded 
twelve cities on the mainland, including Cyme, and numerous 
towns in Mytilene: they were said also to have settled in the 
Troad.and even within the Hellespont. 

AEOLUS, in Greek mythology, according to Homer the son of 
Hippotes, god and father of the winds, and ruler of the island of 
Aeolia. In the Odyssey (x. i) he entertains Odysseus, gives him 
a favourable wind to help him on his journey, and a bag in which 



the unfavourable winds have been confined. Out of curiosity, 
or with the idea that it contains valuable treasures, Odysseus' 
companions open the bag; the winds escape and drive them 
back to the island, whence Aeolus dismisses them with bitter 
reproaches. According to Virgil, Aeolus dwells on one of the 
Aeolian islands to the north of Sicily, Lipara or Strongyle 
(Stromboli), where he keeps the winds imprisoned in a vast 
cavern (Virgil, Aen. i. 52). Another genealogy makes him the 
son of Poseidon and Arne, granddaughter of Hippotes, and a 
descendant of Aeolus, king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythical 
ancestor of the tribe of the Aeolians (Diodorus iv. 67). 

AEON, a term often used hi Greek (ai&v) to denote an indefinite 
or infinite duration of time; and hence, by metonymy, a being 
that exists for ever. In the latter sense it was chiefly used by 
the Gnostic sects to denote those eternal beings or manifestations 
which emanated from the one incomprehensible and ineffable 
God. (See GNOSTICISM.) 

AEPINUS, FRANZ ULRICH THEODOR (1724-1802), German 
natural philosopher, was born at Rostock in Saxony on the 
1 3th of December 1724. He was descended from John Aepinus 
(1499-1553), the first to adopt the Greek form (aiirtivos) of the 
family name Hugk or Huck, and a leading theologian and con- 
troversialist at the time of the Reformation. After studying 
medicine for a time, Franz Aepinus devoted himself to the 
physical and mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained 
such distinction that he was admitted a member of the Berlin 
academy of sciences. In 1757 he settled in St Petersburg as 
member of the imperial academy of sciences and professor of 
physics, and remained there till his retirement in 1798. The rest 
of his life was spent at Dorpat, where he died on the i oth of August 
1802. He enjoyed the special favour of the empress Catherine II., 
who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured, 
without success, to establish normal schools throughout the 
empire under his direction. Aepinus is best known by his re- 
searches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity and mag- 
netism, and his principal work, Tentamen Theoriae Electricitatis 
et Magnetismi, published at St Petersburg in 1759, was the first 
systematic and successful attempt to apply mathematical reason- 
ing to these subjects. He also published a treatise, in 1761, De 
distributione caloris per tetturem, and he was the author of memoirs 
on different subjects in astronomy, mechanics, optics and pure 
mathematics, contained in the journals of the learned societies 
of St Petersburg and Berlin. His discussion of the effects of 
parallax in the transit of a planet over the sun's disc excited 
great interest, having appeared (in 1764) between the dates of 
the two transits of Venus that took place in the i8th century. 

AEQUI, an ancient people of Italy, whose name occurs con- 
stantly in Livy's first decade as hostile to Rome in the first three 
centuries of the city's existence. They occupied the upper 
reaches of the valleys of the Anio, Tolenus and Himella; the 
last two being mountain streams running northward to join 
the Nar. Their chief centre is said to have been taken by the 
Romans about 484 B.C. (Diodorus xi. 40) and again about ninety 
years later (id. xiv. 106), but they were not finally subdued 
till the end of the second Samnite war (Livy ix. 45, 'x. i; 
Diod. xx. 101), when they seem to have received a limited form 
of franchise (Cic. Off. i. n, 35). All we know of their subsequent 
political condition is that after the Social war the folk of Cliternia 
and Nersae appear united in a res publica Aequiculorum, which 
was a municipium of the ordinary type (C.I.L. ix. p. 388). The 
Latin colonies of Alba Fucens (304 B.C.) and Carsioli (298 B.C.) 
must have spread the use of Latin (or what passed as such) all 
over the district; through it lay the chief (and for some time 
the only) route (Via Valeria) to Luceria and the south. 

Of the language spoken by the Aequi before the Roman con- 
quest we have no record; but since the Marsi (<?..), who lived 
farther east, spoke in the 3rd century B.C. a dialect closely akin 
to Latin, and since the Hernici (q.v.), their neighbours to the 
south-west, did the same, we have no ground for separating 
any of these tribes from the Latian group (see LATINI). If we 
could be certain of the origin of the q in their name and of the 
relation between its shorter and its longer form (note that the i 



AERARII AERATED WATERS 



259 



in Aeguiculus is long Virgil, Aen. vii. 744 which seems to con- 
nect it with the locative of aequum " a plain," so that it would 
mean "dwellers in the plain"; but in the historical period 
they certainly lived mainly in the hills), we should know whether 
they were to be grouped with the q or the p dialects, that is to 
say, with Latin on the one hand, which preserved an original q, 
or with the dialect of Velitrae, commonly called Volscian (and 
the Volsci were the constant allies of the Aequi), on the other 
hand, in which, as in the Iguvine and Samnite dialects, an original 
q is changed into p. There is no decisive evidence to show 
whether the q in Latin aequus represents an Indo-European q 
as in Latin quis, Umbro-Volsc. pis, or an Indo-European k + u as 
in equtts, Umb. ekvo-. The derivative adjective Aequicus might 
be taken to range them with the Volsci rather than the Sabini, 
but it is not clear that this adjective was ever used as a real 
ethnicon; the name of the tribe is always Aequi, or Aequicoli. 

At the end of the Republican period the Aequi appear, under 
the name Aequiculi or Aequicoli, organized as a municipium, 
the territory of which seems to have comprised the upper part 
of the valley of the Salto, still known as Cicolano. It is probable, 
however, that they continued to live in their villages as before. 
Of these Nersae (mod. Nesce) was the most considerable. The 
polygonal terrace walls, which exist in considerable numbers in 
the district, are shortly described in Romische Mitteilungen 
(1903), 147 seq., but require further study. 

See further the articles MARSI, VOLSCI, LATINI, and the refer- 
ences there given; the place-names and other scanty records of 
the dialect are collected by R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, 
pp. 300 ff. (R. S. C.) 

AERARII (from Lat. aes, in its subsidiary sense of " poll- 
tax"), originally a class of Roman citizens not included in 
the thirty tribes of Servius Tullius, and subject to a poll-tax 
arbitrarily fixed by the censor. They were (i) the inhabitants of 
conquered towns which had been deprived of local self-govern- 
ment, who possessed the jus conubii and jus commercii, but no 
political rights; Caere is said to have been the first example of 
tf" s (353 B.C.); hence the expression "in tabulas Caeritum 
referre " came to mean " to degrade to the status of an aerarius ": 
(2) full citizens subjected to civil degradation (infamia) as the 
result of following certain professions (e.g. acting), of dishonour- 
able acts in private life (e.g. bigamy) or of conviction for certain 
crimes; (3) persons branded by the censor. Those who were 
thus excluded from the tribes and centuries had no Vote, were in- 
capable of filling Roman magistracies and could not serve in the 
army. According to Mommsen, the aerarii were originally the 
non-assidui (non-holders of land), excluded from the tribes, the 
comitia and the army. By a reform of the censor Appius 
Claudius in 312 B.C. these non-assidui were admitted into the 
tribes, and the aerarii as such disappeared. But in 304, Fabius 
Rullianus limited them to the four city tribes, and from that 
time the term meant a man degraded from a higher (country) 
to a lower (city) tribe, but not deprived of the right of voting 
or of serving in the army. The expressions " tribu movere " 
and " aerarium facere," regarded by Mommsen as identical in 
meaning (" to degrade from a higher tribe to a lower "), are 
explained by A. H. J. Greenidge the first as relegation from a 
higher to a lower tribe or total exclusion from the tribes, the 
second as exclusion from the centuries. Other views of the 
original aerarii are that they were: artisans and freedmen 
(Niebuhr); inhabitants of towns united with Rome by a hos- 
pilium publicum, who had become domiciled on Roman terri- 
tory (Lange) ; only a class of degraded citizens, including neither 
the cives sine suJTragio nor the artisans (Madvig) ; identical with 

capite censi of the Servian constitution (Belot, Greenidge). 
See A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia in Roman Law (1894), where 
ommsen's theory is criticized; E. Belot, Histoire des chevaliers 
remains, i. p. 200 (Paris, 1866); L. Pardon, De Aerariis (Berlin, 
.1853); P. Willems, Le Droit public remain (1883); A. S. Wilkins 
in Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891) ; and 
the usual handbooks of antiquities. 

AERARIUM (from Lat. aes, in its derived sense of " money "), 
the name (in full, aerarium stabulum, treasure-house) given in 
ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense 



L11C 

,Ke 

Me 



to the public finances. The treasury contained the moneys and 
accounts of the state, and also the standards of the legions; 
the public laws engraved on brass, the decrees of the senate 
and other papers and registers of importance. These public 
treasures were deposited in the temple of Saturn, on the eastern 
slope of the Capitoline hill, and, during the republic, were in 
charge of the urban quaestors (see QUAESTOR), under the super- 
intendence and control of the senate. This arrangement con- 
tinued (except for the year 45 B.C., when no quaestors were 
chosen) until 28 B.C., when Augustus transferred the aerarium 
to two praefecti aerarii, chosen annually by the senate from 
ex-praetors; in 23 these were replaced by two praetors (praetores 
aerarii or ad aerarium), selected by lot during their term of 
office; Claudius in A.D. 44 restored the quaestors, but nominated 
by the emperor for three years, for whom Nero in 56 substituted 
two ex-praetors, under the same conditions. In addition to the 
common treasury, supported by the general taxes and charged 
with the ordinary expenditure, there was a special reserve fund, 
also in the temple of Saturn, the aerarium" 'sanctum (or sanctius), 
probably originally consisting of the spoils of war, afterwards 
maintained chiefly by a 5% tax on the value of all manu- 
mitted slaves, this source of revenue being established by a 
lex Manlia in 357. This fund was not to be touched except in 
cases of extreme necessity (Livy vii. 16, xxvii. 10). Under the 
emperors the senate continued to have at least the nominal 
management of the aerarium, while the emperor had a separate 
exchequer, called fiscus. But after a time, as the power of the 
emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended till the senate 
existed only in form and name, this distinction virtually ceased. 
Besides creating the fiscus, Augustus also established in A.D. 6 
a military treasury (aerarium militare), containing all moneys 
raised for and appropriated to the maintenance of the army, 
including a pension fund for disabled soldiers. It was largely 
endowed by the emperor himself (see Monumenlum Ancyranum, 
iii. 3 5) and supported by the proceeds of the tax on public sales 
and the succession duty. Its administration was in the hands 
of three praefecti aerarii militaris, at first appointed by lot, but 
afterwards by the emperor, from senators of praetorian rank, 
for three years. The later emperors had a separate aerarium 
privatum, containing the moneys allotted for their own use, 
distinct from the fiscus, which they administered in the interests 
of the empire. 

The tribuni aerarii have been the subject of much discussion. 
They are supposed by some to be identical with the curatores 
Iribuum, and to have been the officials who, under the Servian 
organization, levied the war-tax (tributum) in the tribes and the 
poll-tax on the aerarii (q.v.). They also acted as paymasters of 
the equites and of the soldiers on service in each tribe. By the 
lex Aurelia (70 B.C.) the list of judices was composed, in addition 
to senators and equites, of tribuni aerarii. Whether these were 
the successors of the above, or a new order closely connected 
with the equites, or even the same as the latter, is uncertain. 
According to Mommsen, they were persons who possessed the 
equestrian census, but no public horse. They were removed 
from the list of judices by Caesar, but replaced by Augustus. 
According to Madvig, the original tribuni aerarii were not officials 
at all, but private individuals of considerable means, quite 
distinct from the curatores Iribuum, who undertook certain 
financial work connected with their own tribes. Then, as in 
the case of the equites, the term was subsequently extended 
to include all those who possessed the property qualification 
that would have entitled them to serve as tribuni aerarii. 

See Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 29, with Furneaux's notes; O. Hirsch- 
feld, " Das Aerarium militare in der romischen Kaiserzeit," in 
Fleckeisen's Jahrbuch, vol. xcvii. (1868); S. Herrlich, De Aerario et 
Fisco Romanorum (Berlin, 1872); and the usual handbooks and 
dictionaries of antiquities. On the tribuni aerarii see E. Belot, Hist, 
des chevaliers remains, ii. p. 276; J. N. Madvig, Opuscula Academica, 
ii. p. 242; J. B. Mispoulet, Les Institutions poliliques des Remains 
(1883), ii. p. 208; Mommsen, Romisches Staalsrecht, iii. p. 189; 
A. S. Wilkins in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities 
(3rd ed., 1890). 

AERATED WATERS. Waters charged with a larger pro- 
portion of carbon dioxide than they will dissolve at ordinary 



AERONAUTICS 



atmospheric pressure occur in springs in various parts of the 
world (see MINERAL WATERS) . Such waters, which also generally 
hold in solution a considerable percentage of saline constituents, 
early acquired a reputation as medicinal agents, and when carbon 
dioxide (" fixed air ") became familiar to chemists the possibility 
was recognized, as by Joseph Priestley (Directions for impregnat- 
ing water with fixed air . . . to communicate the peculiar Spirit 
and Virtues of Pyrmontu>ater,iTj2), of imitating them artificially. 
Many of the ordinary aerated waters of commerce, however, do 
not pretend to reproduce any known natural water; they are 
merely beverages owing their popularity to their effervescing 
properties and the flavour imparted by a small quantity of some 
salt such as sodium bicarbonate or a little fruit syrup. Their 
manufacture on a considerable scale was begun at Geneva so 
far back as 1790 by Nicholas Paul, and the excellence of the 
soda water prepared in London by j. Schweppe, who had been 
a partner of Paul's, is referred to by Tiberius Cavallo in his 
Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs, published in 
1798. Many forms of apparatus are employed for charging the 
water with the gas. A simple machine for domestic use, called a 
gasogene or seltzogene, consists of two strong glass globes con- 
nected one above the other by a wide glass tube which rises 
nearly to the top of the upper and smaller globe. Surmounting 
the small globe there is a spring valve, fitted to a narrow tube 
that passes through the wide tube to the bottom of the large 
globe. To use the machine, the lower vessel is filled with water, 
and in the upper one, round the base of the wide tube, is placed a 
mixture, commonly of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, 
which with water yields carbon dioxide. The valve head is 
then fastened on, and by tilting the apparatus some water is 
made to flow through the wide tube from the lower to the upper 
vessel. The water in the lower globe takes up the gas thus 
produced, and when required for use is withdrawn by the valve, 
being forced up the narrow tube by the pressure of the gas. 
In another arrangement the gas is supplied compressed in little 
steel capsules, and is liberated into a bottle containing the water 
which has to be aerated. On a large scale, use is made of con- 
tinuously acting machinery which is essentially of the type 
devised by Joseph Bramah. The gas is prepared in a separate 
generator by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium bicarbonate 
or whiting, and after being washed is collected in a gas-holder, 
whence it is forced with, water under pressure into a receiver or 
saturator in which an agitator is kept moving. Some manu- 
facturers buy their gas compressed in steel cylinders. The 
water thus aerated or carbonated passes from the receiver, in 
which the pressure may be 100-200 Ib on the square inch, to 
bottling machines which fill and close the bottles; if beverages 
like lemonade are being made the requisite quantity of fruit 
syrup is also injected into the bottles, though sometimes the 
fruit syrup mixture is aerated in bulk. For soda water sodium 
bicarbonate should be added to the water before aeration, in 
varying proportions up to about 1 5 grains per pint, but the simple 
carbonated water often does duty instead. Potash water, lithia 
water and many others are similarly prepared, the various salts 
being used in such amounts as are dictated by the experience 
and taste of the manufacturer. Aerated waters are sent out 
from the factories either in siphons (q.v.) or in bottles; the 
latter may be closed by corks, or by screw-stoppers or by internal 
stoppers consisting of a valve, such as a glass ball, held up against 
an indiarubber ring in the neck by the pressure of the gas. For 
use in " soda-fountains " the waters are sent out in large 
cylinders. 

See W. Kirkby, Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters (Manchester, 
1902). 

AERONAUTICS, the art of "navigating" the "air." It is divis- 
ible into two main branches aerostation, dealing properly with 
machines which like balloons are lighter than the air, and aviation, 
dealing with the problem of artificial flight by means of flying 
machines which, like birds, are heavier than the air, and also 
with attempts to fly made by human beings by the aid of 
artificial wings fitted to their limbs. 

Historically, aviation is the older of the two, and in the legends 



or myths of men or animals which are supposed to have travelled 
through the air, such as Pegasus, Medea's dragons and Daedalus, 
as well as in Egyptian bas-reliefs, wings appear as the means by 
which aerial locomotion is effected. In later times there are 
many stories of men who have attempted to fly in the same way. 
John Wilkins (1614-1672), one of the founders of the Royal 
Society and bishop of Chester, who in 1640 discussed the possi- 
bility of reaching the moon by volitation, says in his Mathe- 
matical Magick (1648) that it was related that " a certain English 
monk called Elmerus, about the Confessor's time," flew from a 
town in Spain for a distance of more than a furlong; and that 
other persons had flown from St Mark's, Venice, and at Nurem- 
berg. Giovanni Battista Dante, of Perugia, is said to have flown 
several times across Lake Trasimene. At the beginning of the 
1 6th century an Italian alchemist who was collated to the abbacy 
of Tungland, in Galloway, Scotland, by James IV., undertook 
to fly from the walls of Stirling Castle through the air to France. 
He actually attempted the feat, but soon came to the ground 
and broke his thigh-bone in the fall an accident which he ex- 
plained by asserting that the wings he employed contained some 
fowls' feathers, which had an " affinity " for the dung-hill, whereas 
if they had been composed solely of eagles' feathers they would 
have been attracted to the air. This anecdote furnished Dunbar, 
the Scottish poet, with the subject of one of his rude satires. 
Leonardo da Vinci about the same time approached the problem 
in a more scientific spirit, and his notebooks contain several 
sketches of wings to be fitted to the arms and legs. In the 
following century a lecture on flying delivered in 1617 by 
Fleyder, rector of the grammar school at Tubingen, and pub- 
lished eleven years later, incited a poor monk to attempt to put 
the theory into practice, but his machinery broke down and he 
was killed. 

In Francis Bacon's Natural History there are two passages 
which refer to flying, though they scarcely bear out the assertion 
made by some writers that he first published the true principles 
of aeronautics. 

The first is styled Experiment Solitary, touching Flying in the Air: 
" Certainly many birds of good wing (as kites and the like)would 
bear up a good weight as they fly; and spreading feathers thin and 
close, and in great breadth, will likewise bear up a great weight, being 
even laid, without tilting up on the sides. The farther extension of 
this experiment might be thought upon." The second passage is more 
diffuse, but less intelligible; it is styled Experiment Solitary, touching 
the Flying of unequal Bodies in the Air: "Let there be a body of 
unequal weight (as of wool and lead or bone and lead) ; if you throw 
it from you with the light end forward, it will turn, and the weightier 
end will recover to be forwards, unless the body be over long. The 
cause is, for that the more dense body hath a more violent pressure 
of the parts from the first impulsion, which is the cause (though 
heretofore not found out, as hath been often said) of all violent 
motions ; and when the hinder part nioveth swifter (for that it less 
endureth pressure of parts) than the forward part can make way for 
it, it must needs be that the body turn over; for (turned) it can more 
easily draw forward the lighter part." The fact here alluded to is 
the resistance that bodies experience in moving through the air, 
which, depending on the quantity of surface merely, must exert a 
proportionally greater effect on rare substances. The passage itself, 
however, after making every allowance for the period in which it 
was written, must be deemed confused, obscure and unphilosophical. 

In his posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, published at 
Rome in 1680-1681, G.A.Borelli gave calculations of the enormous 
strength of the pectoral muscles in birds; and his proposition 
cciv. (vol. i. pp. 322-326), entitled Esl impossibile ut homines pro- 
priis viribus artificiose iiolare possint, points out the impossibility 
of man being able by his muscular strength to give motion to 
wings of sufficient extent to keep him suspended in the air. But 
during his lifetime two Frenchmen, Allard in 1660 and Bcsnier 
about 1678, are said to have succeeded in making short flights. 
An account of some of the modern attempts to construct flying 
machines will be found in the article FLIGHT AND FLYING; here 
we append a brief consideration of the mechanical aspects of 
the problem. 

The very first essential for success is safety, which will probably 
only be attained with automatic stability. The underlying principle 
is that the centre of gravity shall at all times be on the same vertical 
line as the centre ofpressure. The latter varies with the angle of 
incidence. For square planes it moves approximately as expressed 



AERONAUTICS 



261 






by Joessel's formula, + (0-2+0-3 sin a) L, in which C is the distance 
from the front edge, L the length fore and aft, and a the angle of 
incidence. The movement is different on concave surfaces. The 
term aeroplane is understood to apply to flat sustaining surfaces, 
but experiment indicates that arched surfaces are more efficient. 
S. P. Langleyproposed the word aerodrome, which seems the prefer- 
able term for apparatus with wing-like surfaces. This is the type to 
which results point as the proper one for further experiments. With 
this it seems probable that, with well-designed apparatus, 40 to 50 Ib 
can be sustained per indicated h.p., or about twice that quantity 
per resistance or thrust " h.p., and that some 30 or 40% of the 
weight can be devoted to the machinery, thus requiring motors, with 
their propellers, shafting, supplies, &c., weighing less than 20 Ib 
per h.p. It is evident that the apparatus must be designed to be as 
light as possible, and also to reduce to a minimum all resistances 
to propulsion. This being kept in view, the strength and conse- 
quent section required for each member may be calculated by the 
methods employed in proportioning bridges, with the difference 
that the support (from air pressure) will be considered as uniformly 
distributed, and the load as concentrated at one or more points. 
Smaller factors of safety may also have to be used. Knowing the 
sections required and unit weights of the materials to be employed, 
the weight of each part can be computed. If a model has been made 
to absolutely exact scale, the weight of the full-sized apparatus 
may approximately be ascertained by the formula 



in which W is the weight of the model, S its surface, and W and S' 
the weight and surface of the intended apparatus. Thus if the model 
has been made one-quarter size in its homologous dimensions, the 
supporting surfaces will be sixteen times, and the total weight sixty- 
four times those of the model. The weight and the surface being 
determined, the three most important things to know are the angle 
of incidence, the " lift," and the required speed. The fundamental 
formula for rectangular air pressure is well known: P = KV 2 S, in 
which P is the rectangular normal pressure, in pounds or kilograms, 
K a coefficient (0-0049 for British, and o-n for metric measures), 
V the velocity in miles per hour or in metres per second, and S the 
surface in square feet or in square metres. The normal on oblique 
surfaces, at various angles of incidence, is given by the formula 
P = KV 2 S7j, which latter tactor is given both for planes and for arched 
surfaces in the subjoined table : 

PERCENTAGES OF AIR PRESSURE AT VARIOUS ANGLES 
OF INCIDENCE 



PLANES (DUCHEMIN FOR- 




MULA, VERIFIED BY LANGLEY). 


WlNGS (LlLIENTHAL). 


-, p 2Sina 


Concavity I in 12. 


Angle. 


Nor- 


Lift. 


Drift. 


Nor- 

fflcll. 


Lift. 


Drift. 


Tan- 
gential 


a. 


tricil. 


rjcosa. 


rjsina. 




TJCOSO. 


ijsina. 


force. 




* 






* 






a. 


-9 








o-o 


o-o 


o-o 


+0-070 


-8 








0-040 


0-0396 


-0-0055 


+0-067 


-7 








0-080 


0-0741 


0-0097 


+0-064 


-6 








O-I2O 


0-1193 


-0-0125 


+0-060 


-5 








0-160 


0-1594 


-0-0139 


+0-055 


-4 








O-2OO 


0-1995 


-0-0139 


+0-049 


-3 








0-242 


0-2416 


0-0126 


+0-043 


-2 








0-286 


0-2858 


O-OIOO 


+0-037 


i 








0-332 


0-3318 


0-0058 


+0-031 





o-o 


O-O 


0-0 


0-381 


0-3810 


o-o 


+0-024 


I O 


0-035 


0-035 


0-00061 1 


0-434 


0-434 


+0-0075 


+0-016 


+2 


0-070 


0-070 


0-00244 


0-489 


0-489 


+0-0170 


+0-008 


+3 


0-104 


0-104 


0-00543 


0-546 


0-545 


+0-0285 


o-o 


+4 


0-139 


0-139 


0-0097 


0-600 


o-597 


+0-0418 


0-007 


+5 


0-174 


0-173 


0-0152 


0-650 


0-647 


+0-0566 


0-014 


+6 


0-207 


0-206 


0-0217 


0-696 


0-692 


+0-0727 


0-021 


+7 


0-240 


0-238 


0-0293 


0-737 


o-73i 


+0-0898 


0-028 


+8 


0-273 


0-270 


0-0381 


0-771 


0-763 


+0-1072 


-0-035 


+9 


0-305 


0-300 


0-0477 


0-800 


0-790 


+0-1251 


O'O42 


10 


0-337 


0-332 


0-0585 


0-825 


0-812 


+0-1432 


-0-050 


11 


0-369 


0-362 


0-0702 


0-846 


0-830 


+0-1614 


-0-058 


12 


0-398 


0-390 


0-0828 


0-864 


0-845 


+0-1803 


0-064 


13 


0-431 


0-419 


0-0971 


0-879 


0-856 


+0-1976 


O-O7O 


14 


0-457 


0-443 


0-1155 


0-891 


0-864 


+0-2156 


-0-074 


15 


0-486 


0-468 


0-1240 


0-901 


0-870 


+0-2332 


O-O76 



The sustaining power, or " lift," which in horizontal flight must 
be equal to the weight, can be calculated by the formula 
L = KV 2 S7^:osa, or the factor may be taken direct from the table, in 
which the " lift " and the "drift" have been obtained by multiply- 
ing the normal T? by the cosine and sine of the angle. The last column 
shows the tangential pressure on concave surfaces which O. Lilien- 
thal found to possess a propelling component between 3 and 32, 



V = 




and therefore to be negative to the relative wind. Former modes 
of computation indicated angles of 10 to 15 as necessary for sup- 
port with planes. These were prohibitory in consequence of the 
great " drift "; but the present data indicate that, with concave 
surfaces, angles of 2 to 5 will produce adequate " lift." To com- 
pute the latter the angle at which the wings are to be set must first 
be assumed, and that of +3 will generally be found preferable. 
Then the required velocity is next to be computed 'by the formula 

L~ 

STJCOSO ' 

or for concave wings at +3 

~ 

Having thus determined the weight, the surface, the angle of inci- 
dence and the required speed for horizontal support, the next step 
is to calculate the power required. This is best accomplished by first 
obtaining the total resistances, which consist of the " drift " and of 
the head resistances due to the hull and framing. The latter are 
arrived at preferably by making a tabular statement showing all 
the spars and parts offering head resistance, and applying to each 
the coefficient appropriate to its " master section," as ascertained by 
experiment. Thus is obtained an " equivalent area " of resistance, 
which is to be multiplied by the wind pressure due to the speed. Care 
must be taken to resolve all the resistances at their proper angle of 
application, and to subtract or add the tangential force, which con- 
sists in the surface S, multiplied by the wind pressure, and by the 
factor in the table, which is, however, o for 3 and 32, but positive 
or negative at other angles. When the aggregate resistances are 
known, the " thrust h.p." required is obtained by multiplying the 
resistance by the speed, and then allowing for mechanical losses in 
the motor and propeller, which losses will generally be 50% of 
indicated h.p. Close approximations are obtained by the above 
method when applied to full-sized apparatus. The following example 
will make the process clearer. The weight to be carried by an appar- 
atus was 189 Ib on concave wings of 143-5 sq. ft. area, set at a positive 
angle of 3. There were in addition rear wings of 29-5 sq. ft., set at 
a negative angle of 3; hence, L = 189 = 0-005 XV 2 X 143-5X0-545. 



Whence V= 



-12 



= 22 miles per hour. 

0-005 X 143-5X0-545 

at which the air pressure would be 2-42 ft per sq. ft. The area 
of spars and man was 17-86 sq. ft., reduced by various coefficients 
to an " equivalent surface " of 11-70 sq. ft., so that the resistances 
were : 

Drift front wings, 143-5X0-0285X2-42 . . . =9-90 ft 
rear wings, 29-5 X (0-043 -0-242 Xo-0523)X2-42 =2-17,, 

Tangential force at 3 =0-00 ,, 

Head resistance, 11-70X2-42 =28-31 



Total resistance 



= 40-38 Ib 



4 - 



Speed 22 miles per hour. Power = rr - = 2-36 h.p. for the 

o / 5 

" thrust " or 4-72 h.p. for the motor. The weight being 189 ft, and 
the resistance 40-38 ft, the gliding angle of descent was ^ ^JL = 

tangent of 12, which was verified by many experiments. 

The following expressions will be found useful in computing such 
projects, with the aid of the table above given: 



1. Wind force, F^KV 2 . 

2. Pressure, P = KVS. 

3. Velocity, V= 

4. Surface S varies as 

5. Normal, N = KSW, 

6. Lift, L = KSVVoso. 

7. Weight, W = L = Ncoso. 




8. Drift, D=KSV 2 t;sina. 

9. Head area E, get an equiva- 

lent. 

10. Head resistance, H = EF. 

11. Tangential force, T = Po. 

12. Resistance, R = D+HT. 

13. Ft. ft, M = RV. 

RV 

14. Thrust, h.p.,= IT - 



Aerostation. Possibly the flying dove of Archytas of Tarentum 
is the earliest suggestion of true aerostation. According to Aulus 
Gellius (Nodes Atticae) it was a " model of a dove or pigeon 
formed in wood and so contrived as by a certain mechanical art 
and power to fly: so nicely was it balanced by weights and put 
in motion by hidden and enclosed air." This " hidden and 
enclosed air " may conceivably represent an anticipation of the 
hot-air balloon, but it is at least as probable that the apparent 
flight of the dove was a mere mechanical trick depending on 
the use of fine wires or strings invisible to the spectators. 

In the middle ages vague ideas appear of some ethereal sub- 
stance so light that vessels containing it would remain suspended 
in the air. Roger Bacon (1214-1294) conceived of a large 
hollow globe made of very thin metal and filled with ethereal 
air or liquid fire, which would float on the atmosphere like a ship 



262 



AERONAUTICS 



on water. Albert of Saxony, who was bishop of Halberstadt 
from 1366 to 1390, had a similar notion, and considered that a 
small portion of the principle of fire enclosed in a light sphere 
would raise it and keep it suspended. The same speculation 
was advanced by Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit, who 
died in 1626 at the age of forty-six, and by Caspar Schott (1608- 
1666), also a Jesuit and professor of mathematics at Wiirzburg, 
though for fire he substituted the thin ethereal fluid which he 
believed to float above the atmosphere. So late as 1755 Joseph 
Galien (1690-1782), a Dominican friar and professor of philo- 
sophy and theology in the papal university of Avignon, proposed 
to collect the diffuse air of the upper regions and to enclose it in 
a huge vessel extending more than a mile every way, and intended 
to carry fifty-four times as much weight as did Noah's ark! 
A somewhat different but equally fantastic method of making 
heavy bodies rise is quoted by Schott from Lauretus Laurus, 
according to whom swans' eggs or leather balls filled with nitre, 
sulphur or mercury ascend when exposed to the sun. Laurus 
also stated that hens' eggs filled with dew will ascend in the 
same circumstances, because dew is shed by the stars and drawn 
up again to heaven by the sun's heat during the day. The same 
notion is utilized by Cyrano de Bergerac (1619-1655) in his 
romances describing journeys to the moon and sun, for his 
French traveller fastens round his body a multitude of very 
thin flasks filled with the morning's dew, whereby through the 
attractive power of the sun's heat on the dew he is raised to 
the middle regions of the atmosphere, to sink again, however, on 
the breaking of some of the flasks. 

A distinct advance on Schott is marked by the scheme for 
aerial navigation proposed by the Jesuit, Francis Lana (1631- 
1687), in his book, published at Brescia in 1670, Prodromo owiero 
Saggio di alcune invenzioni nuove promesso all' Arle Maestro.. 

His idea, though useless 
and unpractical in so far 
that it could never be 
carried out, is yet de- 
serving of notice, as the 
principles involved are 
sound; and this can be 
said of no earlier 
attempt. His project 
was to procure four 
copper balls of very 
large dimensions (fig. i), 
yet so extremely thin 
that after the air was 
exhausted from them 
they would be lighter 
than the air they dis- 
placed and so would 
rise; and to those four 
balls he proposed to 
attach a boat, with sails, 
&c., which would carry 
up a man. He sub- 
mitted the whole matter 
to calculation, and pro- 
posed that the globes should be about 25 ft. in diameter and 
-j^th of an inch in thickness; this would give from all four balls a 
total ascensional force of about 1200 Ib, which would be quite 
enough to raise the boat, sails, passengers, &c. But the obvious 
objection to the whole scheme is, that it would be quite im- 
possible to construct a globe of so large a size and of such small 
thickness which would even support its own weight without col- 
lapsing if placed on the ground, much less bear the external 
atmospheric pressure when the internal air was removed. Lana 
himself noticed this objection, but he thought that the spherical 
form of the copper shell would, notwithstanding its extreme thin- 
ness, enable it, after the exhaustion was effected, to sustain 
the enormous pressure, which, acting equally on every point 
of the surface, would tend to consolidate rather than to break 
the metal. His proposal to exhaust the air from the globes 




FlG. I. Lana's Aeronautical Machine. 



by attaching to each a tube 36 ft. long, fitted with a stopcock, 
and so producing a Torricellian vacuum, suggests that he was 
ignorant of the invention of the air-pump by Otto von Guericke 
about 1650. 

We now come to the invention of the balloon, which was 
due to Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740-1810) and Jacques 
fitienne Montgolfier (1745-1799), sons of Pierre Mont- 
golfier, a large and celebrated papermaker at Annonay, 
a town about 40 m. from Lyons. The brothers had 
observed the suspension of clouds in the atmosphere, 
and it occurred to them that if they could enclose any vapour 
of the nature of a cloud in a large and very light bag, it might 
rise and carry the bag with it into the air. Towards the end of 
1782 they inflated bags with smoke from a fire placed under- 
neath, and found that either the smoke or some vapour emitted 
from the fire did ascend and carry the bag with it. Being thus 
assured of the correctness of their views, they determined to 
have a public ascent of a balloon on a large scale. They accord- 
ingly invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay, 
to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on the 5th of June 
1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of spectators, 
a linen globe of 105 ft. in circumference was inflated over a 
fire fed with small bundles of chopped straw. When released 
it rapidly rose to a great height, and descended, at the expiration 
of ten minutes, at the distance of about i^m. This was the 
discovery of the balloon. The brothers Montgolfier imagined 
that the bag rose because of the levity of the smoke or other 
vapour given forth by the burning straw; and it was not till 
some time later that it was recognized that the ascending power 
was due merely to the lightness of heated air compared to an 
equal volume of air at a lower temperature. In this balloon, 
no source of heat was taken up, so that the air inside rapidly 
cooled, and the balloon soon descended. 

The news of the experiment at Annonay attracted so much 
attention at Paris that Barthelemi Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741- 
1819), afterwards professor of geology at the Musee d'Histoire 
Naturelle, set on foot a subscription for paying the expense of 
repeating the experiment. The balloon was constructed by 
two brothers of the name of Robert, under the superintendence 
of the physicist, J. A. C. Charles. The first suggestion was to 
copy the process of Montgolfier, but Charles proposed the appli- 
cation of hydrogen gas, which was adopted. The filling of the 
balloon, which was made of thin silk varnished with a solution of 
elastic gum, and was about 13 ft. in diameter, was begun on the 
23rd of August 1783, in the Place des Victoires. The hydrogen 
gas was obtained by the action of 
dilute sulphuric acid upon iron 
filings, and was introduced through 
leaden pipes; but as the gas was 
not passed through cold water, great 
difficulty was experienced in filling 
the balloon completely; and alto- 
gether about 500 ft of sulphuric acid 
and twice that amount of iron 
filings were used (fig. 2). Bulletins 
were issued daily of the progress of 
the inflation; and the crowd was 
so great that on the 26th the bal- 
loon was moved secretly by night 
to the Champ de Mars, a distance 
of 2 m. On the next day an im- 
mense concourse of people covered 
the Champ de Mars, and every spot 
from which a view could be ob- 
tained was crowded. About five 
o'clock a cannon was discharged as 

the signal for the ascent, and the balloon when liberated rose to 
the height of about 3000 ft. with great rapidity. A shower of 
rain which began to fall directly after it had left the earth in no 
way checked its progress; and the excitement was so great, that 
thousands of well-dressed spectators, many of them ladies, stood 
exposed, watching it intently the whole time it was in sight, and 




FIG. 2. Charles' and 
Robert's Balloon. 



AERONAUTICS 



263 



were drenched to the skin. The balloon, after remaining in the 
air for about three-quarters of an hour, fell in a field near 
Gonesse, about 15 m. off, and terrified the peasantry so much 
that it was torn into shreds by them. Hydrogen gas was at 
this time known by the name of inflammable air; and balloons 
inflated with gas have ever since been called by the people 
air-balloons, the kind invented by the Montgolfiers being desig- 
nated fire-balloons. French writers have also very frequently 
styled them after their inventors, Charlieres and Montgolfikres. 
On the i pth of September 1783 Joseph Montgolfier repeated 
the Annonay experiment at Versailles, in the presence of the 
king, the queen, the court and an immense number of spectators. 
The inflation was begun at one o'clock, and completed in eleven 
minutes, when the balloon rose to the height of about 1500 ft., 
and descended after eight minutes, at a distance of about 2 m., 
in the wood of Vaucresson. Suspended below the balloon, 
in a cage, had been placed a sheep, a cock and a duck, which 
were thus the first aerial travellers. They were quite uninjured, 
except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in consequence 
of a kick it had received from the sheep; but this took place 
before the ascent. The balloon, which was painted with orna- 
ments in oil colours, had a very showy appearance (fig. 3). 




FIG. 3. Montgolfier's Balloon. 

The first human being who ascended in a balloon was Jean 
Frangois Pilatre de Rozier (1756-1785), a native of Metz, who 
was appointed superintendent of the natural history collections 
of Louis XVIII. On the i5th of October 1783, and following 
days, he made several ascents (generally alone, but once with 
a companion, Girond de Villette) in a captive balloon (i.e. one 
attached by ropes to the ground), and demonstrated that there 
was no difficulty in taking up fuel and feeding the fire, which 
was kindled in a brazier suspended under the balloon, when in 
the air. The way being thus prepared for aerial navigation, on 
the 2ist of November 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis 
d'Arlandes first trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon. The 
experiment was made from the Jardin du Chateau de la Muette, 
in the Bois de Boulogne. A large fire-balloon was inflated at 
about^two o'clock, rose to a height of about 500 ft., and passing 
over the Invalides and the Ecole Militaire, descended beyond 
the Boulevards, about 9000 yds. from the place of ascent, having 
been between twenty and twenty-five minutes in the air. 

Only ten days later, viz. on the ist of December 1783, Charles 
ascended from Paris in a balloon inflated with hydrogen gas. 



The balloon, as in the case of the small one of the same kind 
previously launched from the Champ de Mars, was constructed 
by the brothers Robert, one of whom took part in the ascent. 
It was 27 ft. in diameter, and the car was suspended from a 
hoop surrounding the middle of the balloon, and fastened to a 
net, which covered the upper hemisphere. The balloon ascended 
very gently from the Tuileries at a quarter to two o'clock, and 
after remaining for some time at an elevation of about 2000 ft., 
it descended in about two hours at Nesle, a small town about 
27 m. from Paris, when Robert left the car, and Charles made 
a second ascent by himself. He had intended to have replaced 
the weight of his companion by a nearly equivalent quantity 
of ballast; but not having any suitable means of obtaining such 
at the place of descent, and it being just upon sunset, he gave 
the word to let go, and the balloon being thus so greatly lightened, 
ascended very rapidly to a height of about 2 m. After staying 
in the air about half an hour, he descended 3 m. from the 
place of ascent, although he believed the distance traversed, 
owing to different currents, to have been about 9 m. In this 
second journey he experienced a violent pain in his right ear and 
jaw, no doubt produced by the rapidity of the ascent. He also 
witnessed the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same day; 
for when he ascended, the sun had set in the valleys, and as 
he mounted he saw it rise again, and set a second time as he 
descended. 

All the features of the modern balloon as now used are more 
or less due to Charles, who invented the valve at the top, sus- 
pended the car from a hoop, which was itself attached to the 
balloon by netting, &c. With regard to his use of hydrogen gas, 
there are anticipations that must be noticed. As early as 1766 
Henry Cavendish showed that this gas was at least seven times 
lighter than ordinary air, and it immediately occurred to Dr. 
Joseph Black, of Edinburgh, that a thin bag filled with hydrogen 
gas would rise to the ceiling of a room. He provided, accordingly, 
the allantois of a calf, with the view of showing at a public lecture 
such a curious experiment; but for some reason it seems to have 
failed, and Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great dis- 
covery, almost within his reach, to escape him. Several years 
afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo, who found 
that bladders, even when carefully scraped, are too heavy, and 
that China paper is permeable to the gas. But in 1782, the year 
before the invention of the Montgolfiers, he succeeded in elevating 
soap-bubbles by inflating them with hydrogen gas. 

Researches on the use of gas for inflating balloons seem to have 
been carried on at Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the 
experiments of the Montgolfiers; and when the news of the 
latter reached America, D. Rittenhouse and F. Hopkinson, 
members of the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, con- 
structed a machine consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen 
gas-balloons attached to a car or cage. After several preliminary 
experiments, in which animals were let up to a certain height 
by a rope, a carpenter, one James Wilcox, was induced to enter 
the car for a small sum of money; the ropes were cut, and he 
remained in the air about ten minutes, and only then effected 
his descent by making incisions in a number of the balloons, 
through fear of falling into the river, which he was approaching. 

Although the news of the Annonay and subsequent experi- 
ments in France rapidly spread all over Europe, and formed a 
topic of general discussion, still it was not till five First 
months after the Montgolfiers had first publicly sent ascents la 
a balloon into the air that any aerostatic experiment ?^ 
was made in England. In November 1783 Count 
Francesco Zambeccari (1756-1812), an Italian who happened to 
be in London, made a balloon of oil-silk, 10 ft. in diameter, 
and weighing n ft. It was publicly shown for several days, 
and on the 25th it was three-quarters filled with hydrogen gas 
and launched from the Artillery ground at one o'clock. It 
descended after two hours and a half near Petworth, in Sussex, 
48 m. from London. This was the first balloon that ascended 
from English ground. On the 22nd of February 1784 a hydrogen 
gas balloon, 5 ft. in diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in 
Kent, and descended at Warneton, in French Flanders, 



264 



AERONAUTICS 




FIG. 4. Lunardi's Balloon. 



75 m. distant. This was the first balloon that crossed the 
Channel. The first person who rose into the air from British 
ground appears to have been J. Tytler, 1 who ascended from 
the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on the 27th of August 1784, 
in a fire-balloon of his own construction. He descended on 
the road to Restalrig, about half a mile from the place where 
he rose. 

But it was Vincent Lunardi who practically introduced 
aerostation into Great Britain. Although Tytler had the 
precedence by a few days still his attempts and partial success 
were all but unknown ; whereas Lunardi's experiments excited 
an enormous amount of enthusiasm in London. He was secre- 
tary to Prince Caramanico, the Neapolitan ambassador, and his 
published letters to his guardian, the chevalier Compagni, 

written while he was carrying 
out his project, and detail- 
ing all the difficulties, &c., he 
met with as they occurred, 
give an interesting and vivid 
account of the whole matter. 
His balloon was 33 ft. in 
circumference (fig-4) , and was 
exposed to the public view 
at the Lyceum in the Strand, 
where it was visited by up- 
wards of 20,000 people. He 
originally intended to ascend 
from Chelsea Hospital, but 
the conduct of a crowd at a 
garden at Chelsea, which de- 
stroyed the fire-balloon of a 
Frenchman named de Moret, 
who announced an ascent on 
the nth of August, but was 
unable to keep his word, led 
to the withdrawal of the 
leave that had been granted. Ultimately he was permitted to 
ascend from the Artillery ground, and on the isth of September 
1 784 the inflation with hydrogen gas took place. It was intended 
that an English gentleman named Biggin should accompany 
Lunardi; but the crowd becoming impatient, the latter judged 
it prudent to ascend with the balloon only partially full rather 
than risk a longer delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin was obliged 
to leave the car. Lunardi therefore ascended alone, in presence 
of the prince of Wales and an enormous crowd of spectators. 
He took up with him a pigeon, a dog and a cat, and the balloon 
was provided with oars, by means of which he hoped to raise or 
lower it at pleasure. Shortly after starting the pigeon escaped, 
and one of the oars became broken and fell to the ground. In 
about an hour and a half he descended at South Mimms, in 
Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had suffered from the 
cold: he then ascended again, and descended, after the lapse of 
about three-quarters of an hour, at Standon, near Ware, where 
he had great difficulty in inducing the peasants to come to his 
assistance; but at length a young woman, taking hold of one 
of the cords, urged the men to follow her example, which they 
then did. The excitement caused by this ascent was immense, 
and Lunardi at once became the star of the hour. He was pre- 
sented to the king, and was courted and flattered on all sides. 
To show the enthusiasm displayed by the people during his 
ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth letter, how a lady, mistaking 
the oar which fell for himself, was so affected by his supposed 
destruction that she died in a few days ; but, on the other hand, 
he says he was told by the judges " that he had certainly saved 
the life of a young man who might possibly be reformed, and be 
to the public a compensation for the death of the lady "; for the 
jury were deliberating on the fate of a criminal, whom they must 
ultimately have condemned, when the balloon appeared, and 
to save time they gave a verdict of acquittal, and the whole court 

1 Mr Tytier contributed largely to, and, indeed, appears to have 
been virtually editor of, the second edition (1778-1783) of the 
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 



came out to view the balloon. The king also was in conference 
with his ministers; but on hearing that the balloon was passing, 
he broke up the discussion, and with them watched the balloon 
through telescopes. The balloon was afterwards exhibited in 
the Pantheon. In the latter part of the following year (1785) 
Lunardi made several successful ascents from Kelso, Edinburgh 
and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a distance of no 
m.) ; these he described in a second series of letters. 

The first ascent from Ireland was made on the igth of January 
1785 by a Mr Crosbie, who on the following ipth of July at- 
tempted to cross St George's Channel to England but fell into 
the sea. The second person who ascended from Ireland was 
Richard Maguire. Mr Crosbie had inflated his balloon on the 
1 2th of May 1785, but it was unable to take him up. Maguire 
in these circumstances offered himself as a substitute, and his 
offer being accepted he made the ascent. For this he was 
knighted by the Lord-Lieutenant. Another attempt to cross 
St George's Channel was made by James Sadler on the ist of 
October 1812, and he had nearly succeeded when in consequence 
of a change of wind he was forced to descend into the sea off 
Liverpool, whence he was rescued by a fishing-boat. But on 
the 22nd of July 1817 his second son, Windham Sadler, succeeded 
in crossing from Dublin to Holyhead. 

The first balloon voyage across the English Channel was 
accomplished by Jean Pierre Blanchard (1753-1809) and Dr. J. 
Jeffries, an American physician, on the 7th of January voyages 
1785. In the preceding year, on the 2nd of March, aero** 
Blanchard, who was one of the most celebrated of 
the earlier aeronauts, made his first voyage from Paris 
in a balloon 27 ft. in diameter (fig. 5), and descended at Billan- 
court near Sevres. 
Just as the balloon 
was about to start, 
a young man jumped 
into the car and draw- 
ing his sword declared 
his determination to 
ascend with Blanch- 
ard. He was ulti- 
mately removed by 
force. It has some- 
times been incorrectly 
stated that he was 
Napoleon Bonaparte ; 
his name in reality 
was Dupont de Cham- 
bon. In their Channel 
crossing Blanchard 
and his companion, 
who started from 
Dover, when about 
one-third across found 
themselves descend- 
ing, and threw out 
every available thing 
from the boat or car. 
When about three- 
quarters across they 
were descending A 
again, and had to 




-Blanchard's Balloon. 



FIG. 5. 

Balloon of taffeta, 26 ft. in diameter, 

covered with a net. 

B, Car suspended by cords from hoop C. 
throw out not only D> D> D, D, Wings worked by rack-work E. 
the anchor and cords, F, Parachute to break the force of descent 
but also to strip and should the balloon burst, 

throw away part of G ' Tube communicating with inside of 
their clothing, after balloon - 

which they found they were rising, and their last resource, viz. 
to cut away the car, was rendered unnecessary. As they ap- 
proached the shore the balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch 
high over the land. They descended in the forest of Guinnes. 

On the i sth of June 1785, Pilatre de Rozier made an attempt 
to repeat the exploit of Blanchard and Jeffries in the reverse 
direction, and cross from Boulogne to England. For this 



AERONAUTICS 



265 



Early 
large 
balloons. 



purpose he contrived a double balloon, which he expected would 
combine the advantages of both kinds a fire-balloon, 10 ft. in 
diameter, being placed underneath a gas-balloon of 37 ft. in 
diameter, so that by increasing or diminishing the fire in the 
former it might be possible to ascend or descend without waste 
of gas. Rozier was accompanied by P. A. Romain, and for 
rather less than half an hour after the aerostat ascended all 
seemed to be going on well, when suddenly the whole apparatus 
was seen in flames, and the unfortunate adventurers came to 
the ground from the supposed height of more than 3000 ft. 
Rozier was killed on the spot, and Romain only survived about 
ten minutes. A monument was erected on the place where they 
fell, which was near the sea-shore, about 4 m. from the 
starting-point. 

The largest balloon on record (if the contemporary accounts 
are correct) ascended from Lyons on the igth of January 1784. 
It was more than 100 ft. in diameter, about 130 ft. 
in height, and when distended had a capacity, it is 
said, of over half a million cubic feet. It was called 
the " Flesselles " (from the name of its proprietor, we 
believe), and after having been inflated from a straw fire in 
seventeen minutes, it rose with seven persons in the car to the 
height of about 3000 ft., but descended again after the lapse of 
about a quarter of an hour from the time of starting, in con- 
sequence of a rent in the upper part. 

Another large fire-balloon, 68 ft. in diameter, was constructed 
by the chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan, and on the 2 5th of 
February he ascended in it from Milan, remaining in the air for 
about twenty minutes. This is usually regarded as the first 
ascent in Italy (but see Monck Mason's Aeronautica, p. 247). 

On the 7th of November 1836, at half-past one o'clock, a 
large balloon containing about 85,000 cub. ft. of gas ascended 
from Vauxhall Gardens, London, carrying Robert Hollond, M.P., 
Monck Mason and Charles Green, and descended about two 
leagues from Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, at half-past 
seven the next morning, having thus traversed a distance of 
about 500 m. in 18 hours; Liege was passed in the course of 
the night, and Coblentz in the early morning. In consequence 
of this journey the balloon became famous as the " Nassau 
Balloon " (fig. 6). Charles Green (1785-1870), who constructed 
it and subsequently became its owner, was the most celebrated 
of English aeronauts, and made an extraordinary number of 
ascents. His first, made from the Green Park, London, on the 
i pth of July 1821 at the coronation of George IV., was distin- 
guished for the fact that for the first time coal-gas was used 
instead of hydrogen for inflating the balloon. In 1828 he made 
an equestrian ascent from the Eagle Tavern, City Road, London, 
seated on his favourite pony. Such ascents have since been 
repeated; in 1852 Madame Poitevin made one from Cremorne 
Gardens, but was prevented from giving a second performance 
by police interference, the exhibition outraging public opinion. 
It was in descending from the " Nassau Balloon " in a parachute 
that Robert Cocking was killed in 1 83 7 (see PARACHUTE) . Green 
was the inventor of the guide-rope, which consists of a long rope 
trailing below the car. Its function is to reduce the waste of gas 
and ballast required to keep the balloon at a proper altitude. 
When a balloon sinks so low that a good deal of the guide-rope 
rests on the ground, it is relieved of so much weight and therefore 
tends to rise; if on the other hand it rises so that most of the 
rope is lifted off the ground, it has to bear a greater weight and 
tends to sink. 

In 1863 A. Nadar, a Paris photographer, construtced " Le 
Geant," which was the largest gas-balloon made up to that time 
and contained over 200,000 cub. ft. of gas. Underneath it 
was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, the object 
of which was to prevent loss of gas during the voyage. The 
car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model of a cottage in 
wicker-work, 8 ft. in height by 13 ft. in length, containing a 
small printing-office, a photographic department, a refreshment- 
room, a lavatory, &c. The first ascent took place at five o'clock 
on Sunday the 4th of October 1863, from the Champ de Mars. 
There were thirteen persons in the car, including one lady, the 



princess de la Tour d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louis 
and Jules Godard. In spite of the elaborate preparations that 
had been made and the stores of provisions that were taken up, 
the balloon descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent 
being rendered necessary, it was said, by an accident to the 
valve-line. At a second ascent, made a fortnight later, there 
were nine passengers, including Madame Nadar. The balloon 
descended at the expiration of seventeen hours, near Nienburg 
in Hanover, a distance of about 400 m. A strong wind was 
blowing, and it was dragged over the ground for 7 or 8 m. 
All the passengers were bruised, and some seriously hurt. The 
balloon and car were then brought to England, and exhibited 
at the Crystal Palace at the end of 1863 and beginning of 1864. 
The two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited an extraordinary 
amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly out of proportion 
to what they were entitled to. Nadar's idea was to obtain suffi- 
cient money, by the exhibition of his balloon, to carry out a plan 




FIG. 6. The Great Nassau Balloon. 

of aerial locomotion he had conceived possible by means of the 
principle of the screw; in fact, he spoke of " Le Geant " as " the 
last balloon." He also started L'Aeronaute, a newspaper devoted 
to aerostation, and published a small book, which was translated 
into English under the title The Right to Fly. 

Directly after Nadar's two ascents, Eugene Godard con- 
structed a fire-balloon of nearly half a million cubic feet capa- 
city more than double that of Nadar's and only slightly less 
than that attributed to the " Flesselles " of 1783. The air was 
heated by an i8-ft. stove, weighing, with the chimney, 980 Ib. 
This furnace was fed by straw; and the " car " consisted of a 
gallery surrounding it. Two ascents of this balloon, the first 
fire-balloon seen in London, were made from Cremorne Gardens 
in July 1864. After the first journey the balloon descended at 
Greenwich, and after the second at Walthamstow, where it was 
injured by being blown against a tree. Notwithstanding its 
enormous size, Godard asserted that it could be inflated in half 
an hour, and the inflation at Cremorne did not occupy more 
than an hour. In spite of the rapidity with which the inflation 
was effected, few who saw the ascent could fail to receive an 
impression unfavourable to the fire-balloon in the matter of 
safety, as a rough descent, with a heated furnace as it were in 
the car, could not be other than most dangerous. 



266 



AERONAUTICS 



In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York Daily 
Graphic, reviving a project discussed by Green in 1840, deter- 
mined to construct a very large balloon, and enable 
balloon tne American aeronaut, John Wise, to realize his 
voyages, favourite scheme of crossing the Atlantic Ocean to 
Europe, by taking advantage of the current from west 
to east which was believed by many to exist constantly at heights 
above 10,000 ft. The project came to nothing owing to the 
quality of the material of which the balloon was made. When it 
was being inflated in September 1873 a rent was observed after 
325,000 cub. ft. of gas had been put in, and the whole rapidly 
collapsed. The size was said to be such as to contain 400,000 
cub. ft., so that it would lift a weight of 14,000 ft. No balloon 
voyage has yet been made of a length comparable to the breadth 
of the Atlantic. In fact only two voyages exceeding 1000 m. 
are on record that of John Wise from St Louis to Henderson, 
N.Y., 1 1 20 m., in 1859, and that of Count Henry de la Vaulx 
from Paris to Korosticheff in Russia, 1193 m., in 1900. On 
the nth of July 1897 Salomon Andree, with two companions, 
Strendberg and Frankel, ascended from Spitzbergen in a daring 
attempt to reach the North Pole, about 600 m. distant. One 
carrier pigeon, apparently liberated 48 hours after the start, 
was shot, and two floating buoys with messages were found, but 
nothing more was heard of the explorers. 

At an early date the balloon was applied to scientific purposes. 
So far back as 1784, Dr Jeffries made an ascent from London in 
^dentine wn ' c ^ ^ e carr i e d out barometric, thermometric and 
ascents. hygrometric observations, also collecting samples of 
the air at different heights. In 1803 the St Petersburg 
Academy of Sciences, entertaining the opinion that the experi- 
ments made on mountain-sides by J. A. Deluc, H. B. de Saus- 
sure, A. von Humboldt and others must give results different 
from those made in free air at the same heights, resolved to 
arrange a balloon ascent. Accordingly, on the 3oth of January 
1804, Sacharof, a member of the academy, ascended in a gas- 
balloon, in company with a French aeronaut, fi. G. Robertson, 
who at one time gave conjuring entertainments in Paris. The 
ascent was made at a quarter past seven, and the descent effected 
at a quarter to eleven. The height reached was less than 15 m. 
The experiments were not very systematically made, and 
the chief results were the filling and bringing down of several 
flasks of air collected at different elevations, and the supposed 
observation that the magnetic dip was altered. A telescope 
fixed in the bottom of the car and pointing vertically down- 
wards enabled the travellers to ascertain exactly the spot over 
which they were floating at any moment. Sacharof found 
that, on shouting downwards through his speaking-trumpet, 
the echo from the earth was quite distinct, and at his height 
was audible after an interval of about ten seconds (Phil. 
Mag., 1805, 21, p. 193). 

Some of the results reported by Robertson appearing doubtful, 
Laplace proposed to the members of the French Academy of 
Sciences that the funds placed by the government at their dis- 
posal for the prosecution of useful experiments should be utilized 
in sending up balloons to test their accuracy. The proposition 
was supported by J. A. C. Chaptal, the chemist, who was then 
minister of the interior, and accordingly the necessary arrange- 
ments were speedily effected, the charge of the experiments 
being given to L. J. Gay-Lussac and J. B. Biot. The principal 
object of this ascent was to determine whether the magnetic 
force experienced any appreciable diminution at heights above 
the earth's surface. On the 24th of August 1804, Gay-Lussac 
and Biot ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts at ten o'clock 
in the morning. Their magnetic experiments were incommoded 
by the rotation of the balloon, but they found that, up to the 
height of 13,000 ft., the time of vibration of a magnet was ap- 
preciably the same as on the earth's surface. They found also 
that the air became drier as they ascended. The height reached 
was about 13,000 ft., and the temperature declined from 63 
to 51 F. The descent was effected about half -past one, at 
Meriville, 18 leagues from Paris. 

In a second experiment, which was made on the i6th of Sep- 



tember 1804, Gay-Lussac ascended alone. The balloon left the 
Conservatoire des Arts at 9.40 A.M., and descended at 3.45 P.M. 
between Rouen and Dieppe. The chief result obtained was 
that the magnetic force, like gravitation, did not experience 
any sensible variation at heights from the earth's surface which 
we can attain to. Gay-Lussac also brought down air collected 
at the height of nearly 23,000 ft., and on analysis it appeared 
that its composition was the same as that of air collected at the 
earth's surface. At the time of leaving the earth the thermometer 
stood at 82 F., and at the highest point reached (23,000 ft.) 
it was 14-9 F. Gay-Lussac remarked that at his highest point 
there were still clouds above him. 

From 1804 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific ascents 
in balloons having been undertaken. In the latter year J. A. 
Bixio (1808-1865) and J. A. Barral (1819-1884) made two ascents 
of this kind. In the first they ascended from the Paris observa- 
tory on the 2gth of June 1850, at 10.27 A - M -i tne balloon being 
inflated with hydrogen gas. The day was a rough one, and the 
ascent took place without any previous attempt having been 
made to test the ascensional force of the balloon. When liber- 
ated, it rose with great rapidity, and becoming fully inflated it 
pressed upon the network, bulging out at the top and bottom. 
The ropes by which the car was suspended being too short, the 
balloon soon covered the travellers like an immense hood. In 
endeavouring to secure the valve-rope, they made a rent in the 
balloon, and the gas escaped so close to their faces as almost to 
suffocate them. Finding that they were descending then too 
rapidly, they threw overboard everything available, including 
their coats and only excepting the instruments. The ground 
was reached at job. 45m., near Lagny. Of course no observa- 
tions were made. Their second ascent was made on the 27th of 
July, and was remarkable on account of the extreme cold met 
with. At about 20,000 ft. the temperature was 1 5 F., the balloon 
being enveloped in cloud; but on emerging from the cloud, 
at 23,000 ft., the temperature sank 10-38 F., no less than 
53 F. below that experienced by Gay-Lussac at the same 
elevation. The existence of these very cold clouds served to 
explain certain meteorological phenomena that were observed 
on the earth both the day before and the day after the ascent. 
Some pigeons were taken up in this, as in most other high 
ascents; when liberated, they showed a reluctance to leave the 
car, and then fell heavily downwards. 

In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory resolved 
to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the view of investi- 
gating such meteorological and physical phenomena as require 
the presence of an observer at a great height in the atmosphere. 
John Welsh (1824-1859) of the Kew Observatory was the 
observer, and the great " Nassau Balloon " was employed, with 
Green himself as the aeronaut. Four ascents were made in 
1852, viz. on the i7th and 26th of August, die 3ist of October 
and the loth of November. The heights attained were 19,510, 
19,100, 12,640 and 22,930 ft., and the lowest temperatures 
met with in the four ascents were 8-7 F. (19,380 ft.), 12-4 F. 
(18,370 ft.), 16-4 F. (12,640 ft.) and 10-5 F. (22,370 ft.). 
The decline of temperature was very regular. A siphon baro- 
meter, dry and wet bulb thermometers, aspirated and free, and 
a Regnault hygrometer were taken up. Some air collected at a 
considerable height was found on analysis not to differ appreci- 
ably in its composition from air collected near the ground. For 
the original observations see Phil. Trans., 1853, pp. 311-346. 

At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science held at Aberdeen in 1859, a committee was appointed 
for the purpose of making observations in the higher , 

strata of the atmosphere by means of the balloon. asce ats. 
For two years nothing was effected, owing to the want 
both of an observer and of a suitable balloon. After its re- 
appointment at the Manchester meeting of 1861, the committee 
communicated with Henry Tracey Coxwell (1819-1900), an 
aeronaut who had made a good many ascents, and he agreed to 
construct a new balloon, of 90,000 cub. ft. capacity, on the 
condition that the committee would undertake to use it, and pay 
25 for each high ascent made especially on its behalf, defraying 



AERONAUTICS 



267 



also the cost of gas, &c., so that the expense of each high ascent 
amounted to nearly 50. An observer being still wanted, James 
Glaisher, a member of the committee, offered himself to take 
the observations, and accordingly the first ascent was made on 
the i7th of July 1862, from the gas-works at Wolverhampton, 
this town being chosen on account of its central position in the 
country. Altogether, Glaisher made twenty-eight ascents, the 
last being on the 26th of May 1866. Of these only seven were 
specially high ascents, although six others were undertaken for 
the objects of the committee alone. On the other occasions he 
availed himself of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and 
other places of entertainment, merely taking his place like the 
other passengers. In the last six ascents another aeronaut and 
a smaller balloon were employed. The dates, places of ascent 
and greatest heights (in feet) attained in the twenty-eight 
ascents were 1862: July 17, Wolverhampton, 26,177; July 30, 
Crystal Palace, 6937; August 18, Wolverhampton, 23,377; 
August 20, Crystal Palace, 5900; August 21, Hendon, 14,355; 
September i, Crystal Palace, 4190; September 5, Wolverhamp- 
ton, 37,000; September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March 
31, Crystal Palace, 22,884; April 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163; 
June 26, Wolverton, 23,200; July n, Crystal Palace, 6623; 
July 21, Crystal Palace, 3298; August 31, Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, 8033; September 29, Wolverhampton, 16,590; October 9, 
Crystal Palace, 7310. 1864: January 12, Woolwich, 11,897; 
April 6, Woolwich, 11,075; June 13, Crystal Palace, 3543; 
June 20, Derby, 4280; June 27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August 
29, Crystal Palace, 14,581; December i, Woolwich, 5431; 
December 30, Woolwich, 3735. 1865: February 27, Woolwich, 
4865; October 2, Woolwich, 1949; December 2, Woolwich, 
4628. 1866: May 26, Windsor, 6325. 

The primary object of the ascents was to determine the 
temperature of the air, and its hygrometrical state at different 
elevations to as great a height as could be reached; and the 
secondary objects were (i) to determine the temperature of 
the dew-point by Daniell's and Regnault's hygrometers, as well 
as by the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the 
results; (2) to compare the readings of an aneroid barometer 
with those of a mercurial barometer up to the height of 5 m.; 
(3) to determine the electrical state of the air, (4) the oxygenic 
condition of the atmosphere, and (5) the time of vibration of a 
magnet; (6) to collect air at different elevations; (7) to note 
the height and kind of clouds, their density and thickness; (8) 
to determine the rate and direction of different currents in the 
atmosphere; and (9) to make observations on sound. The 
instruments used were mercurial and aneroid barometers, dry 
and wet bulb thermometers, Daniell's dew-point hygrometer, 
Regnault's condensing hygrometer, maximum and minimum 
thermometers, a magnet for horizontal vibration, hermetically 
sealed glass tubes exhausted of air, and an electrometer. In 
one or two of the ascents a camera was taken up. 

The complete observations, both as made and after reduction, 
are printed in the British Association Reports, 1862-1866; here 
only a general account of the results can be given. It appeared 
that the rate of the decline of temperature with elevation near 
the earth was very different according as the sky was clear or 
cloudy; and the equality of temperature at sunset and increase 
with height after sunset were very remarkable facts which were 
not anticipated. Even at the height of 5 m., cirrus clouds were 
seen high in the air, apparently as far above as they seem 
when viewed from the earth. The results of the observations 
differed very much, and no doubt the atmospheric conditions 
depended not only on the time of day, but also on the season of 
the year, and were such that a vast number of ascents would be 
requisite to determine the true laws with anything approaching 
to certainty and completeness. It was also clear that England 
is a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investigations, as, 
from whatever place the balloon started, it was never safe to be 
more than an hour above the clouds for fear of reaching the sea. 
It appeared from the observations that an aneroid barometer 
could be trusted to read as accurately as a mercurial barometer 
to the heights reached. The time of vibration of a horizontal 



magnet was taken in very many of the ascents, and the results 
of ten different sets of observations indicated that the time of 
vibration was longer than on the earth. In almost all the 
ascents the balloon was under the influence of currents of air in 
different directions which varied greatly in thickness. The direc- 
tion of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of the whole 
mass of air up to 20,000 ft., whilst at other times the direction 
changed within 500 ft. of the earth. Sometimes directly oppo- 
site currents were met with at different heights in the same 
ascent, and three or four streams of air were encountered moving 
in different directions. The direct distances between the places 
of ascent and descent, apart from the movements of the balloon 
under the influence of these various currents, were always very 
much greater than the horizontal movement of the air as meas- 
ured by anemometers. For example, on the I2th of January 
1862, the balloon left Woolwich at 2h. 8m. P.M., and descended 
at Lakenheath, 70 m. distant from the place of ascent, at 4h. 
igm. P.M. At the Greenwich Observatory, by a Robinson 
anemometer, during this time the motion of the air was 6 m. 
only. With regard to physiological observations, Glaisher found 
that the frequency of his pulse increased with elevation, as 
also did the number of inspirations. The number of his pulsa- 
tions was generally 76 per minute before starting, about 90 at 
10,000 ft., 100 at 20,000 ft., and no at higher elevations. 
But a good deal depended on the temperament of the individual. 
This was also the case in respect to colour; at 10,000 ft. the 
faces of some would be a glowing purple, whilst others would be 
scarcely affected; at 4 m. high Glaisher found the pulsations 
of his heart distinctly audible, and his breathing was very much 
affected, so that panting was produced by the slightest exertion; 
at 29,000 ft. he became insensible. In reference to the propa- 
gation of sound, it was at all times found that sounds from the 
earth were more or less audible according to the amount of mois- 
ture in the air. When in clouds at 4 m. high, a railway train 
was heard; but when clouds were far below, no sound ever 
reached the ear at this elevation. The discharge of a gun was 
heard at 10,000 ft. The barking of a dog was heard at the 
height of 2 m., while the shouting of a multitude of people 
was not audible at heights exceeding 4000 ft. In his ascent 
of the sth of September 1862, Glaisher considered that he 
reached a height of 37,000 ft. But that figure was based, not 
on actual record, but on the circumstances that at 29,000 ft., 
when he became insensible, the balloon was rising 1000 ft. a 
minute, and that when he recovered consciousness thirteen 
minutes later it was falling 2000 ft. a minute, and the accuracy 
of his conclusions has been questioned. Few scientific men 
have imitated Glaisher in making high ascents for meteorological 
observations. In 1867 and 1868 Camille Flammarion made 
eight or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes. The 
heights attained were not great, but the general result was to 
confirm the observations of Glaisher; for an account see Voyages 
atriens, Paris, 1870, or Travels in the Air, London, 1871, in 
which also some ascents by W. de Fonvielle are noticed. On 
the isth of April 1875, H. T. Sivel, J. E. Croce-Spinelli and 
Gaston Tissandier ascended from Paris in the balloon " Zenith," 
and reached a height of 27,950 ft.; but only Tissandier came 
down alive, his two companions being asphyxiated. This put an 
end to such attempts for a time. But Dr A. Berson and Lieut. 
Gross attained 25,840 ft. on the nth of May 1894; Berson, 
ascending alone from Strassfurt on the 4th of December 1894, 
attained about 31,500 ft. and recorded a temperature of 54 F.; 
and Berson and Stanley Spencer are stated by the latter to 
have attained 27,500 ft. on the isth of September 1898 when 
they ascended in a hydrogen balloon from the Crystal Palace, 
the thermometer registering 29 F. On the 3ist of July 1901, 
Berson and R. J. Suring, ascending at Berlin, actually noted 
a barometric reading corresponding to a height of 34,500 ft., 
and possibly rose 1000 or 1500 ft. higher, though in spite of 
oxygen inhalations they were unconscious during the highest 
portion of the ascent. 

The personal danger attending high ascents led Gustave 
Hermite and Besancon in November 1892 to inaugurate the 



268 



AERONAUTICS 



sending up of unmanned balloons (ballons sondes) equipped with 
automatic recording instruments, and kites (q.v.) have also 
been employed for similar meteorological purposes. (See also 
METEOROLOGY.) 

The balloon had not been discovered very long before it 
received a military status, and soon after the beginning of the 
French revolutionary war an aeronautic school was 
'balloons f un ded at Meudon, in charge of Guyton de Morveau, 
the chemist, and Colonel J. M. J. Coutelle (1748-1835). 
Four balloons were constructed for the armies of the north, of 
the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of Egypt. 
In June 1794 Coutelle ascended with the adjutant and general 
to reconnoitre the hostile army just before the battle of Fleurus, 
and two reconnaissances were made, each occupying four hours. 
It is generally stated that it was to the information so gained 
that the French victory was due. The balloon corps was in 
constant requisition during the campaign, but it does not appear 
that, with the exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned, 
any great advantages resulted, except in a moral point of view. 
But even this was of importance, as the enemy were much dis- 
concerted at having their movements so completely watched, 
while the French were correspondingly elated at the superior 
information it was believed they were gaining. An attempt 
was made to revive the use of balloons in the African campaign 
of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in which they could be 
employed. It is said that in 1849 a reconnoitring balloon was 
sent up from before Venice, as also were small balloons loaded 
with bombs to be exploded by time-fuses. In the French cam- 
paign against Italy in 1859 the French had recourse to the use 
of balloons, but this time there was not any aerostatic corps, 
and their management was entrusted to the brothers Godard. 
Several reconnaissances were made, and one of especial interest 
the day before the battle of Solferino. No information of much 
importance seems, however, to have been gained thereby. 

In the American Civil War (1861) balloons were a good deal 
used by the Federals. There was a regular balloon staff attached 
to McClellan's army, with a captain, an assistant-captain and 
about 50 non-commissioned officers and privates. The apparatus 
consisted of two generators, drawn by four horses each; two 
balloons, drawn by four horses each, and an acid-cart, drawn by 
two horses. The two balloons used contained about 13,000 and 
26,000 ft. of gas, and the inflation usually occupied about 
three hours. (See Royal Engineers' Papers, vol. xii.) By their 
aid useful information was gained about the enemy round 
Richmond and in other places, but eventually difficulties of 
transport and the topography of the theatre of war made balloon- 
ing impracticable; and little was heard of it after the first two 
years of the war. 

The balloon proved itself very valuable during the siege of 
Paris (1870-71). It was by it alone that communication was 
kept up between the besieged city and the external world, as 
the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons which after- 
wards brought back to it the news of the provinces. The total 
number of balloons that ascended from Paris during the siege, 
conveying persons and despatches, was sixty-four the first 
having started on the 23rd of September 1870, and the last on 
the 28th of January 1871. Gambetta effected his escape from 
Paris, on the 7th of October, in the balloon "Armand-Barbes," 
an event which doubtless led to the prolongation of the war. 
Of the sixty-four balloons only two were never heard of; they 
were blown out to sea. One of the most remarkable voyages 
was that of the " Ville d'Orleans," which, leaving Paris at 
eleven o'clock on the 2ist of November, descended fifteen hours 
afterwards near Chris tiania, having crossed the North Sea. 
Several of the balloons on their descent were taken by the 
Prussians, and a good many were fired at while in the air. The 
average size of the balloons was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or 
from 70,000 to 72,000 cub. ft. The above facts are extracted 
from Les Ballons du siege de Paris, a sheet published by Bulla 
and Sons, Paris, and compiled by the brothers Tissandier, well- 
known French aeronauts, which gives the name, size and times 
of ascent and descent of every balloon that left Paris, with the 



names of the aeronaut and generally also of the passengers, the 
weight of despatches, the number of pigeons, &c. Only those 
balloons, however, are noticed in which some person ascended. 
The balloons were manufactured and despatched (generally 
from the platforms of the Orleans or the Northern railway) 
under the direction of the Post Office. The aeronauts employed 
were mostly sailors, who did their work very well. No use 
whatever was made in the war of balloons for purposes of 
reconnaissance. 

Ballooning, however, as a recognized military science, only 
dates back to about the year 1883 or 1884, when most of the 
powers organized regular balloon establishments. In 1884-85 
the French found balloons very useful during their campaign 
in Tongking; and the British government also despatched 
balloons with the Bechuanaland expedition, and also with that 
to Suakin in those years. During the latter campaign several 
ascents were made in the presence of the enemy, on whom it 
was said that a great moral effect was produced. The employ- 
ment of balloons has been common in nearly all modern wars. 

We may briefly describe the apparatus used in military operations. 
The French in the campaigns of the igth century used varnished silk 
balloons of about 10,000 cub. ft. capacity. The Americans in the 
Civil War used much larger ones., those of 26,000 cub. ft. being 
found the most suitable. These were also of varnished silk. In the 
present day most nations use balloons of about 20,000 cub. ft., 
made of varnished cambric; but the British war balloons, made of 
goldbeater skin, are usually of comparatively small size, the normal 
capacity being 10,000 cub. ft., though others of 7000 and 4500 
cub. ft. have also been used, as at Suakin. The usual shape is 
spherical; but since 1896 the Germans, and now other nations, have 
adopted a long cylindrical-shaped balloon, so affixed to its cable as 
to present an inclined surface to the wind and thus act partly on the 
principle of a kite. Though coal-gas and even hot air may occasion- 
ally be used for inflation, hydrogen gas is on account of its lightness 
far preferable. In the early days of ballooning this had to be manu- 
factured in the field, but nowadays it is almost universally carried 
compressed in steel tubes. About 100 such tubes, each weighing 
75lb, are required to fill a lo,ooo-ft. balloon. Tubes of greater 
capacity have also been tried. 

The balloon is almost always used captive. If allowed to go free 
it will usually be rapidly carried away by the wind and the results 
of the observations cannot easily be transmitted back. Occasions 
may occur when such ascents will be of value, but the usual method 
is to send up a captive balloon to a height of somewhere about 1000 ft. 
With the standard British balloon two officers are sent up, one 
of whom has now particularly to attend to the management of the 
balloon, while the other makes the observations. 

With regard to observations from captive balloons much depends 
on circumstances. In a thickly wooded country, such as that in 
which the balloons were used in the American Civil War, and in the 
war in Cuba (in which the balloon merely served to expose the troops 
to severe fire), no very valuable information is, as a rule, to be ob- 
tained; but in fairly open country all important movements of 
troops should be discernible by an experienced observer at any point 
within about four or five miles of the balloon. The circumstances, 
it may be mentioned, are such as would usually preclude one un- 
accustomed to ballooning from affording valuable reports. Not only 
is he liable to be disturbed by the novel and apparently hazardous 
situation, but troops and features of the ground often have so 
peculiar an appearance from that point of view, that a novice will 
often have a difficulty in deciding whether an object be a column of 
troops or a ploughed field. Then again, much will depend on atmo- 
spheric conditions. Thus, in misty weather a balloon is well-nigh 
useless; and in strong winds, with a velocity of anything over 20 m. 
an hour, efficient observation becomes a matter of difficulty. When 
some special point has to be reported on, such as whether there is 
any large body of troops behind a certain hill or wood, a rapid 
ascent may still be made in winds up to 30 m. an hour, but the 
balloon would then be so unsteady that no careful scouting could be 
made. It is usually estimated that a successful captive ascent can 
only be made in England on half the days of the year. As a general 
rule balloon ascents would be made for one of the following objects : 
to examine the country for an enemy; to reconnoitre the enemy's 
position ; to ascertain the strength of his force, number of guns and 
exact situation of the various arms ; also to note the plan of his 
earthworks or fortifications. During an action the aerial observer 
would be on the look-out for any movements of the enemy and give 
warning of flank attacks or surprises. Such an observer could also 
keep the general informed as to the progress of various detached 
parties of his own force, as to the advance of reinforcements, or to 
the conduct of any fighting going on at a distance. Balloon observa- 
tions are also of especial aid to artillery in correcting their aim. 

The vulnerability of a captive balloon to the enemy's fire has been 
tested by many experiments with variable results. One established 



AERONAUTICS 



PLATE I. 



r 





FIG. i. CLEMENT-BAYARD DIRIGIBLE. 



Photo, Topical Press 







I. 858. 



FIG. 2 ZEPPELIN VII. (DEUTSCHLAND), WRECKED JUNE 28, 1910. 



Photo. Topical Press. 



PLATE II. 



AERONAUTICS 




FIG. .1 BRITISH ARMY DIRIGIBLE, BETA. 



Pliolo, Topical Press. 



1 




FIG. 4. PARSEVAL DIRIGIBLE. 



Photo, Topical Press. 



AERONAUTICS 



269 






fact is that the range of a balloon in mid-air is extremely difficult 
to judge, and, as its altitude can be very rapidly altered, it becomes 
a very difficult mark for artillery to hit. A few bullet-holes in the 
fabric of a balloon make but little difference, since the size of the 
perforation is very minute as compared with the great surface of 
material, but on the other hand, a shrapnel bursting just in front of 
it may cause a rapid fall. It is therefore considered prudent to keep 
the balloon well away from an enemy, and two miles are laid down 
as the nearest approach it should make habitually. 

Besides being of use on land for war purposes, balloons have also 
been tried in connexion with the naval service. In France especially 
regular trials have been made of inflating balloons on board ships, 
and sending them aloft as a look-out; but it is now generally con- 
tended that the difficulties of storing the gas and of manoeuvring the 
balloon are so great on board ship as to be hardly worth the results 
to be gained. 

A very important development of military ballooning is that of 
the navigable balloon. If only a balloon could be sent up and driven 
in any required direction, and brought back to its starting-point, 
it is obvious that it would be of the very greatest use in war. 

From the very first invention of balloons the problem has 
been how to navigate them by propulsion. General J. B. M. C. 

Meusnier (1754-1793) proposed an elongated balloon 
Aaffoonx m J 7^4- ^ l was experimented on by the brothers 

Robert, who made two ascensions and claimed to 
have obtained a deviation of 22 from the direction of a light 
wind by means of aerial oars worked by hand. The relative 
speed was probably about 3 m. an hour, and it was so evident 
that a very much more energetic light motor than any then 
known was required to stem ordinary winds that nothing more 
was attempted till 1852, when Henri Giffard (1825-1882) as- 
cended with a steam-engine of then unprecedented lightness. 
The subjoined table exhibits some of the results subsequently 
obtained : 

EXPERIMENTS WITH DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS 



Year. 


Inventor. 


Length. 


Dia- 
meter. 


Con- 
tents. 


Lifting 
Capa- 
city. 


Weight 
of 
Balloon. 


Weight 
of 
Motor. 


H.P. 


Speed 
per 
hour. 






Ft. 


Ft. 


Cub. ft. 


Ib. 


ft. 


Ib. 




Miles. 


1852 


Giffard . . . 


144 


39 


88,300 


3,978 


2,794 


462 


3' 


6-71 


1872 


Dupuy de 




















L6me . . . 


118 


49 


120,088 


8,358 


4,728 


2OOO 


0-8 


6-26 


1884 


Tissandier 


92 


30 


37.439 


2,728 


933 


616 


i'5 


7-82 


1885 


Renard and 




















Krebs . . 


165 


27 


65,836 


4,402 


2,449 


"74 


9-0 


14-00 


1897 


Schwarz . . 


157 


U6) 
( 39 ) 


130,500 


8,133 


6,800 


800? 


16-0 


17-00 


1900 


Zeppelin I. 


420 


39 


400,000 


25,000 


19,000 


1500 


32-0 


18-00 


1901 


Santos Du- 




















mont VI. 


1 08 


20 


22,200 








16-20 


19-00 


1908 


" Republique " 


195 


35 


130,000 


3,100 






80 


3<> 


1908 


Zeppelin IV. . 


446 


42! 


450,000 








220 





Giffard, the future inventor of the injector, devised a steam- 
engine weighing, with fuel and water for one hour, 154 ft per 
horse-power, and was bold enough to employ it in proximity to 
a balloon inflated with coal gas. He was not able to stem a 
medium wind, but attained some deviation. He repeated the 
experiment in 1855 with a more elongated spindle, which proved 
unstable and dangerous. During the siege of Paris the French 
government decided to build a navigable balloon, and entrusted 
the work to the chief naval constructor, Dupuy de Lome. He 
went into the subject very carefully, made estimates of all the 
strains, resistances and speeds, and tested the balloon in 1872. 
Deviations of 12 were obtained from the course of a wind blow- 
ing 27 to 37 m. per hour. The screw propeller was driven by 
eight labourers, a steam-engine being deemed too dangerous; 
but it was estimated that had one been used, weighing as much 
as the men, the speed would have been doubled. Tissandier 
and his brother applied an electric motor, lighter than any pre- 
viously built, to a spindle-shaped balloon, and went up twice in 
1883 and 1884. On the latter occasion he stemmed a wind of 
7 m. per hour. The brothers abandoned these experiments, 
which had been carried on at their own expense, when the French 
War Department took up the problem. Renard and Krebs, the 
officers in charge of the War Aeronautical Department at 
Meudon, built and experimented with in 1884 and 1885 the fusi- 



form balloon " La France," in which the " master " or maximum 
section was about one-quarter of the distance from the stem. 
The propelling screw was at the front of the car and driven by 
an'^ electric motor of unprecedented lightness. Seven ascents 
were made on very calm days, a maximum speed of 14 m. an 
hour was obtained, and the balloon returned to its starting-point 
on five of the seven occasions. Subsequently another balloon 
was constructed, said to be capable of a speed of 22 to 28 m. 
per hour, with a different motor. After many years of experi- 
ment Dr Wolfert built and experimented with in Berlin, in 1897, 
a cigar-shaped balloon driven by a gasoline motor. An explosion 
took place in the air, the balloon fell and Dr Wolfert and his 
assistant were killed. It was also in 1897 that an aluminium 
balloon was built from the designs of D. Schwarz and tested in 
Berlin. It was driven by a Daimler benzine motor, and attained 
a greater speed than " La France "; but a driving belt slipped, 
and in coming down the balloon was injured beyond repair. 

From 1897 onwards Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, of the 
German army, was engaged in constructing an immense balloon, 
truly an airship, of most careful and most intelligent design, to 
carry five men. It consisted of an aluminium framework con- 
taining sixteen gas bags with a total capacity of nearly 400,000 
cub. ft., and it had two cars, each containing a 16 h.p. motor. 
It was first tested in June 1900, when it attained a speed of 
18 m. an hour and travelled a distance of 35 m. before an 
accident to the steering gear necessitated the discontinuance of 
the experiment. In 1905 Zeppelin built a second airship which 
had a slightly smaller capacity but much greater power, its 
two motors each developing 85 h.p. This, after making some 
successful trips, was wrecked in a violent gale, and was succeeded 
by a third airship, which, at its trial in October 1906, travelled 
round Lake Constance and showed 
itself able to execute numerous curves 
and traverses. At a second series of 
trials in September 1907, after some 
alterations had been effected, it 
attained a speed of 36 m. an hour, 
remaining in the air for many hours 
and carrying nine or eleven passengers. 
A fourth vessel of similar design, but 
with more powerful motors, was tried 
in 1908, and succeeded in travelling 
250 m. in ii hours, but owing to a 
storm it was wrecked when on land 
and burnt at Echterdingen on the sth 
of August. Subscriptions, headed by 
the emperor, were at once raised to 
enable Zeppelin to build another. 
Meanwhile in 1901 Alberto Santos Dumont had begun ex- 
periments with dirigible balloons in Paris, and on the igth of 
October won the Deutsch prize by steering a balloon from St 
Cloud round the Eiffel tower and back in half an hour, encounter- 
ing on his return journey a wind of nearly 5 metres a second. 
An airship constructed by Pierre and Paul Lebaudy in 1904 
also made a number of successful trials in the vicinity of Paris; 
with a motor of 40 h.p., its speed was about 25 m. an hour, 
and it regularly carried three passengers. In October 1907 the 
" Nulli Secundus," an airship constructed for the British War 
Office, sailed from Farnborough round St Paul's Cathedral, 
London, to the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, a distance of about 
50 m., in 3 hours 35 minutes. The weight carried, including 
two occupants, was 3400 ft, and the maximum speed was 24 m. 
an hour, with a following wind of 8 m. an hour. 

Thus the principles which govern the design of the dirigible 
balloon may be said to have been evolved. As the lifting power 
grows as the cube of the dimensions, and the resistance approxi- 
mately as the square, the advantage lies with the larger sizes of 
balloons, as of ocean steamers, up to the limits within which 
they may be found practicable. Count Zeppelin gained an ad- 
vantage by attaching his propellers to the balloon, instead of to 
the car as heretofore; but this requires a rigid framework and a 
great increase of weight. Le Compagnon endeavoured, in 1892, 



2JO 



AEROTHERAPEUTICS 



to substitute flapping wings for rotary propellers, as the former 
can be suspended near the centre of resistance. C. Danilewsky 
followed him in 1898 and 1899, but without remarkable results. 
Dupuy de Lome was the first to estimate in detail the resistances 
to balloon propulsion, but experiment showed that in the 
aggregate they were greater than he calculated. Renard and 
Krebs also found that their computed resistances were largely 
exceeded, and after revising the results they gave the formula 
R = 0-01685 D 2 V*, R being the resistance in kilograms, D the 
diameter in metres and V the velocity in metres per second. 
Reduced to British measures, in pounds, feet and miles per 
hour, R = 0-0006876 D 2 V 2 , which is somewhat in excess of the 
formula computed by Dr William Pole from Dupuy de Lome's 
experiments. The above coefficient applies only to the shape 
and rigging of the balloon " La France," and combines ah 1 resist- 
ances into one equivalent, which is equal to that of a flat plane 
18% of the " master section." This coefficient may perhaps 
hereafter be reduced by one-half through a better form of hull 
and car, more like a fish than a spindle, by diminished sections 
of suspension lines and net, and by placing the propeller at the 
centre of resistance. To compute the results to be expected 
from new projects, it will be preferable to estimate the resistances 
in detail. The following table shows how this was done by 
Dupuy de Lome, and the probable corrections which should 
have been made by him: 

RESISTANCES DUPUY DE LOME'S BALLOON 



Computed by Dupuy de L6me. 
V 2'22 m. per sec. 


MoreProbable Values. 
V = 2-82 m. per sec. 


Part. 


Area, 
Sq. 
Metres. 


Co- 
effici- 
ent. 


Air 
Pres- 
sure. 


Resist- 
ance, 
Kg. 


Co- 
effici- 
ent. 


Air 
Pres- 
sure. 


Resist- 
ance, 
Kg. 


Hull, with- 
out net. . 
Car . . . 
Men's bodies 
Gas tubes . 
Small cords 
Large cords 


172-96 

3-25 
3-oo 
6-40 
10-00 
9.90 


1/3 

rf 

i/S 

'/5 
1/2 

1/3 


0-665 


3-830 
0-432 
0-400 
0-850 
3-3 2 5 
2-194 


I/IS 

1/5 

1/2 
1/2 
1/2 
1/3 


0-875 


10-091 
0-569 
1-312 
2-750 
4-375 
2-887 


11-031 


21-984 



When the resistances have been reduced to the lowest possible 
minimum by careful design, the attainable speed must depend 
upon the efficiency of the propeller and the relative lightness of 
the motor. The commercial uses of dirigible balloons, however, 
will be small, as they must remain housed when the wind aloft 
is brisk. The sizes will be great and costly, the loads small, and 
the craft frail and short-lived, yet dirigible balloons constitute 
the obvious type for governments to evolve, until they are super- 
seded by efficient flying machines. (See further, as to the latter, 
the article FLIGHT AND FLYING.) 

The chief danger attending ballooning lies in the descent; for 
if a strong wind be blowing, the grapnel will sometimes trail for 
miles over the ground at the rate of ten or twenty miles 
'ot'ae'ro an ^ our ' cat ching now and then in hedges, ditches, roots 
"station. ^ trees , &c.; and, after giving the balloon a terrible 
jerk , breaking loose again, till at length some obstruction, 
such as the wooded bank of a stream, affords a firm hold. This 
danger, however, has been much reduced by the use of the 
" ripping-cord," which enables a panel to be ripped open and 
the balloon to be completely deflated in a few seconds, just as it 
is reaching the earth. But even a very rough descent is usually 
not productive of any very serious consequences; as, although 
the occupants of the car generally receive many bruises and are 
perhaps cut by the ropes, it rarely happens that anything worse 
occurs. On a day when the wind is light (supposing that there 
is no want of ballast) nothing can be easier than the descent, 
and the aeronaut can decide several miles off on the field in 
which he will alight. It is very important to have a good supply 
of ballast, so as to be able to check the rapidity of the descent, 
as in passing downwards through a wet cloud the weight of 
the balloon is enormously increased by the water deposited on 
it; and if there is no ballast to throw out in compensation, the 



velocity is sometimes very great. It is also convenient, if the 
district upon which the balloon is descending appear unsuitable 
for landing, to be able to rise again. The ballast consists of fine 
baked sand, which becomes so scattered as to be inappreciable 
before it has fallen far below the balloon. It is taken up in bags 
containing about \ cwt. each. The balloon at starting is liberated 
by a spring catch which the aeronaut releases, and the ballast 
should be so adjusted that there is nearly equilibrium before 
leaving, else the rapidity of ascent is too great, and has to be 
checked by parting with gas. It is almost impossible to liberate 
the balloon in such a way as to avoid giving it a rotary motion 
about a vertical axis, which continues during the whole time it 
is in the air. This rotation makes it difficult for those in the car 
to discover in what direction they are moving; and it is only 
by looking down along the rope to which the grapnel is suspended 
that the motion of the balloon over the country below can be 
traced. The upward and downward motion at any instant is 
at once known by merely dropping over the side of the car a 
small piece of paper: if the paper ascends or remains on the 
same level or stationary, the balloon is descending; while, if 
it descends, the balloon is ascending. This test is exceedingly 
delicate. 

REFERENCES. Tiberius Cavallo, Treatise on the Nature and Prop- 
erties of Air and other permanently Elastic Fluids (London, 1781); 
Idem, History and Practice of Aerostation (London, 1785); Vincent 
Lunardi, Account of the First Aerial Voyage in England, in a Series 
of Letters to his Guardian (London, 1785) ; T. Forster, Annals of some 
Remarkable Aerial and Alpine Voyages (London, 1832) ;MonckMason, 
Aeronautica (London, 1838); John Wise, A System of Aeronautics, 
comprehending its Earliest Investigations (Philadelphia, 1850) ; 
Hatton Tumor, Astra Castra, Experiments and Adventures in the 
Atmosphere (London, 1865); J. Glaisher, C. Flammarion, W. de 
Fonvielle and G. Tissandier, Voyages aeriens (Paris, 1870) (translated 
and edited by James Glaisher under the title Travels in the Air 
(London, 1871); O. Chanute, Progress in Flying Machines (New 
York, 1894) ; W. de Fonvielle, Les Ballons sondes (Paris, 1899) ; Idem, 
Histoire de la navigation aerienne (Paris, 1907) ; F. Walker, Aerial 
Navigation (London, 1902) ; J. Lecornu, La Navigation aerienne 
(Pans, 1903) ; M. L. Marchis, Lemons sur la navigation aerienne (Paris, 
1904), containing many references to books and periodicals on 
pp. 701-704; Navigating the Air (papers collected by the Aero Club 
of America) (New York, 1907); A. Hildebrandt, Airships past and 
present (London, 1908). 

AEROTHERAPEUTICS, the treatment of disease by atmo- 
spheric air: a term which of late has come to be used somewhat 
more loosely to include also pneumotherapeutics, or the treat- 
ment of disease by artificially prepared atmospheres. The 
physical and chemical properties of atmospheric air, under 
ordinary pressure or under modified pressure, may be thera- 
peutically utilized either on the external surface of the body, on 
the respiratory surface, or on both surfaces together. Also 
modifications may be induced in the ventilation of the lungs by 
general gymnastics or respiratory gymnastics. 

The beneficial effects of air under ordinary pressure are now 
utilized in the open-air treatment of phthisical patients, and the 
main indications of benefit resulting therefrom are reduction of 
the fever, improvement of appetite and the induction of sleep. 

The air, however, may be modified in composition or in tempera- 
ture. Inhalation is the most common and successful method of 
applying it when modified in composition to the human body. 
The methods in use are as follows: (i) Inhalation of gases, 
as oxygen and nitrous oxide. -The dyspnoea and cyanosis of 
pneumonia, capillary bronchitis, heart failure, &c., are much 
relieved by the inhalation of oxygen; and nitrous oxide is 
largely used as an anaesthetic in minor operations. (2) Certain 
liquids are used as anaesthetics, which volatilize at low tempera- 
tures, as chloroform and ether. (3) Mercury and sulphur, both 
of which require heat for volatilization, are very largely used. 
In a mercurial or sulphur bath, the patient, enveloped in a 
sheet, sits on a chair beneath which a spirit lamp is placed to 
vaporize the drug, the best results being obtained when the 
atmosphere is surcharged with steam at the same time. The 
vapour envelops the patient and is absorbed by the skin. This 
method is extensively used in the treatment of syphilis, and also 
for scabies and other parasitic affections of the skin. (4) Moist 
inhalations are rather losing repute in the light of modern 



AERTSZEN AESCHINES 



271 



investigations, which tend to show that nothing lower than the 
larger bronchial tubes is affected. Complicated apparatus has 
been devised for the application, although a wide-mouthed jug 
filled with boiling water, into which the drug is thrown, is almost 
equally efficacious. 

Artificial atmospheres may be made for invalids by respirators 
which cover the mouth and nose, the air being drawn through 
tow or sponge, on which is sprinkled the disinfectant to be used. 
This is most valuable in the intensely offensive breath of some 
cases of bronchiectasis. 

The air may be modified as to temperature. Cold air at 
32-33 F. has been used in chronic catarrhal conditions of the 
lungs, with the result that cough diminishes, the pulse becomes 
fuller and slower and the general condition improves. The 
more recent observations of Pasquale di Tullio go far to 
show that this may be immensely valuable in the treatment 
of haemoptysis. The inspiration of superheated dry air has 
been the subject of much investigation, but with very doubtful 
results. 

Hot air applied to the skin is more noteworthy in its therapeutic 
effects. If a current of hot air is directed upon healthy skin, the 
latter becomes pale and contracts in consequence of vaso-con- 
striction. But if it is directed on a- patch of diseased skin, as 
in lupus, an inflammatory reaction is set up and the diseased 
part begins to undergo necrosis. This fact has been used with 
good results in lupus, otorrhoea, rhinitis and other nasal and 
laryngeal troubles. 

Lastly the air may be either compressed or rarefied. The 
physiological effects of compressed air were first studied in 
diving-bells, and more recently in caissons. Caisson workers at 
first enjoy increased strength, vigour and appetite; later, how- 
ever, the opposite effect is produced and intense debility super- 
venes. In addition, caisson workers suffer from a series of 
troubles which are known as accidents of decompression. (See 
CAISSON DISEASE.) But, therapeutically, compressed air has 
been utilized by means of pneumatic chambers large enough to 
hold one or more adults at the time, in which the pressure of 
the atmosphere can be exactly regulated. This form of treat- 
ment has been found of much value in the treatment of emphy- 
sema, early pulmonary tuberculosis (not in the presence of 
persistent high temperature, haemorrhage, softening or suppura- 
tion), delayed absorption of pleural effusions, heart disease, 
anaemia and chlorosis. But compressed air is contra-indicated 
in advanced tubercle, fever, and in diseases of kidneys, liver or 
intestines. 

Rarefied air was used as long ago as 1835, by V. T. Junod, 
who utilized it for local application by inventing the Junod Boot. 
By means of this the blood could be drawn into any part to which 
it was applied, the vessels of which became gorged with blood at 
the expense of internal organs. More recently this method of 
treatment has undergone far-reaching developments and is 
known as the passive hyperaemic treatment. 

There are also various forms of apparatus' by means of which 
air at greater or lesser pressures may be drawn into the lungs, 
and for the performance of lung gymnastics of various kinds. 
Mr Ketchum of the United States has invented one which 
is much used. A committee of the Brompton Hospital, 
London, investigating its capabilities, decided that its use 
brought about (i) an increase of chest circumference, and (2) 
in cases of consolidation of the lung a diminution in the area 
of dulness. 

AERTSZEN (or AARTSEN), PIETER (1507-1573), caUed 
"Long Peter " on account of his height, Dutch historical 
painter, was bom and died at Amsterdam. When a youth he 
distinguished himself by painting homely scenes, in which he 
reproduced articles of furniture, cooking utensils, &c., with 
marvellous fidelity, but he afterwards cultivated historical 
painting. Several of his best works altar-pieces in various 
churches were destroyed in the religious wars of the Nether- 
lands. An excellent specimen of his style on a small scale, a 
picture of the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp Museum. 
Aertszen was a member of the Academy of St Luke, in whose 



books he is entered as Langhe Peter, schilder. Three of his sons 
attained to some note as painters. 

AESCHINES (380-314 B.C.), Greek statesman and orator, was 
born at Athens. The statements as to his parentage and early 
life are conflicting; but it seems probable that his parents, 
though poor, were respectable. After assisting his father in his 
school, he tried his hand at acting with indifferent success, 
served with distinction in the army, and held several clerkships, 
amongst them the office of clerk to the Boule. The fall of 
Olynthus (348) brought Aeschines into the political arena, and 
he was sent on an embassy to rouse the Peloponnesus against 
Philip. In 347 he was a member of the peace embassy to Philip 
of Macedon, who seems to have won him over entirely to his side. 
His dilatoriness during the second embassy (346) sent to ratify 
the terms of peace led to his accusation by Demosthenes and 
Timarchus on a charge of high treason, but he was acquitted 
as the result of a powerful speech, in which he showed that his 
accuser Timarchus had, by his immoral conduct, forfeited the 
right to speak before the people. In 343 the attack was renewed 
by Demosthenes in his speech On the False Embassy; Aeschines 
replied in a speech with the same title and was again acquitted. 
In 339, as one of the Athenian deputies (pylagorae) in the Amphi- 
ctyonic Council, he made a speech which brought about the 
Sacred War. By way of revenge, Aeschines endeavoured to fix 
the blame for these disasters upon Demosthenes. In 336, when 
Ctesiphon proposed that his friend Demosthenes should be 
rewarded with a golden crown for his distinguished services to 
the state, he was accused by Aeschines of having violated the 
law in bringing forward the motion. The matter remained in 
abeyance till 330, when the two rivals delivered their speeches 
Against Ctesiphon and On the Crown. The result was a complete 
victory for Demosthenes. Aeschines went into voluntary exile 
at Rhodes, where he opened a school of rhetoric. He afterwards 
removed to Samos, where he died in the seventy-fifth year of 
his age. His three speeches, called by the ancients " the Three 
Graces," rank next to those of Demosthenes. Photius knew of 
nine letters by him which he called the Nine Muses; the twelve 
published under his name (Hercher, Epislolographi Graeci) are 
not genuine. 

ANCIENT AUTHORITIES. Demosthenes, De Corona and De Falsa 
Legatione; Aeschines, De Falsa Legations and In Ctesiphontem; 
Lives by Plutarch, Philostratus and Libanius; the Exegesis of 
Apollonius. EDITIONS. Benseler (1855-1860) (trans, and notes), 
Weidner (1872), Blass (1896); Against Ctesiphon, Weidner (1872), 
(l878),G.A.and W.H. Simcox( 1866), Drake (i872),Richardson(l889), 
Gwatkin and Shuckburgh (1890). ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS. Leland 
(1771), Biddle (1881), and others. See also Stechow, Aeschinis Ora- 
toris vita (1841); Marchand, Charakteristik des Redners Aschines 
(1876) ; Castets, Eschine, I'Orateur (1875) ; for the political problems 
see histories of Greece, esp. A. Holm, vol. iii. (Eng. trans., 1896) ; 
A. Schafer, Demosth. und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 18561858); also 
DEMOSTHENES. 

AESCHINES (sth century B.C.), an Athenian philosopher. 
According to some accounts he was the son of a sausage-maker, 
but others say that his father was Lysanias (Diog. Laert. ii. 60; 
Suidas, s.v.). He was an intimate friend of Socrates, who is 
reported to have said that the sausage-maker's son alone knew 
how to honour him. Diogenes Laertius preserves a tradition 
that it was he, not Crito, who offered to help Socrates to escape 
from prison. He was always a poor man, and Socrates advised 
him ' to borrow from himself, by diminishing his expenditure." 
He started a perfumery shop in Athens on borrowed capital, 
became bankrupt and retired to the Syracusan court, where he 
was well received by Aristippus. According to Diog. Laert. (ii. 
61), Plato, then at Syracuse, pointedly ignored Aeschines, but 
this does not agree with Plutarch, De adulators et amico (c. 26). 
On the expulsion of the younger Dionysius, he returned to 
Athens, and, finding it impossible to profess philosophy publicly 
owing to the contempt of Plato and Aristotle, was compelled to 
teach privately. He wrote also forensic speeches; Phrynichus, 
in Photius, ranks him amongst the best orators, and mentions 
his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes 
also spoke highly of him (Ilepi I8(uv). He wrote several philo- 
sophical dialogues: (i) Concerning virtue, whether it can be 



272 



AESCHYLUS 



Lite. 



taught; (2) Eryxias, or Erasistratus; concerning riches, whether 
they are good; (3) Axiochus: concerning death, whether it is to 
be feared, but those extant on the several subjects are not 
genuine remains. J. le Clerc has given a Latin translation of 
them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled Sihae 
Philologicae, and they have been edited by S. N. Fischer (Leipzig, 
1786), and K. F. Hermann, De Aeschin. Socrat. relig. (Gott. 
1850). The genuine dialogues appear to have been marked by 
the Socratic irony; an amusing passage is quoted by Cicero in 
the De inventione (i. 31). 

See Hirzel, Der Dialog, i. 129-140; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, 
vol. iii. p. 342 (Eng. trans. G. G. Berry, London, 1905). 

AESCHYLUS (525-456 B.C.), Greek poet, the first of the 
only three Attic Tragedians of whose work entire plays survive, 
and in a very real sense (as we shall see) the founder of the Greek 
drama, was born at Eleusis in the year 525 B.C. His father, 
Euphorion, belonged to the " Eupatridae " or old nobility of 
Athens, as we know on the authority of the short Life of the 
poet given in the Medicean Manuscript (see note on 
"authorities" at the end). According to the same 
tradition he took part as a soldier in the great struggle of Greece 
against Persia; and was present at the battles of Marathon, 
Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea, in the years 490-479. At least 
one of his brothers, Cynaegirus, fought with him at Marathon, 
and was killed in attempting a conspicuous act of bravery; 
and the brothers' portraits found a place in the national picture 
of the battle which the Athenians set up as a memorial in 
the Stoa Poecile (or " Pictured Porch ") at Athens. 

The vigour and loftiness of tone which mark Aeschylus' 
poetic work was not only due, we may be sure, to his native 
genius and gifts, powerful as they were, but were partly in- 
spired by the personal share he took in the great actions of a 
heroic national uprising. In the same way, the poet's brooding 
thoughtfulness on deep questions the power of the gods, their 
dealings with man, the dark mysteries of fate, the future life in 
Hades though largely due to his turn of mind and temperament, 
was doubtless connected with the place where his childhood 
was passed. Eleusis was the centre of the most famous worship 
of Demeter, with its processions, its ceremonies, its mysteries, 
its impressive spectacles and nocturnal rites; and these were 
intimately connected with the Greek beliefs about the human 
soul, and the underworld. 

His dramatic career began early, and was continued for more 
than forty years. In 499, his 26th year, he first exhibited at 
Athens; and his last work, acted during his lifetime at Athens, 
was the trilogy of the Oresteia, exhibited in 458. The total 
number of his plays is stated by Suidas to have been ninety; 
and the seven extant plays, with the dramas named or nameable 
which survive only in fragments, amount to over eighty, so that 
Suidas' figure is probably based on reliable tradition. It is well 
known that in the sth century each exhibitor at the tragic con- 
tests produced four plays; and Aeschylus must therefore have 
competed (between 499 and 458) more than twenty times, or once 
in two years. His first victory is recorded in 484, fifteen years 
after his earliest appearance on the stage; but in the remaining 
twenty-six years of his dramatic activity at Athens he was 
successful at least twelve times. This clearly shows that he was 
the most commanding figure among the tragedians of 500-458; 
and for more than half that time was usually the victor in the 
contests. Perhaps the most striking evidence of his exceptional 
position among his contemporaries is the well-known decree 
passed shortly after his death that whosoever desired to exhibit 
a play of Aeschylus should " receive a chorus," i.e. be officially 
allowed to produce the drama at the Dionysia. The existence 
of this decree, mentioned in the Life, is strongly confirmed by 
two passages in Aristophanes: first in the prologue of the 
Acharnians (which was acted in 425, thirty-one years after the 
poet's death), where the citizen, grumbling about his griefs and 
troubles, relates his great disappointment, when he took his seat 
in the theatre " expecting Aeschylus," to find that when the 
play came on it was Theognis; and secondly in a scene of the 
Frogs (acted 405 B.C.), where the throne of poetry is contested 



in Hades between Aeschylus and Euripides, the former com- 
plains (Fr. 866) that " the battle is not fair, because my own 
poetry has not died with me, while Euripides' has died, and 
therefore he will have it with him to recite " a clear reference, as 
the scholiast points out, to the continued production at Athens 
of Aeschylus' plays after his death. 

Apart from fables, guesses and blunders, of which a word is 
said below, the only other incidents recorded of the poet's life 
that deserve mention are connected with his Sicilian visits, and 
the charge preferred against him of revealing the " secrets of 
Demeter." This tale is briefly mentioned by Aristotle (Eth. iii. 2), 
and a late commentator (Eustratius, i2th century) quotes from 
one Heraclides Pontius the version which may be briefly given 
as follows: 

The poet was acting a part in one of his own plays, where there 
was a reference to Demeter. The audience suspected him of 
revealing the inviolable secrets, and rose in fury; the poet fled 
to the altar of Dionysus in the orchestra and so saved his life 
for the moment; for even an angry Athenian crowd respected 
the inviolable sanctuary. He was afterwards charged with the 
crime before the Areopagus; and his plea " that he did not 
know that what he said was secret " was accepted by the court 
and secured his acquittalt The commentator adds that the 
prowess of the poet (and his brother) at Marathon was the real 
cause of the leniency of his judges. The story was afterwards 
developed, and embellished by additions; but in the above 
shape it dates back to the 4th century; and as the main fact 
seems accepted by Aristotle, it is probably authentic. 

As to his foreign travel, the suggestion has been made that 
certain descriptions in the Persae, and the known facts that he 
wrote a trilogy on the story of the Thracian king Lycurgus, 
persecutor of Dionysus, seem to point to his having a special 
knowledge of Thrace, which makes it likely that he had visited 
it. This, however, remains at best a conjecture. For his repeated 
visits to Sicily, on the other hand, there is conclusive ancient 
evidence. Hiero the First, tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned 
about twelve years (478-467), and amongst other efforts after 
magnificence invited to his court famous poets and men of letters, 
had founded a new town, Aetna, on the site of Catana which he 
captured, expelling the inhabitants. Among his guests were 
Aeschylus, Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides. About 476 
Aeschylus was entertained by him, and at his request wrote 
and exhibited a play called The Women of Aetna in honour of 
the new town. He paid a second visit about 472, the year in 
which he had produced the Persae at Athens; and the play is 
said to have been repeated at Syracuse at his patron's request. 
Hiero died in 467, the year of the Seven against Thebes; but 
after 458, when the Oresteia was exhibited at Athens, we find 
the poet again in Sicily for the last time. In 456 he died, and 
was buried at Gela; and on his tomb was placed an epitaph in 
two elegiac couplets saying: " Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus, 
son of Euphorion, the Athenian, who perished in the wheat- 
bearing land of Gela; of his noble prowess the grove of Marathon 
can speak, or the long-haired Persian who knows it well." The 
authorship of this epitaph is uncertain, as the Life says it w.as 
inscribed on his grave by the people of Gela, while Athenaeus 
and Pausanias attribute it to Aeschylus. Probably most people 
would agree that only the poet himself could have praised the 
soldier and kept silence about the poetry. 

Of the marvellous traditions which gathered round his name 
little need be said. Pausanias' tale, how Dionysus appeared to 
the poet when a boy, asleep in his father's vineyard, and bade 
him write a tragedy or the account in the Life, how he was 
killed by an eagle letting fall on his head a tortoise whose shell 
the bird was unable to crack clearly belong to the same class 
of legends as the story that Plato was son of Apollo, and that 
a swarm of bees settled upon his infant lips as he lay in his 
mother's arms. Less supernatural, but hardly more historical, 
is the statement in the Life that the poet left Athens for Sicily 
in consequence of his defeat in the dramatic contest of 468 by 
Sophocles; or the alternative story of the same authority that 
the cause of his chagrin was that Simonides' elegy on the heroes 



AESCHYLUS 



273 



slain at Marathon was preferred to his own. Apart from the 
inherent improbability of such pettiness in such a man, neither 
story fits the facts; for in 467, the next year after Sophocles' 
success, we know that Aeschylus won the prize of tragedy with 
the Septem; and the Marathon elegy must have been written in 
490, fourteen years before his first visit to Sicily. 

In passing from Aeschylus' life to his work, we have obviously 
far more trustworthy data, in the seven extant plays (with 
Work tne fragments of more than seventy others), and par- 
ticularly in the invaluable help of Aristotle's Poetics. 
The real importance of our poet in the development of the drama 
(see DRAMA: Greek) as compared with any of his three or four 
known predecessors who are at best hardly more than names 

to us is shown by the fact that Aristotle, in his brief review of 
the rise of tragedy (Poet. iv. 13), names no one before Aeschy- 
lus. He recognizes, it is true, a long process of growth, with 
several stages, from the dithyramb to the drama; and it is not 
difficult to see what these stages were. The first step was the 
addition to the old choric song of an interlude spoken, and in 
early days improvised, by the leader of the chorus (Poet. iv. 
12). The next was the introduction of an actor (wro/cptri?? or 
" answerer "), to reply to the leader; and thus we get dialogue 
added to recitation. The " answerer " was at first the poet 
himself (Ar. Rhet. iii. i). This change is traditionally attributed 
to Thespis (5363.0.), who is, however, not mentioned by Aristotle. 
The mask, to enable the actor to assume different parts, by 
whomsoever invented, was in regular use before Aeschylus' day. 
The third change was the enlarged range of subjects. The lyric 
dithyramb-tales were necessarily about Dionysus, and the inter- 
ludes had, of course, to follow suit. Nothing in the world so 
tenaciously resists innovation as religious ceremony; and it is 
interesting to learn that the Athenian populace (then, as ever, 
eager for " some new thing ") nevertheless opposed at first the 
introduction of other tales. But the innovators won; or other- 
wise there would have been no Attic drama. 

In this way, then, to the original lyric song and dances in 
honour of Dionysus was added a spoken (but still metrical) 
interlude by the chorus-leader, and later a dialogue with one 
actor (at first the poet), whom the mask enabled to appear in 
more than one part. 

But everything points to the fact that in the development of 
the drama Aeschylus was the decisive innovator. The two 
things that were important, when the 5th century began, if 
tragedy was to realize its possibilities, were (i) the disentangle- 
ment of the dialogue from its position as an interlude in an 
artistic and religious pageant that was primarily lyric; and (2) 
its general elevation of tone. Aeschylus, as we know on the 
express authority of Aristotle (Poet. iv. 13), achieved the first 
by the introduction of the second actor; and though he did 
not begin the second, he gave it the decisive impulse and con- 
summation by the overwhelming effect of his serious thought, 
the stately splendour of his style, his high dramatic purpose, 
and the artistic grandeur and impressiveness of the construction 
and presentment of his tragedies. 

As to the importance of the second actor no argument is 
needed. The essence of a play is dialogue; and a colloquy 
between the coryphaeus and a messenger (or, by aid of the mask, 
a series of messengers), as must have been the case when Aeschy- 
lus began, is in reality not dialogue in the dramatic sense at all, 
but rather narrative. The discussion, the persuasion, the in- 
struction, the pleading, the contention in short, the interacting 
personal influences of different characters on each other are 
indispensable to anything that can be called a play, as we 
understand the word; and, without two "personae dramatis" 
at the least, the drama in the strict sense is clearly impossible. 
The number of actors was afterwards increased; but to Aeschylus 
are due the perception and the adoption of the essential step; 
and therefore, as was said above, he deserves in a very real sense 
to be called the 'ounder of Athenian tragedy. 

Of the seven extant plays, Supplices, Persae, Septem contra 
Tkebas, Promet teus, Agamemnon, Choephoroe and Eumenides, five 
can fortunately be dated with certainty, as the archon's name 



is preserved in the Arguments; and the other two approximately. 
The dates rest, in the last resort, on the oi8a<TKa\la.i, or the official 
records of the contests, of which we know that Aristotle (and 
others) compiled catalogues; and some actual fragments have 
been recovered. The order of the plays is probably that given 
above; and certainly the Persae was acted in 472, Septem in 
467, and the last three, the trilogy, in 458. The Supplices is 
generally, though not unanimously, regarded as the oldest; 
and the best authorities tend to place it not far from 490. The 
early date is strongly confirmed by three things: the extreme 
simplicity of the plot, the choric (instead of dramatic) opening, 
and the fact that the percentage of lyric passages is 54, or the 
highest of all the seven plays. The chief doubt is in regard to 
Prometheus, which is variously placed by good authorities; but 
the very low percentage of lyrics (only 27, or roughly a quarter 
of the whole), and still more the strong characterization, a 
marked advance on anything in the first three plays, point to 
its being later than any except the trilogy, and suggest a date 
somewhere about 460, or perhaps a little earlier. A few com- 
ments on the extant plays will help to indicate the main points 
of Aeschylus' work. 

Supplices. The exceptional interest of the Supplices is due to 
its date. Being nearly twenty years earlier than any other 
extant play, it furnishes evidence of a stage in the evolution of 
Attic drama which would otherwise have been unrepresented. 
Genius, as Patin says, is a " puissance libre," and none more so 
than that of Aeschylus; but with all allowance for the " un- 
controlled power " of this poet, we may feel confident that we 
have in the Supplices something resembling in general structure 
the lost works of Choerilus, Phrynichus, Pratinas and the 6th- 
century pioneers of drama. 

The plot is briefly as follows: the fifty daughters of Danaus 
(who are the chorus), betrothed by the fiat of Aegyptus (their 
father's brother) to his fifty sons, flee with Danaus to Argos, 
to escape the marriage which they abhor. They claim the pro- 
tection of the Argive king, Pelasgus, who is kind but timid; and 
he (by a pleasing anachronism) refers the matter to the people, 
who agree to protect the fugitives. The pursuing fleet of suitors 
is seen approaching; the herald arrives (with a company of 
followers), blusters, threatens, orders off the cowering Danaids 
to the ships and finally attempts to drag them away. Pelasgus 
interposes with a force, drives off the Egyptians and saves the 
suppliants. Danaus urges them to prayer, thanksgiving and 
maidenly modesty, and the grateful chorus pass away to the 
shelter offered by their protectors. 

It is clear that we have here the drama in its nascent stage, 
just developing out of the lyric pageant from which it sprang. 
The interest still centres round the chorus, who are in fact the 
" protagonists " of the play. Character and plot the two 
essentials of drama, in the view of all critics from Aristotle 
downwards are both here rudimentary. There are some 
fluctuations of hope and fear; but the play is a single situation. 
The stages are: the appeal; the hesitation of the king, the re- 
solve of the people; the defeat of insolent violence; and the 
rescue. It should not be forgotten, indeed, that the play is one 
of a trilogy an act, therefore, rather than a complete drama. 
But we have only to compare it with those later plays of which 
the same is true, to see the difference. Even in a trilogy, each 
play is a complete whole in itself, though also a portion of a 
larger whole. 

Persae. The next play that has survived is the Persae, which 
has again a special interest, viz. that it is the only extant Greek 
historical drama. We know that Aeschylus' predecessor, Phryni- 
chus, had already twice tried this experiment, with the Capture 
of Miletus and the Phoenician Women; that the latter play 
dealt with the same subject as the Persae, and the handling of 
its opening scene was imitated by the younger poet. The plot 
of the Persae is still severely simple, though more developed 
than that of the Suppliants. The opening is still lyric, and the 
first quarter of the play brings out, by song and speech, the 
anxiety of the people and queen as to the fate of Xerxes' huge 
army. Then comes the messenger with the news of Salamis. 



274 



AESCHYLUS 



including a description of the sea-fight itself which can only 
be called magnificent. We realize what it must have been for 
the vast audience 30,0x30, according to Plato (Symp. 175 E) 
to hear, eight years only after the event, from the supreme poet 
of Athens, who was himself a distinguished actor in the war, 
this thrilling narrative of the great battle. But this reflexion at 
once suggests another; it is not a tragedy in the true Greek 
sense, according to the practice of the 5th-century poets. It 
may be called in one point of view a tragedy, since the scene is 
laid in Persia, and the drama forcibly depicts the downfall of 
the Persian pride. But its real aim is not the "pity and terror" 
of the developed drama; it is the triumphant glorification of 
Athens, the exultation of the whole nation gathered in one place, 
over the ruin of their foe. This is best shown by the praise of 
Aeschylus' great admirer and defender Aristophanes, who (Frogs, 
1026-1027) puts into the poet's mouth the boast that in the 
Persae he had " glorified a noble exploit, and taught men to be 
eager to conquer their foe." 

Thus, both as an historic drama and in its real effect, the 
Persae was an experiment; and, as far as we know, the experi- 
ment was not repeated either by the author or his successors. 
One further point may be noted. Aeschylus always has a taste 
for the unseen and the supernatural; and one effective incident 
here is the raising of Darius's ghost, and his prophecy of the 
disastrous battle of Plataea. But in the ghost's revelations 
there is a mixture of audacity and naivete, characteristic at 
once of the poet and the early youth of the drama. The dead 
Darius prophesies Plataea, but has not heard of Salamis; he 
gives a brief (and inaccurate) list of the Persian kings, which 
the queen and chorus, whom he addresses, presumably know; 
and his only practical suggestion, that the Persians should not 
again invade Greece, seems attainable without the aid of super- 
human foresight. 

Septem contra Thebas. Five years later came the Theban 
Tragedy. It is not only, as Aristophanes says (Frogs, 1024), 
" a play full of the martial spirit," but is (like the Supplices) 
one of a connected series, dealing with the evil fate of the Theban 
House. But instead of being three acts of a single story like the 
Supplices, these three plays trace the fate through three genera- 
tions, Laius, Oedipus and the two sons who die by each other's 
hands in the fight for the Theban sovereignty. This family fate, 
where one evil deed leads to another after many years, is a larger 
conception, strikingly suited to Aeschylus' genius, and con- 
stitutes a notable stage in the development of the Aeschylean 
drama. And just as here we have the tragedy of the Theban 
house, so in the last extant work, the Oresteia, the poet traces 
the tragedy of the Pelopid family, from Agamemnon's first sin 
to Orestes' vengeance and purification. And the names of several 
lost plays point to similar handling of the tragic trilogy. 

The Seven against Thebes is the last play of its series; and 
again the plot is severely simple, not only in outline, but in detail. 
Father and grandfather have both perished miserably; and the 
two princes have quarrelled, both claiming the kingdom. Eteo- 
cles has driven out Polynices, who fled to Argos, gathered a host 
under seven leaders (himself being one), and when the play opens 
has begun the siege of his own city. The king appears, warns 
the people, chides the clamour of women,appoints seven Thebans, 
including himself, to defend the seven gates, departs to his post, 
meets his brother in battle and both are killed. The other six 
chieftains are all slain, and the enemy beaten off. The two dead 
princes are buried by their two sisters, who alone are left of the 
royal house. 

Various signs of the early drama are here manifest. Half the 
play is lyric; there is no complication of plot; the whole action 
is recited by messengers; and the fatality whereby the predicted 
mutual slaughter of the princes is brought about is no accidental 
stroke of destiny, but the choice of the king Eteocles himself. 
On the other hand, the opening is no longer lyric (like the two 
earlier plays) but dramatic; the main scene, where the mes- 
senger reports at length the names of the seven assailants, and 
the king appoints the seven defenders, each man going off in 
silence to his post, must have been an impressive spectacle. 



One novelty should not be overlooked. There is here the first 
passage of 5idi>ota, or general reflexion of life, which later became 
a regular feature of tragedy. Eteocles muses on the fate which 
involves an innocent man in the company of the wicked so that 
he shares unjustly their deserved fate. The passage (Theb. 
597-608) is interesting; and the whole part of Eteocles shows a 
new effort of the poet to draw character, which may have some- 
thing to do with the rise of Sophocles, who in the year before 
(468) won with his first play, now lost, the prize of tragedy. 

There remain only the Prometheus and the Oresteia, which 
show such marked advance that (it may almost be said) when we 
think of Aeschylus it is these four plays we have in mind. 

Prometheus. The Prometheus-trilogy consisted of three plays: 
Prometheus the Fire-bringer, Prometheus Bound, Prometheus 
Unbound. The two last necessarily came in that order; the 
Fire-bringer is probably the first, though recently it has been held 
by some scholars to be the last, of the trilogy. That Prometheus 
sinned against Zeus, by stealing fire from heaven; that he was 
punished by fearful tortures for ages; that he finally was recon- 
ciled to Zeus and set free, all this was the ancient tale indisput- 
ably. Those who hold the Fire-bringer (Hvp<t>6pos) to be the final 
play, conjecture that it dealt with the establishment of the 
worship of Prometheus under that title, which is known to have 
existed at Athens. But the other order is on all grounds more 
probable; it keeps the natural sequence crime, punishment, 
reconciliation, which is also the sequence in the Oresteia. And 
if the reconciliation was achieved in the second play, no scheme 
of action sufficing for the third drama seems even plausible. 1 

However that may be, the play that survives is a poem of 
unsurpassed force and impressiveness. Nevertheless, from the 
point of view of the development of drama, there seems at first 
sight little scope in the story for the normal human interest of a 
tragedy, since the actors are all divine, except lo, who is a dis- 
tracted wanderer, victim of Zeus' cruelty; and between the open- 
ing where Prometheus is nailed to the Scythian rock, and the 
close where the earthquake engulfs the rock, the hero and the 
chorus, action in the ordinary sense is ipso facto impossible. This 
is just the opportunity for the poet's bold inventiveness and fine 
imagination. The tortured sufferer is visited by the Oceanic 
Nymphs, who float in, borne by an (imaginary) winged car, to 
console; Oceanus (riding a griffin, doubtless also imaginary) 
follows, kind but timid, to advise submission; then appears lo, 
victim of Zeus' love and Hera's jealousy, to whom Prometheus 
prophesies her future wanderings and his own fate; lastly 
Hermes, insolent messenger of the gods, who tries in vain to 
extort Prometheus' secret knowledge of the future. Oceanus, 
the well-meaning palavering old mentor, and Hermes, the 
blustering and futile jack-in-office, gods though they be, are 
vigorous, audacious and very human character-sketches; the 
soft entrance of the consoling nymphs is unspeakably beautiful; 
and the prophecy of lo's wanderings is a striking example of 
that new keen interest in the world outside which was felt by the 
Greeks of the 5th century, as it was felt by the Elizabethan 
English in a very similar epoch of national spirit and enterprise 
two thousand years later. Thus, though dramatic action is by 
the nature of the case impossible for the hero, the visitors provide 
real drama. 

Another important point in the development of tragedy is 
what we may call the " balanced issue." The question in 
Suppliants is the protection of the threatened fugitives; in 
Persae the humiliation of overweening pride. So far the sym- 
pathy of the audience is not doubtful or divided. In the Septem 
there is an approach to conflict of feeling; the banished brother 
has a personal grievance, though guilty of the impious crime of 
attacking his own country. The sympathy must be for the de- 
fender Eteocles; but it is at least somewhat qualified by his 
injustice to his brother. In Prometheus the issue is more nearly 

1 The Eumenides is quoted as a parallel, becau;je there the estab- 
lishment of this worship at Athens concludes t'le whole trilogy; 
but it is forgotten that in Eumenides there is mich besides the 
pursuit of Orestes, the refuge at Athens, the trial, t le acquittal, the 
conciliation by Athena of the Furies; while here thr story would be 
finished before the last play began. 



AESCHYLUS 



275 



balanced. The hero is both a victim and a rebel. He is punished 
for his benefits to man; but though Zeus is tyrannous and un- 
grateful, the hero's reckless defiance is shocking to Greek feeling. 
As the play goes on, this is subtly and delicately indicated by 
the attitude of the chorus. They enter overflowing with pity. 
They are slowly chilled and alienated by the hero's violence 
and impiety; but they nobly decline, at the last crisis, the mean 
advice of Hermes to desert Prometheus and save themselves; 
and in the final crash they share his fate. 

Oresteia. The last and greatest work of Aeschylus is the 
Oresteia, which also has the interest of being the only complete 
trilogy preserved to us. It is a three-act drama of family fate, 
like the Oedipus-trilogy; and the acts are the sin, the revenge, 
the reconciliation, as in the Prometheus-trilogy. Again, as in 
Prometheus, the plot, at first sight, is such that the conditions of 
drama seem to exclude much development in character-drawing. 
The gods are everywhere at the root of the action. The inspired 
prophet, Calchas, has demanded the sacrifice of the king's 
daughter Iphigenia, to appease the offended Artemis. The in- 
spired Cassandra, brought in as a spear-won slave from conquered 
Troy, reveals the murderous past of the Pelopid house, and the 
imminent slaughter of the king by his wife. Apollo orders the 
son, Orestes, to avenge his father by killing the murderess, and 
protects him when after the deed he takes sanctuary at Delphi. 
The Erinnyes (" Furies ") pursue him over land and sea; and at 
last Athena gives him shelter at Athens, summons an Athenian 
council to judge his guilt, and when the court is equally divided 
gives her casting vote for mercy. The last act ends with the 
reconciliation of Athena and the Furies; and the latter receive 
a shrine and worship at Athens, and promise favour and pros- 
perity to the great city. The scope for human drama seems 
deliberately restricted, if not closed, by such a story so handled. 
Nevertheless, as a fact, the growth of characterization is, in 
spite of all, not only visible but remarkable. Clytemnestra is 
one of the most powerfully presented characters of the Greek 
drama. Her manly courage, her vindictive and unshaken pur- 
pose, her hardly hidden contempt for her tool and accomplice, 
Aegisthus, her cold scorn for the feebly vacillating elders, and 
her unflinching acceptance (in the second play) of inevitable 
fate, when she faces at last the avowed avenger, are all portrayed 
with matchless force her very craft being scornfully assumed, 
as needful to her purpose, and contemptuously dropped when 
the purpose is served. And there is one other noticeable point. 
In this trilogy Aeschylus, for the first time, has attempted some 
touches of character in two of the humbler parts, the Watchman 
in Agamemnon, and the Nurse in the Choephoroe. The Watch- 
man opens the play, and the vivid and almost humorous senten- 
tiousness of his language, his dark hints, his pregnant metaphors 
drawn from common speech, at once give a striking touch of 
realism, and form a pointed contrast to the terrible drama that 
impends. A very similar effect is produced at the crisis of the 
Choephoroe by the speech of the Nurse, who coming on a message 
to Aegisthus pours out to the chorus her sorrow at the reported 
death of Orestes and her fond memories of his babyhood with 
the most homely details; and the most striking realistic touch 
is perhaps the broken structure and almost inconsequent utter- 
ance of the old faithful slave's speech. These two are veritable 
figures drawn from contemporary life; and though both appear 
only once, and are quite unimportant in the drama, the innova- 
tion is most significant, and especially as adopted by Aeschylus. 
It remains to say a word on two more points, the religious ideas 
of Aeschylus and some of the main characteristics of his poetry. 
The religious aspect of the drama in one sense was 
prominent from the first, owing to its evolution from 
the choral celebration of the god Dionysus. But the 
new spirit imported by the genius of Aeschylus into the early 
drama was religious in a profounder meaning of the term. The 
sadness of human lot, the power and mysterious dealings of the 
gods, their terrible and inscrutable wrath and jealousy (aya and 
<j>dovos), their certain vengeance upon sinners, all the more fearful 
if delayed, such are the poet's constant themes, delivered 
with strange solemnity and impressiveness in the lyric songs, 



teristics. 



especially in the Oresteia. And at times, particularly in the 
Trilogy, in his reference to the divine power of Zeus, he almost 
approaches a stern and sombre monotheism. " One God above 
all, who directs all, who is the cause of all" (Ag. 163, 1485); 
the watchfulness of this Power over human action (363-367), 
especially over the punishment of their sins; and the mysterious 
law whereby sin always begets new sin (Ag. 758-760): these 
are ideas on which Aeschylus dwells in the Agamemnon with 
peculiar force, in a strain at once lofty and sombre. One specially 
noteworthy point in that play is his explicit repudiation of the 
common Hellenic view that prosperity brings ruin. In other 
places he seems to share the feeling; but here (Ag. 730) he goes 
deeper, and declares that it is not o\/3os but always wickedness 
that brings about men's fall. All through there is a recurring 
note of fear in his view of man's destiny, expressed in vivid 
images the " death that lurks behind the wall " (Ag. 1004), 
the " hidden reef which wrecks the bark, unable to weather 
the headland " (Eum. 561-565). In one remarkable passage of 
the Eumenides (517-525) this fear is extolled as a moral power 
which ought to be enthroned in men's hearts, to deter them 
from impious or violent acts, or from the pride that impels them 
to such sins. 

Of the poetic qualities of Aeschylus' drama and diction, both 
in the lyrics and the dialogue, no adequate account can be 
attempted ; the briefest word must here suffice. He is everywhere 
distinguished by grandeur and power of conception, presentation 
and expression, and most of all in the latest works, the Prome- 
theus and the Trilogy. He is pre-eminent in depicting the slow 
approach of fear, as in the Persae; the imminent horror of 
impending fate, as in the broken cries and visions of Cassandra 
in the Agamemnon (1072-1177), the long lament and prayers to 
the nether powers in the Choephoroe (315-478), and the gradual 
rousing of the slumbering Furies in the Eumenides (117-139). 
The fatal end in these tragedies is foreseen; but the effect is 
due to its measured advance, to the slowly darkening suspense 
which no poet has more powerfully rendered. Again, he is a 
master of contrasts, especially of the Beautiful with the Tragic: 
as when the floating vision of consoling nymphs appears to 
the tortured Prometheus (115-135); or the unmatched lyrics 
which tell (in the Agamemnon, 228-247) of the death of Iphi- 
genia; or the vision of his lost love that the night brings to 
Menelaus (410-426). And not least noticeable is the extra- 
ordinary range, force and imaginativeness of his diction. One 
example of his lyrics may be given which will illustrate more 
than one of these points. It is taken from the long lament in the 
Septem, sung by the chorus and the two sisters, while following 
the funeral procession of the two princes. These laments may at 
times be wearisome to the modern reader, who does not see, and 
imperfectly imagines, the stately and pathetic spectacle; but 
to the ancient feeling they were as solemn and impressive as 
they were ceremonially indispensable. The solemnity is here 
heightened by the following lines sung by one of the chorus of 
Theban women (Sept. 854-860): 

Nay, with the wafting gale of your sighs, my sisters, 

Beat on your heads with your hands the stroke as of oars, 

The stroke that passes ever across Acheron, 

Speeding on its way the black-robed sacred bark, 

The bark Apollo comes not near, 

The bark that is hidden from the sunlight 

To the shore of darkness that welcomes all ! 
AUTHORITIES. The chief authority for the text is a single MS. at 
Florence, of the early nth century, known as the Medicean or M., 
written by a professional scribe and revised by a contemporary 
scholar, who corrected the copyist's mistakes, added the scholia, the 
arguments and the dramatis personae of three plays (Theb., Agam., 
Eum.), and at the end the Life of Aeschylus and the Catalogue of his 
Dramas. The MS. has also been further corrected by later hands. In 
1896 the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction publishd the MS. in 
photographic facsimile, with an instructive preface by Signer 
Rostagno. Besides M. there are some eight later MSS. (i3th to I5th 
century), and numerous copies of the three select plays (Sept., Pers., 
Prom.) which were most read in the later Byzantine period, when 
Greek literature was reduced to gradually diminishing excerpts. 
These later MSS. are of little value or authority. 

The editions, from the beginning of the I5th century to the present 
time, are very numerous, and the text has been further continuously 



276 



AESCULAPIUS AESOP 



improved by isolated suggestions from a host of scholars. The three 
first printed copies (Aldine, 1518; Turnebus and Robortello, 1552 
give only those parts of Agamemnon found in M., from which MS 
some leaves were lost; in 1557 the full text was restored by Vettor 
(Victorius) from later MSS. After these four, the chief editions o 
the seven plays were those of Schiitz, Person, Butler, Wellauer, Din 
dorf, Bothe, Ahrens, Paley, Hermann, Hartung, Weil, Merkel, Kirch 
hoff and Wecklein. Besides these, over a hundred scholars have 
thrown light on the corruptions or obscurities of the text, by editions 
of separate plays, by emendations, by special studies of the poet's 
work, or in other ways. Among recent writers who have made such 
contributions may be mentioned Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Enger 
Conington, Blaydes, Cobet, Meineke, Madvig, Ellis, W. Headlam 
Davies, Tucker, Verrall and Haigh. The Fragments have been 
edited by Nauck and also by Wecklein. The Aeschylean staging is 
discussed in Albert Muller's Lehrbuch der griechischen Buhnenalter- 
thiimer ; in " Die Biihne des Aeschylos," by Wilamowitz (Hermes, xxi.) 
in Smith's Diet, of Antiquities, art. " Theatrum " (R. C. Jebb); in 
Dorpfeld and Reisch (Das griechische Theater), Haigh's Attic Theatre 
and Gardner and Jevons' Manual of Greek Antiquities. English 
Verse Translations: Agamemnon, Milman and R. Browning 
Oresteia, Suppliants, Persae, Seven against Thebes, Prometheus Vinc- 
tus, by E. D. A. Morshead; Prometheus, E. B. Browning; the 
whole seven plays, Lewis Campbell. (A. Si.) 

AESCULAPIUS (Gr. ' A.aK\rnrios) , the legendary Greek god 
of medicine, the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. Tricca 
in Thessaly and Epidaurus in Argolis disputed the honour of his 
birthplace, but an oracle declared in favour of Epidaurus. He 
was educated by the centaur Cheiron, who taught him the art of 
healing and hunting. His skill in curing disease and restoring 
the dead to life aroused the anger of Zeus, who, being afraid that 
he might render all men immortal, slew him with a thunder- 
bolt (Apollodorus iii. 10; Pindar, Phthia, 3; Diod. Sic. iv. 71). 
Homer mentions him as a skilful physician, whose sons, Machaon 
and Podalirius, are the physicians in the Greek camp before Troy 
(Iliad, ii. 731). Temples were erected to Aesculapius in many 
parts of Greece, near healing springs or on high mountains. 
The practice of sleeping (incubatio) in these sanctuaries was very 
common, it being supposed that the god effected cures or pre- 
scribed remedies to the sick in dreams. All who were healed 
offered sacrifice especially a cock and hung up votive tablets, 
on which were recorded their names, their diseases and the 
manner in which they had been cured. Many of these votive 
tablets have been discovered in the course of excavations at 
Epidaurus. Here was the god's most famous shrine, and games 
were celebrated in his honour every five years, accompanied by 
solemn processions. Herodas (Mimes, 4) gives a description 
of one of his temples, and of the offerings made to him. His 
worship was introduced into Rome by order of the Sibylline books 
(293 B.C.), to avert a pestilence. The god was fetched from 
Epidaurus in the form of a snake and a temple assigned him on 
the island in the Tiber (Livy x. 47; Ovid, Melam. xv. 622). 
Aesculapius was a favourite subject of ancient artists. He is 
commonly represented standing, dressed in a long cloak, with 
bare breast; his usual attribute is a club-like staff with a serpent 
(the symbol of renovation) coiled round it. He is often accom- 
panied by Telesphorus, the boy genius of healing, and his 
daughter Hygieia, the goddess of health. Votive reliefs repre- 
senting such groups have been found near the temple of Aescu- 
lapius at Athens. The British Museum possesses a beautiful 
head of Aesculapius (or possibly Zeus) from Mclos, and the 
Louvre a magnificent statue. 

AUTHORITIES. L. Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); Jane E. 
Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903) ; R. Caton, 
Temples and Ritual of A. at Epidaurus and Athens (1900) ; articles in 
Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyclopddie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho- 
logie; T. Panofka, Asklepios und die Asklepiaden (1846); Alice 
Walton, " The Cult of Asklepios," in Cornell Studies in Classical 
Philology, iii. (New York, 1894); W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive 
Offerings (1902). 

AESERNIA (mod. Isernia), a Samnite town on the road from 
Beneventum to Corfinium, 58 m. to the north-east of the former, 
at the junction of a road going past Venafrum to the Via Latina. 
These routes are all followed by modern railways the lines to 
Campobasso, Sulmona and Caianello. A Roman colony was 
established there in 263 B.C. It became the headquarters of the 
Italian revolt after the loss of Corfinium, and was only recovered 
by Sulla at the end of the war, in 80 B.C. Remains of its fortifica- 



tions are still preserved massive cyclopean walls, which serve 
as foundation to the walls of the modern town and of a Roman 
bridge, and the subterranean channel of an aqueduct, cut in 
the rock, and dating from Roman times. 

AESOP (Gr. AIO-COTTOS), famous for his Fables, is supposed to 
have lived from about 620 to 560 B.C. The place of his birth is 
uncertain Thrace, Phrygia, Aethiopia, Samos, Athens and Sardis 
all claiming the honour. We possess little trustworthy informa- 
tion concerning his life, except that he was the slave of ladmon 
of Samos and met with a violent death at the hands of the in- 
habitants of Delphi. A pestilence that ensued being attributed 
to this crime, the Delphians declared their willingness to make 
compensation, which, in default of a nearer connexion, was 
claimed and received by ladmon, the grandson of his old master. 
Herodotus, who is our authority for this (ii. 134), does not state 
the cause of his death; various reasons are assigned by later 
writers his insulting sarcasms, the embezzlement of money 
entrusted to him by Croesus for distribution at Delphi, the theft 
of a silver cup. 

Aesop must have received his freedom from ladmon, or he 
could not have conducted the public defence of a certain Samian 
demagogue (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to the story, 
he subsequently lived at the court of Croesus, where he met 
Solon, and dined in the company of the Seven Sages of Greece 
with Periander at Corinth. During the reign of Peisistratus he 
is said to have visited Athens, on which occasion he related the 
fable of The Frogs asking for a King, to dissuade the citizens 
from attempting to exchange Peisistratus for another ruler. 
The popular stories current regarding him are derived from a 
life, or rather romance, prefixed to a book of fables, purporting 
to be his, collected by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the I4th 
century. In this he is described as a monster of ugliness and 
deformity, as he is also represented in a well-known marble 
figure in the Villa Albani at Rome. That this life, however, 
was in existence a century before Planudes, appears from a 
13th-century MS. of it found at Florence. In Plutarch's Sym- 
posium of the Seven Sages, at which Aesop is a guest, there are 
many jests on his original servile condition, but nothing deroga- 
tory is said about his personal appearance. We are further 
told that the Athenians erected in his honour a noble statue by 
the famous sculptor Lysippus, which furnishes a strong argument 
against the fiction of his deformity. Lastly, the obscurity in 
which the history of Aesop is involved has induced some scholars 
to deny his existence altogether. 

It is probable that Aesop did not commit his fables to writing; 
Aristophanes (Wasps, 1259) represents Philocleon as having 
.earnt the " absurdities " of Aesop from conversation at banquets, 
and Socrates whiles away his time in prison by turning some of 
Aesop's fables " which he knew " into verse (Plato, Phaedo, 
61 b). Demetrius of Phalerum (345-283 B.C.) made a collection 
n ten books, probably in prose (Aoycav Ai<7co7retcoc o-uvaywyai) 
:or the use of orators, which has been lost. Next appeared an 
edition in elegiac verse, often cited by Suidas, but the author's 
name is unknown. Babrius, according to Crusius, a Roman and 
tutor to the son of Alexander Severus, turned the fables into 
choliambics in the earlier part of the 3rd century A.D. The 
most celebrated of the Latin adapters is Phaedrus, a f reedman of 
Augustus. Avianus (of uncertain date, perhaps the 4th century) 
translated 42 of the fables into Latin elegiacs. The collections 
which we possess under the name of Aesop's Fables are late 
renderings of Babrius's version or Tlpoyvfivaffnara, rhetorical 
exercises of varying age and merit. Syntipas translated Babrius 
nto Syriac, and Andreopulos put the Syriac back again into 
jreek. Ignatius Diaconus, in the 9th century, made a version of 
53 fables in choliambic tetrameters. Stories from Oriental sources 
were added, and from these collections Maximus Planudes 
made and edited the collection which has come down to us under 
he name of Aesop, and from which the popular fables of modern 
Europe have been derived. 

For further information see the article FABLE; Bentley, Dissert- 
ition on the Fables of Aesop; Du Meril, Poesies inedites du moyen 
tge (1854) ; J- Jacobs, The Fables of Aesop (1889) : i. The history of 



AESOPUS AESTHETICS 



277 



the Aesopic fable; ii. The Fables of Aesop, as first printed by 
William Caxton, 1484, from his French translation; Hervieux, Les 
Fabulistes Latins (1893-1899). 

Before any Greek text appeared, a Latin translation of too 
Fabulae Aesopicae by an Italian scholar named Ranuzio (Renutius) 
was published at Rome, 1476. About 1480 the collection of 
Planudes was brought out at Milan by Buono Accorso (Accursius), 
together with Ranuzio's translation. This edition, which contained 
144 fables, was frequently reprinted and additions made from time 
to time from various MSS. the Heidelberg (Palatine), Florentine, 
Vatican ..and Augsburg by Stephanus (1547), Nevelet (1610), 
Hudson (1718), Hauptmann (1741), Furia (1810), Coray (1810), 
Schneider (1812) and others. A critical edition of all the previously 
known fables, prepared by Carl von Halm from the collections of 
Furia, Coray and Schneider, was published in the Teubner series of 
Greek and Latin texts. A Fabularum Aesopicarum sylloge (233 in 
number) from a Paris MS., with critical notes by Sternbach, appeared 
in a Cracow University publication, Rozprawy akademii umiejet- 
nosci (1894). 

AESOPUS, a Greek historian who wrote a history of Alexander 
the Great, a Latin translation of which, by Julius Valerius, was 
discovered by Mai in 1816. 

AESOPUS, CLODIUS, the most eminent Roman tragedian, 
flourished during the time of Cicero, but the dates of his birth 
and death are not known. The name seems to show that he was 
a freedman of some member of the Clodian gens. Cicero was on 
friendly terms with both him and Roscius, the equally distin- 
guished comedian, and did not disdain to profit by their instruc- 
tion. Plutarch (Cicero, 5) mentions it as reported of Aesopus, 
that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he should 
revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself so far in 
the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and killed 
one of the servants crossing the stage. Aesopus made a last 
appearance in 55 B.C. when Cicero tells us that he was advanced 
in years on the occasion of the splendid games given by Pompey 
at the dedication of his theatre. In spite of his somewhat ex- 
travagant living, he left an ample fortune to his spendthrift son, 
who did his best to squander it as soon as possible. Horace 
(Sat. iii. 3. 239) mentions his taking a pearl from the ear-drop of 
Caecilia Metella and dissolving it in vinegar, that he might have 
the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand pounds' worth at a 
draught. 

Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 37; pro Sestio, 56, 58; Quint., Instil. 
xi. 3, in ; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 14. 

AESTHETICS, a branch of study variously defined as the 

philosophy or science of the beautiful, of taste or of the fine arts. 

The name is something of an accident. In its original 

Pre "?'j?', Greek form (aiotfTjrais) it means what has to do with 

ary defini- 
tion, sense-perception as a source of knowledge; and this 

is still its meaning in Kant's philosophy (" Transcen- 
dental Aesthetic"). Its limitation to that function of sensuous 
perception which we know as the contemplative enjoyment of 
beauty is due to A. G. Baumgarten. Although the subject does 
not readily lend itself to precise definition at the outset, we may 
indicate its scope and aim, as understood by recent writers, by 
saying that it deals successively with one great department of 
human experience, viz. the pleasurable activities of pure con- 
templation. By pure contemplation is here understood that 
manner of regarding objects of sense-perception, and more 
particularly sights and sounds, which is entirely motived by the 
pleasure of the act itself. The term " object " means whatever 
can be perceived through one of the senses, e.g. a flower, a land- 
scape, the flight of a bird, a sequence of tones. The contemplation 
may be immediate when (as mostly happens) the object is present 
to sense; or it may be mediate, when as in reading poetry we 
dwell on images of objects of sense. Whenever we become 
interested in an object merely as presented for our contemplation 
our whole state of mind may be described as an aesthetic atti- 
tude, and our experience as an aesthetic experience. Other 
expressions such as the pleasure of taste, the enjoyment and 
appreciation of beauty (in the larger sense of this term), will 
serve less precisely to mark off this department of experience. 

Aesthetic experience is differentiated from other kinds of 
experience by a number of characteristics. We commonly speak 
of it as enjoyment, as an exercise and cultivation of feeling. 
The appreciation of beauty is pervaded and sustained by pleas- 



urable feeling. In aesthetic enjoyment our capacities of feel- 
ing attain their fullest and most perfect development. Yet, as 
its dependence on a quiet attitude of contemplation 
might tell us, aesthetic experience is characterized by Oittena- 
a certain degree of calmness and moderation of feeling, aesthetic 
Even when we are moved by a tragedy our feeling is export- 
comparatively restrained. A rare exhibition of beauty ence - 
may thrill the soul for a moment, yet in general the "rterfsJfcs 
enjoyment of it is far removed from the excitement as feeling. 
of passion. On the other hand, aesthetic pleasure 
is pure enjoyment. Even when a disagreeable element is 
present, as in a musical dissonance or in the suffering of 
a tragic hero, it contributes to a higher measure of enjoy- 
ment. It is, moreover, free from the painful elements of 
craving, fatigue, conflict, anxiety and disappointment, which 
are apt to accompany other kinds of enjoyment; such as 
the satisfaction of the appetites and other needs. To this 
purity of aesthetic pleasure must be added its refinement, 
which implies not merely a certain remoteness from the bodily 
needs, but the effect of a union of sense and mind in giving 
amplitude as well as delicacy to our enjoyment of beauty. As 
the region of most pure and refined feeling, aesthetic Marked 
experience is clearly marked off from practical life, with off from 
its urgent desires and the rest. In aesthetic contempla- practical 
tion desire and will as a whole are almost dormant, activity, 
This detachment from the daily life of practical needs and aims 
is brought out in Kant's postulate that aesthetic enjoyment 
must be disinterested ("ohne Interesse"), that when we regard 
an object aesthetically we are not in the least concerned with 
its practical significance and value: one cannot, for example, 
at the same moment aesthetically enjoy looking at a a/ so ^a, 
painting and desire to be its possessor. In like manner, Intel- 
even if less apparently, aesthetic contemplation is factual 
marked off from the arduous mental work which enters actlvU y- 
into the pursuit of knowledge. In contemplating an aesthetic 
object we are mentally occupied with the concrete, whereas all 
the more serious intellectual work of science involves the diffi- 
culties of the abstract. The contemplation is, moreover, free from 
those restraints which are imposed on our mental activity by 
the desire to obtain knowledge. 

While as the highest phase of feeling aesthetic experience 
appears to belong to our subjective life, the hidden region of the 
soul, it is connected just as clearly, through the act u n ifonn- 
of sense-perception, with the world of objects which is ity of 
our common possession. Being thus dependent on a con- aesthetic 
templation of things in this common world it raises the />* 
question whether, like the perception of these objects, 
it is a uniform experience, the same for others as for myself. We 
touch here on the last characteristic of aesthetic experience which 
needs to be noted at this stage, its uniformity or subjection to 
law. It is a common idea that men's judgments about matters 
of taste disagree to so large an extent that each individual is 
left very much to his subjective impressions. With regard to 
many of the subtler matters of aesthetic appreciation, at any 
rate, there is undoubtedly on a first view the appearance of a 
want of agreement. Contrasted with logical judgments 
or even with ethical ones, aesthetic judgments may no ae / <Aetfc 
doubt look uncertain and " subjective." The proposi- judgment. 
tion " this tree is a birch " seems to lend itself much 
better to critical discussion and to general acceptance or rejection 
than the proposition " this tree is beautiful." This circumstance, 
as Kant shrewdly suggests, helps to explain why we have come 
to employ the word " taste " in dealing with aesthetic matters; 
for the pronouncements of the sense of taste are recognized 
as among the most uncertain and " subjective " of our sense- 
impressions. Yet viewed as a species of pleasurable feelings, 
aesthetic experiences will be found to exhibit a large amount of 
uniformity, of objective agreement as between different experi- 
ences of the same person and experiences of different persons. 
This general agreement appears to be clearly implied in the 
ordinary form of our aesthetic judgments. To say " this rose is 
beautiful " means more than to say " the sight of this rose affects 



278 



AESTHETICS 



Logical 
judgment 
and Judg* 
meat of 
value. 



me agreeably." It means that the rose has a general power of 
so affecting me (at different times) and others as well. 
The judgment is not the same as a logical one. It 
does not say or imply that as a matter of fact it always 
does please even if we add the limitation, those who 
possess the sensibilities and the taste presupposed; 
for, as we know, our varying mood and state of receptivity make 
a profound difference in the fulness of the aesthetic enjoyment. 
It is a " judgment of value " which claims for the rose aesthetic 
rank as an object properly qualified to please contemplative 
subjects. This value, it is plain, is relative to conscious subjects; 
yet since it is relative to all competent ones, it may be regarded 
as " objective " that is to say, as belonging to the object. 1 

This slight preliminary inspection of the subject will prepare 
one for the circumstance that the scientific treatment of it has 
Late de- begun late, and is even now far from being complete. 
veiopment This slowness of development is in part explained 
of the by the detachment of aesthetic experience from the 
urgent needs of life. In a comparatively early stage 
of human progress some thought had to be bestowed on such 
pressing problems as to how to cope with the forces of nature 
and to turn them to useful account; how to secure in human 
communities obedience to custom and law. But the problem of 
throwing light on our aesthetic pleasures had no such urgency. 2 
To this it must be added that aesthetic experience (in all but its 
simpler and cruder forms) has been, and still is confined to a 
small number of persons; so that the subject does not appeal 
to a wide popular interest; while, on the other hand, the sub- 
jects of this experience not infrequently have a strong senti- 
mental dislike to the idea of introducing into the region of refined 
feeling the cold light of scientific investig ition. Lastly, there are 
special difficulties inherent in the subject. One serious obstacle 
to a scientific theory of aesthetic experience is the illusive 
character of many of its finer elements for example, the subtle 
differences of feeling-tone produced by the several colours as 
well as by their several tones and shades, by the several musical 
intervals, and so forth. Finally, there is the circumstance just 
touched on that much of this region of experience, instead of 
at once disclosing uniformity, seems to be rather the abode of 
caprice and uncertainty. The variations in taste at different 
levels of culture, among different races and nations and among 
the individual members of the same community are numerous 
and striking, and might at first seem to bar the way to a scien- 
tific treatment of the subject. These considerations suggest 
that an adequate theory of aesthetic experience could only be 
attempted after the requisite scientific skill had been developed 
in other and more pressing departments of inquiry. 

If we glance at the modes of treating the subject up to a quite 

recent date we find but little of serious effort to apply to it a 

strictly scientific method of investigation. The whole 

Inadequate , 

theories of extent of concrete experience has not been adequately 
subject. recognized, still less adequately examined. For the 
greater part thinkers have been in haste to reach some 
simple formula of beauty which might seem to cover the more 
obvious facts. This has commonly been derived deductively 
from some more comprehensive idea of experience or human 
life as a whole. Thus in German treatises on aesthetics which 
have been largely thought out under the influence of philosophic 
idealism the beautiful is subsumed under the idea, of which it is 
regarded as one special manifestation, and its place in human 
experience has been determined by defining its logical relations 
to the other great co-ordinate concepts, the good and the true. 
These attempts to reach a general conception of beauty have 
often led to one-sidedness of view. And this one-sidedness has 
sometimes characterized the theories of those who, like Alison, 
have made a wider survey of aesthetic facts. 

Aesthetics, like Ethics, is a Normative Science, that is to say, 

1 See below for Kant's view of the aesthetic judgment, as having 
subjective universal validity. On the meaning of judgments of 
value see J. Cohn, Allgem. Asthetik, Einleitung, pp. 7 ff., and Teil i., 
Kap. 2 and 3. 

2 Cf. Ladd, Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 330, 331. 



concerned with determining the nature of a species of the desir- 
able or the good (in the large sense). It seeks one or Aesthetic* 
more regulative principles which may help us to asnor- 
distinguish a real from an apparent aesthetic value, "">tive 
and to set the higher and more perfect illustrations of * 
beauty above the lower and less perfect. As a science it will 
seek to realize its normative function by the aid of a patient, 
methodical investigation of facts, and by processes of observa- 
tion, analysis and induction similar to those carried out in the 
natural sciences. In speaking of aesthetics as a nor- Aesthetics 
ma live science we do not mean that it is a practical not a 
one in the sense that it supplies practical rules which practical 
may serve as definite guidance for the artist and the sceace - 
lover of beauty, in their particular problems of selecting and 
arranging elements of aesthetic value. It is no more a practical 
science than logic. The supposition that it is so is probably 
favoured by the idea that aesthetic theory has art for its special 
subject. But this is to confuse a general aesthetic theory 
what the Germans call " General Aesthetics " with a theory of 
art (Kunstwissenschaft). The former, with which we are here 
concerned, has to examine aesthetic experience as a whole; 
which, as we shall presently see, includes more than the enjoy- 
ment and appreciation of art. 

We may now indicate with more fulness the main problems 
of our science, seeking to give them as precise a form as possible. 
At the outset we are confronted with an old and 
almost baffling question: " Is beauty a single quality f tD g 
inherent in objects of perception like form or colour?" science, 
Common language certainly suggests that it is. 
Aesthetics, too, began its inquiry at the same point of view, and 
its history shows how much pains men have taken in i s beauty 
trying to determine the nature of this attribute, as well a single 
as that of the faculty of the soul by which it is per- <ii"iity in 
ceived. Yet a little examination of the facts suffices to ob l ectaf 
show that the theory is beset with serious difficulties. Whatever 
beauty may be it is certainly not a quality of an object in the 
same way in which the colour or the form of it is a Beauty 
quality. These are physical qualities, known to us by not a' 
specific modifications of our sensations. The beauty physical 
of a rose or of a peach is clearly not a physical quality. i uallt y- 
Nor do we in attributing beauty to some particular quality in 
an object, say colour, conceive of it as a phase of this quality, 
like depth or brilliance of colour, which, again, is known by a 
special modification of the sensations of colour. Hence we 
must say that beauty, though undoubtedly referred to a physical 
object, is extraneous to the group of qualities which makes it a 
physical object. 

Beauty is frequently attributed to a concrete object as 
a whole to a flower or shell, for example, as a visible whole. 
Our everyday aesthetic judgments are wont to leave 
the attributes thus vaguely referred to the concrete attributed 
object. Yet it is equally certain that we not infre- todit* 
quently speak of the beauty of some definable aspect fereat 
or quality of an object, as when we pronounce the Jaobjects. 
contour of a mountain or of a vase to be beautiful. 
And it may be asked whether, in thus localizing beauty, so to 
speak, in one of the constituent qualities of an object, we always 
place it in the same quality. A mere glance at the facts will 
suffice to convince us that we do not. We call the facade of a 
Greek temple beautiful with special reference to its admirable 
form; whereas in predicating beauty of the ruin of a Norman 
castle we refer rather to what the ruin means to the effect of 
an imagination of its past proud strength and slow vanquishment 
by the unrelenting strokes of time. This fact that beauty ap- 
pertains now more to one quality, now more to another, helps 
us to understand why certain theorists, known as formalists, 
regard all beauty as formal or residing in form, whereas Formalists 
others, the idealists or expressionalists, view it as and ex- 
residing in ideal content or expression. These theories, pression- 
however, like other attempts to find an adequate * 
single principle of beauty, are unsatisfactory. Form and ideal 
content are each a great source of aesthetic enjoyment, and 



AESTHETICS 



279 



either can be found in a degree of supremacy which practically 
renders the co-operation of the other unimportant. The two 
buildings cited above, two human faces, two musical composi- 
tions, may exhibit in an impressive and engrossing way the 
beauty of form and of expression respectively. Nor is this all. 
Three Beauty refuses to be confined even to these two. 
ultimate There are the various beauties of colour, for example, 
modes of as exhibited in such familiar phenomena of nature as 
sea and sky, autumn moors and woods. A slight 
analysis of the constituents of objects to which we attribute 
beauty shows that there are at least three distinct modes of 
this attribute, namely (i) sensuous beauty, (2) beauty of form 
and (3) beauty of meaning or expression, nor do these appear to 
be reducible to any higher or more comprehensive principle. 
It requires a certain boldness to attempt to effect a rapproche- 
ment between the formal and the expressional factor. 1 An 
apparent unification of the three seems at present only possible 
by substituting for beauty another concept at least equally 
vague, such as perfection ? which seems to imply the idea of 
purposiveness, and to apply clearly only to certain domains of 
beauty, e.g. organic form. 

We may now take another step and say that beauty appears 
to be a quality in objects which is not sharply differentiated 
Beauty from other and allied qualities. If we look at the 
and allied usages of speech we shall find that beauty has its 
concep- kindred conceptions, such as gracefulness, prettiness 
and others. Writers on aesthetics have spent much 
time on these " Modifications of the Beautiful." The point 
emphasized here is the difficulty of drawing the line between 
them. Even an expert may hesitate long before saying 
whether a human face, a flower or a cameo should be called 
beautiful or pretty. Must we postulate as many allied quali- 
ties as there are names for these pleasing aspects of objects? 
Or must we do violence to usage and so stretch the word 
" Beauty " as to make it cover all qualities or aspects of 
objects which have aesthetic value, including those " modifica- 
ions of the beautiful " which we know as the sublime, the 
comic and the rest? But the wider we try in this way to 
make the denotation of the term the vaguer grows the 
connotation. We are thus left equally incapable of saying 
what the quality is, and in which aspect or attribute of the object 
it inheres. 3 

It seems to follow that in constructing a scientific theory we 
do well to dispense with the assumption of an objective quality 
of beauty. Aesthetics will return to Kant and con- 
fine itself to the examination of objects called beauti- 
ful in their relation to, and in their manner of affecting 
our minds. 4 The aesthetic value of such an object 
will be viewed as consisting in the possession of certain 
assignable characteristics by means of which it is fitted 
to affect us in a certain desirable way, to draw us into 
the enjoyable mood of aesthetic contemplation. These charac- 
teristics may conveniently be called aesthetic qualities. 5 Objects 
which are found to possess one or more of these 
qualities in the required degree of fulness claim a 
certain aesthetic value, even though they fall short 
of being " beautiful," in the more exacting use of this word. 
They are in the direction " im Sinne," as Fechner says of 
beauty, conceived as something fuller and richer, answering 
to a higher standard of aesthetic enjoyment and a severer 
demand on our part. The word " beauty " may still be used 
occasionally, where no ambiguity arises, as a convenient 

1 For example, that hinted at by Bosanquet in his definition of 
the beautiful, History of Aesthetic, p. 5. 

1 Beauty is defined as Perfection by P. Souriau, La Beaute 
rationnelle, 2"" partie. 

3 K. Groos argues well against this violent stretching of the word 
beautiful, Einleitung in die Asthetik, pp. 46 seq. 

4 Kant, in developing his idea of beauty as subjective, was prob- 
ably influenced by Hume, who wrote: " Beauty is no quality in things 
themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contemplates 
them " (Essays, xxii.). 

6 On the nature of these qualities see S. Witasek, Grundziige der 
allgem. Asthetik, p. n. 



Assump- 
tion of 
objective 
quality of 
beauty 
dispensed 
with. 



expression for aesthetic value in all its degrees. Yet it is 
better to keep the term applicable to the objects commonly 
denoted by it by making it represent the fuller aesthetic satis- 
factions which flow from a rare and commanding exhibition of 
one or more of these qualities, from what may be described as 
an appreciable excellence of aesthetic quality. 

By thus dispensing with the concept of beauty as some occult 
undefinable quality, we get rid of much of the contradiction 
which appears to inhere in our aesthetic experience. For ex- 
ample, a bit of brilliant colour in a bonnet which pleases the 
wearer but offends her superior in aesthetic matters takes its 
place as something which per se has a certain degree of aesthetic 
value even though the particular relations into which it has 
now thrust itself, palpable to the trained eye, may practically 
rob it of its value. In thus substituting the relative idea of 
aesthetic value for the absolute idea of beauty we may no doubt 
seem to be destroying the reality of the object of aesthetic 
perception. This point may more conveniently be taken 
up later when we consider the whole question of aesthetic 
illusion. 

This new way of envisaging aesthetic objects requires us to 
make the study of their effect a prominent part of our investiga- 
tion. In all the valuable recent work on the subject, 
attention has been largely concentrated on this effect. ^^' c ' 
More particularly we have to investigate and illumine effect. 
scientifically the pleasurable side of the experience. In 
doing this we shall make use of all the light we can obtain from a 
study of known laws of pleasure. Thus we shall avail ourselves 
not only of the theory of the pleasure-tones of sensation Aesthetics 
but of that of the conditions of an agreeable exercise of and 
the attention upon objects, more particularly of the lanrsof 
characteristics of objects which adequately stimulate p e ' 
the attention without confusing or burdening it. Yet this does 
not require that we should treat the aesthetic problem as a part 
of the more general science of pleasure, as has been p^/en,,,/ 
attempted by some, e.g. Grant Allen (Physiological aesthetic 
Aesthetics) and Rutgers Marshall (Pain, Pleasure and enjoyment 
Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles). To do so would a s P eclal 
be to run the risk of considering only the more general 
aspects and conditions of aesthetic enjoyment, whereas what we 
need is a theory of it as a specific kind of pleasurable experience. 
What is required at the present stage of development of the 
science is a deeper investigation of the aesthetic attitude of mind 
as a whole, of what we may call the aesthetic psychosis. We 
need to probe the act of contemplation itself, the mode of activity 
of attention involved in this calm, half-dreamlike gazing T/je ulm 
'on the mere look of things unconcerned with their tude of 
ordinary and weightier imports. We need further to aesthetic 
determine the effect of this contemplative attitude 
upon the several mental processes involved, the act of 
perception itself, with its grasp of manifold relations, the flow 
of ideas, the partial resurgence and transformation of emotion. 
In examining^these effects we must keep in view the double 
side of the contemplative attitude, the wide range of free 
movement which perception and imagination claim and enjoy, 
and the willing subjection of the contemplative mind to the 
spell of the object. A deeper inspection of the con- 
templative mood may be expected to render clearer l . ate ! lec '. 
* . . tualand 

the difference between the mental activity employed aesthetic 

in aesthetic perception and imagination and intellectual activity 
activity proper; between, say-, the differencing of allied ^,^ her 
tints involved in the finer aesthetic enjoyment of tiated. 
colour and the sharper, clearer discrimination of tints 
required in scientific observation, and between such a grasp of 
relations as is required for a just appreciation of beautiful 
form and that severe analysis and measurement of formal 
elements and their relations which is insisted upon by science. 
As a result of a finer distinction here we may probably be in 
a better position to determine the point touched on more than 
once in recent works on aesthetics how far intellectual pleasure 
proper, e.g. that of recognizing and classifying objects, enters 
as a subordinate element into aesthetic enjoyment. 



280 



AESTHETICS 



One point in the characterization of aesthetic experience has 
been reserved, namely, the question whether it is essentially a 
is aes- form of social enjoyment. No one doubts that a man 
thetic often enjoys beauty, e.g. that of a landscape, when 
enjoyment alone; yet at such a moment he not only recognizes 
esse i "j l " ny that his pleasure is a possible one for others, but is 

probably aware of a sub-conscious wish that others 
were present to share his enjoyment. Kant went so far as 
to say that on a desert island a man would adorn neither 
his hut nor his person. However this be, it seems certain that 
as a rule we tend to indulge our aesthetic tastes in company 
with others. This habit of making aesthetic enjoyment a social 
experience would in itself tend to develop the sympathies and 
the sympathetic intelligence and thus to promote exchanges of 
aesthetic experience. The content, too, of our aesthetic ex- 
periences would be favourable to such conjoint acts of aesthetic 
contemplation, and to the mutual sharing of aesthetic experi- 
ences; for, as disinterested and universal modes of enjoyment 
detached from personal interests, they are clearly free from 
the egoistic exclusiveness which characterizes our private enjoy- 
ments which at best can only be participated in by one or two 
closely attached friends. Our aesthetic enjoyments are thus 
eminently fitted to be social ones; and as such they become 
greatly amplified by sympathetic resonance. 

We are now in a position to consider a point much discussed 
of late, namely, the special connexion of aesthetic enjoyment 

with the two senses, sight and hearing. Two questions 
The arise here: (i) Do the other and " lower " senses take 

senses. anv P ar ^ m aesthetic experience? (2) What are the 

characteristics which give the predominance to the 
two " higher " ones ? With regard to the first it is coming to be 
recognized that aesthetic pleasure is not strictly confined to the 
two senses in question. Common language suggests that we 
find in certain odours and even in certain flavours a value 
analogous to that implied in calling an object beautiful. Hegel 

excluded the other senses even touch on the ground 
Aesthetic tllat aes thetics had to do only with art, in which 

claims of . .,.1,1 

touch. there was no place for perceptions of touch. A closer 
examination has shown that this important sense 
plays a considerable part in art-effects. And even if this were 
not so, Hegel's exclusion of touch from the rank of aesthetic 
senses would be a striking illustration of the narrowing effect on 
scientific theory of the identification of aesthetic objects with 
productions of art. To say that the experience of exploring 
with the fingers a velvety petal or the smooth surface of a sea- 
rounded pebble has no aesthetic element savours of a perverse 
arbitrariness. Touch is no doubt wanting in a prerogative of 
hearing and sight which we shall presently see to be important, 
namely, that being acted on by objects at a distance they admit 
of a simultaneous perception by a number of persons as indeed 
even the sense of smell does in a measure. This is-- probably 
the chief reason why, according to certain testimony," the blind 
receive but little aesthetic enjoyment from tacti^l experience. 1 
Yet this drawback is compensated to some extent by the fact 
that agreeable tactual experience may be taken up as suggested 
meaning into our visual perceptions. 

The two privileged senses, sight and hearing, owe their superi- 
ority to a number of considerations. They are the farthest 
Preroga- removed from the necessary life functions, with the 
tivea of pressing needs and disturbing cravings which belong to 
sight and these. Even touch, though important as a source of 

nesrinv. iiii**.<>. 

knowledge, has for its primary function to examine 
the things which approach our organisms in their relation 
to this as injurious or harmless. The two higher senses 
present to us material objects in their least aggressive and 
menacing manner: visible forms and colours, tones and their 
combinations, appear when compared with objects felt to be in 
contact with our body, to be rather semblances or distant signs 
of material realities than these realities themselves; and this 
circumstance fits these senses to be in a special way the organs 
of aesthetic perception with its calm, dreamlike detachment 
1 See J. Cohn, Allgem. Aslhetik, p. 95. 



and its enjoyable freedom of movement. They are, moreover, 
the two senses by the use of which a number of persons may 
join most perfectly in a common act of aesthetic contemplation. 
This distinction strengthens their claims to be in a special 
manner the aesthetic senses, and this for a double reason, (i) 
It makes them sense-avenues by which each of us obtains the 
most immediate and most impressive conviction that aesthetic 
experience is a common possession of the many, and is largely 
similar in the case of different individuals. (2) It marks them 
off as the senses by the exercise of which perceptual enjoyment 
may most readily and certainly be increased through the resonant 
effects of sympathy. The experiences of the theatre and of the 
concert-hall sufficiently illustrate these distinguishing functions 
of the two senses. Other distinguishing prerogatives of sight 
and hearing flow from the characteristics of their sensations 
and perceptions, a point to be touched on later. 2 

Our determination of the characteristics of the aesthetic 
attitude has now been carried far enough to enable us to consider 
another point much discussed in recent aesthetic 
literature, viz. the relation of this attitude to that of 
Play. The affinities of the two are striking and are and play. 
disclosed in everyday language, as when we speak of (a) Point* 
the " play " of imagination or of " playing " on a o/atanity 
musical instrument. Both play and aesthetic con- them. 
templation are activities which are controlled by no 
extraneous end, which run on freely directed only by the 
intrinsic delight of the activity. Hence they both contrast 
with the serious work imposed on us and controlled by what we 
mark off as the necessities of life, such as providing for bodily 
wants, or rearing a family. They each add a sort of luxurious 
fringe to life. In aesthetic enjoyment our senses, our intelligence 
and our emotions are alike released from the constraint of these 
necessary ends, and may be said to refresh themselves in a kind 
of play. Finally, they are both characterized by a strong infusion 
of make-believe, a disposition to substitute productions of the 
imagination for everyday realities. In this respect, again, they 
form a contrast to that serious concern with fact and practical 
truth which the necessary aims of life impose on us. Little 
wonder, then, that Plato recognized in the contrast between the 
representative and the useful arts an analogy between play and 
earnest, 3 and that since the time of Schiller so much use has been 
made of the analogy in aesthetic works. Yet though 
similar, the two kinds of activity are distinguishable in 
important respects. For one thing, aesthetic contem- eace . 
plation pure and simple is a comparatively tranquil 
and .passive attitude, whereas play means doing something and 
commonly involves some amount of strenuous exertion, either 
of body or of mind. A closer analogy might be drawn between 
play and artistic production. Yet even when the parallel is thus 
narrowed, pretty obvious differences disclose themselves. It 
is only in their more primitive phases that the two attitudes 
exhibit a close similarity. As they develop, striking divergences 
begin to appear. The play mood, instead of approaching the 
calm contemplative mood of the lover of beauty, involves 
feelings and impulses which lie at the roots of our practical 
interests, viz. ambition, rivalry and struggle. It has, moreover, 
in all its stages a palpable utility even though this is not 
realized by the player serving for the exercise and development 
of body, intelligence and character. Beauty and art rise high 
above play in purity of the disinterested attitude, in placid 
detachment from the serviceable and the necessary, and, still 
more, in range and variety of refined interest, comprehended 
in " the love of beauty." Finally, aesthetic activities are 
directed by ideal conceptions and standards to which hardly 

2 Originally, as pointed out by Home and others, sight was re- 
garded as the sense by which we received impressions of beauty. 
Yet the recognition of the claims of hearing date back to Plato. 
(See Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth. pp. 51-52). For recent discussions 
of the claims of sight and hearing see article by J. Volkelt, " Der 
Aesth. Werth der niederen Sinne," in Zeitschrift fur Psych, u. Phys. 
der Sinnesorgane, vol. xxix. pp. 402 ff. ; see also below, Biblio- 
graphy. 

'Laws, 889 (see Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54). 



AESTHETICS 



281 



anything corresponds in play save where games of skill take on 
something of the dignity of a fine art. 1 

So far as to the preliminary delimiting work in aesthetic 
science. Only a bare indication can be made as to the methods 
Methods of research by which its advance can be furthered, 
otre- and as to the several directions of inquiry which it 
search in w ;jj nave to f o u ow . With regard to the former the 
aesthetics. metno( j o f investigation will consist in a careful 
inquiry into two orders of fact: (i) Objects which common 
testimony or the history of art show to be widely recognized 
objects of aesthetic value ; (2) records of the aesthetic experience 
of individuals, whether artists or amateurs. 

Since aesthetic experience is brought about and its modes 
determined by objects possessing certain qualities, it seems evi- 
Bxamlaa- dent that scientific aesthetics must make an examin- 
tton ot ation and comparison of these a fundamental part 
aesthetic o f j ts p ro bl e m. These objects will, as already hinted, 
objects. jnciude both natural ones in the inorganic and organic 
worlds, and- works of art which can be shown to be objects 
of general or widely recognized aesthetic value. Without 
Nature as attempting here to discuss adequately the relation of 
supplying natural beauty to that of art we may note one or two 
aesthetic points. Some contemplation and appreciation of the 
beautiful aspects of nature is not only prior in time 
to art, but is a condition of its genesis. The enjoyment of 
the pleasing aspects of land and sea, of mountain and dale, 
of the innumerable organic forms, has steadily grown with the 
development of culture; and this growth, though undoubtedly 
aided by that of the feeling for art especially painting and 
poetry is to a large extent independent of it. 2 Some of the 
finest insight into the secrets of beauty has been gained by those 
who had only a limited acquaintance with art. What is still 
more important in the present connexion is that the aesthetic 
experience gained by the direct contemplation of nature includes 
varieties which art cannot reproduce. It is enough to recall 
what Helmholtz and others have told us about the limitations 
of the powers of pictorial art to represent the more brilliant 
degrees of light; the admissions of painters themselves as to 
the limits of their art when it seeks to render the finer grada- 
tions of light and colour in such common objects as a tree-trunk or 
a bit of old wall. Nature, moreover, in spreading out her spaces 
of earth, sea and sky, and in exhibiting the action of her forces, 
does so on a scale which seems to make sublimity her prerogative 
in which art vainly endeavours to participate. 

On the other hand, it is coming to be seen that the construction 
of a theory of aesthetic values must be assisted by a much more 
Use of precise examination than aestheticists are commonly 
worts of content to make, of works of art. The importance 

*th *ri '/"* of i ncludin 6 these i s that thev are well-defined objec- 
tive expressions of what the aesthetic consciousness 
approves and prefers. In inquiring, for example, into the 
pleasing relations of colour we might have to wait long for 
a theory if we were dependent on what even so gifted a writer 
as Ruskin can tell us about nature's juxtapositions: whereas 
if it can be shown that throughout the history of chromatic art 
or during its better period there has been a tendency to prefer 
certain combinations, this fact becomes a piece of convincing 
evidence as to their aesthetic value. Even here, 
ties in however, there are sources of uncertainty. It is not 
using true to say that a work of art is a pure outcome of 
worts of the aesthetic feeling of the artist, even if we take 
^ s m a comprehensive sense. It is subject to the 
influence of all the temporary feelings and tendencies 
of the time which produced it. The aesthetic motive which is 

1 Plato had a glimpse of the resemblance of art to play (see 
Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54). Among modern writers the idea is 
specially connected with the names of Schiller and Herbert Spencer. 
In recent works the subject is touched on by S. Wittasek, Grundzuge 
der allgem. Asthetik, pp. 223 ff. ; Bray, Du Beau, pp. 62 ff., and by 
Rutgers Marshall and others referred to below in Bibliography. 

1 Hence to say, as Bosanquet says (op. cit. pp. 3-4), that art is to 
nature as the scientific conception of the world to that of the ordinary 
observer, seems wide of the mark. 



mater/a/. 



supposed to originate it is apt to be complicated and disguised 
by other motives, e.g. utility in architecture, 3 an impulse to in- 
struct if not to reform in modern fiction. Again, if it is said that 
a certain degree of permanence assures us of the Effects of 
aesthetic value of a feature of art, we are met by the custom 
difficulty that custom plays an important part in art, 
the result of convention fixed by tradition often 
simulating the aspect of a deep-seated aesthetic prefer- 
ence. In this connexion it is to be remarked that even 
so permanent an element as symmetry may owe its quasi- 
aesthetic value to custom, by which is understood its wide and 
impressive display in the organic and even the inorganic world. 4 
Yet the influence of custom taken in this larger sense need not 
greatly disturb us. In aesthetics, as in ethics, the question of 
validity has to be kept distinct from that of origin. If symmetry 
(in general) is appreciated as aesthetically pleasing, the question 
of its genesis becomes immaterial. Another difficulty, not 
peculiar to aesthetic investigation, is that of reconstructing the 
modes of aesthetic consciousness represented by forms of art 
which differ widely from those of our own age and type of 
culture. 

In utilizing art material for aesthetic theory the theorist will 
need to note the work recently done by English and German 
writers on primitive art. And this not merely because Value ot 
of the value of the early forms of art for a theory of primitive 
the evolution of the aesthetic consciousness ; but ^J t ^ r etlcs- 
because the embryonic stages of art are likely to have 
a peculiar interest as illustrating in a comparatively isolated 
form some of the simpler modes of aesthetic appreciation, 
e.g. in the grouping of colours, in the mode of covering a surface 
with linear ornament. Yet it is not necessary to give primitive 
art a considerable place in a general aesthetics. As a normative 
science, it is to be remembered, this is much more immediately 
concerned with the higher stages of aesthetic culture. In seeking 
to establish norms or regulative principles, we must, it is evident, 
make a special study of objects of art which belong to our own 
level of culture. For these reasons it would appear necessary 
to include in a general aesthetic theory some reference to the 
evolution of art and of the aesthetic consciousness. A further 
reason for including it is that the evolution of art supplies a most 
valuable auxiliary criterion of degree or height of Bygiution 
aesthetic value. Provided that we distinguish what ascriter. 
is a real process of evolution from one of mere change lo " f 
of fashion in taste, and that we confine ourselves to *^. A c 
the larger features of the process, we may make the 
principle of evolution a serviceable one by regarding those 
forms and features of art as higher in respect of aesthetic value 
which grow distinct and relatively fixed in the later and better 
stages of the evolution of art. 8 This part of aesthetic investiga- 
tion should be made as exact as possible. Thus in Exaci 
dealing with the triads of colour said to be most fre- mea sure- 
quently employed in the best period of Italian painting meat of 
the observer should note and record as far as this is "^""^ of 
possible not only the precise tints, but also the precise ar t. wor k. 
degrees of their several luminosities. With regard to 
elements of form in art, the judicious use of photography and 
careful measurement would probably help us to understand the 
practices of art in its better periods. This examination of art 
material by the aesthetic theorist should be supplemented by a 
study of what artists have written about their methods, of the 
rules laid down for students of art, and lastly of the ge_neraliza- 
tions reached by the more scientific kind of writer upon art. 6 

A proper methodical inquiry into aesthetic objects aided by a 

3 K. Lange goes very far in attributing a practical motive to 
features of architecture commonly supposed to have aesthetic value, 
e.g. a regular series of similar forms (Das Wesen der Kunst, Bd. i. 
pp. 277 ff.). 

4 K. Lange thinks that even symmetry probably has a technical 
origin (op. cit. pp. 283-284). 

6 The question of the place of the historical development of art 
in aesthetic theory is carefully considered by J. Volkelt, System der 
Asthetik, Bd. i. 5 e ' Kap. 

6 See, for example, a little work, The Genesis of Art-form, by G. L. 
Raymond. 



282 



AESTHETICS 






tions. 



'aren ll etc 



ment. 



knowledge of the practices of art would lead to inductions of 
the type " objects in so far as they possess such and 
such characteristics are aesthetically valuable." 1 This 
preliminary work of aesthetic science in collecting and 
analysing facts may be extended in two directions: by 
an examination (a) of the earlier and simpler forms of aesthetic 
experience, and (b) of the fuller and more complex experiences 
Germs of ^ ^ nose specially trained in the perception and enjoy- 
aesthetic ment of beauty, (a) The former would be illustrated 
preference by a more methodical investigation into the rudiment- 
ar ^ aestnet i c likings of children, and of the surviv- 
ing lower races. Such inquiries may be expected to 
add to our knowledge of the simpler and more universal 
forms of aesthetic enjoyment. Some attention has been paid 
by Darwin and others to germs of taste in birds and other animals. 
Yet this line of inquiry, though of some value for a theory of the 
evolution of taste, seems to throw but little light on aesthetic 
preferences as found in man. 2 An important feature in this new 
investigation into simpler modes of aesthetic preference 
is that it proceeds by way of experiment, that is to say, 
a methodical testing of the aesthetic preferences of a 
number of individuals. Fechner introduced the method 
of experiment into aesthetics in his researches on the preferability 
(according to Zeising) of the proportion known as the " golden 
section." 3 Since his time other experimental inquiries have 
been made, both as to what forms (e.g. what variety of rectangle) 
and what combinations of colours are most pleasing. The results 
of these experiments are distinctly promising, though they have 
Expert- not yet been carried far enough to be made the basis of 
ence and perfectly trustworthy generalizations. 4 (b) A valuable 
judgments p or ti O n of the data for a science of aesthetics lies in the 
* recorded experiences of artists, art critics and others 
who have specially developed their tastes. This source of 
information has certainly never been made use of in a com- 
plete and methodical manner by theorists, a quotation now and 
again from writers like Goethe and Ruskin having been deemed 
sufficient. Yet it is safe to say that an adequate understanding 
of the finer effects of beauty, both in nature and in art, presup- 
poses the assimilation of what is best in these records. And 
this not only because they commonly supply us with new and 
valuable varieties of experience of the more refined kind, but 
because the aesthetic judgments on nature and art of men in 
whom the feeling of beauty has been specially cultivated have a 
greater value than those of others. 6 It may be added that these 
records are wont to contain reflexions which, though wanting 
in scientific precision, can be utilized by science. 

We now come to the work of scientific construction proper. 
The finer analysis of the objects which please aesthetically as 
Psycho- w ell as of the agreeable type of consciousness to which 
logical they minister belongs to the psychologist, and it is 
analysis of no t e worthy that the best recent contributions to the 
science have been made by men who were either 
known as psychologists or at least had trained themselves in 
psychological analysis. A word or two must suffice to indicate 
the more important directions of the theoretic interpretation. 
We may in illustrating this set out from the convenient triple 
division of the factors in aesthetic experience: (A) the sensuous, 
(B) the perceptual or formal, (C) the imaginative, including all 
that is suggested by the aesthetic presentation, its meaning and 
expressiveness. 

1 Kant, stopping short of an analysis of the beauty of a concrete 
object, said there were no aesthetic judgments of this universal form 
(see below). On the importance of these inductions see K. H. von 
Stein, Vorlesungen iiber Asthetik (Einleitung). 

* Curiously enough Thomas Reid recognized a germ of aesthetic 
taste in animals. Essays, Of Taste, ch. v. The aesthetic importance 
of the observations made on animals is dealt with by L. Bray, Du 
Beau, pp. 233 ff. 

3 See below, and Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 382 ff. 

4 The chief lines of experimental aesthetics are indicated by W. 
Wundt in his Physiol. Psychologic (5" Auflage), Bd. iii. pp. 142 ff. 
and 147 ff. 

' On the value of judgments of experts see K. Groos, Der dsth. 
Genuss, p. 149. 



(A) In dealing with the sensuous factor the psychologist 
is materially aided by the physiologist. It is sufficient to point 
to the contribution made to the analysis of musical Thg 
sensations by the classical researches of Helmholtz sensuous 
(see below). Yet the application of a knowledge of factor. 
physiological conditions seems as yet to be of little Pa y sl o- 
service when we come to the finer aspects of this aesthetics. 
sensuous experience, to the subtle effects of colour- 
combination, for example, and to the nuances of feeling-tone 
attaching to different tints. In the finer analysis of the sensuous 
material of aesthetic enjoyment it is the psychologist who counts. 5 
Among the valuable contributions recently made in this 
domain one may instance the careful determination of 

the aesthetically important characteristics of the sensa- problems. 
tions of sight and hearing, such as the finely graduated 
variety of their qualities (colour and tone), their capability 
of entering into combinations in which they preserve their 
individuality, including the important combinations of time 
and space form. With these are to be included the distinguish- 
ing characteristics of the concomitant feeling-tones, e.g. their 
comparative calmness and their clear separation from the 
sensations which they accompany. These characteristics help 
us to understand the greater refinement of these senses and also 
the more prolonged as well as varying enjoyment which they 
contribute, as well as the extension of this enjoyment by imagina- 
tive reproduction. 7 Next to this determination of important 
aesthetic characteristics of the two senses may be named a finer 
probing of the nuances of pleasurable tone exhibited by the 
several colours and tones. A point still needing special investiga- 
tion is extent of the sensuous factor in aesthetic enjoyment. 
There has been a tendency in aesthetic theory to over-intellectual- 
ize aesthetic experience and to find the value even of the sensuous 
factor in some intellectual principle, as when it is said (by Plato 
and Hegel among others) that a smooth or level tone and a 
uniform mass of colour owe their value to the principle of unity. 
But such prolongation (within obvious limits) in time or space is 
a condition of the full enjoyment of the distinctive quality of an 
individual tone or colour, and as such has a sensuous value. 
Aesthetics has to prove the sensuous value, the pleasure which 
is due not only to the feeling-tones of the several sensations 
but to those of their various combinations. Spite of a tendency 
of late to disparage the co-operation of the " motor sensations " 
connected with movements of the eye in the aesthetic apprecia- 
tion of linear form, e.g. curves, evidence suggests that certain 
curves, like fine gradations of colour, may owe a considerable 
part of their value to a mode of varying the sensuous experience 
which is in a peculiar manner agreeable. On the other hand, this 
theoretic investigation of sense-material will need to determine 
with care the added value due to the action of experience in 
giving something of meaning to particular colours and tones 
and their combinations, e.g. warmth of colour, height of tone. 

(B) Under the scientific treatment of the perceptual or formal 
factor in aesthetic experience we have many special problems, 
of which only a few can be touched on here. Taking 

this factor to include all combinations of elements in perceptual 
which there is a more or less distinct perception of factor. 
pleasing relations, we meet here with such work as that 
of C. Stumpf (Ton-psychologie) in determining the way in which 
tones combine and tend to fuse. Later experiments have added 
to our knowledge of the obscure subject of colour harmony, 
enabling us to distinguish pleasing contrasts of colour from the 
more restful combinations of nearly allied tints. Our knowledge 
of pleasing form in the narrower sense, that is to say, space and 
time form, has been advanced by a number of recent inquiries. 
The value of symmetry, the meaning of proportion and the 
aesthetic value to be set on certain proportions, the forms of 
rhythm these are some of the points dealt with in more general 

6 Examples of a forcing of the physiological method in aesthetics 
may be found in the Physiological Aesthetics of Grant Allen, and the 
Aufgabe der Kunstphysiologie, by Georg Hirsch. 

7 These aesthetic prerogatives of the sensations of hearing and 
sight have been well brought out in the article by J. Volkelt, already 
referred to. 



AESTHETICS 



283 



and in special works. 1 In the case of forms, still more than in 
that of sensuous elements, it is needful to determine the extent 
to which the value of the formal aspect is modified by experience 
and the acquisition of meaning. This is pretty certainly the 
source of the aesthetic value claimed for certain proportions, 
whether in the human figure or other organic forms or in the 
freer constructions of form in art. 2 Another problem is to deter- 
mine the influence of the feeling-tones of the combining elements 
on the pleasing character of the whole. It is probable that a 
particular combination of colours owes something of its pleasure- 
value to a harmony of the feeling-tones of the elements. This 
is pretty certainly the case where the feeling-tones of the elements 
are closely akin, as in the case of a number of low tones of colours, 
or of architectural or other forms where one formal element 
say, a vertical line, a rectangle of a certain proportion or a 
particular variety of arch repeats itself and becomes a dominat- 
ing feature of the whole. 

(C) The imaginative factor which corresponds with what 
Fechner calls the " indirect " includes all that imaginative 
activity adds to our enjoyment when we contemplate 
an aest hetic object. It may consist first of all in re- 
facinr. calling concrete experiences firmly associated with the 
object, as when the sight of wild-flowers in a London 
street calls up an image of fields and lanes. In order that these 
images may add to the aesthetic value of the object they must 
correspond to our common associations, as distinguished from 
accidental individual ones. A large increase of aesthetic enjoy- 
ment comes to us through such suggested images. Although in 
general it is images of concrete objects which are called up, ideas 
of a more abstract character may take part though they tend 
in this case to assume a concrete aspect. This is illustrated in 
the appreciation of " typical beauty " in which a concrete form 
represents in an exceptional way the common form of a species, 
and in that of symbolic representation. An important part of 
this work of association is to render objects expressive of mental 
states, as when we read off the particular shade of feeling ex- 
pressed by a natural scene. 3 

In the poetic contemplation of nature, her forces, her gladness 
and other moods, this imaginative activity, though still deriving 
its material from association, takes a freer form, 
n- leading to an investment of natural objects with a 
new and more fanciful meaning, as when we 
" apperceive " a willow drooping over a pond or 
the front of an old cottage under a quasi-human form, 
endowing it with something akin to our own feelings and 
memories. What, it may be asked, is the whole range of this 
freer play of a life-giving fancy in our aesthetic enjoyment? 
Some recent theorists have attempted to answer this question 
by saying that it constitutes a vital element in all aesthetic con- 
templation. Th. Lipps and others who follow him seek to show 
that this vitalizing activity of the fancy, which produces a new 
and illusory object, is the essential ingredient in the aesthetic 
enjoyment of the forms of material objects. According to this 
theory, when in the aesthetic mood I enjoy the form of a tree, of 
a church steeple or of the front of a Greek temple, I am not only 
ascribing life and feeling to it, but am projecting myself in fancy 
into the object thus constructed, feeling for the moment that I 
am the tree or the steeple. The process of vivification is carried 
out as follows. Lines represent certain movements, and in the 
aesthetic mood we translate all lines and so all forms back into 
the corresponding movements, which may be merely imagined (as 

1 On the later investigations into musical consonance and har- 
mony, harmony of colours, rhythmic and pleasing spatial forms, 
see Wundt, op. tit. Bd. ii. pp. 419 ff., and iii. 135 ff., 140 ff., 147 ff. 
and 154 ff. Time-form in music is specially discussed by E. Gurney, 
The Power of Sound, v. 

2 K. Lange, who recognizes the influence of nature and custom, 
here denies that proportion is an aesthetic principle (Das Wesen der 
Kunst, ll es Kap.). 

3 Alison and other English Associationists have emphasized the 
aesthetic importance of the principle of association. Among more 
recent advocates of it is G. T. Fechner, Vorschule der Asthetik, and 
O. Kiilpe, "tiber den associativ. Factor des asthet. Eindrucks," 
Vierteljahrsschrift fur wissensch. Philosophic, xxiii. pp. 145 ff. 



Lipps himself thinks) or may be realized in part by sensuous 
elements, viz. motor sensations; which again may be regarded 
either as concomitants of eye movements, or as arising from an 
organically connected impulse to move the hand along the lines 
followed by the eye. 4 Thus the columns of a temple represent 
upward movement, and are apperceived as striving upwards so as 
to resist the downward pressure of the entablature. Since move- 
ments are the great means of expression in man, this imagina- 
tive reading of movement into motionless and even massive and 
stable forms enables us to endow them with quasi-human feelings. 
In looking, for example, at the weighty masses of a building we 
enter sympathetically into the successful strivings of the sup- 
porting structures to resist the downward thrust of gravity in 
the supported masses. The theory here briefly indicated 5 is 
interesting as illustrating an attempt from the psychological 
side to find a scientific support for philosophic idealism or ex- 
pressionalism. It is already beginning to be recognized in 
Germany as an exaggeration. It may be enough to say that as 
applied to forms generally, including those of sculpture and 
architecture, the theory is opposed by our ordinary way of speak- 
ing, which implies quite another point of view in the aesthetic 
contemplation of form, namely, that of a spectator external to 
the object contemplated. When our eye glides over the beauties 
of a statue, our imaginative activity so far from transporting us 
within the object carries us as tactual feelers outside the surface. 
Similarly, when we delight in the divided spaces of a Gothic roof, 
so far from being imaginatively engaged in taking part in the 
efforts and strains of pillar, arch and the rest, we move in fancy 
along the pathways defined by the designer, tactually feeling 
and appreciating each dimension, each detail of form. The 
attempt to force a theory fitted for poetry on sculpture and archi- 
tecture would rob these of their distinctive aesthetic values; 
in the one case, of the plastic beauty of finely moulded marble 
surfaces as realized by imaginative excursions of the hand; and 
in the other case, of the perfect stillness and stability which give 
to great structures their solemn and quieting aspect. 6 

The theory of a vitalizing play of imagination (Einfuhlung) 
running through all modes of aesthetic contemplation is an 
exaggeration of the element of illusion which certainly 
characterizes this contemplation. As suggested above, 
by blotting out for the moment the perception of all 
save that which pleases it substitutes a new for the more solid 
reality of our practical mood. Moreover, as a state of perceptual 
absorption in which one loses consciousness of the ordinary 
self and its world, it has a certain resemblance to the state of 
ecstasy and of the hypnotic trance. 7 It is favourable to the 
play-like indulgence in a fanciful transformation of what is 
seen or heard, which may be described as a " willing self-decep- 
tion," more or less complete. Yet as we have seen, something 
of the real everyday world survives even in our freer aesthetic 
contemplation of form. Hence there is much to be said for the 
idea that we have in aesthetic illusion to do with a kind of 
double consciousness, a tendency to an illusory acceptance of 
the product of our fancy as the reality, restrained by a sub- 
conscious recognition of the everyday tangible reality behind. 8 

It is evident that both in the more confined and in the freer 
form the element of imaginative activity in aesthetic experience 
will vary greatly among individuals and among peoples. Differ- 
ences in past experience leading to diverse habits of association, 

4 This idea of imitative hand-movement in contemplating form 
is supported by K. Groos, Der dsth. Cenuss, pp. 49 ff. 

6 It is commonly spoken of as " feeling oneself into " (Ein- 
fiihleri), or as " sympathetic feeling " (Mitempfinden). 

9 Lipps' theory is developed in a number of works, the chief of 
which is Asthetik: Psychologic des Schonen und der Kunst, see esp. l er 
Theil, i" to 3" Abschnitt; cf. Paul Stern, Einfuhlung und Associa- 
tion, in which is to be found an historical sketch of the theory, and 
A. Hildebrand, Form in der bildenden Kunst. The play of imagina- 
tion in the contemplation o^form is discussed also by P. Souriau, 
L'Esthetique du mouvement, 3" part., and La Suggestion dans I' art, 
pp. 300 n. Cf. works of Karl Groos and K. Lange named below 
(Bibliography). 

1 See P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans I'art (i^ re partie). 

8 Cf. K. Lange, op. cit. Bd. i. p. 208. 









AESTHETICS 



as well as in those natural dispositions which prompt one person 
to prefer motor images, another visual, another audile, will 
Variations modify the process in this enjoyable enlargement and 
ofimagin- transformation of what is presented to sense. It is 
*" v " for aesthetics at once to recognize these variations 

y ' of imaginative activity and to determine the more 
common and universal directions which it follows. 

The recent inquiry into our way of contemplating form is, 
in spite of exaggeration, valuable as showing that our distinc- 
Formand ^ ons f f rm an< ^ expression are not absolute. Just 
expression as there is the rudiment of ideal significance in colour, 
not so form, even in its more abstract and elementary 

absolutely aS p ec t S) i s not wholly expressionless, but may be 

endowed with something of life by the imagination. 
The recognition of this truth does not, however, affect the validity 
of our treating form and expression as two broadly distinguish- 
able factors of aesthetic pleasure. A line may be pleasing to 
sense-perception, and in addition illustrate expressional value 
by suggested ease of movement or pose. Similarly, a concrete 
form, e.g. that of a sculptured human figure in repose, or of a 
graceful birch or fern, owes its aesthetic value to a happy com- 
bination of pleasing lines and of interesting ideas. 

In close connexion with the determination of the imaginative 
factor in aesthetic contemplation, the psychologist is called on 

to define the special characteristics of aesthetic emo- 
emotioa. tion. That our attitude when we watch a beautiful 

object, say the curl of a breaker as it falls, or some 
choice piece of sculpture, is an emotional one is certain, and 
ingenious attempts have been made by Home (Lord Kames) 
and others to equip the emotion with a full accompaniment 
of corporeal activity, such as heightened respiratory activity. 1 
Yet aesthetic emotion is to be contrasted with the more violent 
and passionate state of love and other emotions, and this differ- 
ence calls for further investigation. A closer inquiry into the 
features of that calm yet intense emotion which a rapt state of 
aesthetic contemplation induces is a necessary preliminary to a 
scientific demarcation of the sphere of beauty in the narrow or 
more exclusive sense, from that of the sublime, the tragic and 
the comic. Each of these departments of aesthetic experience 
has well-marked emotional characteristics; and the definition 
of these " modifications of the beautiful " has in the main been 
reached through an analysis of the emotional states involved. 
This chapter in the psychological treatment of aesthetic experi- 
ence has to consider two points which have occupied a prominent 
place in aesthetic theory. The first is the nature of " revived " 
or " ideal " emotion, such as is illustrated in the feeling excited 
sympathetically when we witness or hear of another's sorrow or 
joy. The second point is the nature of those mixed emotional 
states which are illustrated in our aesthetic enjoyment of the 
sublime and the other " modifications," in all of which we can 
recognize a kind of double emotional consciousness in which 
painful elements accompany and modify pleasurable ones, in 
such a manner that in the end the latter appear to be rather 
strengthened than weakened. 2 

The psychological treatment of aesthetic data here sketched 
out cannot stop at an analysis of the aesthetic state or attitude 
Limits f * nto a numDer f recognizable elements each of which 
analysis in contributes its own quantum of pleasurableness. Our 
aesthetics, enjoyment in contemplating, say, a green alp set 

above dark crags, is an indivisible whole. And it is a 
consciousness of this fact which makes men disposed to resent 
the dissection of their aesthetic enjoyment into a number of 
constituent pleasures. Nor is this all. Every aesthetic object 

1 See a curious passage in Home's Elements of Criticism, chap, iv., 
in which the emotions excited by great and elevated objects are 
said to express themselves externally by a special inflating inspira- 
tion, and by stretching upward and standing " a-tiptoe respec- 
tively; also an article on ! ' Recent Aesthetics " by Vernon Lee in 
the Quarterly Review, 1904, part i. pp. 420-443. 

_* See Hume, Essays, "Essay of Tragedy," and the important 
discussions on the meaning of Aristotle's doctrine of the emotions of 
tragedy and of emotional purification or " alleviating discharge" 
(xABafiaa) touched on by Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 64 ff. and 234 ft. 



is something unique, differing in individual characteristics from 
all others; and as the object, so the mood of the contem- 
plator. One may almost say that there are as many modes of 
musical delight as there are worthy compositions. It would seem 
either that this feeling of a unique indivisible whole must be 
dismissed as an illusion, or that we have to admit an unexplained 
residue in our aesthetic experience, which may some day be 
explained by help of a larger and more exact conception of 
aesthetic harmony, of the laws of interaction and of fusion of 
psychical elements. 3 

We may now glance at the ideal purpose of this scientific 
analysis and interpretation, namely, the construction of norms 
or regulative principles corresponding to the severally Construe- 
essential elements of aesthetic value ascertained. The tion of 
later psychological treatment of the subject has led *<> stn etic 
up to the formulation of certain ideal requirements ' 
in beautiful objects. The work of Fechner in this direction 
(Vorschule der Asthetik) was a noteworthy contribution 
to this kind of construction, at once scientific and directed 
to the construction of ideal demands, and is still a model for 
workers in the same field. He has taught us how the attempt 
to formulate one all-comprehensive principle e.g. unity in 
variety, has led to a barren abstractedness, and that we need in 
its place a number of more concrete principles. In formulating 
these principles care must be taken to determine their respective 
scopes and their mutual relations to decide, forexample,whether 
expression, to which our modern feeling undoubtedly ascribes 
a high value, is a universal demand in the same sense as unity 
or harmony of parts is admitted to be. A system of norms 
must further supply some comprehensive criterion by help of 
which degrees of aesthetic value may be determined, as determined 
by the degrees of completeness of the several pleasurable activities, 
sensuous, perceptual and imaginative, and justify the form 
of judgment " this object is more beautiful (or of a higher kind 
of beauty) than that." Such regulative principles and standards 
of comparison will, it is clear, fail us just at the point where 
analysis stops. Edmund Gurney urges that an aesthetic prin- 
ciple such as unity in variety is complied with equally well by 
musical compositions which are commonplace and leave us cold 
and by those which evoke the full thrill of aesthetic delight, and 
he concludes that the special beauty of form in the latter in- 
stance is appreciated by a kind of intuition which cannot be 
analysed (see The Power of Sound, ix.). The argument is hard 
to combat. It would seem that after all our efforts to define 
aesthetic qualities and enumerate corresponding ideal require- 
ments we are left with an unexplained remainder. This can 
only be tentatively defined as the concrete object itself in its 
wholeness, which is not only a perfectly harmonized combina- 
tion of sensuous, formal and expressional values, but impresses 
us as something which has a fresh individuality and the distinc- 
tion of aesthetic excellence. 

Aesthetics is wont to treat of a certain kind of experience as 
if it were a closed compartment. Yet there is in reality no such 
perfect seclusion. Our enjoyment of beauty, though connexion 
to be distinguished from our intellectual and our between 
practical interests, touches and interacts with these, aesthetic 
With regard to intellectual interests it is clear that "" d eH ^ er 
much of the mental activity which enters into our em*: (a) 
aesthetic enjoyment is intellectual e.g. in the per- with in- 
ception of the relations of form, even though it stops tetlectaal 
short of the abstract analysis of scientific observation. 
Again, in appreciating beauty of type which involves according 
to Taine a recognition of the most important characters of the 
species, we are, it is evident, close to the scientific point of view. 
Similarly, when scientific knowledge enables us in the mood of 
aesthetic contemplation to retrace imaginatively the mode of 
formation of a cloud or a mountain form, or the mode in 
which a climbing plant finds its way upwards. It is for 
aesthetics to recognize the fact, and to discriminate a 

3 That beauty implies a peculiar blending of formal and spiritual 
(geistige) factors is recognized by H. Riegel, Die bildende Kiinste, 
pp. 1 6 ff. 



AESTHETICS 



285 



legitimate aesthetic function of scientific ideas when they en- 
large the scope of a pleasurable play of the imagination, and 
are freed from the control of a serious purpose of explaining 
what is seen. 

A similar remark applies to the contacts of our aesthetic with 
our practical interests. While as dominant factors the latter 

are excluded from aesthetic activity they may in- 

fl uence our feeling for beauty in an indirect and sub- 
laterests. ordinate way. This is recognized by those (e.g. Home) 

who insist on a particular kind of aesthetic value 
under the name of relative beauty, or the pleasing aspect of 
fitness for a purpose. If a drinking-vessel please in part because 
of its perfect adaptation to its purpose, the aesthetic value 
ascribed to it seems to derive something from a feeling of respect 
for utility itself. In another way beauty reasserts in modern 
aesthetics that kinship with utility on which it insisted in the 

days of Socrates. The idea that typical beauty co- 

mc id es with what is vigorous and conducive to the 
of beauty, conservation of the species is as old as Hobbes. 1 

Darwin and his followers have developed the bio- 
logical conception that sexual selection tends to develop 
aesthetic preferences along lines which correspond to what 
subserves the maintenance of the species or tribe. Recent 
writers have shown how the rude germs of aesthetic activity in 
primitive types of community would subserve necessary tribal 
ends e.g. musical rhythm by exercising members of the tribe 
in concerted war-like action. 2 Yet these interesting specula- 
tions have to do rather with the earlier stages of the evolution 
of the aesthetic faculty than with its functions in the higher 
stages. An idea of a social utility in aesthetic experience which 
does demand the attention of the theorist is that the culture of 

beauty and art has a socializing influence, helping to 
and ethics. S' ve to our emotional experience new forms of expres- 

lion whereby our sympathies are deepened and en- 
larged. 3 The further elucidation of this element of humanizing 
influence in aesthetic enjoyment may be expected to throw new 
light on the question, much discussed throughout the history 
of aesthetics, of the relation of the science to ethics, by showing 
that they have a common root in our sympathetic nature and 
interest in humanity. 

In order to complete the outline of aesthetic theory we need 
to glance at the relation of general aesthetics to the special prob- 
Acsthtxic l ems f Fine Art- I*- i s ev ident that the definition of 
theory and the aims and methods of art, both as a whole and in 
problems its several forms, involving as it does special technical 
ofart ~ knowledge, may,with advantage be treated apart from 
a general theory. (See FINE ARTS.) At the same time the 
study of art raises larger problems which require to be dealt 
with to some extent by this theory. We may instance the group 
of problems which have to do with the relation of art to 
" beauty " in its narrower sense, such as the function of the 
painful and of the ugly in art, the meaning of artistic imitation 
and truth to nature, of idealization, and the nature of artistic 
illusion; also the question of the didactic and of the moral 
function of art. Even more special problems of art, such as 
the effect of the tragic, the nature of musical expression, can 
only be adequately treated in the light of a general aesthetic 
theory. 

In conclusion, it may be pointed out that the psychological 
theorist has of late been busy in an outlying region of art-lore, 
inquiring into the 4 nature of the artistic impulse and tempera- 
ment, and into the processes of imaginative creation. These 
inquiries have been carried out to some extent in connexion 
with studies of the origin of art, and of the relation of art to the 

1 See passage in Human Nature (first part of Tripos), ch. viii. 5 
(Molesworth's edition of Works, vol. iv. p. 38). 

1 See among others, R. Wallascheck, Primitive Music, pp. 270 ff., 
and Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, pp. 9 ff. ; cf. W. Jerusalem, Einleitung 
in die Philosophie, pp. 116, 117. 

* The idea of this social utility in aesthetic enjoyment is touched 
on by Kant, Critique of Judgment (Bernard's trans.), p. 174; and is 
more fully workea out by Guyau, L'Art au point de vue sociologique, 
ch. ii. and iii. ; cf. Rutgers Marshall, Aesthetic Principles, pp. 81-82. 



social environment. Their importance for aesthetics lies in the 
circumstance that they are fitted to throw light upon the aes- 
thetic consciousness as it is developed in those who are not only 
in a special sense cultivators of it, but represent in a peculiar 
manner the ideas and the aims of art. 1 

HISTORY OF THEORIES 

In the following summary of the most important contributions 
to aesthetic doctrine, only such writings will be recognized as 
contribute to a general conception of aesthetic objects or experi- 
ence. These include the more systematic treatment of the sub- 
ject in philosophic works as well as the more thoughtful kind of 
discussion of principles to be met with in writings on art by 
critics and others. 

I. Greek Speculations. Ancient Greece supplies us with the first 
important contributions to aesthetic theory, though these are 
scarcely, in quality or in quantity, what one might have expected 
from a people which had so high an appreciation of beauty and so 
strong a bent for philosophic speculation. The first Greek thinker 
of whose views on the subject we really know something is Socrates. 
We learn from Xenophpn's account of him that he regarded the 
beautiful as coincident with the good, and both of them are resolvable 
into the useful. Every beautiful object is so called because it serves 
some rational end, whether the security or the gratification of man. 
Socrates appears to have attached little importance to the immediate 
gratification which a beautiful object affords to perception and 
contemplation, but to have emphasized rather its power of further- 
ing the more necessary ends of life. The really valuable point in 
his doctrine is the relativity of beauty. Unlike Plato, he recognized 
no self-beauty (aiiro TO xaXoi/X existing absolutely and out of all 
relation to a percipient mind. 

Of the views of Plato on the subject, it is hardly less difficult to 
gain a clear conception from the Dialogues, than it is in the case 
of ethical good. In some of these, various definitions of 
the beautiful are rejected as inadequate by the Platonic 
Socrates. At the same time we may conclude that Plato's mind leaned 
decidedly to the conception of an absolute beauty, which took its 
place in his scheme of ideas or self -existing forms. This true beauty 
is nothing discoverable as an attribute in another thing, for these 
are only beautiful things, not the beautiful itself. Love (Eros) pro- 
duces aspiration towards this pure idea. Elsewhere the soul's in- 
tuition of the self-beautiful is said to be a reminiscence of its pre- 
natal existence. As to the precise forms in which the idea of beauty 
reveals itself, Plato is not very decided. His theory of an absolute 
beauty does not easily adjust itself to the notion of its contributing 
merely a variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean 
in some dialogues. He tends to identify the self-beautiful with the 
conceptions of the true and the good, and thus there arose the 
Platonic formula Ka\oK&yaBia. So far as his writings embody the 
notion of any common element in beautiful objects, it is proportion, 
harmony or unity among their parts. He emphasizes unity in its 
simplest aspect as seen in evenness of line and purity of colour. He 
recognizes in places the beauty of the mind, and seems to think that 
the highest beauty of proportion is to be found in the union of a 
beautiful mind with a beautiful body. He had but a poor opinion 
of art, regarding it as a trick of imitation (/*iji)<m) which takes us 
another step farther from the luminous sphere of rational intuition 
into the shadowy region of the semblances of sense. Accordingly, 
in his scheme for an ideal republic, he provided for the most inexorable 
censorship of poets, &c., so as to make art as far as possible an 
instrument of moral and political training. 

Aristotle proceeded to a more serious investigation of the aesthetic 
phenomena so as to develop by scientific analysis certain principles 
of beauty and art. In his treatises on poetry and rhetoric . 
he gives us, along with a theory of these arts, certain 
general principles of beauty; and scattered among his other 
writings we find many valuable suggestions on the same subject. 
He seeks (in the Metaphysics) to distinguish the good and 
the beautiful by saying that the former is always In action (iv jrp<x) 
whereas the latter may exist in motionless things as well (iv AKIWJTOIS). 
At the same time he had as a Greek to allow that though essentially 
different things the good might under certain conditions be called 
beautiful. He further distinguished the beautiful from the fit, and 
in a passage of the Politics set beauty above the useful and necessary. 
He helped to determine another characteristic of the beautiful, the 
absence of all lust or desire in the pleasure it bestows. The universal 
elements of beauty, again, Aristotle finds (in the Metaphysics) to be 

1 On the nature of the primitive art-culture, see Rutgers Marshall, 
Aesthetic Principles, ch. iii.; M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Inter- 
pretations, pp. 151 ff : Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, ch. ii. On artistic 
genius and its creative process, see H. Taine, The Philosophy of Art, 
Part ii. ; P. Souriau, L' Imagination de I 'artiste; G. Seailles, Essai 
sur la genie dans I'art; E. Grpsse, Kunstwissenschaftliche Studien, 
iii.; Arreat, Psychologie du peintre; L. Dauriac, Essai sur I' esprit 
musical. 



286 



AESTHETICS 



order (T&(IS), symmetry and definiteness or determinateness (r6 
tipurnivov). InthePoericsheaddsanotheressential, namely, acertain 
magnitude; it being desirable for a synoptic view of the whole that 
the object should not be too large, while clearness of perception 
requires that it should not be too small. Aristotle's views on art 
are an immense advance on those of Plato. He distinctly recog- 
nized (in the Politics and elsewhere) that its aim is immediate 
pleasure, as distinct from utility, which is the end of the mechanical 
arts. He took a higher view of artistic imitation than Plato, hold- 
ing that so far from being an unworthy trick, it implied knowledge 
and discovery, that its objects not only comprised particular things 
which happen to most, but contemplated what is probable and 
what necessarily exists. The celebrated passage in the Poetics, 
where he declares poetry to be more philosophical and serious a 
matter (airovbaibrfpov) than philosophy, brings out the advance of 
Aristotle on his predecessor. He gives us no complete classification 
of the fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles, e.g. his 
celebrated idea of a purification of the passions by tragedy, are to 
be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art. 

Of the later Greek and Roman writers the Neo-Platonist Plotinus 
deserves to be mentioned. According to him, objective reason 
(vovs) as self-moving, becomes the formative influence 
Plotinus, w hj cn reduces dead matter to form. Matter when thus 
formed becomes a notion (\6-yos), and its form is beauty. 
Objects are ugly so far as they are unacted upon by reason, and 
therefore formless. The creative reason is absolute beauty, and is 
called the more than beautiful. There are three degrees or stages 
of manifested beauty : that of human reason, which is the highest ; 
of the human soul, which is less perfect through its connexion with 
a material body; and of real objects, which is the lowest mani- 
festation of all. As to the precise forms of beauty, he supposed, in 
opposition to Aristotle, that a single thing not divisible into parts 
might be beautiful through its unity and simplicity. He gives a 
high place to the beauty of colours in which material darkness is 
overpowered by light and warmth. In reference to artistic beauty 
he said that when the artist has notions as models for his creations, 
these may become more beautiful than natural objects. This is 
clearly a step away from Plato's doctrine towards our modern 
conception of artistic idealization. 

2. German Writers. We may pass by the few thoughts on the 

subject to be found among medieval writers and turn to modern 

German theories, beginning with those of German writers as 

the most numerous and most elaborately set forth. The 

, s '_ first of the Germans who attempted to develop an aes- 

. y .. ' thetic theory as a part of a system of philosophy was 

Baumgarten (Aesthetica). Adopting the Leibnitz-Wolffian 

' theory of knowledge, he sought to complete it by setting 

over against the clear scientific or " logical " knowledge 

gartca. Q f tne un( j ers ta n ding, the confused knowledge of the 

senses, to which (as we have seen) he gave the name " aesthetic." 

Beauty with him thus corresponds with perfect sense-knowledge. 

Baumgarten is clearly an inteliectualist in aesthetics, reducing taste 

to an intellectual act and ignoring the element of feeling. The 

details of his aesthetics are mostly unimportant. Arguing from 

Leibnitz's theory of the world as the best possible, Baumgarten 

concluded that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and 

that art must seek its supreme function in the strictest possible 

imitation of nature. 

The next important treatment of aesthetics by a philosopher is 
that of Kant. He deals with the " Judgment of Taste " in the 
Critique of the Power of Judgment (]. H. Bernard's trans- 
lation, 1892), which treatise supplements the two better- 
known critiques (vide KANT), and by investigating the conditions 
of the validity of feeling mediates between their respective subjects, 
cognition and desire (volition). He takes an important step in deny- 
ing objective existence to beauty. Aesthetic value for him is fitness 
to please as object of pure contemplation. This aesthetic satis- 
faction is more than mere agreeableness, since it must be disinter- 
ested and free^ that is to say, from all concern about the real exist- 
ence of the object, and about our dependence on it. He appears to 
concede a certain formal objectivity to beauty in his doctrine of 
an appearance of purposiveness (Zweckmdssigkeit) in the beautiful 
object, this being defined as its harmony with the cognative faculties 
involved in an aesthetic judgment (imagination and understand- 
ing) ; a harmony the consciousness of which underlies our aesthetic 
pleasure. Yet this part of his doctrine is very imperfectly developed. 
While beauty thus ceases with Kant to have objective validity and 
remains valid only for the contemplator, he claims for it universal 
subjective validity, since the object we pronounce to be beautiful is 
fitted to please all men. We know that this must be so from re- 
flecting on the disinterestedness of our pleasure, on its entire inde- 
pendence of personal inclination. Kant insists that the aesthetic 
judgment is always, in logical phrase, an " individual," i.e. a singu- 
lar one, of the form " This object (e.g. rose) is beautiful." He 
denies that we can reach a valid universal aesthetic judgment of the 
form " All objects possessing such and such qualities are beautiful." 
(A judgment of this form would, he considers, be logical, not aesthetic.) 
In dealing with beauty Kant is thinking of nature, ranking this as a 
source of aesthetic pleasure high above art, for which he shows 
something of contempt. He seems to retreat from his doctrine of 



pure subjectivity when he says that the highest significance of 
beauty is to symbolize moral good ; going further than Ruskin when 
he attaches ideals of modesty, frankness, courage, &c., to the seven 
primary colours of Newton's system. He has made a solid contribu- 
tion to the theory of the sublime, and has put forth a suggestive 
if a rather inadequate view of the ludicrous. But his main service 
to aesthetics consists in the preliminary critical determination of 
its aim and its fundamental problems. 

Schelling is the first thinker to attempt a Philosophy of Art. He 
develops this as the third part of his system of transcendental ideal- 
ism following theoretic and practical philosophy. (See 
SCHELLING ; also Schelling's Werke, Bd. v., and I. Watson, *"""'* 
Schelling' s Transcendental Idealism, ch. vii., Chicago, 1882.) Ac- 
cording to Schelling a new philosophical significance is ?iven to art 
by the doctrine that the identity of subject and object which is 
half disguised in ordinary perception and volition is only clearly 
seen in artistic perception. The perfect perception of its real self 
by intelligence in the work of art is accompanied by a feeling of 
infinite satisfaction. Art in thus effecting a revelation of the absolute 
seems to attain a dignity not merely above that of nature but above 
that of philosophy itself. Schelling throws but little light on the con- 
crete forms of beauty. His classification of the arts, based on his anti- 
thesis of object and subject, is a curiosity in intricate arrangement. 
He applies his conception in a suggestiye way to classical tragedy. 

In Hegel's system of philosophy art is viewed as the first stage of 
the absolute spirit. (See HEGEL; also Werke, Bd. x., and Bosan- 
quet's Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art.) In 
this stage the absolute is immediately present to sense- 
perception, an idea which shows the writer's complete rupture with 
Kant s doctrine of the " subjectivity " of beauty. The beautiful is 
defined as the ideal showing itself to sense or through a sensuous 
medium. It is said to have its life in show or semblance (Schein) 
and so differs from the true, which is not really sensuous, but the 
universal idea contained in sense for thought. The form of the 
beautiful is unity of the manifold. The notion (Begriff) gives 
necessity in mutual dependence of parts (unity), while the reality 
demands the semblance (Schein) of liberty in the parts. He 
discusses very fully the beauty of nature as immediate unity of 
notion and reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of 
organic life. But it is in art that, like Schelling, Hegel finds 
the Jiighest revelation of the beautiful. Art makes up for the 
deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea into clearer 
light, by showing the external world in its life and spiritual 
animation. The several species of art in the ancient and modern 
worlds depend on the various combinations of matter and form. 
He classifies the individual arts according to this same principle 
of the relative supremacy of form and matter, the lowest being 
architecture, the highest, poetry. 

Curious developments of the Hegelian conception are to be found 
in the dialectical treatment of beauty in its relation to the ugly, the 
sublime, &c., by Hegel's disciples, e.g. C. H. Weisse and J. K. F. 
Rosenkranz. The most important product of the Hegelian nfa/ecf/c 
School is the elaborate system of aesthetics published by 
F. T. Vischer (Asthetik, 3 Theile, 1846-1854). It illustrates 
the difficulties of the Hegelian thought and terminology ; "*** 
yet in dealing with art it is full of knowledge and highly suggestive. 

The aesthetic problem is also treated by two other philosophers 
whose thought set out from certain tendencies in Kant's system, 
viz. Schopenhauer and Herbart. Schopenhauer (see 
SCHOPENHAUER, also The World as Will and Idea, trans- 
lated by R. B. Haldane, esp. vol. i. pp. 219-346), abandon- 
ing also Kant's doctrine of the subjectivity of beauty, found in 
aesthetic contemplation the perfect emancipation of intellect from 
will. In this contemplation the mind is filled with pure intellectual 
forms, the " Platonic Ideas " as he calls them, which are objecti- 
fications of the will at a certain grade of completeness of representa- 
tion. He exalts the state of artistic contemplation as the one in 
which, as pure intellect set free from will, the misery of existence is 
surmounted and something of blissful ecstasy attained. He holds 
that all things are in some degree beautiful, ugliness being viewed 
as merely imperfect manifestation or obiectification of will. In this 
way the beauty of nature, somewhat slighted by Schelling and Hegel, 
is rehabilitated. 

J. F. Herbart (q.v.) struck out another way of escaping from 
Kant's idea of a purely subjective beauty (Kerbach's edition of 
Werke, Bd. ii. pp. 339 et seq.; Bd. iv. pp. 105 et seq., Herbart 
and Bd. ix. pp. 92 et seq.). He did, indeed, adopt Kant's 
view of the aesthetic judgment as singular (" individual "); though 
he secures a certain degree of logical universality for it by emphasiz- 
ing the point that the predicate (beauty) is permanently true of the 
same aesthetic object. At the same time, by referring the beauty of 
concrete objects to certain aesthetic relations, he virtually accepted 
the possibility of universal aesthetic judgments (cf. supra). Since 
he thus reduces beauty to abstract relations he is known as a for- 
malist, and the founder of the formalistic school in aesthetics. He 
sets out with the idea that only relations please in the Kantian 
sense of producing pleasure devoid of desire; and his aim is to 
determine the " aesthetic elementary relations," or the simplest 
relations which produce this pleasure. These include those of will, 
so that, as he admits, ethical judgments are in a manner brought 



Schopen- 
hauer. 



AESTHETICS 



287 



under an aesthetic form. His typical example of aesthetic relations 
in objects of sense-perception is that of harmony between tones. 
The science of thorough-bass has, he thinks, done for music what 
should be done also for other departments of aesthetic experience. 
This doctrine of elementary relations is brought into connexion with 
the author's psychological doctrine of presentations with their 
tendencies to mutual inhibition and to fusion, and of the varying 
feeling-tones to which these processes give rise. This mode of treat- 
ing the problem of beauty and aesthetic perception has been greatly 
developed and worked up into a complete system of aesthetics by 
one of Herbart's disciples, Robert Zimmermann (Asthetik, 1858). 

Lessing, in his Laocoon and elsewhere, sought to deduce the special 
function of an art from a consideration of the means at its disposal. 
Lessiax ^ took pains to define the boundaries of poetry and 
painting, and in so doing he reached general reflexions 
upon the ends and appliances of art. Among these his distinction 
between arts which employ the coexistent in space and those which 
employ the successive (as poetry and music) is of lasting value. In 
his dramatic criticisms he similarly endeavoured to develop clear 
general principles on such points as poetic truth, improving upon 
Aristotle, on whose teaching he mainly relies. 

Goethe wrote several tracts on aesthetic topics, as well as many 
aphorisms. He attempts to mediate between the claims of ideal 
Goethe beauty, as taught by J. I. Winckelmann, and the aims of 
Schiller 'ndiyidualization. Schiller (q.v.) discusses, in a number 
of disconnected essays and letters, some of the main ques- 
tions in the philosophy of art. He looks at art from the side of 
culture and the forces of human nature, and finds in an aesthetically 
cultivated soul the reconciliation of the sensual and rational. His 
letters on aesthetic education (Ober die dsthetische Erziehung des 
Menschen, trans, by J. Weiss, Boston, 1845) are valuable, bringing 
out among other points the connexion between aesthetic activity 
and the universal impulse to play (Spieltrieb). Schiller's thoughts 
on aesthetic subjects are pervaded with the spirit of Kant's philo- 
sophy. Another example of this kind of reflective discussion of 
art by literary men is afforded us in the Vorschule der Asthetik of 
Jean Paul J ean ^ au ' Richter. This is a rather ambitious discussion 
of the sublime and ludicrous, which, however, contains 
much valuable matter on the nature of humour in romantic 
poetry. Among other writers who reflect more or less philosophically 
on the problems to which modern poetry gives rise are Wilhelm von 
Humboldt, the two Schlegels and Gervinus. 

A word may be said in conclusion on the attempts of German 
savants to apply a knowledge of physiological conditions to the 
investigation of the sensuous elements of aesthetic effect, 
as welF as to introduce into the study of the simpler 
aesthetic forms the methods of natural science. The classic 
work of Helmholtz on " Sensations of Tone " is a highly 
successful attempt to ground the known facts and laws of 
musical composition on physics and physiology. The endeavour to 
determine with a like degree of precision the physiological conditions 
of the pleasurable effects of colours and their combinations by 
E. W. Briicke, Ewald Hering and more recent investigators, has so 
far failed to realize the desideratum laid down by Herbart, that 
there should be a theory of colour-relations equal in completeness 
and exactness to that of tone-relations. The experimental inquiry 
into simple aesthetically pleasing forms was begun by G. T. Fechner 
in seeking to test the soundness of Adolf Zeising's hypothesis that 
the most pleasing proportion in dividing a line, say the vertical part 
of a cross, is the " golden section," where the smaller division is to 
the larger as the latter to the sum. He describes in his work on 
". Experimental Aesthetics " (Zur experimentalen Asthetik) a series 
of experiments carried out on a large number of persons, bearing on 
this point, the results of which he considers to be in favour of Zeising's 
hypothesis. 

3. French Writers. In France aesthetic speculation grew out of 
the discussion by poets and critics on the relation of modern art, and 
especially poetry, to ancient. The writings of Malherbe 
and Boileau in the 1 7th century, the development of the 
dispute between the " ancients " and the " moderns " at 
the end of the ryth century by B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle 
and Charles Perrault, and the continuation of the discus- 
sion as to the aims of poetry and of art generally in the 
1 8th century by Voltaire, Bayle, Diderot and others, not only offer 
to the modern theorists valuable material in the shape of a record by 
experts of their aesthetic experience, but disclose glimpses of im- 
portant aesthetic principles. A more systematic examination of 
the several arts (corresponding to that of Lessing) is to be found in 
the Cpurs de belles lettres of Charles Batteux (1765), in which the 
meaning and value of the imitation of nature by art are further 
elucidated, and the arts are classified (as by Lessing) according as 
they employ the forms of space or those of time. 

The beginning of a more scientific investigation of beauty in 
general is connected with the name of Pere Burner (see First Truths, 
English translation, 1780). He confines himself to organic 
form, and illustrates his theory by the human face. A 
beautiful face is at once the most common and most rare 
among members of the species. This seems to be a clumsy 
way of saying that it is a clear expression of the typical 
form of the species. This idea of typical beauty (which was adopted 



Coatrlbu 
tloas by 
German 
savants. 



Discus- 
sions of 
more 
concrete 
problems. 



Theories 

oforganic 

beauty. 

Huffier. 



by Reynolds) has been worked out more recently by H. Taine. In 
his work, The Ideal in Art (trans, by J. Durand), he proceeds in the 
manner of a botanist to determine a scale of characters Talae 
in the physical and moral man. The degree of the uni- 
versality or importance of a character, and of its beneficence or 
adaptation to the ends of life, determine the measure of its aesthetic 
value, and render the work of art, which seeks to represent it in its 
purity, an ideal work. 

The only elaborated systems of aesthetics in French literature 
are those constructed by the spiritualistes, the philosophic writers 
who under the influence of German thinkers effected a ,, 
reaction against the crude sensationalism of the i8th 
century. They aim at elucidating the higher and spiritual *es</i"tfJ > - 
element in aesthetic impressions, appearing to ignore any -. . ., ' 
capability in the sensuous material of affording a true ,,, 
aesthetic delight. V. Cousin and Jean Charles Levgque 
are the principal writers of this school. The latter developed 
an elaborate system of the subject (La Science du beau). All 
beauty is regarded as spiritual in its nature. The i_ ev ^ aue 
several beautiful characters of an organic body of which 
the principal are magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity 
of colour, grace or flexibility, and correspondence to environment 
may be brought under the conception of the ideal grandeur and 
order of the species. These are perceived by reason to be the mani- 
festations of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of in- 
organic nature are to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays 
of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty is in its objective 
essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in 
order. 

4. English Writers. There is nothing answering to the German 
conception of a system of aesthetics in English literature. The 
inquiries of English thinkers have been directed for the most part 
to such modest problems as the psychological process by which we 
perceive the beautiful discussions which are apt to be regarded by 
German historians as devoid of real philosophical value. Tne writers 
may be conveniently arranged in two divisions, answering to the two 
opposed directions of English thought : (l) the Intuitipnalists, those 
who recognize the existence of an objective beauty which is a simple 
unanalysable attribute or principle of things; and (2) the Analytical 
theorists, those who follow the analytical and psychological method, 
concerning themselves with the sentiment of beauty as a complex 
growth out of simpler elements. 

Shaftesbury is the first of the intuitional writers on beauty. In 
his Characteristics the beautiful and the good are combined in one 
ideal conception, much as with Plato. Matter in itself is 
ugly. The order of the world, wherein all beauty really 
resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being the 
product of spirit. The principle of beauty is perceived 
not with the outer sense, but with an internal or moral 
sense which apprehends the good as well. This perception yields the 
only true delight, namely, spiritual enjoyment. 

Francis Hutcheson, in his System of Moral Philosophy, though he 
adopts many of Shaftesbury's ideas, distinctly disclaims any inde- 
pendent self-existing beauty in objects. " All beauty," he 
says, " is relative to the sense of some mind perceiving it." 
The cause of beauty is to be found not in a simple sensa- 
tion such as colour or tone, but in a certain order among the parts, or 
" uniformity amidst variety." The faculty by which this principle 
is discerned is an internal sense which is defined as " a passive power 
of receiving ideas of beauty from all objects in which there is 
uniformity in variety." This inner sense resembles the external 
senses in the immediateness of the pleasure which its activity brings ; 
and further in the necessity of its impressions: a beautiful thing 
being always, whether we will or no, beautiful. He distinguishes 
two kinds of beauty, absolute or original, and relative or compara- 
tive. The latter is discerned in an object which is regarded as an 
imitation or semblance of another. He distinctly states that " an 
exact imitation may still be beautiful though the original were 
entirely devoid of it." He seeks to prove the universality of this 
sense of beauty, by showing that all men, in proportion to the enlarge- 
ment of their intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uni- 
formity than the opposite. 

In his Essays on the Intellectual Powers (viii. " Of Taste ") Thomas 
Reid applies his principle of common sense to the problem of beauty 
by saying that objects of beauty agree not only in pro- Reid. 

ducing a certain agreeable emotion, but in the excitation 
along with this emotion of a belief that they possess some perfection 
or excellence, that beauty exists in the objects independently of 
our minds. His theory of beauty is severely spiritual. All beauty 
resides primarily in the faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral. 
The beauty which is spread over the face of visible nature is an 
emanation from this spiritual beauty, and is beauty because it sym- 
bolizes and expresses the latter. Thus the beauty of a plant resides 
in its perfect adaptation to its end, a perfection which is an expres- 
sion of the wisdom of its Creator. 

In his Lectures on Metaphysics Sir W. Hamilton gives a short 
account of the sentiments of taste, which (with a superficial resem- 
blance to Kant) he regards as subserving both the sub- Hamilton. 
sidiary and the elaborative faculties in cognition, that is, 
the imagination and the understanding. The activity of the 



The Jntul- 
tlonallsts. 
Shaftes- 
bury. 



Hutche- 
son. 



288 



AESTHETICS 



former corresponds to the element of variety in a beautiful object, 
that of the latter with its unity. He explicitly excludes all other 
kinds of pleasure, such as the sensuous, from the proper gratification 
of beauty. He denies that the attribute of beauty belongs to fitness. 

John Kuskin's well-known speculations on the nature of beauty 
in Modern Pa-inters (" Of ideas of beauty "), though sadly wanting in 
Ruskla scientific precision, have a certain value in the history of 
aesthetics. For him beauty is spiritual and typical of 
divine attributes. Its true nature is appreciated by the theoretic 
faculty which is concerned in the moral conception and apprecia- 
tion of ideas of beauty, and must be distinguished from the imagina- 
tive or artistic faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain 
way and combining the ideas received from external nature. He 
distinguishes between typical and vital beauty. The former is the 
external quality of bodies,which typifies some divine attribute. The 
(alter consists in " the appearance of felicitous fulfilment of function 
in living things." The forms of typical beauty are: (l) infinity, 
the type of the divine incomprehensibility ; (2) unity, the type of the 
divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, the type of the divine per- 
manence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) purity, 
the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the type of 
government by law. Vital beauty, again, is regarded as relative 
when the degree of exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic 
if only the degree of conformity, of an individual to the appointed 
functions of the species is taken into account. Ruskin's writings 
illustrate the extreme tendency to identify aesthetic with moral 
perception. 

Addison's " Essays on the Imagination," contributed to the 
Spectator, though they belong to popular literature, contain the germ 
The ' scientific analysis in the statement that the pleasures 

analytical ^ imagination (which arise originally from sight) fall into 
theorists. two c ' ass es: (i) primary pleasures, which entirely pro- 
Addison. ce d from objects before our eyes; and (2) secondary 
pleasures, flowing from the ideas of visible objects. The 
latter are greatly extended by the addition of the proper enjoyment 
of resemblance, which is at the basis of all mimicry and wit. Addison 
recognizes, too, to some extent, the influence of association upon 
our aesthetic preferences. 

In the Elements of Criticism of Home (Lord Kames) another at- 
tempt is made to resolve the pleasure of beauty into its elements. 
Home Beauty and ugliness are simply the pleasant and un- 
pleasant in the higher senses of sight and hearing. He 
appears to admit no general characteristic of beautiful objects 
beyond this power of yielding pleasure. Like Hutcheson, he divides 
beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understands by the latter the 
appearance of fitness and utility, which is excluded from the beautiful 
by Hutcheson. 

Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose theory of 
beauty closely resembles that of Pere Buffier, we come to the 
Horarth speculationsofanotherartist and painter, William Hogarth. 
He discusses, in his Analysis of Beauty, all the elements of 
visual beauty. He finds in this the following elements: (i) fitness 
of the parts to some design ; (2) variety in as many ways as possible ; 
(3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is only beautiful 
when it helps to preserve the character of fitness ; (4) simplicity or 
distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its 
enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which 
provides employment for our active energies, leading the eye " a 
wanton kind: of chase"; (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws 
our attention and produces admiration and awe. The beauty of 
proportion he resolves into the needs of fitness. Hogarth applies 
these principles to the determination of the degrees of beauty in 
lines, figures and groups of forms. Among lines he singles out for 
special honour the serpentine (formed by drawing a line once round 
from the base to the apex of a long slender cone). 

Burke's speculations, in his Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of 
the Sublime and Beautiful, illustrate the tendency of English writers 
. to treat the problem as a psychological one and to intro- 

duce physiological considerations. He finds the elements 
of beauty to be : (i) smallness; (2) smoothness; (3) gradual variation 
of direction in gentle curves; (4) delicacy, or the appearance of 
fragility ; (5) brightness, purity and softness of colour. The sublime 
is rather crudely resolved into astonishment, which he thinks always 
contains an element of terror. Thus " infinity has a tendency to 
fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke seeks what he calls 
" efficient causes " for these aesthetic impressions incertain affections 
of the nerves of sight analogous to those of other senses, namely, 
the soothing effect of a relaxation of the nerve fibres. The arbitrari- 
ness and narrowness of this theory cannot well escape the reader's 
attention. 

Alison, in his well-known Essays on the Nature and Principles of 
Taste, proceeds by a method exactly the opposite to that of Hogarth 
... and Burke. He seeks to analyse the mental process when 

we experience the emotion of beauty or sublimity. He 
finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the imagination, 
namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the mind, which ideas 
always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (e.g. cheer- 
fulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the object. He thus makes 
association the sole source of aesthetic delight, and denies the exist- 
ence of a primary source in sensations themselves. He illustrates 



the working of the principle of association at great length, and with 
much skill ; yet his attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic 
pleasure fails completely. Francis Jeffrey's Essays on Beauty (in 
the Edinburgh Review, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition) are 
little more than a modification of Alison's theory. 

D. Stewart's chief contribution to aesthetic discussion in his 
Philosophical Essays consists in pointing out the unwarranted 
assumption lurking in the doctrine of a single quality Dusald 
running through all varieties of beautiful object. He seeks Stewart, 
to show how the successive changes in the meaning of the 
term " beautiful " have arisen. He suggeststhat it originally connoted 
the pleasure of colour. The value of his discussion resides more in 
the criticism of his predecessors than in the contribution of new 
ideas. His conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology 
of the word, emphasizes the element of height in objects. 

Of the association psychologists James Mill did little more towards 
the analysis of the sentiments of beauty than re-state Alison's doc- 
trine. Alexander Bain, in his treatise, The Emotions and Bala. 
the Will (" Aesthetic Emotions "), carries this examination 
considerably further. He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other 
varieties of pleasurable emotion by three characteristics: (i) their 
freedom from life-serving uses, being gratifications sought for their 
own sakes; (2) their purity from all disagreeable concomitants; 
(3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable nature. He takes a 
comprehensive view of the constituents of aesthetic enjoyment, in- 
cluding the pleasures of sensation and of its revived or its " ideal " 
form; of revived emotional states; and lastly the satisfaction of 
those wide-ranging susceptibilities which we call the love of novelty, 
of contrast and of harmony. The effect of sublimity is connected 
with the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees, 
which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the beholder. 
The ludicrous, again, is defined by Bain, improving on Aristotle 
and Hobbes, as the degradation of something possessing dignity in 
circumstances that excite no other strong emotion. 

Herbert Spencer, in his First Principles, Principles of Psychology 
and Essays, has given an interesting turn to the psychology of 
aesthetics by the application of his doctrine of evolution. Adopting 
Schiller's idea of a connexion between aesthetic activity Herbert 
and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point in tracing spencer. 
the evolution of aesthetic activity. Play is defined as the 
outcome of the superfluous energies of the organism : as the activity 
of organs and faculties which, owing to a prolonged period of in- 
activity, have become specially ready to discharge their function, and 
as a consequence vent themselves in simulated actions. Aesthetic 
activities supply a similar mode of self-relieving discharge to the 
higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further agree 
with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive to 
life; in being gratifications sought for their own sake only. Spencer 
seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic pleasures according to 
the degree of complexity of the faculty exercised: from those of 
sensation up to the revived emotional experiences which constitute 
the aesthetic sentiment proper. Among the more vaguely revived 
emotions Spencer includes more permanent feelings of the race 
transmitted by heredity; as when he refers the deep and indefinable 
emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones expressive 
of feeling built up during the past history of our species. His bio- 
logical treatment of aesthetic activity has had a wide influence, some 
(e.g. Grant Allen) being content to develop his evolutional method. 
Yet, as suggested above, his theory is now recognized as taking us 
only a little way towards an adequate understanding of our aesthetic 
experience. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.' (a) Works on General Aesthetics. 

English and American. There are no important recent works 
which deal with the whole subject. The following will be found 
helpful: Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychology, pt. viii. c. 9, 
" Aesthetic Sentiments," and the papers on " Use and Beauty," 
" Origin and Function of Music " L and others in the Essays; A. Bain, 
Emotions and Will, "Aesthetic Emotions"; J. Sully, Human 
Mind, ii. " Aesthetic Sentiment " ; Grant Allen, " Physiological 
Aesthetics " (Meth., PI., Senses, Play) ; Rutgers Marshall, Pain, 
Pleasure and Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles (Meth., PI., Play). 

French and Italian Works. M. Guyau, LesProblemesdel'esthetique 
contemporaine (1884) (PI., Play) ; E. Veron, L'Esthetique(i8<)o) (slight 
PI.) ; L. Bray, Du Beau (1902), (PI., Play) ; P. Saurian, La Beaute 
rationnelle (1904) (Meth., PL, Senses, Einf.) ; M. Pilo, Estetica (PL, 
Senses); A. Rolla, Storia delle idee estetiche in Italia (1905) (full, 
account of ideas of Dante and other medieval writers, as well as of 1 
modern systems). 

German Works. K. Kostlin, Prolegomena zur Asthetik (1889) 

1 Only recent works are included. Important points in each are 
indicated by abbreviations, namely : 
Einf., for Einfuhlung (expres- PL, for theory of pleasure. 

sional element in form). Play, for Play and aesthetic 

EvoL, for bearings of evolution. enjoyment. 
111., for aesthetic illusion. Senses, for aesthetic value of 

Judg., for aesthetic judgment" higher senses. 

Meth., for method of aesthetics. VaL, for aesthetic value. 
Norm., for normative function of 

aesthetics. 



AESTIVATION ^THELFRITH 



289 



(good introduction to subject); K. Groos, Der dsthetische Genuss 
(1902) (Meth., Judg. , Play, Senses, Einf. and 111.) ; J. Volkelt, System 
der Asthetik (1905) (very full and clear) (Meth., Norm., Evol., Senses, 
Einf.); J. Cohn, Allgemeine Asthetik (1901) (Val., Play, Einf.); K. 
Lange, Das Wesen der Kunst (1901) (Meth., Einf., 111., Play). 

(b) Works on History o] Aesthetics. H. Lotze, Geschichte der 
Asthetik in Deutschland; M. Schasler, Krilische Geschichte der 
Asthetik (full and elaborate, dealing with ancient and modern 
theories) ; E. von Hartmann, Die deutsche Asthetik seit Kant 
(Ausgewahlte Werke, iii.); K. H. von Stein, Die Entstehung der 
neueren Asthetik (theories of French critics, &c.) ; F. Brunetiere, 
L' Evolution des genres (History of critical discussions in the I7th 
and i8th centuries); B. Bosanquet, History of Aesthetics (very full, 
especially on ancient theories and German systems); W. Knight, 
Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. i. " History " (Univ. Extension 
Manuals, a popular resume with quotations). (J. S.) 

AESTIVATION (from Lat. aestivare, to spend the aestas, or 
summer; the word is sometimes spelled " estivation"), literally 
" summer residence," a term used in zoology for the condition 
of torpor into which certain animals pass during the hottest 
season in hot and dry countries, contrasted with the similar 
winter condition known as hibernation (q.v.). In botany the 
word is used of the praefloration or folded arrangement of the 
petals in a flower before expansion in the. summer, contrasted with 
" vernation " of leaves which unfold in the spring. 

jETHELBALD, king of Mercia, succeeded Ceolred A.D. 716. 
According to Felix, Life of St GuMac, he visited the saint at 
Crowland, when exiled by Ceolred and pursued by his emissaries 
before his accession, and was cheered by predictions of his future 
greatness. According to Bede, the whole of Britain as far north 
as the Humber was included within the sphere of his authority. 
His energy in preserving his influence is shown by several entries 
in the Chronicle. He made an expedition against Wessex in 
733, in which year he took the royal vill of Somerton. In 740 
he took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria 
in a campaign against the Picts to invade his kingdom. In 743 
he fought with Cuthred, king of Wessex, against the Welsh, but 
the alliance did not last long, as in 752 Cuthred took up arms 
against him. In 757 /Ethelbald was slain by his guards at 
Seckington (Warwickshire) and buried at Repton. He seems to 
have been the most powerful and energetic king of Mercia be- 
tween Penda and Offa. A letter of St Boniface is preserved, 
in which he rebukes this king for his immoralities and encroach- 
ments on church property, while recognizing his merits as a 
monarch. By a charter of 749 he freed ecclesiastical lands from 
all obligations except the trinoda necessitas. 

See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), v. 23 and Continuatio s.a. 740, 
750, 757; Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 716, 733, 737, 
740, 741, 743, 755; Mabillon, Acta Sanctorum, ii. pp. 264, 275, 276, 
2 79. 283-284; P. Jaffe, Monumenta Moguntiaca, iii. pp. 168-177; 
W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 178 (1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.) 

/ETHELBALD, king of Wessex, was the son of ^thelwulf, 
with whom he led the West Saxons to victory against the Danes 
at Aclea, 851. According to Asser he rebelled against his 
father on the latter's return from Rome in 856, and deprived 
him of Wessex, which he ruled until his death in 860. On his 
father's death in 858 he married his widow, Judith. 

See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 12; Saxon 
Chronicle, s.a. 851, 855, 860. 

KTHELBERHT, king of Kent, son of Eormenric, probably 
came to the throne in A.D. 560. The first recorded event of 
his reign was a serious reverse at the hands of Ceawlin of 
Wessex in the year 568 (Chronicle) at a place called Wibbandune. 
jEthelberht married Berhta, daughter of Charibert, king of Paris, 
?ho brought over Bishop Liudhard as her private confessor. 
:ording to Bede, ^Ethelberht's supremacy in 597 stretched 
)ver all the English kingdoms as far as the Humber. The nature 
of this supremacy has been much disputed, but it was at any 
rate sufficient to guarantee the safety of Augustine in his con- 
ference with the British bishops. ^Ethelberht exercised a 
stricter sway over Essex, where his nephew Saberht was king. 
In 597 the mission of Augustine landed in Thanet and was re- 
ceived at first with some hesitation by the king. He seems to 
have acted with prudence and moderation during the conversion 
of his kingdom and did not countenance compulsory proselytism. 

Kthelberht gave Augustine a dwelling-place in Canterbury, and 
I. 10 




who 
Accc 
over 



Christ Church was consecrated in 603. He also made grants to 
found the see of Rochester, of which Justus became first bishop 
in 604, and his influence established Mellitus at London in the 
same year. A code of laws issued by him which is still extant 
is probably the oldest document in the English language, and 
contains a list of money fines for various crimes. Towards 
the close of his reign his pre-eminence as Bretwalda was dis- 
turbed by the increasing power of Raedwald of East Anglia. 
He died probably in 616, and was succeeded by his son Eadbald. 

See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 25, 26, ii. 3, 5; Saxon Chronicle 
(Earle and Plummer), s.a. 568. (F. G. M. B.) 

KTHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the 
sub-kingdom of Kent during the lifetime of his father /Ethelwulf , 
and retained it until the death of his elder brother ^Ethelbald in 
860, when he became sole king of Wessex and Kent, the younger 
brothers .^thelred and Alfred renouncing their claim. He ruled 
these kingdoms for five years and died in 865. His reign was 
marked by two serious attacks on the part of the Danes, who 
destroyed Winchester in 86p, in spite of the resistance of the 
ealdormen Osric and ^Ethelwulf with the levies of Hampshire 
and Berkshire, while in 865 they treacherously ravaged Kent. 

See Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 860, 865; King 
Alfred's Will; W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 553. 

THELFLAED (ETHELFLEDA), the " Lady of the Mercians," 
the eldest child of Alfred the Great, was educated with her 
brother Edward at her father's court. As soon as she was of 
marriageable age (probably about A.D. 886), she was married to 
^Ethelred, earl of Mercia, to whom Alfred entrusted the control 
of Mercia. On the accession of her brother Edward, ^Ethelflaed 
and her husband continued to hold Mercia. In 907 they fortified 
Chester, and in 909 and 910 either ^Ethelflaed or her husband 
must have led the Mercian host at the battles of Tettenhall and 
Wednesfield (or Tettenhall- Wednesfield, if these battles are one 
and the same). It was probably about this time that ^Ethelred 
fell ill, and the Norwegians and Danes from Ireland unsuccessfully 
besieged Chester. yEthelflaed won the support of the Danes 
against the Norwegians, and seems also to have entered into an 
alliance with the Scots and the Welsh against the pagans. In 
911 ./Ethelred died and Edward took over Middlesex and Oxford- 
shire. Except for this ^Ethelflaed's authority remained un- 
impaired. In 912 she fortified " Scergeat " and Bridgenorth, 
Tamworth and Stafford in 913, Eddisbury and Warwick in 914, 
Cherbury, " Weardbyrig " and Runcorn in 915. In 916 she sent 
an expedition against the Welsh, which advanced as far as 
Brecknock. In 917 Derby was captured from the Danes, and 
in the next year Leicester and York both submitted to her. 
She died in the same year at Tamworth (June 12), and was 
buried in St Peter's church at Gloucester. This noble queen, 
whose career was as distinguished as that of her father and 
brother, left one daughter, yElfwyn. For some eighteen months 
iElfwyn seems to have wielded her mother's authority, and then, 
just before the Christmas of 919, Edward took Mercia into his 
own hands, and jElfwyn was " led away " into Wessex. .iEthel- 
flaed and her husband wielded almost kingly authority, and the 
royal title is often given them by the chroniclers. 

See The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. (especially the Mercian register 
in MSS. B, C and D) ; Florence of Worcester; Fragments of Irish 
Annals (ed. O'Conor), pp. 227-237; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.) 

KTHELFRITH, king of Northumbria, is said to have come 
to the throne in A.D. 593, being the son of ^Ethelric (probably 
reigned 568-572). He married Acha, daughter of Ella GElle), 
king of Deira, whom he succeeded probably in 605, expelling 
his son Edwin. In 603 he repelled the attack of Aidan, king of 
the Dalriad Scots, at Daegsastan, defeating him with great loss. 
The appearance of Hering, son of Hussa, ^Ethelfrith's prede- 
cessor, on the side of the invaders seems to indicate family 
quarrels in the royal house of Bernicia. Later in his reign, 
probably in 614, he defeated the Welsh in a great battle at 
Chester and massacred the monks of Bangor who were assembled 
to aid them by their prayers. This war may have been due 
partly to ^Ethelfrith's persecution of Edwin, but it had a stra- 
tegic importance in the separation of the North Welsh from the 
Strathclyde Britons. In 617 ^Ethelfrith was defeated and slain 



290 



HIRELING ^THELRED II. 



at the river Idle by Raedwald of East Anglia, whom Edwin had 
persuaded to take up his cause. 

See Bede, Chronica Majora, 531; Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 34, 
ii. 2; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 593, 603, 605, 616; Hist. Brittonum, 
57, 63; Annales Cambriae, s.a. 613. (F. G. M. B.) 

JETHELING, an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of cethele, or 
ethel, meaning noble, and ing, belonging to, and akin to the 
modern German words Adel, nobility, and adelig, noble. During 
the earliest years of the Anglo-Saxon rule in England the word 
was probably used to denote any person of noble birth. Its 
use was, however, soon restricted to members of a royal family, 
and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used almost exclusively 
for members of the royal house of Wessex. It was occasionally 
used after the Norman Conquest to designate members of the 
royal family. The earlier part of the word formed part of the 
name of several Anglo-Saxon kings, e.g. ^Ethelbert, .iEthelwulf, 
/Ethelred, and was used obviously to indicate their noble birth. 
According to a document which probably dates from the loth 
century, the wergild of an aetheling was fixed- at 15,000 thrymsas, 
or 1 1 , 2 50 shillings. This wergild is equal to that of an archbishop 
and one-half of that of a king. 

THELNOTH (d. 1038), archbishop of Canterbury, known 
also as EGELNODUS or EDNODUS, was a son of the ealdorman 
^Ethelmaer, and a member of the royal family of Wessex. He 
became a monk at Glastonbury, then dean of the monastery of 
Christ Church, Canterbury, and chaplain to King Canute, and 
on the I3th of November 1020 was consecrated archbishop of 
Canterbury. In 1022 he went to Rome to obtain the pallium, 
and was received with great respect by Pope Benedict VIII. 
Returning from Rome he purchased at Pavia a relic said to 
be an arm of St Augustine of Hippo, for a hundred talents of 
silver and one of gold, and presented it to the abbey of Coventry. 
He appears to have exercised considerable influence over Canute, 
largely by whose aid he restored his cathedral at Canterbury. 
A story of doubtful authenticity tells how he refused to crown 
King Harold I., as he had promised Canute to crown none but a 
son of the king by his wife, Emma. ^Ethelnoth, who was called 
the " Good," died on the 29th of October 1038, and his name 
appears in the lists of saints. 

4STHELRED, king of Mercia, succeeded his brother Wulfhere 
in A.D. 675. In 676 he ravaged Kent with fire and sword, 
destroying thomonasteries and churches and taking Rochester. 
jEthelred married Osthryth, the sister of Ecgfrith, king of 
Northumbria, but in spite of this connexion a quarrel arose 
between the two kings, presumably over the possession of the 
province of Lindsey, which Ecgfrith had won back at the close 
of the reign of Wulfhere. In a battle on the banks of the Trent 
in 679, the king of Mercia was victorious and regained the 
province. ^Elfwine, the brother of Ecgfrith, was slain on this 
occasion, but at the intervention of Theodore, archbishop of 
Canterbury, yEthelred agreed to pay a wergild for the North- 
umbrian prince and so prevented further hostilities. Osthryth 
was murdered in 697 and yEthelred abdicated in 704, choosing 
Coenred as his successor. He then became abbot of Bardney, 
and, according to Eddius, recommended Wilfrid to Coenred on 
his return from Rome. ^Ethelred died at Bardney in 716. (See 
WILFRID.) 

SOURCES. Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine), 23 40, 43, 45-48, 57; 
Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), iii. n, iv. 12,21; Saxon Chronicle, 
s.a. 676, 679, 704, 716, (F. G. M. B.) 

jETHELRED I., king of Wessex and Kent (866-871), was 
the fourth son of ^Ethelwulf of Wessex, and should, by his 
father's will, have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest 
brother ^Ethelbald. He seems, however, to have stood aside in 
favour of his brother jEthelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint 
kingdoms he succeeded in 866. ^Ethelred's reign was one long 
struggle against the Danes. In the year of his succession a 
large Danish force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868 
^Ethelred and his brother Alfred went to help Burgred, or 
Burhred, of Mercia, against this host, but the Mercians soon 
made peace with their foes. In 871 the Danes encamped at 
Reading, where they defeated ^Ethelred and his brother, but 
later in the year the English won a great victory at " /Escesdun." 



A fortnight later they were defeated at Basing, but partially 
retrieved their fortune by a victory at " Msretun " (perhaps 
Marden in Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field. In the 
Easter of this year ^Ethelred died, perhaps of wounds received 
in the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne. 
He left a son, yEthelwold, who gave some trouble to his cousin 
Edward the Elder, when the latter succeeded to the kingdom. 
^Ethelweard the historian was also a descendant of this king. 
AUTHORITIES. The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; Birch, Cartul. 
Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 516-526; D.N.B., s.v. ; Eng. Hist. Review, {. 
218-234. (A. Mw.) 

JETHELRED II. (or ETHELRED) (c. 968-1016), king of the 
English (surnamed THE UNREADY, i.e. without rede or counsel), 
son of King Edgar by his second wife ^Elfthryth, was born in 
968 or 969 and succeeded to the throne on the murder of his 
step-brother Edward (the Martyr) in 979. His reign was dis- 
astrous from the beginning. The year after his accession the 
Danish invasions, long unintermitted under Edgar the Peaceful, 
recommenced; though as yet their object was plunder only, 
not conquest, and the attacks were repeated in 981, 982 and 988. 
In 991 the Danes burned Ipswich, and defeated and slew the 
East Saxon ealdorman Brihtnoth at Maldon. After this, peace 
was purchased by a payment of 10,000 a disastrous expedient. 
The Danes were to desist from their ravages, but were allowed 
to stay in England. Next year ^Ethelred himself broke the peace 
by an attack on the Danish ships. Despite the treachery of 
JElinc, the English were victorious; and the Danes sailed off to 
ravage Lindsey and Northumbria. In 994 Olaf Tryggvason, 
king of Norway, and Sweyn, king of Denmark, united in a great 
invasion and attacked London. Foiled by the valour of the 
citizens, they sailed away and harried the coast from Essex to 
Hampshire. ^Ethelred now resorted to the old experiment 
and bought them off for 16,000 and a promise of supplies. 
Olaf also visited ^Ethelred at the latter's request and, receiving 
a most honourable welcome, was induced to promise that he 
would never again come to England with hostile intent, an en- 
gagement which he faithfully kept. The Danish attacks were 
repeated in 997, 998, 999, and in 1000 ^Ethelred availed himself 
of the temporary absence of the Danes in Normandy to invade 
Cumberland, at that time a Viking stronghold. Next year, 
however, the Northmen returned and inflicted worse evil than 
ever. The national defence seemed to have broken down alto- 
gether. In despair ^Ethelred again offered them money, which 
they again accepted, the sum paid on this occasion being 24,000. 
But soon afterwards the king, suspecting treachery, resolved to 
get rid of his enemies once and for all. Orders were issued 
commanding the slaughter on St Brice's day (December 2) of 
" all the Danish men who were in England." Such a decree 
could obviously not be carried out literally; but we cannot 
doubt that the slaughter was great. This violence, however, 
only made matters worse. Next year Sweyn returned, his 
hostility fanned by the desire for revenge. For two years he 
ravaged and slew; in 1003 Exeter was destroyed; Norwich 
and Thetford in 1004. No effectual resistance was offered, 
despite a gallant effort here and there; the disorganization of 
the country was complete. In 1005 the Danes were absent in 
Denmark, but came back next year, and emboldened by the utter 
lack of resistance, they ranged far inland. In 1007 ^Ethelred 
bought them off for a larger sum than ever (36,000), and for 
two years the land enjoyed peace. In 1009, however, in accord- 
ance with a resolution made by the witan in the preceding year, 
,Cthelred collected such a fleet " as never before had been in 
England in any king's day"; but owing to a miserable court 
quarrel the effort came to nothing. The king then summoned 
a general levy of the nation, with no better result. Just as he 
was about to attack, the traitor Edric prevented him from doing 
so, and the opportunity was lost. In 1010 the Danes returned, 
to find the kingdom more utterly disorganized than ever. " There 
was not a chief man in the kingdom who could gather a force, 
but each fled as he best might; nor even at last would any there 
resist another." Incapable of offering resistance, the king again 
offered money, this time no less than 48,000. While it was being 



.ETHELSTAN ^THELWEARD 



291 



collected, the Danes sacked Canterbury and barbarously slew 
the archbishop Alphege. The tribute was paid soon afterwards; 
and about the same time the Danish leader Thurkill entered the 
English service. From 1013 an important change is discernible 
in the character of the Danish attacks, which now became 
definitely political in their aim. In this year Sweyn sailed up 
the Trent and received the submission of northern England, 
and then marching south, he attacked London. Failing to take 
it, he hastened west and at Bath received the submission of 
Wessex. Then he returned northwards, and after that " all the 
nation considered him as full king." London soon acknowledged 
him, and .Ethelred, after taking refuge for a while with Thurkill's 
fleet, escaped to Normandy. Sweyn died in February 1014, 
and ^thelred was recalled by the witan, on giving a promise 
to reign better in future. At once he hastened north against 
Canute, Sweyn's son, who claimed to succeed his father, but 
Canute sailed away, only to return next year, when the traitor 
Edric joined him and Wessex submitted. Together Canute and 
Edric harried Mercia, and were preparing to reduce London, 
when .lEthelred died there on the 23rd of April 1016. Weak, 
self-indulgent, improvident, he had pursued a policy of oppor- 
tunism to a fatal conclusion. 

^Ethelred's wife was Emma, or ^Elfgif u, daughter of Richard I. 
the Fearless, duke of the Normans, whom he married in 1002. 
After the king's death Emma became the wife of Canute the 
Great, and after his death in 1035 she struggled hard to secure 
England for her son, Hardicanute. In 1037, however, when 
Harold Harefoot became sole king, she was banished; she went 
to Flanders, returning to England with Hardicanute in 1040. 
In 1043, after Edward the Confessor had become king he seized 
the greater part of Emma's great wealth, and the queen lived 
in retirement at Winchester until her death on the 6th of March 
1052. By ^Jthelred Emma had two sons, Edward the Confessor 
and the aHheling Alfred (d. 1036), and by Canute she was the 
mother of Hardicanute. Emma's marriage with ^Jthelred was 
an important step in the history of the relations between 
England and Normandy, and J. R. Green says " it suddenly 
opened for its rulers a distinct policy, a distinct course of 
action, which led to the Norman conquest of England. From 
the moment of Emma's marriage Normandy became a chief 
factor in English politics." 

AUTHORITIES. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (edition by C. 
Plummer, 2 vols. Oxford, 1892-1899) ; Florence of Worcester (ed. B. 
Thorpe, London, 18481849) ; Encomium Emmae (ed. by G. H. Pertz 
.in the Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum, Band xix., Hanover, 1866) 
for the latter part of the reign. .See also J. M. Kemble, Codex Diplo- 
maticus aevi Saxonici (London, 18391848); and B. Thorpe, Ancient 
Laws (London, 1840). (C. S. P.*) 

JETHELSTAN (c. 894-940), Saxon king, was the son 
(probably illegitimate) of Edward the elder. He had been the 
favourite of his grandfather Alfred, and was brought up in the 
household of his aunt ^Ethelflaed, the " Lady of the Mercians." 
On the death of his father in 924, at some date after the i2th 
of November, ^Ethelstan succeeded him and was crowned at 
Kingston shortly after. The succession did not, however, take 
place without opposition. One Alfred, probably a descendant 
of ^thelred I., formed a plot to seize the king at Winchester; 
the plot was discovered and Alfred was sent to Rome to defend 
himself, but died shortly after. The king's own legitimate 
brother Edwin made no attempt on the throne, but in 933 he 
was drowned at sea under somewhat mysterious circumstances; 
the later chroniclers ascribe his death to foul play on the part 
of the king, but this seems more than doubtful. 

One of jEthelstan's first public acts was to hold a conference 
at Tamworth with Sihtric, the Scandinavian king of Northumbria, 
and as a result Sihtric received yEthelstan's sister in marriage. 
In the next year Sihtric died and ^Ethelstan took over the 
Northumbrian kingdom. He now received, at Dacre in Cumber- 
land, the submission of all the kings of the island, viz. Howel Dda, 
king of West Wales, Owen, king of Cumbria, Constantine, king 
of the Scots, and Ealdred of Bamburgh, and henceforth he calls 
himself "rex totius Britanniae." About this time (the exact 
chronology is uncertain) ^Ethelstan expelled Sihtric's brother 






Guthfrith, destroyed the Danish fortress at York, received the 
submission of the Welsh at Hereford, fixing their boundary along 
the line of the Wye, and drove the Cornishmen west of the Tamar, 
fortifying Exeter as an English city. 

In 934 he invaded Scotland by land and sea, perhaps owing 
to an alliance between Constantine and Anlaf Sihtricsson. The 
army advanced as far north as Dunottar, in Kincardineshire, 
while the navy sailed to Caithness. Simeon of Durham speaks 
of a submission of Scotland as a result; if it ever took place it 
was a mere form, for three years later we find a great confederacy 
formed in Scotland against ^Ethelstan. This confederacy of 
937 was joined by Constantine, king of Scotland, the Welsh of 
Strathclyde, and the Norwegian chieftains Anlaf Sihtricsson 
and Anlaf Godfredsson, who, though they came from Ireland, 
had powerful English connexions. A great battle was fought 
at Brunanburh (perhaps Brunswark or Birrenswark hill in S.E. 
Dumfriesshire), in which ^thelstan and his brother Edmund were 
completely victorious. England had been freed from its greatest 
danger since the days of the struggle of Alfred against Guthrum. 

jEthelstan was the first Saxon king who could claim in any 
real sense to be lord paramount of Britain. In his charters he 
is continually called " rex totius Britanniae," and he adopts for 
the first time the Greek title basileus. This was not merely an 
idle flourish, for some of his charters are signed by Welsh and 
Scottish kings as subreguli. Further, ^Ethelstan was the first 
king to bring England into close touch with continental Europe. 
By the marriage of his half-sisters he was brought into connexion 
with the chief royal and princely houses of France and Germany. 
His sister Eadgifu married Charles the Simple, Eadhild became 
the wife of Hugh the Great, duke of France, Eadgyth was 
married to the emperor Otto the Great, and her sister ^Elfgifu to 
a petty German prince. Embassies passed between ^Ethelstan 
and Harold Fairhair, first king of Norway, with the result 
that Harold's son Haakon was brought up in England and is 
known in Scandinavian history as Haakon Adalsteinsfostri. 

yEthelstan died at Gloucester in 940, and was buried at Malmes- 
bury, an abbey which he had munificently endowed during his 
lifetime. Apparently he was never married, and he certainly 
had no issue. 

A considerable body of law has come down to us in ^Ethel- 
stan'sname. The chief collections are those issued at Grately in 
Hampshire, at Exeter, at Thunresfeld, and the Judicia civitatis 
Lundonie. In the last-named one personal touch is found when 
the king tells the archbishop how grievous it is to put to death 
persons of twelve winters for stealing. The king secured the 
raising of the age limit to fifteen. 

AUTHORITIES. Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; William 
of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum, i. 141-157, Rolls Series, contain- 
ing valuable original information (v. Stubbs' Introduction, II. lx.- 
Ixvii.); Birch, Cartel. Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 641-747; A.S. Laws, 
(ed. Liebermann), i. 146-183; jEthelweard, Florence of Worcester. 
Secondary: Saxon Chronicle (ed. Plummer), vol. ii. pp. 132-142; 
D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.) 

&THELWEARD (ETHELWARD), Anglo-Saxon historian, was 
the great-grandson of yEthelred, the brother of Alfred, and 
ealdorman or earl of the western provinces (i.e. probably of the 
whole of Wessex). He first signs as dux or ealdorman in 973, 
and continues to sign until 998, about which time his death 
must have taken place. In the year 991 he was associated with 
archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the victorious 
Danes from Maldon, and in 994 he was sent with Bishop yElfheah 
(Alphege) of Winchester to make peace with Olaf at Andover. 
>Ethelweard was the author of a Latin Chronicle extending to 
the year 975. Up to the year 892 he is largely dependent on 
the Saxon Chronicle, with a few details of his own; later he is 
largely independent of it. ^Ethelweard gave himself the bom- 
bastic title " Patricius Consul Quaestor Ethelwerdus," and un- 
fortunately this title is only too characteristic of the man. 
His narrative is highly rhetorical, and as he at the same time 
attempts more than Tacitean brevity his narrative is often 
very obscure. ^Ethelweard was the friend and patron of jElfric 
the grammarian. 

AUTHORITIES. Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, 994 E; Birch, 



292 



.&THELWULF AETHER 



Cartularium Saxonicum; A.S. Laws (ed. Liebermann), pp. 220-224; 
Fabii Ethelwerdi Chron., Mon. Hist. Brit. 449-454. Secondary: 
Plummer, Saxon Chronicle, vol. ii. p. ci. ; Napier and Stevenson, 
Crawford Charters, pp. 118-120; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.) 

JETHELWULF, king of the West Saxons, succeeded his father 
Ecgberht in A.D. 839. It is recorded in the Saxon Chronicle for 
823 that he was sent with Eahlstan, bishop of Sherborne, and 
the ealdorman Wulfheard to drive out Baldred, king of Kent, 
which was successfully accomplished. On the accession of 
^thelwulf , jEthelstan, his son or brother, was made sub-king of 
Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex. ^Ethelwulf's reign was chiefly 
occupied with struggles against the Danes. After the king's 
defeat 843-844, the Somerset and Dorset levies won a victory at 
the mouth of the Parret, c. 850. In 851 Ceorl, with the men of 
Devon, defeated the Danes at Wigganburg, and yEthelstan of 
Kent was victorious at Sandwich, in spite of which they wintered 
in England that year for the first time. In 851 also ^Ethelwulf 
and ^Ethelbald won their great victory at Aclea, probably the 
modern Ockley. In 853 jEthelwulf subdued the North Welsh, 
in answer to the appeal of Burgred of Mercia, and gave him his 
daughter .lEthelswith in marriage. 855 is the year of the Dona- 
tion of yEthelwulf and of his journey to Rome with Alfred. On 
his way home he married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald. 
According to Asser he was compelled to give up Wessex to his 
son jEthelbald on his return, and content himself with the 
eastern sub-kingdom. He died in 858. 

See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 1-16; Saxon 
Chronicle, s.a. 823, 836, 840, 851, 853, 855. (F. G. M. B.) 

AETHER, or ETHER (Gr. aiOrip, probably from aWw, I burn, 
though Plato in his Cratylus (410 B) derives the name from 
its perpetual motion oYt 6.fl Oel irepl rdv aipa pkuiv, d0ei)p 
Suaicos o.v /caXoTro), a material substance of a more subtle 
kind than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of 
space which are apparently empty. 

" The hypothesis of an aether has been maintained by different 
speculators for very different reasons. To those who maintained 
the existence of a plenum as a philosophical principle, nature's 
abhorrence of a vacuum was a sufficient reason for imagining 
an all-surrounding aether, even though every other argument 
should be against it. To Descartes, who made extension the 
sole essential property of matter, and matter a necessary condi- 
tion of extension, the bare existence of bodies apparently at a 
distance was a proof of the existence of a continuous medium 
between them. But besides these high metaphysical necessities 
for a medium, there were more mundane uses to be fulfilled by 
aethers. Aethers were invented for the planets to swim in, to 
constitute electric atmospheres and magnetic effluvia, to convey 
sensations from one part of our bodies to another, and so on, 
till all space had been filled three or four times over with aethers. 
It is only when we remember the extensive and mischievous 
influence on science which hypotheses about aethers used for- 
merly to exercise, that we can appreciate the horror of aethers 
which sober-minded men had during the i8th century, and 
which, probably as a sort of hereditary prejudice, descended 
even to John Stuart Mill. The disciples of Newton maintained 
that in the fact of the mutual gravitation of the heavenly bodies, 
according to Newton's law, they had a complete quantitative 
account of their motions; and they endeavoured to follow out 
the path which Newton had opened up by investigating and 
measuring the attractions and repulsions of electrified and 
magnetic bodies, and the cohesive forces in the interior of 
bodies, without attempting to account for these forces. Newton 
himself, however, endeavoured to account for gravitation by 
differences of pressure in an aether; but he did not publish his 
theory, ' because he was not able from experiment and observa- 
tion to give a satisfactory account of this medium, and the 
manner of its operation in producing the chief phenomena of 
nature.' On the other hand, those who imagined aethers in 
order to explain phenomena could not specify the nature of the 
motion of these media, and could not prove that the media, as 
imagined by them, would produce the effects they were meant to 
explain. The only aether which has survived is that which was 
invented by Huygens to explain the propagation of light. The 



evidence for the existence of the luminiferous aether has accumu- 
lated as additional phenomena of light and other radiations 
have been discovered; and the properties of this medium, as 
deduced from the phenomena of light, have been found to be 
precisely those required to explain electromagnetic phenomena." 

This description, quoted from James Clerk Maxwell's article 
in the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, represents the 
historical position of the subject up till about 1860, when Maxwell 
began those constructive speculations in electrical theory, based 
on the influence of the physical views of Faraday and Lord Kelvin, 
which have in their subsequent development largely transformed 
theoretical physics into the science of the aether. 

In the remainder of the article referred to, Maxwell reviews 
the evidence for the necessity of an aether, from the fact that 
light takes time to travel, while it cannot travel as a substance, 
for if so two interfering lights could not mask each other in the 
dark fringes (see INTERFERENCE or LIGHT). Light is therefore 
an influence propagated as wave-motion, and moreover by trans- 
verse undulations, for the reasons brought out by Thomas Young 
and Augustin Fresnel; so that the aether is a medium which 
possesses elasticity of a type analogous to rigidity. It must be 
very different from ordinary matter as we know it, for waves 
travelling in matter constitute sound, which is propagated 
hundreds of thousands of times slower than light. 

If we suppose that the aether differs from ordinary matter in 
degree but not in kind, we can obtain some idea of its quality 
from a knowledge of the velocity of radiation and of its possible 
intensity near the sun, in a manner applied long ago by Lord 
Kelvin (Trans. R. S. Edin, xxi. 1854). According to modern 
measurements the solar radiation imparts almost 3 gramme- 
calories of energy per minute per square centimetre at the 
distance of the earth, which is about 1-3X10 ergs per sec. per 
cm. 2 The energy in sunlight per cubic cm. just outside the 
earth's atmosphere is therefore about 4X10"* ergs; applying 
the law of inverse squares the value near the sun's surface would 
be 1-8 ergs. Let E be the effective elasticity of the aether; 
then E = pc 2 , where p is its density, and c the velocity of light 
which is 3X10 10 cm./sec. If =A cos n (t-x/c) is the linear 
vibration, the stress is E d/dx; and the total energy, which is 
twice the kinetic energy p(d/dt) 2 dx, is 2p 2 A 2 per cm., which 
is thus equal to 1-8 ergs as above. Now X = 2irc/w, so that 
if A/X=fc, we have p(27rc) 2 =i-8, giving p = io~ 22 ^~ 2 and 
E=io~ 1 &~ 2 . Lord Kelvin assumed as a superior limit of k, the 
ratio of amplitude to wave-length, the value io~ 2 , which is a 
very safe limit. It follows that the density of the aether must 
exceed io~ 18 , and its elastic modulus must exceed io 3 , which 
is only about io~ 8 of the modulus of rigidity of glass. It thus 
appears that if the amplitude of vibration could be as much as 
lo" 2 of the wave-length, the aether would be an excessively rare 
medium with very slight elasticity; and yet it would be capable 
of transmitting the supply of solar energy on which all terrestrial 
activity depends. But on the modern theory, which includes 
the play of electrical phenomena as a function of the aether, 
there are other considerations which show that this number io"" 1 
is really an enormous overestimate; and it is not impossible 
that the co-efficient of ultimate inertia of the aether is greater 
than the co-efficient of inertia (of different kirjd) of any existing 
material substance. 

The question of whether the aether is carried along by the 
earth's motion has been considered from the early days of the 
undulatory theory of light. In reviving that theory at the be- 
ginning of the igth century, Thomas Young stated his conviction 
that material media offered an open structure to the substance 
called aether, which passed through them without hindrance 
" like the wind through a grove of trees." Any convection of 
that medium could be tested by the change of effective velocity 
of light, which would be revealed by a prism as was suggested 
by F. J. D. Arago. Before 1868 Maxwell conducted the experi- 
ment by sending light from the illuminated cross-wires of an 
observing telescope forward through the object-glass, and 
through a train of prisms, and then reflecting it back along the 
same path; any influence of convection would conspire in 



AETHER 



293 



altering both refractions, but yet no displacement of the image 
depending on the earth's motion was detected. As will be seen 
later, modern experiments have confirmed the entire absence of 
any effect, such as convection would produce, to very high 
precision. It has further been verified by Sir Oliver Lodge that 
even in very narrow spaces the aether is not entrained by its 
surroundings when they are put into rapid motion. 

A train of ideas which strongly impressed itself on Clerk 
Maxwell's mind, in the early stages of his theoretical views, 
was put forward by Lord Kelvin in 1858; he showed that the 
special characteristics of the rotation of the plane of polarization, 
discovered by Faraday in light propagated along a magnetic 
field, viz. that it is doubled instead of being undone when the 
light retraces its path, requires the operation of some directed 
agency of a rotational kind, which must be related to the 
magnetic field. Lord Kelvin was thereby induced to identify 
magnetic force with rotation, involving, therefore, angular 
momentum in the aether. Modern theory accepts the deduction, 
but ascribes the momentum to the revolving ions in the molecules 
of matter traversed by the light; for the magneto-optic effect 
is present only in material media. Long previously Lord Kelvin 
himself came nearer this view, in offering the opinion that 
magnetism consisted, in some way, in the angular momentum 
of the material molecules, of which the energy of irregular 
translations constitutes heat; but the essential idea of moving 
electric ions of both kinds, positive and negative, in the molecules 
had still to be introduced. 

The question of the transparency of the celestial spaces 
presents itself in the present connexion. Light from stars at 
unfathomable distances reaches us in such quantity as to suggest 
that space itself is absolutely transparent, leaving open the 
question as to whether there is enough matter scattered through 
it to absorb a sensible part of the light in its journey of years 
from the luminous body. If the aether were itself constituted 
of discrete molecules, on the model of material bodies, such 
transparency would not be conceivable. We must be content 
to treat the aether as a plenum, which places it in a class by 
itself; and we can thus recognize that it may behave very 
differently from matter, though in some manner consistent with 
itself a remark which is fundamental in the modern theory. 

Action across a Distance contrasted with Transmitted Action. 
In the mechanical processes which we can experimentally modify 
at will, and which therefore we learn to apprehend with greatest 
fulness, whenever an effect on a body, B, is in causal connexion 
with a process instituted in another body, A, it is usually possible 
to discover a mechanical connexion between the two bodies 
which allows the influence of A to be traced all the way across 
the intervening region. The question thus arises whether, in 
electric attractions across apparently empty space and in gravi- 
tational attraction across the celestial regions, we are invited 
or required to make search for some similar method of continuous 
transmission of the physical effect, or whether we should rest 
content with an exact knowledge of the laws according to which 
one body affects mechanically another body at a distance. 
The view that our knowledge in such cases may be completely 
represented by means of laws of action at a distance, expressible 
in terms of the positions (and possibly motions) of the interacting 
bodies without taking any heed of the intervening space, belongs 
modern times. It could hardly have been thought of before 
Sir Isaac Newton's discovery of the actual facts regarding uni- 
versal gravitation. Although, however, gravitation has formed 
lie most perfect instance of an influence completely expressible, 
up to the most extreme refinement of accuracy, in terms of laws 
of direct action across space, yet, as is well known, the author 
of this ideally simple and perfect theory held the view that it is 
not possible to conceive of direct mechanical action independent 
means of transmission. In this belief he differed from his 
Dupil, Roger Cotes, and from most of the great mathematical 
stronomers of the i8th century, who worked out in detail the 
task sketched by the genius of Newton. They were content 
with a knowledge of the truth of the principle of gravitation; 
instead of essaying to explain it further by the properties of a 



transmitting medium, they in fact modelled the whole of their 
natural philosophy on that principle, and tried to express all 
kinds of material interaction in terms of laws of direct mechanical 
attraction across space. If material systems are constituted of 
discrete atoms, separated from each other by many times the 
diameter of any of them, this simple plan of exhibiting their 
interactions in terms of direct forces between them would 
indeed be exact enough to apply to a wide range of questions, 
provided we could be certain that the laws of the forces depended 
only on the positions and not also on the motions of the atoms. 
The most important example of its successful application has 
been the theory of capillary action elaborated by P. S. Laplace; 
though even here it appeared, in the hands of Young, and in 
complete fulness afterwards in those of C. F. Gauss, that the 
definite results attainable by the hypothesis of mutual atomic 
attractions really reposed on much wider and less special prin- 
ciples those, namely, connected with the modern doctrine of 
energy. 

Idea of an Aether. The wider view, according to which the 
hypothesis of direct transmission of physical influences expresses 
only part of the facts, is that all space is filled with physical 
activity, and that while an influence is passing across from a 
body, A, to another body, B, there is some dynamical process in 
action in the intervening region, though it appears to the senses 
to be mere empty space. The problem is whether we can repre- 
sent the facts more simply by supposing the intervening space 
to be occupied by a medium which transmits physical actions, 
after the manner that a continuous material medium, solid or 
liquid, transmits mechanical disturbance. Various analogies of 
this sort are open to us to follow up: for example, the way in 
which a fluid medium transmits pressure from one immersed 
solid to another or from one vortex ring belonging to the fluid 
to another, which is a much wider and more suggestive case; 
or the way in which an elastic fluid like the atmosphere transmits 
sound; or the way in which an elastic solid transmits waves of 
transverse as well as longitudinal displacement. It is on our 
familiarity with modes of transmission such as these, and with 
the exact analyses of them which the science of mathematical 
physics has been able to make, that our predilection for filling 
space with an aethereal transmitting medium, constituting a 
universal connexion between material bodies, largely depends; 
perhaps ultimately it depends most of all, like all our physical 
conceptions, on the intimate knowledge that we can ourselves 
exert mechanical effect on outside bodies only through the 
agencies of our limbs and sinews. The problem thus arises, 
Can we form a consistent notion of such a connecting medium? 
It must be a medium which can be effective for transmitting all 
the types of physical action known to us; it would be worse 
than no solution to have one medium to transmit gravitation, 
another to transmit electric effects, another to transmit light, 
and so on. Thus the attempt to find out a constitution for the 
aether will involve a synthesis of intimate correlation of the 
various types of physical agencies, which appear so different to 
us mainly because we perceive them through different senses. 
The evidence for this view, that all these agencies are at bottom 
connected together and parts of the same scheme, was enormously 
strengthened during the latter half of the ipth century by the 
development of a relation of simple quantitative equivalence 
between them; it has been found that we can define quantities 
relating to them, under the names of mechanical energy, electric 
energy, thermal energy, and so on, so that when one of them 
disappears, it is replaced by the others to exactly equal amount. 
This single principle of energy has transformed physical science 
by making possible the construction of a network of ramifying 
connexions between its various departments; it thus stimulates 
the belief that these constitute a single whole, and encourages 
the search for the complete scheme of interconnexion of which 
the principle of energy and the links which it suggests form 
only a single feature. 

In carrying out this scientific procedure false steps will from 
time to time be made, which will have to be retraced, or rather 
amended; but the combination of experimental science with 



294 



AETHER 



theory has elevated our presumption of the rationality of all 
natural processes, so far as we can apprehend them at all, into 
practical certainty; so that, though the mode of presentation of 
the results may vary from age to age, it is hardly conceivable 
that the essentials of the method are not of permanent validity. 

Atomic Structure of Matter. The greatest obstacle to such a 
search for the fundamental medium is the illimitable complexity 
of matter, as contrasted with the theoretical simplicity and uni- 
formity of the physical agencies which connect together its 
different parts. It has been maintained since the times of the 
early Greek philosophers, and possibly even more remote ages, 
that matter is constituted of independent indestructible units, 
which cannot ever become divided by means of any mutual 
actions they can exert. Since the period, a century ago, when 
Dalton and his contemporaries constructed from this idea a 
scientific basis for chemistry, the progress of that subject has 
been wonderful beyond any tonception that could previously 
have been entertained; and the atomic theory in some form 
appears to be an indispensable part of the framework of physical 
science. Now this doctrine of material atoms is an almost 
necessary corollary to the doctrine of a universal aether. For if 
we held that matter is continuous, one of two alternatives would 
be open. We might consider that matter and aether can co- 
exist in the same space; this would involve the co-existence 
and interaction of a double set of properties, introducing great 
complication, which would place any coherent scheme of physical 
action probably beyond the powers of human analysis. Or we 
might consider that aether exists only where matter is not, 
thus making it a very rare and subtle and elastic kind of matter; 
then we should have to assign these very properties to the matter 
itself where it replaces aether, in addition to its more familiar 
properties, and the complication would remain. The other 
course is to consider matter as formed of ultimate atoms, each 
the nucleus or core of an intrinsic modification impressed on 
the surrounding region of the aether; this might conceivably 
be of the nature of vortical motion of a liquid round a ring-core, 
thus giving a vortex atom, or of an intrinsic strain of some sort 
radiating from a core, which would give an electric atom. We 
recognize an atom only through its physical activities, as mani- 
fested in its interactions with other atoms at a distance from it; 
this field of physical activity would be identical with the sur- 
rounding field of aethereal motion or strain that is inseparably 
associated with the nucleus, and is carried on along with it as it 
moves. Here then we have the basis of a view in which there are 
not two media to be considered, but one medium, homogeneous 
in essence and differentiated as regards its parts only by the 
presence of nuclei of intrinsic strain or motion in which the 
physical activities of matter are identified with those arising 
from the atmospheres of modified aether which thus belong to 
its atoms. As regards laws of general physical interactions, the 
atom is fully represented by the constitution of this atmosphere, 
and its nucleus may be left out of our discussions; but in the 
problems of biology great tracts of invariable correlations have 
to be dealt with, which seem hopelessly more complex than any 
known or humanly possible physical scheme. To make room for 
these we have to remember that the atomic nucleus has remained 
entirely undefined and beyond our problem; so that what may 
occur, say when two molecules come into close relations, is outside 
physical science not, however, altogether outside, for we know 
that when the vital nexus in any portion of matter is dissolved, the 
atoms will remain, in their number, and their atmospheres, and 
all inorganic relations, as they were before vitality supervened. 

Nature of Properties of Material Bodies. It thus appears 
that the doctrine of atomic material constitution and the doctrine 
of a universal aether stand to each other in a relation of mutual 
support; if the scheme of physical laws is to be as precise as 
observation and measurement appear to make it, both doctrines 
are required in our efforts towards synthesis. Our direct know- 
ledge of matter can, however, never be more than a rough 
knowledge of the general average behaviour of its molecules; 
for the smallest material speck that is sensible to our coarse 
perceptions contains myriads of atoms. The properties of the 



most minute portion of matter which we can examine are thus 
of the nature of averages. We may gradually invent means of 
tracing more and more closely the average drifts of translation 
or orientation, or of changes of arrangement, of the atoms; but 
there will always remain an unaveraged residue devoid of any 
recognized regularity, which we can only estimate by its total 
amount. Thus, if we are treating of energy, we can separate out 
mechanical and electric and other constituents in it; and there 
will be a residue of which we know nothing except its quantity, 
and which we call thermal. This merely thermal energy 
which is gradually but very slowly being restricted in amount as 
new subsidiary organized types become recognized in it though 
transmutable in equivalent quantities Nvith the other kinds, yet 
is so only to a limited extent; the tracing out of the laws of this 
limitation belongs to the science of thermodynamics. It is the 
business of that science to find out what is the greatest amount 
of thermal energy that can possibly be recoverable into organized 
kinds under given circumstances. The discovery of definite laws 
in this region might at first sight seem hopeless; but the argu- 
ment rests on an implied postulate of stability and continuity of 
constitution of material substances, so that after a cycle of 
transformations we expect to recover them again as they were 
originally- on the postulate, in fact, that we do not expect them 
to melt out of organized existence in our hands. The laws of 
thermodynamics, including the fundamental principle that a 
physical property, called temperature, can be defined, which 
tends towards uniformity, are thus relations between the 
properties of types of material bodies that can exist permanently 
in presence of each other; why they so maintain themselves 
remains unknown, but the fact gives the point d'appui. The 
fundamental character of energy in material systems here 
comes into view; if there were any other independent scalar 
entity, besides mass and energy, that pervaded them with 
relations of equivalence, we should expect the existence of yet 
another set of qualities analogous to those connected with 
temperature. (See ENERGETICS.) 

Returning now to the aether, on our present point of view 
no such complications there arise; it must be regarded as a 
continuous uniform medium free from any complexities of 
atomic aggregation, whose function is confined to the transmis- 
sion of the various types of physical effect between the portions 
of matter. The problem of its constitution is thus one which 
can be attacked and continually approximated to, and which 
may possibly be definitely resolved. It has to be competent to 
transmit the transverse waves of light and electricity, and the 
other known radiant and electric actions; the way in which 
this is done is now in the main known, though there are still 
questions as to the mode of expression and formulation of our 
knowledge, and also as regards points of detail. This great 
advance, which is the result of the gradual focussing of a century's 
work in the minute exploration of the exact laws of optical and 
electric phenomena, clearly carries with it deeper insight into 
the physical nature of matter itself and its modes of inanimate 
interaction. 

If we rest on the synthesis here described, the energy of the 
matter, even the thermal part, appears largely as potential 
energy of strain in the aether which interacts with the kinetic 
energy associated with disturbances involving finite velocity 
of matter. It may, however, be maintained that an ultimate 
analysis would go deeper, and resolve all phenomena of elastic 
resilience into consequences of the kinetic stability of steady 
motional states, so that only motions, but not strains, would 
remain. On such a view the aether might conceivably be a 
perfect fluid, its fundamental property of elastic reaction arising 
(as at one time suggested by Kelvin and G. F. FitzGerald) from 
a structure of tangled or interlaced vortex filaments pervading 
its substance, which might conceivably arrange themselves into 
a stable configuration and so resist deformation. This raises 
the, further question as to whether the transmission of gravitation 
can be definitely recognized among the properties of an ultimate 
medium; if so, we know that it must be associated with some 
feature, perhaps very deep-seated, or on the other hand perhaps 



AETHER 



295 



depending simply on incompressibility, which is not sensibly 
implicated in the electric and optical activities. With reference 
to all such further refinements of theory, it is to be borne in 
mind that the perfect fluid of hydrodynamic analysis is not a 
merely passive inert plenum; it is also a continuum with the 
property that no finite internal slip or discontinuity of motion 
can ever arise in it through any kind of disturbance; and this 
property must be postulated, as it cannot be explained. 

Motion of Material Atoms through the Aether. An important 
question arises whether, when a material body is moved through 
the aether, the nucleus of each atom carries some of the surround- 
ing aether along with it; or whether it practically only carries 
on its strain-form or physical atmosphere, which is transferred 
from one portion of aether to another after the manner of a 
shadow, or rather like a loose knot which can slip along a rope 
without the rope being required to go with it. We can obtain 
a pertinent illustration from the motion of a vortex ring in a fluid; 
if the circular core of the ring is thin compared with its diameter, 
and the vorticity is not very great, it is the vortical state of 
motion that travels across the fluid without transporting the 
latter bodily with it except to a slight extent very close to the 
core. We might thus examine a structure formed of an aggrega- 
tion of very thin vortex rings, which would move across the fluid 
without sensibly disturbing it; on the other hand, if formed of 
stronger vortices, it may transport the portion of the fluid that 
is within, or adjacent to, its own structure along with it as if it 
were a solid mass, and therefore also push aside the surrounding 
fluid as it passes. The motion of the well-known steady spherical 
vortex is an example of the latter case. 

Convection of Optical Waves. The nature of the motion, if any, 
that is produced in the surrounding regions of the aether by the 
translation of matter through it can be investigated by optical 
experiment. The obvious body to take in the first instance is 
the earth itself, which on account of its annual orbital motion is 
travelling through space at the rate of about 18 miles per second. 
If the surrounding ae ( ther is thereby disturbed, the waves of 
light arriving from the stars will partake of its movement; the 
ascertained phenomena of the astronomical aberration of light 
show that the rays travel to the observer, across this disturbed 
aether near the earth, in straight lines. Again, we may split a 
narrow beam of light by partial reflexion from a transparent 
plate, and recombine the constituent beams after they have 
traversed different circuits of nearly equivalent lengths, so as 
to obtain interference fringes. The position of these fringes will 
depend on the total retardation in time of the one beam with 
respect to the other; and thus it might be expected to vary 
with the direction of the earth's motion, relative to the apparatus. 
But it is found not to vary at all, even up to the second order 
of the ratio of the earth's velocity to that of light. It has in 
fact been found, with the very great precision of which optical 
experiment is capable, that all terrestrial optical phenomena 
reflexion, refraction, polarization linear and circular, diffraction 
are entirely unaffected by the direction of the earth's motion, 
while the same result has recently been extended to electrostatic 
forces; and this is our main experimental clue. 

We pass on now to the theory. We shall make the natural 
supposition that motion of the aether, say with velocity (u,v,vi) 
at the point (x,y,z), is simply superposed on the velocity V of 
lie optical undulations through that medium, the latter not 
eing intrinsically altered. Now the direction and phase of the 
light are those of the ray which reaches the eye; and by Fermat's 
principle, established by Huygens for undulatory motion, the 

ith of a ray is that track along which the disturbance travels 

least time, in the restricted sense that any alteration of any 
short reach of the path will increase the time. Thus the path of 
he ray when the aether is at rest is the curve which makes 
fds/V least; but when it is in motion it is the curve which makes 

sl(V+lv+im>+nw) least, where (l,m,n) is the direction vector 
of 8s. The latter integral becomes, on expanding in a series, 



fds/V -/(udx +vdy +wdz)/V 2 +Adx +vdy +wdz)*/ 
since lds=dx. If the path is to be unaltered by the motion of 



the aether, as the law of astronomical aberration suggests, this 
must differ iromfds/V by terms not depending on the path 
that is, by terms involving only the beginning and end of it. In 
the case of the free aether V is constant; thus, if we neglect 
squares like (w/V) 2 , the condition is that udx +vdy+wdz be the 
exact differential of some function $. If this relation is true 
along all paths, the velocity of the aether must be of irrotational 
type, like that of frictionless fluid. Moreover, this is precisely 
the condition for the absence of interference between the com- 
ponent of a split beam; because, the time of passage being to 
the first order 

fds/V -/(udx+vdy+wdz')y, 

the second term will then be independent of the path (<j> being a 
single valued function) and therefore the same for the paths of 
both the interfering beams. If therefore the aether can be put 
into motion, we conclude (with Stokes) that such motion, in free 
space, must be of strictly irrotational type. 

But our experimental data are not confined to free space. If 
c is the velocity of radiation in free space and /* the refractive 
index of a transparent body, V=c/ju; thus it is the expres- 
sion c~^fij?(u'dx+v'dy+w'dz) that is to be integrable explicitly, 
where now (' ',v' ,iti'} is what is added to V owing to the velocity 
(u,ii,w) of the medium. As, however, our terrestrial optical appa- 
ratus is now all in motion along with the matter, we must 
deaLwith the rays relative to the moving system, and to these 
also Fermat's principle clearly applies; thus V+ (/' +mv' +niv') 
is here the velocity of radiation in the direction of the ray, but 
relative to the moving material system. Now the expression 
above given cannot be integrable exactly, under all circumstances 
and whatever be the axes of co-ordinates, unless (/i 2 M',/iV,/ra>') 
is the gradient of a continuous function. In the simplest case, 
that of uniform translation, these components of the gradient 
will each be constant throughout the region; at a distant place 
in free aether where there is no motion, they must thus be equal 
to -M,-,-W, as they refer to axes moving with the matter. 
Hence the paths and times of passage of all rays relative to the 
material system will not be altered by a uniform motion of the 
system, provided the velocity of radiation relative to the system, 
in material of index ju, is diminished by n~* times the velocity of 
the system in the direction of the radiation, that is, provided the 
absolute velocity of radiation is increased by i-/i" 2 times the 
velocity of the material system; this" involves that the free 
aether for which fj. is unity shall remain at rest. This statement 
constitutes the famous hypothesis of Fresnel, which thus ensures 
that all phenomena of ray-path and refraction, and all those 
depending on phase, shall be unaffected by uniform convection 
of the material medium, in accordance with the results of 
experiment. 

Is the Aether Stationary or Mobile? This theory secures that 
the times of passage of the rays shall be independent of the 
motion of the system, only up to the first order of the ratio of 
its velocity to that of radiation. But a classical experiment of 
A. A. Michelson, in which the ray-path was wholly in air, showed 
that the independence extends to higher orders. This result is 
inconsistent with the aether remaining at rest, unless we assume 
that the dimensions of the moving system depend, though to an 
extent so small as to be not otherwise detectable, on its orienta- 
tion with regard to the aether that is streaming through it. It is, 
however, in complete accordance with a view that would make 
the aether near the earth fully partake in its orbital motion a 
view which the null effect of convection on all terrestrial optical 
and electrical phenomena also strongly suggests. But the aether 
at a great distance must in any case be at rest; while the facts of 
astronomical aberration require that the motion of that medium 
must be irrotational. These conditions cannot be consistent 
with sensible convection of the aether near the earth without 
involving discontinuity in its motion at some intermediate 
distance, so that we are thrown back on the previous theory. 

Another powerful reason for taking the aether to be stationary 
is afforded by the character of the equations of electrodynamics; 
they are all of linear type, and superposition of effects is possible. 
Now the kinetics of a medium in which the' parts can have finite 



296 



AETHER 



relative motions will lead to equations which are not linear as, 
for example, those of hydrodynamics and the phenomena will 
be far more complexly involved. It is true that the theory of 
vortex rings in hydrodynamics is of a simpler type; but electric 
currents cannot be likened to permanent vortex rings, because 
their circuits can be broken and the element of cyclic steadiness 
on which the simplicity depends is thereby destroyed. 

Dynamical Theories of the Aether. The analytical equations 
which represent the propagation of light in free aether, and also 
in aether modified by the presence of matter, were originally 
developed on the analogy of the equations of propagation of 
elastic effects in solid media. Various types of elastic solid 
medium have thus been invented to represent the aether, without 
complete success in any case. In T. MacCullagh's hands the 
correct equations were derived from a single energy formula by 
the principle of least action; and while the validity of this 
dynamical method was maintained, it was frankly admitted 
that no mechanical analogy was forthcoming. When Clerk 
Maxwell pointed out the way to the common origin of optical 
and electrical phenomena, these equations naturally came to 
repose on an electric basis, the connexion having been first 
definitely exhibited by FitzGerald in 1878; and according as 
the independent variable was one or other of the vectors which 
represent electric force, magnetic force or electric polarity, they 
took the form appropriate to one or other of the elastic theories 
above mentioned. 

In this place it must suffice to indicate the gist of the more 
recent developments of the electro-optical theory, which in- 
volve the dynamical verification of Fresnel's hypothesis regard- 
ing optical convection and the other relations above described. 
The aether is taken to be at rest; and the strain-forms belong- 
ing to the atoms are the electric fields of the intrinsic charges, 
or electrones, involved in their constitution. When the atoms 
are in motion these strain-forms produce straining and unstrain- 
ing in the aether as they pass across it, which in its motional or 
kinetic aspect constitutes the resulting magnetic field; as the 
strains are slight the coefficient of ultimate inertia here involved 
must be great. True electric current arises solely from con- 
vection of the atomic charges or electrons; this current is there- 
fore not restricted as to form in any way. But when the rate of 
change of aethereal strain that is, of (j,g,h) specified as Max- 
well's electric displacement in free aether is added to it, an 
analytically convenient vector (u,v,w) is obtained which possesses 
the characteristic property of being circuital like the flow of 
an incompressible fluid, and has therefore been made funda- 
mental in the theory by Maxwell under the name of the total 
electric current. 

As already mentioned, all efforts to assimilate optical pro- 
pagation to transmission of waves in an ordinary solid medium 
have failed; and though the idea of regions of intrinsic strain, 
as for example in unannealed glass, is familiar in physics, yet 
on account of the absence of mobility of the strain no_ attempt 
had been made to employ them to illustrate the electric fields 
of atomic charges. The idea of MacCullagh's aether, and its 
property of purely rotational elasticity which had been ex- 
pounded objectively by W. J. M. Rankine, was therefore much 
vivified by Lord Kelvin's specification (Complex Rendus, 1889) 
of a material gyrostatically constituted medium which would 
possess this character. More recently a way has been pointed 
out in which a mobile permanent field of electric force could 
exist in such a medium so as to travel freely in company with 
its nucleus or intrinsic charge the nature of the mobility of the 
latter, as well as its intimate constitution, remaining unknown. 

A dielectric substance is electrically polarized by a field of 
electric force, the atomic poles being made up of the displaced 
positive and negative intrinsic charges in the atom : the polariza- 
tion per unit volume (f',g',h') may be defined on the analogy of 
magnetism, a.ndd/dt(f',g',h') thus constitutes true electric current 
of polarization, i.e. of electric separation in the molecules, 
specified per unit volume. The convection of a medium thus 
polarized involves electric disturbance, and therefore must con- 
tribute to the true electric current; the determination of this 



constituent of the current is the most delicate point in the in- 
vestigation. The usual definition of the component current in 
any direction, as the net amount of electrons which crosses, 
towards the positive side, an element of surface fixed in space 
at right angles to that direction, per unit area per unit time, 
here gives no definite result. The establishment and convection 
of a single polar atom constitutes in fact a ^Maw-magnetization, 
in addition to the polarization current as above defined, the 
negative poles completing the current circuits of the positive 
ones. But in the transition from molecular theory to the electro- 
dynamics of extended media, all magnetism has to be replaced 
by a distribution of current; the latter being now specified by 
volume as well as by flow so that (u,v,w) ST is the current in the 
element of volume ST. In the present case the total dielectric 
contribution to this current works out to be the change per unit 
time in the electric separation in the molecules of the element 
of volume, as it moves uniformly with the matter, all other 
effects being compensated molecularly without affecting the 
propagation. 1 On subtracting from this total the current of 
establishment of polarization d/dt/(f',g',h') as formulated above, 
there remains vd/dx(f ,g' ,//') as the current of convection of 
polarization when the convection is taken for simplicity to be 
in the direction of the axis of x with velocity v. The polariza- 
tion itself is determined from the electric force (P,Q,R) by the 
usual statical formula of linear type which becomes tor an iso- 
tropic medium 



because any change of the dielectric constant K arising from the 
convection of the material through the aether must be inde- 
pendent of the sign of v and therefore be of the second order. 
Now the electric force (P,Q,R) is the force acting on the electrons 
of the medium moving with velocity v; consequently by Fara- 
day's electrodynamic law 



where (P',Q',R') is the force that would act on electrons at 
rest, and (a,b,c) is the magnetic induction. The latter force is, 
by Maxwell's hypothesis or by the dynamical theory of an aether 
pervaded by electrons, the same as that which strair s the aether, 
and may be called the aethereal force; it thereby produces an 
aethereal electric displacement, say (f,g,h), according to the 
relation (f,g,h) = ( 4 TC ! ) -'(P'.Q'.R 1 ). 

in which C is a constant belonging to the aether, which turns 
out to be the velocity of light. The current of aethereal dis- 
placement d/dt(f,g,h) is what adds on to the true electric current 
to produce the total circuital current of Maxwell. 

We have now to substitute these data in the universally valid 
circuital relations namely, (i) line integral of magnetic force 
round a circuit is equal to \-K times the current through its 
aperture, which may be regarded as a definition of the constitu- 
tion of the aether and its relation to the electrons involved in 
it; and (ii) line integral of the electric force belonging to any 
material circuit (i.e. acting on the electrons situated on it which 
move with the velocity of the matter) is equal to minus the 
time-rate of change of the magnetic induction through that 
circuit as it moves with the matter, this being a dynamical 
consequence of the aethereal constitution assigned in (i). 

We may now, as is somewhat the more natural course in the 
terrestrial application, take axes (x,yp) which move with the 
matter; but the current must be invariably defined by the flux 
across surfaces fixed in space, so that we may say that relation 
(i) refers to a circuit fixed in space, while (ii) refers to one moving 
with the matter. These circuital relations, when expressed 
analytically, are then for a dielectric medium of types 



where 
and 



(.r,w) 



(f',g',h')+j t (f,g,h), < 

dQ_ da 
dj~df~~a7 ......... 



_ 

1 See H. A. Lorentz, loc. cit. infra; J. Larmor, Aether and Matter, 
p. 262 and passim. 



AETHICUS ISTER 



297 



where, when magnetic quality is inoperative, the magnetic 
induction (a,b,c) is identical with the magnetic force (a,(3,7). 

These equations determine all the phenomena. They take 
this simple form, however, only when the movement of the 
matter is one of translation. If v varies with respect to locality, 
or if there is a velocity of convection (p,q,r) variable with respect 
to direction and position, and analytical expression of the re- 
lation (ii) assumes a more complex form; we thus derive the 
most general equations of electrodynamic propagation for 
matter treated as continuous, anyhow distributed and moving 
in any manner. 

For the simplest case of polarized waves travelling parallel 
to the axis of *, with the magnetic oscillation 7 along 2 and 
the electric oscillation Q along y, all the quantities are functions 
of x and / alone; the total current is along y and given with 
respect to our moving axes by 



also the circuital relations here reduce to 
"dx~ vv< dx~ ~^H 

thus dx^^^Si 

giving, on substitution for v, 



For a simple wave-train, Q varies as sin m(x-Vt), leading on 
substitution to the velocity of propagation V relative to the 
moving material, by means of the equation KV 2 + ?uV = c 2 u 2 ; 
this gives, to the first order of u/c, V = c/K u/K, which is in 
accordance with Fresnel's law. Trains of waves nearly but not 
quite homogeneous as regards wave-length will as usual be 
propagated as wave-groups travelling with the slightly different 
velocity rf(VX~ 1 )/<^X~ 1 , the value of K occurring in V being a 
function of X determined by the law of optical dispersion of the 
medium. 

For purposes of theoretical discussions relating to moving 
radiators and reflectors, it is important to remember that the 
dynamics of all this theory of electrons involves the neglect of 
terms of the order (u/c) 2 , not merely in the value of K but 
throughout. 

Recent Experimental Developments. The modification of the 
spectrum of a radiating gas by a magnetic field, such as would 
result from the hypothesis that the radiators are the system of 
revolving or oscillating electrons in the molecule, was detected 
by P. Zeeman in 1896, and worked up, in conjunction with H. A. 
Lorentz, on the general lines suggested by the electron-theory 
of molecular constitution. While it cannot be said that the full 
significance of this very definite phenomenon, consisting of the 
splitting of the spectral line into a number of polarized com- 
ponents, has yet been made out, a wide field of correlation with 
optical theory, especially in the neighbourhood of absorption 
bands, has been developed by Zeeman himself, by A. H. Bec- 
querel, by D. Macaluso and O. M. Corbino, and by other workers. 

The most fundamental experimental confirmation that the 
theory of the aether has received on the optical side in recent 
years has been the verification of Maxwell's proposition that 
radiation exerts mechanical force on a material system, on which 
it falls, which may be represented in all cases as the resultant 
of pressures operating along the rays, and of intensity equal at 
each point of free space to the density of radiant energy. A 
high vacuum is needed for the detection of the minute forces 
here concerned; but just in that case the indirect radiometer- 
effect of the heating of the residual gas masks the effect. P. N. 
Lebedew in 1900 succeeded, by operating on metallic vanes so 
thin that the exposed and averted faces were practically at the 
same temperature, in satisfactorily verifying the relation for 
metals; and very soon after, E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull 
published accounts of an exact and extensive research, in which 
the principle had been fully and precisely confirmed as regards 






both transparent and opaque bodies. The experiment of J. H. 
Poynting may also be mentioned, in which the tangential com- 
ponent of the thrust of obliquely incident radiation is separately 
put in evidence, by the torsion produced in an arrangement 
which is not sensitive to the normal component or to the radio- 
meter-pressure of the residual gas. (See RADIOMETER.) 

Next to these researches on the pressure of radiation, which, 
by forming the mechanical link between radiation and matter, 
are fundamental for the thermodynamics of radiant energy, the 
most striking recent result has been the discovery of H. Rubens 
and E. Hagen that for dark heat rays of only about ten times the 
wave-length of luminous radiation, the properties of metals are 
determined by their electric resistance alone, which then masks 
all resonance due to periods of free vibration of the molecules; 
and, moreover, that the resistance for such alternations is practi- 
cally the same as the ohmic resistance for ordinary steady cur- 
rents. They found that the absorbing powers of the metals, and 
therefore, by the principle of exchanges, their radiating powers 
also, are proportional to the square roots of their electric con- 
ductivities. Maxwell had himself, at an early stage of his theory, 
tested the absorbing power of gold-leaf for light, and found that 
the effective conductivity for luminous vibrations must be very 
much greater than its steady ohmic value; it is, in fact, there a 
case of incipient conductivity, which is continually being undone 
on account of the rapid alternation of force before it is fully 
established. That, however, complete conduction should arrive 
with alternations only ten times slower than light was an un- 
expected and remarkable fact, which verifies the presumption 
that the process of conduction is one in which the dynamic 
activities of the molecules do not come into play. The corollary, 
that the electric resistance of a metal can be determined in 
absolute units by experiments on the reflexion of heat-rays 
from its surface, is a striking illustration of the unification of 
the various branches of physical science, which has come in the 
train of the development of the theory of the aether. (See 
RADIATION.) 

Finally, reference should be made to the phenomena of radio- 
activity, whether excited by the electric discharge in vacuum 
tubes, foreshadowed in part by Sir Wm. Crookes and G. G. 
Stokes, and later by A. Schuster and others, but first fully 
developed with astonishing results including the experimental 
discovery of the free electron by J. J. Thomson, or the correlated 
phenomena occurring spontaneously in radio-active bodies as 
discovered by H. Becquerel and by M. and Mme Curie, and 
investigated by them and by E. Rutherford and others. These 
results constitute a far-reaching development of the modern or 
electrodynamic theory of the aether, of which the issue can 
hardly yet be foreseen. 

REFERENCES. Maxwell, Collected Papers-, H. A. Lorentz, Archives 
.Neerlandaises, xxi. 1887, and xxv. 1892, and a tract, Versuch einer 
Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten 
Korpern (Leyden, 1895) ; also recent articles " Elektrodynamik " 
and " Elektronentheorie " in the Encyk. der Math. Wissenschaften, 
Band v. 13, 14; O. Lodge, " On Aberration Problems," Phil. Trans. 
1893 and 1897; J. Larmor, Phil. Trans. 1894-95-97, and a treatise, 
Aether and Matter (1900), where full references are given. Of recent 
years most treatises on physical optics, e.g. those of P. K. L. Drude, 
A. Schuster, R. W. Wood, have been written largely on the basis of 
the general physics of the aether; while the Collected Papers of 
LordRayleigh should be accessible to all who desire a first-hand know- 
ledge of the development of the optical side of the subject. See 
also MOLECULE, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT and RADIATION. (J. L.*) 

AETHICUS ( = ETHICUS) ISTER, "the philosopher of Istria," 
the supposed but unknown author of a description of the world 
written in Greek. An abridgment, under the title of Cosmo- 
graphia Ethici, written in barbarous Latin, and wrongly described 
as the work of St Jerome, probably belongs to the 7th century. 
After a discussion of the creation of the world and a description 
of the earth, an account of the wonderful journeys of Aethicus 
is given, with digressions on various subjects, such as Alexander 
the Great and the kings of Rome, full of obscure and fabulous 
details. 

The name Aethicus is also attached to another geographical 
treatise probably dating from the 6th century, a reproduction, 



298 



AETIOLOGY AETOLIA 



with some unimportant additions, of the cosmography little 
else than a dry list of names of Julius Honorius. 

EDITIONS. D'Avezac (1852); Pertz (1853); Wuttke (1854); 
Riese's Geographi Latini Minores (1878); see also Bunbury, History 
of Ancient Geography. 

AETIOLOGY, or ETIOLOGY (from Gr. alria, cause, and 
Xo7ia, discourse) , strictly, the science or philosophy of causation, 
but generally used to denote the part of any special science (and 
especially of that of medicine and disease) which investigates the 
causes and origin of its phenomena. An aetiological myth is 
one which is regarded as having been invented ex post facto to 
explain some fact, name or coincidence, the true account or 
origin of which has been forgotten. Such myths were often 
based on grotesque philological analogies, according to which 
an existing connexion between two personalities (cities, &c.) 
was traced back to a common mythical origin. For a good 
example of the evolution of such myths, see the argument under 
AEGINA, History. 

AETION, or EETION, a Greek painter, mentioned by Cicero, 
Pliny and Lucian. His most noted work, described in detail 
by Lucian (Herodotus or Eetion, 5), was a picture representing 
the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. He is said to have 
exhibited it at the Olympic games, and by it so to have won 
the favour of the president that he gave him his daughter in 
marriage. Through a misunderstanding of the words of Lucian, 
Action has been supposed to belong to the age of the Antonines; 
but there can be little doubt that he was a contemporary of 
Alexander and of Apelles (Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen 
Kunstler, ii. p. 243). Pliny gives his date as 350 B.C. 

AETIUS (fl. 350), surnamed " the Atheist," founder of an 
extreme sect of Arians, was a native of Coele-Syria. After 
working as a vine-dresser and then as a goldsmith he became a 
travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on 
medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a 
wider field for its exercise in the great theological question of 
the time. He studied successively under the Arians, Paulinus, 
bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of Anazarbus, and the 
presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350 he was ordained a deacon 
by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly afterwards forced by 
the orthodox party to leave that town. At the first synod of 
Sirmium he won a dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops, 
Basilius and Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up 
against him the enmity of Caesar Gallus. In 356 he went to 
Alexandria with Eunomius (q.v.) in order to advocate Arianism, 
but he was banished by Constantius. Julian recalled him from 
exile, bestowed upon him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him 
for a time at his court in Constantinople. Being consecrated 
a bishop, he used his office in the interests of Arianism by creating 
other bishops of that party. At the accession of Valens (364) 
he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constanti- 
nople, where he died in 367. The Anomoean sect of the Arians, 
of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him 
Aetians. His work De Fide has been preserved in connexion 
with a refutation written by Epiphanius (Haer. Ixxvi. 10). Its 
main thought is that the Homousia, i.e. the doctrine that the 
Son (therefore the Begotten) is essentially God, is self-con- 
tradictory, since the idea of unbegottenness is just that which 
constitutes the nature of God. 

See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. iv. passim. 

AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia, 
flourished at the beginning of the 6th century A.D. He studied 
at Alexandria, and became court physician at Byzantium and 
comes obsequii, one of the chief officers of the imperial household. 
He wrote a large medical work in sixteen books, founded on 
Oribasius and compiled from various sources, especially Galen 
[Galenos]. Superstition and mysticism play a great part in 
his remedies. Eight books of the Greek original were printed 
at Venice, 1534, and a complete Latin translation by Cornarius 
appeared at Basel, 1542. 

See Weigel, Aetianarum exercitationum specimen (1791) ; Danelius, 
Beitrag zur Augenheilkunde des Aetius (1889); Zernos, Aetii sermo 
sextidecintus et ultimus, editio princeps (1901). 



AETIUS (d. 454), a Roman general of the closing period of the 
Western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in the 4th 
century. He was the son of Gaudentius, who, although possibly 
of barbarian family, rose in the service of the Western empire to 
be master of the horse, and later count of Africa. Aetius passed 
some years as hostage, first with Alaric and the Goths, and later 
in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Huns, acquiring in this way the 
knowledge which enabled him afterwards to defeat them. In 424 
he led into Italy an army of 60,000 barbarians, mostly Huns, 
which he employed first to support the primicerius Joannes, who 
had proclaimed himself emperor, and, on the defeat of the latter, 
to enforce his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul 
upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent for Valentinian III. 
His calumnies against his rival, Count Boniface, which were at 
first believed by the emperor, led Boniface to revolt and call the 
Vandals to Africa. Upon the discovery of the truth, Boniface, 
although defeated in Africa, was received into favour by Valen- 
tinian; but Aetius came down against Boniface from his Gallic 
wars, like another Julius Caesar, and in the battle which followed 
wounded Boniface fatally with his own javelin. From 433 to 450 
Aetius was the dominating personality in the Western empire. 
In Gaul he won his military reputation, upholding for nearly 
twenty years, by combined policy and daring, the falling fortunes 
of the empire. His greatest victory was that of Chalons-sur- 
Marne (September 20, 451), in which he led the Gallic forces 
against Attila and the Huns. This was the last triumph of the 
empire. Three years later (454) Aetius presented himself at 
court to claim the emperor's daughter in marriage for his son 
Gaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of designs upon the 
crown, slew him with his own hand. 

See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and ii. (1880). 

AETOLIA, a district of northern Greece, bounded on the S. 
by the Corinthian Gulf, on the W. by. the river Achelous, on the 
N. and E. by the western spurs of Parnassus and Oeta. The 
land naturally falls into two divisions. The basins of the lower 
Achelous (mod. Aspropotamo) and Euenus (Phidharis) form a 
series of alluvial valleys intersected by detached ridges which 
mostly run parallel to the coast. This district of " Old Aetolia " 
lacks a suitable sea-board, but the inland, and especially the plain 
of central Aetolia lying to the north of Lakes Hyria and Trichonis 
and Mount Aracynthus, forms a rich agricultural country. The 
northern and eastern regions are broken by an extensive complex 
of chains and peaks, whose rugged limestone flanks are clad at 
most with stunted shrubs and barely leave room for a few pre- 
carious mule-tracks. These heights often rise in the frontier- 
ranges of Tymphrestus, Oxia and Corax to more than 7000 ft.; 
the snow-capped pinnacle of Kiona attains to 8240 ft. A few 
defiles pass through this barrier to the other side of the north 
Greek watershed. 

In early legend Old Aetolia, with its cities of Pleuron and 
Calydon, figures prominently. During the great migrations (see 
DORIANS) the population was largely displaced, and the old 
inhabitants long remained in a backward condition. In the sth 
century some tribes were still living in open villages under petty 
kings, addicted to plunder and piracy, and hardly recognized 
as Hellenes at all. Yet their military strength was not to be 
despised: in 426 their archers and slingers easily repelled an 
Athenian invasion under Demosthenes. In the 4th century the 
Aetolians began to take a greater part in Greek politics, and, in 
return for helping Epaminondas(367)andPhilipofMacedon (338), 
recovered control of their sea-board, to which they annexed the 
Acarnanian coast and the Oeniadae. Aetolia's prosperity dates 
from the period of Macedonian supremacy. It may be ascribed 
partly to the wealth and influence acquired by Aetolian mer- 
cenaries in Hellenistic courts, but chiefly to the formation of a 
national Aetolian league, the first effective institution of this 
kind in Greece. Created originally to meet the peril of an in- 
vasion by the Macedonian regents Antipater and Craterus, who 
had undertaken a punitive expedition against Aetolia after the 
Lamian War (322), and by Cassander (314-311), the confederacy 
grew rapidly during the subsequent period of Macedonian weak- 
ness. Since 290 it had extended its power over all the uplands of 



AFARS AFFECTION 



299 



central Greece, where its command over Heracleia (280) provided 
it with an important defensive position against northern invaders, 
its control of Delphi and the Amphictyonic council with a useful 
political instrument. The valour of the Aetolians was con- 
spicuously displayed in 279, when they broke the strength of the 
Celtic irruption by slaughtering great hordes of marauders. The 
commemorative festival of the Soteria, which the league estab- 
lished at Delphi, obtained recognition from many leading Greek 
states. After annexing Boeotia (by 245) the Aetolians controlled 
all central Greece. Endeavouring next to expand into Pelopon- 
nesus, they allied themselves with Antigonus Gonatas of Mace- 
donia against the Achaean league (q.v.), and besides becoming 
protectors of Elis and Messenia won several Arcadian cities. 
Their naval power extended to Cephalonia, to the Aegaean 
islands and even to the Hellespont. The league at its zenith had 
thus a truly imperial status. 

Later in the century its power began to be sapped by Mace- 
donia. To check King Demetrius (239-229) the Aetolians joined 
arms with the Achaeans. In 224 they held Heracleia Trachis 
against Antigonus Doson, but lost control of Boeotia and Phocis. 
Since 228 their Arcadian possessions had been abandoned to 
Sparta. At the same time a new enemy arose in the Illyrian 
pirate fleets, which outdid them in unscrupulousness and violence. 
The raids of two Aetolian chiefs in Achaean territory (220) led to 
a coalition between Achaea and Philip V. of Macedon, who 
assailed the invaders with great energy, driving them out of 
Peloponnesus and marching into Aetolia itself, where he surprised 
and sacked the federal capital Thermon. After buying peace by 
the cession of Acarnania (217) the league concluded a compact 
with Rome, in which both states agreed to plunder ruthlessly 
their common enemies (211). In the great war of their Roman 
allies against Philip the federal troops took a prominent part, 
their cavalry being largely responsible for the victory of Cynos- 
cephalae (197). The Romans in return restored central Greece 
to the league, but by withholding its former Thessalian posses- 
sions excited its deep resentment. The Aetolians now invited 
Antiochus III. of Syria to European Greece, and so precipitated 
a conflict with Rome. But in the war they threw away their 
chances. In 192 they wasted themselves in an unsuccessful 
attempt to secure Sparta. In 191 they supported Antiochus 
badly, and by their slackness in the defence of Thermopylae 
made his position in Greece untenable. Having thus isolated 
themselves the Aetolians stood at bay behind their walls against 
the Romans, who refused all compromises, and, after the general 
surrender in 189, restricted the league to Aetolia proper and 
assumed control over its foreign relations. In 167 the country 
suffered severely from the intrigues of a philo-Roman party, 
which caused a series of judicial murders and the deportation of 
many patriots to Italy. By the time of Sulla, when the league 
is mentioned for the last time, its functions were purely nominal. 
The federal constitution closely resembled that of the Achaean 
league (<?..), for which it doubtless served as a model. The 
general assembly, convoked every autumn at Thermon to elect 
officials, and at other places in special emergencies, shaped the 
league's general policy; it was nominally open to all freemen, 
though no doubt the Aetolian chieftains really controlled it. 
The council of deputies from the confederate cities undertook 
the routine of administration and jurisdiction. The strategus 
(general) , aided by 30 apocleti (ministers) , had complete control 
in the field and presided over the assembly, though with restricted 
advisory powers. The Aetolians also used the Amphictyonic 
synod for passing solemn enactments. The league's relation to 
outlying dependencies is obscure; many of these were probably 
mere protectorates or " allied states " and secured no representa- 
tion. The federal executive was certainly much more efficient 
than that of the Achaeans, and its councils suffered less from 
disunion; but its generals and admirals, official or otherwise, 
enjoyed undue licence; hence the league deservedly gained an 
evil name for the numerous acts of lawlessness or violence which 
its troops committed. But as a champion of republican Greece 
against foreign enemies no other power of the age rendered equal 
services. After the first overthrow of the Byzantine empire 



Aetolia passed to a branch of the old imperial house (1205). 
In the isth century it was held by Scanderbeg (q.v.) and by 
the Venetians, but Mahommed II. brought it definitely under 
Turkish rule. In the War of Independence the Aetolians by 
their stubborn defence, culminating in the sieges of Missolonghi 
(q.v.), formed the backbone of the rebellion. Northern Aetolia 
remains a desolate region, inhabited mainly by Vlach shep- 
herds. The south-western plain, though rendered unhealthy by 
lagoons, and central Aetolia yield good crops of currants, vine, 
maize and tobacco, which are conveyed by railway from Agrinion 
and Anatolikon to the coast. The country, which forms part of 
the modern department of Acarnania and Aetolia, contains 
numerous fragments of Ancient fortifications. It has contributed 
a notable proportion of distinguished men to modern Greece. 

AUTHORITIES. Strabo pp. 450 sqq.; Thucydides iii. 94-98; 
Diodorus xviii. 24. 5; Pausanias x. 20 sq.; Polybius and Livy 
passim; W. J. Woodhouse, Aetolia (Oxford, 1897); M. Dubois, 
Les Ligues acheenne et elolienne (Paris, 1885); E. A. Freeman, 
Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), ch. vi. ; B. V. Head, Historia 
Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 283-284; M. Holleaux in Bulletin de 
Correspondence Hellenique (1905, pp. 362-372); G. Sotiriades in 
'E07jMpis 'ApxcuoXo-xiKij, (1900) pp. 163-212, (1903) pp. 73-94, and 
in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique (1907), pp. 139-184; 
C. Salvetti in Studi di Storia Antica, vol. ii. (Rome, 1893), PP- 
270-320. (M. O. B. C.) 

AFARS (DANAKIL), a tribe of African "Arabs" of Hamitic 
stock. They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia 
and the sea. They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to the 
Galla and Somali. The tribe is roughly divisible into a pastoral 
and a coast-dwelling group. Their religion is chiefly fetich 
and tree- worship; many, nominally, profess Mahommedanism. 
They are distinguished by narrow straight noses, thin lips and 
small pointed chins; their cheekbones are not prominent. 
They are more scantily clothed than the Abyssinians or Galla, 
wearing, generally, nothing but a waist-cloth. Their women, 
when quite young, are pretty and graceful. Their huts are often 
tastefully decorated, the floors being spread with yellow mats, 
embroidered with red and violet designs. The Afars are divided 
into many sub-tribes, each having an hereditary sultan, whose 
power is, however, limited. They are desperate fighters and in 
1875 successfully resisted an attempt to bring them under 
Egyptian rule. In 1883-1888, however, their most important 
sultan concluded treaties placing his country under Italian 
protection. The Afar region is now partly under Abyssinian 
and partly under Italian authority. The Afars are also found in 
considerable numbers in French Somaliland. They have a 
saying " Guns are only useful to frighten cowards." They were 
formerly redoubtable pirates, but the descendants of these 
corsairs are now fishermen, and are the only sailors in the Red 
Sea who hunt the dugong. 

See Fr. Scazamucci and E. H. Giglioli, Notizie sui Danakil (1884) ; 
P. Paulitschke, Ethnographic Nordost-Afrikas (2 vols., Berlin, 1893- 
1896), and Die geographische Erf orschung der A Ml- Lander und Har&rs 
in Ost-Afrika (Leipzig, 1884). 

AFER, DOMITIUS, a Roman orator and advocate, bom at 
Nemausus (Nimes) in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished in the 
reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. His pupil 
Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever known; 
but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against 
some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. He 
gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulcra, the 
widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of magic arts 
against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the consul- 
ship under Caligula (39) ; and under Nero he was superintendent 
of the water supply. He died A.D. 60, according to Jerome, of 
over-eating. Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (dicta), 
collections of which were published, and mentions two books by 
him On Witnesses. 

Quintilian, Instil, vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. I. 118, &c. ; Tac. Ann. 
iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, Ix. 33; Pliny, Epp. viii. 18. 

AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a 
person), literally, a mental state resulting generally from an 
external influence. It is popularly used of a relation between 
persons amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. By 
ethical writers the word has been used generally of distinct 



300 



AFFIDAVIT AFFILIATION 



states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; some contrast it 
with " passion " as being free from the distinctively sensual 
element. More specifically the word has been restricted to 
emotional states which are in relation to persons. In the former 
sense, it is the Gr. ira.6os, and as such it appears in Descartes 
and most of the early British ethical writers. On various 
grounds, however e.g. that it does not involve anxiety or excite- 
ment, that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the 
entire absence of the sensuous element it is generally and use- 
fully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the 
word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have 
spoken of the social or parental " affections " as in some sense 
a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and 
similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in 
which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, 
Methods of Ethics, pp. 345-349. 

In psychology the terms " affection " and " affective " are 
of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by 
experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has 
been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection, 
the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately 
composed. The nature of this element is a problem which has 
been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many 
psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all 
experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult. The solutions 
proposed are two. In the first, all affection phenomena are 
primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those 
which are the reverse. The main objections to this are that it 
does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena, and that 
it disregards the distinction which most philosophers admit 
between higher and lower pleasures. The second solution is 
that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by 
reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name. 
W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans. C. H. Judd, Leipzig, 
1897), maintains that we may group under three main affective 
directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in 
question; these are (a) pleasure, or rather pleasantness, and the 
reverse, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depres- 
sion. These two views are antithetic and no solution has been 
discovered. 

Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried. The 
first, introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists 
in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to 
accompany modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus 
it is found that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant, 
and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight 
and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection 
and so on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation 
is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are 
insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly 
problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results 
can be achieved only by data recorded in connexion with a 
perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject 
introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable. 

The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the 
changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him 
in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated 
according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in 
groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes. 

Mention should also be made of a third method which has 
hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate 
one of the three " directions " by the method of suggestion or 
even hypnotic trance observations. 

For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of 
psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully, W. James, G. T. Fechner, O. 
Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900; Eng. trans. 
E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896); E. B. Titchener, Experi- 
mental Psychology (1905) ; art. PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted. 

AFFIDAVIT (Med. Lat. for " he has declared upon oath," 
from affidare, fides, faith), a written statement sworn or affirmed 
to before some person who has authority to administer an oath 
or affirmation. Evidence is chiefly taken by means of affidavits 
in the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice in England 



on a petition, summons or motion. Interlocutory proceedings 
before trial are conducted by affidavits, e.g. for discovery of 
documents, hence called affidavit of documents. Affidavits are 
sometimes necessary as certificates that certain formalities have 
been duly and legally performed (such as service of proceed- 
ings, &c.). They are extensively used in bankruptcy practice, 
in the administration of the revenue and in the inferior and 
county courts. In testamentary causes, all documents of any 
kind, such as wills, codicils, drafts or instructions of same must 
be filed in the form of affidavits (termed affidavits of scripts). 
In Scotland the testimony of witnesses by affidavit is almost 
unknown, except in a few non-contentious cases as prima facie 
evidence. In the rules of the Supreme Court (R.S.C. Ord. 
XXXVIII.) certain formal requirements are laid down for all 
affidavits and affirmatiems in causes or matters depending in 
the High Court. An affidavit must consist of title, body or 
statement and jurat. It must be written or printed on foolscap, 
bookwise, in the first person; give correctly the names of the 
parties to the action; and the description and true place of 
abode of the deponent. An affidavit is confined, except on 
interlocutory motions, to such facts as the witness is able of 
his own knowledge to prove. The signature of the deponent 
must be written opposite to the jurat, which must contain the 
place, date and time of swearing, and this signed by the officer 
or magistrate before whom the affidavit is sworn. An affidavit 
sworn on a Sunday is not invalid. Quakers, Moravians and 
Separatists were first privileged to make a solemn declaration 
or affirmation, and by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852 
and other statutes all persons prevented by religious belief from 
taking an oath were allowed to affirm; and, finally, by the Oaths 
Act 1888, every person who objects to be sworn is allowed to 
affirm in all places and for all purposes where an oath is required 
by law. By an act of 1835 justices are permitted to take affi- 
davits in any matter by declaration, and a person making a 
false affidavit in this way is liable to punishment. The same 
act prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any 
matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except when 
an oath was specially authorized by statute, as in the bankruptcy 
law, and excepting criminal inquiries, parliamentary proceedings 
and instances where oaths are required to give validity to docu- 
ments abroad. Scottish justices can act in England and vice 
versa. The Oaths Act 1888 and the Commissioner of Oaths 
Act 1889 consolidated all previous enactments relating to oaths 
and gave the lord chancellor power to appoint commissioners 
for oaths to take affidavits for all purposes (see OATH). Under 
the Debtors Act 1869 a plaintiff may file an affidavit for the 
arrest of a debtor (affidavit to hold to bail) when the debt 
amounts to 50 or upwards, where it can be shown that the 
debtor's absence from the kingdom would materially prejudice 
the prosecution of the action. 

Affidavits may be made abroad before any British ambassador, 
jenvoy, minister, charge d'affaires, secretary of embassy or lega- 
tion, consul or consular agent. 

In the United States affidavit has the same meaning as in 
England and its general uses are the same, but it is not sub- 
stituted for oral evidence in court to anything like the extent 
to which that is done in the English courts of chancery. The 
statutes of each state designate the persons before whom affi- 
davits may be made outside the state, and special commissioners 
are appointed for that purpose by each state. Affidavits made 
abroad must be made before such commissioners or persons 
so designated, who are usually diplomatic and consular officials, 
justices, notaries public or mayors. "Affidavit of documents" 
is not generally used in the United States; discovery is procured 
by motion. 

AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad-filiare, to adopt as a son), 
in law, the procedure by which the paternity of a bastard child 
is determined, and the obligation of contributing to its support 
enforced. In England a number of statutes on the subject 
have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act of 1845, 
and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 1872 and 1873. 
The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to 



AFFINITY AFFRE 



301 



petty sessions within twelve months of the birth (or at any later 
time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support 
within twelve months after the birth), and the justices, after 
hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence 
be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man 
to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a 
sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, 
together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the 
funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the 
costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the 
child reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the 
order direct the payments to be continued until the child is 
sixteen years of age. An appeal to quarter sessions is open to 
the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the 
King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. Should the child after- 
wards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father 
may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, 
whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable 
to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative 
father for a contribution. Any woman who is single, a widow, 
or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make 
an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the 
child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application 
for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but 
in this case the statement of the mother must be in the form of 
a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over fourteen years 
of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum 
down in discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the 
making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins it is usual 
to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses. 
The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 makes due provision for 
the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers 
an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by 
the Army Act 1 88 1, if an order has been made against a soldier 
of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the 
secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay 
to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard 
to sailors in the royal navy. 

In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States 
(with the exception of California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, 
Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed 
filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a 
mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate 
child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid 
may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. 
Supplt. 372). On the continent of Europe, however, the legis- 
lation of the various countries differs rather widely. France, 
Belgium, Holland, Italy, Russia, Servia and the canton of 
Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an 
illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls 
upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, 
Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons pro- 
vide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, 
and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the 
father. 

Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption 
by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs 
to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased. 
(See ADOPTION. Also BASTARD; POOR LAWS.) 

AUTHORITIES. Saunders, Law and Practice of Orders of Affilia- 
tion; Lushington, Law of Affiliation and Bastardy; Little, Poor 
Law Statutes. (T. A. I.) 

AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from 
affinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary), in law, 
as distinguished from consanguinity (q.v.), the term applied to 
the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and 
wife, bears to the kindred of the other. Affinity is usually de- 
scribed as of three kinds, (i) Direct: that relationship which 
subsists between the husband and his wife's relations by blood or 
between the wife and the husband's relations by blood. The 
marriage having made them one person, the blood relations of each 
are held as related by affinity in the same degree to the one spouse 



as by consanguinity to the other. But the relation is only with 
the married parties themselves, and does not bring those in 
affinity with them in affinity with each other; so a wife's sister 
has no affinity to her husband's brother. This is (2) Secondary 
affinity. (3) Collateral affinity is the relationship subsisting 
between the husband and the relations of his wife's relations. 

The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibi- 
tions by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity. 
Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited 
on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended 
to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would 
be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be 
the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease. 

Briefly, direct affinity is a bar to marriage. This rule has been 
founded chiefly on interpretations of the eighteenth chapter of 
Leviticus. Formerly by law in England, marriages within the 
degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable 
to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both 
parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical, 
not a civil, disability. By the Marriage Act 1835 all marriages 
of this kind not disputed before the passing of the act were 
declared absolutely valid, while all subsequent to it were declared 
null. This rendered null in England, and not merely voidable, a 
marriage with a deceased wife's sister or niece. (See CONSAN- 
GUINITY; MARRIAGE.) 

AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of 
which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemi- 
cal combination with each other. (See CHEMISTRY; CHEMICAL 
ACTION; VALENCY.) 

AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert), the declara- 
tion that something is true; in logic, a positive judgment, the 
union of the subject and predicate of a proposition; particularly, 
in law, the solemn declaration allowed to those who conscien- 
tiously object to taking an oath. (See OATH.) 

AFFRAY, in law, the fighting of two or more persons in a 
public place to the terror (a I' ejfroi ) of the lieges. The offence is 
a misdemeanour at English common law, punishable by fine and 
imprisonment. A fight in private is an assault and battery, not 
an affray. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also 
liable to prosecution for Assault (q.v.), Unlawful Assembly (see 
ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL), or Riot (q.v.), it is for one of these 
offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may, 
and constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an 
affray. In the United States the English common law as to 
affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes 
of particular states (Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., 1892, 
vol. i. 535). The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the 
English definition of affray, with the substitution of " actual 
disturbance of the peace " for " causing terror to the lieges." 
The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect. 72) defines affray 
as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a 
fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place 
to which the public have access. This definition is taken from 
that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Under the 
Roman Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the 
definition of vis publica. 

AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTS (1793-1848), archbishop of Paris, 
was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th 
of September 1793. He was educated for the priesthood at St 
Sulpice, where in 1818 he became professor of dogmatic theology. 
After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to 
the archbishopric of Paris in 1840. Though opposed to the 
government of Louis Philippe, he took no part in politics, but 
devoted himself to his pastoral work. His episcopate, however, 
is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic close. During the 
insurrection of June 1848 the archbishop was led to believe that 
by his personal interference peace might be restored between 
the soldiery and the insurgents. Accordingly, in spite of the 
warning of General Cavaignac, he mounted the barricade at the 
entrance to the Faubourg St Antoine, bearing a green branch 
as sign of peace. He had spoken only a few words, however, 
when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they 



302 



AFFREIGHTMENT 



were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the 
archbishop fell, struck by a stray bullet. He was removed to 
his palace, where he died on the 27th of June 1848. Next day 
the National Assembly issued a decree expressing their great 
sorrow on account of his death; and the public funeral on the 
7th of July was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind,. 
The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value, 
including an Essai sur les hieroglyphes egyptiens (Paris, 1834), 
in which he showed that Champollion's system was insufficient 
to explain the hieroglyphics. 

See Ricard, Les grands eveques de I'eglise de France au XIXe 
siecle (Lille, .1893) ; L. Alazard, Denis-Auguste Affre, archeveque de 
Paris (Paris, 1905). 

AFFREIGHTMENT (from "freight," ?..). Contract of 
A/reightment is the expression usually employed to describe 
the contract between a shipowner and some other person 
called the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods 
of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the use of 
the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the ship for the 
carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or voyages or for a 
specified time; the freighter on his part agreeing to pay a 
specified price, called " freight," for the carriage of the goods 
or the use of the ship. A ship may be let like a house to some 
person who takes possession and control of it for a specified 
term. The person who hires a ship in this way occupies during 
the currency of his term the position of shipowner. The contract 
by which a ship is so let may be called a charter-party; but it 
is not, properly speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is 
mentioned here only because it is necessary to remember the 
distinction between a charter-party of this kind, which is some- 
times called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a 
form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear. 

The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, of 
course, a branch of the general law of contract. The rights and 
obligations of the shipowner and the freighter depend, as in the 
case of all parties to contracts, upon the terms of the agreement 
entered into between them. The law, however, interferes to 
some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts. 
Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are, 
therefore, incapable of enforcement. The most important 
example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is 
when the contract involves trading with an enemy. The law 
interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract. 
The meaning to be given to the words of the contract, or, in 
other words, its construction, when a dispute arises about it, 
must be determined by the judge or court. The result is, that 
certain'more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment 
have come before the courts for construction, and the decisions 
in these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite 
logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put upon 
certain forms of expression in common use in shipping contracts. 
A third way in which the law interferes is by laying down certain 
rules by which the rights of the parties are to be regulated in the 
absence of any express stipulation with regard to the matter 
dealt with by such rules. This is done either by statutory 
enactment, as by that part (Part VIII.) of the Merchant Shipping 
Act 1894 which deals with the liability of shipowners; or by 
established rules of the unwritten law, the " common law " 
as it is called, as, for instance, the rule that the common 
carrier is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of 
the goods carried, unless it is prevented by t\: act of 
God or the king's enemies. These rules of law, whether common 
law or statute law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods 
by sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon 
though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an 
affreightment without any written agreement of any kind. It 
will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this kind 
where there is no express agreement, oral or written, except as 
to the freight and destination of the goods, and where, conse- 
quently, the rights and obligations of the parties as to all other 
terms of carriage depend wholly upon the rules of law, remember- 
ing always that these same rules apply when there is a written 



Rules 
ol law. 



contract, except in so far as they are qualified or negatived by 
the terms of such contract. 

The rules of the common or ancient customary law of England 
with regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first considered 
by the courts and established with regard to the carriage of 
goods by common carriers on land. These rules were applied to 
common carriers by water, and it may now be taken to be the 
general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea are by the 
English law subject to the liabilities of common carriers. (See, 
as to the grounds and precise extent of this doctrine, the judg- 
ments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson (1874), L.R., 9 Ex. 
338, and Nugent v. Smith (1876) i C.P.D. 423.) In practice 
goods are not often shipped without a written contract or 
acknowledgment of the terms upon which they are to be carried. 
For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped a 
bill of lading is almost invariably given, and when a whole cargo 
is agreed to be carried the terms are set out in a document called 
a charter-party, signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the 
one part, and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the 
other part. But at present we are considering the relations of 
shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract, 
as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be carried 
to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain freight, but 
without any further agreement as to the terms of carriage. In 
such a case the rights of the parties depend on the rules of law, 
or, which is much the same thing, upon the warranties 
or promises which though not expressed must, as the " * p f s 
courts have held, be implied as arising from the relation contract. 
between the parties as shipper and carrier. The obli- 
gations on the one side and the other may be defined shortly to 
be as follows: The shipper must not ship goods of a nature or 
in a Condition which he knows, or ought, if he used reasonable 
care, to know to be dangerous to the ship, or to other goods, 
unless the shipowner has notice of or has sufficient opportunity 
to observe their dangerous character. The shipper must be 
prepared, without notice from the shipowner, to take delivery 
of his goods with reasonable despatch on the arrival of the ship 
at the place of destination, being ready there to discharge in 
some usual discharging place. The shipper must pay the agreed 
freight, and will not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight 
has been paid. In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the 
goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage. 
On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner is first 
and foremost to deliver safely at their destination the goods 
shipped, and this obligation is, by the common law, subject to 
this exception only that the shipowner is not liable for loss or 
damage 'caused by the act of God or the king's enemies; but by 
statute (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, Part VIII.) it is further 
qualified to this extent that the shipowner is not liable for loss, 
happening without his actual fault or privity, by fire on board 
the ship, or by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away 
with gold or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of 
which have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment; 
and, further, the shipowner is not liable for damage to or loss of 
goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not exceeding 
eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's tonnage. The 
shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, or, in other 
words, is made responsible by the law as if he had entered into 
an express undertaking: (i) that the ship is seaworthy; (2) that 
she shall proceed upon the voyage with reasonable despatch, and 
shall not deviate without necessity from the usual course of the 
voyage. 

It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or 
doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations 
of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have been 
agreed, except as to the freight and destination of the goods, 
are such as have been described above. The importance of 
appreciating clearly this view of the relations of shipper and 
shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules 
apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of lading, 
charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they are modified 
or negatived by the express terms of the contract. 



AFFREIGHTMENT 



303 



Bills of Lading. 

The document signed by the master or agent for the ship- 
owner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a parcel of 
goods and the terms upon which it is to be carried, is called a 
Bill of Lading. Very many different forms of bills of lading are 
used. For the purpose of illustration the following form (from 
Mr Scrutton's book on Charter-parties and Bills of Lading) has 
been selected as a sample: 

Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by in 

and upon the good Vessel called the now lying in the port of 

and bound for , with liberty to call at any ports in 

any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in dis- 
tress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property ; 
and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the afore- 
said port of unto or to his or their assigns, freight 
and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils 
of the sea, fire, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates, 
and thieves, arrests, and restraints of princes, rulers, and people, 
collisions, stranding, and other accidents of navigation excepted, 
even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment 
of the Pilot, Master, Mariners, or other servants of the Shipowners. 

Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting of 
boilers, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery or 
hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the 
Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager. 

General Average payable according t6 York-Antwerp Rules. 

In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath 
affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn 
as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the 
others to stand void. 

Dated in this day of 188 . 

The bill of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of 
goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination 
on terms set forth in the document. It is usually signed by the 
master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents of the 
shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the vessel. A vessel 
may be employed by its owners to earn freight in various ways : 

(1) It may be placed, as it is said, on the berth as a general ship, 
to receive cargo from any shippers who may desire to send 
goods to the port, or one of the ports, to which the vessel is 
bound. The mate or chief officer usually superintends the load- 
ing, and, as goods are shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an 
acknowledgment of the shipment. The mate's receipt is after- 
wards exchanged for the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment 
by a general ship the bill of lading is the evidence and memor- 
andum of the contract between the shipowner and the shipper. 

(2) A shipper may, however, require the whole cargo space of 
the vessel to carry, for example, a full cargo of grain. In such a 
case the vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper, 
and the contract will be the charter-party. Even in such a case 
a bill or bills of lading will usually be given to enable the shipper 
to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or 
otherwise. By the ancient custom of merchants recognized 
and incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of 
title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of 
which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made. But when 
a cargo is shipped under a charter-party, although bills of lading 
may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, and not 
the bills of lading, which constitutes the record of the contract 
between the parties of charter-parties we shall treat below. (3) 
There is a third class of case which is a combination of the two 
with which we have dealt above. A vessel is very commonly 
chartered by her owner to a charterer who has no intention to 
ship and does not ship any cargo on his own account, but places 
the vessel on the berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship 
under bills of lading. The charterer receives the bill of lading 
freight and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of 
course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess of the 
chartered freight, and so make a profit. The master, although 
he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during the term 
of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the directions and 
on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of lading. The legal 
effect of this situation is that shippers who ship goods under bills 
of lading without knowledge of the terms of the charter-party 
are entitled to look to the shipowner as the person responsible 
to them for the safe carriage of their goods. This right depends 



essentially on the fact that the master who signs the bills of 
lading, although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains 
nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not allowed 
to deny as against third persons, who do not know the relations 
between the charterer and the shipowner, that his servant, the 
master of the ship, has the ordinary authority of a master to 
bind his owner by signing bills of lading. 

The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses 
have been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a 
vast number of reported cases. The essential particulars, or at 
all events those common to all bills of lading, may be stated as 
follows: 

1. The name of the shipper. 

2. The name of the ship. 

3. The place of loading and destination of the ship. 

4. A description of the goods shipped. 

5. The place of delivery. 

6. The persons to whom delivery is to be made. 

7. The freight to be paid. 

8. The excepted perils. 

9. The shipowner's lien.- 

The description of (i) the shipper and (2) the ship calls for no 
remark. The (3) description of the voyage is important, because 
there is, as we have already explained, an implied undertaking 
by the shipowner in every contract of carriage not unnecessarily 
to deviate from the ordinary route of the voyage upon which the 
goods are received to be carried. The consequences of a deviation 
are serious, inasmuch as the shipowner is liable, not only for any 
loss or damage which the shipper suffers in consequence of the 
deviation, but for any loss of goods which occurs after the devia- 
tion, even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted 
perils. The only exception to this rule is that a deviation may 
be made to save life, but not to save property. It is, however, 
very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied undertaking 
by introducing in the bill of lading certain " liberties " to deviate, 
as, for example, in the form given above, " liberty to call at any 
ports in any order, to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to 
deviate for the purpose of saving life and property." The nature 
and extent of the liberty will depend on the words of the contract. 
The inclination of English courts has been to construe clauses 
giving a liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the ship- 
owner. 

The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped 
and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver them 
as described and in the like good condition, subject, of course, 
to the exceptions. It must, moreover, be noted that, as against 
the master or person who has himself signed the bill of lading, 
the statement therein of the goods shipped is absolutely con- 
clusive. But as against the shipowner, unless he has himself 
signed the bill of lading, the statement of the goods shipped is 
not conclusive. It is evidence as against him that the goods 
described were shipped, but he is allowed to rebut this evidence 
by proving, if he can, that.the goods mentioned, or some of 
them, were not in fact shipped. 

As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions frequently 
arise. Primarily, of course, the shipowner is bound to deliver 
at the place named. Should he be prevented by some obstacle 
or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, the vessel must 
wait, and delivery must be made as soon as possible. Where, 
however, the obstacle is permanent, or at all events such as 
must cause unreasonable delay, having regard to the nature 
of the adventure, the shipowner is excused from delivery at the 
place named in the bill of lading, provided the difficulty arises 
from an excepted peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place 
named being forbidden by the law of England, as may happen, 
for example, in the case of a declaration of war between Great 
Britain and the state in which the port named in the bill of lading 
is situate. A party to a contract cannot be held liable for break- 
ing his contract if its performance has become illegal. There 
may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of the 
voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties 
intended the performance of the contract to be conditional on 



304 



AFFREIGHTMENT 



the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of 
things, the non-existence of which would render performance 
impossible. For instance, if the port named in the bill of lading 
became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping in 
consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that 
the continued existence of the place named as a port was an 
implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was 
excused. Where, however, the performance of the contract 
remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of the 
contract, or by some implied condition, the shipowner is liable 
for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by reason of 
his goods not being delivered at the named place, even though 
such delivery has become impossible. There is another reason 
why the precise description of the place of delivery often becomes 
important. It is only on the arrival of the ship at the place 
described as the place of delivery that the obligation of the 
consignee of the goods to take delivery commences. Delay in- 
volves considerable loss and expense to the shipowner. The 
shipper or consignee is not responsible for any delay which 
occurs before the ship has arrived at the place of delivery 
described in the bill of lading. 

(6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill of 
lading to a named consignee, and to him only, but more usually 
they are made deliverable to the " order or assigns " of the 
named consignee or of the shipper. If the goods are made 
deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a negotiable 
instrument, or, in other words, the right to the goods, and the 
rights and liabilities under the contract contained in the bill of 
lading, may be transferred by indorsement and delivery of the 
document. When an indorsement has once been made by the 
shipper or consignee writing his name and nothing more on the 
back of the bill of lading, the rights in and under it may be trans- 
ferred from hand to hand by mere delivery. A bill of lading so 
indorsed is said to be indorsed " in blank." But the shipper or 
consignee may restrict the negotiability of the bill of lading by 
indorsing it not " in blank," but with a direction requiring 
delivery to be made to a particular person or indorsee, or to his 
order. This is called an indorsement " in full." When an in- 
dorsement has been made " in full " to a named indorsee or order, 
such indorsee must again indorse " in blank " or " in full " to 
effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading. 

(7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the bill 
of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when the freight 
under the bill of lading is the same as under the charter-party, 
by reference to the charter-party. A common form of such 
reference is " freight and other conditions, as per charter-party." 
It may here be mentioned that this form of words does not in- 
corporate in the contract under the bill of lading all the terms 
and conditions of the charter-party, but only those which apply 
to the person who is to take delivery, and relate to matters 
ejusdem generis, or similar to the payment of freight, such as 
demurrage and the like. The conditions of the charter-party 
thus incorporated do not include, for instance, the exceptions 
in the charter-party so as to add them to the exceptions in the 
bill of lading. Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the 
contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their 
destination. If the voyage is interrupted and its completion 
becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment of 
freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight altogether. 
This is so even when the completion of the voyage is prevented 
by causes for which the shipowner is not responsible, such as the 
act of God or the king's enemies, or perils which are within the 
express exceptions in the bill of lading. When the voyage is 
interrupted by accident, and indeed in any case, the goods may, 
by agreement between the shipowner and the consignee, be 
delivered at some place short of their destination upon payment 
of a freight pro rata; that is to say, proportional to the length 
of voyage accomplished, and such an agreement may be implied 
in certain circumstances from the conduct of the consignee in 
taking delivery before they arrive at their destination. In all 
such cases it will be a question of fact whether the goods were in 
fact delivered upon the terms, express or implied, that freight 



pro rata should be paid. As a rule such an agreement would not 
be implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward 
the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods, 
therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered. 

When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is pre- 
vented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of delivery 
named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is unwilling or 
unable to forward the goods by another ship, even though he 
may be excused for his failure to carry the goods to their destina- 
tion, he is not entitled to be paid any part of the freight; and 
the consignee is entitled to have the goods delivered to him 
either at the place where the vessel has taken refuge in her 
disabled condition, or, if the obstacle arises without disablement 
of the vessel, at the place which is nearest and most reasonably 
convenient at the time and in the circumstances when the 
further prosecution of the voyage has to be abandoned. On the 
other hand, after the goods have been shipped, so long as the 
shipowner is ready and willing to carry the goods to their destina- 
tion, or, if the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destina- 
tion by some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner 
of the goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at 
any place short of their destination without payment of the full 
freight. Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, is made 
payable in advance. If freight payable in advance has become 
due, even though the ship is lost before it is paid, it must, in 
the absence of some special provision to the contrary, still be 
paid, and freight already paid in advance does not become 
repayable because the goods do not reach their destination. 
If, however, goods upon which freight has been paid in advance 
are lost, and the shipowner is liable for their loss, the amount of 
freight paid in advance must be taken into account in assessing 
the damage recoverable from the shipowner. 

(8) There is no part of the bill of lading which is of greater 
practical importance or which demands more careful considera- 
tion by shipowner and shipper alike than that which sets forth 
the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words causes of 
loss, for which the shipowner is to be exempt from liability. By 
the common law, as we have seen, the exemption of the carrier, 
apart from express contract, extended only to loss by the act 
of God or the king's enemies. The expression " act of God " 
requires a word of explanation. It will be sufficient to say 
that it is not synonymous with force majeure; but it includes 
every loss by force majeure in which human agency, by act or 
negligence, has had no part. The list of excepted perils varies 
much in different forms of bills of lading. In the older forms it 
usually included perils of the seas, robbers and pirates, restraint 
of princes and rulers, fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrong- 
doing) of the master and crew. The list, however, has grown in 
modern times, and is still growing; the tendency being to 
exempt the shipowner from liability for all loss which does not 
arise from his own personal default, or from the negligence of 
his managers or agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy 
and fit for the voyage at its commencement. It is important 
to point out in this connexion that there are two duties which 
the shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are 
assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions, 
unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the 
terms of the contract. In the first place, he undertakes abso- 
lutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is fit at the 
commencement of the voyage for the service to be performed. 
If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers of the seas or 
other excepted peril which would not have occurred if the vessel 
had been seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement, 
the shipowner is not protected by the exceptions, and is liable 
for the loss. In the second place, there is an implied undertaking 
by the shipowner that all reasonable care will be taken by 
himself, his servants and agents, safely to carry and deliver at 
their destination the goods received by him for carriage. Should 
loss or damage occur during the voyage, though the direct cause 
of such loss or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted 
peril, still the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the 
exceptions, if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage 



AFFREIGHTMENT 



305 



would not have occurred but for the negligence of the maste 
or crew, or other servants of the shipowner. The shipowner, in 
other words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable can 
to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause. 

It must not be supposed that even these primary obligations 
which are introduced into every contract of affreightment not b) 
words but by implication, may not be excluded by tht 

express terms of the contract. It has now become 
common form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not 
be liable for any loss arising from the negligence of his 
servants, or that he shall not be liable for loss by the excepted perils 
even when brought about bythe negligenceof hisservants. And with 
regard toseaworthiness.it isnot uncommon fortheshipownertostipu- 
late that he shall not be responsible for loss arising even from the 
unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided that due care has 
been taken by the owner and his agents and servants to make the 
ship seaworthyat the commencementof theyoyage. There is indeec 
no rule of English law which prevents a shipowner from exempting 
himself by the terms of the bill of lading from liability for damage 
and loss of every kind, whether arising from unseaworthiness or any 
other cause ^hatsoever. In such a case the goods are carried at 
their owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it 
by insurance. In this respect the law of England permits greater 
freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other states. 
The owners, agents and masters of vessels loading in the United 
States of America are forbidden by an act of Congress, commonly 
called the Harter Act, passed in the year 1893, to insert in their 
contracts of affreightment any clause exempting the shipowner 
from liability for the negligence of his servants; but it is at the 
same time enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has 
been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy and 
fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner shall not be 
liable for any loss caused by the negligence of the master or crew 
in the navigation of the vessel, or by perils of the sea or certain 
other causes set forth in the act. It is now very usual to insert 
in the bills of lading of British vessels loading in the United States 
a reference to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as to 
make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading. 

The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading with regard 
to the excepted perils, often expressed in obscure and inexact lan- 
guage, has given rise to much litigation, the results of which are 
recorded in the law reports. Where such difficulties arise the ques- 
tion must be, What is the true and natural meaning of the language 
used by the parties? This question is not governed by the general 
rules which we have endeavoured to explain ; but the words of the 
contract must always be considered with reference to these rules, 
which are founded upon the well-established customs of merchants 
recognized and formulated by the courts of law. 

(9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to the 
shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it the ship- 
owner has by the common law a lien for freight. If it is desired 
to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage (see below) or other 
charges, it must be expressly provided for. The lien is the right 
of the shipowner to retain the goods carried until payment has 
been made of the freight or the demurrage, or other charge for 
which a lien has been given. The lien may be waived, and is lost 
by delivery of the goods, or by any dealing with the consignee 
which is inconsistent with a right of the shipowner to retain 
possession of the goods until payment has been made. The ship- 
owner may preserve his lien by landing the goods and retaining 
them in his own warehouse, or by storing them in a public ware- 
house, subject to the conditions required by the Merchant 
Shipping Act 1894. 

Charter-parlies. 

Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either for 
a voyage or for a period of time. ( i ) A charter-party for a voyage 
is a formal agreement made between the owner of the vessel and 
the charterers by which it is agreed that the vessel " being tight, 
staunch and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage," shall 
load at a certain named place a full cargo either of goods of a 
specified description or of general merchandise, and being so 
loaded shall proceed with all possible despatch either to a specified 
place or to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and 
there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their assigns. There 
are clauses which provide for the amount of freight to be paid and 
the manner and time of payment; for the time, usually described 
as lay days, to be allowed for loading and discharging, and for the 
demurrage to be paid if the vessel is detained beyond the lay days; 
usually also a clause requiring " the cargo to be brought to and 
taken from alongside at merchant's risk and expense "; a clause 



that the master shall sign bills of lading for the cargo shipped 
either at the same rate of freight as is payable under the charter- 
party or very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case 
with a stipulation that, if the total bill of lading freight is less 
than the total freight payable under the charter-party, the dif- 
ference is to be paid by the charterers to the master before the 
sailing of the vessel); and there is usually what is called the 
cesser clause, by which the charterer's liability under the charter- 
party is to cease on shipment of the cargo, the shipowner taking 
a lien on the cargo for freight, dead freight and demurrage. The 
charter-party is made subject to exceptions similar to those which 
are found in bills of lading. There are also usually clauses pro- 
viding for the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing 
the charter-party, the " address " commission to be paid to the 
agents for the vessel at the port of discharge, and other matters 
of detail. The clauses in charter-parties vary, of course, inde- 
finitely, but the above is probably a sufficient outline of the 
ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage. 

What has been said with regard to bills of lading as to the voyage, 
the place of delivery, the exceptions and excepted perils, and the 
liability of the shipowner and his lien applies equally to .charter- 
parties. It may be desirable to add a few words on demurrage, dead 
freight, and on the cesser clause. 

Demurrage is, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or per hour 
agreed to be paid by the charterer for any time during which the 
vessel is detained in loading or discharging over and above the time 
allowed, which is, as we have said, usually described as the lay days. 
Sometimes the number of days during which the vessel may be kept 
on demurrage at the agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party. If no 
demurrage is provided for by the charter-party, and the vessel is 
kept loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner is 
entitled to claim damages in respect of the loss which he has suffered 
by the detention of his ship ; or, if the vessel is detained beyond the 
fixed number of demurrage days, damages for detention will be re- 
coverable. Sometimes there is no time fixed by the charter-party 
for loading or discharging. The obligation in such cases is to load 
or discharge with all despatch that is possible and reasonable in the 
circumstances; and if the loading or discharging is not done with 
such reasonable despatch, the shipowner win be entitled to claim 
damages for detention of his ship. The rate of demurrage (if any) 
will generally be accepted as the measure of the damages for deten- 
tion, but is not necessarily the true measure. When the claim is for 
detention and not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which 
may be more or may be less than the agreed rate ot demurrage. 
The contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall be 
excepted in counting the lay days, but unless expressly stipulated 
this exception does not apply to the computation of the period of 
detention after the lay days have expired. 

Dead freight is the name given to the amount of freight lost, and 
therefore recoverable by the shipowner from the charterer as 
damages if a full and complete cargo is not loaded in accordance with 
the terms of the charter-party. 

The cesser clause has come into common use because very fre- 
quently the charterers are not personally interested in the cargo 
shipped. They may be agents merely, or they may have chartered 
:he vessel as a speculation to make a profit upon the bill of lading 
freight. The effect of the clause is that when the charterers have 
shipped a full cargo they have fulfilled all their obligations, the ship- 
owner discharging them from all further liability and taking instead 
a lien on the cargo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead 
freight that may be payable to him. It has become an established 
rule for the construction of the cesser clause that, if the language used 
will permit it, the cesser of liability is assumed to be co-extensive 
only with the lien given to the shipowner; or, in other words, the 
:harterers are released from those liabilities only for which a lien 
s given to the shipowner. The shipowner is further secured by the 
stipulation already referred to, that if the total freight payable under 
the bills of lading is less than the full chartered freight the difference 
shall be paid to the shipowner before the vessel sails. A difficulty 
which sometimes arises, notwithstanding these precautions, is that 
although an ample lien is given by the charter-party, the terms ot 
he bills of lading may be insufficient to preserve the same extensive 
ien as against the holder of the bills of lading. The shippers under 
:he bills of lading, if they are not the charterers, are not liable for 
the chartered freight, but only for the bill of lading freight; and 
unless the bill of lading expressly reserves it, they are not subject to 
a lien for the chartered freight. The master may guard against this 
difficulty by refusing to sign bills of lading which do not preserve 
he shipowner's lien for his full chartered freight. But he is often 
Dut into a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause in the charter- 
>arty requiring him to sign bills of lading as presented. See Kruger 
'. Mod Tryvan, 1907 A. C. 272. 

(2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner 
nd charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and the 



306 



AFGHANISTAN 



charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for employment, 
either generally in any lawful trade or upon voyages within 
certain limits. A place is usually named at which the vessel is to 
be re-delivered to the owners at the end of the term, and the 
freight is payable until such re-delivery; the owner almost always 
pays the wages of the master and crew, and the charterers provide 
coals and pay port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain 
rate per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly 
in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in certain 
cases if the vessel is disabled; the master, though he usually is 
and remains the servant of the owner, is required to obey the 
orders of the charterers as regards the employment of the vessel, 
they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all liability to which 
they may be exposed by the master signing bills of lading or 
otherwise complying with the orders of the charterers; and the 
contract is made subject to exceptions similar to those in bills of 
lading and voyage charter-parties. This is the general outline 
of the ordinary form of a time charter-party, but the forms and 
their clauses vary, of course, very much, according to the circum- 
stances of each case. 

It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner 
to a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which is 
employed within certain limits according to the wish and direc- 
tions, and for the purposes and profit of, the charterers. But, as 
we have already explained at the beginning of this article, the 
shipowner continues in possession of his vessel by his servant the 
master, who remains responsible to his owner for the safety and 
proper navigation of the ship. The result of this, as has been 
already pointed out, is that the holder of a bill of lading signed by 
the master, if he has taken the bill of lading without knowledge 
of the terms of the time charter-party, may hold the owner 
responsible for the due performance of the contract signed by 
the master in the ordinary course of his duties, and within his 
ostensible authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact 
in signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent for and 
at the direction of the time charterer, and not the shipowner. In 
the language of the ordinary time charter-party the ship is let to 
the charterers; but there is no true demise, because, as we have 
pointed out, the vessel remains in the possession of the shipowner, 
the charterer enjoying the advantages and control of its employ- 
ment. Where the possession of a ship is given up to a hirer, 
who appoints his own master and crew, different considera- 
tions apply; but though the instrument by which the ship is 
let may be called a charter-party, it is not truly a contract of 
affreightment. 

There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the 
relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances of 
Custom extraordinary peril or urgency in the course of a voyage, 
rights"" y which, though not strictly contractual, are well estab- 
lished by the customs of merchants and recognized by 
the law. It is obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in 
the course of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the 
owners of both ship and cargo. In cases of emergency it may be 
necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority 
or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent not only 
of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the cargo-owner. 
Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may be necessary for the 
safety of both to put into a port of refuge. There it may be 
necessary to repair the ship, and to land and warehouse, and 
afterwards re-ship the cargo. For these purposes the master will 
be obliged to incur expense, of which some part, such as the cost 
of repairing the ship, will be for the benefit of the shipowner; 
part, such as the warehousing expenses, will be for the benefit of 
the cargo-owner; and part, such as the port charges incurred in 
order to enter the port of refuge, are for the common benefit and 
safety of ship and cargo. Again, in a storm at sea, it may be 
necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or 
to jettison, that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo. In 
such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, 
as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or part of 
the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving ship and cargo 
from a danger common to both. Voluntary sacrifices so made 



and extraordinary expenses incurred for the common safety are 
called general average (see AVERAGE) sacrifices and expenses, 
and are made good, to the person who has made the sacrifice or 
incurred the expense by a general average contribution, which is 
recoverable from the owners of the property saved in proportion 
to its value, or, in other words, each contributes rateably accord- 
ing to the benefit received. The law regulating the rights of the 
parties with regard to such contribution is called the law of 
General Average. It must, however, be remembered that the 
owner of the cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment 
to the ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage 
of the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay 
all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose of the voyage. 
He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by 
accidents. But when extraordinary expense has been incurred 
by the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such 
expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on cargo; 
or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a volun- 
tary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and cargo 
from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of cargo 
to contribute in general average to make good the loss. 

See Carver, Carriage by Sea (London, 1905) ; Scrutton, Charter- 
parties and Bills of Lading (London, 1904). (W.) 

AFGHANISTAN, a country of Central Asia. Estimated area 
245,000 sq. m. (including Badakshan and Kafiristan). Pop. 
about 5,000,000. It is bounded on the N. by Russian Turkestan, 
on the W. by Persia, and on the E. and S. by Kashmir and the 
independent tribes of the North-West Frontier of India and 
Baluchistan. The chief importance of Afghanistan in modern 
days is due to its position as a " buffer state " intervening be- 
tween the two great empires of Asiatic Russia and British India. 
During the last quarter of the igth century our knowledge of 
the country was greatly increased, and its boundaries on the 
N., E. and S. were strictly delimited. The second Afghan war 
of 1878-80 afforded an opportunity for the extension of wide 
geographical surveys on a scientific basis. The Russian-Afghan 
Boundary Commission of 1884-1886 resulted in the delimitation 
and mapping of the northern frontier. The Durand agreement 
of 1893 led to the partition of the Pathan tribes on the southern 
and eastern frontiers. The Pamir Commission of 1895 settled 
its north-eastern border. Finally the Perso-Baluch Commission 
of 1904-1905 defined its western face. 

Beginning with the Persian border at Zulfikar on the Hari 
Rud river, the boundary between Afghanistan and Russia follows 
a line roughly parallel to the course of the Paropamisus, and 
about 35 m. to the north of it, till it strikes the Kushk river in 
Jamshidi territory at a point which was once known as Chahil 
Dukteran, but is now the Russian post Kushkinski, and the 
terminus of a branch railway from Merv. Kushkinski is about 
20 m. below the old Jamshidi settlement of Kushk, which is 
the capital of Badghis. The settlement and the post originally 
called Kushk must not be confused together. From Kushk- 
inski the boundary runs north-east, crossing the Murghab river 
near Maruchak (which is an Afghan fortress) , and thence passes 
north-east through the hills of the Chul, and the undulating 
deserts of the Aleli Turkmans, to the Oxus, leaving the valleys 
of Charshamba and of Andkhui (to which it runs approximately 
parallel) within Afghan limits. These valleys denote the limits 
of cultivation in this direction. Throughout all this region the 
boundary is generally of an artificial character, marked by pillars, 
but it is here and there indicated by natural features forming 
local lines of water-parting or water-course. The boundary meets 
the Oxus at Khamiab at the western extremity of the culti- 
vated district of Khwaja Salar, and from that point to the 
eastern end of Lake Victoria in the Pamirs the main channel of 
the Oxus river forms the northern limits of Afghanistan. (See 
Oxus.) Eastwards from Lake Victoria the frontier line was 
determined by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. A 
part of the little Pamir is included in Afghan territory, but the 
boundary crosses this Pamir before the great bend northwards of 
the Aksu takes place, and, passing over a series of crags and un- 
traversable mountain ridges, is lost on the Chinese frontier in the 



AFGHANISTAN 



307 



AFGHANISTAN 



66 Longitude East 68 of Greenwich 




Emtry Walker ic. 



snowfields of Sarikol. Bending back westwards upon itself, the 
line of Afghan frontier now follows the water-parting of the 
Hindu Rush; and as the Hindu Kush absolutely overhangs the 
Oxus nearly opposite Ishkashim, it follows that, at this point, 
Afghanistan is about 10 m. wide. Thus a small and highly 
elevated portion of the state extends eastwards from its extreme 
north-eastern corner, and is attached to the great Afghan quadri- 
lateral by the thin link of the Panja valley. These narrow limits 
(called Wakhan) include the lofty spurs of the northern flank 
of the Hindu Kush, an impassable barrier at this point, where 
the glacial passes reach 19,000 ft. in altitude, and the enclosing 
peaks 24,000 ft. The backbone or main water-divide of the 
Hindu Kush continues to form the boundary between Afghan- 
istan and those semi-independent native states which fringe 
Kashmir in this mountain region, until it reaches Kafiristan. 
From near the Dorah pass (14,800 ft.), which connects Chitral 
with the Panja (or Oxus) river, a long, straight, snow-clad spur 
reaches southwards, which divides the Kafiristan valley of 
Bashgol from that of Chitral, and this continues to denote the 
eastern limits of Afghanistan till it nearly touches the Chitral 
river opposite the village of Arnawai, 45 m. south of Chitral. 
Here the Bashgol and Chitral valleys unite and the boundary 
passes to the water-divide east of the Chitral river, after crossing 
it by a spur which leaves the insignificant Arnawai valley to 
the north; along this water-divide it extends to a point nearly 
opposite the quaint old town of Pashat in the Kunar valley (the 
Chitral river has become the Kunar in its course southwards), 
and then stretches away in an uneven and undefined line, dividing 
certain sections of the Mohmands from each other by hypo- 
thetical landmarks, till it. strikes the Kabul river near Palosi. 



Thence following a course nearly due south, it reaches Landi 
Kotal. From the abutment of the Hindu Kush on the Sarikol 
in the Pamir regions to Landi Kotal, and throughout its eastern 
and southern limits, the boundary of Afghanistan touches 
districts which were brought under British political control with 
the formation of tlje North- West Frontier Provinces of India in 
1901. From the neighbourhood of Landi Kotal the boundary 
is carried to the Safed Koh overlooking the Afridi Tirah, and 
then, rounding off the cultivated portions of the Kurram valley 
below the Peiwar, it crosses the Kaitu and passes to the upper 
reaches of the Tochi. Crossing these again, it is continued on 
the west of Waziristan, finally striking the Gomal river at 
Domandi. South of the Gomal it separates the interests of 
Afghanistan from those of Baluchistan, which here adjoins the 
North-West Frontier Province. From Domandi (the junction 
of the Kundar river with the Gomal) the Afghan boundary 
marches with that of Baluchistan. (See BALUCHISTAN.) It is 
carried to the south-west on a line which is largely defined by 
the channels of the Kundar and the Kadanai to a point beyond 
the Sind-Peshin terminal station of New Chaman, west of the 
Khojak range, and then drops southward to Shorawak and 
Nushki. From Nushki it crosses the Helmund desert, touching 
the crest of a well-defined mountain watershed for a great part 
of the way, and, leaving Chagai to Baluchistan, it strikes nearly 
west to the Persian frontier, and joins it on the Koh-i-Malik Siah 
mountain, south of Seistan. Two points of this part of the 
Afghan boundary are notable. It leaves some of the most 
fanatical of the Durani Afghan people on the Baluch side of the 
frontier in the Toba district, north of the Quetta-Chaman line 
of railway; and it passes 50 m. south of the Helmund river, 



3 o8 



AFGHANISTAN 



enclosing within Afghanistan the only approach to Seistan from 
India which is available during the seasons of Helmund overflow. 
Between Afghanistan and Persia the boundary was denned by 
Sir F. Goldsmid's Commission in 1872 from the Malik-Siah-Koh 
to the Helmund Lagoons, and rectified by the Commission under 
Sir Henry MacMahon in 1903-1905. Beyond these lagoons to 
Hashtadan it is still indefinite. The eastern limits of Hashtadan 
had been previously fixed as far north as the Hari Rud river 
at Toman Agha. From this point to Zulfikar the Hari Rud is 
itself the boundary. 

Within the limits of this boundary Afghanistan comprises 
four main provinces, Northern Afghanistan or Kabul, Southern 

Afghanistan or Kandahar, Herat and Afghan Turkes- 
proviaces. *- an ' together with the minor dependencies of the 

Ghilzai and Hazara Highlands, Ghazni, Jalalabad and 
Kafiristan. All these are described in separate articles. The 
kingdom of Kabul is the historic Afghanistan; the link which 
unites it to Kandahar, Herat and the other outlying provinces 
having been frequently broken and again restored by amirs of 
sufficient strength and capability. The Herat province is largely 
Persian, while Afghan Turkestan is chiefly Usbeg; and in neither 
is the sentiment of loyalty to the central government very strong. 
The bond is geographical and political rather than racial. The 
geographical divisions of the country are created by the basins 
of its chief rivers, the Kabul, the Helmund, the Hari Rud and 
the Oxus. The Kabul river drains Northern Afghanistan, the 
Hari Rud the province of Herat, and the Oxus that of Afghan 
Turkestan. Afghanistan is largely a country of mountains and 
deserts; but there are wide tracts of highly irrigated and most 
productive country where fruit is grown in such abundance 
as to become an important item in the export trade. The 
Afghans are expert agriculturists and make profitable use of all 
the natural sources of water-supply. As practical irrigation 
engineers they are only rivalled by the Chinese. 

The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the Hindu 
Kush, and that extension westwards of its water-divide which 
Mountain is indicated by the Koh-i-Baba to the north-west of 
systems. Kabul, and by the Firozkhoi plateau (Karjistan), 

which merges still farther to the west by gentle 
gradients into the Paropamisus, and which may be traced across 
the Hari Rud to Mashad. 

The culminating peaks of the Koh-i-Baba overlooking the sources 
of the Hari Rud, the Helmund, the Kunduz and the Kabul very 
nearly reach 17,000 ft. in height (Shah Fuladi, the highest, is 16,870), 
and from them to the south-west long spurs divide the upper tribu- 
taries of the Helmund, _and separate its basin from that of the Farah 
Rud. These spurs retain a considerable altitude, for they are marked 
by peaks exceeding 1 1,000 ft. They sweep in a broad band of roughly 
parallel ranges to the south-west, preserving their general direction 
till they abut on the Great Registan desert to the west of Kandahar, 
where they terminate in a series of detached and broken anticlinals 
whose sides are swept by a sea of encroaching sand. The long, 
straight, level-backed ridges which divide the Argandab, the Tarnak 
and Arghastan valleys, and flank the route from Kandahar to Ghazni, 
determining the_ direction of that route, are outliers of this system, 
which geographically includes the Khojak, or Kwaja Amran, range 
in Baluchistan. 

North of the main water-parting of Afghanistan the broad syn- 
clinal plateau into which the Hindu Kush is merged is traversed 
by the gorges of the Saighan, Bamian and Kamard tributaries of 
the Kunduz, and farther to the west by the Band-i-Amir or Balkh 
river. Between the debouchment of the Upper Murghab from the 
Firozkhoi uplands into the comparatively low level of the valley 
above Bala Murghab, extending eastwards in a nearly straight line 
to the upper sources of the Shibarghan stream, the Band-i-Turkestan 
range forms the northern ridge between the plateau and the sand 
formations of the Chul. It is a level, straight-backed line of sombre 
mountain ridge, from the crest of which, as from a wall, the extra- 
ordinary configuration of that immense loess deposit called the Chul 
can be seen stretching away northwards to the Oxus ridge upon 
ridge, wave upon wave, like a vast yellow-grey sea of storm-twisted 
billows. The Band-i-Turkestan anticlinal may be traced eastwards 
of the Balkh-ab (the Band-i-Amir) within the folds of the Kara Koh 
to the Kunduz, and beyond ; but the Kara Koh does not mark the 
northern wall of the great plateau nor overlook the sands of the 
Oxus plain, as does the Band-i-Turkestan. Here there intervenes 
a second wide synclinal plateau, of which the northern edge is denned 
by the flat outlines of the Elburz to the south of Mazar-i-Sharif, and 
immediately at the foot of this range lie the alluvial plains of Mazar 



Geology. 



and Tashkurghan. Opposite Tashkurghan the Oxus plain narrows 
to a short 25 m. On the south this great band of roughly un- 
dulating central plateau is bounded by the Koh-i-Baba, to the west 
of Kabul, and by the Hindu Kush to the north and north-east of that 
city. Thus the main routes from Kabul to Afghan Turkestan must 
cross either one or other of these ranges, and must traverse one or 
other of the terrific defiles which have been carved out of them by 
the upper tributaries of the rivers running northwards towards the 
Oxus. Probably in no country in the world are there gathered 
together within comparatively narrow limits so many clean-cut 
waterways, measuring thousands of feet in depth, affording such a 
stupendous system of narrow roadways through the hills. 

After the Hindu Kush and the Turkestan mountains, that range 
which divides Ningrahar (or the valley of Jalalabad) from Kurram 
and the Afridi Tirah, and is called Safed Koh (also the name of the 
range south of the Hari Rud), is the most important, as it is the 
most impressive, in Afghanistan. 

The highest peak of the Safed Koh, Sikaram, is 15,600 ft. above 
sea-level. From this central dominating peak it falls gently towards 
the west, and gradually subsides in long spurs, reaching to within a 
few miles of Kabul and barring the road from Kabul to Ghazni. At 
a point which is not far east of the Kabul meridian an offshoot is 
directed southwards, which becomes the water-parting between the 
Kurram and the Logar at Shutargardan, and can be traced to a 
connexion with the great watershed of the frontier dividing the 
Indus basin from that of the Helmund. This main watershed 
retains its high altitude far to the south. There are peaks measur- 
ing over 12,000 ft. on the divide between the Tochi and the Ghazni 
plains. 

So far as we know at present the geological history of Afghan- 
istan differs widely from that of India. When, somewhere at 
the commencement of the Cretaceous period, the 
peninsula of India was connected by land with Mada- 
gascar and Southern Africa, all Afghanistan, Baluchistan and 
Persia formed part of an area which was not continuously below 
sea-level, but exhibited alternations of land and sea. The end 
of the Cretaceous period saw the beginning of a series of great 
earth movements ushered in by volcanic eruptions on a scale 
such as the earth has never since witnessed, which resulted 
in the upheaval of the Himalayas by a process of crushing 
and folding of the sedimentary rocks till marine fossils were 
forced to an altitude of 20,000 ft. above the sea. It v/as not 
till the Tertiary age, and even late in that age, that much 
of the land area of Afghanistan was raised above the sea-level. 
Then the ocean gradually retired into the great Central Asian 
depressions. 

Everywhere there have been great and constant changes of level 
since that period, and the process of flexure and the formation of 
anticlinals traversing the northern districts of Afghanistan is a 
process which is still in action. So rapid has been the land elevation 
of Central Afghanistan that the erosive action of rivers has not been 
able to keep pace with that of upheaval ; and the result all through 
Afghanistan (but specially marked in the great central highlands 
between Kabul and Herat) is the formation of those immensely deep 
gorges and denies which are locally known as daras. One of these, 
in the Astarab, to the south-east of Maimana, is but 30 yds. wide, 
and is enclosed between perpendicular limestone cliffs 1500 ft. high. 
C. L. Griesbach considers that the general outline of the land con- 
figuration has remained much the same since Pliocene times, and 
that the force which brought about the wrinkling of the older de- 
posits still continues to add fold on fold. The highlands which shut 
off the Turkestan provinces from Southern Afghanistan have afforded 
the best opportunities for geological investigation, and as might be 
expected from their geographical position, the general result of the 
examination of exposed sections leads to the identification of geo- 
logical affinity with Himalayan, Indian and Persian regions. The 
general configuration of the Turkestan highlands has been already 
indicated. 

Against the last great fold which terminates this mountain area 
northwards are ranged the Tertiaries and recent deposits. North 
of Maimana they form low undulating loess hills, in which most 
of the Band-i-Turkestan drainage is lost. This wide-spreading loess 
area, formed partly of wind-blown sand and partly of detritus 
from the mountains, is known as Chul, and merges into the great 
plains south of the Oxus river, a great part of which is covered with 
modern aerial deposits. Beneath this Chul formation the older beds 
of the outer and Turkestan ranges dip and pass to an irregular out- 
crop near the banks of the Oxus. Between the Oxus and the hills 
there has already been formed a rise or flexure in the ground, which 
extends more or less parallel to the northern edge of the hills, and, 
shutting in the cultivated area of the plains, arrests all tributaries 
seeking to effect a junction with the Oxus from the south, and leads 
to the formation of marshes and swamps. This appears to be the 
beginning of a new anticlinal which has altered the levels of the 
Balkh plain, and is indicative of those elevating processes which 



AFGHANISTAN 



3.09 



may have been effective within historic times in changing the climate 
and the agricultural prospects of this part of Central Asia. The Oxus 
itself is steadily encroaching on its right banks and depositing detritus 
on the left. 

No fresh discoveries of minerals likely to be of high economic 
value to Afghanistan have been made of late years. Such as 
are known and worked at present have been worked from very 
ancient times, and their capacity is not likely to develop greatly 
under the Kabul government. The most important feature in 
this connexion which was noted by the geologist of the Russo- 
Afghan Commission is the existence of vast coal beds in northern 
Afghanistan. In 1903 some coal mines were discovered in the 
Jagdalak districts. 

There are no glaciers now to be found in Afghan Turkestan ; but 

vidences of their recent existence are abundant. The great boulder 

ed terraces in some of the valleys of the northern slopes of the 
Ferozkhoi plateau are probably of glacial origin. In the mountains 
west of Kabul glaciers have retired, leaving the moraines perfectly 
undisturbed. They are probably contemporary with the older 
alluvia. (T. H. H.*) 

The oldest rocks which have yet been identified 1 in Afghanistan 
occur along the axis of the main watershed, and have been referred 
to the Carboniferous. At Robat-i-Pai near Herat, for 
example, there is a dark Productus limestone which seems 
to be identical with theProductus limestoneof the Central Himalayas. 
These beds are conformably succeeded, along the Central Asian 
watershed, by a continuous series of strata which apparently repre- 
sent the Permian, Trias and Jurassic of Europe. They consist of 
marine beds alternating with freshwater and littoral deposits, 
' igether with plant beds and coal-seams of considerable thickness. 

he lowest beds of this series, which from their position may belong 
either to the Permian or to the upper part of the Carboniferous, 
have yielded no recognizable fossils ; but they include a conglomerate 
which closely resembles the boulder bed near the base of the Talchir 
series in India. The Upper Trias has been definitely identified by 
the occurrence of Halobia and other fossils ; while in the higher beds 
of the series marine forms belonging to the middle and upper Jurassic 
have been found. 

The plant beds occur at several horizons, and among the remains 
which nave been found in them are several forms which occur 
also in the Gondwana beds of India. There can be no doubt 
that the series as a whole is the equivalent of the Gondwana 
system, and when the country has been more closely examined 
the association of marine fossils with Gondwana plants will be of 
the greatest value in determining the precise homotaxis of th.e 
Indian deposits. 

The Jurassic beds are followed, generally with perfect conformity, 
by the Cretaceous, which covers a large part of Afghan Turkestan 
and probably forms the greater part of the ranges which run south 
and south-west from the principal watershed. The lowest beds 
consist of red grits which contain Neocomian fossils, while the middle 
and upper Cretaceous consist chiefly of limestone and chalk. The 
entire system may be represented in the west, but in the Herat 
province and in Afghan Turkestan the middle Cretaceous seems to 
be absent, and it is probable that, as in other regions, the upper 
Cretaceous covers a much wider area than the lower beds. Tertiary 
and recent deposits are widely spread, filling most of the valleys and 
covering the plains of the Helmund. Eocene beds have not yet been 
proved to exist; but this is probably owing to the imperfect know- 
ledge of the country, for the formation is known in Persia, Baluch- 
istan and the Suliman Hills. The lower part of the Miocene is 
marine in Herat and Afghan Turkestan; but the upper Miocene is 
usually of freshwater or estuarine origin. In Afghanistan, as in 
other regions near the great Eurasian system of folds, the Miocene 
includes extensive deposits of gypsum and salt. It was during this 
period that the forces which finally raised the country above the 
level of the sea began to take effect. The Pliocene consists entirely 
of freshwater and terrestrial deposits, which were probably laid 
down at the foot of the rising hills and on the floors of the intervening 
valleys. As the elevation continued, they were sometimes involved 
in the folding to which the mountains owe their origin. During 
this period the gradual desiccation of the country continued, and 
wind-blown deposits, such as the loess, began to make their 
appearance. 

Although volcanic cones are known both in Persia and in Baluch- 
istan, none have yet been described in Afghanistan itself. There 

'. According to 

1 with the lowest 

part of the plant-bearing series, and enormous outbursts took place 
during the Neocomian period. But the most important igneous 
masses are the great intrusions of syenitic granite and of basic rock 
which penetrate the Cretaceous beds. These are probably of Eocene 
or of late Cretaceous age. (P. LA.) 

1 We owe our knowledge of the geology of Afghanistan almost 
entirely to the observations of C. L. Griesbach, and a summary of 
his researches will be found in Records of the Geological Survey of 
India, vol. xx. (1887), pp. 93-103, with map. 



Omitting the group of northern routes to India from Central 
Asia, which pass between Kashmir and Afghanistan 
through the defiles of Chitral and of the Indus (see 
HINDU RUSH), the highways of Afghanistan may be 
classed under two heads: (i) Foreign trade routes, and (2) 
Internal communications. 

(i) Of the many routes which cross the frontiers of Afghanistan 
the most important commercially are those which connect the Oxus 
regions and the Central Asian khanates with Kabul, and those which 
lead from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar to the plains of India. 

Kabul is linked with Afghan Turkestan and Badakshan by three 
main lines of communication across the Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu 
Kush. One of these routes follows the Balkh river to its head from 
Tashkurgjhan, and then, preserving a high general level of 8000 to 
9000 ft., it passes over the water-divides separating the upper tribu- 
taries of the Kunduz river, and drops into the valley formed by an- 
other tributary at Bamian. From Bamian it passes over the central 
mountain chain to Kabul either by the well-known passes of Irak 
(marking the water-divide of the Koh-i-Baba) and of Unai (marking 
the summit of the Sanglakh, a branch of the Hindu Kush), or else, 
turning eastwards, it crosses into the Ghorband valley by the Shibar, 
a pass which is considerably lower than the Irak and is very seldom 
snowbound. From the foot of the Unai pass it follows the Kabul 
river, and from the foot of the Shibar it follows the circuitous route 
which is offered by the drainage of the Ghorband valley to Charikar, 
and thence southwards to Kabul. The main points on this route are 
Haibak, Bajgah and Bamian. It is full of awkward grades and 
minor passes, but it does not maintain a high level generally, no pass 
(if the Shibar route be adopted) much exceeding 10,000 ft. That 
this has for centuries been regarded as the main route northward 
from Kabul, the Buddhist relics of Bamian and Haibak bear silent 
witness; but it may be doubted whether Abdur Rahman's talent for 
roadmaking has not opened out better alternative lines. One of his 
roads connects Haibak with the Ghorband valley by the Chahardar 
pass across the Hindu Kush. The pass is high (nearly 14,000 ft.), 
but the road is excellently well laid out, and the route, which, south 
of Haibak, traverses a corner of the Ghori and Baghlan districts of 
Badakshan, is more direct. A third route also passes through 
Badakshan, and connects Kunduz with Charikar by the Khawak 
pass and Panjshir river. The latter joins the Ghorband close to 
Charikar. The Khawak (11,600 ft.) is not a high pass; the grades 
are easy and the snowfall usually light. This high road is stated (on 
Afghan authority) to be kept open for khafila traffic all the year 
round by the employment of forced labour for clearing snow. It is 
a recently developed route and one of great importance to Kabul, 
both strategically "and commercially. 

Routes that pass through the mountain barriers of the frontier 
between Peshawarandthe Gomal occur at intervals alongthe western 
border, and in the northern section of the Indian frontier they 
are all well marked. The Khyber, Kurram and Tochi are the best 
known, inasmuch as all these lines of advance into Afghanistan are 
held by British troops or Indian levies. But the Bara valley route 
into the heart of the Afridi Tirah is not to be altogether overlooked, 
although it is not a trade route of any importance. Between Kabul 
and Jalalabad there are two roads, one by the Lataband pass, and 
the other and more difficult by the Khurd-Kabul and Jagdalak 
passes, the latter being the scene of the massacre of a British brigade 
in 1842. Between Jalalabad and Peshawar is the Khyber pass (q.v.). 
The Khyber was not in ancient times the main route of advance from 
Kabul to Peshawar. From Kabul the old route followed the Kabul 
river through the valley of Laghman (or Lamghan, as the Afghans 
call it) over a gentle water-parting into the Kunar valley, leaving 
Ningrahar and Jalalabad to the south. From the Kunar it crossed 
into Bajour by one of several open and comparatively easy passes, 
and from Bajour descended into India either by the Malakand or 
some other contiguous frontier gateway to the plains of Peshawar. 

The Kurram route involves the Peiwar and Shutargardan passes 
(8600 and 10,800 ft. respectively) across the southern extensions of 
the Safed Koh range, and has never been a great trade route, however 
suitable as an alternative military line of advance. 

Trade does not extend largely between Afghanistan and India 
by the Tochi route, being locally confined to the valley and the dis- 
tricts at its head, yet this is the shortest and most direct route 
between Ghazni and the frontier, and in the palmy days of Ghazni 
raiding was the road by which the great robber Mahmucf occasionally 
descended on to the Indus plains. Traces of his raiding and road- 
making are still visible, but it is certain that he made use of the more 
direct route to Peshawar far more frequently than he did of the 
Tochi. The exact nature of the connexion between the head of the 
Tochi and the Ghazni plain is still unknown to us. 

The Gomal is the great central trade route between Afghanistan 
and India; and the position, which is held by a tribal post at Wana, 
will do much to ensure its continued popularity. The Gomal in- 
volves no passes of any great difficulty, although it is impossible to 
follow the actual course of the river on account of the narrow defiles 
which have been cut through the recent conglomerate beds which 
flank the plains of the Indus. It has been carefully surveyed for a 
possible railway alignment; and an excellent road now connects 



310 



AFGHANISTAN 



Tank (at its foot) with the Zhob line of Communications to Quetta, 
and with VVana on the southern flank of Waziristan. The Gomal 
route is of immense importance, both as a commercial and strategic 
line, and in both particulars is of far greater significance than either 
the Kurram or the Tochi. 

(2) Of theinteriorlinesof communication, those which connect the 
great cities of Afghanistan, Herat, Kabul and Kandahar, are obvi- 
ously the most important. Between Kabul and Herat there is no 
" royal " road, the existing route passing over the frequently snow- 
bound wastes that lie below the southern flank of the great Koh-i- 
Baba into the upper valleys of the Hari Rud tributaries. It is a 
waste, elevated, desolate region that the route traverses, and the 
road itself is only open at certain seasons of the year. Between 
Kabul and Kandahar exists the well-known and oft-traversed route 
by Ghazni and Kalat-i-Ghilzai . There is but one insignificant water- 
parting or kotal a little to the north of Ghazni; and the road, 
although unmade, may be considered equal to any road of its length 
in Europe for military purposes. Between Kandahar and Herat 
there is the recognized trade route which crosses the Helmund at 
Girishk and passes through Farah and Sabzawar. It includes about 
360 miles of easy road, with spaces where waterisscarce. Thereis 
not a pass of any great importance, nor a river of any great difficulty, 
to be encountered from end to end, but the route is flanked on the 
north between Kandahar and Girishk by the Zamindawar hills, con- 
taining the most truculent and fanatical clans of all the Southern 
Afghan tribes. Little need be said of the 65 m. of route between 
Kandahar and the Baluchistan frontier at New Chaman. It is on 
the whole a route across open plains and hard, stony " dasht" a 
route which would offer no great difficulties to that railway extension 
from Chaman which has so long been contemplated. A very con- 
siderable trade now passes along this route to India, in spite of almost 
prohibitive imposts; but the trade does not follow the railway from 
New Chaman to the eastern foot of the Khojak. Long strings of 
camels may still be seen from the train windows patiently treading 
their slow way over the Khojak pass to Kila Abdullah, whilst the 
train alongside them rapidly twists through the mountain tunnel 
into the Peshin valley. 

The variety of climate is immense, as might be expected. 
Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no 
Climate g reat difference between the mean temperature of 
Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalayas. Each 
may be placed at a point between 50 and 60 F. But the remark- 
able feature of Afghan climate (as also of that of Baluchistan) is 
its extreme range of temperature within limited periods. The 
least daily range in the north is during the cold weather, the 
greatest in the hot. For seven months of the year (from May 
to November) this range exceeds 30 F. daily. Waves of intense 
cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure 
a cold of 12 below zero, rising to a maximum of 17 below 
freezing-point. On the other hand the summer temperature is 
exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade 
maximum of 1 10 to 120 is not uncommon. At Kabul, and over 
all the northern part of the country to the descent at Gandamak, 
winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian 
plateau. In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the 
people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At 
Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal 
equinox; the thermometer sinks to 10 and 15 below zero 
(Fahr.); and tradition relates the entire destruction of the 
population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once. 

At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an 
Indian character. The summer heat is great everywhere in 
Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the 
Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Seistan. 
All over Kandahar province the summer heat is intense, and the 
simoon is not unknown. The hot season throughout this part of 
the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and 
fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the 
country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render 
the summer nights most oppressive. At Kabul the summer sun 
has great power, though the heat is tempered occasionally by 
cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually 
cool. At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower 
hills; when it does, it melts at once. 

At Herat, though 800 ft. lower than Kandahar, the summer 
climate is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether 
is far from disagreeable. From May to September the wind 
blows from the N.W. with great violence, and this extends 
across the country to Kandahar. The winter is tolerably mild; 



snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie 
long. Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard 
enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very far from 
Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at 
Kafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in 1750, Ahmad Shah's army, 
retreating from Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 men from cold 
in a single night. In the northern Herat districts, too, records 
of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as 
17 F., and the maximum 38. The eastern reaches of the Hari 
Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, rapids and all, and the 
people travel on it as on a road. 

The summer rains that accompany the S.W. monsoon in 
India, beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya, 
travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are 
more clearly felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the high spurs 
of the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Safed Koh. 
Rain also falls at this season at the head of Kurram valley. 
South of this the Suliman mountains may be taken as the 
western limit. of the monsoon's action. It is quite unfelt in the 
rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the 
winter rains are the most considerable. The spring rain, though 
less copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter 
rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow. In the 
absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indica- 
tions than in India. The north-west blizzards which occur in 
winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their 
influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier. The cold is then 
intense and the force of the wind cyclonic. Speaking generally, 
the Afghanistan climate is a dry one. The sun shines with 
splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even 
more clear than the days. Marked characteristics are the great 
differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and 
night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of 
climate can be attained by slight change of place. As the 
emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you 
may find a place where snow never falls, and at two hours' 
journey a place where snow almost never melts! 

The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some local 
climates, as of the Toba hills above the Kakar country, and of 
some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh. 

The people have by no means that immunity from disease 
which the bright, dry character of the climate and the fine 
physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead us to 
expect. Intermittent and remittent fevers are very prevalent; 
bowel complaints are common, and often fatal in the autumn. 
The universal custom of sleeping on the house-top in summer 
promotes rheumatic and neuralgic affections; and in the Koh 
Daman of Kabul, which the natives regard as having the finest 
of climates, the mortality from fever and bowel complaint, 
between July and October, is great, the immoderate use of 
fruit predisposing to such ailments. 

The term Afghan really applies to one section only of the 
mixed conglomeration of nationalities which forms the people 
of Afghanistan, but this is the dominant section known ufa _ 

as the Durani. The Ghilzai (who is almost as powerful w ^" * 
as the Durani) claims to be of Turkish origin; the 
Hazaras, the Chahar-Aimak, Tajiks, Uzbegs, Kafirs and others 
are more or less subject races. Popularly any inhabitant of 
Afghanistan is known as Afghan on the Indian frontier without 
distinction of origin or language; but the language division 
between the Parsiwan (or Persian-speaking Afghan) and the 
Pathan is a very distinct one. The predominance of the Afghan 
in Afghanistan dates from the middle of the 1 8th century, when 
Ahmad Shah carved out Afghanistan from the previous con- 
quests of Nadir Shah and called it the Durani empire. 

The Durani Afghans claim to be Ben-i-Israel, and insist on 
their descent from the tribes who were carried away captive 
from Palestine to Media by Nebuchadrezzar. Yet they also 
claim to be Pukhtun (or Pathan) in common with all other 
Pushtu-speaking tribes, whom they do not admit to be Afghan. 
The bond of affinity between the various peoples who compose 
the Pathan community is simply the bond of a common language. 



AFGHANISTAN 



All of them recognize a common code or unwritten law called 
Pukhtunwali, which appears to be similar in general character 
to the old Hebraic law, though modified by Mahommedan 
ordinances, and strangely similar in certain particulars to 
Rajput custom. Besides their division into clans and tribes, 
the whole Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents 
and dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not 
coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great clans 
at least a part is nomad and a part settled. Such, e.g., is the 
case with the Durani and with the Ghilzai. 

The settled Afghans form the village communities, and in 
part the population of the few towns. Their chief occupation 
is with the soil. They form the core of the nation and the 
main part of the army. Nearly all own the land on which they 
live, and which they cultivate with their own hands or by 
hired labour. Roundly speaking, agriculture and soldiering 
are their sole occupations. No Afghan will pursue a handicraft 
or keep a shop, though the Ghilzai Povindahs engage largely in 
travelling trade and transport of goods. As a race the Afghans 
are very handsome and athletic, often with fair complexion and 
flowing beard, generally black or brown, sometimes, though 
rarely, red; the features highly aquiline. The hair is shaved 
off from the forehead to the top of the head, the remainder at 
the sides being allowed to fall in large curls over the shoulders. 
Their step is full of resolution; their bearing proud and apt to 
be rough. 

The women have handsome features of Jewish cast (the last 
trait often true also of the men) ; fair complexions, sometimes 
rosy, though usually a pale sallow; hair braided and plaited 
behind in two long tresses terminating in silken tassels. They 
are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent. 

The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are familiar 
with death, and audacious in attack, but easily discouraged by 
failure; excessively turbulent and unsubmissive to law or dis- 
cipline ; apparently frank and affable in manner, especially when 
they hope to gain some object, but capable of the grossest 
brutality when that hope ceases. They are unscrupulous in 
perjury, treacherous, vain and insatiable, passionate in vindic- 
tiveness, which they will satisfy at the cost of their own lives and 
in the most cruel manner. Nowhere is crime committed on such 
trifling grounds, or with such general impunity, though when it 
is punished the punishment is atrocious. Among themselves the 
Afghans are quarrelsome, intriguing and distrustful; estrange- 
ments and affrays are of constant occurrence; the traveller 
conceals and misrepresents the time and direction of his journey. 
The Afghan is by breed and nature a bird of prey. If from habit 
and tradition he respects a stranger within his threshold, he yet 
considers it legitimate to warn a neighbour of the prey that is 
afoot, or even to overtake and plunder his guest after he has 
quitted his roof. The repression of crime and the demand of 
taxation he regards alike as tyranny. The Afghans are eternally 
boasting of their lineage, their independence and their prowess. 
They look on the Afghans as the first of nations, and each man 
looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan. 

They are capable of enduring great privation, and make 
excellent soldiers under British discipline, though there are but 
few in the Indian army. Sobriety and hardiness characterize the 
bulk of the people, though the higher classes are too often stained 
with deep and degrading debauchery. The first impression made 
by the Afghan is favourable. The European, especially if he 
come from India, is charmed by their apparently frank, open- 
hearted, hospitable and manly manners; but the charm is not 
of long duration, and he finds that the Afghan is as cruel and 
crafty as he is independent. No trustworthy statistics exist 
showing either present numbers or fluctuations in the population 
of Afghanistan. Within the amir's dominions there are probably 
from four to five millions of people, and of these the vast majority 
are agriculturists. 

The cultivators, including landowners, tenants, hired labourers 
and slaves, represent the working population of the country, and 
as industrious and successful agriculturists they are unsurpassed 
in Asia. They have carried the art of irrigation to great per- 



fection, and they utilize every acre of profitable soil. Certain 
Ghilzai clans are specially famous for their skill in the construc- 
tion of the karez or underground water-channel. 

The religion of the country throughout is Mahommedan. 
Next to Turkey, Afghanistan is the most powerful Mahommedan 
kingdom in existence. The vast majority of Afghans KeUglon _ 
are of the Sunni sect; but there are, in their midst, 
such powerful communities of Shiahs as the Hazaras of the central 
districts, the Kizilbashes of Kabul and the Turis of the Kurram 
border, nor is there between them that bitterness of sectarian 
animosity which is so marked a feature in India. The Kafirs of 
the mountainous region of Kafiristan alone are non-Mahom- 
medan. They are sunk in a paganism which seems to embrace 
some faint reflexion of Greek mythology, Zoroastrian principles 
and the tenets of Buddhism, originally gathered, no doubt, from 
the varied elements of their mixed extraction. Those contiguous 
Afghan tribes, who have not so long ago been converted to the 
faith of Islam, are naturally the most fanatical and the most 
virulent upholders of the faith around them. In and about the 
centre of civilization at Kabul, instances of Ghazism are com- 
paratively rare. In the western provinces about Kandahar 
(amongst the Durani Afghans the people who claim to be Ben- 
i-Israel), and especially in Zamindawar, the spirit of fanaticism 
runs high, and every other Afghan is a possible Ghazi a man 
who has devoted his life to the extinction of other creeds. 

Persian is the vernacular of a large part of the non-Afghan 
population, and is familiar to all educated Afghans; it is the 
language of the court and of literature. Pushtu, how- 
ever, is the prevailing language, though it does not *?/" ase 
seem to be spoken in Herat, or, roughly speaking, west literature. 
of the Helmund. Turki is spoken in Afghan Turkestan. 
There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature. The oldest 
work in Pushtu is a history of the conquest of Swat by Shaikh 
Mali, a chief of the Yusafzais, and leader in the conquest (A.D. 
1413-24). In 1494 Kaju Khan became chief of the same clan; 
during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely conquered, 
and he wrote a history of the events. In the reign of Akbar, 
Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, " the Saint of Light," the 
founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu; as did his chief 
antagonist, a famous Afghan saint called Akhund Darweza. 
The literature is richest in poetry. Abdur Rahman ( 1 7th century) 
is the best known poet. Another very popular poet is Khushal 
Khan, the warlike chief of the Khattaks in the time of Aurangzeb. 
Many other members of his family were poets also. Ahmad 
Shah, the founder of the monarchy, likewise wrote poetry. 
Ballads are numerous. 

Education is confined to most elementary principles in Afghan- 
istan. Of schools or colleges for the purposes of a higher educa- 
tion befitted to the sons of noblemen and the more 
wealthy merchants there are absolutely none; but 
the village school is an ever-present and very open spectacle to 
the passer-by. Here the younger boys are collected and in- 
structed in the rudiments of reading, writing and religious creed 
by the village mullah, or priest, who thereby acquires an early 
influence over the Afghan mind. The method of teaching is 
confined to that wearisome system of loud-voiced repetition 
which is so annoying a feature in Indian schools; and the Koran 
is, of course, the text-book in all forms of education. Every 
Afghan gentleman can read and speak Persian, but beyond 
this acquirement education seems to be limited to the physical 
development of the youth by instruction in horsemanship and 
feats of skill. Such advanced education as exists in Afghan- 
istan is centred in the priests and physicians; but the ignorance 
of both is extreme. 

The government of Afghanistan is an absolute monarchy under 
the amir, and succession to the throne is hereditary. There are 
five chief political divisions in the country namely, 
Kabul, Turkestan, Herat, Kandahar and Badakshan, 
each of which is ruled by a " naib " or governor, who i aws . 
is directly responsible to the amir. Under the governors 
of provinces the nobles and kazis (or district judges) dispense 
justice rhuch in the feudal fashion. There are three classes of 



Education. 



312 



AFGHANISTAN 



chiefs who form the council or durbar of the king. These are 
the sirdars, the khans and the mullahs. The sirdars are 
hereditary nobles, the khans are representatives of the people, 
and the mullahs of Mahommedan religion. The khan is elected 
by the clan or tribe. The clannish attachment of the Afghans is 
rather to the community than to the chief. These three classes of 
representatives are divided into two assemblies, the Durbar Shahi 
or royal assembly, and the Kharwanin Mulkhi or commons. The 
mullahs take their place in one or the other according to their 
individual rank. The executive officials of the amir have a 
selected body, called the Khilwat, which acts as a cabinet council, 
but no member can give advice to the crown without being asked 
to do so, or beyond the jurisdiction of his own department. The 
amir, in addition to being chief executive officer, is chief judge 
and supreme court of appeal. Any one has the right to appeal to 
the amir for trial, and the great amirs, Dost Mahommed and 
Abdur Rahman, were accessible at all times to the petitions of their 
subjects. Next to the amir comes the court of the kazi, the chief 
centre of justice, and beneath the kazi comes the kotwal, who 
performs, as in India, the ordinary functions of a magistrate. In 
large provincial towns there is a punchait, or council, for the 
trial of commercial cases. There are government departments 
for the administration of revenue, customs, post-office, military 
affairs, &c. The general law administered in all the courts of 
Afghanistan is that of Islam and of the customs of the country, 
with developments introduced by the Amir Abdur Rahman. 

The Afghan army probably numbers 50,000 regulars distributed 
between the military centres of Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, Mazar- 
Defeace i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Asmar, with detachments at 

frontier outposts on the side of India. Abdur Rahman 
claimed that he could put 100,000 men into the field within a 
week for the defence of Herat. In 1896 he introduced a system 
of semi-enforced service whereby one man in every eight between 
the ages of sixteen and seventy takes his turn at militdry 
training. In this way he calculated that he could have raised 
1,000,000 men armed with modern weapons, but his chief 
difficulty would be money and transport. The pay of the 
army is apt to be irregular. The amir's factories at Kabul for 
arms and ammunition are said to turn out about 20^000 
cartridges and 15 rifles daily, with 2 guns per week; but the 
arms thus produced are very heterogeneous, and the different 
varieties of cartridge used would cause endless complications. 
The two chief fastnesses of Northern Afghanistan are Herat 
and Dehdadi near Balkh. The latter fort took twelve years to 
build, and commands all the roads leading from the Oxus into 
Afghan Turkestan. It is armed with naval quick-firing guns, 
Krupp,Hotchkiss, Nordenfeld and Maxim. The chief cantonment 
for the same district is at Mazar-i-Sharif, 12 m. from Balkh. 

Financially, Afghanistan has never, since it first became a 
kingdom, been able to pay for its own government, public works 

and army. There appears to be no inherent reason 

why this should be so. Whilst it can never (in the 
absence of any great mineral wealth) develop into a wealthy 
country, it can at least support its own population; and it 
would, but for the short-sighted trade policy of Abdur Rahman, 
certainly have risen to a position of respectable solvency. Its 
revenues (about which no trustworthy information is available) 
are subject to great fluctuations, and probably never exceed the 
value of one million sterling per annum. They fell in Shere Ali's 
time to 700,000. The original subsidy to the amir from the 
Indian government was fixed at 12 lakhs of rupees (80,000) 
per annum, but in 1893, in connexion with the boundary settle- 
ment, it was increased to 120,000. 

Few minerals are wrought in Afghanistan, though Abdur 
Rahman claims in his autobiography that the country is rich 
Minerals. * n mmes - Some small quantity of gold is taken from 

the streams in Laghman and the adjoining districts. 
Famous silver mines were formerly worked near the head of the 
Panjshir valley in Hindu Kush. Kabul is chiefly supplied 
with iron from the Permuli (or Farmuli) district, between the 
Upper Kurram and Gomal, where it is said to be abundant. 
Iron ore is most abundant near the passes leading to Bamian, 



Finance. 



and in other parts of Hindu Kush. Copper ore from various 
parts of Afghanistan has been seen, but it is nowhere worked. 
Lead is found in Upper Bangash (Kurram district), and in the 
Shinwari country (also among the branches of Safed Koh) , and 
in the Kakar country. There are reported to be rich lead mines 
near Herat scarcely worked. Lead, with antimony, is found 
near the Arghand-ab, 32 m. north-west of Ghazni, and in the 
Ghorband valley, north of Kabul. Most of the lead used, how- 
ever, comes from the Hazara country, where the ore is described 
as being gathered on the surface. An ancient mine of great 
extent and elaborate character exists at Feringal, in the Ghor- 
band valley. Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities 
at Shah-Maksud, about 30 m. north of Kandahar. Sulphur is 
,said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil in small fragments, 
but the chief supply comes from the Hazara country and from 
Pirkisri, on the confines of Seistan, where there would seem 
to be a crater, or fumarole. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the 
same place. Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of 
Kandahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near 
the surface. Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found in Zurmat 
(between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near Ghazni. 
Nitre abounds in the soil over all the south-west of Afghanistan, 
and often affects the water of the karez or subterranean canals. 
The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains 
of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great 
mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their 
immediate off-shoots, whilst on the more distant and 
terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact, 
these are naked rock and stone. 

Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself and 
its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 ft., we have 
abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the 
most noble and prominent, such as Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa, 
Pinus longijolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch. 
We have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and 
almond. Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of 
rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron 
and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is im- 
portant for frequency and number of genera. The lemon and wild 
vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern 
mountains. The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and 
kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed 
with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astra- 
galus, &c. Here also are Indigoferae and dwarf laburnum. 

Lower again, and down to 3000 ft. we have wild olive, species of 
rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and Zizyphus; 
and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Chamaerops humilis 
(which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), Bignonia or trumpet 
flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of 
Gesnerae. 

The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as 
has been said, 'naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost 
wholly herbal ; shrubs are only occasional ; trees almost non-exist- 
ent. Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common. 
Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges. 

In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains 
of the Kandahar table-lands, we find leguminous thorny plants of 
the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thorn (Hedysarum 
Alhagi), Astragalus in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis 
spinosa), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush; 
plants of the sub-order Mimosae, as the sensitive mimosa ; a plant of 
the rue family, called by the natives lip&d; the common worm- 
wood; also certain orchids, and several species of Salsola. The 
rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines the 
former for rheumatism and neuralgia; the latter in fever, debility 
and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lip&d, owing to its 
heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some 
places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the 
rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, or ass-bane, 
the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae. 

In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow, 
poplar, ash, and occasionally the plane; but these are due to man's 
planting. 

One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of Narthex 
asafelida, which grows abundantly in the high and dry plains of 
Western Afghanistan, especially between Kandahar and fj acu m. 
Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its vated _,. 
way to India, where it is much used as a condiment. It ^ uc t s O f 
is not so used in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat va / uc . 
the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The 
collection of the gum-resin is almost entirely in the hands of the 
Kakar clan of Afghans. 



AFGHANISTAN 



In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local 
luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached 
rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering 
the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones 
or an empty jar. The leaf-stalks are gathered by the neighbouring 
hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached 
rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked. 

The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are 
exported. 

The sanjit (Elaeaguns orientalis), common on the banks of water- 
courses, furnishes an edible fruit. An orchis found in the mountain 
yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious mucilage called 
salep; a good deal of this goes to India. 

Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic. The fruit, mixed with its resin, 
is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern Afghanistan. The true 
pistachio is found only on the northern frontier; the nuts are im- 
ported from Badakshan and Kunduz. 

Mushrooms and other fungi are largely used as food, especially 
by the Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for 
meat. 

Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars. One, called 
ttiranjbtn, appears to exude, in small round tears, from the camel- 
thorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk; the other, sir-kasht, in 
large grains and irregular masses or cakes with bits of twig imbedded, 
is obtained from a tree which the natives call siah chob (black wood), 
thought by Bellew to be a Fraxinus or Ornus. 

In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as gener- 
ally in India. One of these, called by the Afghans bahdrak, or 
the spring crop, is sown in the end of autumn and 
culture reaped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley and a 
variety of lentils. The other, called pdizah or ttrmdi, 
the autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in autumn. 
It consists of rice, varieties of millet and sorghum, of maize, 
Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet, turnips, &c. The loftier regions 
have but one harvest. 

Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the country. 
Rice is not largely distributed. In much of the eastern moun- 
tainous country bdjra (Holcus spicatus) is the chief grain. Most 
English and Indian garden-stuffs are cultivated; turnips in 
some places very largely, as cattle food. 

The growth of melons, water-melons and other cucurbitaceous 
plants is reckoned very important, especially near towns; and 
this crop counts for a distinct harvest. 

Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though 
cotton is grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton cloth is 
imported. 

Madder is an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni and 
Kandahar districts, and generally over the west, and supplies 
the Indian demand. It is said to be very profitable, though it 
takes three years to mature. Saffron is grown and exported. 
The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, and furnishes most 
of the oil of the country. Tobacco is grown very generally; 
that of Kandahar has much repute, and is exported to India 
and Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are "taken. 

Lucerne and a trefoil called shaflal form important fodder 
crops in the western parts of the country, and, when irrigated, 
are said to afford ten or twelve cuttings in the season. The 
komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in the hill country of 
Ghazni, and is said to extend through the Hazara country to 
Herat. It is stored for winter use, and forms an excellent 
fodder. Others are derived from the Holcus sorghum, and from 
two kinds of panick. It is common to cut down the green wheat 
and barley before the ear forms, for fodder, and the repetition 
of this, with barley at least, is said not to injure the grain crop. 
Bellew gives the following statement of the manner in which 
the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar district: Barley 

is sown in November; in March and April it is twice cut for 
fodder; in June the grain is reaped, the ground is ploughed 
and manured and sown with tobacco, which yields two cuttings. 
The ground is then prepared for carrots and turnips, which are 
gathered in November or December. 

Of great moment are the fruit crops. All European fruits 
are produced profusely, in many varieties and of excellent 
quality. Fresh or preserved, they form a principal food of a 
large class of the people, and the dry fruit is largely exported. 
In the valleys of Kabul mulberries are dried, and packed in 
skins for winter use. This mulberry cake is often reduced to 



flour, and used as such, forming in some valleys the main food 
of the people. 

Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties are very 
numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on trellises, but 
most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 ft. high. The 
principal part of the garden lands in villages round Kandahar is 
vineyard, and the produce must be enormous. 

Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in eastern 
Afghanistan generally; but over all the western parts of the 
country much use is made of the karez, which is a subterranean 
aqueduct uniting the waters of several springs, and conducting 
their combined volume to the surface at a lower level. 

As regards vertebrate zoology, Afghanistan lies on the frontier 
of three regions, viz. the Eurasian, the Ethiopian (to 
which region Baluchistan seems to belong) and the Fauaa - 
Indo-Malayan. Hence it naturally partakes somewhat of the 
forms of each, but is in the main Eurasian. 

Felidae. F. catus, F. chaus (both Eurasian); F. caracal (Eur., 
Ind., Eth.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated to be found 
almost all over the country, perhaps rather the cheetah (F. jubatus, 
Ind. and Eth.); F. pardus, the common leopard (Eth. and Ind.). 
The tiger exists in Afghan Turkestan. 

Canidae. The jackal (C. aureus, Eur., Ind., Eth.) abounds on 
the Helmund and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere. Wolves (C. 
Bengalensis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, and assemble in 
troops on the snow, destroying cattle and sometimes attacking 
single horsemen. The hyena (H. striata, Africa to India) is common. 
These do not hunt in packs, but will sometimes singly attack a 
bullock ; they and the wolves make havoc among sheep. A favourite 
feat of the boldest of the young men of southern Afghanistan is to 
enter the hyena's den, single-handed, muffle and tie him. There are 
wild dogs, according to Elphinstone and Conolly. The small Indian 
fox (Vulpes Bengalensis) is found; also V. flavescens, common to 
India and Persia, the skin of which is much used as a fur. 

Mustelidae. Species of mungoose (Herpestes), species of otter, 
Mustela erminea, and two ferrets, one of them with tortoise-shell 
marks, tamed by the Afghans to keep down vermin; a marten (M. 
flavigula, Indian). 

Bears are two: a black one, probably Ursus torquatus; and one 
of a dirty yellow, U. Isabellinus, both Himalayan species. 

Ruminants. Capra aegagrus and C. megaceros; a wild sheep 
(Ovis cycloceros or Vignei) ; Gazella subgutturosa these are often 
netted in batches when they descend to drink at a stream ; G. dorcas 
perhaps; Cervus Wallickii, the Indian barasingha, and probably 
some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountains. 

The wild hog (Sus scrofa) is found on the lower Helmund. The 
wild ass, Gorkhar of Persia (Equus onager), is frequent on the sandy 
tracts in the south-west. 

The Himalayan varieties of the markhor and ibex are abundant 
in Kafiristan. 

Talpidae. A mole, probably Talpa Europaea; Sorex Indicus; 
Erinaceus collaris (Indian), and Er. auritus (Eurasian). 

Bats believed to be Phyllorhinus cineraceus (Punjab species), 
Scotophilus Bellii (W. India), Vesp. auritus and V. barbastellus, both 
found from England to India. 

Rodentia. A squirrel (Sciurus Syriacusl) ; Mus Indicus and M. 
Gerbellinus; a jerboa (Dipus teluml); Alactaga Bactriana; Gerbil- 
lus Indicus, and G. erythrinus (Persian and Indian); Lagomys Nepal- 
ensis, a Central Asian species. A hare, probably L. ruficaudatus. 

BIRDS. The largest list of Afghan birds that we know of is given 
by Captain Hutton in the /. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 775 seq. ; 
but it is confessedly far from complete. Of 124 species in that list, 
95 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian and 
Indian, I (Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind. and Eth.; and I only, Carpo- 
dacus (Bucaneles) crassirostris, peculiar to the country. Afghanistan 
appears to be, during the breeding season, the retreat of a variety 
of Indian and some African (desert) forms, whilst in winter the 
avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian. 

REPTILES. The following particulars are from Gray: Lizards 
Pseudopus gracilis (Eur.), Argyrophis Horsfieldii, Salea Horsfieldii, 
Calotes Maria, C. versicolor, C. minor, C. Emma, Phrynocephalus 
Tickeliia.\\ Indian forms. A tortoise (Testudo Horsfieldii) appears 
to be peculiar to Kabul. There are apparently no salamanders or 
tailed Amphibia. The frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian; 
and the same may be said of the fish, but they are as yet most 
imperfectly known. 

The camel is of a more robust and compact breed than the tall 
beast used in India, and is more carefully tended. The two- 
humped Bactrian camel is commonly used in the Oxus regions, 
but is seldom seen near the Indian frontier. 

Horses form a staple export to India. The best of these, 
however, are reserved for the Afghan cavalry. Those exported 
to India are usually bred in Maimana and other places in Afghan 



AFGHANISTAN 



Turkestan. The indigenous horse is the yabu, a stout, heavy- 
shouldered animal, of about 14 hands high, used chiefly for 
burden, but also for riding. It gets over incredible distances 
at an ambling shuffle, but is unfit for fast work and cannot 
stand excessive heat. The breed of horses was much improved 
under the amir Abdur Rahman, who took much interest in it. 
Generally, colts are sold and worked too young. 

The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quantities 
of milk. They seem to be of the humped variety, but with the 
hump evanescent. Dairy produce is important in Afghan diet, 
especially the pressed and dried curd called krul (an article and 
name perhaps introduced by the Mongols). 

There are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat tail. 
One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black one. Much 
of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now largely to 
Europe by Bombay. Flocks of sheep are the main wealth of 
the nomad population, and mutton is the chief animal food of 
the nation. In autumn large numbers are slaughtered, their 
carcases cut up, rubbed with salt and dried in the sun. The 
same is done with beef and camel's flesh. 

The goats, generally black or parti-coloured, seem to be a 
degenerate variety of the shawl-goat. 

The climate is found to be favourable to dog-breeding. 
Pointers are bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above Jalala- 
bad large, heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed and staunch; 
very like the old double-nosed Spanish pointer. There are grey- 
hounds also, but inferior in speed to second-rate English dogs. 

The manufactures of the country have not developed much 
during recent years. Poshtins (sheepskin clothing) and the 
many varieties of camel and goat's hair-cloth which, 
under the name of " barak," " karak," &c., are manu- 
factured in the northern districts, are still the chief 
local products of that part of Afghanistan. Herat and Kandahar 
are famous for their silks, although a large proportion of the 
manufactured silk found on the Herat market, as well as many of 
the felts, carpets and embroideries, are brought from the Central 
Asian khanates. The district of Herat produces many of the 
smaller sorts of carpets (" galichas " or prayer-carpets), of 
excellent design and colour, the little town of Adraskand being 
especially famous for this industry; but they are not to be 
compared with the best products of eastern Persia or of the 
Turkman districts about Panjdeh. 

The nomadic Afghan tribes of the west are chiefly pastoral, and 
the wool of the southern Herat and Kandahar provinces is famous 
for its quality. In this direction, the late boundary settlements 
have undoubtedly led to a considerable development of local 
resources. A large quantity of wool, together with silk, dried 
fruit, madder and asafetida, finds its way to India by the 
Kandahar route. 

It is impossible to give accurate trade statistics, there being 
no trustworthy system of registration. The value of the imports 
from Kabul to India in 1892-1893 was estimated at 221,000 Rx(or 
tens of rupees). In 1899 it was little over 217,000 Rx, the period 
of lowest intermediate depression being in 1897. These imports 
include horses, cattle, fruits, grain, wool, silk, hides, tobacco, 
drugs and provisions (ghi, &c.). All this trade emanates from 
Kabul, there being no transit trade with Bokhara owing to the 
heavy dues levied by the amir. The value of the exports from 
India to Kabul also shows great fluctuation. In the year 1892-1893 
it was registered at nearly 611,000 Rx. In 1894-1895 it had sunk 
to 274,000 Rx, and in 1899 it figured at 294,600 Rx. The chief 
items are cotton goods, sugar and tea. In 1898-1899 the imports 
from Kandahar to India were valued at 330,000 Rx, and the 
exports from India to Kandahar at about 264,000 Rx. Three- 
fourths of the exports consist of cotton goods, and three-eighths 
of the imports were raw wool. The balance of the imports was 
chiefly made up of dried fruits. Comparison with trade statistics 
of previous years on this side Afghanistan is difficult, owing 
to the inclusion of a large section of Baluchistan and Persia 
within the official " Kandahar " returns; but it does not appear 
that the value of the western Afghanistan trade is much on the 
increase. The opening up of the route between Quetta and 



Seistan has doubtless affected a trade which was already seriously 
hampered by restrictions. In the year after the mission of Sir 
Louis Dane to Kabul in 1905 it was authoritatively stated that 
the trade between Afghanistan and India had nearly doubled in 
value. 

The basin of the Kabul river especially abounds in remains 
of the period when Buddhism flourished. Bamian is famous 
for its wall-cut figures, and at Haibak (on the route 
between Tashkurghan and Kabul) there are some most w " s '" " 
interesting Buddhist remains. In the Koh-Daman, 
north of Kabul, are the sites of several ancient cities, the greatest 
of which, called Beghram, has furnished coins in scores of 
thousands, and has been supposed to represent Alexander's 
Nicaea. Nearer Kabul, and especially on the hills some miles 
south of the city, are numerous topes. In the valley of Jalalabad 
are many remains of the same character. 

In the valley of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city (Ulan 
Robat) supposed to be the ancient Arachosia. About Girishk, on 
the Helmund, are extensive mounds and other traces of build- 
ings; and the remains of several great cities exist in the plain of 
Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran and Lakh, relics of ancient 
Drangiana. An ancient stone vessel preserved in a mosque 
at Kandahar is almost certainly the same that was treasured 
at Peshawar in the 5th century as the begging pot of Sakya- 
Muni. In architectural relics of a later date than the Graeco- 
Buddhist period Afghanistan is remarkably deficient. Of the 
city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and his race, rto 
substantial relics survive, except the tomb of Mahmud and two 
remarkable brick minarets. A vast and fruitful harvest of coins 
has been gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ra.wlinson,EnglandandRussiainthe East (1875) ; 
H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879) ; Wyllie's Essays on the 
External Policy of India (1875) ; Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom 
of Kabul (1809); Parliamentary Papers, " Afghanistan "; Curzon, 
Problems in the Far East; Holdich, Indian Borderland( 1901) ; India 
(1903) ; Indian Survey Reports; Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission 
(1886); Pamir Boundary Commission (1896). ' (T. H. H.*) 

HISTORY 

The Afghan chroniclers call their people Beni-IsraU (Arab, 
for Children of Israel), and claim descent from King Saul (whom 
they call by the Mahommedan corruption Talui) through a son 
whom they ascribe to him, called Jeremiah, who again had a 
son called Afghana. The numerous stock of Afghana were 
removed by Nebuchadrezzar, and found their way to the moun- 
tains of Ghor and Feroza (east and north of Herat). Only nine 
years after Mahommed's announcement of his mission they heard 
of the new prophet, and sent to Medina a deputation headed by a 
wise and holy man called Kais, to make inquiry. The deputation 
became zealous converts, and on their return converted their 
countrymen. From Kais and his three sons the whole of the 
genuine Afghans claim descent. 

This story is repeated in great and varying detail in sundry 
books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to be of the i6th 
century; nor do we know that any trace of the legend is found of 
older date. In the version given by Major Raverty (Introd. to 
Afghan Grammar), Afghanah is settled by King Solomon himself 
in the Sulimani mountains', there is nothing about Nebuchad- 
rezzar or Ghor. The historian Ferishta says he had read that 
the Afghans were descended from Copts of the race of Pharaoh. 
And one of the Afghan histories, quoted by Mr Bellew, relates 
" a current tradition " that, previous to the time of Kais, Bilo 
the father of the Biluchis, Uzbek (evidently the father of the 
Usbegs) and Afghana were considered as brethren. As Mahom- 
med Usbeg Khan, the eponymus of the medley of Tatar tribes 
called Usbegs, reigned in the I4th century A.D., this gives some 
possible light on the value of these so-called traditions. 

We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all 
nations that derive their religion or their civilization from a 
foreign source. To say nothing of the Book of Mormon, a con- 
siderable number of persons have been found to propagate 
the doctrine that the English people are descended from the 
tribes of Israel. But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans is 



AFGHANISTAN 



more worthy at least of consideration, for a respectable number 
of intelligent officers, well acquainted with the Afghans, have 
been strong in their belief of it; and though the customs alleged 
in proof will not bear the stress laid on them, undoubtedly a 
prevailing type of the Afghan physiognomy has a character 
strongly Jewish. This characteristic is certainly a remarkable 
one; but it is shared, to a considerable extent, by the Kash- 
miris (a circumstance which led Bernier to speculate on the 
Kashmiris representing the lost tribes of Israel), and, we believe, 
by the Tajik people of Badakshan. 

Relations with the Greeks. In the time of Darius Hystaspes 
(500 B.C.) we find the region now called Afghanistan embraced 
in the Achaemenian satrapies, and various parts of it occupied 
by Sarangians (in Seistan), Arians (in Herat), Sattagydians 
(supposed in highlands of upper Helmund and the plateau of 
Ghazni), Dadicae (suggested to be Tajiks), Aparytae (mountain- 
eers, perhaps of Safed Koh, where lay the Paryetae of Ptolemy), 
Gandarii (in Lower Kabul basin) and Paktyes, on or near the 
Indus. In the last name it has been plausibly suggested that 
we have the Pukhtun, as the eastern Afghans pronounce their 
name. Indeed, Pusht, Pasht or Pakht would seem to be the 
oldest name of the country of the Afghans in their traditions. 

The Ariana of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing 
dominions of Kabul, but overpasses their limits on the west and 
south. 

About 310 B.C. Seleucus is said by Strabo to have given to 
the Indian Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), in consequence of a 
marriage-contract, some part of the country west of the Indus 
occupied by an Indian population, and no doubt embracing a 
part of the Kabul basin. Some sixty years later occurred the 
establishment of an independent Greek dynasty in Bactria. 
(See BACTRIA, MEDIA, EUCRATIDES, MENANDER of India, EUTHY- 
DEMUS, and PERSIA, Ancient History?) Of the details of their 
history and extent of their dominion in different reigns we know 
almost nothing, and conjecture is often dependent on such vague 
data as are afforded by the collation of the localities in which the 
coins of independent princes have been found. But their power 
extended certainly over the Kabul basin, and probably, at times, 
over the whole of Afghanistan. The ancient architecture of 
Kashmir, the tope of Manikyala in the Punjab, and many 
sculptures found in the Peshawar valley, show unmistakable 
Greek influence. Demetrius (c. 190 B.C.) is supposed to have 
reigned in Arachosia after being expelled from Bactria, much 
as, at a later date, Baber reigned in Kabul after his expulsion 
from Samarkand. Eucratides (181 B.C.) is alleged by Justin 
to have warred in India. With his coins, found abundantly in 
the Kabul basin, commences the use of an Arianian inscription, 
in addition to the Greek, supposed to imply the transfer of rule 
to the south of the mountains, over a people whom the Greek 
dynasty sought to conciliate. Under Heliocles (147 B.C.?), 
the Parthians, who had already encroached on Ariana, pressed 
their conquests into India. Menander (126 B.C.) invaded India 
at least to the Jumna, and perhaps also to the Indus delta. The 
coinage of a succeeding king, Hermaeus, indicates a barbaric 
irruption. There is a general correspondence between classical 
and Chinese accounts- of the time when Bactria was overrun 
by Scythian invaders. The chief nation among these, called by 
the Chinese Yue-Chi, about 126 B.C. established themselves in 
Sogdiana and on the Oxus in five hordes. Near the Christian 
era the chief of one of these, which was called Kushan, subdued 
the rest, and extended his conquests over the countries south of 
the Hindu Kush, including Sind as well as Afghanistan, thus 
establishing a great dominion, of which we hear from Greek 
writers as Indo-Scythia. (See YuE-Cin.) 

Buddhism had already acquired influence over the people of 
the Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted 
that system. Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains of 
Jalalabad and Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul. 

Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other. A notable 
monarch was Kanishka (see INDIA, History) or Kanerkes, whose 
date is variously fixed at from 588. c. toA.D. 125, and whose power 
extended over the upper Oxus basin, Kabul, Peshawar, Kashmir 



and probably far into India. His name and legends still filled the 
land, or at least the Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when 
the Chinese pilgrim, Hsiian Tsang, travelled in India; they had 
even reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller and 
geographer, Abu-r-Raihan Muhammad al-Birunl (see BIRUNI), 
in the nth century; and they are still celebrated in the Mongol 
versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical story. 

Turkoman Dynasties. In the time of Hsiian Tsang (A.D. 630- 
645) there were both Indian and Turk princes in the Kabul 
valley, and in the succeeding centuries both these races seem 
to have predominated in succession. The first Mahommedan 
attempts at the conquest of Kabul were unsuccessful, though 
Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held from an early 
date. It was not till the end of the loth century that a Hindu 
prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the hands of the 
Turk Sabuktagin, who had established his capital at Ghazni. 
There, too, reigned his famous son Mahmud, and a series of 
descendants, till the middle of the I2th century, rendering the 
city one of the most splendid in Asia. We then have a powerful 
dynasty, commonly believed to have been of Afghan race; and 
if so, the first. But the historians give them a legendary descent 
from Zohak, which is no Afghan genealogy. The founder of 
the dynasty was Alauddin, chief of Ghor, whose vengeance for 
the cruel death of his brother at the hands of Bahrain the 
Ghaznevide was wreaked in devastating the great city. His 
nephew, Shahabuddin Mahommed, repeatedly invaded India, 
conquering as far as Benares. His empire in India indeed 
ruled by his freedmen who after his death became independent 
may be regarded as the origin of that great Mahommedan 
monarchy which endured nominally till 1857. For a brief period 
the Afghan countries were subject to the king of Khwarizm, 
and- it was here chiefly that occurred the gallant attempts of 
Jalaluddin of Khwarizm to withstand the progress of Jenghiz 
Khan. 

A passage in Perish ta seems to imply that the Afghans in the 
Sulimani mountains were already known by that name in the 
first century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may 
be built on. The name Afghans is very distinctly mentioned in 
'Utbi's History of Sultan Mahmud, written about A.D. 1030, 
coupled with that of the Khiljis. It also appears frequently in 
connexion with the history of India in the i3th and I4th cen- 
turies. The successive dynasties of Delhi are generally called 
Pathan, but were really so only in part. Of the Khiljis (1288- 
1321) we have already spoken. The Tughlaks (1321-1421) were 
originally Tatars of the Karauna tribe. The Lodis (1450-1526) 
were pure Pathans. For a century and more after the Mongol 
invasion the whole of the Afghan countries were under Mongol 
rule; but in the middle of the i4th century a native dynasty 
sprang up in western Afghanistan, that of the Kurts, which 
extended its rule over Ghor, Herat and Kandahar. The history 
of the Afghan countries under the Mongols is obscure; but that 
regime must have left its mark upon the country, if we judge 
from the occurrence of frequent Mongol names of places, and 
even of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language. 

The Mogul Dynasty. All these countries were included in 
Timur's conquests, and Kabul at least had remained in the 
possession of one of his descendants till 1501, only three years 
before it fell into the hands of another and more illustrious one, 
Sultan Baber. It was not till 1522 that Baber succeeded in 
permanently wresting Kandahar from the Arghuns, a family of 
Mongol descent, who had long held it. From the time of his 
conquest of Hindustan (victory at Panipat, April 21, 1526), 
Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded as part of the empire 
of Delhi under the (so-called) Mogul dynasty which Baber 
founded. Kabul so continued till the invasion of Nadir Shah 
(1738). Kandahar often changed hands between the Moguls 
and the rising Safavis (or Sufis) of Persia. Under the latter it 
had remained from 1642 till 1708, when in the reign of Husain, 
the last of them, the Ghilzais, provoked by the oppressive 
Persian governor Shahnawaz Khan (a Georgian prince of the 
Bagratid house), revolted under Mir Wais, and expelled the 
Persians. Mir Wais was acknowledged sovereign of Kandahar, 



3i6 



AFGHANISTAN 



and eventually defeated the Persian armies sent against him, 
but did not long survive (d. 1715). 

Mahmud, the son of Mir Wais, a man of great courage and 
energy, carried out a project of his father's, the conquest of 
Persia itself. After a long siege, Shah Husain came forth from 
Ispahan with all his court, and surrendered the sword and 
diadem of the Sufis into the hands of the Ghilzai (October 1722). 
Two years later Mahmud died mad, and a few years saw the end 
of Ghilzai rule in Persia. 

The Durani Dynasty. In 1737-38 Nadir Shah both recovered 
Kandahar and took Kabul. But he gained the goodwill of the 
Afghans, and enrolled many in his army. Among these was a 
noble young soldier, Ahmad Khan, of the Saddozai family of the 
Abdali clan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747) was 
chosen by the Afghan chiefs at Kandahar to be their leader, 
and assumed kingly authority over the eastern part of Nadir's 
empire, with the style of Dur-i-Durdn, " Pearl of the Age," 
bestowing that of Durani upon his clan, the Abdalis. With 
Ahmad Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first took a place among 
the kingdoms of the earth, and the Durani dynasty, which he 
founded, still occupies its throne. During the twenty-six years 
of his reign he carried his warlike expeditions far and wide. 
Westward they extended nearly to the shores of the Caspian; 
eastward he repeatedly entered India as a conqueror. At his great 
battle of Panipat (January 6, 1761), with vastly inferior num- 
bers, he inflicted on the Mahrattas, then at the zenith of their 
power, a tremendous defeat, almost annihilating their vast army; 
but the success had for him no important result. Having long 
suffered from a terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeath- 
ing to his son Timur a dominion which embraced not only 
Afghanistan to its utmost limits, but the Punjab, Kashmir and 
Turkestan to the Oxus, with Sind, Baluchistan and Khorasan 
as tributary governments. 

Timur transferred his residence from Kandahar to Kabul, 
and continued during a reign of twenty years to stave off the 
anarchy which followed close on his death. He left twenty- 
three sons, of whom the fifth, Zaman Mirza, by help of Payindah 
Khan, head of the Barakzai family of the Abdalis, succeeded in 
grasping the royal power. For many years barbarous wars raged 
between the brothers, during which Zaman Shah, Shuja-ul- 
Mulk and Mahmud successively held the throne. The last 
owed success to Payindah's son, Fatteh Khan (known as the 
"Afghan Warwick "), a man of masterly ability in war and 
politics, the eldest of twenty-one brothers, a family of notable 
intelligence and force of character, and many of these he placed 
over the provinces. Fatteh Khan, however, excited the king's 
jealously by his powerful position, and provoked the malignity 
of the king's son, Kamran, by a gross outrage on the Saddozai 
family. He was accordingly seized, blinded and afterwards 
murdered with prolonged torture, the brutal Kamran striking 
the first blow. 

The Barakzai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan. The 
Saddozais were driven from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, and 
with difficulty reached Herat (1818). Herat remained thus till 
Kamran's death (1842), and after that was held by his able and 
wicked minister Yar Mahommed. The rest of the country was 
divided among the Barakzais Dost Mahommed, the ablest, 
getting Kabul. Peshawar and the right bank of the Indus fell 
to the Sikhs after their victory at Nowshera in 1823. The last 
Afghan hold of the Punjab had been lost long before Kashmir 
in 1819; Sind had cast off all allegiance since 1808; the Turkes- 
tan provinces had been practically independent since the death 
of Timur Shah. 

The First Afghan War, 1838-42. In 1809, in consequence of 
the intrigues of Napoleon in Persia, the Hon. Mountstuart 
Elphinstone had been sent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in power, 
and had been well received by him at Peshawar. This was the 
first time the Afghans made any acquaintance with Englishmen. 
Lieut. Alex. Burnes (afterwards Sir Alex. Burnes) visited Kabul 
on his way to Bokhara in 1832. In 1837 the Persian siege of 
Herat and the proceedings of Russia created uneasiness, and 
Burnes was sent by the governor-general as resident to the 



amir's court at Kabul. But the terms which the Dost sought 
were not conceded by the government, and the rash resolution 
was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, long a refugee in 
British territory. Ranjit Singh, king of the Punjab, bound 
himself to co-operate, but eventually declined to let the expedi- 
tion cross his territories. 

The war began in March 1838, when the "Army of the Indus," 
amounting to 21, coo men, assembled in Upper Sind and advanced 
through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John Keane. 
There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition. Kohandil 
Khan of Kandahar fled to Persia. That city was occupied in 
April 1839, and Shah Shuja was crowned in his grandfather's 
mosque. Ghazni was reached 2ist July; a gate of the city was 
blown open by the engineers (the match was fired by Lieut., 
afterwards Sir Henry, Durand), and the place was taken by 
storm. Dost Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed 
the Hindu Kush, and Shah Shuja entered the capital (August 7). 
The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane (made a 
peer) returned to India with a considerable part of the force, 
leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's force, with Sir W. 
Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A. Burnes as his colleague. 

During the two following years Shah Shuja and his allies 
remained in possession of Kabul and Kandahar. The British 
outposts extended to Saighan, in the Oxus basin, and to Mullah 
Khan, in the plain of Seistan. Dost Mahommed surrendered 
(November 3, 1840) and was sent to India, where he was honour- 
ably treated. From the beginning, insurrection against the new 
government had been rife. The political authorities were over- 
confident, and neglected warnings. On the and of November 1841 
the revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre of 
Burnes and other officers. The position of the British camp, its 
communications with the citadel and the location of the stores 
were the worst possible; and the general (Elphinstone) was 
shattered in constitution. Disaster after disaster occurred, not 
without misconduct. At a conference (December 23) with the 
Dost's son, Akbar Khan, who had taken the lead of the Afghans, 
Sir W. Macnaghten was murdered by that chief's own hand. On 
the 6th of January 1842, after a convention to evacuate the 
country had been signed, the British garrison, still numbering 
4500 soldiers (of whom 690 were Europeans), with some 12,000 
followers, marched out of the camp. The winter was severe, the 
troops demoralised, the march a mass of confusion and massacre, 
and the force was finally overwhelmed in the Jagdalak pass 
between Kabul and Jalalabad. 

On the 1 3th the last survivors mustered at Gandamak only 
twenty muskets. Of those who left Kabul, only Dr Brydon 
reached Jalalabad, wounded and half dead. Ninety-five 
prisoners were afterwards recovered. The garrison of Ghazni 
had already been forced to surrender (December 10). But 
General Nott held Kandahar with a stern hand, and General 
Sale, who had reached Jalalabad from Kabul at the beginning of 
the outbreak, maintained that important point gallantly. 

To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners prepara- 
tions were made in India on a fitting scale; but it was the i6th of 
April 1842 before General Pollock could relieve Jalalabad, after 
forcing the Khyber Pass. After a long halt there he advanced 
(August 20), and gaining rapid successes, occupied Kabul 
(September 15)^ where Nott, after retaking and dismantling 
Ghazni, joined him two days later. The prisoners were happily 
recovered from Bamian. The citadel and central bazaar of 
Kabul were destroyed, and the army finally evacuated Afghan- 
istan, December 1842. ' 

This ill-planned and hazardous enterprise was fraught with 
the elements of inevitable failure. A ruler imposed upon a free 
people by foreign arms is always unpopular; he is unable to 
stand alone; and his foreign auxiliaries soon find themselves 
obliged to choose between remaining to uphold his power, or 
retiring with the probability that it will fall after their departure. 
The leading chiefs of Afghanistan perceived that the maintenance 
of Shah Shuja's rule by British troops would soon be fatal to 
their own power and position in the country, and probably to 
their national independence. They were insatiable in their 



AFGHANISTAN 



3 1 ? 



demands for office and emolument, and when they discovered 
that the shah, acting by the advice of the British envoy, was 
levying from among their tribesmen regiments to be directly under 
his control, they took care that the plan should fail. Without a 
regular revenue no effective administration could be organized; 
but the attempt to raise taxes showed that it might raise the 
people, so that for both men and money the shah's government 
was still obliged to rely principally upon British aid. All these 
circumstances combined to render the new regime weak and 
unpopular, since there was no force at the ruler's command 
except foreign troops to put down disorder or to protect those 
who submitted, while the discontented nobles fomented dis- 
affection and the inbred hatred of strangers in race and religion 
among the general Afghan population. 

British and Russian Relations. It has been said that the 
declared object of this policy had been to maintain the inde- 
pendence and integrity of Afghanistan, to secure the friendly 
alliance of its ruler, and thus to interpose a great barrier of 
mountainous country between the expanding power of Russia in 
Central Asia and the British dominion in India. After 1849, 
when the annexation of the Punjab had carried the Indian north- 
western frontier up to the skirts of the Afghan highlands, the 
corresponding advance of the Russians south-eastward along the 
Oxus river became of closer interest to the British, particularly 
when, in 1856, the Persians again attempted to take possession 
of Herat. Dost Mahommed now became the British ally, but on 
his death in 1863 the kingdom fell back into civifrwar, until his 
son, Shere Ali, had won his way to undisputed rulership in 1868. 
In the same year Bokhara became a dependency of Russia. To 
the British government an attitude of non-intervention in Afghan 
affairs appeared in this situation to be no longer possible. The 
meeting between the amir Shere Ali and the viceroy of India 
(Lord Mayo) at Umballa in 1869 drew nearer the relations 
between the two governments; the amir consolidated and began 
to centralize his power; and the establishment of a strong, 
friendly and united Afghanistan became again the keynote of 
British policy beyond the north-western frontier of India. 

When, therefore, the conquest of Khiva in 1873 by the 
Russians, and their gradual approach towards the amir's 
northern border, had seriously alarmed Shere Ali, he applied for 
support to the British; and his disappointment at his failure to 
obtain distinct pledges of material assistance, and at Great 
Britain's refusal to endorse all his claims in a dispute with Persia 
over Seistan, so far estranged him from the British connexion 
that he began to entertain amicable overtures from the Russian 
authorities at Tashkend. In 1869 the Russian government had 
assured Lord Clarendon that they regarded Afghanistan as 
completely outside the sphere of their influence; and in 1872 the 
boundary line of Afghanistan on the north-west had been settled 
between England and Russia so far eastward as Lake Victoria. 

Nevertheless the correspondence between Kabul and Tash- 
kend continued, and as the Russians were now extending their 
dominion over all the region beyond Afghanistan on the north- 
west, the British government determined, in 1876, once more to 
undertake active measures for securing their political ascendancy 
in that country. But the amir, whose feelings of resentment 
had by no means abated, was now leaning toward Russia, though 
he mainly desired to hold the balance between two equally 
formidable rivals. The result of overtures made to him from 
India was that in 1877, when Lord Lytton, acting under direct 
instructions from Her Majesty's ministry, proposed to Shere 
Ali a treaty of alliance, Shere Ali showed himself very little 
disposed to welcome the offer; and upon his refusal to admit 
a British agent into Afghanistan the negotiations finally broke 
down. 

Second Afghan War, 1878-80. In the course of the following 
year (1878) the Russian government, to counteract the inter- 
ference of England with their advance upon Constantinople, 
sent an envoy to Kabul empowered to make a treaty with the 
amir. It was immediately notified to him from India that a 
British mission would be deputed to his capital, but he demurred 
to receiving it; and when the British envoy was turned back 



on the Afghan frontier hostilities were proclaimed by the viceroy 
in November 1878, and the second Afghan War began. Sir 
Donald Stewart's force, marching up through Baluchistan by 
the Bolan Pass, entered Kandahar with little or no resistance; 
while another army passed through the Khyber Pass and took 
up positions at Jalalabad and other places on the direct road'to 
Kabul. Another force under Sir Frederick Roberts marched 
up to the high passes leading out of Kurram into the interior 
of Afghanistan, defeated the amir's troops at the Peiwar Kotal, 
and seized the Shutargardan Pass which commands a direct 
route to Kabul through the Logar valley. The amir Shere Ali 
fled from his capital into the northern province, where he died 
at Mazar-i-Sharif in February 1879. In the course of the next 
six months there was much desultory skirmishing between the 
tribes and the British troops, who defeated various attempts 
to dislodge them from the positions that had been taken up; 
but the sphere of British military operations was not materi- 
ally extended. It was seen that the farther they advanced the 
more difficult would become their eventual retirement; and the 
problem was to find a successor to Shere Ali who could and would 
make terms with the British government. 

In the meantime Yakub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, had 
announced to Major Cavagnari, the political agent at the head- 
quarters of the British army, that he had succeeded his father 
at Kabul. The negotiations that followed ended in the con- 
clusion of the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, by which Yakub 
Khan was recognized as amir; certain outlying tracts of Afghan- 
istan were transferred to the British government; the amir 
placed in its hands the entire control of his foreign relations, 
receiving in return a guarantee against foreign aggression; and 
the establishment of a British envoy at Kabul was at last con- 
ceded. By this convention the complete success of the British 
political and military operations seemed to have been attained; 
for whereas Shere Ali had made a treaty of alliance with, and 
had received an embassy from Russia, his son had now made 
an exclusive treaty with the British government, and had agreed 
that a British envoy should reside permanently at his court. 
Yet it was just this final concession, the chief and original object 
of British policy, that proved speedily fatal to the whole settle- 
ment. For in September the envoy, Sir Louis Cavagnari, with 
his staff and escort, was massacred at Kabul, and the entire 
fabric of a friendly alliance went to pieces. A fresh expedition 
was instantly despatched across the Shutargardan Pass under 
Sir Frederick Roberts, who defeated the Afghans at Charasia 
near Kabul, and entered the city in October. Yakub Khan, 
who had surrendered, was sent to India; and the British army 
remained in military occupation of the district round Kabul 
until in December (1879) its communications with India were 
interrupted, and its position at the capital placed in serious 
jeopardy, by a general rising of the tribes. After they had been 
repulsed and put down, not without some hard fighting, Sir 
Donald Stewart, who had not quitted Kandahar, brought a 
force up by Ghazni to Kabul, overcoming some resistance on 
his way, and assumed the supreme command. Nevertheless 
the political situation was still embarrassing, for as the whole 
country beyond the range of British effective military control 
was masterless, it was undesirable to withdraw the troops before 
a government could be reconstructed which could stand without 
foreign support, and with which diplomatic relations of some 
kind might be arranged. The general position and prospect 
of political affairs in Afghanistan bore, indeed, an instructive 
resemblance to the situation just forty years earlier, in 1840, 
with the important differences that the Punjab and Sind had 
since become British, and that communications between Kabul 
and India were this time secure. 

Reign of Abdur Rahman. Abdur Rahman, the son of the 
late amir Shere Ali's elder brother, had fought against Shere Ali 
in the war for succession to Dost Mahommed, had been driven 
beyond the Oxus, and had lived for ten years in exile with the 
Russians. In March 1880 he came back across the river, and 
began to establish himself in the northern province of Afghan- 
istan. The viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, on hearing of his 



3 i8 



AFGHANISTAN 



reappearance, instructed the political authorities at Kabul to 
communicate with him. By skilful negotiations a meeting was 
arranged, and after pressing in vain for a treaty he was induced 
to assume charge of the country upon his recognition by the 
British as amir, with the understanding that he should have no 
relations with other foreign powers, and with a formal assurance 
from the viceroy of protection from foreign aggression, so long 
as he should unreservedly follow the advice of the British govern- 
ment in regard to his external affairs. The province of Kandahar 
was severed from the Kabul dominion; and the sirdar Shere 
Ali Khan, a member of the Barakzai family, was installed by 
the British representative as its independent ruler. 

For the second time in the course of this war a conclusive 
settlement of Afghan affairs seemed now to have been attained; 
and again, as in 1879, it was immediately dissolved. In July 
1880, a few days after the proclamation of Abdur Rahman 
as amir at Kabul, came news that Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's 
younger son, who had been holding Herat since his father's 
death, had marched upon Kandahar, had utterly defeated at 
Maiwand a British force that went out from Kandahar to oppose 
him, and was besieging that city. Sir Frederick Roberts at 
once set out from Kabul with 10,000 men to its relief, reached 
Kandahar after a rapid march of 313 miles, attacked and routed 
Ayub Khan's army on the ist of September, and restored British 
authority in southern Afghanistan. As the British ministry 
had resolved to evacuate Kandahar, the sirdar Shere Ali Khan, 
who saw that he could not stand alone, resigned and withdrew to 
India, and the amir Abdur Rahman was invited to take posses- 
sion of the province. But when Ayub Khan, who had meanwhile 
retreated to Herat, heard that the British forces had retired, 
early in 1881, to India, he mustered a fresh army and again 
approached Kandahar. In June the fort of Girishk, on the 
Helmund, was seized by his adherents; the amir's troops were 
defeated some days later in an engagement, and Ayub Khan 
took possession of Kandahar at the end of July. The amir 
Abdur Rahman, whose movements had hitherto been slow and 
uncertain, now acted with vigour and decision. He marched 
rapidly from Kabul at the head of a force, with which he en- 
countered Ayub Khan under the walls of Kandahar, and routed 
his army on 2 2nd September, taking all his guns and equipage. 
Ayub Khan fled toward Herat, but as the place had meanwhile 
been occupied by one of the amir's generals he took refuge 
in Persia. By this victory Abdur Rahman's rulership was 
established. 

In 1884 it was determined to resume the demarcation, by a 
joint commission of British and Russian officers, of the northern 
boundary of Afghanistan. The work went on with much diffi- 
culty and contention, until in March 1885, when the amir was 
at Rawalpindi for a conference with the viceroy of India, Lord 
Dufferin, the news came that at Panjdeh, a disputed place on 
the boundary held by the Afghans, the Russians had attacked 
and driven out with some loss the amir's troops. For the 
moment the consequences seemed likely to be serious; but the 
affair was arranged diplomatically, and the demarcation pro- 
ceeded up to a point near the Oxus river, beyond which the 
commission were unable to settle an agreement. 

During the ten years following his accession in 1880 Abdur 
Rahman employed himself in extending and consolidating his 
dominion over the whole country. Some local revolts among 
the tribes were rigorously suppressed; and two attempts to 
upset his rulership the first by Ayub Khan, who entered 
Afghanistan from Persia, the second and more dangerous one 
by Ishak Khan, the amir's cousin, who rebelled against him 
in Afghan Turkestan were defeated. By 1891 the amir had 
enforced his supreme authority throughout Afghanistan more 
completely than any of his predecessors. In 1895 the amir's 
troops entered Kafiristan, a wild mountainous tract on the 
north-east, inhabited by a peculiar race that had hitherto 
defied all efforts to subjugate them, but were now gradually 
reduced to submission. Meanwhile the delimitation of the 
northern frontier, up to the point where it meets Chinese territory 
on the east, was completed and fixed by arrangements between 



the governments of Russia and Great Britain; and the eastern 
border of the Afghan territory, towards India, was also mapped out 
and partially laid down, in accordance with a convention between 
the two governments. The amir not only received a large annual 
subsidy of money from the British government, but he also 
obtained considerable supplies of war material; and he, moreover, 
availed himself very freely of facilities that were given him for 
the importation at his own cost of arms through India. With 
these resources, and with the advantage of an assurance from 
the British government that he would be aided against foreign 
aggression, he was able to establish an absolute military despot- 
ism inside his kingdom, by breaking down the power of the 
warlike tribes which held in check, up to his time, the personal 
autocracy of the Kabul rulers, and by organizing a regular army 
well furnished with European rifles and artillery. Taxation of 
all kinds was heavily increased, and systematically collected. 
The result was that whereas in former times the forces of an 
Afghan ruler consisted mainly of a militia, furnished by the chiefs 
of tribes who held land on condition of military service, and who 
stoutly resisted any attempt to commute this service for money 
payment, the amir had at his command a large standing army, 
and disposed of a substantial revenue paid direct to his treasury. 
Abdur Rahman executed or exiled all those whose political 
influence he saw reason to fear, or of whose disaffection he had 
the slightest suspicion; his administration was severe and his 
punishments were cruel; but undoubtedly he put down disorder, 
stopped the petty tyranny of local chiefs and brought violent 
crime under some effective control in the districts. Travelling 
by the high roads during his reign was comparatively safe; 
although it must be added that the excessive exactions of dues 
and customs very seriously damaged the external trade. In 
short, Abdur Rahman's reign produced an important political 
revolution, or reformation, in Afghanistan, which rose from the 
condition of a country distracted by chronic civil wars, under 
rulers whose authority depended upon their power to hold down 
or conciliate fierce and semi-independent tribes in the outlying 
parts of the dominion, to the rank of a formidable military state 
governed autocratically. He established, for the first time in 
the history of the Afghan kingdom, a powerfully centralized 
administration strong enough to maintain order and to enforce 
obedience over all the country which he had united under his 
dominion, supported by a force sufficiently armed and disciplined 
to put down attempts at resistance or revolt. His policy, con- 
sistently maintained, was to permit no kind of foreign inter- 
ference, on any pretext, with the interior concerns or the econo- 
mical conditions of his country. From the British government 
he accepted supplies of arms and subsidies of money; but he 
would make no concessions in return, and all projects of a 
strategical or commercial nature, such as railways and telegraphs, 
proposed either for the defence or the development of his posses- 
sions, seem to have been regarded by the amir with extreme 
distrust, as methods of what has been called pacific penetration 
so that on these points he was immovable. It was probably 
due to the strength and solidity of the executive administration 
organized, during his lifetime, by Abdur Rahman that, for the 
first time in the records of the dynasty founded by Ahmad Shah 
in the latter part of the i8th century, his death was not followed 
by disputes over the succession or by civil war. 

Succession of Habibullah. The amir Abdur Rahman died on 
the ist of October 1901; and two days later his eldest son, 
Habibullah, formally announced his accession to the rulership. 
He was recognized with acclamation by the army, by the religious 
bodies, by the principal tribal chiefs and by all classes of the 
people as their lawful sovereign; while a deputation of Indian 
Mahommedans was despatched to Kabul from India to convey 
the condolences and congratulations of the viceroy. The amir's 
first measures were designed to enhance his popularity and to 
improve his internal administration, particularly with regard to 
the relations of his government with the tribes, and to the 
system introduced by the late amir of compulsory military 
service, whereby each tribe was required to supply a propor- 
tionate number of recruits. With this object a council of state 



AFGHAN TURKESTAN AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR 



for tribal affairs was established; and it was arranged that 
a representative of each tribe should be associated with the 
provincial governors for the adjudication of tribal cases. 

In the important matter of foreign relations Habibullah 
showed a determination to adopt the policy of his father, to 
whom the British government had given an assurance of aid to 
repel foreign aggression, on the condition that the amir should 
follow the advice of that government in regard to external 
affairs. This condition was loyally observed by the new amir, 
who referred to India all communications of an official kind 
received from the Russian authorities in the provinces bordering 
on Afghanistan. But toward the various questions left pending 
between the governments of India and Afghanistan the new amir 
maintained also his father's attitude. He gave no indications of 
a disposition to continue the discussion of them, or to entertain 
proposals for extending or altering his relations with the Indian 
government. An invitation from the viceroy to meet him in 
India, with the hope that these points might be settled in 
conference, was put aside by dilatory excuses, until at last the 
project was abandoned, and finally the amir agreed to receive 
at Kabul a diplomatic mission. The mission, whose chief was 
Sir Louis Dane, foreign secretary to the Indian government, 
reached Kabul early in December 1904, and remained there 
four months in negotiation with the amir personally and with 
his representatives. It was found impossible, after many inter- 
views, to obtain from Habibullah his consent to any addition 
to or variation of the terms of the assurance given by the British 
government in 1880, with which he professed himself entirely 
satisfied, so that the treaty finally settled in March 1905 went no 
further than a formal confirmation of all engagements previously 
concluded with the amir's predecessor. It was felt in British 
circles at the time that a very considerable concession to Habi- 
bullah's independence of attitude was displayed in the fact that 
he was styled in the treaty " His Majesty "; but, in the circum- 
stances, it seems to have been thought diplomatic to accede to 
the amir's determination to insist on this matter of style. But 
the rebuff showed that it was desirable in the interests both of 
the British government and of Afghanistan that an opportunity 
should be made for enabling the amir to have personal acquaint- 
ance with the highest Indian authorities. A further step, 
calculated to strengthen the relations of amity between the two 
governments, was taken when it was arranged that the amir 
should pay a visit to the viceroy, Lord Minto, in India, in 
January 1907; and this visit took place with great cordiality and 
success. 

The Anglo-Russian Convention, signed on the 3ist of August 
1907, contained the following important declarations with regard 
to Afghanistan. Great Britain disclaimed any intention of 
altering the political status or (subject to the observance of the 
treaty of 1905) of interfering in the administration or annexing 
any territory of Afghanistan, and engaged to use her influence 
there in no manner threatening to Russia. Russia, on her part, 
recognized Afghanistan as outside her sphere of influence. 

AUTHORITIES. MacGregor, Gazetteer of Afghanistan (1871); 
Elphinstone,/lccoMni of the Kingdom of Kabul (1809) ; Ferrier, History 
of the Afghans (1858) ; Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans (1879) ; 
Baber's Memoirs (1844); Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan 
(1878); Malleson, History of Afghanistan (1879); Heusman, The 
Afghan War (1881) ; Sir H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879) ; 
Forbes, The Afghan Wars (1892); Rawlinson, England and Russia 
in the East (1875); Wyllie, Essays on the External Policy of India 
(1875) ; A. C. Yate, England and Russia Face to Face in Asia (1887) ; 
C. E. Yate, Northern Afghanistan (1888); Curzon, Problems of the 
Far East (1894); Robertson, The Kafir of the Hindu Kush (1896); 
Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901); Thorburn, Asiatic Neighbours 
(1895); Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (1898); Lady 
Betty Balfour, Lord Lytton's Indian Administration (1899); Hanna, 
Second Afghan War (1899); Gray, At the Court of the Amir (1895); 
Sultan Mohammad Khan, Constitution and Laws of Afghanistan 
(1900); Life of Abdur Rahman (1900); Angus Hamilton, Afghan- 
istan (1906). (H. Y. ; A. C. L.) 

AFGHAN TURKESTAN, the most northern province of 
Afghanistan. It is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the N. 
by the Oxus river, on the N.W. and W. by Russia and the Hari 
Rud river, and on the S. by the Hindu Kush, the Koh-i-Baba 



and the northern watershed of the Hari Rud basin. Its northern 
frontier was decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873, 
and delimited by the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of 
1885, which gave rise to the Panjdeh incident. The whole 
territory, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Oxus 
on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, is 
some 500 m. in length, with an average width from the Russian 
frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 m. It thus comprises about 
57,000 sq. m. or roughly two-ninths of the kingdom of Afghan- 
istan. Except in the river valleys it is a poor territory, rough 
and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulat- 
ing wastes and pasture-lands towards the Turkman desert, and 
the Oxus riverain which is highly cultivated. The population, 
which is mostly agricultural, settled in and around its towns 
and villages, is estimated at 750,000. The province includes 
the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh with Akcha; the 
western khanates of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhui and Maimana, 
sometimes classed together as the Chahar Villayet, or " Four 
Domains "; and such parts of the Hazara tribes as lie north of 
the Hindu Kush and its prolongation. The principal town is 
Mazar-i-Sharif, which in modern times has supplanted the 
ancient city of Balkh; and Takhtapul, near Mazar, is the chief 
Afghan cantonment north of the Hindu Kush. 

Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more con- 
nected with Bokhara than with Kabul, of which government 
it has been a dependency only since the time of Dost Mahommed. 
The bulk of the people of the cities are of Persian and Uzbeg 
stock, but interspersed with them are Mongol Hazaras and 
Hindus with Turkoman tribes in the Oxus plains. Over these 
races the Afghans rule as conquerors and there is no bond of 
racial unity between them. Ancient Balkh or Bactriana was 
a province of the Achaemenian empire, and probably was 
occupied in great measure by a race of Iranian blood. About 
250 B.C. Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the 
Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the 
history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to 
Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 B.C. After this 
came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic 
sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The 
district was devastated by Jenghiz Khan, and has never since 
fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged 
to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbeg hands. In the 
i8th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan 
Durani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the 
fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back 
under the independent rule of various Uzbeg chiefs. At the 
beginning of the igth Century they belonged to Bokhara; but 
under the great amir Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered 
Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western 
khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. The sovereignty over 
Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute 
between Bokhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian 
agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the 
strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were 
closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah 
the bonds once more relaxed. (T. H. H.*) 

AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (afium, opium), the popular name of 
Kara-hissar Sahib, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of 
Brusa, nearly 200 m. E. of Smyrna, and 50 m. S.S.E. of Kutaiah. 
Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 13,000; Christians, 5000). Called 
Nicopolis by Leo III. after his victory over the Arabs in 740, 
its name was changed by the Seljuk Turks to Kara-hissar. It 
stands partly on level ground, partly on a declivity, and above 
it rises a precipitous trachytic rock (400 ft.) on the summit of 
which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its situation 
on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and western Asia 
on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, &c., on the other, the 
city became, a place of extensive trade, and its bazaars are well 
stocked with the merchandise of both Europe and the East. 
Opium in large quantities is produced in its vicinity and forms 
the staple article of its commerce ; and there are, besides, 
manufactures of black felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Afium 



320 



A FORTIORI AFRICA 



contains several mosques (one of them a very handsome building) , 
and is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The town is connected 
by railway with Smyrna, Konia, Angora and Constantinople. 
See V. Cuinet, Turguie d'Asie (Paris, 1894), vol. iv. 

A FORTIORI (Lat. " from a stronger [reason] "), a term used 
of an argument which justifies a statement not itself specifically 
demonstrated by reference to a proved conclusion which includes 
it; thus, if A is proved less than B, and is known to be greater 
than C, it follows a fortiori that C is less than B without further 
proof. The argument is frequently based merely on a comparison 
of probabilities (cf. Matt. vi. 30), when it constitutes an appeal 
to common sense. 

AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman general, lived in the times of 
the Sertorian (70-72), third Mithradatic (74-61) and Civil Wars. 
Of humble origin (Cic. ad Alt. i. 16. 20), from his early years 
he was a devoted adherent of Pompey. In 60, chiefly by 
Pompey's support, he was raised to the consulship, but in per- 
forming the duties of that office he showed an utter incapacity 
to manage civil affairs. In the following year, while governor 
of Cisalpine Gaul, he obtained the honour of a triumph, and on 
the allotment of Spain to Pompey (ss), Afranius and Marcus 
Petreius were sent to take charge of the government. On the 
rupture between Caesar and Pompey they were compelled, 
after a short campaign in which they were at first successful, 
to surrender to Caesar at Ilerda (49), and were dismissed on 
promising not to serve again in the war. Afranius, regardless 
of his promise, joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium, and at the 
battle of Pharsalus (48) had charge of Pompey's camp. On the 
defeat of Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar, 
went to Africa, and was present at the disastrous battle of 
Thapsus (46). Escaping from the field with a strong body of 
cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along with Faustus 
Sulla, by the troops of Sittius, and handed over to Caesar, whose 
veterans rose in tumult and put them to death. 

See Hirtius, Bell. Afric. 95; Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius 
xxxvii., xli.-xliii. ; Caesar, B.C. \. 37-87; Appian, B.C. ii.; for the 
history of the period, articles on CAESAR and POMPEY. 

AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman comic poet, flourished about 
94 B.C. His comedies chiefly dealt with everyday subjects from 
Roman middle-class life, and he himself tells us that he borrowed 
freely from Menander and others. His style was vigorous and 
correct; his moral tone that of the period. 

Horace, Epp. ii. i. 57; Cicero, Brutus, 45, de Fin. i. 3; Quintilian 
x. I. 100 ; fragments, about 400 lines, in Ribbeck, Scaenicae 
Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ii. (1898). 

AFRICA, the name of a continent representing the largest of 
the three great southward projections from the main mass of 
the earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular 
outline an area, according to the most recent computations, of 
11,262,000 sq. m., excluding the islands. 1 Separated from 
Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its N.E. 
extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 80 m. wide. From the most 
northerly point, Ras ben Sakka, a little west of Cape Blanc, 
in 37 21' N., to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas, 
34 51' 15" S., is a distance approximately of 5000 m.; from 
Cape Verde, 17 33' 22" W., the westernmost point, to Ras 
Hafun, 51 27' 52" E., the most easterly projection, is a dis- 
tance (also approximately) of 4600 m. The length of coast-line is 
16,100 m. and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is 
shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only 3,760,000 
sq. m., has a coast-line of 19,800 m. 

I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

The main structural lines of the continent show both the 
east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern 
hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the 
north- to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa 
is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern 
running from east to west, the southern from north to south, 
the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two 
directions. 

L Main Orographical Features. The mean elevation of the con- 
'With the islands, 11,498,000 sq. m. 



tinent approximates closely to 2000 ft., which is roughly the 
elevation of both North and South America, but is considerably 
less than that of Asia (3117 ft.). In contrast with the other 
continents it is marked by the comparatively small area both of 
very high and of very low ground, lands under 600 ft. occupying 
an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the 
highest elevations inferior to those of Asia and South America, 
but the area of land over 10,000 ft. is also quite insignificant, 
being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and 
mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the 
characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of 
these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are 
these isolated peaks and ridges that a special term [Inselberg- 
landschaft] has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind 
of country, which is thought to be in great part the result of 
wind action.) As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to 
the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude 
towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the low- 
lands and the Atlas range, the continent may be divided into 
two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line 
(somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle 
of the Red Sea to about 6 S. on the west coast. We thus obtain 
the following four main divisions of the continent: (i) The 
coast plains often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps 
never stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses 
of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta 
of the more important rivers. Elsewhere the coast lowlands 
merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which 
constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. (2) The Atlas 
range, which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of the 
continent, being unconnected with any other area of high ground, 
and separated from the rest of the continent on the south by a 
depressed and desert area (the Sahara), in places below sea-level. 
(3) The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below 
2000 ft., and having a mean elevation of about 3500 ft. (4) The 
north and west African plains, bordered and traversed by bands 
of higher ground, but generally below 2000 ft. This division 
includes the great desert of the Sahara. 

The third and fourth divisions may be again subdivided. 
Thus the high plateaus include: (a) The South African plateau 
as far as about 12 S., bounded east, west and south by bands 
of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account 
South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer. 
Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with 
level ground between them. The largest of these level areas, 
the Great Karroo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of 
the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known 
as the Kalahari Desert. The South African plateau is connected 
towards the north-east with (6) the East African plateau, with 
probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by 
some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the 
eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into 
a number of zones running north and south and consisting in 
turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking 
feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due 
largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust, 
the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards 
the south the two lines converge and give place to one great 
valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which 
is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of 
the system. Farther north the western depression, sometimes 
known as the Central African trough or Albertine rift-valley, 
is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the 
four lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert Edward and Albert, 
the first-named over 400 m. long and the longest freshwater 
lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a 
number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a 
meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern 
depression, known as the East African trough or rift-valley, 
contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without 
outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough 
being Lake Rudolf or Basso Norok. At no great distance east 



J& ^ Ir\ ji 'v JrX 

Scale 1:32,000,000 



Political Colouring : 

British m^Bi French 

German Portuguese 

Spanish i i Italian 

Belgian i i TurMsl 



^ forts. ~neils, .-.Rums, i,.- Deserts, 
^ Wadis fdry watercourses} . -* Canals. 
Main Caravan routes. ^-*-^-- Cataracts , falls 
CAPF. T V.X , Bingcrville - Colonial Capitals. O, - Oasix i>f 
Sea. wider 55O fathom s deep, tinted Tight : 
aver 550 fathojns, dark.. 



AFRICA 

as known in 1850. 

Scale 1 : 60.000.000. 

Danish Dutch 




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Copv ri g hl >a the Uni'*l State* of America, 191U 
by The Encyclopaedia Britauniua Co. 



GEOGRAPHY] 



AFRICA 



321 



of this rift-valley are Kilimanjaro with its two peaks Kibo 
and Mawenzi, the former 19,321 ft., and the culminating point 
of the whole continent and Kenya (17,007 ft.). Hardly less 
important is the Ruwenzori range (over 16,600 ft.), which lies 
east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the 
floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, 
north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active, (c) The third 
division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Abys- 
sinian highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the 
largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, 
little of its surface falling below 5000 ft., while the summits 
reach heights of 15,000 to 16,000 ft. This block of country 
lies just west of the line of the great East African trough, the 
northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarp- 
ment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in 
the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana. 

Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering 
highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, 
the Abyssinian mountains being continued northwards along 
the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height 
of 7000 ft. In the west the zone of high land is broader but 
somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland 
from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, &c.), where 
heights of 6000 to 8000 ft. are reached. Exactly at the head of 
the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic 
action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height 
of 13,370 ft., while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first 
of the line of islands, rises to over 9000. Towards the extreme 
west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging 
point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the 
elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting. 

The area between the east and west coast highlands, which 
th of 17 N. is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins 
iy other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally 
through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the 
curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of 
the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area 
bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea. 
The arid region, the Sahara the largest desert in the world, 
covering 3,500,000 sq. m. extends from the Atlantic to the 
Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains 
mountain ranges with peaks rising to 8000 ft. Bordered N.W. 
by the Atlas range, to the N.E. a rocky plateau separates it 
from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme 
east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the 
desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the 
north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and 
landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 100 m. 
broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis 

:e a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that 
desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels. 

The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the 

ief mountains and lakes of the continent: 

Mountains. Ft. Lakes. 

Rungwe (Nyasa) . 10,400 Chad 



Drakensberg 

Lereko or Sattima 
(Aberdare Range) 

Cameroon 

Elgon 

Karissimbi (Mfum- 
biro) . 

Meru 

Tagharat (Atlas) . 

Simen Mountains, 
Abyssinia 

Ruwenzori 

Kenya 

Kilimanjaro . 



13.370 
14,152" 

I4.683 2 
I4,955 2 
I5,ooo l 



11,700' Leopold II 
I3.2I4 2 Rudolf 

Nyasa 

Albert Nyanza 

Tanganyika 

Ngami 

Mweru 

Albert Edward 

Bangweulu. 
I5.I6O 1 Victoria Nyanza 

Abai 

i6,6i9 2 Kivu 
17,007* Tsana 
19,321* Naivasha 

The Hydrographic Systems. From the outer margin of the 

rican plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with 

omparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long 

1 Estimated. 

2 See the calculations of Capt. T. T. Behrens, Geoe. Journal, vol 

(1907). 
I. ii 



Ft. 
850 1 

IIOO 

1250 

I645 2 
2028' 
2624* 
2950 
3000 



3700 
3720* 
4200 
4829* 
5690 



distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the 
outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north 
and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean. The high 
lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the Nile 
and Congo: the former the longest, the latter the largest river 
of the continent. The upper Nile receives its chief supplies 
from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African 
trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. Thence streams 
pour east to the Victoria Nyanza, the largest African lake 
(covering over 26,000 sq. m.), and west and north to the Albert 
Edward and Albert Nyanzas, to the latter of which the effluents 
of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from it the Nile 
flows north, and between 7 and 10 N. traverses a vast marshy 
level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating 
vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west 
and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Abyssinian 
highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood- water), it 
crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a 
vast delta. The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the 
Chambezi, which flows south-west into the marshy Lake Bang- 
weulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper 
course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards 
turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad 
basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic 
northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many 
great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to 
the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. North of 
the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation 
of the surface is the basin of Lake Chad a flat-shored, shallow 
lake filled principally by the Shari coming from the south-east. 
West of this is the basin of the Niger, the third river of Africa, 
which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source 
in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by 
the Nile and Congo. An important branch, however the 
Benue comes from the south-east. These four river-basins 
occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and 
West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered 
only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea. Of 
the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the Orange, in the 
extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on 
the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, 
Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coast highlands of the 
southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and 
Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal 
for over 1000 m. of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. 
Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses, 
which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas 
mountains. 

Of the rive'rs flowing to the Indian Ocean the only one draining 
any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose 
western branches rise in the west coast highlands. The main 
stream has its rise in 11 21' 3" S. 24 22' E. at an elevation of 
5000 ft. It flows west and south for a considerable distance 
before turning to the east. All the largest tributaries, including 
the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern 
slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the 
continent in 10 to 12 S. In the south-west the Zambezi 
system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from 
which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water 
of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is 
lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred 
in Lake Ngami, now dried up. Farther south the Limpopo 
drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the 
bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its 
source. The Rovuma, Rufiji, Tana, Juba and Webi Shebeli 
principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands, 
the last named losing itself in the sands in dose proximity to 
the sea. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the 
Abyssinian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the 
Gulf of Aden. Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and 
Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the 
centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the 



322 



AFRICA 



[GEOGRAPHY 



lakes in the great rift-valley. The largest river is the Omo, 
which, fed by the rains of the Abyssinian highlands, carries 
down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of 
Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths 
or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream. But when 
these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a 
network of navigable waters of vast extent. 

The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems, 
made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 1897, 
pp. 184-186) gives the following general results: 

Basin of the Atlantic .... 4,070,000 sq. m. 
Mediterranean . . . 1,680,000 
Indian Ocean . . . 2,086,000 

Inland drainage area 3,452,000 ,, 

The areas of individual river-basins are: 

Congo (length over 3000 m.) . . 1,425,000 sq. m. 
Nile ( fully 4000 m.) . . i,o82,ooo l 

Niger ( about 2600 m.) . . 8o8,ooo 2 
Zambezi ( 2000 m.) , . 513,5 . 

Lake Chad 394.ooo 

Orange (length about 1300 m.) . . 370,500" 
,, (actual drainage area) . . 172,500 ,, 

The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other 
river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage 
area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the 
corresponding area is 4,900,000 sq. m. 

The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the 
description of the East African plateau, but some of the pheno- 
mena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly 
here. As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great 
rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case 
with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the 
latter of which has depths of 430 fathoms. Others, however, 
are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in 
the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression 
north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the 
eastern rift-valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate 
depth, the deepest sounding in Victoria Nyanza being under 
50 fathoms. Apart from the seasonal variations of level, most 
of the lakes show periodic fluctuations, while a progressive 
desiccation of the whole region is said to be traceable, tending to 
the ultimate disappearance of the lakes. Such a drying up has 
been in progress during long geologic ages, but doubt exists as 
to its practical importance at the present time. The periodic 
fluctuations in the level of Lake Tanganyika are such that its 
outflow is intermittent. Besides the East African lakes the 
principal are: Lake Chad, in the northern area of inland 
drainage; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream 
of the Congo; and Leopold II. and Ntomba (Mantumba), 
within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, 
are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up. The 
altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated. 

Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin 
of the East African lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some 
geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, 
dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was 
under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated 
in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based 
on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine 
type. They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, &c., 
and were at first considered to form an isolated group found 
in no other of the African lakes; but this supposition has been 
proved to be erroneous. 

Islands. With one exception Madagascar the African 
islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 sq. m., 
is, after New Guinea and Borneo, the largest island of the world. 
It lies off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is 
separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 m. wide at its 
narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora 
and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern 
Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius 
and Reunion. Sokotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the 

1 The estimate of Capt. H. G. Lyons in 1905 was 1,107,227 sq. m. 

2 Including waterless tracts naturally belonging to the river-basin. 



north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes, 
which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of 
volcanic origin. 

Climate and Health. Lying almost entirely within the tropics, 
and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not 
show excessive variations of temperature. Great heat is ex- 
perienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, 
removed by the great width of the continent from the influence 
of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, 
and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the 
air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature 
in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther 
south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture 
brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large 
part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of 
temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea 
coast. In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm 
temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter 
and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the 
continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the 
surrounding ocean is more felt. The most important climatic 
differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The 
wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the 
corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an ex- 
ceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from 
the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the 
outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the 
heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the 
scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise 
tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of 
summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is 
vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the 
equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction 
of both tropics. The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat 
deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern 
conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and 
those of the south northwards along the west. Within the 
equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the 
Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified 
rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of 
the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coast- 
land west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual 
rainfall of about 390 in. as compared with a mean of 458 in. 
at Cherrapunji, in Assam. The two distinct rainy seasons of 
the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly 
intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction 
of the tropics, where the suii is overhead but once. Snow falls 
on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate 
is thoroughly Alpine. The countries bordering the Sahara are 
much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand, 
blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as 
the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called 
on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably 
hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold 
is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from 
the Kalahari in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons 
of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the south-east 
hurricanes are occasionally experienced. 

While the climate of the north and south, especially the south, 
is eminently healthy, and even the intensely heated Sahara is 
salubrious by reason of its dryness, the tropical zone as a whole 
is, for European races, the most unhealthy portion of the world. 
This is especially the case in the lower and moister regions, such 
as the west coast, where malarial fever is very prevalent and 
deadly; the most unfavourable factors being humidity with 
absence of climatic variation (daily or seasonal). The higher 
plateaus, where not only is the average temperature lower, but 
such variations are more extensive, are more healthy; and in 
certain localities (e.g. Abyssinia and parts of British East Africa) 
Europeans find the climate suitable for permanent residence. 
On tablelands over 6500 ft. above the sea, frost is not uncommon 
at night, even in places directly under the equator. 



FLORA AND FAUNA] 



AFRICA 



323 



acclimatization of white men in tropical Africa generally is 
dependent largely on the successful treatment of tropical diseases. 
Districts which had been notoriously deadly to Europeans 
were rendered comparatively healthy after the discovery, in 
1899, of the species of mosquito which propagates malarial 
fever, and the measures thereafter taken for its destruction and 
the filling up of swamps. The rate of mortality among the 
natives from tropical diseases is also high, one of the most fatal 
being that known as sleeping sickness. (The ravages of this 
disease, which also attacks Europeans, reached alarming pro- 
portions between 1893 and 1907, and in the last-named year 
an international conference was held in London to consider 
measures to combat it.) When removed to colder regions natives 
of the equatorial districts suffer greatly from chest complaints. 
Smallpox also makes great ravages among the negro population. 
Flora. The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the dis- 
tribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern 
temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent 
generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Medi- 
terranean are groves of oranges and olive trees, evergreen oaks, 
cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus 
and fragrant tree-heaths. South of the Atlas range the conditions 
alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, 
consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Charac- 
teristic of the Sahara is the date-palm, which flourishes where 
other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the 
semi-desert regions the acacia (whence is obtained gum-arabic) 
is abundant. The more humid regions have a richer vegetation 
dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of 
temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, 
and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension 
towards the upper Nile ; and savanna interspersed with trees on 
the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are 
approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, 
&c. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges 
up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree 
is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp 
character. The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition 
to a great variety of dicotyledonous trees, two palms, the Elaeis 
guincensis (oil-palm) and Raphia vinifera (bamboo-palm), not 
found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. The bombax 
or silk-cotton tree attains gigantic proportions in the forests, 
which are the home of the indiarubber-producing plants and of 
many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (Chlorophora 
excelsa), ebony, mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) , African teak or 
oak (Oldfieldia af rica.no) and camwood (Baphia nitida). The 
climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant 
and the undergrowth or " bush " is extremely dense. In the 
savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree 
or baobab (Adansonia digitala), doom palm (Hyphaene) and 
euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely 
separated places as Liberia and southern Abyssinia. The higher 
mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over 
wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain 
flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalayas and Indo- 
China (cf. A. Engler, fiber die Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen 

rfrika, 1892). 
In the swamp regions of north-east Africa the papyrus and 
associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in 
immense quantities and little else is found in the way of 
vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in 
the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, 
and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted 
species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succu- 
lent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable 
timber trees, such as the yellow pine (Podocarpus elongatus), 
stink wood (Ocolea), sneezewood or Cape ebony (Pteroxylon utile) 
and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found 
in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater 
part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very 
prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the 
plateaus of the Atlas range. 



Fauna. The fauna again shows the effect of the character- 
istics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of 
large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to 
Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild ass and four species of rhinoceros; 
and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyaena, &c. The 
okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense 
forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas 
region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though 
its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) 
is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being 
otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the 
chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few excep- 
tions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel as a 
domestic animal is especially characteristic of the northern 
deserts and steppes. 

The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and 
crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The. vast 
herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, 
have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the 
interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in 
South Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somali- 
land, &c., while measures for the protection of wild animals 
were laid down in an international convention signed in May 
1900. 

The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance 
to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which 
does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediter- 
ranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the 
ostrich and the secretary-bird. The ostrich is widely dispersed, 
but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The 
secretary-bird is common in the south. The weaver birds and 
their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as 
are, among game-birds, the francolin and guinea-fowl. Many of 
the smaller birds, such as the sun-birds, bee-eaters, the parrots 
and halcyons, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted 
for the brilliance of their plumage. Of reptiles the lizard and 
chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous 
serpents, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical 
countries. The scorpion is abundant. Of insects Africa has 
many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the pro- 
verbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites 
or white ants are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by 
means of mosquitoes has already been mentioned. The tsetse fly, 
whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many 
districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found 
nowhere outside Africa. (E. HE.; F. R. C.) 

II. GEOLOGY 

In shape and general geological structure Africa bears a close 
resemblance to India. Both possess a meridional extension with 
a broad east and west folded region in the north. In both a 
successive series of continental deposits, ranging from the Car- 
boniferous to the Rhaetic, rests on an older base of crystalline 
rocks. In the words of Professor Suess, " India and Africa are 
true plateau countries." 

Of the primitive axes of Africa few traces remain. Both on 
the east and west a broad zone of crystalline rocks extends parallel 
with the coast-line to form the margin of the elevated plateau of 
the interior. Occasionally the crystalline belt comes to the coast, 
but it is usually reached by two steps known as the coastal belt 
and foot-plateau. On the flanks of the primitive western axis 
certain ancient sedimentary strata are thrown into folds which 
were completed before the commencement of the mesozoic period. 
In the south, the later palaeozoic rocks are also thrown into acute 
folds by a movement acting from the south, and which ceased 
towards the close of the mesozoic period. In northern Africa the 
folded region of the Atlas belongs to the comparatively recent 
date of the Alpine system. None of these earth movements 
affected the interior, for here the continental mesozoic deposits 
rest, undisturbed by folding, on the primary sedimentary and 
crystalline rocks. The crystalline massif, therefore, presents a 
solid block which has remained elevated since early palaeozoic 



I 



324 



AFRICA 



[GEOLOGY 



times, and against which earth waves of several geological periods 
have broken. 

The formations older than the mesozoic are remarkably un- 
fossiliferous, so that the determination of their age is frequently 
a matter of speculation, and in the following table the European 
equivalents of the pre- Karroo formations in many regions must 
be regarded as subject to considerable revision. 

Rocks of Archean age cover wide areas in the interior, in 
West and East Africa and across the Sahara. Along the coastal 
margins they underlie the newer formations and appear in the 
deep valleys and kloofs wherever denudation has laid them bare. 
The prevailing types are granites, gneisses and schists. In the 
central regions the predominant strike of the foliae is north and 
south. The rocks, for convenience classed as pre-Cambrian, 
occur as several unconformable groups, chiefly developed in 
the south where alone their stratigraphy has been determined. 
They are unfossiliferous, and in the absence of undoubted 
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian strata in Africa they may be 
regarded as of older date than any of these formations. The 



Scale. 1 185,000.000 

English Miles 
> 500 



Recent depot/ft 
(Slot* * Sard Ontrtt) 



Cretaceous & Tertiary 
Congo Sandstones (A) 
Karroo & Jurassic (B) 



Palaeozoic 

Pre-Pataeoioic 

Uurtenburg. 4 Suiazi Schilts. Komi BftJS 

Katanga. Karayu* $*nl<oli Schists) 



Cnsist. granite, Scnistl 
Igneous 




general occurrence of jasper-bearing rocks is of interest, as 
these are always present in the ancient pressure-altered sedi- 
mentary formations of America and Europe. Some unfossili- 
ferous conglomerates, sandstones and dolomites in South Africa 
and on the west coast are considered to belong to the Cambrian, 
Ordovician and Silurian formations, but merely from their 
occurrence beneath strata yielding Devonian fossils. In Cape 
Colony the Silurian age of the Table Mountain Sandstone is 
based on such evidence. 

The Devonian and Carboniferous formations are well repre- 
sented in the north and south and in northern Angola. 

Up to the close of the palaeozoic period the relative positions 
of the ancient land masses and oceans remain unsolved; but 
the absence of marine strata of early palaeozoic age from Central 
Africa points to there being land in this direction. In late Car- 
boniferous times Africa and India were undoubtedly united to 
form a large continent, called by Suess Gondwana Land. In each 
country the same succession of the rocks is met with; over both 
the same specialized orders of reptiles roamedandwere entombed. 

The interior of the African portion of Gondwana Land was 
occupied by several large lakes in which an immense thickness 
amounting to over 18,000 ft. in South Africa of sandstones 
and marls, forming the Karroo system, was laid down. This is 



par excellence the African formation, and covers immense areas 
in South Africa and the Congo basin, with detached portions in 
East Africa. During the whole of the time Carboniferous to 
Rhaetic that this great accumulation of freshwater beds was 
taking place, the interior of the continent must have been 
undergoing depression. The commencement of the period was 
marked by one of the most wonderful episodes in the geological 
history of Africa. Preserved in the formation known as the 
Dwyka Conglomerate, are evidences that at this time the 
greater portion of South Africa was undergoing extreme glacia- 
tion, while the same conditions appear to have prevailed in India 






TABLE OF FORMATIONS 



Recent. 

Pleistocene. 

Pliocene. 
Miocene. 
Oligocene. 

Eocene. 
Cretaceous. 



(Jurassic. 



Trias. 



.Permian. 
Carboniferous. 

Devonian. 
Silurian. 
Ordovician. 
Cambrian. 

Pre-Cambrian. 
Archean. 



Sedimentary. 

Alluvium ; travertine ; 
coral; sand dunes; con- 
tinental dunes. Gener- 
ally distributed. 

Ancient alluviums and 
gravels ; travertine. 
Generally distributed. 

N. Africa; Madagascar. 

N. Africa. 
N. Africa. 



N. Africa, along east and 
west coasts; Madagas- 
car. 

Extensively developed in 
N. Africa; along coast 
and foot-plateaus in east 
and west ; Madagascar. 

N. Africa; E. Africa; 

Madagascar; Stormberg 

period (Rhaetic) in S. 

Africa. 
Beaufort Series in S. 

Africa ; Congo basin ; 

Central Africa; Algeria; 

Tunis. 
Ecca Series in S. Africa. 



Igneous. 



I Some volcanic islands; 
rift- valley volcanoes. 



A long-continued suc- 
cession in the cen- 
tral and northern 
regions and among 
the island groups. 
Doubtfully repre- 
sented south of the 
Zambezi. 



Diamond pipes of S. 
Africa ; Kaptian 
fissure eruptions; 
Ashangi traps of 
Abyssinia. 

^Chief volcanic period 
in S. Africa. 



Feebly, if anywhere 
- developed. 



N. Africa; Sabaki Shales 

in E. Africa; Dwyka 

and Witteberg Series in 

S. Africa. 
N. Africa; Angola; Bokke-'i M . 

veld Series [n S. Africa, f Not recorded 
Table Mountain Sandstone 

in S. Africa, Silurian(P). 

Doubtfully represented 

in N. Africa, French 

Congo, Angola, and by 

Vaal River and Water- 
berg Series in S. Africa. 
Quartzites, conglomerates, 

phyllites, jasper-bearing 

rocks and schists. Gener- 
ally distributed. 
Gneisses and schists of the 

continental platform. 



Klipriversberg an 
Ventersdorp Series 
of the Transvaal (?). 



S. Africa and gener- 
ally. 



Igneous complex of 
sheared igneous 
rocks; granites. 



and Australia. At the close of the Karroo period there was 
a remarkable manifestation of volcanic activity which again 
has its parallel in the Deccan traps of India. 

How far the Karroo formation extended beyond its present 
confines has not been determined. To the east it reached India. 
In the south all that can be said is that it extended to the south 
of Worcester in Cape Colony. The Crystal Mountains of Angola 
may represent its western boundary; while the absence of 
mesozoic strata beneath the Cretaceous rocks of the mid-Sahara 
indicates that the system of Karroo lakeland had here reached 
its most northerly extension. Towards the close of the Karroo 
period, possibly about the middle, the southern rim of the great 
central depression became ridged up to form the folded regions 
of the Zwaarteberg, Cedarberg and Langeberg mountains in 
Cape Colony. This folded belt gives Africa its abrupt southern 



ETHNOLOGY] 



AFRICA 



325 



termination, and may be regarded as an embryonic indication of 
its present outline. The exact date of the maximum develop- 
ment of this folding is unknown, but it had done its work and 
some 10,000 ft. of strata had been removed before the com- 
mencement of the Cretaceous period. It appears to approximate 
in time to the similar earth movement and denudation at the 
close of the palaeozoic period in Europe. It was doubtless 
connected with the disruption of Gondwana Land, since it is 
known that this great alteration of geographical outline com- 
menced in Jurassic times. 

The breaking up of Gondwana Land is usually considered 
to have been caused by a series of blocks of country being let 
down by faulting with the consequent formation of the Indian 
Ocean. Other blocks, termed horsts, remained unmoved, the 
island of Madagascar affording a striking example. In the 
African portion Ruwenzori is regarded by some geologists to be 
a block mountain or horst. 

In Jurassic times the sea gained access to East Africa north 
of Mozambique, but does not appear to have reached far beyond 
he foot-plateau except in Abyssinia. 

The Cretaceous seas appear to have extended into the central 
Saharan regions, for fossils of this age have been discovered in 
the interior. On the west coast Cretaceous rocks extend con- 
tinuously from Mogador to Cape Blanco. From here they are 
absent up to the Gabun river, where they commence to form a 
narrow fringe as far as the Kunene river, though often overlain 
by recent deposits. They are again absent up to the Sunday river 
in Cape Colony, where Lower Cretaceous rocks (for long con- 
sidered to be of Oolitic age) of an inshore character are met 
with. Strata of Upper Cretaceous age occur in Pondoland and 
Natal, and are of exceptional interest since the fossils show 
an intermingling of Pacific types with other forms having Euro- 
pean affinities. In Mozambique and in German East Africa, 
Cretaceous rocks extend from the coast to a distance inland of 
iver 100 m. 

Except in northern Africa, the Tertiary formations only occur 
a few isolated patches on the east and west coasts. In northern 
rica they are well developed and of much interest. They 
intain the well-known nummulitic limestone of Eocene age, 
hich has been traced from Egypt across Asia to China. The 
pper Eocene rocks of Egypt have also yielded primeval types 
if the Proboscidea and other mammalia. Evidences for the 
greater extension of the Eocene seas than was formerly con- 
sidered to be the case have been discovered around Sokoto. 
During Miocene times Passarge considers that the region of the 
mbezi underwent extreme desiccation. 

The effect of the Glacial epoch in Europe is shown in northern 
frica by the moraines of the higher Atlas, and the wider exten- 
on of the glaciers on Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Ruwenzori, and 
the extensive accumulations of gravel over the Sahara. 
The earliest signs of igneous activity in Africa are to be 
found in the granites, intrusive into the older rocks of the Cape 
peninsula, into those of the Transvaal, and into the gneisses 
and schists of Central Africa. The Ventersdorp boulder beds 
the Transvaal may be of early palaeozoic age; but as a whole 
e palaeozoic period in Africa was remarkably free from volcanic 
igneous disturbances. The close of the Stormberg period 
haetic) was one of great volcanic activity in South Africa, 
ilst the later Secondary and Tertiary formations were being 
laid down in North Africa and around the margins of the rest 
the continent, Africa received its last great accumulation of 
ta and at the same time underwent a consecutive series of 
rth-movements. The additional strata consist of the immense 
lantities of volcanic material on the plateau of East Africa, 
e basalt flows of West Africa and possibly those of the Zambezi 
in. The exact period of the commencement of volcanic 
tivity is unknown. In Abyssinia the Ashangi traps are cer- 
inly post-Oolitic. In East Africa the fissure eruptions are con- 
idered to belong to the Cretaceous. These early eruptions were 
illowed by those of Kenya, Mawenzi, Elgon, Chibcharagnani, 
id these by the eruptions of Kibo, Longonot, Suswa and 
16 Kyulu Mountains. The last phase of vulcanicity took 




place along the great meridional rifts of East Africa, and though 
feebly manifested has not entirely passed away. In northern 
Africa a continuous sequence of volcanic events has taken place 
from Eocene times to latest Tertiary; but in South Africa it is 
doubtful if there have been any intrusions later then Cretaceous. 

During this long continuance of vulcanicity, earth-movements 
were in progress. In the north the chief movements gave rise 
to the system of latitudinal folding and faulting of the Moroccan 
and Algerian Atlas, the last stages being represented by the 
formation of the Algerian and Moroccan coast-outline and the 
sundering of Europe from Africa at the Straits of Gibraltar. 
Whilst northern Africa was being folded, the East African 
plateau was broken up by a series of longitudinal rifts extending 
from Nyasaland to Egypt. The depressed areas contain the 
long, narrow, precipitously walled lakes of East Africa. The 
Red Sea also occupies a meridional trough. 

Lastly there are the recent elevations of the northern coastal 
regions, the Barbary coast and along the east coast. (W. G.*) 

III. ETHNOLOGY 

In attempting a review of the races and tribes which inhabit 
Africa, their distribution, movements and culture, it is advisable 
that three points be borne in mind. The first of these is the 
comparative absence of natural barriers in the interior, owing to 
which intercommunication between tribes, the dissemination of 
culture and tribal migration have been considerably facilitated. 
Hence the student must be prepared to find that, for the most 
part, there are no sharp divisions to mark the extent of the 
various races composing the population, but that the number of 
what may be termed " transitional " peoples is unusually large. 
The second point is that Africa, with the exception of the lower 
Nile valley and what is known as Roman Africa (see AFRICA, 
ROMAN), is, so far as its native inhabitants are concerned, a 
continent practically without a history, and possessing no records 
from which such a history might be reconstructed. The early 
movements of tribes, the routes by which they reached their 
present abodes, and the origin of such forms of culture as may be 
distinguished in the general mass of customs, beliefs, &c., are 
largely matters of conjecture. The negro is essentially the child 
of the moment; and his memory, both tribal and individual, is 
very short. The third point is that many theories which have 
been formulated with respect to such matters are unsatisfactory 
owing to the small amount of information concerning many of 
the tribes in the interior. 

Excluding the Europeans who have found a home in various 
parts of Africa, and the Asiatics, Chinese and natives of India 
introduced by them (see section History below), the 
population of Africa consists of the following elements: AMcaa 
the Bushman, the Negro, the Eastern Hamite, races. 
the Libyan and the Semite, from the intermingling 
of which in various proportions a vast number of " transi- 
tional " tribes has arisen. The Bushmen (?..), a race 
of short yellowish-brown nomad hunters, inhabited, in the 
earliest times of which there is historic knowledge, the land 
adjoining the southern and eastern borders of the Kalahari 
desert, into which they were gradually being forced by the 
encroachment of the Hottentots and Bantu tribes. But signs of 
their former presence are not wanting as far north as Lake 
Tanganyika, and even, it is rumoured, still farther north. With 
them may be classed provisionally the Hottentots, a pastoral 
people of medium stature and yellowish-brown complexion, who 
in early times shared with the Bushmen the whole of what is now 
Cape Colony. Though the racial affinities of the Hottentots have 
been disputed, the most satisfactory view on the whole is that 
they represent a blend of Bushman, Negroid and Hamitic 
elements. Practically the rest of Africa, from the southern fringe 
of the Sahara and the upper valley of the Nile to the Cape, with 
the exception of Abyssinia and Galla and Somali-lands, is peopled 
by Negroes and the " transitional " tribes to which their ad- 
mixture with Libyans on the north, and Semites (Arabs) and 
Hamites on the north-east and east, has given rise. A slight 
qualification of the last statement is necessary, in so far as, among 



326 



AFRICA 



[ETHNOLOGY 



the Fula in the western Sudan, and the Ba-Hima, &c., of the 
Victoria Nyanza, Libyan and Hamitic elements are respectively 
stronger than the Negroid. Of the tracts excepted, Abyssinia is 
inhabited mainly by Semito-Hamites (though a fairly strong 
negroid element can be found), and Somali and Galla-lands by 
Hamites. North of the Sahara in Algeria and Morocco are the 
Libyans (Berbers, <?..), a distinctively white people, who have in 
certain respects (e.g. religion) fallen under Arab influence. In 
the north-east the brown-skinned Karaite and the Semite mingle 
in varied proportions. The Negroid peoples, which inhabit the 
vast tracts of forest and savanna between the areas held by 
Bushmen to the south and the Hamites, Semites and Libyans to 
the north, fall into two groups divided by a line running from the 
Cameroon (Rio del Rey) crossing the Ubangi river below the 
bend and passing between the Ituri and the Semliki rivers, to 
Lake Albert and thence with a slight southerly trend to the coast. 
North of this line are the Negroes proper, south are the Bantu. 
The division is primarily philological. Among the true Negroes 
the greatest linguistic confusion prevails; for instance, in certain 
parts of Nigeria it is possible to find half-a-dozen villages within 
a comparatively small area speaking, not different dialects, but 
different languages, a fact which adds greatly to the difficulty of 
political administration. To the south of the line the condition 
of affairs is entirely different; here the entire population speaks 
one or another dialect of the Bantu Languages (q.v.). As said 
before, the division is primarily linguistic and, especially upon the 
border line, does not always correspond with the variations of 
physical type. At the same time it is extremely convenient 
and to a certain extent justifiable on physical and psycho- 
logical grounds; and it may be said roughly that while the 
linguistic uniformity of the Bantu is accompanied by great 
variation of physical type, the converse is in the main true of the 
Negro proper, especially where least affected by Libyan and 
Hamitic admixture, e.g. on the Guinea coast. The variation of 
type among the Bantu is due probably to a varying admixture of 
alien blood, which is more apparent as the east coast is approached. 
This foreign element cannot be identified with certainty, but 
since the Bantu seem to approach the Hamites in those points 
where they differ from the Negro proper, and since the physical 
characteristics of Hamites and Semites are very similar, it seems 
probable that the last two races have entered into the composi- 
tion of the Bantu, though it is highly improbable that Semitic 
influence should have permeated any distance from the east coast. 
An extremely interesting section of the population not hitherto 
mentioned is constituted by the Pygmy tribes inhabiting the 
densely forested regions along the equator from Uganda to the 
Gabun and living the life of nomadic hunters. The affinities of 
this little people are undecided, owing to the small amount of 
knowledge concerning them. The theories which connected them 
with the Bushmen do not seem to be correct. It is more probable 
that they are to be classed among the Negroids, with whom they 
appear to have intermingled to a certain extent in the upper basin 
of the Ituri, and perhaps elsewhere. As far as is known they 
speak no language peculiar to themselves but adopt that of the 
nearest agricultural tribe. They are of a dark brown complexion, 
with very broad noses, lips but slightly everted, and small but 
usually sturdy physique, though often considerably emaciated 
owing to insufficiency of food. Another peculiar tribe, also of 
short stature, are the Vaalpens of the steppe region of the north 
Transvaal. Practically nothing is known of them except that 
they are said to be very dark in colour and live in holes in the 
ground, and under rock shelters. 

Having indicated the chief races of which in various degrees 
of purity and intermixture the population of Africa is formed, 

it remains to consider them in greater detail, particu- 
ethttoiogi- larlv from the cultural standpoint. This is hardly 
cat zone*, possible without drawing attention to the main physical 

characters of the continent, as far as they affect 
the inhabitants. For ethnological purposes three principal zones 
may be distinguished; the first two are respectively a 
large region of steppes and desert in the north, and a smaller 
region of steppes and desert in the south. These two zones are 



connected by a vertical strip of grassy highland lying mainly 
to the east of the chain of great lakes. The third zone is a vast 
region of forest and rivers in the west centre, comprising the 
greater part of the basin of the Congo and the Guinea coast. 
The rainfall, which also has an important bearing upor the 
culture of peoples, will be found on the whole to be greatest in 
the third zone and also in the eastern highlands, and of course 
least in the desert, the steppes and savannas standing midway 
between the two. As might be expected these variations are 
accompanied by certain variations in culture. In the best- 
watered districts agriculture is naturally of the greatest import- 
ance, except where the density of the forest renders the work 
of clearing too arduous. The main portion therefore of the 
inhabitants of the forest zone are agriculturists, save only the 
nomad Pygmies, who live in the inmost recesses of the forest 
and support themselves by hunting the game, with which it 
abounds. Agriculture, too, flourishes in the eastern highlands, 
and throughout the greater part of the steppe and savanna 
region of the northern and southern zones, especially the latter. 
In fact the only Bantu tribes who are not agriculturists are the 
Ova-Herero of German South- West Africa, whose purely pastoral 
habits are the natural outcome of the barren country they in- 
habit. But the wide open plains and slopes surrounding the 
forest area are eminently suited to cattle-breeding, and there are 
few tribes who do not take advantage of the fact. At the same 
time a natural check is imposed upon the desire for cattle, 
which is so characteristic of the Bantu peoples. This is con- 
stituted by the tsetse fly, which renders a pastoral life absolutely 
impossible throughout large tracts in central and southern 
Africa. In the northern zone this check is absent, and the 
number of more essentially pastoral peoples, such as the eastern 
Hamites, Masai, Dinka, Fula, &c., correspondingly greater. 
The desert regions yield support only to nomadic peoples, such 
as the Tuareg, Tibbu, Bedouins and Bushmen, though the 
presence of numerous oases in the north renders the condition 
of life easier for the inhabitants. Upon geographical conditions 
likewise depend to a large extent the political conditions pre- 
vailing among the various tribes. Thus among the wandering 
tribes of the desert and of the heart of the forests, where large 
communities are impossible, a patriarchal system prevails with 
the family as the unit. Where the forest is less dense and small 
agricultural communities begin to make their appearance, the 
unit expands to the village with its headman. Where the forest 
thins to the savanna and steppe, and communication is easier, 
are found the larger kingdoms and " empires " such as, in the 
north those established by the Songhai, Hausa, Fula, Bagirmi, 
Ba-Hima, &c., and in the south the states of Lunda, Kazembe, 
the Ba-Rotse, &c. 

But if ease of communication is favourable to the rise of 
large states and the cultural progress that usually accompanies 
it, it is, nevertheless, often fatal to the very culture which, at 
first, it fostered, in so far as the absence of natural boundaries 
renders invasion easy. A good example of this is furnished by 
the history of the western Sudan and particularly of East and 
South-East Africa. From its geographical position Africa looks 
naturally to the east, and it is on this side that it has been most 
affected by external culture both by land (across the Sinaitic 
peninsula) and by sea. Though a certain amount of Indonesian 
and even aboriginal Indian influence has been traced in African 
ethnography, the people who have produced the most serious 
ethnic disturbances (apart from modern Europeans) are the 
Arabs. This is particularly the case in East Africa, where the 
systematic slave raids organized by them and carried out with 
the assistance of various warlike tribes reduced vast regions 
to a state of desolation. In the north and west of Africa, how- 
ever, the Arab has had a less destructive but more extensive 
and permanent influence in spreading the Mahommedan religion 
throughout the whole of the Sudan. 

The fact that the physical geography of Africa affords fewer 
natural obstacles to racial movements on the side most exposed 
to foreign influence, renders it obvious that the culture most 
characteristically African must be sought on the other side. 



ETHNOLOGY] 



AFRICA 



327 



It is therefore in the forests of the Congo, and among the lagoons 
and estuaries of the Guinea coast, that this earlier culture will 
The char- most probably be found. That there is a culture 
acteristic distinctive of this area, irrespective of the linguistic 
African ]j ne dividing the Bantu from the Negro proper, has 
now been recognized. Its main features may be 
summed as follows: a purely agricultural life, with the plan- 
tain, yam and manioc (the last two of American origin) as the 
staple food; cannibalism common; rectangular houses with 
ridged roofs; scar-tattooing; clothing of bark-cloth or palm-fibre; 
occasional chipping or extraction of upper incisors; bows with 
strings of cane, as the principal weapons, shields of wood or 
wickerwork; religion, a primitive form of fetishism with the 
belief that death is due to witchcraft; ordeals, secret societies, 
the use of masks and anthropomorphic figures, and wooden 
gongs. With this may be contrasted the culture of the Bantu 
peoples to the south and east, also agriculturists, but in addition, 
where possible, great cattle-breeders, whose staple food is millet 
and milk. These are distinguished by circular huts with domed 
or conical roofs; clothing of skin or leather; occasional chipping 
or extraction of lower incisors; spears as- the principal weapons, 
bows, where found, with a sinew cord, shields of hide or leather; 
religion, ancestor-worship with belief in the power of the 
magicians as rain-makers. Though this difference in culture 
may well be explained on the supposition that the first is the 
older and more representative of Africa, this theory must not 
be pushed too far. Many of the distinguishing characteristics 
of the two regions are doubtless due simply to environment, 
even the difference in religion. Ancestor-worship occurs most 
naturally among a people where tribal organization has reached 
a fairly advanced stage, and is the natural outcome of patriotic 
reverence for a successful chief and his councillors. Rain-making, 
too, is of little importance in a well-watered region, but a matter 
of vital interest to an agricultural people where the rainfall 
is slight and irregular. 

Within the eastern and southern Bantu area certain cultural 
variations occur; beehive huts are found among the Zulu- 
Xosa and Herero, giving place among the Bechuana to the 
cylindrical variety with conical roof, a type which, with few 
exceptions, extends north to Abyssinia. The tanged spear- 
head characteristic of the south is replaced by the socketed 
variety towards the north. Circumcision, characteristic of the 
Zulu-Xosa and Bechuana, is not practised by many tribes farther 
north; tooth-mutilation, on the contrary, is absent among the 
more southern tribes. The lip-plug is found in the eastern area, 
especially among the Nyasa tribes, but not in the south. The 
head-rest common in the south-east and the southern fringe of 
the forest area is not found far north of Tanganyika until the 
Horn of Africa is reached. 

In the regions outside the western area occupied by the Negro 
proper, exclusive of the upper Nile, the similarities of culture 
outweigh the differences. Here the cylindrical type of hut 
prevails; clothing is of skin or leather but is very scanty; iron 
ornaments are worn in profusion; arrows are not feathered; 
shields of hide, spears with leather sheaths are found and also 
fighting bracelets. Certain small differences appear between 
the eastern and western portions, the dividing line being formed 
by the boundary between Bornu and Hausaland. Characteristic 
of the east are the harp and the throwing-club and throwing- 
knife, the last of which has penetrated into the forest area. 
Typical of the west are the bow and the dagger with the ring 
hilt. The tribes of the upper Nile are somewhat specialized, 
though here, too, are found the cylindrical hut, iron ornaments, 
fighting bracelets, &c., characteristic of the Sudanese tribes. 
Here the removal of the lower incisors is common, and circum- 

I cision entirely absent. 

Throughout the rest of the Sudan is found Semitic culture 

introduced by the Arabized Libyan. Circumcision, as is usual 
among Mahommedan tribes, is universal, and tooth-mutilation 
absent; of other characteristics, the use of the sword has pene- 
trated to the northern portion of the forest area. The culture 
prevailing in the Horn of Africa is, naturally, mainly Hamito- 



Semitic; here are found both cylindrical and bee-hive huts, 
the sword (which has been adopted by the Masai to the south), 
the lyre (which has found its way to some of the Nilotic tribes) 
and the head-rest. Circumcision is practically universal. 

As has been said earlier, the history of Africa reaches back 
but a short distance, except, of course, as far as the lower Nile 
valley and Roman Africa is concerned; elsewhere no records 
exist, save tribal traditions, and these only relate to very recent 
events. Even archaeology, which can often sketch the main 
outlines of a people's history, is here practically powerless, 
owing to the insufficiency of data. It is true that stone imple- 
ments of palaeolithic and neolithic types are found sporadically 
in the Nile valley, Somaliland, on the Zambezi, in Cape Colony 
and the northern portions of the Congo Free State, as well as 
in Algeria and Tunisia; but the localities are far too few and 
too widely separated to warrant the inference that they are to 
be in any way connected. Moreover, where stone implements 
are found they are, as a rule, very near, even actually on, the 
surface of the earth; nothing occurs resembling the regular 
stratification of Europe, and consequently no argument based 
on geological grounds is possible. 

The lower Nile valley, however, forms an exception; flint 
implements of a palaeolithic type have been found near Thebes, 
not only on the surface of the ground, which for several thousand 
years has been desert owing to the contraction of the river-bed, 
but also in stratified gravel of an older date. References to a 
number of papers bearing on the discussion to which theii 
discovery has given rise may be found in an article by Mr H. R. 
Hall in Man, 1905, No. 19. The Egyptian and also the Somali- 
land finds appear to be true palaeoliths in type and remarkably 
similar to those found in Europe. But evidence bearing on the 
Stone age in Africa, if the latter existed apart from the localities 
mentioned, is so slight that little can be said save that from the 
available evidence the palaeoliths of the Nile valley alone can 
with any degree of certainty be assigned to a remote period of 
antiquity, and that the chips scattered over Mashonaland and 
the regions occupied within historic times by Bushmen are 
the most recent; since it has been shown that the stone flakes 
were used by the medieval Makalanga to engrave their hard 
pottery and the Bushmen were still using stone implements in 
the igth century. Other early remains, but of equally uncertain 
date, are the stone circles of Algeria, the Cross river and the 
Gambia. The large system of ruined forts and " cities " in 
Mashonaland, at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, concerning which so 
many ingenious theories have been woven, have been proved to 
date from medieval times. 

Thus while in Europe there is a Stone age, divided into periods 
according to various types of implement disposed in geological 
strata, and followed in orderly succession by the ages origin ana 
of Bronze and Iron, in Africa can be found no true spread of 
Stone age and practically no Bronze at all. The reason the racial 
is not far to seek; Africa is a country of iron, which is * 
found distributed widely throughout the continent in ores so 
rich that the metal can be extracted with very little trouble 
and by the simplest methods. Iron has been worked from 
time immemorial by the Negroid peoples, and whole tribes 
are found whose chief industry is the smelting and forging 
of the metal. Under such conditions, questions relating to the 
origin and spread of the racial stocks which form the population 
of Africa cannot be answered with any certainty; at best only a 
certain amount of probability can be attained. 

Five of these racial stocks have been mentioned: Bushman, 
Negro, Hamite, Semite, Libyan, the last three probably related 
through some common ancestor. Of these the honour of being 
considered the most truly African belongs to the two first. It 
is true that people of Negroid type are found elsewhere, princi- 
pally in Melanesia, but as yet their possible connexion with the 
African Negro is little more than theoretical, and for the present 
purposes it need not be considered. 

The origin of the Bushman is lost in obscurity, but he may be 
conceived as the original inhabitant of the southern portion of 
the continent. The original home of the Negro, at first an 



328 



AFRICA 



[ETHNOLOGY 



agriculturist, is most probably to be found in the neighbourhood 
of the great lakes, whence he penetrated along the fringe of the 
Sahara to the west and across the eastern highlands southward. 
Northerly expansion was prevented by the early occupation 
of the Nile valley, the only easy route to the Mediterranean, 
but there seems no doubt that the population of ancient Egypt 
contained a distinct Negroid element. The question as to the 
ethnic affinities of the pre-dynastic Egyptians is still unsolved; 
but they may be regarded as, in the main, Hamitic, though it is 
a question how far it is just to apply a name which implies a 
definite specialization in what may be comparatively modern 
times to a people of such antiquity. 

The Horn of Africa appears to have been the centre from 
which the Hamites spread, and the pressure they seem to have 
applied to the Negro tribes, themselves also in process of expan- 
sion, sent forth larger waves of emigrants from the latter. These 
emigrants, already affected by the Hamitic pastoral culture, 
and with a strain of Hamitic blood in their veins, passed rapidly 
down the open tract in the east, doubtless exterminating their 
predecessors, except such few as took refuge in the mountains 
and swamps. The advance-guard of this wave of pastoral 
Negroids, in fact primitive Bantu, mingled with the Bushmen 
and produced the Hottentots. The penetration of the forest 
area must certainly have taken longer and was probably accom- 
plished as much from the south-east, up the Zambezi valley, 
as from any other quarter. It was a more peaceful process, 
since natural obstacles are unfavourable to rapid movements of 
large bodies of immigrants, though not so serious as to prevent 
the spread of language and culture. A modern parallel to the 
spread of Bantu speech is found in the rise of the Hausa language, 
which is gradually enlarging its sphere of influence in the western 
and central Sudan. Thus those qualities, physical and otherwise, 
in which the Bantu approach the Hamites gradually fade as we 
proceed westward through the Congo basin, while in the east, 
among the tribes to the west of Tanganyika and on the upper 
Zambezi, " transitional " forms of culture are found. In later 
times this gradual pressure from the south-east became greater, 
and resulted, at a comparatively recent date, in the irruption of 
the Fang into the Gabun. 

The earlier stages of the southern movement must have been 
accompanied by a similar movement westward between the 
Sahara and the forest; and, probably, at the same time, or even 
earlier, the Libyans crossing the desert had begun to press upon 
the primitive Negroes from the north. In this way were produced 
the Fula, who mingled further with the Negro to give birth to 
the Mandingo, Wolof and Tukulor. It would appear that either 
Libyan (Fula) or, less probably, Hamitic, blood enters into the 
composition of the Zandeh peoples on the Nile-Congo watershed. 
These Libyans or Berbers, included by G. Sergi in his " Mediter- 
ranean Race," were active on the north coast of Africa in very 
early times, and had relations with the Egyptians from a pre- 
historic period. For long these movements continued, always 
in the same direction, from north to south and from east to 
west; though, of course, more rapid changes took place in the 
open country, especially in the great eastern highway from 
north to south, than in the forest area. Large states arose in 
the western Sudan; Ghana flourished in the yth century A.D., 
Melle in the nth, Songhai in the i4th, and Bornu in the i6th. 

Meanwhile in the east began the southerly movement of the 
Bechuana, which was probably .spread over a considerable 
period. Later than they, but proceeding faster, came the 
Zulu-Xosa (" Kaffir ") peoples, who followed a line nearer the 
coast and outflanked them, surrounding them on the south. 
Then followed a time of great ethnical confusion in South 
Africa, during which tribes flourished, split up and disappeared; 
but ere this the culture represented by the ruins in Rhodesia 
had waxed and waned. It is uncertain who were the builders of 
the forts and " cities," but it is not improbable that they may be 
found to have been early Bechuana. The Zulu-Xosa, Bechuana 
and Herero together form a group which may conveniently be 
termed " Southern Bantu." 

Finally began a movement hitherto unparalleled in the 



history of African migration; certain peoples of Zulu blood 
began to press north, spreading destruction in their wake. Of 
these the principal were the Matabele and Angoni. The move- 
ment continued as far as the Victoria Nyanza. Here, on the 
border-line of Negro, Bantu and Hamite, important changes 
had taken place. Certain of the Negro tribes had retired to 
the swamps of the Nile, and had become somewhat specialized, 
both physically and culturally (Shilluk, Dinka, Alur, Acholi, 
&c.). These had blended with the Hamites to produce such 
races as the Masai and kindred tribes. The old Kitwara empire, 
which comprised the plateau land between the Ruwenzori 
range and Kavirondo, had broken up into small states, usually 
governed by a Hamitic (Ba-Hima) aristocracy. The more 
extensive Zang (Zenj) empire, of which the name Zanzibar 
(Zanguebar) is a lasting memorial, extending along the sea-board 
from Somaliland to the Zambezi, was also extinct. The Arabs 
had established themselves firmly on the coast, and thence made 
continual slave-raids into the interior, penetrating later to the 
Congo. The Swahili, inhabiting the coast-line from the equator 
to about 16 S., are a somewhat heterogeneous mixture of Bantu 
with a tinge of Arab blood. 

In the neighbourhood of Victoria Nyanza, where Hamite, 
Bantu, Nilotic Negro and Pygmy are found in close contact, 
the ethnic relations of tribes are often puzzling, but the Bantu not 
under a Hamitic domination have been divided by F. Stuhlmann 
into the Older Bantu (Wanyamwezi, Wasukuma, Wasambara, 
Waseguha, Wasagara, Wasaramo, &c.) and the Bantu of Later 
Immigration (Wakikuyu, Wakamba, Wapokomo, Wataita, 
Wachaga, &c.), who are more strongly Hamitized and in many 
cases have adopted Masai customs. These peoples, from the 
Victoria Nyanza to the Zambezi, may conveniently be termed 
the " Eastern Bantu." 

Turning to the Congo basin in the south, the great Luba and 
Lunda peoples are found stretching nearly across the continent, 
the latter, from at any rate the end of the i6th century until the 
close of the igth century, more or less united under a single ruler, 
styled Muata Yanvo. These seem to have been the most recent 
immigrants from the south-east, and to exhibit certain affinities 
with the Barotse on the upper Zambezi. Among the western 
Baluba, or Bashilange, a remarkable politico-religious revolution 
took place at a comparatively recent date, initiated by a secret 
society termed Bena Riamba or " Sons of Hemp," and resulted 
in the subordination of the old fetishism to a cult of hemp, in 
accordance with which all hemp-smokers consider themselves 
brothers, and the duty of mutual hospitality, &c., is acknow- 
ledged. North of these, in the great bend of the Congo, are the 
Balolo, &c., the Balolo a nation of iron-workers; and westward, 
on the Kasai, the Bakuba, and a large number of tribes as yet 
imperfectly known. Farther west are the tribes of Angola, many 
of whom were included within the old " Congo empire," of which 
the kingdom of Loango was an offshoot. North of the latter lies 
the Gabun, with a large number of small tribes dominated by the 
Fang who are recent arrivals from the Congo. Farther to the 
north are the Bali and other tribes of the Cameroon, among whom 
many primitive Negroid elements begin to appear. Eastward 
are the Zandeh peoples of the Welle district (primitive Negroids 
with a Hamitic or, more probably, Libyan strain), with whom the 
Dor tribe of Nilotes on their eastern border show certain affinities; 
while to the west along the coast are the Guinea Negroes of 
primitive type. Here, amidst great linguistic confusion, may be 
distinguished the tribes of Yoruba speech in the Niger delta and 
the east portion of the Slave Coast; those of Ewe speech, in the 
western portion of the latter; and those of Ga and Tshi speech, 
on the Gold Coast. Among the last two groups respectively may 
be mentioned the Dahomi and Ashanti. Similar tribes are found 
along the coast to the Bissagos Islands, though the introduction 
in Sierra Leone and Liberia of settlements of repatriated slaves 
from the American plantations has in those places modified the 
original ethnic distribution. Leaving the forest zone and entering 
the more open country there are, on the north from the Niger 
to the Nile, a number of Negroids strongly tinged with Libyan 
blood and professing the Mahommedan religion. Such are the 



ETHNOLOGY] 



AFRICA 



329 



la Mada- 
gascar. 



Mandingo, the Songhai, the Fula, Hausa, Kanuri, Bagirmi 
Kanembu, and the peoples of Wadai and Darfur; the few 
aborigines who persist, on the southern fringe of the Chad basin, 
are imperfectly known. 

The island of Madagascar, belonging to the African continent, 
still remains for discussion. Here the ethnological conditions are 
Peculiar peculiar. Before the French occupation the dominant 
conditions people were the Hova, a Malayo-Indonesian people 
who must have come from the Malay Peninsula or the 
adjacent islands. The date of their immigration has been 
the subject of a good deal of dispute, but it may be argued that 
their arrival must have taken place in early times, since Malagasy 
ech, which is the language of the island, is principally Malayo- 
Polynesian in origin, and contains no traces of Sanskrit. Such 
traces, introduced with Hinduism, are present in all the cultivated 
languages'of Malaysia at the present day. The Hova occupy the 
able-land of Imerina and form the first of the three main groups 
a to which the population of Madagascar may be divided. They 
are short, of an olive-yellow complexion and have straight or 
"lintly wavy hair. On the east coast are the Malagasy, who in 
physical characteristics stand halfway between the Hova and the 
akalava, the last occupying the remaining portion of the island 
ind displaying almost pure Negroid characteristics. 

Though the Hova belong to a race naturally addicted to sea- 
iring, the contrary is the case respecting the Negroid population, 
id the presence of the latter in the island has been explained by 
supposition that they were imported by the Hova. Other 
authorities assign less antiquity to the Hova immigration and 
elieve that they found the Negroid tribes already in occupation 
r the island. 

As might be expected, the culture found in Madagascar con- 
ains two elements, Negroid and Malayo-Indonesian. The first of 
hese two shows certain affinities with the culture characteristic 
of the western area of Africa, such as rectangular huts, clothing of 
bark and palm- fibre, fetishism, &c., but cattle-breeding is found 
as well as agriculture. However, the Negroid tribes are more and 
more adopting the customs and mode of life of the Hova, among 
whom are found pile-houses, the sarong, fadi or tabu applied to 
food, a non-African form of bellows, &c., all characteristic of 
their original home. The Hova, during the igth century, em- 
braced Christianity, but retain, nevertheless, many of their old 
animistic beliefs; their original social organization in three 
classes, andriana or nobles, hova or freemen, and andevo or slaves, 
has been modified by the French, who have abolished kingship 
and slavery. An Arab infusion is also to be noticed, especially on 
he north-east and south-east coasts. 

It is impossible to give a complete list of the tribes inhabiting 
Africa, owing to the fact that the country is not fully explored. 
Even where the names of the tribes are known their ethnic 
relations are still a matter of uncertainty in many localities. 

The following list, therefore, must be regarded as purely tenta- 
:ive, and liable to correction in the light of fuller information: 

AFRICAN TRIBAL DISTRIBUTION 

LIBYANS 

(North Africa, excluding Egypt) 
Berbers, including 
Kabyles 
Mzab 
Shawia 
Tuareg 

LIBYO-NEGROW TRANSITIONAL 
Fula (West Sudan) 
Tibbu (Central Sudan) 

HA MITES 

(East Sudan and Horn of Africa) 
Beja, including 
Ababda 
Hadendoa 
Bisharin 
Beni-Amer 
Ham ran 



HA MITES continued 
(East Sudan and Horn of Africa) continued 

Galla 
Somali 

Danakil (Afar) 
Ba-Hima, including 

Wa-Tussi 

Wa-Hha 

Wa-Rundi 

Wa- Ruanda 

HA MITO-SEMITES 
Fellahin (Egypt) 
Abyssinians (with Negroid admixture) 

HAMITO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL 
Masai 
Wa-Kuafi 

NEGROID TRIBES 



West Sudan 
Tukulor 
Wolof 
Serer 
Leybu 
Mandingo, including- 

Kassonke 

Yallonke 

Sonink6 

Bambara 

Vei 

Susu 

Soli ma 

Malinke 

Probably also 

Mossi 

Borgu 
Tombo 
Gurma 
Gurunga 
Dagomba 
Mampursi 
Gonja S ^ 

&c. j 



Central Sudan 
Songhai 
Hausa 
Bagirmi 
Kanembu 
Kanuri 
Tama 
Maba 
Birkit 
Massalit 
Korunga 
Kabbaga 
&c. 



Fur 

Dago 

Kunjara 

Tegele 

Nuba 



Eastern 
Kargo 
Kulfan 
Kolaji 
Tumali 



-c 
.tJ c 



-- 

.^S S 



Zandeh Tribes 
(Akin to Nilotics, but 

probably with Fula 

element) 

Azandeh (Niam Niam) 
Makaraka 
Mundu 
Mangbettu 
Ababwa 
Mege 
Abisanga 



Allied are 
Banziri Languassi 
Ndris Wia-Wia 

Togbo Awaka 
&c. 



Khabunke 

Balanta 

Bagnori 

Bagnum 

Felup, including 

Ayamat 

"pla 
igush 
"aca 

Joat 

Karon 

Banyum 

Banjar 

Fulum 

Bayot 
&c. 
Bujagos 
Biafare 
Landuman 
Nalu 
Baga 
Sape 
Bulam 
Mendi 
Limba 
allina 
Timni 
Pessi 
ola 

Kondo 
3assa 
Kru 

rebo 

Awekwom 
Agni 
Juiu 



NEGROES 

West African Tribes 

Tribes of Tshi and Ga 

speech, including 

Ashanti 

Safwi 

Denkera 

Bekwai 

Nkoranza 

Adansi 

Assin 

Wassaw 

Ahanta 

Fanti 

Agona 

Akwapim 

Akim 

Akwamu 

Kwao 

Ga. 

Tribes of Elbe speech, 
including 

Dahomi 

Eweawo 

Agotine 

Krepi 

Avenor 

Awuna 

Agbosomi 

Aflao 

Ataklu 

Krikor 

Geng 

Attakpami 

Aja 

Ewemi 

Appa 



Tribes of Yoruba 
speech, including 

Yoruba 

Ibadan 

Ketu 

Egba 

Jebu 



Ode 

Hlorin 

Ijesa 

Ondo 

Mahin 

Bini 

Kakanda 

Wan 

Ibo 

Efik 
Andoni 
Kwa 
Ibibio 
Ekoi 
Inokun 
Akunakuna 
Munshi 
Ikwe 



330 



AFRICA 



[ETHNOLOGY 



NEGROES continued 



BANTU NEGROIDS continued 



Central Negroes 
Bolo 
Yako 
Tangala 
Kali 
Mishi 
Doma 
Mosgu, including 

Mandara 

Margi 

Logon 

Gamergu 

Keribina 
Yedina 
Kuri 

&c. 

Nilptics with affinity 
with Zandeh tribes 
Dor (Bongo) 

NEGRO-BANTU 
TRANSITIONAL 



Bali 

Ba-Kossi 

Ba-Ngwa 

Ba-Nyang 

Ngolo 

Ba-Fo 

Ba-Kundu 

Isubu 



Ba-Kwiri 

Abo 

Dualla 

Bassa 

Ba-Noko 

Ba-Puko 

Ba-Koko 



Eastern Negroes 
Pure Nilotic* 
Shilluk 
Nuer 
Dinka 
Jur (Diur) 
Mittu 
Jibbeh 
Madi 
Lendu 
Alur (Lur) 
Acholi 
Lango 
Abaka 
Golo 

Nilotics with affinity 
with Masai 
Latuka 
Bari 

NILOTIC-BANTU 
TRANSITIONAL 

Ja-Luo 



PYGMY TRIBES 
(Central Africa) 
Akka 
Ba-Mbute 
Ba-Bongo 
Ashango 
&c. 



Western 



Central 

Ba-Nunu 
Ba-Loi 
Ba-Teke 
Wa-Pfuru 
Wa-Mbundu 
Wa-Mfumu 
Ba-Nsinik 
Ma-Wumba 
Ma-Yakalla 
&c. 





BANTU NEGROIDS 




Western 


^Central Eastern 




Ogowe 


Luba-Lunda Group Lacustrjans 




Ashira 
Ishogo 
Ashango 

lit 1 * 


Ba-Luba, including Ba-Nyoro 
Ba-Songe Ba-Toro 
Wa-Rua Wa-Siba 




Bakalai 
Nkomi 
Orungu 


Wa-Guha Wa-Sinja 
Katanga Wa-Kerewe 
Ba-Shflange (with Wa-Shashi 




pongwe 


Ba-Kete ele- Wa-Rundi 




Oshekiani 


ment) Ba-Iro 




Benga 


Ba-Lunda Ba-Ganda 




Ininga 
Galao 


Probably connected Ba-Soga 
are .Ba-Kavirondo, includ- 


Apingi 
Okanda 


Manyema ing 
Ba-Kumu Awaware 




Osaka 
Aduma 
Mbamba 


Wa-Regga Awarimi 
Ba-Rotse, including Awakisii 
Ma-Mbunda &c. 




Umbete 

15. .!A 


Ma-Supia 




0BH 


Ma-Shukulumbwe 




Bane 
Yaunde 
Maka 
Bomone 


Ba-Tonga Bantu of Recent 

Va^aTe^ ***" 

Wa-Kikuyu 




Kunabembe 


Tribes of the Congo Wa-Kamba 




Fang (recent im- 


Bend Wa-Pokomo 




migrants from 
the Congo 


Ba-Kussu Wa-Duruma 
Ba-Tetela Wa-Digo 




group) 
&c. 


Ba-Songo Mino Wa-Giriama 
Ba-Kuba Wa-Taita 




Ba-Kongo, in- 

t J* 


Ba-Lolo Wa-Nyaturu 




eluding 
Mushi-Kongo 
Mussorongo 
Kabinda 
Ka-Kongo 
Ba-Vili 
Ma-Yumbe 


Ba-Kuti Wa-Iramba 
Ba-Mbala Wa-Mbugwe 
Ba-Huana Wa-Kaguru 
Ba-Yaka Wa-Goeo fP sslb . le 
Ba-Pindi Wa rhatra 1 'y* 831 
Ba-Kwese Wa-Cnaga Clement 

&c 


Ba-Lumbo 


Older Bantu 




Ba-Sundi 


Tribes of the Congo 




Ba-Bwende 


Bank Wa-Nyamwezi,includ- 


Ba-Lali 
Ba-Kunya 


Wa-Genia in g - 

Ia~Poto Wa-Sukuma 
MobaH Wa-Sumbwa 


il 




i connected ir \r* 
Ba-NgalaJ w i t i, Zan- Wa-Kimbu 


.22 




Wa-Buma 


II 



TRANSITIONAL 
FROM CENTRAL 
TO SOUTHERN 

BANTU 
Amboela 
Ganguela 
Kioko 
Minungo 
Imbangala 
Ba-Achinji 
Golo 
Hollo 

&c. 

Mbunda peoples in- 
cluding 

Bihe 

Dembo 

Mbaka 

Ngola 

Bondo 

Ba-Ngala 

Songo 

Haku 

Lubolo 

Kisama 
&c. 



Eastern 

Wa-Gunda 

Wa-Guru 

Wa-Galla 
Wa-Sambara 
Wa-Seguha 
Wa-Nguru 
Wa-Sagara 
Wa-Doe 
Wa-Khutu 
Wa-Saramo 
Wa-Hehe 
Wa-Bena 
Wa-Sanga 
Wa-Swahili (with 
elements) 

Connected are 
Wa-Kisi 
Wa-Mpoto 
Ba-Tonga 
Ba-Tumbuka 
Wa-Nyika 
Wa- Nyamwanga 
A-Mambwe 
Wa-Fipa 
Wa-Rungu 
A-Wemba 
A-Chewa 
A-Maravi 
Ba-Senga 
Ba-Bisa 
A-Jawa (Yaos) 
Wa-Mwera 
Wa-Gindo 
Ma-Konde 
Ma-Wia 
Ma-Nganja 
Ma-Kua 



Arab 



SOUTHERN BANTU 
(South and South-East Africa) 



Ba-Nyai 
Ma-Kalanga, 

including j-^. 
Mashona 
Ba-Ronga 

Be-Chuana, 'includ- 
ing 

Ba-Tlapin 

Ba-Rolong 

Ba-Ratlou 

Ba-Taung 

Ba-Rapulana 

Ba-Seleka 

Ba-Hurutsi 

Ba-Tlaru 

Ba-Mangwato 

Ba-Tauana 

Ba-Ngwaketse 

Ba-Kuena 
&c. 

HAMITO-BANTU 

BUSHMAN 
TRANSITIONAL 

Hottentots, in-T 

eluding [_ S. W. 



Ama-Zulu, including 

Ama-Swazi 

Ama-Tonga 

Matabele 

Angoni 

Ma-Gwangwara 

Ma-Huhu 

Ma-Viti 

Ma-Situ 

Ma-Henge 

&c. 
Ama-Xosa, including 

Ama-Gcaleka 

Ama-Hahabe 

Ama-Ngqika 

Ama-Tembu 

Ama-Pondo 

&c. 

Ova-Herero 
Ova-Mpo 



BUSHMEN 



Namaqua 
Koranna 



| Africa . 
TRIBES IN MADAGASCAR 



MALA YO-INDONESIANS 

Hova 

Betsileo (slight Bantu admixture) 

HOVA-BANTU 
TRANSITIONAL 

Malagasy, including 

Bestimisaraka Antanosi 
Antambahoaka Antsihanaka 
Antaimoro Antanala 

Antaifasina Antaisara 

Antaisaka &c. 



BANTU-NEGROIDS 

Sakalava, including 
Menabe 
Milaka 
Ronondra 
Mahafali 
&c. 



(T. A. J.) 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



IV. HISTORY 

The origin and meaning of the name of the continent are 
discussed elsewhere (see AFRICA, ROMAN). The word Africa was 
applied originally to the country in the immediate neighbour- 
hood of Carthage, that part of the continent first known to the 
Romans, and it was subsequently extended with their increas- 
ing knowledge, till it came at last to include all that they knew 
of the continent. The Arabs still confine the name Ifrikia to the 
territory of Tunisia. 

The valley of the lower Nile was the home in remotest antiquity 
of a civilized race. Egyptian culture had, however, remarkably 
Phoenician little direct influence on the rest of the continent, a 
and Greek result due in large measure to the fact that Egypt is 
coiooiza- s h ut o g landwards by immense deserts. If ancient 
Egypt and Ethiopia (q.v.) be excluded, the story of 
Africa is largely a record of the doings of its Asiatic and 
European conquerors and colonizers, Abyssinia being the 
only state which throughout historic times has maintained its 
independence. The countries bordering the Mediterranean were 
first exploited by the Phoenicians, whose earliest settlements 
were made before 1000 B.C. Carthage, founded about 800 B.C., 
speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean, 
and the Phoenicians, subduing the Berber tribes, who then as 
now formed the bulk of the population, became masters of all 
the habitable region of North Africa west of the Great Syrtis, 
and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity. Both 
Egyptians and Carthaginians made attempts to reach the un- 
known parts of the continent by sea. Herodotus relates that an 
expedition under Phoenician navigators, employed by Necho, 
king of Egypt, c. 600 B.C., circumnavigated Africa from the Red 
Sea to the Mediterranean, a voyage stated to have been accom- 
plished in three years. Apart from the reported circumnaviga- 
tion of the continent, the west coast was well known to the 
Phoenicians as far as Cape Nun, and c. 520 B.C. Hanno, a Cartha- 
ginian, explored the coast as far, perhaps, as the Bight of Benin, 
certainly as far as Sierra Leone. A vague knowledge of the 
Niger regions was also possessed by the Phoenicians. 

Meantime the first European colonists had planted themselves 
in Africa. At the point where the continent approaches nearest 
the Greek islands, Greeks founded the city of Cyrene (c. 631 B.C.). 
Cyrenaica became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in 
on all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on 
inner Africa. The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence 
in Egypt. To Alexander the Great the city of Alexandria owes 
its foundation (332 B.C.), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of 
the Ptolemies attempts were made to penetrate southward, and 
in this way was obtained some knowledge of Abyssinia. Neither 
Cyrenaica nor Egypt was a serious rival to the Carthaginians, 
but all three powers were eventually supplanted by the Romans. 
After centuries of rivalry for supremacy 1 the struggle was 
ended by the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C. Within little more 
than a century from that date Egypt and Cyrene had become 
incorporated in the Roman empire. Under Rome the settled 
portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain 
was introduced into the land. Though Fezzan was occupied by 
them, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable 
barrier. Nubia and Abyssinia were reached, but an expedition 
sent by the emperor Nero to discover the source of the Nile 
ended in failure. The utmost extent of geographical knowledge 
of the continent is shown in the writings of Ptolemy (2nd century 
A.D.), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake 
reservoirs of the Nile and had heard of the river Niger. Still 
Africa for the civilized world remained simply the countries 
bordering the Mediterranean. The continual struggle between 
Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity 
and the glories and sufferings of the Egyptian and African 
Churches; the invasion and conquest of the African provinces 

1 Commercial treaties between Carthage and Rome were made 
in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The first armed conflict between 
the rival powers, begun in 264 B.C., was a contest for the possession 
of Sicily. 



by the Vandals in the sth century; the passing of the supreme 
power in the following century to the Byzantine empire all 
these events are told fully elsewhere. 

In the 7th century of the Christian era occurred an event 
destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent. 
Invading first Egypt, an Arab host, fanatical believers Nortll 
in the new faith of Mahommed, conquered the whole Africa 
country from the Red Sea to the Atlantic and carried conquered 
the Crescent into Spain. Throughout North Africa ^*" 
Christianity well-nigh disappeared, save in Egypt 
(where the Coptic Church was suffered to exist), and Upper 
Nubia and Abyssinia, which were not subdued by the Moslems. 
In the Sth, o,th and loth centuries the Arabs in Africa were 
numerically weak; they held the countries they had conquered 
by the sword only, but in the nth century there was a great 
Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of Berber 
blood. Even before this the Berbers had very generally adopted 
the speech and religion of their conquerors. Arab influence and 
the Mahommedan religion thus became indelibly stamped on 
northern Africa. Together they spread southward across the 
Sahara. They also became firmly established along the eastern 
sea-board, where Arabs, Persians and Indians planted flourishing 
colonies, such as Mombasa, Malindi and Sofala, playing a r61e, 
maritime and commercial, analogous to that filled in earlier 
centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern sea-board. Of 
these eastern cities and states both Europe and the Arabs of 
North Africa were long ignorant. 

The first Arab invaders had recognized the authority of the 
caliphs of Bagdad, and the Aghlabite dynasty founded by 
Aghlab, one of Haroun al Raschid's generals, at the close of the 
Sth century ruled as vassals of the caliphate. However, early 
in the roth century the Fatimite dynasty established itself in 
Egypt, where Cairo had been founded A.D. 968, and from there 
ruled as far west as the Atlantic. Later still arose other dynasties 
such as the Almoravides and Almohades. Eventually 
the Turks, who had conquered Constantinople in 1453, an o7<Ae 
and had seized Egypt in 1 5 1 7 , established the regencies Turks. 
of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli (between 1519 and 
1551), Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state 
under the Sharifan dynasty, which had its beginnings at the end 
of the 1 3th century. Under the earlier dynasties Arabian or 
Moorish culture had attained a high degree of excellence, while 
the spirit of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers 
of Islam led to a considerable extension of the knowledge of the 
continent. This was rendered more easy by their use of the 
camel (first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors of 
Egypt), .which enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert. In 
this way Senegambia and the middle Niger regions fell under 
the influence of the Arabs and Berbers, but it was not until 1591 
that Timbuktu a city founded in the nth century became 
Moslem. That city had been reached in 1352 by the great Arab 
traveller Ibn Batuta, to whose journey to Mombasa and Quiloa 
(Kilwa) was due the first accurate knowledge of those flourishing 
Moslem cities on the east African sea-boards. Except along this 
sea-board, which was colonized directly from Asia, Arab progress 
southward was stopped by the broad belt of dense forest which, 
stretching almost across the continent somewhat south of ioN., 
barred their advance as effectually as had the Sahara that of 
their predecessors, and cut them off from knowledge of the 
Guinea coast and of all Africa beyond. One of the regions which 
came latest under Arab control was that of Nubia, where a 
Christian civilization and state existed up to the I4th century. 

For a time the Moslem conquests in South Europe had virtually 
made of the Mediterranean an Arab lake, but the expulsion in 
the nth century of the Saracens from Sicily and southern Italy 
by the Normans was followed by descents of the conquerors on 
Tunisia and Tripoli. Somewhat later a busy trade with the 
African coast-lands, and especially with Egypt, was developed 
by Venice, Pisa, Genoa and other cities of North Italy. By the 
end of the isth century Spain had completely thrown off the 
Moslem yoke, but even while the Moors were still in Granada, 
Portugal was strong enough to carry the' war into Africa. 



332 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



In 1415 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of Ceuta on the 
Moorish coast. From that time onward Portugal repeatedly 
s aiaand interfered in the affairs of Morocco, while Spain ac- 
Portugai quired many ports in Algeria and Tunisia. Portugal, 
invade the however, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at al Kasr 

al Kebir> the Moors bein S led bv Abd el Mal ek I. of 
the then recently established Sharifan dynasty. By that 
time the Spaniards had lost almost all their African possessions. 
The Barbary states, primarily from the example of the Moors 
expelled from Spain, degenerated into mere communities of 
pirates, and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce 
declined. The story of these states from the beginning of the 
i6th century to the third decade of the ipth century is largely 
made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual 
reprisals on the other. In Algiers, Tunis and other cities were 
thousands of Christian slaves. 

But with the battle of Ceuta Africa had ceased to belong solely 
to the Mediterranean world. Among those who fought there was 
one, Prince Henry " the Navigator," son of King 
J onn !> w h was fired with the ambition to acquire 
for Portugal the unknown parts of Africa. Under his 
Coast inspiration and direction was begun that series of 
^e slave vova S es f exploration which resulted in the circum- 
trade. navigation of Africa and the establishment of Portu- 
guese sovereignty over large areas of the coast-lands. 
Cape Bojador was doubled in 1434, Cape Verde in 1445, and by 
1480 the whole Guinea coast was known. In 1482 Diogo Cam 
or Cao discovered the mouth of the Congo, the Cape of Good 
Hope was doubled by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, and in 1498 
Vasco da Gama, after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east 
coast, touched at Sofala and Malindi, and went thence to India. 
Over all the countries discovered by their navigators Portugal 
claimed sovereign rights, but these were not exercised in the ex- 
treme south of the continent. The Guinea coast, as the first dis- 
covered and the nearest to Europe, was first exploited. Numerous 
forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being Sao 
Jorge da Mina (Elmina), begun in 1482. The chief commodities 
dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The discovery of 
America (1492) was followed by a great development of the slave 
trade, which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland 
trade almost exclusively confined to Mahommedan Africa. The 
lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of alluvial 
gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea 
coast. English mariners went thither as early as 1553, and they 
were followed by Spaniards, Dutch, French, Danish and other 
adventurers. Much of Senegambia was made known as a result 
of quests during the i6th century for the " hills of gold " in 
Bambuk and the fabled wealth of Timbuktu, but the middle 
Niger was not reached. The supremacy along the coast passed in 
the 1 7th century from Portugal to Holland and from Holland 
in the i8th and igth centuries to France and England. The 
whole coast from Senegal to Lagos was dotted with forts and 
" factories " of rival powers, and this international patchwork 
persists though all the hinterland has become either French or 
British territory. 

Southward from the mouth of the Congo 1 to the inhospit- 
able region of Damaraland, the Portuguese, from 1491 onward, 
acquired influence over the Bantu-Negro inhabitants, and in the 
early part of the i6th century through their efforts Christianity 
was largely adopted in the native kingdom of Congo. An irrup- 
tion of cannibals from the interior later in the same century broke 
the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity 
was transferred to a great extent farther south, Sao Paulo de 
Loanda being founded in 1 576. The sovereignty of Portugal over 
this coast region, except for the mouth of the Congo, has been 
once only challenged by a European power, and that was in 1640- 
1648, when the Dutch held the seaports. 

Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited 
regions of South Africa, the Portuguese no sooner discovered 

1 This river was called by the Portuguese the Zaire. They appear 
to have made no attempt to trace its course beyond the rapids which 
stop navigation from the sea. 



than they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples 
between Sofala and Cape Guardafui. By 15 20 all these Moslem 
sultanates had been seized by Portugal, Mozambique The 
being chosen as the chief city of her East African Portuguese 
possessions. Nor was Portuguese activity confined to in 
the coast-lands. The lower and middle Zambezi valley 
was explored (i6th and i7th centuries), and here the 
Portuguese found semi-civilized Bantu-Negro tribes, who had 
been for many years in contact with the coast Arabs. Strenuous 
efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modem 
Rhodesia) known to them as the kingdom or empire of Monomo- 
tapa, where gold had been worked by the natives from about the 
1 2th century A.D., and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese 
dispossessed, were still obtaining supplies in the i6th century. 
Several expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward 
and considerable quantities of gold were obtained. Portugal's 
hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during the 
I7th century, and in the middle of the i8th century ceased with 
the abandonment of the forts in the Manica district. 

At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a 
strong influence in Abyssinia also. In the ruler of Abyssinia (to 
whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before 
Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined 
they had found the legendary Christian king, Prester John, and 
when the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the 
Christian religion was imminent by the victories of Mahommedan 
invaders, the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under Christo- 
pher da Gama during 1541-1543 turned the scale in favour of 
Abyssinia and had thus an enduring result on the future of North- 
East Africa. After da Gama's time Portuguese Jesuits resorted 
to Abyssinia. While they failed in their efforts to convert the 
Abyssinians to Roman Catholicism they acquired an extensive 
knowledge of the country. Pedro Paez in 1615, and, ten years 
later, Jeronimo Lobo, both visited the sources of the Blue Nile. 
In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were 
expelled from the Abyssinian dominions. At this time Portu- 
guese influence on the Zanzibar coast was waning before the 
power of the Arabs of Muscat, and by 1 730 no point on the east 
coast north of Cape Delgado was held by Portugal. 

It has been seen that Portugal took no steps to acquire the 
southern part of the continent. To the Portuguese the Cape of 
Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to 
India, and mariners of other nations who followed in ^ Dutch 
their wake used Table Bay only as a convenient spot at Table 
wherein to refit on their voyage to the East. By the Bay Cape 
beginning of the i7th century the bay was much re- /J^^d 
sorted to for this purpose, chiefly by English and Dutch 
vessels. In 1620, with the object of forestalling the Dutch, two 
officers of the East India Contpany, on their own initiative, 
took possession of Table Bay in the name of King James, fearing 
otherwise that English ships would be " frustrated of watering 
but by license." Their action was not approved in London 
and the proclamation they issued remained without effect. 
The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the English. On the 
advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked in Table Bay the 
Netherlands East India Company, in 1651, sent out a fleet of three 
small vessels under Jan van Riebeek which reached Table Bay on 
the 6th of April 1652, when, 164 years after its discovery, the 
first permanent white settlement was made in South Africa. The 
Portuguese, whose power in Africa was already waning, were not 
in a position to interfere with the Dutch plans, and England was 
content to seize the island of St Helena as her half-way house to 
the East. 2 In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not 
intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the 
most westerly outpost of the Dutch East Indies. Nevertheless, 
despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable rivers, 
the Dutch colonists, freed from any apprehension of European 
trouble by the friendship between Great Britain and Holland, 
and leavened by Huguenot blood, gradually spread northward, 

1 France acquired, as stations for her ships on the voyage to and 
from India, settlements in Madagascar and the neighbouring islands. 
The first settlement was made in 1642. 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



333 



Waning 
and 

revival of 
Interest 
in Africa. 



stamping their language, law and religion indelibly upon South 
Africa. This process, however, was exceedingly slow. 

During the i8th century there is little to record in the history 
of Africa. The nations of Europe, engaged in the later half of the 
century in almost constant warfare, and struggling for 
supremacy in America and the East, to a large extent 
lost their interest in the continent. Only on the west 
coast was there keen rivalry, and here the motive was 
the securance of trade rather than territorial acqui- 
sitions. In this century the slave trade reached its highest de- 
velopment, the trade in gold, ivory, gum and spices being small 
in comparison. In the interior of the continent Portugal's 
energy being expended no interest was shown, the nations with 
establishments on the coast " taking no further notice of the 
inhabitants or their land than to obtain at the easiest rate what 
they procure with as little trouble as possible, or to carry them off 
for slaves to their plantations in America " (Encyclopaedia Britan- 
nica, 3rd ed., 1797). Even the scanty knowledge acquired by the 
ancients and the Arabs was in the main forgotten or disbelieved. 
It was the period when 

Geographers, in Afric maps, 
With savage pictures filled their gaps, 
And o'er unhabitable downs 
Placed elephants for want of towns. 

(Poetry, a Rhapsody. By Jonathan Swift.) 

The prevailing ignorance may be gauged by the statement in the 
third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica that " the Gambia 
and Senega] rivers are only branches of the Niger." But the 
closing years of the i8th century, which witnessed the partial 
awakening of the public conscience of Europe to the iniquities 
of the slave trade, weie also notable for the revival of interest 
in inner Africa. A society, the African Association, 1 was formed 
in London in 1788 for the exploration of the interior of the 
continent. The era of great discoveries had begun a little earlier 
in the famous journey (1770-1772) of James Bruce through 
Abyssinia and Sennar, during which he determined the course 
of the Blue Nile. But it was through the agents of the African 
Association that knowledge was gained of the Niger regions. 
The Niger itself was first reached by Mungo Park, who travelled 
by way of the Gambia, in 1795. Park, on a second journey in 
1805, passed Timbuktu and descended the Niger to Bussa, where 
he lost his life, having just failed to solve the question as to where 
the river reached the ocean. (This problem was ultimately 
solved by Richard Lander and his brother in 1830.) The first 
scientific explorer of South-East Africa, Dr Francisco de Lacerda, 
a Portuguese, also lost his life in that country. Lacerda travelled 
up the Zambezi to Tete, going thence towards Lake Mweru, near 
which he died in 1798. The first recorded crossing of Africa was 
accomplished between the years 1802 and 1811 by two half-caste 
Portuguese traders, Pedro Baptista and A. Jose, who passed from 
Angola eastward to the Zambezi. 

Although the Napoleonic wars distracted the attention of 
Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless 
Effects exercised great influence on the future of the con- 
ofthe tinent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupa- 
Napoieoaic tion of Egypt (1798-1803) first by France and then 
BriMn by Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to 
seizes the re S a in direct control over that country, 2 followed in 
Cape. 1811 by the establishment under Mehemet Ali of an 
almost independent state, and the extension of Egyp- 
tian rule over the eastern Sudan (from 1820 onward). In South 
Africa the struggle with Napoleon caused Great Britain to 
take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1814 
Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British 
troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown. 

The close of the European conflicts with the battle of Waterloo 
was followed by vigorous efforts on the part of the British govern- 
ment to become better acquainted with Africa, and to substitute 
olonization and legitimate trade for the slave traffic, declared 
SocieT 6 Association ' in I8 3 T ' was merged in the Royal Geographical 

T 
u 



The Mamelukes whom the Turks had overthrown in the l6th 
ury, had regained practically independent power. 



illegal for British subjects in 1807 and abolished by all other 
European powers by 1836. To West Africa Britain devoted 
much attention. The slave trade abolitionists had already, 
in 1788, formed a settlement at Sierra Leone, on the Guinea 
coast, for freed slaves, and from this establishment grew the 
colony of Sierra Leone, long notorious, by reason of its deadly 
climate, as " The White Man's Grave." 3 Farther east the 
establishments on the Gold Coast began to take a part in the 
politics of the interior, and the first British mission to Kumasi, 
despatched in 1817, led to the assumption of a protectorate 
over the maritime tribes heretofore governed by the Ashanti. 

An expedition sent in 1816 to explore the Congo from its 
mouth did not succeed in getting beyond the rapids which bar 
the way to the interior, but in the central Sudan much better 
results were obtained. In 1823 three English travellers, Walter 
Oudney, Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton, reached Lake 
Chad from Tripoli the first white men to reach that lake. The 
partial exploration of Bornu and the Hausa states by Clapperton, 
which followed, revealed the existence of large and nourishing 
cities and a semi-civilized people in a region hitherto unknown. 
The discovery in 1830 of the mouth of the Niger by Clapperton's 
servant Lander, already mentioned, had been preceded by the 
journeys of Major A. G. Laing (1826) and Rene Caillie (1827) to 
Timbuktu, and was followed (1832-1833) by the partial ascent of 
the Benue affluent of the Niger by MacGregor Laird. In 1841 
a disastrous attempt was made to plant a white colony on the 
lower Niger, an expedition (largely philanthropic and anti- 
slavery in its inception) which ended in utter failure. Never- 
theless from that time British traders remained on the lower 
Niger, their continued presence leading ultimately to the acquisi- 
tion of political rights over the delta and the Hausa states by 
Great Britain. 4 Another endeavour by the British government 
to open up commercial relations with the Niger countries resulted 
in the addition of a vast amount of information concerning the 
countries between Timbuktu and Lake Chad, owing to the labours 
of Heinrich Earth (1850-1855), originally a subordinate, but the 
only surviving member of the expedition sent out. 

Meantime considerable changes had been made in other parts 
of the continent, the most notable being the occupation of 
Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the 
piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued 
expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent 
additions to the knowledge of the Nile; and the establishment 
of independent states (Orange Free State and the Transvaal) 
by Dutch farmers (Boers) dissatisfied with British rule in Cape 
Colony. Natal, so named by Vasco da Gama, had been made 
a British colony (1843), the attempt of the Boers to acquire it 
being frustrated. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that 
name, founded in 1832 by Seyyid Said of Muscat, rapidly attained 
importance, and Arabs began to penetrate to the great lakes of 
East Africa, 6 concerning which little more was known (and less 
believed) than in the time of Ptolemy. Accounts of a vast inland 
sea, and the discovery in 1848-1849, by the missionaries Ludwig 
Krapf and J. Rebmann, of the snow-clad mountains of Kili- 
manjaro and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further 
inowledge. 

At this period, the middle of the ipth century, Protestant 
missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea 
coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. 
Their work, largely beneficent, was being conducted Theera 
n regions and among peoples little known, and in explorers. 
nany instances missionaries turned explorers and 
secame pioneers of trade and empire. One of the first to 
ittempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the map was 
David Livingstone, who had been engaged since 1 840 in missionary 
work north of the Orange. In 1849 Livingstone crossed the 
Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami. 

3 In imitation of the British example, an American society 
ounded in 1822 the negro colony (now republic) of Liberia. 

4 The first territorial acquisition made by Great Britain in this 
egion was in 1851, when Lagos Island was annexed. 

6 As early as 1848 an Arab from Zanzibar journeying across the 
continent had arrived at Benguella. 



334 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



and between 1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from 
west to east, making known the great waterways of the upper 
Zambezi. During these journeyings Livingstone discovered, 
November 1855, the famous Victoria Falls, so named after the 
queen of England. In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the Shire 
and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having 
been first reached by the confidential slave of Antonio da Silva 
Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bihe in Angola, who 
crossed Africa during 1853-1856 from Benguella to the mouth of 
the Rovuma. While Livingstone circumnavigated Nyasa, the 
more northerly lake, Tanganyika, had been visited (1858) by 
Richard Burton and J. H. Speke, and the last named had sighted 
Victoria Nyanza. Returning to East Africa with J. A. Grant, 
Speke reached, in 1862, the river which flowed from Victoria 
Nyanza, and following it (in the main) down to Egypt, had the 
distinction of being the first man to read the riddle of the Nile. 
In 1864 another Nile explorer, Samuel Baker, discovered the 
Albert Nyanza, the chief western reservoir of the river. In 1866 
Livingstone began his last great journey, in which he made known 
Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and discovered the Lualaba (the 
upper part of the Congo), but died (1873) before he had been 
able to demonstrate its ultimate course, believing indeed that 
the Lualaba belonged to the Nile system. Livingstone's lonely 
death in the heart of Africa evoked a keener desire than ever 
to complete the work he left undone. H. M. Stanley, who had 
in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone, started 
again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in the most memorable of all 
exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza 
and Tanganyika, and, striking farther inland to the Lualaba, 
followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean reached in 
August 1877 and proved it to be the Congo. Stanley had been 
preceded, in 1874, at Nyangwe, Livingstone's farthest point on 
the Lualaba, by Lovett Cameron, who was, however, unable 
farther to explore its course, making his way to the west coast 
by a route south of the Congo. 

While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved 
explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. 
Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed 
in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Gerhard Rohlfs, 
Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers 
not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but 
obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages 
and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. 1 
Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed 
the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a pygmy 
race. But the first discoverer of the dwarf races of Central 
Africa was Paul du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district 
of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first 
meeting with the Pygmies; du Chaillu having previously, as 
the result of journeys in the Gabun country between 1855 and 
1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence 
of the gorilla, perhaps the gigantic ape seen by Hanno the Cartha- 
ginian, and whose existence, up to the middle of the ipth century, 
was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle. 

In South Africa the filling up of the map also proceeded apace. 
The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in the valley of the 
Vaal river, near its confluence with the Orange, caused a rush 
of emigrants to that district, and led to conflicts between the 
Dutch and British authorities and the extension of British 
authority northward. In 1871 the ruins of the great Zimbabwe 
in Mashonaland, the chief fortress and distributing centre of 
the race which in medieval times worked the goldfields of South- 
East Africa, were explored by Karl Mauch. In the following 
year F. C. Selous began his journeys over South Central Africa, 
which continued for more than twenty years and extended over 
every part of Mashonaland and Matabeleland. (F. R. C.) 

V. PARTITION AMONG EUROPEAN POWERS 

In the last quarter of the igth century the map of Africa was 
transformed. After the discovery of the Congo the story of 

1 Another great traveller of this stamp was Wilhelm Junker, who 
spentthegreaterpartof the period 1875-1886 in theeastcentralSudan. 



exploration takes second place; the continent becomes the 
theatre of European expansion. Lines of partition, drawn often 
through trackless wildernesses, marked out the possessions of 
Germany, France, Great Britain and other powers. Railways 
penetrated the interior, vast areas were opened up to civilized 
occupation, and from ancient Egypt to the Zambezi the continent 
was startled into new life. 

Before 1875 the only powers with any considerable interest 
in Africa were Britain, Portugal and France. Between 1815 
and 1850, as has been shown above, the British government 
devoted much energy, not always informed by knowledge, to 
western and southern Africa. In both directions Great Britain 
had met with much discouragement; on the west coast, disease, 
death, decaying trade and useless conflicts with savage foes 
had been the normal experience; in the south recalcitrant 
Boers and hostile Kaffirs caused almost endless trouble. The 
visions once entertained of vigorous negro communities at once 
civilized and Christian faded away; to the hot fit of philan- 
thropy succeeded the cold fit of indifference and a disinclination 
to bear the burden of empire. The low-water mark of British 
interest in South Africa was reached in 1854 when independence 
was forced on the Orange River Boers, while in 1865 the mind 
of the nation was fairly reflected by the unanimous resolution 
of a representative House of Commons committee: 2 "that all 
further extension of territory or assumption of government, or 
new treaty offering any protection to native tribes, would be 
inexpedient." For nearly twenty years the spirit of that resolu- 
tion paralysed British action in Africa, although many circum- 
stances the absence of any serious European rival, the in- 
evitable border disputes with uncivilized races, and the activity 
of missionary and trader conspired to make British influence 
dominant in large areas of the continent over which the govern- 
ment exercised no definite authority. The freedom with which 
blood and treasure were spent to enforce respect for the British 
flag or to succour British subjects in distress, as in the Abyssinian 
campaign of 1867-68 and the Ashanti war of 1873, tended further 
to enhance the reputation of Great Britain among African races, 
while, as an inevitable result of the possession of India, British 
officials exercised considerable power at the court of Zanzibar, 
which indeed owed its separate existence to a decision of Lord 
Canning, the governor-general of India, in 1861 recognizing the 
division of the Arabian and African dominions of the imam of 
Muscat. 

It has been said that Great Britain was without serious rival. 
On the Gold Coast she had bought the Danish forts in 1850 and 
acquired the Dutch, 1871-1872, in exchange for establishments in 
Sumatra. But Portugal still held, both in the east and west 
of Africa, considerable stretches of the tropical coast-lands, and 
it was in 1875 that she obtained, as a result of the arbitration 
of Marshal MacMahon, possession of the whole of Delagoa Bay, 
to the southern part of which England also laid claim by virtue 
of a treaty of cession concluded with native chiefs in 1823. The 
only other European power which at the period under considera- 
tion had considerable possessions in Africa was France. Besides 
Algeria, France had settlements on the Senegal, where in 1854 
the appointment of General Faidherbe as governor marked the 
beginning of a policy of expansion; she had also various posts 
on the upper Guinea coast, had taken the estuary of the Gabun 
as a station for her navy, and had acquired (1862) Obok at the 
southern entrance to the Red Sea. 

In North Africa the Turks had (in 1835) assumed direct 
control of Tripoli, while Morocco had fallen into a state of decay 
though retaining its independence. The most remarkable 
change was in Egypt, where the Khedive Ismail had introduced 
a somewhat fantastic imitation of European civilization. In 
addition Ismail had conquered Darfur, annexed Harrar and the 
Somali ports on the Gulf of Aden, was extending his power 
southward to the equatorial lakes, and even contemplated reach- 
ing the Indian Ocean. The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, had a 
great influence on the future of Africa, as it again made Egypt 
the highway to the East, to the detriment of the Cape route. 
! Specially appointed to consider West African affairs. 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



335 



Any estimate of the area of African territory held by European 
nations in 1875 is necessarily but approximate, and varies chiefly 

Tbedlvl- as tne corn piler of statistics rejects or accepts the 
sionotthe vague claims of Portugal to sovereignty over the 
continent hinterland of her coast possessions. At that period 
wiS7a. O ther European nations with the occasional excep- 
tion of Great Britain were indifferent to Portugal's preten- 
sions, and her estimate of her African empire as covering 
over 700,000 sq. m. was not challenged. 1 But the area under 
effective control of Portugal at that time did not exceed 40,000 
sq. m. Great Britain then held some 250,000 sq. m., France 
about 170,000 sq. m. and Spain 1000 sq. m. The area of the 
independent Dutch republics (the Transvaal and Orange Free 
State) was some 150,000 sq. m., so that the total area of Africa 
ruled by Europeans did not exceed 1,271,000 sq. m.; roughly 
one-tenth of the continent. This estimate, as it admits the full 
extent of Portuguese claims and does not include Madagascar, 
in reality considerably overstates the case. 

Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan, Tunisia and Tripoli were 
subject in differing ways to the overlordship of the sultan of 
Turkey, and with these may be ranked, in the scale of organized 
governments, the three principal independent states, Morocco, 
Abyssinia and Zanzibar, as also the negro republic of Liberia. 
There remained, apart from the Sahara, roughly one half of 
Africa, lying mostly within the tropics, inhabited by a multitude 
of tribes and peoples living under various forms of govern- 
ment and subject to frequent changes in respect of political 
organization. In this region were the negro states of Ashanti, 
Dahomey and Benin on the west coast, the Mahommedan 
sultanates of the central Sudan, and a number of negro kingdoms 
in the east central and south central regions. Of these Uganda 
on the north-west shores of Victoria Nyanza, Cazembe and 
Muata Hianvo (or Yanvo) may be mentioned. The two last- 
named kingdoms occupied respectively the south-eastern and 
south-western parts of the Congo basin. In all this vast region 
the Negro and Negro-Bantu races predominated, for the most 
part untouched by Mahommedanism or Christian influences. 
They lacked political cohesion, and possessed neither the means 
nor the inclination to extend their influence beyond their own 
borders. The exploitation of Africa continued to be entirely 
the work of alien races. 

The causes which led to the partition of Africa may now be 
considered. They are to be found in the economic and political 
Causes state of western Europe at the time. Germany, 
which led strong and united as the result of the Franco-Prussian 
to par- War of 1870, was seeking new outlets for her energies 
new markets for her growing industries, and with 
the markets, colonies. Yet the idea of colonial expansion was 
of slow growth in Germany, and when Prince Bismarck at length 
acted Africa was the only field left to exploit, South America 
being protected from interference by the known determination 
of the United States to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, while 
Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain 
already held most of the other regions of the world where coloniza- 
tion was possible. For different reasons the war of 1870 was 
also the starting-point for France in the building up of a new 
colonial empire. In her endeavour to regain the position lost 
in that war France had to look beyond Europe. To the two 
causes mentioned must be added others. Great Britain and 
Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred 
themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become 
an African power. Great Britain awoke to the need for action 
too late to secure predominance in all the regions where formerly 
hers was the only European influence. She had to contend not 
only with the economic forces which urged her rivals to action, 
but had also to combat the jealous opposition of almost every 
European nation to the further growth of British power. Italy 
alone acted throughout in cordial co-operation with Great 
Britain. 

It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers 

'See the tables in Behm and Wagner's Bevolkerung der Erde 
(Gotha, 1872). 



of Europe which precipitated the struggle. This was brought 
about by the ambitious projects of Leopold II., king of the 
Belgians. The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others 
had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in 
western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class, 
which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial develop- 
ment, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which 
beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of savages to 
Christianize and civilize. The possibility of utilizing both these 
classes in the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the 
chief, formed itself in the mind of Leopold II. even before Stanley 
had navigated the Congo. The king's action was immediate; it 
proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project 
understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France 
and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun. 



Scale, 1 185, 000,000 

English Miles 
9 500 



Portuguest 
P.iH Italian 
Spanish 




EmtryW.lktric. 



At this point it is expedient, in the light of subsequent events, 
to set forth the designs then entertained by the European powers 
that participated in the struggle for Africa. Portugal 

... .. i * .111* Conflict^ 

was striving to retain as large a share as possible of lag ambl . 
her shadowy empire, and particularly to establish her tions of 
claims to the Zambezi region, so as to secure a belt of ihe 
territory across Africa from Mozambique to Angola, fowe 
Great Britain, once aroused to the imminence of danger, 
put forth vigorous efforts in East Africa and on the Niger, but 
her most ambitious dream was the establishment of an unbroken 
line of British possessions and spheres of influence from south to 
north of the continent, from Cape Colony to Egypt. Germany's 
ambition can be easily described. It was to secure as much as 
possible, so as to make up for lost opportunities. Italy coveted 
Tripoli, but that province could not be seized without risking 
war. For the rest Italy's territorial ambitions were confined 
to North-East Africa, where she hoped to acquire a dominating 
influence over Abyssinia. French ambitions, apart from Mada- 
gascar, were confined to the northern and central portions of 
the continent. To extend her possessions on the Mediterranean 
littoral, and to connect them with her colonies in West Africa, 
the western Sudan, and on the Congo, by establishing her in- 
fluence over the vast intermediate regions, was France's first 
ambition. But the defeat of the Italians in Abyssinia and the 
impending downfall of the khalifa's power in the valley of the 
upper Nile suggested a still more daring project to the French 
government none other than the establishment of French 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



influence over a broad belt of territory stretching across the 
continent from west to east, from Senegal on the Atlantic coast 
to the Gulf of Aden. The fact that France possessed a small 
part of the Red Sea coast gave point to this design. But these 
conflicting ambitions could not all be realized, and Germany 
succeeded in preventing Great Britain obtaining a continuous 
band of British territory from south to north, while Great Britain, 
by excluding France from the upper Nile valley, dispelled the 
French dream of an empire from west to east. 

King Leopold's ambitions have already been indicated. The 
part of the continent to which from the first he directed his 
energies was the equatorial region. In September 1876 he took 
what may be described as the first definite step in the modern 
partition of the continent. He summoned to a conference 
at Brussels representatives of Great Britain, Belgium, France, 
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia, to deliberate 
on the best methods to be adopted for the exploration and 
civilization of Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the 
continent to commerce and industry. The conference was 
entirely unofficial. The delegates who attended neither repre- 
sented nor pledged their respective governments. Their 
deliberations lasted three days and resulted in the foundation 
of " The International African Association," with its head- 
quarters at Brussels. It was further resolved to establish 
national committees in the various countries represented, which 
should collect funds and appoint delegates to the International 
Association. The central idea appears to have been to put the 
exploration and development of Africa upon an international 
footing. But it quickly became apparent that this was an 
unattainable ideal. The national committees were soon working 
independently of the International Association, and the Associa- 
tion itself passed through a succession of stages until it became 
purely Belgian in character, and at last developed into the Congo 
Free State, under the personal sovereignty of King Leopold. 
At first the Association devoted itself to sending expeditions 
to the great central lakes from the east coast; but failure, more 
or less complete, attended its efforts in this direction, and it 
was not until the return of Stanley, in January 1878, from his 
great journey down the Congo, that its ruling spirit, King 
Leopold, definitely turned his thoughts towards the Congo. In 
June of that year, Stanley visited the king at Brussels, and in 
the following November a private conference was held, and a 
committee was appointed for the investigation of the upper 
Congo. 

Stanley's remarkable discovery had stirred ambition in other 
capitals than Brussels. France had always taken a keen interest 
The in West Africa, and in the years 1875 to 1878 Savorgnan 

itmggie de Brazza had carried out a successful exploration of 
for the t jj e Qgow6 river to the south of the Gabun. De Brazza 
determined that the Ogow6 did not offer that great 
waterway into the interior of which he was in search, and he 
returned to Europe without having heard of the discoveries 
of Stanley farther south. Naturally, however, Stanley's dis- 
coveries were keenly followed in France. In Portugal, too, the 
discovery of the Congo, with its magnificent unbroken waterway 
of more than a thousand miles into the heart of the continent, 
served to revive the languid energies of the Portuguese, who 
promptly began to furbish up claims whose age was in inverse 
ratio to their validity. Claims, annexations and occupations 
were in the air, and when in January 1879 Stanley left Europe 
as the accredited agent of King Leopold and the Congo com- 
mittee, the strictest secrecy was observed as to his real aims and 
intentions. The expedition was, it was alleged, proceeding up 
the Congo to assist the Belgian expedition which had entered 
from the east coast, and Stanley himself went first to Zanzibar. 
But in August 1879 Stanley found himself again at Banana 
Point, at the mouth of the Congo, with, as he himself has written, 
" the novel mission of sowing along its .banks civilized settlements 
to peacefully conquer and subdue it, to remould it in harmony 
with modern ideas into national states, within whose limits the 
European merchant shall go hand in hand with the dark African 
trader, and justice and law and order shall prevail, and murder 



and lawlessness and the cruel barter of slaves shall be overcome." 
The irony of human aspirations was never perhaps more plainly 
demonstrated than in the contrast between the ideal thus set 
before themselves by those who employed Stanley, and the actual 
results of their intervention in Africa. Stanley founded his first 
station at Vivi, between the mouth of the Congo and the rapids 
that obstruct its course where it breaks over the western edge 
of the central continental plateau. Above the rapids he estab- 
lished a station on Stanley Pool and named it Leopoldville, 
founding other stations on the main stream in the direction of 
the falls that bear his name. 

Meanwhile de Brazza was far from idle. He had returned to 
Africa at the beginning of 1880, and while the agents of King 
Leopold were making treaties and founding stations along the 
southern bank of the river, de Brazza and other French agents 
were equally busy on the northern bank. De Brazza was sent 
out to Africa by the French committee of the International 
African Association, which provided him with the funds for the 
expedition. His avowed object was to explore the region 
between the Gabun and Lake Chad. But his real object was to 
anticipate Stanley on the Congo. The international character of 
the association founded by King Leopold was never more than 
a polite fiction, and the rivalry between the French and the 
Belgians on the Congo was soon open, if not avowed. In October 
1880 de Brazza made a solemn treaty with a chief on the north 
bank of the Congo, who claimed that his authority extended 
over a large area, including territory on the southern bank of 
the river. As soon as this chief had accepted French protection, 
de Brazza crossed over to the south of the river, and founded 
a station close to the present site of Leopoldville. The discovery 
by Stanley of the French station annoyed King Leopold's agent, 
and he promptly challenged the rights of the chief who purported 
to have placed the country under French protection, and him- 
self founded a Belgian station close to the site selected by 
de Brazza. In the result, the French station was withdrawn 
to the northern side of Stanley Pool, where it is now known 
as Brazzaville. 

The activity of French and Belgian agents on the Congo had 
not passed unnoticed in Lisbon, and the Portuguese government 
saw that no time was to be lost if the claims it had never ceased 
to put forward on the west coast were not to go by default. 
At varying periods during the igth century Portugal had put 
forward claims to the whole of the West African coast, between 
5 12' and 8 south. North of the Congo mouth she claimed the 
territories of Kabinda and Molemba, alleging that they had been 
in her possession since 1484. Great Britain had never, however, 
admitted this claim, and south of the Congo had declined to 
recognize Portuguese possessions as extending north of Ambriz. 
In 1856 orders were given to British cruisers to prevent by force 
any attempt to extend Portuguese dominion north of that place. 
But the Portuguese had been persistent in urging their claims, 
and in 1882 negotiations were again opened with the British 
government for recognition of Portuguese rights over both 
banks of the Congo on the coast, and for some distance inland. 
Into the details of the negotiations, which were conducted for 
Great Britain by the and Earl Granville, who was then secretary 
for foreign affairs, it is unnecessary to enter; they resulted 
in the signing on the 26th of February 1884 of a treaty, by which 
Great Britain recognized the sovereignty of the king of Portugal 
" over that part of the west coast of Africa, situated between 
8 and 5 12' south latitude," and inland as far as Noki, on the 
south bank of the Congo, below Vivi. The navigation of the 
Congo was to be controlled by an Anglo-Portuguese commission. 
The publication of this treaty evoked immediate protests, not 
only on the continent but in Great Britain. In face of the 
disapproval aroused by the treaty, Lord Granville found himself 
unable to ratify it. The protests had not been confined to France 
and the king of the Belgians. Germany had not yet acquired 
formal footing in Africa, but she was crouching for the spring 
prior to taking her part in the scramble, and Prince Bismarck 
had expressed, in vigorous language, the objections entertained 
by Germany to the Anglo-Portuguese treaty. 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



337 



British 
Influence 

consoli- 
dated In 
South 
Africa. 



For some time before 1884 there had been growing up a general 
conviction that it would be desirable for the powers who were 
interesting themselves in Africa to come to some agreement 
as to " the rules of the game," and to define their respective 
interests so far as that was practicable. Lord Granville's ill- 
fated treaty brought this sentiment to a head, and it was agreed 
to hold an international conference on African affairs. But 
before discussing the Berlin conference of 1884-1885, it will be 
well to see what was the position, on the eve of the conference, 
in other parts of the African continent. In the southern section 
of Africa, south of the Zambezi, important events had been 
happening. In 1876 Great Britain had concluded an agreement 
with the Orange Free State for an adjustment of 
frontiers, the result of which was to leave the Kimberley 
diamond fields in British territory, in exchange for 
a payment of 90,000 to the Orange Free State. On 
the 1 2th of April 1877 Sir Theophilus Shepstone had 
issued a proclamation declaring the Transvaal the 
South African Republic, as it was officially designated to be 
British territory (see TRANSVAAL). In December 1880 war 
broke out and lasted until March 1881, when a treaty of peace 
was signed. This treaty of peace was followed by a convention, 
signed in August of the same year, under which complete self- 
government was guaranteed to the inhabitants of the Transvaal, 
subject to the suzerainty of Great Britain, upon certain terms 
and conditions and'subject to certain reservations and limitations. 
No sooner was the convention signed than it became the object 
of the Boers to obtain a modification of the conditions and limita- 
tions imposed, and in February 1884 a fresh convention was 
signed, amending the convention of 1881. Article IV. of the new 
convention provided that " The South African Republic will 
conclude no treaty or engagement with any state or nation 
other than the Orange Free State, nor with any native tribe to 
the eastward or westward of the Republic, until the same has 
been approved by Her Majesty the Queen." The precise effect 
of the two conventions has been the occasion for interminable 
discussions, but as the subject is now one of merely academic 
interest, it is sufficient to say that when the Berlin conference 
held its first meeting in 1884 the Transvaal was practically 
independent, so far as its internal administration was con- 
cerned, while its foreign relations were subject to the control 
just quoted. 

But although the Transvaal had thus, between the years 1875 
and 1884, become and ceased to be British territory, British 
influence in other parts of Africa south of the Zambezi had 
been steadily extended. To the west of the Orange Free State, 
Griqualand West was annexed to the Cape in 1880, while to the 
east the territories beyond the Kei river were included in Cape 
Colony between 1877 and 1884, so that in the latter year, with 
the exception of Pondoland, the whole of South-East Africa was 
in one form or another under British control. North of Natal, 
Zululand was not actually annexed until 1887, although since 
1879, when the military power of the Zulus was broken up, 
British influence had been admittedly supreme. In December 
1884 St Lucia Bay upon which Germany was casting covetous 
eyes had been taken possession of in virtue of its cession to 
Great Britain by the Zulu king in 1843, an< ^ three years later 
an agreement of non-cession to foreign powers made by Great 
Britain with the regent and paramount chief of Tongaland 
completed the chain of British possessions on the coast of South 
Africa, from the mouth of the Orange river on the west to Kosi 
Bay and the Portuguese -frontier on the east. In the interior 
of South Africa the year 1884 witnessed the beginning of that 
final stage of the British advance towards the north which was 
to extend British influence from the Cape to the southern shores 
of Lake Tanganyika. The activity of the Germans on the west, 
and of the Boer republic on the east, had brought home to both 
the imperial and colonial authorities the impossibility of relying 
on vague traditional claims. In May 1884 treaties were made 
with native chiefs by which the whole of the country north 
of Cape Colony, west of the Transvaal, south of 22 S. and 
east of 20 E., was placed under British protection, though 



a protectorate was not formally declared until the following 
January. 

Meanwhile some very interesting events had been taking place 
on the west coast, north of the Orange river and south of the 
Portuguese province of Mossamedes. It must be sufficient here 
to touch very briefly on the events that preceded the foundation 
of the colony of German South- West Africa. For many years 
before 1884 German missionaries had settled among the Damaras 
(Herero) and Namaquas, often combining small trading opera- 
tions with their missionary work. From time to time trouble 
arose between the missionaries and the native chiefs, and appeals 
were made to the German government for protection. 
The German government in its turn begged the British 
government to say whether it assumed responsibility 
for the protection of Europeans in Damaraland and 
Namaqualand. The position of the British government was 
intelligible, if not very intelligent. It did not desire to see any 
other European power in these countries, and it did not want to 
assume the responsibility and incur the expense of protecting the 
few Europeans settled there. Sir Bartle Frere, when governor of 
the Cape (1877-1880), had foreseen that this attitude portended 
trouble, and had urged that the whole of the unoccupied coast- 
line, up to the Portuguese frontier, should be declared under 
British protection. But he preached to deaf ears, and it was as 
something of a concession to him that in March 1878 the British 
flag was hoisted at Walfish Bay, and a small part of the adjacent 
land declared to be British. The fact appears to be that British 
statesmen failed to understand the change that had come over 
Germany. They believed that Prince Bismarck would never 
give his sanction to the creation of a colonial empire, and, to the 
German inquiries as to what rights Great Britain claimed in 
Damaraland and Namaqualand, procrastinating replies were 
sent. Meanwhile the various colonial societies established in 
Germany had effected a revolution in public opinion, and, more 
important still, they had convinced the great chancellor. 
Accordingly when, in November 1882, F. A. E. Liideritz, a 
Bremen merchant, informed the German government of his 
intention to establish a factory on the coast between the Orange 
river and the Little Fash river, and asked if he might rely on the 
protection of his government in case of need, he met with no 
discouragement from Prince Bismarck. In February 1883 the 
German ambassador in London informed Lord Granville of 
Luderitz's design, and asked " whether Her Majesty's government 
exercise any authority in that locality." It was intimated that 
if Her Majesty's government did not, the German government 
would extend to Luderitz's factory " the same measure of pro- 
tection which they give to their subjects in remote parts of the 
world, but without having the least design to establish any foot- 
ing in South Africa." An inconclusive reply was sent, and on 
the gth of April Luderitz's agent landed at Angra Pequena, and 
after a short delay concluded a treaty with the local chief, by 
which some 215 square miles around Angra Pequena were ceded 
to Liideritz. In England and at the Cape irritation at the news 
was mingled with incredulity, and it was fully anticipated that 
Liideritz would be disavowed by his government. But for this 
belief it can scarcely be doubted that the rest of the unoccupied 
coast-line would have been promptly declared under British 
protection. Still Prince Bismarck was slow to act. In November 
the German ambassador again inquired if Great Britain made 
any claim over this coast, and Lord Granville replied that Her 
Majesty exercised sovereignty only over certain parts of the 
coast, as at Walfish Bay, and suggested that arrangements might 
be made by which Germany might assist in the settlement of 
Angra Pequena. By this time Liideritz had extended his acquisi- 
tions southwards to the Orange river, which had been declared 
by the British government to be the northern frontier of Cape 
Colony. Both at the Cape and in England it was now realized 
that Germany had broken away from her former purely con- 
tinental policy, and, when too late, the Cape parliament showed 
great eagerness to acquire the territory which had lain so long at 
its very doors, to be had for the taking. It is not necessary to 
follow the course of the subsequent negotiations. On the 1 5th 



338 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



of August 1884 an official note was addressed by the German 
consul at Capetown to the high commissioner, intimating that 
the German emperor had by proclamation taken " the territory 
belonging to Mr A. Luderitz on the west coast of Africa under the 
direct protection of His Majesty." This proclamation covered 
the coast-line from the north bank of the Orange river to 26 S. 
latitude, and 20 geographical miles inland, including " the 
islands belonging thereto by the law of nations." On the 8th 
of September 1884 the German government intimated to Her 
Majesty's government " that the west coast of Africa from 26 
S. latitude to Cape Frio, excepting Walfish Bay, had been placed 
under the protection of the German emperor." Thus, before the 
end of the year 1884, the foundations of Germany's colonial 
empire had been laid in South- West Africa. 

In April of that year Prince Bismarck intimated to the British 
government, through the German charge d'affaires in London, 
Nachtigai's that " the imperial consul-general, Dr Nachtigal, has 
mission to been commissioned by my government to visit the west 
coast of Africa in the course of the next few months, 
in order to complete the information now in the posses- 
sion of the Foreign Office at Berlin, on the state of German com- 
merce on that coast. With this object Dr Nachtigal will shortly 
embark at Lisbon, on board the gunboat ' Mowe.' He will put 
himself into communication with the authorities in the British 
possessions on the said coast, and is authorized to conduct, on 
behalf of the imperial government, negotiations connected with 
certain questions. I venture," the official communication proceeds, 
" in accordance with my instructions, to beg your excellency to be 
so good as to cause the authorities in the British possessions in 
West Africa to be furnished with suitable recommendations." 
Although at the date of this communication it must have been 
apparent, from what was happening in South Africa, that 
Germany was prepared to enter on a policy of colonial expansion, 
and although the wording of the letter was studiously vague, it 
does not seem to have occurred to the British government that 
the real object of Gustav Nachtigai's journey was to make other 
annexations on the west coast. Yet such was indeed his mission. 
German traders and missionaries had been particularly active of 
late years on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. German factories 
were dotted all along the coast in districts under British protec- 
tion, under French protection and under the definite protection 
of no European power at all. It was to these latter places that 
Nachtigal turned his attention. The net result of his operations 
was that on the 5th of July 1884 a treaty was signed with the 
king of Togo, placing his country under German protection, and 
that just one week later a German protectorate was proclaimed 
over the Cameroon district. Before either of these events had 
occurred Great Britain had become alive to the fact that she could 
no longer dally with the subject, if she desired to consolidate her 
possessions in West Africa. The British government had again 
and again refused to accord native chiefs the protection they 
demanded. The Cameroon chiefs had several times asked for 
British protection, and always in vain. But at last it became 
apparent, even to the official mind, that rapid changes were being 
effected in Africa, and on the i6th of May Edward Hyde Hewett, 
British consul, received instructions to return to the west coast 
and to make arrangements for extending British protection over 
certain regions. He arrived too late to save either Togoland or 
Cameroon, in the latter case arriving five days after King Bell and 
the other chiefs on the river had signed treaties with Nachtigal. 
But the British consul was in time to secure the delta of the river 
Niger and the Oil Rivers District, extending from Rio del Rey 
to the Lagos frontier, where for a long period British traders 
had held almost a monopoly of the trade. 

Meanwhile France, too, had been busy treaty-making. While 
the British government still remained under the spell of the 
p renc/I afl</ fatal resolution of 1865, the French government was 
British strenuously endeavouring to extend France's influence 
rivalry la j n West Africa, in the countries lying behind the coast- 
AMca. line - During the year 1884 no fewer than forty-two 
treaties were concluded with native chiefs, an even 
larger number having been concluded in the previous twelve 



months. In this fashion France was pushing on towards 
Timbuktu, in steady pursuance of the policy which resulted in 
surrounding all the old British possessions in West Africa with 
a continuous band of French territory. There was, however, 
one region on the west coast where, notwithstanding the lethargy 
of the British government, British interests were being vigorously 
pushed, protected and consolidated. This was on the lower 
Niger, and the leading spirit in the enterprise was Mr Goldie 
Taubman (afterwards Sir George Taubman Goldie). In 1877 
Sir George Goldie visited the Niger and conceived the idea of 
establishing a settled government in that region. Through 
his efforts the various trading firms en the lower Niger formed 
themselves in 1879 into the " United African Company," and 
the foundations were laid of something like settled administra- 
tion. An application was made to the British government for a 
charter in 1881, and the capital of the company increased to a 
million sterling. Henceforth the company was known as the 
" National African Company," and it was acknowledged that 
its object was not only to develop the trade of the lower Niger, 
but to extend its operations to the middle reaches of the river, 
and to open up direct relations with the great Fula empire of 
Sokoto and the smaller states associated with Sokoto under a 
somewhat loosely defined suzerainty. The great development 
of trade which followed the combination of British interests 
carried out under Goldie's skilful guidance did not pass unnoticed 
in France, and, encouraged by Gambetta, French traders made a 
bold bid for a position on the river. Two French companies, 
with ample capital, were formed, and various stations were 
established on the lower Niger. Goldie realized at once the 
seriousness of the situation, and lost no time in declaring com- 
mercial war on the newcomers. His bold tactics were entirely 
successful, and a few days before the meeting of the Berlin 
conference he had the satisfaction of announcing that he had 
bought out the whole of the French interests on the river, and 
that Great Britain alone possessed any interests on the lower 
Niger. 

To complete the survey of the political situation in Africa at 
the time the plenipotentiaries met at Berlin, it is necessary to 
refer briefly to the course of events in North and East The posi- 
Africa since 1875. In 1881 a French army entered tloa la 
Tunisia, and compelled the bey to sign a treaty placing 
that country under French protection. The sultan of 
Turkey formally protested against this invasion of Ottoman 
rights, but the great powers took no action, and France was 
left in undisturbed possession of her newly acquired territory. 
In Egypt the extravagance of Ismail Pasha had led to 'ie 
establishment in 1879, in the interests of European bond- 
holders, of a Dual Control exercised by France and Great Britain. 
France had, however, in 1882 refused to take part in the suppres- 
sion of a revolt under Arabi Pasha, which England accomplished 
unaided. As a consequence the Dual Control had been abolished 
in January 1883, since when Great Britain, with an army 
quartered in the country, had assumed a predominant position 
in Egyptian affairs (see EGYPT). In East Africa, north of the 
Portuguese possessions, where the sultan of Zanzibar was the 
most considerable native potentate, Germany was secretly 
preparing the foundations of her present colony of German 
East Africa. But no overt act had warned Europe of what 
was impending. The story of the foundation of German East 
Africa is one of the romances of the continent. Early in 1884 
the Society for German Colonization was founded, with the 
avowed object of furthering the newly awakened colonial 
aspirations of the German people. 1 It was a society inspired 
and controlled by young men, and on the 4th of November 1884, 
eleven days before the conference assembled at Berlin, three 
young Germans arrived as deck passengers at Zanzibar. They 
were disguised as mechanics, but were in fact Dr Karl Peters, 
the president of the Colonization Society, Joachim Count Pfeil, 
and Dr Jiihlke, and their stock-in-trade consisted of a number 

1 In 1887 this society united with the German Colonial Society, 
an organization founded in 1882. The united society took the title 
of the German Colonial Company. 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



339 



Inter- 
national 
Associa- 
tion. 



of German flags and a supply of blank treaty forms. They 
proposed to land on the mainland opposite Zanzibar, and 
to conclude treaties in the back country with native 
German chiefs placing their territories under German pro- 
fiag raised tection. The enterprise was frowned upon by the 
In Bast German government; but, encouraged by German 
Africa. res idents at Zanzibar, the three young pioneers crossed 
to the mainland, and on the igth of November, while the diplo- 
matists assembled at Berlin were solemnly discussing the rules 
which were to govern the game of partition, the first " treaty " 
was signed at Mbuzini, and the German flag raised for the first 
time in East Africa. 

Italy had also obtained a footing on the African continent 
before the meeting of the Berlin conference. The Rubattino 
Steamship Company as far back as 1870 had bought the port of 
Assab as a coaling station, but it was not until 1882 that it was 
declared an Italian colony. This was followed by the conclusion 
of a treaty with the sultan of Assab, chief of the Danakil, signed 
on the 1 5th of March 1883, and subsequently approved by the 
king of Shoa, whereby Italy obtained the cession of part of Ablis 
(Aussa) on the Red Sea, Italy undertaking to protect with her 
fleet the Danakil littoral. 

One other event must be recorded as happening before the 
meeting of the Berlin conference. The king of the Belgians had 
been driven to the conclusion that, if his African 
ono/<Ae enterprise was to obtain any measure of permanent 
success, its international status must be recognized. 
To this end negotiations were opened with various 
governments. The first government to " recognize 
the flag of the International Association of the Congo 
as the flag of a friendly government " was that of the United 
States, its declaration to that effect bearing date the 22nd of 
April 1884. There were, however, difficulties in the way of 
obtaining the recognition of the European powers, and in order 
to obtain that of France, King Leopold, on the 23rd of April 
1884, while labouring under tha feelings of annoyance which 
had been aroused by the Anglo-Portuguese treaty concluded by 
Lord Granville in February, authorized Colonel Strauch, presi- 
dent of the International Association, to engage to give France 
" the right of preference if, through unforeseen circumstances, 
the Association were compelled to sell its possessions." France's 
formal recognition of the Association as a government was, 
however, delayed by the discussion of boundary questions until 
the following February, and in the meantime Germany, Great 
Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Holland and Spain had all recog- 
nized the Association; though Germany alone had done so on 
the 8th of November before the assembling of the conference. 

The conference assembled at Berlin on the i5th of November 
1884, and after protracted deliberations the " General Act of 
the Berlin Conference " was signed by the representa- 
tives of all the powers attending the conference, on 
the 26th of February 1885. The powers represented 
were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, 
Spain, the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy, 
Holland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey, 
to name them in the alphabetical order adopted in the preamble 
to the French text of the General Act. Ratifications were 
deposited by all the signatory powers with the exception of the 
United States. It is unnecessary to examine in detail the 
results of the labours of the conference. The General Act dealt 
with six specific subjects: (i) freedom of trade in the basin of 
the Congo, (2) the slave trade, (3) neutrality of territories in the 
basin of the Congo, (4) navigation of the Congo, (5) navigation 
of the Niger, (6) rules for future occupation on the coasts of the 
African continent. It will be seen that the act dealt with other 
matters than the political partition of Africa; but, so far as 
they concern the present purpose, the results effected by the 
Berlin Act may be summed up as follows. The signatory powers 
undertook that any fresh act of taking possession on any portion 
of the African coast must be notified by the power taking posses- 
sion, or assuming a protectorate, to the other signatory powers. 
It was further provided that any such occupation to be valid 



The 
Berlin 
Confer- 
ence of 
1884-85. 



must be effective. It is also noteworthy that the first reference 
in an international act to the obligations attaching to " spheres 
of influence " is contained in the Berlin Act. 

It will be remembered that when the conference assembled, 
the International Association of the Congo had only been recog- 
nized as a sovereign state by the United States and 
Germany. But King Leopold and his agents had tioifofthe 
taken full advantage of the opportunity which the c g$l 
conference afforded, and before the General Act was 
signed the Association had been recognized by all the signatory 
powers, with the not very important exception of Turkey, and 
the fact communicated to the conference by Colonel Strauch. 
It was not, however, until two months later, in April 1885, that 
King Leopold, with the sanction of the Belgian legislature, 
formally assumed the headship of the new state; and on the 
ist of August in the same year His Majesty notified the powers 
that from that date the " Independent State of the Congo " 
declared that " it shall be perpetually neutral " in conformity 
with the provisions of the Berlin Act. Thus was finally consti- 
tuted the Congo Free State, under the sovereignty of King 
Leopold, though the boundaries claimed for it. at that time were 
considerably modified by subsequent agreements. 

From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with 
renewed vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the 
century the work of partition, so far as international The 
agreements were concerned, was practically completed. cn i e f 
To attempt to follow the process of acquisition year partition 
by year would involve a constant shifting of attention treaties. 
from one part of the continent to another, inasmuch as the 
scramble was proceeding simultaneously all over Africa. It will 
therefore be the most convenient plan to deal with the continent 
in sections. Before doing so, however, the international agree- 
ments which determined in the main the limits of the possessions 
of the various powers may be set forth. They are : 

I. The agreement of the ist of July 1890 between Great 
Britain and Germany defining their spheres of influence in East, 
West and South-West Africa. This agreement was the most 
comprehensive of all the " deals " in African territory, and in- 
cluded in return for the recognition of a British protectorate 
over Zanzibar the cession of Heligoland to Germany. 

II. The Anglo-French declaration of the 5th of August 1890, 
which recognized a French protectorate over Madagascar, 
French influence in the Sahara, and British influence between 
the Niger and Lake Chad. 

III. The Anglo-Portuguese treaty of the nth of June 1891, 
whereby the Portuguese possessions on the west and east coasts 
were separated by a broad belt of British territory, extending 
north to Lake Tanganyika. 

IV. The Franco-German convention of the isth of March 
1894, by which the Central Sudan was left to France (this region 
by an Anglo-German agreement of the isth of November 1893 
having been recognized as in the German sphere). By this 
convention France was able to effect a territorial junction of 
her possessions in North and West Africa with those in the Congo 
region. 

V. Protocols of the 24th of March and the isth of April 1891, 
for the demarcation of the Anglo-Italian spheres in East Africa. 

VI. The Anglo-French convention of the i4th of June 1898, 
for the delimitation of the possessions of the two countries west 
of Lake Chad, with the supplementary declaration of the 2 ist 
of March 1899 whereby France recognized the upper Nile valley 
as in the British sphere of influence. 

Coming now to a more detailed consideration of the operations 
of the powers, the growth of the Congo Free State, which occu- 
pied, geographically, a central position, may serve as The 
the starting-point for the story of the partition after growth of 
the Berlin conference. In the notification to the taeCoago 
powers of the ist of August 1885, the boundaries of the 
Free State were set out in considerable detail. The limits thus 
determined resulted partly from agreements made with France, 
Germany and Portugal, and partly from treaties with native 
chiefs. The state acquired the north bank of the Congo from 



340 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



its mouth to a point in the unnavigable reaches, and in the 
interior the major part of the Congo basin. In the north-east 
the northern limit was 4 N. up to 30 E., which formed the 
eastern boundary of the state. The south-eastern frontier 
claimed by King Leopold extended to Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru 
and Bangweulu, but it was not until some years later that it 
was recognized and defined by the agreement of May 1894 with 
Great Britain. The international character of King Leopold's 
enterprise had not long been maintained, and his recognition as 
sovereign of the Free State confirmed the distinctive character 
which the Association had assumed, even before that event. 

In April 1887 France was informed that the right of pre- 
emption accorded to her in 1884 had not been intended by King 
Leopold to prejudice Belgium's right to acquire the Congo State, 
and in reply the French minister at Brussels took note of the 
explanation, " in so far as this interpretation is not contrary to 
pre-existing international engagements." By his will, dated the 
2nd of August 1889, King Leopold made Belgium formally heir to 
the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State. In 1895 an annexa- 
tion bill was introduced into the Belgian parliament, but at that 
time Belgium had no desire to assume responsibility for the 
Congo State, and the bill was withdrawn. In 1901, by the terms 
of a loan granted in 1890, Belgium had again an opportunity of 
annexing the Congo State, but a bill in favour of annexation was 
opposed by the government and was withdrawn after King 
Leopold had declared that the time was not ripe for the transfer. 
Concessionaire companies and a Domaine de la Couronne had been 
created in the state, from which the sovereign derived consider- 
able revenues facts which helped to explain the altered attitude 
of Leopold II. The agitation in Great Britain and America 
against the Congo system of government, and the admissions of 
an official commission of inquiry concerning its maladministra- 
tion, strengthened, however, the movement in favour of transfer. 
Nevertheless in June 1906 the king again declared himself 
opposed to immediate annexation. But under pressure of public 
opinion the Congo government concluded, 2th of November 
1907, a new annexation treaty. As it stipulated for the continued 
existence of the crown domain the treaty provoked vehement 
opposition. Leopold II. was forced to yield, and an additional 
act was signed, sth of March 1908, providing for the suppression 
of the domain in return for financial subsidies. The treaty, as 
amended, was approved by the Belgian parliament in the session 
of 1908. Thus the Congo state, after an existence of 24 years 
as an independent power, became a Belgian colony. (See 
CONGO FREE STATE.) 

The area of the Free State, vast as it was, did not suffice to 
satisfy the ambition of its sovereign. King Leopold maintained 
that the Free State enjoyed equally with any other state the 
right to extend its frontiers. His ambition involved the state in 
the struggle between Great Britain and France for the upper 
Nile. To understand the situation it is necessary to remember 
the condition of the Egyptian Sudan at that time. The mahdi, 
Mahommed Ahmed, had preached a holy war against the 
Egyptians, and, after the capture of Khartum and the death of 
General C. G. Gordon, the Sudan was abandoned to the dervishes. 
The Egyptian frontier was withdrawn to Wadi Haifa, and the 
vast provinces of Kordofan, Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were 
given over to dervish tyranny and misrule. It was obvious that 
Egypt would sooner or later seek to recover her position in the 
Sudan, as the command of the upper Nile was recognized as 
essential to her continued prosperity. But the international 
position of the abandoned provinces was by no means clear. 
The British government, by the Anglo-German agreement of 
July 1890, had secured the assent of Germany to the statement 
that the British sphere of influence in East Africa was bounded 
on the west by the Congo Free State and by " the western water- 
shed of the basin of the upper Nile "; but this claim was not 
recognized either by France or by the Congo Free State. From 
her base on the Congo, France was busily engaged pushing 
forward along the northern tributaries of the great river. On 
the 27th of April 1887 an agreement was signed with the Congo 
Free State by which the right bank of the Ubangi river was 



secured to French influence, and the left bank to the Congo Free 
State. The desire of France to secure a footing in the upper 
Nile valley was partly due, as has been seen, to her anxiety to 
extend a French zone across Africa, but it was also and to a large 
extent attributable to the belief, widely entertained The 
in France, that by establishing herself on the upper contest 
Nile France could regain the position in Egyptian * r "'< ! 
affairs which she had sacrificed in 1882. With these " pper 
strong inducements France set steadily to work to consolidate 
her position on the tributary streams of the upper Congo basin, 
preparatory to crossing into the valley of ^he upper Nile. Mean- 
while a similar advance was being made from the Congo Free 
State northwards and eastwards. King Leopold had two objects 
in view to obtain control of the rich province of the Bahr-el- 
Ghazal and to secure an outlet on the Nile. Stations were 
established on the Welle river, and in February 1891 Captain 
van Kerckhoven left Leopoldville for the upper Welle with the 
most powerful expedition which had, up to that time, been 
organized by the Free State. After some heavy fighting the 
expedition reached the Nile in September 1892, and opened up 
communications with the remains of the old Egyptian garrison 
at Wadelai. Other expeditions under Belgian officers penetrated 
into the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and it was apparent that King Leopold 
proposed to rely on effective occupation as an answer to any 
claims which might be advanced by either Great Britain or 
France. The news of what was happening in this remote region 
of Africa filtered through to Europe very slowly, but King 
Leopold was warned on several occasions that Great Britain 
would not recognize any claims by the Congo Free State on the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal. The difficulty was, however, that neither from 
Egypt, whence the road was barred by the khalifa (the successor 
of the mahdi), nor from Uganda, which was far too remote from 
the coast to serve as the base of a large expedition, could a 
British force be despatched to take effective occupation of the 
upper Nile valley. There was, therefore, danger lest the French 
should succeed in establishing themselves on the upper Nile 
before the preparations which were being made in Egypt for 
" smashing " the khalifa were completed. 

In these circumstances Lord Rosebery, who was then British 
foreign minister, began, and his successor, the ist earl of 
Kimberley, completed, negotiations with King Leopold The Aag i . 
which resulted in the conclusion of the Anglo- Congolese Congolese 
agreement of 1 2th May 1894. By this agreement King agreement 
Leopold recognized the British sphere of influence otl894 - 
as laid down in the Anglo-German agreement of July 1890, 
and Great Britain granted a lease to King Leopold of certain 
territories in the western basin of the upper Nile, extending on 
the Nile from a point on Lake Albert to Fashoda, and westwards 
to the Congo-Nile watershed. The practical effect of this agree - 
ment was to give the Congo Free State a lease, during its 
sovereign's lifetime, of the old Bahr-el-Ghazal province, and to 
secure after His Majesty's death as much of that territory as 
lay west of the 3oth meridian, together with access to a port on 
Lake Albert, to his successor. At the same time the Congo Free 
State leased to Great Britain a strip of territory, is|m. in 
breadth, between the north end of Lake Tanganyika and the 
south end of Lake Albert Edward. This agreement was hailed 
as a notable triumph for British diplomacy. But the triumph 
was short-lived. By the agreement of July 1890 with Germany, 
Great Britain had been reluctantly compelled to abandon her 
hopes of through communication between the British spheres 
in the northern and southern parts of the continent, and to 
consent to the boundary of German East Africa marching with 
the eastern frontier of the Congo Free State. Germany frankly 
avowed that she did not wish to have a powerful neighbour 
interposed between herself and the Congo Free State. It was 
obvious that the new agreement would effect precisely what 
Germany had declined to agree to in 1890. Accordingly Germany 
protested in such vigorous terms that, on the 22nd of June 1894, 
the offending article was withdrawn by an exchange of notes 
between Great Britain and the Congo Free State. Opinion in 
France was equally excited by the new agreement. It was 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



34 1 



obvious that the lease to the Congo Free State was intended 
to exclude France from the Nile by placing the Congo Free State . 
as a barrier across her path. Pressure was brought to bear on 
King Leopold, from Paris, to renounce the rights acquired under 
the agreement, and on the I4th of August 1894 King Leopold 
signed an agreement with France by which, in exchange for 
France's acknowledgment of the Mbomu river as his northern 
frontier, His Majesty renounced all occupation and all exercise 
of political influence west of 30 E., and north of a line drawn 
from that meridian to the Nile along 5 30' N. 

This left the way still open for France to the Nile, and in 
June i8g6 Captain J. Marchand left France with secret instruc- 
tions to lead an expedition into the Nile valley. On the ist of 
March in the following year he left Brazzaville, and began a 
journey which all but plunged Great Britain and France into 
war. The difficulties which Captain Marchand had to overcome 
were mainly those connected with transport. In October 1897 
the expedition.reached the banks of the Sue, the waters of which 
eventually flow into the Nile. Here a post was established and 
the " Faidherbe," a steamer which had been carried across the 
Congo-Nile watershed in sections, was put together and launched. 
On the ist of May 1898 Marchand started on the final stage of 
his journey, and reached Fashoda on the loth of July, having 
established a chain of posts en route. At Fashoda the French 
flag was at once raised, and a " treaty " made with the local 
chief. Meanwhile other expeditions had been concentrating on 
Fashoda a mud-flat situated in a swamp, round 
wn ich for many months raged the angry passions of 
Fashoda. two great peoples. French expeditions, with a certain 
amount of assistance from the emperor Menelek of 
Abyssinia, had been striving to reach the Nile from the east, so 
as to join hands with Marchand and complete the line of posts 
into the Abyssinian frontier. In this, however, they were un- 
successful. No better success attended the expedition under 
Colonel (afterwards Sir) Ronald Macdonald, R.E., sent by the 
British government from Uganda to anticipate the French in the 
occupation of the upper Nile. It was from the north that 
claimants arrived to dispute with the French their right to 
Fashoda, and all that the occupation of that dismal post implied. 
In 1896 an Anglo-Egyptian army, under the direction of Sir 
Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, had begun to advance 
southwards for the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan. On the 
2nd of September 1898 Khartum was captured, and the khalifa's 
army dispersed. It was then that news reached the Anglo- 
Egyptian commander, from native sources, that there were 
white men flying a strange flag at Fashoda. The sirdar at once 
proceeded in a steamer up the Nile, and courteously but firmly 
requested Captain Marchand to remove the French flag. On 
his refusal the Egyptian flag was raised close to the French flag, 
and the dispute was referred to Europe for adjustment between 
the British and French governments. A critical situation ensued. 
Neither government was inclined to give way, and for a time 
war seemed imminent. Happily Lord Salisbury was able to 
announce, on the 4th of November, that France was willing to 
recognize the British claims, and the incident was finally closed 
on the 2 ist of March 1899, when an Anglo-French declaration 
was signed, by the terms of which France withdrew from the 
Nile valley and accepted a boundary line which satisfied her 
earlier ambition by uniting the whole of her territories in North, 
West and Central Africa into a homogeneous whole, while effectu- 
ally preventing the realization of her dream of a transcontinental 
empire from west to east. By this declaration it was agreed 
that the dividing line between the British and French spheres, 
north of the Congo Free State, should follow the Congo-Nile 
water-parting up to its intersection with the nth parallel of 
north latitude, from which point it was to be " drawn as far 
as the 1 5th parallel in such a manner as to separate in principle 
the kingdom of Wadai from what constituted in 1882 the province 
of Darfur," but in no case was it to be drawn west of the 2 ist 
degree of east longitude, or east of the 23rd degree. From the 
1 5th parallel the line was continued north and north-west to the 
intersection of the Tropic of Cancer with 16 E. French influence 






was to prevail west of this line, British influence to the east. 
Wadai was thus definitely assigned to France. 

When, by the declaration of the 2 ist of March 1899, France 
renounced all territorial ambitioHS in the upper Nile basin, King 
Leopold revived his claims to the Bahr-el-Ghazal 
province under the terms of the lease granted by 
Article 2 of the Anglo-Congolese agreement of 1894. el-ohazal. 
This step he was encouraged to take by the assertion 
of Lord Salisbury, in his capacity as secretary of state for foreign 
affairs during the negotiations with France concerning Fashoda, 
that the lease to King Leopold was still in full force. But the 
assertion was made simply as a declaration of British right to 
dispose of the territory, and the sovereign of the Congo State 
found that there was no disposition in Great Britain to allow 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal to fall into his hands. Long and fruitless 
negotiations ensued. The king at length (1904) sought to force 
a settlement by sending armed forces into the province. Diplo- 
matic representations having failed to secure the withdrawal of 
these forces, the Sudan government issued a proclamation 
which had the effect of cutting off the Congo stations from 
communication with the Nile, and finally King Leopold con- 
sented to an agreement, signed in London on the gih of May 
1906, whereby the 1894 lease was formally annulled. The 
Bahr-el-Ghazal thenceforth became undisputedly an integral 
part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. King Leopold had, however, 
by virtue of the 1894 agreement administered the comparatively 
small portion of the leased area in which his presence was not 
resented by France. This territory, including part of the west 
bank of the Nile and known as the Lado Enclave, the 1906 
agreement allowed King Leopold to " continue during his reign 
to occupy." Provision was made that within six months of 
the termination of His Majesty's reign the enclave should be 
handed over to the Sudan government (see CONGO FKEE STATE). 
In this manner ended the long struggle for supremacy on the 
upper Nile, Great Britain securing the withdrawal of all European 
rivals. 

The course of events in the southern half of the continent 
may now be traced. By the convention of the i4th of February 
1885, in which Portugal recognized the sovereignty of portugaFs 
the Congo Free State, and by a further convention trans- 
concluded with France in 1886, Portugal secured At f^ 
recognition of her claim to the territory known as 
the Kabinda enclave, lying north of the Congo, but not to the 
northern bank of the river. By the same convention of 1885 
Portugal's claim to the southern bank of the river as far as Noki 
(the limit of navigation from the sea) had been admitted. Thus 
Portuguese possessions on the west coast extended from the 
Congo to the mouth of the Kunene river. In the interior the 
boundary with the Free -State was settled as far as the Kwango 
river, but disputes arose as to the right to the country of Lunda, 
otherwise known as the territory of the Muato Yanvo. On the 
25th of May 1891 a treaty was signed at Lisbon, by which this 
large territory was divided between Portugal and the Free State. 
The interior limits of the Portuguese possessions in Africa south 
of the equator gave rise, however, to much more serious discus- 
sions than were involved in the dispute as to the Muato Yanvo's 
kingdom. Portugal, as has been stated, claimed all the territories 
between Angola and Mozambique, and she succeeded in inducing 
both France and Germany, in 1886, to recognize the king of 
Portugal's " right to exercise his sovereign and civilizing influence 
in the territories which separate the Portuguese possessions of 
Angola and Mozambique." The publication of the treaties 
containing this declaration, together with a map showing 
Portuguese claims extending over the whole of the Zambezi 
valley, and over Matabeleland to the south and the greater part 
of Lake Nyasa to the north, immediately provoked a formal 
protest from the British government. On the i3th of August 
1887 the British charge d'affaires at Lisbon transmitted to the 
Portuguese minister for foreign affairs a memorandum from 
Lord Salisbury, in which the latter formally protested " against 
any claims not founded on occupation," and contended that the 
doctrine of effective occupation had been admitted in principle 



342 



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[HISTORY 



by all the parties to the Act of Berlin. Lord Salisbury further 
stated that " Her Majesty's government cannot recognize 
Portuguese sovereignty in territory not occupied by her in 
sufficient strength to enable her to maintain order, protect 
foreigners and control the natives." To this Portugal replied 
that the doctrine of effective occupation was expressly confined 
by the Berlin Act to the African coast, but at the same time 
expeditions were hastily despatched up the Zambezi and some 
of its tributaries to discover traces of former Portuguese occu- 
pation. Matabeleland and the districts of Lake Nyasa were 
specially mentioned in the British protest as countries in which 
Her Majesty's government took a special interest. As a matter 
of fact the extension of British influence northwards to the 
Zambezi had engaged the attention of the British authorities 
ever since the appearance of Germany in South- West Africa 
and the declaration of a British protectorate over Bechuanaland. 
There were rumours of German activity in Matabeleland, and 
Rhodesia f a Boer trek north of the Limpopo. Hunters and 
secured for explorers had reported in eulogistic terms on the rich 
Britain goldfields and healthy plateau lands of Matabeleland 
and Mashonaland, over both of which countries a 
powerful chief, Lobengula, claimed authority. There were many 
suitors for Lobengula's favours; but on the nth of February 
1888 he signed a treaty with J. S. Moffat, the assistant commis- 
sioner in Bechuanaland, the effect of which was to place all his 
territory under British protection. Both the Portuguese and 
the Transvaal Boers were chagrined at this extension of British 
influence. A number of Boers attempted unsuccessfully to 
trek into the country, and Portugal opposed her ancient claims 
to the new treaty. She contended that Lobengula's authority 
did not extend over Mashonaland, which she claimed as part of 
the Portuguese province of Sofala. 

Meanwhile preparations were being actively made by British 
capitalists for the exploitation of the mineral and other resources 
of Lobengula's territories. Two rival syndicates obtained, or 
claimed to have obtained, concessions from Lobengula; but in 
the summer of 1889 Cecil Rhodes succeeded in amalgamating 
the conflicting interests, and on the zgth of October of that year 
the British government granted a charter to the British South 
Africa Company (see RHODESIA) . The first article of the charter 
declared that " the principal field of the operations " of the 
company " shall be the region of South Africa lying immediately 
to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the north and west 
of the South African Republic, and to the west of the Portuguese 
dominions." No time was lost in making preparations for 
effective occupation. On the advice of F. C. Selous it was deter- 
mined to despatch an expedition to eastern Mashonaland by a 
new route, which would avoid the Matabele country. This plan 
was carried out in the summer of 1890, and, thanks to the rapidity 
with which the column moved and Selous's intimate knowledge 
of the country, the British flag was, on the i ith of September, 
hoisted at a spot on the Makubusi river, where the town of 
Salisbury now stands, and the country taken possession of in 
the name of Queen Victoria. Disputes with the Portuguese 
ensued, and there were several frontier incidents which for a 
time embittered the relations between the two countries. 

Meanwhile, north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese were 
making desperate but futile attempts to repair the neglect 
An lo- ^ centur ' es by hastily organized expeditions and the 
Portu- hoisting of flags. In 1888 an attempt to close the 
guete dis- Zambezi to British vessels was frustrated by the firm- 

"central ness f Lord Salisbur y- In a despatch to the British 
AM. minister at Lisbon, dated the 25th of June 1888, Lord 
Salisbury, after brushing aside the Portuguese claims 
founded on doubtful discoveries three centuries old, stated the 
British case in a few sentences: 

It is (he wrote) an undisputed point that the recent discoveries 
of the English traveller, Livingstone, were followed by organized 
attempts on the part of English religious and commercial bodies to 
open up and civilize the districts surrounding and adjoining the lake. 
Many British settlements have been established, the access to which 
from the sea is by the rivers Zambesi and Shir. Her Majesty's 
government and the British public are much interested in the welfare 



of these settlements. Portugal does not occupy, and has never occu- 
pied, any portion of the lake, nor of the Shir6; she has neither 
authority nor influence beyond the confluence of the Shire and 
Zambesi, where her interior custom-house, now withdrawn, was 
placed by the terms of the Mozambique Tariff of 1877. 

In 1889 it became known to the British government that a 
considerable Portuguese expedition was being organized under 
the command of Major Serpa Pinto, for operating in the Zambezi 
region. In answer to inquiries addressed to the Portuguese 
government, the foreign minister stated that the object of the 
expedition was to visit the Portuguese settlements on the upper 
Zambezi. The British government was, even so late as 1889, 
averse from declaring a formal protectorate over the Nyasa 
region; but early in that year H. H. (afterwards Sir Harry) 
Johnston was sent out to Mozambique as British consul, with 
instructions to travel in the interior and report on the troubles 
that had arisen with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa and with the 
Portuguese. The discovery by D. J. Rankin in 1889 of a navi- 
gable mouth of the Zambezi the Chinde and the offer by 
Cecil Rhodes of a subsidy of 10,000 a year from the British 
South Africa Company, removed some of the objections to 
a protectorate entertained by the British government; but 
Johnston's instructions were not to proclaim a protectorate 
unless circumstances compelled him to take that course. To 
his surprise Johnston learnt on his arrival at the Zambezi that 
Major Serpa Pinto's expedition had been suddenly deflected to 
the north. Hurrying forward, Johnston overtook the Portu- 
guese expedition and warned its leader that any attempt to 
establish political influence north of the Ruo river would compel 
him to take steps to protect British interests. On arrival at the 
Ruo, Major Serpa Pinto returned to Mozambique for instruc- 
tions, and in his absence Lieutenant Coutinho crossed the river, 
attacked the Makololo chiefs and sought to obtain possession of 
the Shire highlands by a coup de main. John Buchanan, the 
British vice-consul, lost no time in declaring the country under 
British protection, and his action was subsequently confirmed 
by Johnston on his return from a treaty-making expedition on 
Lake Nyasa. On the news of these events reaching Europe the 
British government addressed an ultimatum to Portugal, as the 
result of which Lieutenant Coutinho's action was disavowed, 
and he was ordered to withdraw the Portuguese forces south 
of the Ruo. After prolonged negotiations, a convention was 
signed between Great Britain and Portugal on the zoth of August 
1890, by which Great Britain obtained a broad belt of territory 
north of the Zambezi, stretching from Lake Nyasa on the east, 
the southern end of Tanganyika on the north, and the Kabompo 
tributary of the Zambezi on the west; while south of the Zambezi 
Portugal retained the right bank of the river from a point ten 
miles above Zumbo, and the western boundary of her territory 
south of the river was made to coincide roughly with the 33rd 
degree of east longitude. The publication of the convention 
aroused deep resentment in Portugal, and the government, 
unable to obtain its ratification by the chamber of deputies, 
resigned. In October the abandonment of the convention was 
accepted by the new Portuguese ministry as a fait accompli ; 
but on the i4th of November the two governments signed an 
agreement for a modus vivendi, by which they engaged to recog- 
nize the territorial limits indicated in the convention of .zoth 
August " in so far that from the date of the present agreement 
to the termination thereof neither Power will make BrlUsh 



treaties, accept protectorates, nor exercise any act of 
sovereignty within the spheres of influence assigned 
to the other party by the said convention." The 
breathing-space thus gained enabled feeling inPortugal 
to cool down, and on the nth of June 1891 another treaty was 
signed, the ratifications being exchanged on the 3rd of July. 
As already stated, this is the main treaty defining the British 
and Portuguese spheres both south and north of the Zambezi. 
It contained many other provisions relating to trade and naviga- 
tion, providing, inter alia, a maximum transit duty of 3% 
on imports and exports crossing Portuguese territories on the 
east coast to the British sphere, freedom of navigation of the 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



343 



Zambezi and Shire for the ships of all nations, and stipula- 
tions as to the making of railways, roads and telegraphs. The 
territorial readjustment effected was slightly more favourable 
to Portugal than that agreed upon by the 1890 convention. 
Portugal was given both banks of the Zambezi to a point ten 
miles west of Zumbo the farthest settlement of the Portuguese 
on the river. South of the Zambezi the frontier takes a south 
and then an east course till it reaches the edge of the continental 
plateau, thence running, roughly, along the line of 33 E. south- 
ward to the north-eastern frontier of the Transvaal. Thus by 
this treaty Portugal was left in the possession of the coast-lands, 
while Great Britain maintained her right to Matabele and 
Mashona lands. The boundary between the Portuguese sphere 
of influence on the west coast and the British sphere of influence 
north of the Zambezi was only vaguely indicated; but it was 
to be drawn in such a manner as to leave the Barotse country 
within the British sphere, Lewanika, the paramount chief of 
the Marotse, claiming that his territory extended much farther 
to the west than was admitted by the Portuguese. In August 
1903 the question what were the limits of the Barotse kingdom 
was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy. By his 
award, delivered in June 1905, the western limit of the British 
sphere runs from the northern frontier of German South-West 
Africa up the Kwando river to 22 E., follows that meridian north 
to 13 S., then runs due east to 24 E., and then north again to 
the frontier of the Congo State. 

Before the conclusion of the treaty of June 1891 with Portugal, 
the British government had made certain arrangements for the 
administration of the large area north of the Zambezi reserved 
to British influence. On the ist of February Sir Harry Johnston 
was appointed imperial commissioner in Nyasaland, and a fort- 
night later the British South Africa Company intimated a 
desire to extend its operations north of the Zambezi. Negotia- 
tions followed, and the field of operations of the Chartered 
Company was, on the 2nd of April 1891, extended so as to cover 
(with the exception of Nyasaland) the whole of the British 
sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (now known as Northern 
Rhodesia). On the i4th of May a formal protectorate was 
declared over Nyasaland, including the Shire highlands and a 
belt of territory extending along the whole of the western shore 
of Lake Nyasa. The name was changed in 1893 to that of the 
British Central Africa Protectorate, for which designation was 
substituted in 1907 the more appropriate title of Nyasaland 
Protectorate. 

At the date of the assembling of the Berlin conference the 
German government had notified that the coast-line on the 
Germany's south-west of the continent, from the Orange river to 
share of Cape Frio, had been placed under German protection. 
South On the i3th of April 1885 the German South-West 
Africa Company was constituted under an order of the 
imperial cabinet with the rights of state sovereignty, including 
mining royalties and rights, and a railway and telegraph mono- 
poly. In that and the following years the Germans vigorously 
pursued the business of treaty-making with the native chiefs in 
the interior; and when, in July 1890, the British and German 
governments came to an agreement as to the limits of their 
respective spheres of influence in various parts of Africa, the 
boundaries of German South-West Africa were fixed in their 
present position. By Article III. of this agreement the north 
bank of the Orange river up to the point of its intersection by the 
2oth degree of east longitude was made the southern boundary 
of the German sphere of influence. The eastern boundary fol- 
lowed the 20th degree of east longitude to its intersection by the 
22nd parallel of south latitude, then ran eastwards along that 
parallel to the point of its intersection by the 2ist degree of east 
longitude. From that point it ran northwards along the last- 
named meridian to the point of its intersection by the i8th 
parallel of south latitude, thence eastwards along that parallel to 
the river Chobe or Kwando, and along the main channel of that 
river to its junction with the Zambezi, where it terminated. The 
northern frontier marched with the southern boundary of Portu- 
guese West Africa. The object of deflecting the eastern boundary 



near its northern termination was to give Germany access by her 
own territory to the upper waters of the Zambezi, and it was 
declared that this strip of territory was at no part to be less than 
20 English miles in width. 

To complete the survey of the political partition of Africa south 
of the Zambezi, it is necessary briefly to refer to the events con- 
nected with the South African Republic and the Orange 
Free State. In October 1886 the British government 
made an agreement with the New Republic, a small Republics. 
community of Boer farmers who had in 1884-85 seized 
part of Zululand and set up a government of their own, defining 
the frontier between the New Republic and Zululand; but in 
July 1888 the New Republic was incorporated in the South 
African Republic. In a convention of July- August 1890 the 
British government and the government of the South African 
Republic confirmed the independence of Swaziland, and on the 
8th of November 1893 another convention was signed with the 
same object; but on the igth of December 1894 the British 
government agreed to the South African Republic exercising 
"all rights and powers of protection, legislation, jurisdiction 
and administration over Swaziland and the inhabitants thereof," 
subject to certain conditions and provisions, and to the non- 
incorporation of Swaziland in the Republic. In the previous 
September Pondoland had been annexed to Cape Colony; on the 
23rd of April 1895 Tongaland was declared by proclamation to 
be added to the dominions of Queen Victoria, and in December 
1897 Zululand and Tongaland, or Amatongaland, were incor- 
porated with the colony of Natal. The history of the events that 
led up to the Boer War of 1 899-1 902 cannot be recounted here (see 
TRANSVAAL, History), but in October 1899 the South African 
Republic and the Orange Free State addressed an ultimatum to 
Great Britain and invaded Natal and Cape Colony. As a result 
of the military operations that followed, the Orange Free State 
was, on the 28th of May 1900, proclaimed by Lord Roberts a 
British colony under the name " Orange River Colony," and the 
South African Republic was on the 25th of October 1900 incor- 
porated in the British empire as the " Transvaal Colony." In 
January 1903 the districts of Vryheid (formerly the New Re- 
public), Utrecht and part of the Wakkerstroom district, a tract 
of territory comprising in all about 7000 sq. m., were transferred 
from the Transvaal colony to Natal. In 1907 both the Transvaal 
and Orange River Colony were granted responsible government. 

On the east coast the two great rivals were Germany and Great 
Britain. Germany on the 3oth of December 1886, and Great 
Britain on the nth of June 1891, formally recognized Aax i . 
the Rovuma river as the northern boundary of the German 
Portuguese sphere of influence on that coast; but it rivalry la 
was to the north of that river, over the vast area of ^^ M 
East or East Central Africa in which the sultan of 
Zanzibar claimed to exercise suzerainty, that the struggle be- 
tween the two rival powers was most acute. The independence 
of the sultans of Zanzibar had been recognized by the govern- 
ments of Great Britain and France in 1862, and the sultan's 
authority extended almost uninterruptedly along the coast of the 
mainland, from Cape Delgado in the south to Warsheik on the 
north a stretch of coast more than a thousand miles long 
though to the north the sultan's authority was confined to certain 
ports. In Zanzibar itself, where Sir John Kirk, Livingstone's 
companion in his second expedition, was British consul-general, 
British influence was, when the Berlin conference met, practically 
supreme, though German traders had established themselves on 
the island and created considerable commercial interests. Away 
from the coasts the limits and extent of the sultan's authority 
were far from being clearly defined. The sultan himself claimed 
that it extended as far as Lake Tanganyika, but the claim did not 
rest on any very solid ground of effective occupation. The little- 
known region of the Great Lakes had for some time attracted the 
attention of the men who were directing the colonial movement 
in Germany; and, as has been stated, a small band of pioneers 
actually landed on the mainland opposite Zanzibar in November 
1884, and made their first " treaty " with the chief of Mbuzini 
on the igth of that month. Pushing up the Wami river the three 



344 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



adventurers reached the Usagara country, and concluded more 
" treaties," the net result being that when, in the middle of 
December, Karl Peters returned to the coast he brought back 
with him documents which were claimed to concede some 60,000 
sq. m. of country to the German Colonization Society. Peters 
hurried back to Berlin, and on the zyth of February 1885 the 
German emperor issued a " Charter of Protection " by which 
His Majesty accepted the suzerainty of the newly-acquired 
territory, and " placed under our Imperial protection the 
territories in question." The conclusion of these treaties was, 
on the 6th of March, notified to the British government and to 
the sultan of Zanzibar. Immediately on receipt of the notifica- 
tion the sultan telegraphed an energetic protest to Berlin, alleging 
that the places placed under German protection had belonged to 
the sultanate of Zanzibar from the time of his fathers. The 
German consul-general refused to admit the sultan's claims, and 
meanwhile agents of the German society were energetically 
pursuing the task of treaty-making. The sultan (Seyyid Bargash) 
despatched a small force to the disputed territory, which was 
subsequently withdrawn, and in May sent a more imposing 
expedition under the command of General Lloyd Mathews, the 
commander-in-chief of the Zanzibar army, to the Kilimanjaro 
district, in order to anticipate the action of German agents. 
Meanwhile Lord Granville, then at the British Foreign Office, had 
taken up an extremely friendly attitude towards the 
aaa- German claims. Before these events the sultan of 
vine's Zanzibar had, on more than one occasion, practically 
compials- invited Great Britain to assume a protectorate over 
"towards *" s dominions. But the invitations had been declined. 
Germany. Egyptian affairs were, in the year 1885, causing con- 
siderable anxiety to the British government, and the 
fact was not without influence on the attitude of the British 
foreign secretary. On the 2$th of May 1885, in a despatch to the 
British ambassador at Berlin, Lord Granville instructed Sir E. 
Malet to communicate the' views of the British cabinet to Prince 
Bismarck: 

I have to request your Excellency to state that the supposition 
that Her Majesty's Government have no intention of opposing the 
German scheme of colonization in the neighbourhood of Zanzibar 
is absolutely correct. Her Majesty's Government, on the contrary, 
view with favour these schemes, the realization of which will entail 
the civilization of large tracts over which hitherto no European 
influence has been exercised, the co-operation of Germany with 
Great Britain in the work of the suppression of the slave gangs, and 
the encouragement of the efforts of the Sultan both in the extinc- 
tion of the slave trade and in the commercial development of his 
dominions. 

In the same despatch Lord Granville instructed Sir E. Malet 
to intimate to the German government that some prominent 
capitalists had originated a plan for a British settlement in the 
country between the coast and the lakes, which are the sources 
of the White Nile, " and for its connexion with the coast by a 
railway." But Her Majesty's government would not accord 
to these prominent capitalists the support they had called for, 
" unless they were fully satisfied that every precaution was 
taken to ensure that it should in no way conflict with the interests 
of the territory that has been taken under German protectorate," 
and Prince Bismarck was practically invited to say whether 
British capitalists were or were not to receive the protection of 
the British government. The reference in Lord Granville's des- 
patch was to a proposal made by a number of British merchants 
and others who had long been interested in Zanzibar, and who 
saw in the rapid advance of Germany a menace to the interests 
which had hitherto been regarded as paramount in the sultanate. 
In 1884 H. H. Johnston had concluded treaties with the chief 
of Taveta in the Kilimanjaro district, and had transferred these 
treaties to John Hutton of Manchester. Hutton, with Mr (after- 
wards Sir William) Mackinnon, was one of the founders of what 
subsequently became the Imperial British East Africa Company. 
But in the early stages the champions of British interests in East 
Africa received no support from their own government, while 
Germany was pushing her advantage with the energy of a recent 
convert to colonial expansion, and had even, on the coast, opened 
negotiations with the sultan of Witu, a small territory situated 



north of the Tana river, whose ruler claimed to be independent 
of Zanzibar. On the sth of May 1885 the sultan of Witu executed 
a deed of sale and cession to a German subject of certain tracts 
of land on the coast, and later in the same year other treaties 
or sales of territory were effected, by which German subjects 
acquired rights on the coast-line claimed by the sultan. Inland, 
treaties had been concluded on behalf of Germany with the chiefs 
of the Kilimanjaro region, and an intimation to that effect made 
to the British government. But before this occurred the German 
government had succeeded in extracting an acknowledgment 
of the validity of the earlier treaties from the sultan of Zanzibar. 
Early in August a powerful German squadron appeared off 
Zanzibar, and on the I4th of that month the sultan yielded to 
the inevitable, acknowledged the German protectorate over 
Usagara and Witu, and undertook to withdraw his soldiers. 

Meanwhile negotiations had been opened for the appointment 
of an international commission, " for the purpose of inquiring 
into the claims of the sultans of Zanzibar to sovereignty partition 
over certain territories on the east coast of Africa, of the 
and of ascertaining their precise limits." The govern- sultanate 
ments to be represented were Great Britain, France J 

, _, . Zanzibar, 

and Germany, and towards the end of 1885 commis- 
sioners were appointed. The commissioners reported on the 
gth of June 1886, and assigned to the sultan the islands of Zan- 
zibar, Pemba, Lamu, Mafia and a number of other small islands. 
On the mainland they recognized as belonging to the sultan a 
continuous strip of territory, 10 sea-miles in depth, from the 
south bank of the Minengani river, a stream a short distance 
south of the Rovuma, to Kipini, at the mouth of the Tana river, 
some 600 m. in length. North of Kipini the commissioners 
recognized as belonging to the sultan the stations of Kismayu, 
Brava, Marka and Mukdishu, with radii landwards of 10 sea- 
miles, and of Warsheik with a radius of 5 sea-miles. By an 
exchange of notes in October-November 1886 the governments 
of Great Britain and Germany accepted the reports of the de- 
limitation commissioners, to which the sultan adhered on the 
4th of the following December. But the British and German 
governments did more than determine what territories were to 
be assigned to the sultanate of Zanzibar. They agreed to a 
delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in East 
Africa. The territory to be affected by this arrangement was 
to be bounded on the south by the Rovuma river, " and on the 
north by a line which, starting from the mouth of the Tana river, 
follows the course of that river or its affluents to the point of 
intersection of the equator and the 38th degree of east longitude, 
thence strikes direct to the point of intersection of the ist degree 
of north latitude with the 37th degree of east longitude, where 
the line terminates." The line of demarcation between the 
British and the German spheres of influence was to start from 
the mouth of the river Wanga or Umba (which enters the ocean 
opposite Pemba Island to the north of Zanzibar), and running 
north-west was to skirt the northern base of the Kilimanjaro 
range, and thence to be drawn direct to the point on the eastern 
side of Victoria Nyanza intersected by the ist degree of south 
latitude. South of this line German influence was to prevail; 
north of the line was the British sphere. The sultan's dominions 
having been thus truncated, Germany associated herself with 
the recognition of the " independence " of Zanzibar in which 
France and Great Britain had joined in 1862. The effect of 
this agreement was to define the spheres of influence of the two 
countries as far as Victoria Nyanza, but it provided no limit 
westwards, and left the country north of the Tana river, in which 
Germany had already acquired some interests near the coast, 
open for fresh annexations. The conclusion of the agreement 
immediately stimulated the enterprise both of the German East 
African Company, to which Peters's earlier treaties had been 
transferred, and of the British capitalists to whom reference 
had been made in Lord Granville's despatch. The German East 
African Company was incorporated by imperial charter in March 
1887, and the British capitalists formed themselves into the 
British East Africa Association, and on the 24th of May 1887 
obtained, through the good offices of Sir William Mackinnon, 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



345 



Africa. 



a concession of the 10- miles strip of coast from the Umba river 
in the south to Kipini in the north. The British association 
further sought to extend its rights in the sphere reserved to 
British influence by making treaties with the native chiefs be- 
hind the coast strip, and for this purpose various expeditions 
were sent into the interior. When they had obtained conces- 
sions over the country for some 200 m. inland the associated 
Formation capitalists applied to the British government for a 
of British charter, which was granted on the 3rd of September 
1888, and the association became the Imperial British 
East Africa Company (see BRITISH EAST AFRICA). 
The example set by the British company in obtaining a lease 
of the coast strip between the British sphere of influence and the 
sea was quickly followed by the German association, which, on 
the 28th of April 1888, concluded an agreement with the sultan 
Khalifa, who had succeeded his brother Bargash, by which the 
association leased the strip of Zanzibar territory between the 
German sphere and the sea. It was not, however, until August 
that the German officials took over the administration, and their 
want of tact and ignorance of native administration almost 
immediately provoked a rebellion of so serious a character that 
it was not suppressed until the imperial authorities had taken 
the matter in hand. Shortly after its suppression the administra- 
tion was entrusted to an imperial officer, and the sultan's rights 
on the mainland strip were bought outright by Germany for 
four millions of marks (200,000). 

Events of great importance had been happening, meanwhile, 
in the country to the west and north of the British sphere of 
influence. The British company had sent caravans into the 
interior to survey the country, to make treaties with the native 
chiefs and to report on the commercial and agricultural possi- 
bilities. One of these had gone up the Tana river. But another 
and a rival expedition was proceeding along the northern bank 
of this same river. Karl Peters, whose energy cannot be denied, 
whatever may be thought of his methods, set out with an armed 
caravan up the Tana on the pretext of leading an expedition to 
the relief of Emin Pasha, the governor of the equatorial province 
of the Egyptian Sudan, then reported to be hemmed in by the 
dervishes at Wadelai. His expedition was not sanctioned by 
the German government, and the British naval commander had 
orders to prevent his landing. But Peters succeeded in evading 
the British vessels and proceeded up the river, planting German 
flags and fighting the natives who opposed his progress. Early 
in 1890 he reached Kavirondo, and there found letters from 
Mwanga, king of Uganda, addressed to F. J. Jackson, the 
leader of an expedition sent out by the British East Africa 
Uganda Company, imploring the company's representative 
secured by to come to his assistance and offering to accept the 
British flag. To previous letters, less plainly couched, 
from the king, Jackson had returned the answer that 
his instructions were not to enter Uganda, but that he would 
do so in case of need. The letters that fell into Peters's hands 
were in reply to those from Jackson. Peters did not hesitate 
to open the letters, and on reading them he at once proceeded 
to Uganda, where, with the assistance of the French Roman 
Catholic priests, he succeeded in inducing Mwanga to sign a 
loosely worded treaty intended to place him under German 
protection. On hearing of this Jackson at once set out for 
Uganda, but Peters did not wait for his arrival, leaving for the 
south of Victoria Nyanza some days before Jackson arrived 
at Mengo, Mwanga's capital. As Mwanga would not agree to 
Jackson's proposals, Jackson returned to the coast, leaving a 
representative at Mengo to protect the company's interests. 
Captain (afterwards Sir) F. D. Lugard, who had recently entered 
the company's employment, was at once ordered to proceed to 
Uganda. But in the meantime an event of great importance 
had taken place, the conclusion of the agreement between Great 
Britain and Germany with reference to their different spheres of 
influence in various parts of Africa. 

The Anglo-German agreement -of the ist of July 1890 has 
already been referred to and its importance insisted upon. 
Here we have to deal with the provisions in reference to East 



Great 
Britain. 



Africa. In return for the cession of Heligoland, Lord Salisbury 
obtained from Germany the recognition of a British protectorate 
over the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, including the 
islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, but excluding the strip leased to 
Germany, which was subsequently ceded absolutely to Germany. 
Germany further agreed to withdraw the protectorate declared 
over Witu and the adjoining coast up to Kismayu in favour of 
Great Britain, and to recognize as within the British sphere of 
influence the vast area bounded, on the south by the frontier 
line laid down in the agreement of 1886, which was to be extended 
along the first parallel of south latitude across Victoria Nyanza 
to the frontiers of the Congo Free State, on the west by the 
Congo Free State and the western watershed of the Nile, and on 
the north by a line commencing on the coast at the north bank of 
the mouth of the river Juba, then ascending that bank of the 
river until it reached the territory at that time regarded as 
reserved to the influence of Italy 1 in Gallaland and Abyssinia, 
when it followed the frontier of the Italian sphere to the confines 
of Egypt. To the south-west of the German sphere in East 
Africa the boundary was formed by the eastern and northern 
shore of Lake Nyasa, and round the western shore to the mouth 
of the Songwe river, from which point it crossed the Nyasa- 
Tanganyika plateau to the southern end of the last-named lake, 
leaving the Stevenson Road on the British side of the _/ mfts of 
boundary. The effect of this treaty was to remove German 
all serious causes of dispute about territory between Bast 
Germany and Great Britain in East Africa. It ren- ^Serf 
dered quite valueless Peters's treaty with Mwanga 
and his promenade along the Tana; it freed Great Britain from 
any fear of German competition to the northwards, and recog- 
nized that her influence extended to the western limits of the 
Nile valley. But, on the other hand, Great Britain had to relin- 
quish the ambition of connecting her sphere of influence in the 
Nile valley with her possessions in Central and South Africa. On 
this point Germany was quite obdurate; and, as already stated, 
an attempt subsequently made (May 1894) to secure this object 
by the lease of a strip of territory from the Congo Free State was 
frustrated by German opposition. 

Uganda having thus been assigned to the British sphere of 
influence by the only European power in a position to contest 
its possession with her, the subsequent history of that region, 
and of the country between the Victoria Nyanza and the coast, 
must be traced in the articles on BRITISH EAST AFRICA and 
UGANDA, but it may be well briefly to record here the following 
facts: The Imperial British East Africa Company, finding the 
burden of administration too heavy for its financial resources, 
and not receiving the assistance it felt itself entitled to receive 
from the imperial authorities, intimated that it would be com- 
pelled to withdraw at the end of the year 1892. Funds were 
raised to enable the company to continue its administration until 
the end of March 1893, and a strong public protest against 
evacuation compelled the government to determine in favour 
of the retention of the country. In January 1893 Sir Gerald 
Portal left the coast as a special commissioner to inquire into the 
" best means of dealing with the country, whether through 
Zanzibar or otherwise." On the 3ist of March the union jack 
was raised, and on the 2gth of May a fresh treaty was concluded 
with King Mwanga placing his country under British protection. 
A formal protectorate was declared over Uganda proper on the 
igth of June 1894, which was subsequently extended so as to 
include the countries westwards towards the Congo Free State, 
eastwards to the British East Africa protectorate and Abyssinia, 
and northwards to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The British 
East Africa protectorate was constituted in June 1895, when 
the Imperial British East Africa Company relinquished all its 
rights in exchange for a money payment, and the administration 
was assumed by the imperial authorities. On the ist of April 
1902 the eastern province of the Uganda protectorate was 
transferred to the British East Africa protectorate, which thus 
secured control of the whole length of the so-called Uganda 

1 At this period negotiations between Great Britain and Italy 
had begun but were not concluded. 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



railway, and at the same time obtained access to the Victoria 
Nyanza. 

Early in the 'eighties, as already seen, Italy had obtained her 
first formal footing on the African coast at the Bay of Assab 
(Aussa) on the Red Sea. In 1885 the troubles in 
which Egypt found herself involved compelled the 
Africa. khedive and his advisers to loosen their hold on 
the Red Sea littoral, and, with the tacit approval 
of Great Britain, Italy took possession of Massawa and 
other ports on that coast. By 1888 Italian influence had 
been extended from Ras Kasar on the north to the northern 
frontier of the French colony of Obok on the south, a distance 
of some 650 m. The interior limits of Italian influence were 
but ill defined, and the negus Johannes (King John) of Abyssinia 
viewed with anything but a favourable eye the approach of the 
Italians towards the Abyssinian highlands. In January 1887 an 
Italian force was almost annihilated at Dogali, but the check 
only served to spur on the Italian government to fresh efforts. 
The Italians occupied Keren and Asmara in the highlands, and 
eventually, in May 1889, concluded a treaty of peace and friend- 
ship with the negus Menelek, who had seized the throne on the 
death of Johannes, killed in battle with the dervishes in March 
of the same year. This agreement, known as the treaty of 
Uccialli, settled the frontiers between Abyssinia and the Italian 
sphere, and contained the following article: 

XVII. His Majesty the King of Kings of Ethiopia consents to 
avail himself of the Italian government for any negotiations which 
he may enter into with the other powers or governments. 

In Italy and by other European governments this article 
was generally regarded as establishing an Italian protectorate 
over Abyssinia; but this interpretation was never accepted by 
the emperor Menelek, and at no time did Italy succeed in 
establishing any very effective control over Abyssinian affairs. 
North of the Italian coast sphere the Red Sea littoral was still 
under Egyptian rule, while immediately to the south a small 
stretch of coast on the Gulf of Tajura constituted the sole 
French possession on the East African mainland (see SOMALI- 
LAND). Moreover, when Egyptian claims to the Somali coast 
were withdrawn, Great Britain took the opportunity to establish 
her influence on the northern Somali coast, opposite Aden. 
Between the ist of May 1884 and the isth of March 1886 ten 
treaties were concluded, placing under British influence the 
northern Somali coast from Ras Jibuti on the west to Bandar 
Ziada on the east. In the meantime Italy, not content with her 
acquisitions on the Red Sea, had been concluding treaties with 
the Somali chiefs on the east coast. The first treaty was made 
with the sultan of Obbia on the 8th of February 1889. Later 
in the same year the British East Africa Company transferred 
to Italy the transference being subsequently approved by the 
sultan of Zanzibar the ports of Brava, Marka, Mukdishu and 
Warsheik, leased from Zanzibar. On the 24th of March 1891 
an agreement between Italy and Great Britain fixed the northern 
bank of the Juba up to latitude 6 N. as the southern boundary 
of Italian influence in Somaliland, the boundary being provision- 
ally prolonged along lines of latitude and longitude to the inter- 
section of the Blue Nile with 35 E. longitude. On the isth of 
April 1891 a further agreement fixed the northern limit of the 
Italian sphere from Ras Kasar on the Red Sea to the point on 
the Blue Nile just mentioned. By this agreement Italy was to 
have the right temporarily to occupy Kassala, which was left 
in the Anglo-Egyptian sphere, in trust for Egypt a right of 
which she availed herself in 1894. To complete the work of 
delimitation the British and Italian governments, on the 5th of 
May 1894, fixed the boundary of the British sphere of influence 
in Somaliland from the Anglo-French boundary, which had been 
settled in February 1888. 

But while Great Britain was thus lending her sanction to 
Italy's ambitious schemes, the Abyssinian emperor was becoming 
more and more incensed at Italy's pretensions to exercise a 
protectorate over Ethiopia. In 1893 Menelek denounced the 
treaty of Uccialli, and eventually, in a great battle, fought at 
Adowa on the ist of March 1896, the Italians were disastrously 






defeated. By the subsequent treaty of Adis Ababa, concluded 
on the 26th of October 1896, the whole of the country to the 
south of the Mareb, Belesa and Muna rivers was 
restored to Abyssinia, and Italy acknowledged the 
absolute independence of Abyssinia. The effect of of 
this was practically to destroy the value of the Abyssinia 
Anglo-Italian agreement as to the boundaries to the 
south and west of Abyssinia; and negotiations were 
afterwards set on foot between the emperor Menelek and his 
European neighbours with the object of determining the 
Abyssinian frontiers. Italian Somaliland, bordering on the 
south-eastern frontier of Abyssinia, became limited to a 
belt of territory with a depth inland from the Indian 
Ocean of from 180 to 250 m. The negotiations concerning 
the frontier lasted until 1908, being protracted over the 
question as to the possession of Lugh, a town on the Juba, 
which eventually fell to Italy. After the battle of Adowa the 
Italian government handed over the administration of the 
southern part of the country to the Benadir Company, but in 
January 1905 the government resumed control and at the same 
time transformed the leasehold rights it held from the sultan of 
Zanzibar into sovereign rights by the payment to the sultan of 
144,000. To facilitate her communications with the interior, 
Italy also secured from the British government the lease of a 
small area of land immediately to the north of Kismayu. In 
British Somaliland the frontier fixed by agreement with Italy in 
1894 was modified, in so far as it marched with Abyssinian terri- 
tory, by an agreement which Sir Rennell Rodd concluded with 
the emperor Menelek in 1897. The effect of this agreement was 
to reduce the area of British Somaliland from 75,000 to 68,000 
sq. m. In the same year France concluded an agreement 
with the emperor, which is known to have fixed the frontier of 
the French Somali Coast protectorate at a distance of 90 
kilometres (56 m.) from the coast. The determination of the 
northern, western and southern limits of Abyssinia proved a 
more difficult matter. A treaty of July 1900 followed by an 
agreement of November 1901 defined the boundaries of Eritrea 
on the side of Abyssinia and the Sudan respectively. In certain 
details the boundaries thus laid down were modified by an Anglo- 
Italian- Abyssinian treaty signed at Adis Ababa on the isth of 
May 1902. On the same day another treaty was signed at the 
Abyssinian capital by Sir John Harrington, the British minister 
plenipotentiary, and the emperor Menelek, whereby the western, 
or Sudan-Abyssinian, frontier was defined as far south as the 
intersection of 6 N. and 35 E. Within the British sphere 
were left the Atbara up to Gallabat, the Blue Nile up to Famaka 
and the Sobat up to the junction of the Baro and Pibor. While 
not satisfying Abyssinian claims to their full extent, the frontier 
laid down was on the whole more favourable to Abyssinia than 
was the line fixed in the Anglo-Italian agreement of 1891. On 
the other hand, Menelek gave important economic guarantees 
and concessions to the Sudan government. 

In Egypt the result of the abolition of the Dual Control was 
to make British influence virtually predominant, though theo- 
retically Turkey remained the suzerain power; and after the 
reconquest of the Sudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army a con- 
vention between the British and Egyptian governments was 
signed at Cairo on the igth of January 1899, which, inter alia, 
provided for the joint use of the British and Egyptian flags in 
the territories south of the 22nd parallel of north latitude. 
From the international point of view the British position in 
Egypt was strengthened by the Anglo-French declaration of 
the 8th of April 1904. For some time previously there had been 
a movement on both sides of the Channel in favour of nf 
the settlement of a number of important questions Aag i . 
in which British and French interests were involved. French 
The movement was no doubt strengthened by the 
desire to reduce to their least dimensions the possible 
causes of trouble between the two countries at a time 
when the outbreak of hostilities between Russia (the ally of 
France) and Japan (the ally of Great Britain) rendered the 
European situation peculiarly delicate. On the 8th of April 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



347 



1904 there was signed in London by the British foreign secretary, 
the marquess of Lansdowne, and the French ambassador, M. Paul 
Cambon, a series of agreements relating to several parts of the 
globe. Here we are concerned only with the joint declaration 
respecting Egypt and Morocco and a convention relating, in part, 
to British and French frontiers in West Africa. The latter we 
shall have occasion to refer to later. The former, notwithstand- 
ing the declarations embodied in it that there was " no intention 
of altering the political status " either of Egypt or of Morocco, 
cannot be ignored in any account of the partition in Africa. 
With regard to Egypt the French government declared " that 
they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country 
by asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation 
or in any other manner." France also assented as did sub- 
sequently the other powers interested to a khedivial decree 
simplifying the international control exercised by the Caisse de 
la Dette over the finances of Egypt. 

In order to appreciate aright that portion of the declaration 
relating to Morocco it is necessary to say a few words about the 
course of French policy in North- West Africa. In Tunisia the 
work of strengthening the protectorate established in 1881 had 
gone steadily forward; but it was in Algeria that the extension 
of French influence had been most marked. The movement of 
expansion southwards was inevitable. With the progress of 
exploration it became increasingly evident that the Sahara con- 
stituted no insurmountable barrier between the French posses- 
sions in North and West Central Africa. But France had not only 
the hope of placing Algeria in touch with the Sudan to spur her 
forward. To consolidate her position in North- West Africa she 
desired to make French influence supreme in Morocco. The re- 
lations between the two countries did not favour the realization of 
that ambition. The advance southwards of the French forces of 
occupation evoked loud protests from the Moorish government, 
particularly with regard to the occupation in 1900-1901 of the 
Tuat Oases. Under the Franco-Moorish treaty of 1845 the frontier 
between Algeria and Morocco was defined from the Mediterranean 
coast as far south as the pass of Teniet el Sassi, in about 34 N.; 
beyond that came a zone in which no frontier was defined, but 
in which the tribes and desert villages (ksurs) belonging to the 
respective spheres of influence were named; while south of the 
desert villages the treaty stated that in view of the character of 
the country " the delimitation of it would be superfluous." 
Though the frontier was thus left undefined, the sultan main- 
tained that in her advance southwards France had trespassed 
on 'territories that unmistakably belonged to Morocco. After 
some negotiation, however, a protocol was signed in Paris on 
France's the 2oth of July 1901, and commissioners appointed to 
privileged devise measures for the co-operation of the French and 
position la Moorish authorities in the maintenance of peaceful 
conditions in the frontier region. It was reported that 
in April 1902 the commissioners signed an agreement whereby 
the Sharifan government undertook to consolidate its authority 
on the Moorish side of the frontier as far south as Figig. The 
agreement continued: " Le Gouvernement fraitQais, en raison de 
son voisinage, lui pretera son appui, en cas de besoin. Le Gouverne- 
ment franfais etablira son autorite et la paix dans les regions du 
Sahara, el le Gouvernement marocain, son voisin, lui aidera de 
tout son pouvoir. ' ' Meanwhile in the northern districts of Morocco 
the conditions of unrest under the rule of the young sultan, Abd 
el Aziz IV., were attracting an increasing amount of attention in 
Europe and were calling forth demands for their suppression. 
It was in these circumstances that in the Anglo-French declara- 
tion of April 1904 the British government recognized " that it 
appertains to France, more particularly as a power whose 
dominions are conterminous for a great distance with those of 
Morocco, to preserve order in that country, and to provide 
assistance for the purpose of all administrative, economic, 
financial and military reforms which it may require." Both 
parties to the declaration, " inspired by their feeling of sincere 
friendship for Spain, take into special consideration the interests 
which that country derives from her geographical position and 
from her territorial possessions on the Moorish coast of the 



Mediterranean. In regard to these interests the French govern- 
ment will come to an understanding with the Spanish govern- 
ment." The understanding thus foreshadowed was reached 
later in the same year, Spain securing a sphere of interest on the 
Mediterranean coast. In pursuance of the policy marked out in 
the Anglo-French declaration, France was seeking to strengthen 
her influence in Morocco when in 1905 the attitude of Germany 
seriously affected her position. On the 8th of July France 
secured from the German government formal " recognition of 
the situation created for France in Morocco by the contiguity of 
a vast extent of territory of Algeria and the Sharifan empire, and 
by the special relations resulting therefrom between the two 
adjacent countries, as well as by the specia! 4 interest for France, 
due to this fact, that order should reign in the Sharifan Empire." 
Finally, in January- April 1906, a conference of the powers was 
held at Algeciras to devise, by invitation of the sultan, a scheme 
of reforms to be introduced into Morocco (q.v.). French capital 
was allotted a larger share than that of any other power in the 
Moorish state bank which it was decided to institute, and French 
and Spanish officers were entrusted with the organization of a 
police force for the maintenance of order in the principal coast 
towns. The new regime had not been fully inaugurated, however, 
when a series of outrages led, in 1907, to the military occupation 
by France of Udja, a town near the Algerian frontier, and of the 
port of Casablanca on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. 

It only remains to be noted, in connexion with the story of 
French activity in North- West Africa, that with such energy was 
the penetration of the Sahara pursued that in April 1904 flying 
columns from Insalah and Timbuktu met by arrangement in 
mid-desert, and in the following year it was deemed advisable to 
indicate on the maps the boundary between the Algerian and 
French West African territories. 

Brief reference must be made to the position of Tripoli. While 
Egypt was brought under British control and Tunisia became a 
French protectorate, Tripoli remained a province of the Turkish 
empire with undefined frontiers in the hinterland, a state of 
affairs which more than once threatened to lead to trouble with 
France during the expansion of the latter's influence in the 
Sahara. As already stated, Italy early gave evidence that it was 
her ambition to succeed to the province, and, not only by the 
sultan of Turkey but in Italy also, the Anglo-French declaration 
of March 1899, respecting the limits of the British and French 
spheres of influence in north Central Africa, was viewed with 
some concern. By means of a series of public utterances on the 
part of French and Italian statesmen in the winter 1901-1902 it 
was made known that the two powers had come to an 
understanding with regard to their interests in North 
Africa, and in May 1902 Signor Prinetti, then Italian Tripoli. 
minister for foreign affairs, speaking in parliament in 
reply to an interpellation on the subject of Tripoli, declared that 
if " the status quo in the Mediterranean were ever disturbed, Italy 
would be sure of finding no one to bar the way to her legitimate 
aspirations." 

At the opening of the Berlin conference Spain had established 
no formal claim to any part of the coast to the south of Morocco; 
but while the conference was sitting, on the gth of January 1885, 
the Spanish government intimated that in view of the importance 
of the Spanish settlements on the Rio de Oro, at Angra de Cintra, 
and at Western Bay (Cape Blanco), and of the docu- 
ments signed with the independent tribes on that 
coast, the king of Spain had taken under his protection 
" the territories of the western coast of Africa comprised between 
the fore-mentioned Western Bay and Cape Bojador." The in- 
terior limits of the Spanish sphere were defined by an agreement 
concluded in 1900 with France. By this document some 70,000 
sq. m. of the western Sahara were recognized as Spanish. 

The same agreement settled a long-standing dispute between 
Spain and France as to the ownership of the district around the 
Muni river to be south of Cameroon, Spain securing a block of 
territory with a coast-line from the Campo river on the north to 
the Muni river on the south. The northern frontier is formed by 
the German Cameroon colony, the eastern by 11 20' E., and the 



348 



AFRICA 



'HISTORY 



southern by the first parallel of north latitude to its point of inter- 
section with the Muni river. 

Apart from this small block of Spanish territory south of 
Cameroon, the stretch of coast between Cape Blanco and the 

mouth of the Congo is partitioned among four European 
tne' S (Mnea P wers ~~ Great Brit! n, France, Germany and Portugal 
coast. ' an d tne negro republic of Liberia. Following the 

coast southwards from Cape Blanco is first the French 
colony of Senegal, which is indented, along the Gambia river, by 
the small British colony of that name, and then the comparatively 
small territory of Portuguese Guinea, all that remains on this 
coast to represent Portugal's share in the scramble in a region 
where she once played so conspicuous a part. To the south of 
Portuguese Guinea is the French Guinea colony, and still going 
south and east are the British colony of Sierra Leone, the republic 
of Liberia, the French colony of the Ivory coast, the British Gold 
Coast, German Togoland, French Dahomey, the British colony 
(formerly known as the Lagos colony) and protectorate of 
Southern Nigeria, the German colony of Cameroon, the Spanish 
settlements on the Muni river, the French Congo colony, and the 
small Portuguese enclave north of the Congo to which reference 
has already been made, which is administratively part of the 
Angola colony. When the General Act of the Berlin conference 
was signed the whole of this coast-line had not been formally 
claimed; but no time was lost by the powers interested in 
notifying claims to the unappropriated sections, and the con- 
flicting claims put forward necessitated frequent adjustments by 
international agreements. By a Franco-Portuguese agreement 
of the 1 2th of May 1886 the limits of Portuguese Guinea sur- 
rounded landwards by French territory were defined, and by 
agreements with Great Britain in 1885 and France in 1892 and 
1907 the Liberian republic was confined to an area of about 
43,000 sq. m. 

The real struggle in West Africa was between France and 
Great Britain, and France played the dominant part, the ex- 
haustion of Portugal, the apathy of the British government 
and the late appearance of Germany in the field being all elements 
that favoured the success of French policy. Before tracing the 
steps in the historic contest between France and Great Britain 
it is necessary, however, to deal briefly with the part played 
by Germany. She naturally could not be disposed of by the 
chief rivals as easily as were Portugal and Liberia. It will be 
remembered that Dr Nachtigal, while the proposals for the 
Berlin conference were under discussion, had planted the German 
flag on the coast of Togo and in Cameroon in the month of July 
1884. In Cameroon Germany found herself with Great Britain 
for a neighbour to the north, and with France as her southern 
neighbour on the Gabun river. The utmost activity was dis- 
played in making treaties with native chiefs, and in securing 
as wide a range of coast for German enterprise as was possible. 
After various provisional agreements had been concluded between 
Great Britain and Germany, a " provisional line of demarcation " 
was adopted in the famous agreement of the ist of July 1890, 
starting from the head of the Rio del Rey creek and going to 
the point, about 9 8' E., marked " rapids " on the British 
Admiralty chart. By a further agreement of the i4th of April 
1893, the right bank of the Rio del Rey was made the boundary 
between the Oil Rivers Protectorate (now Southern Nigeria) and 
Cameroon. In the following November (1893) the boundary 
was continued from the " rapids " before mentioned, on the 
Calabar or Cross river, in a straight line towards the centre of 
the town of Yola, on the Benue river. Yola itself, with a radius 
Germany ^ some 3 m -> w &s left in the British sphere, and the 
la west German boundary followed the circle eastwards from 
Central the point of intersection as it neared Yola until it 

met the Benue river. From that point it crossed the 
river to the intersection of the I3th degree of longitude with 
the loth degree of north latitude, and then made direct for a 
point on the southern shore of Lake Chad " situated 35 minutes 
east of the meridian of Kuka." By this agreement the British 
government withdrew from a considerable section of the upper 
waters of the Benue with which the Royal Niger Company had 



entered into relations. The limit of Germany's possible extension 
eastwards was fixed at the basin of the river Shari, and Darfur, 
Kordofan and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were to be excluded irom 
her sphere of influence. The object of Great Britain in making 
the sacrifice she did was two-fold. By satisfying Germany's 
desire for a part of Lake Chad a check was put on French designs 
on the Benue region, while by recognizing the central Sudan 
(Wadai, &c.) in the German sphere, a barrier was interposed 
to the advance of France from the Congo to the Nile. This 
last object was not attained, inasmuch as Germany in coming 
to terms with France as to the southern and eastern limits of 
Cameroon abandoned her claims to the central Sudan. She had 
already, on the 24th of December 1885, signed a protocol with 
France fixing her southern frontier, where it was coterminous 
with the French Congo colony. But to the east German explorers 
were crossing the track of French explorers from the northern 
bank of the Ubangi, and the need for an agreement was obvious. 
Accordingly, on the 4th of February 1894, a protocol which, 
some weeks later, was confirmed by a convention was signed 
at Berlin, by which France accepted the presence of Germany 
on Lake Chad as a fait accompli and effected the best bargain 
she could by making the left bank of the Shari river, from its 
outlet into Lake Chad to the loth parallel of north latitude, 
the eastern limit of German extension. From this point the 
boundary line went due west some 230 m., then turned south, 
and with various indentations joined the south-eastern frontier, 
which had been slightly extended so as to give Germany access 
to the Sanga river a tributary of the Congo. Thus, early in 
1894, the German Cameroon colony had reached fairly definite 
limits. In 1908 another convention, modifying the frontier, 
gave Germany a larger share of the Sanga, while France, among 
other advantages, gained the left bank of the Shari to 10 40' N. 

The German Togoland settlements occupy a narrow strip 
of the Guinea coast, some 35 m. only in length, wedged in 
between the British Gold Coast and French Dahomey. At 
first France was inclined to dispute Germany's claims to Little 
Popo and Porto Seguro; but in December 1885 the French 
government acknowledged the German protectorate over these 
places, and the boundary between French and German _ 
territory, which runs north from the coast to the nth / 
degree of latitude, was laid down by the Franco- Germany 
German convention of the izth of July 1897. The f m the 
fixing of the nth parallel as the northern boundary 
of German expansion towards the interior was not accomplished 
without some sacrifice of German ambitions. Having secured 
an opening on Lake Chad for her Cameroon colony, Germany 
was anxious to obtain a footing on the middle Niger for Togoland. 
German expeditions reached Gando, one of the tributary states 
of the Sokoto empire on the middle Niger, and, notwithstanding 
the existence of prior treaties with Great Britain, sought to con- 
clude agreements with the sultan of that country. But this 
German ambition conflicted both with the British and the French 
designs in West Africa, and eventually Germany had to be content 
with the nth parallel as her northern frontier. On the west 
the Togoland frontier on the coast was fixed in July 1886 by 
British and German commissioners at i 10' E. longitude, and 
its extension towards the interior laid down for a short distance. 
A curious feature in the history of its prolongation was the 
establishment in 1888 of a neutral zone wherein neither power 
was to seek to acquire protectorates nor exclusive influence. 
It was not until November 1899 that, as part of the Samoa 
settlement, this neutral zone was partitioned between the two 
powers and the frontier extended to the nth parallel. 

The story of the struggle between France and Great Britain 
in West Africa may roughly be divided into two sections, the 
first dealing with the Coast colonies, the second deal- ^otto- 
ing with the struggle for the middle Niger and Lake French 
Chad. As regards the Coast colonies, France was rivalry la 
wholly successful in her design of isolating all Great j^J, 
Britain's separate possessions in that region, and of 
securing for herself undisputed possession of the upper Niger 
and of the countries lying within the great bend of that river. 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



349 



When the British government awoke to the consciousness of 
what was at stake France had obtained too great a start. 
French governors of the Senegal had succeeded, before the Berlin 
conference, in establishing forts on the upper Niger, and the 
advantage thus gained was steadily pursued. Every winter season 
French posts were pushed farther and farther along the river, or 
in the vast regions watered by the southern tributaries of the Sene- 
gal and Niger rivers. This ceaseless activity met with its reward. 
Great Britain found herself compelled to acknowledge accom- 
plished facts and to conclude agreements with France, which 
left her colonies mere coast patches, with a very limited extension 
towards the interior. On the loth of August 1889 an agreement 
was signed by which the Gambia colony and protectorate was 
confined to a narrow strip of territory on both banks of the river 
for about 200 m. from the sea. In June 1882 and in August 
1889 provisional agreements were made with France fixing the 
western and northern limits of Sierra Leone, and commissioners 
were appointed to trace the line of demarcation agreed upon 
by the two governments. But the commissioners failed to agree, 
and on the 2ist of January 1895 a fresh agreement was made, 
the boundary being subsequently traced by a mixed commission. 
Sierra Leone, as now definitely constituted, has a coast-line of 
about 1 80 m. and a maximum extension towards the interior 
of some 200 m. 

At the date of the Berlin conference the present colonies of 
Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast constituted a single colony 
under the title of the Gold Coast colony, but on the i3th of 
January 1886 the territory comprised under that title was erected 
into two separate colonies Lagos and the Gold Coast (the name 
of the former being changed in February 1906 to the colony of 
Southern Nigeria). The coast limits of the new Gold Coast 
colony were declared to extend from 5 W. to 2 E., but these 
limits were subsequently curtailed by agreements with France 
and Germany. The arrangements that fixed the eastern frontier 
of the Gold Coast colony and its hinterland have already been 
stated in connexion with German Togoland. On the western 
frontier it marches with the French colony of the Ivory Coast, 
and in July 1893, after an unsuccessful attempt to achieve the 
same end by an agreement concluded in 1889, the frontier was 
defined from the neighbourhood of the Tano lagoon and river 
of the same name, to the gth degree of north latitude. In 
August 1896, following the destruction of the Ashanti power 
and the deportation of King Prempeh, as a result of the second 
Ashanti campaign, a British protectorate was declared over the 
whole of the Ashanti territories and a resident was installed at 
Kumasi. But no northern limit had been fixed by the 1893 
agreement beyond the gth parallel, and the countries to the 
north Gurunsi (Grusi), Mossi and Gurma were entered from 
all sides by rival British, French and German expeditions. 
The conflicting claims established by these rival expeditions 
may, however, best be considered in connexion with the struggle 
for supremacy on the middle Niger and in the Chad region, to 
which it is now necessary to turn. 

A few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference Sir 
George Goldie had succeeded in buying up all the French interests 
on the lower Niger. The British company's influence had at 
that date been extended by treaties with the native chiefs up the 
main Niger stream to its junction with the Benue, and some 
distance along this latter river. But the great Fula states of 
the central Sudan were still outside European influence, and this 
fact did not escape attention in Germany. German merchants 
had been settled for some years on the coast ; and one of them, 
E. R. Flegel, had displayed great interest in, and activity on, 
the river. He recognized that in the densely populated states 
of the middle Niger, Sokoto and Gando, and in Bornu to the west 
of Lake Chad, there was a magnificent field for Germany's new- 
born colonizing zeal. The German African Company 1 and the 
German Colonial Society listened eagerly to Flegel's proposals, 
and in April 1885 he left Berlin on a mission to the Fula states 

'This association, formed in 1878 by a union of associations 
primarily intended for the exploration of Africa, ceased to exist in 
1891. 



of Sokoto and Gando. But it was impossible to keep his inten- 
tions entirely secret, and the (British) National African Company 
had no desire to see the French rivals, whom they had with so 
much difficulty dislodged from the river, replaced by the even 
more troublesome German. Accordingly Joseph Thomson, the 
young Scottish explorer, was sent out to the Niger, and had the 
satisfaction of concluding on the ist of June 1885 a treaty with 
" Umoru, King of the Mussulmans of the Sudan and Sultan of 
Sokoto," which practically secured the whole of the trading 
rights and the control of the sultan's foreign relations to the 
British company. Thomson concluded a similar treaty with 
the sultan of Gando, so as to provide against the possibility of 
its being alleged that Gando was an independent state and not 
subject to the suzerainty of the sultan of Sokoto. As Thomson 
descended the river with his treaties, he met Flegel going up the 
river, with bundles of German flags and presents for the chiefs. 
The German government continued its efforts to secure a footing 
on the lower Niger until the fall of Prince Bismarck from power 
in March 1890, when opposition ceased, and on the failure of the 
half-hearted attempt made later to establish relations with Gando 
from Togoland, Germany dropped out of the competition for the 
western Sudan and left the field to France and Great j- Ae Niger 
Britain. After its first great success the National Company 
African Company renewed its efforts to obtain a granted a 
charter from the British government, and on the loth chttrter - 
of July 1886 the charter was granted, and the company became 
" The Royal Niger Company, chartered and limited." In June 
of the previous year a British protectorate had been proclaimed 
over the whole of the coast from the Rio del Rey to the Lagos 
frontier, and as already stated, on the I3th of January 1886 the 
Lagos settlements had been separated from the Gold Coast and 
erected into a separate colony. It may be convenient to state 
here that the western boundary of Lagos with French territory 
(Dahomey) was determined in the Anglo-French agreement of 
the loth of August 1889, " as far as the gth degree of north 
latitude, where it shall stop." Thus both in the Gold Coast 
hinterland and in the Lagos hinterland a door was left wide open 
to the north of the gth parallel. 

Notwithstanding her strenuous efforts, France, in her advance 
down the Niger from Senegal, did not succeed in reaching Sego 
on the upper Niger, a considerable distance above Timbuktu, 
until the winter of 1890-1891, and the rapid advance of British 
influence up the river raised serious fears lest the Royal Niger 
Company should reach Timbuktu before France could forestall 
her. It was, no doubt, this consideration that induced the 
French government to consent to the insertion in the agreement 
of the sth of August 1890, by which Great Britain recognized 
France's protectorate over Madagascar, of the following article: 

The Government of Her Britannic Majesty recognizes the sphere 
of influence of France to the south of her Mediterranean possessions 
up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Chad, drawn 
in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the Niger 
Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of Sokoto; the line 
to be determined by the commissioners to be appointed. 

The commissioners never were in fact appointed, and the 
proper meaning to be attached to this article subsequently 
became a subject of bitter controversy between the two countries. 
An examination of the map of West Africa will show what possi- 
bilities of trouble were left open at the end of 1890 by the various 
agreements concluded up to that date. From Say on the Niger 
to where the Lagos frontier came to an abrupt stop in 9 N. 
there was no boundary line between the French and British 
spheres of influence. To the north of the Gold Coast and of the 
French Ivory Coast colony the way was equally open to Great 
Britain and to France, while the vagueness of the Say-Barrua 
line left an opening of which France was quick to avail herself. 
Captain P. L. Monteil, who was despatched by the French govern- 
ment to West Africa in 1890, immediately after the conclusion of 
the August agreement, did not hesitate to pass well to the south 
of the Say-Barrua line, and to attempt to conclude treaties with 
chiefs who were, beyond all question, within the British sphere. 
Still farther south, on the Benue river, the two expeditions 
of Lieutenant Mizon in 1890 and 1892 failed to do any real 



350 



AFRICA 



[HISTORY 



harm to British interests. In 1892 an event happened which 
had an important bearing on the future course of the dispute. 

After a troublesome war with Behanzin, king of 
advance to tne nat i ye state of Dahomey, France annexed some 
Timbuktu, portion of Dahomeyan territory on the coast, and 

declared a protectorate over the rest of the kingdom. 
Thus was removed the barrier which had up to that time 
prevented France from pushing her way Nigerwards from her 
possessions on the Slave Coast, as well as from the upper 
Niger and the Ivory Coast. Henceforth her progress from 
all these directions was rapid, and in particular Timbuktu was 
occupied in the last days of 1893. 

In 1894 it appears to have been suddenly realized in France 
that, for the development of the vast regions which she was 
placing under her protection in West Africa, it was extremely 
desirable that she should obtain free access to the navigable 
portions of the Niger, if not on the left bank, from which she was 
excluded by the Say-Barrua agreement, then on the right bank, 
where the frontier had still to be fixed by international agreement. 
In the neighbourhood of Bussa there is a long stretch of the 
river so impeded by rapids that navigation is practically im- 
possible, except in small boats and at considerable risk. Below 
these rapids France had no foothold on the river, both banks 
from Bussa to the sea being within the British sphere. In 1890 
the Royal Niger Company had concluded a treaty with the emir 
and chiefs of Bussa (or Borgu); but the French declared that 
the real paramount chief of Borgu was not the king of Bussa, 
but the king of Nikki, and three expeditions were despatched 
in hot haste to Nikki to take the king under French protection. 
Sir George Goldie, however, was not to be baffled. While 
maintaining the validity of the earlier treaty with Bussa, he 
despatched Captain (afterwards General Sir) F. D. Lugard to 
Nikki, and Lugard was successful in distancing all his French 
competitors by several days, reaching Nikki on the 5th of 
November 1894 and concluding a treaty with the king and 
chiefs. The French expeditions, which were in great strength, 
did not hesitate on their arrival to compel the king to execute 
fresh treaties with France, and with these in their possession 
they returned to Dahomey. Shortly afterwards a fresh act of 
aggression was committed. On the I3th of February 1895 a 
French officer, Commandant Toutee, arrived on the right bank 
of the Niger opposite Bajibo and built a fort. His presence 
there was notified to the Royal Niger Company, who protested 
to the British government against this invasion of their territory. 
Lord Rosebery, who was then foreign minister, at once made 
inquiries in Paris, and received the assurance that Commandant 
Toutee was " a private traveller." Eventually Commandant 
Toutee was ordered to withdraw, and the fort was occupied 
by the Royal Niger Company's troops. Commandant Toutee 
subsequently published the official instructions from the French 
government under which he had acted. It was thought that the 
recognition of the British claims, involved in the withdrawal of 
Commandant Toutee, had marked the final abandonment by 
France of the attempt to establish herself on the navigable 
portions of the Niger below Bussa, but in 1897 the attempt was 
renewed in the most determined manner. In February of that 
year a French force suddenly occupied Bussa, and this act was 
quickly followed by the occupation of Gomba and Illo higher up 
the river. In November 1897 Nikki was occupied. The situation 
on the Niger had so obviously been outgrowing the capacity of a 
chartered company that for some time before these occurrences 
the assumption of responsibility for the whole of the Niger region 
The by the imperial authorities had been practically de- 

Praaco- cided on; and early in 1898 Lugard was sent out to 
British the Niger with a number of imperial officers to raise a 

o"/S9S eat local force * n P re P aration for tne contemplated change. 
The advance of the French forces from the south and 
west was the signal for an advance of British troops from the 
Niger, from Lagos and from the Gold Coast protectorate. The 
situation thus created was extremely serious. The British and 
French flags were flying in close proximity, in some cases in the 
same village. Meanwhile the diplomatists were busy in London 



and in Paris, and in the latter capital a commission sat for many 
months to adjust the conflicting claims. Fortunately, by the tact 
and forbearance of the officers on both sides, no local incident 
occurred to precipitate a collision, and on the I4th of June 1898 
a convention was signed by Sir Edmund Monson and M. G. 
Hanotaux which practically completed the partition of this part 
of the continent. 

The settlement effected was in the nature of a compromise. 
France withdrew from Bussa, Gomba and Illo, the frontier line 
west of the Niger being drawn from the gth parallel to a point 
ten miles, as the crow flies, above Giri, the port of Illo. France 
was thus shut out from the navigable portion of the middle and 
lower Niger; but for purely commercial purposes Great Britain 
agreed to lease to France two small plots of land on the river 
the one on the right bank between Leaba and the mouth of the 
Moshi river, the other at one of the mouths of the Niger. By 
accepting this line Great Britain abandoned Nikki and a great 
part of Borgu as well as some part of Gando to France. East 
of the Niger the Say-Barrua line was modified in favour of 
France, which gained parts of both Sokoto and Bornu where 
they meet the southern edge of the Sahara. In the Gold Coast 
hinterland the French withdrew from Wa, and Great Britain 
abandoned all claim to Mossi, though the capital of the latter 
country, together with a further extensive area in the territory 
assigned to both powers, was declared to be equally free, so far 
as trade and navigation were concerned, to the subjects and 
protected persons of both nationalities. The western boundary 
of the Gold Coast was prolonged along the Black Volta as far 
as latitude 11 N., and this parallel was followed with slight de- 
flexions to the Togoland frontier. In consequence of the acute 
crisis which shortly afterwards occurred between France and 
Great Britain on the upper Nile, the ratification of this agreement 
was delayed until after the conclusion of the Fashoda agreement 
of March 1899 already referred to. In 1900 the two patches on 
the Niger leased to France were selected by commissioners 
representing the two countries, and in the same year the Anglo- 
French frontier from Lagos to the west bank of the Niger was 
delimited. 

East of the Niger the frontier, even as modified in 1898, 
failed to satisfy the French need for a practicable route to Lake 
Chad, and in the convention of the 8th of April 1904, to which 
reference has been made under Egypt and Morocco, it was 
agreed, as part of the settlement of the French shore Further 
question in Newfoundland, to deflect the frontier line con- 
more to the south. The new boundary was described ces ^ lons 
at some length, but provision was made for its modifica- 
tion in points of detail on the return of the commissioners engaged 
in surveying the frontier region. In 1906 an agreement was 
reached on all points, and the frontier at last definitely settled, 
sixteen years after the Say-Barrua line had been fixed. This 
revision of the Niger-Chad frontier did not, however, represent 
the only territorial compensation received by France in West 
Africa in connexion with the settlement of the Newfoundland 
question. By the same convention of April 1904 the British 
government consented to modify the frontier between Senegal 
and the Gambia colony " so as to give to France Yarbutenda 
and the lands and landing-places belonging to that locality," 
and further agreed to cede to France the tiny group of islands 
off the coast of French Guinea known as the Los Islands. 

Meantime the conclusion of the 1898 convention had left 
both the British and the French governments free to devote 
increased attention to the subdivision and control of their West 
African possessions. On the ist of January 1900 the imperial 
authorities assumed direct responsibility for the whole of the 
territories of the Royal Niger Company, which became henceforth 
a purely commercial undertaking. The Lagos protectorate was 
extended northwards; the Niger Coast protectorate, likewise 
with extended frontiers, became Southern Nigeria; while the 
greater part of the territories formerly administered by the 
company were constituted into the protectorate of Northern 
Nigeria all three administrations being directly under the 
Colonial Office. In February 1906 the administration of the 



HISTORY] 



AFRICA 



African 
Islands. 



Southern Nigerian protectorate was placed under that of Lagos 
at the same time as the name of the latter was changed to the 
Colony of Southern Nigeria, this being a step towards the eventual 
amalgamation of all three dependencies under one 
Organize- governor or governor-general. In French West Africa 
tion of the changes in the internal frontiers have been numerous 
and important. The coast colonies have all been in- 
French creased in size at the expense of the French Sudan, 
pro- which has vanished from the maps as an administrative 

tectorates. ent ; tv There are carved out of the territories com- 
prised in what is officially known as French West Africa five 
colonies Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey 
and the Upper Senegal and Niger, this last being entirely cut off 
from the sea and the civil territory of Mauritania. To the col- 
ony of the Upper Senegal and Niger is attached the military 
territory of the Niger, embracing the French Sahara up to the limit 
of the Algerian sphere of influence. Not only are all these divisions 
of French West Africa connected territorially, but administra- 
tively they are united under a governor-general. Similarly the 
French Congo territories have been divided into three colonies 
the Gabun, the Middle Congo and the Ubangi-Shari-Chad all 
united administratively under a commissioner-general. 

There are, around the coast, numerous islands or groups of 
islands, which are regarded by geographers as outliers of the 
Ownership African mainland. The majority of these African 
of the islands were occupied by one or other of the European 
powers long before the period of continental partition. 
The Madeira Islands to the west of Morocco, the 
Bissagos Islands, off the Guinea coast, and Prince's Island and 
St Thomas' Island, in the Gulf of Guinea, are Portuguese posses- 
sions of old standing; while in the Canary Islands and Fernando 
Po Spain possesses remnants of her ancient colonial empire which 
are a more valuable asset than any she has acquired in recent 
times on the mainland. St Helena in the Atlantic, Mauritius 
and some small groups north of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, 
are British possessions acquired long before the opening of the 
last quarter of the igth century. Zanzibar, Pemba and some 
smaller islands which the sultan was allowed to retain were, as 
has already been stated, placed under British protection in 1890, 
and the island of Sokotra was placed under the " gracious favour 
and protection " of Great Britain on the 23rd of April 1886. 
France's ownership of Reunion dates back to the iyth century, 
but the Comoro archipelago was not placed under French protec- 
tion until April 1886. None of these islands, with the exception 
of the Zanzibar group, have, however, materially affected the 
partition of the continent, and they need not be enumerated in the 
table which follows. But the important island of Madagascar 
stands in a different category, both on account of its size and 
because it was during the period under review that it passed 
through the various stages which led to its becoming a French 
colony. The first step was the placing of the foreign relations of 
the island under French control, which was effected by the treaty 
of the i7th of December 1885, after the Franco-Malagasy war 
that had broken out in 1883. In 1890 Great Britain and Germany 
recognized a French protectorate over the island, but the Hova 
government declined to acquiesce in this view, and in May 1895 
France sent an expedition to enforce her claims. The capital was 
occupied on the 3oth of September in the same year, and on the 
day following Queen Ranavalona signed a convention recogniz- 
ing the French protectorate. In January 1896 the island was 
declared a French possession, and on the 6th of August was 
declared to be a French colony. In February 1897 the last 
vestige of ancient rule was swept away by the deportation of 
the queen. 

Thus in its broad outlines the partition of Africa was begun and 
ended in the short space of a quarter of a century. There are 
still many finishing touches to be put to the structure. The 
southern frontiers of Morocco and Tripoli remain undefined, 
while the mathematical lines by which the spheres of influence 
of the powers were separated one from the other are being 
variously modified on the do ut des principle as they come to be 
surveyed and as the effective occupation of the continent pro- 



gresses. Much labour is necessary before the actual area of 
Africa and its subdivisions can be accurately determined, but in 
the following table the figures are at least approximately correct. 
Large areas of the spheres assigned to different European 
powers have still to be brought under European control; but 
this work is advancing by rapid strides. 



BRITISH 

Cape Colony .... 
Natal and Zululand . 
Basutoland .... 
Bechuanaland Protectorate . 
Transvaal and Swaziland 
Orange River Colony 

Rhodesia 

Nvasaland Protectorate . 
British East Africa Protectorate 
Uganda Protectorate 
Zanzibar Protectorate 

Somaliland 

Northern Nigeria 
Southern Nigeria (colony and protectorate) 
Gold Coast and hinterland .... 
Sierre Leone (colony and protectorate) 
Gambia . . . . - 

Total British Africa 

Egypt and Libyan Desert .... 
Anglo- Egyptian Sudan 



FRENCH 

Algeria and Algerian Sahara 

Tunisia 

French West Africa 

Senegal 

French Guinea 

Ivory Coast 

Dahomey . . ... 

Upper Senegal and Niger, and Maur- 
itania (including French West 
African Sahara) . . . 1,581,000 

French Congo 

French Somaliland 

Madagascar 



74,000 
107,000 
129,000 

40,000 



Total French Africa 



GERMAN 

East Africa 
South-West Africa 
Cameroon . . 
Togoland . 



Total German Africa 



ITALIAN 
Eritrea 
Italian Somaliland 



Total Italian Africa 



PORTUGUESE 
Guinea 
West Africa 
East Africa 



Total Portuguese Africa 



SPANISH 

Rio de Oro 

Muni River Settlements 



Total Spanish Africa 



BELGIAN 

Congo State 

TURKISH 

Tripoli and Benghazi 

SEPARATE STATES 
Liberia 
Morocco . 
Abyssinia . 



Sq. m. 

276-995 
35,371 
10,293 

225,000 

117,732 
50,392 

450,000 
43,608 

240,000 

125,00* 

1,020 

68,000 

258,000 

80,000 

82,000 

34,000 

4,000 

2,101,411 

650,000 
950,000 

i ,600,000 



945,000 
51,000 



i ,93 1 ,000 

700,000 

12,000 

227,950 

3,866,950 



364,000 

322,450 

190,000 

33.700 

910,150 



60,000 
140,000 

200,000 



14,000 
480,000 
293,500 



787,500 



Total Independent Africa 



70,000 
9,800 

79,800 



900,000 



400,000 



43,000 
220,000 
350,000 

613,000 



352 



AFRICA 



[EXPLORATION 



Thus, collecting the totals, the result of the " scramble " 
has been to divide Africa among the powers as follows: 

Sq. m. 
2,101,411 
i ,600,000 
3,866,950 
910,150 
200,000 
787,500 
79,800 
900,000 
400,000 
613,000 



British Africa . 
Egyptian Africa 
French Africa . 
German Africa 
Italian Africa . 
Portuguese Africa 
Spanish Africa 
Belgian Africa 
Turkish Africa 
Independent Africa 



11,458,811 

(J. S. K.) 
VI. EXPLORATION AND SURVEY SINCE 1875 

In giving the history of the partition of the continent, the later 
work of exploration, except where, as in the case of de Brazza's 
expeditions, it had direct political consequences, has of necessity 
not been told. The results achieved during and after the period 
of partition may now be indicated. Stanley's great journey down 
the Congo in 1875-1876 initiated a new era in African explora- 
tion. The numbers of travellers soon became so great that the 
once marvellous feat of crossing the continent from sea to sea 
became common. With increased knowledge and much ampler 
means of communication trans-African travel now presents few 
difficulties. While d' Anville and other cartographers of the i8th 
century, by omitting all that was uncertain, had left a great 
blank on the map, the work accomplished since 1875 has filled it 
with authentic topographical details. Moreover surveys of high 
accuracy have been made at several points. As the work of 
exploration and survey progressed journeys of startling novelty 
became impossible save in the eastern Sahara, where the 
absence of water and boundless wastes of sand render exploration 
more difficult, perhaps, than in any other region of the globe. 
Within their respective spheres of influence each power undertook 
detailed surveys, and the most solid of the latest accessions to 
knowledge have resulted from the labours of hard-working 
colonial officials toiling individually in obscurity. Their work it 
is impossible here to recognize adequately; the following lines 
record only the more obvious achievements. 

The relations of the Congo basin to the neighbouring river 
systems was brought out by the journeys of many travellers. 
In 1877 an important expedition was sent out by the Portu- 
guese government under Serpa Pinto, Brito Capello and Roberto 
Ivens for the exploration of the interior of Angola. 
The firs( . name( j ma( j e his way by the head-streams of 
the Kubango to the upper Zambezi, which he descended 
to the Victoria Falls, proceeding thence to Pretoria 
and Durban. Capello and Ivens confined their attention to the 
south-west Congo basin, where they disproved the existence of 
Lake Aquilunda, which had figured on the maps of that region 
since the i6th century. In a later journey (i884-i885)Capello and 
Ivens crossed the continent from Mossamedes to the mouth of the 
Zambezi, adding considerably to the knowledge of the border- 
lands between the upper Congo and the upper Zambezi. More 
important results were obtained by the German travellers Paul 
Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, who (1880-1882) passed 
through previously unknown regions beyond Muata Yanvo's 
kingdom, and reached the upper Congo at Nyangwe, whence 
Wissmann made his way to the east coast. In 1884-1885 a 
German expedition under Wissmann solved the most important 
geographical problem relating to the southern Congo basin by 
descending the Kasai, the largest southern tributary, which, con- 
trary to expectation, proved to unite with the Kwango and other 
streams before joining the main river. Further additions to the 
knowledge of the Congo tributaries were made at the same time by 
the Rev. George Grenfell, a Baptist missionary, who (accompanied 
in 1885 by K. von Francois) made several voyages in the steamer 
" Peace," especially up the great Ubangi, ultimately proved to be 
the lower course of the Welle, discovered in 1 8 70 by Sch weinf urth. 



Work la 



Africa. 



In East as in West Africa operations were started by agents of 
the Belgian committee, but with less success than on the Congo. 
The first new journey of importance on this side was 
made (1878-1880) on behalf of the British African Ex- 
ploration Committee by Joseph Thomson, who after the 
death of his leader, Keith Johnston, made his way from 
the coast to the north end of Nyasa, thence to Tanganyika, on 
both sides of which he broke new ground, sighting the north end 
of Lake Rukwa on the east. In 1882-1884 the French naval 
lieutenant Victor Giraud proceeded by the north of Nyasa to 
Lake Bangweulu, of which he made the first fairly correct map. 
North of the Zanzibar-Tanganyika route alargeareaof new ground 
was opened in 1883-1884 by Joseph Thomson, who traversed 
the whole length of the Masai country to Lake Baringo and 
Victoria Nyanza, shedding the first clear light on the great East 
African rift- valley and neighbouring highlands, including Mounts 
Kenya and Elgon. A great advance in the region between 
Victoria Nyanza and Abyssinia was made in 1887-1889 by the 
Austrians, Count Samuel Teleki and Lieut. Ludwig von Hohnel, 
who discovered the large Basso Norok, now known as Lake 
Rudolf, till then only vaguely indicated on the map as Samburu. 
At this time Somaliland was being opened up by English and 
Italian travellers. In 1883 the brothers F. L. and W. D. James 
penetrated from Berbera to the Webi Shebeli; in 1892 Vittorio 
Bottego (afterwards murdered in the Abyssinian highlands) 
started from Berbera and reached the upper Juba, which he 
explored to its source. The first person, however, to cross from 
the Gulf of Aden to the Indian Ocean was an American, 
A. Donaldson Smith, who in 1894-1895 explored the head- 
streams of the Webi Shebeli and also explored the Omo, the 
feeder of Lake Rudolf. 

In the -region north-west of Victoria Nyanza the greatest 
additions to geographical knowledge were made by H. M. Stanley 
in his last expedition, undertaken for the relief of Emin Pasha. 
The expedition set out in 1887 by way of the Congo to carry 
supplies to the governor of the old Egyptian Equatorial province. 
The route lay up the Aruwimi, the principal tributary of the 
Congo from the north-east, by which the expedition made its way, 
encountering immense difficulties, through the great equatorial 
forest, the character and extent of which were thus for the first 
time brought to light. The return was made to the east coast, 
and resulted in the discovery of the great snowy range of Ruwen- 
zori or Runsoro, and the confirmation of the existence of a third 
Nile lake discharging its waters into the Albert Nyanza by the 
Semliki river. A further discovery was that of a large bay, 
hitherto unsuspected, forming the south-west corner of the 
Victoria Nyanza. 

Great activity was also displayed in completing the work 
of earlier explorers in North and West Africa. Morocco was in 
1883-1884 the scene of important explorations by Expealm 
de Foucauld, a Frenchman who, disguised as a Jew, tlons / 
crossed and re-crossed the Atlas and supplied the North and 
first trustworthy information as to the orography of West 
many parts of the chain. In 1887-1889 Louis Gustave 
Binger, a French officer, made a great journey through the coun tries 
enclosed in the Niger bend, and in 1890-1892 Col. P. F. Monteil 
went from St Louis to Say, on the Niger, thence through Sokoto 
to Bornu and Lake Chad, whence he crossed the Sahara to 
Tripoli. Meantime explorers had been busy in the region 
between Lake Chad, the Gulf of Guinea and the Congo. The 
Sanga, one of the principal northern tributaries of the Congo, 
was reached from the north by Lieut. Louis Mizon, a French 
naval officer, who drew the first line of communication between 
the Benue and the Congo (1890-1892). In 1890 Paul Crampel, 
who in the previous year had explored north of the Ogow6, 
undertook a great expedition from the Ubangi to the Shari, 
but was attacked and killed, with several of his companions, on 
the borders of the Bagirmi. Several other expeditions followed, 
and in 1896 Emile Gentil reached the Shari, launched a steamer 
on its waters and pushed on to Lake Chad. Early in 1900 Lake 
Chad was also reached by F. Foureau, a French traveller, who 
had already devoted twelve years to the exploration of the 



EXPLORATION] 



AFRICA 



353 



Sahara and who on this occasion had crossed the desert from 
Algeria and had reached the lake via Air and Zinder. 

The last ten years of the ipth century also witnessed many 
interesting expeditions in east Central Africa. In 1891 Emin 
Lakes and P^ha, accompanied by Dr F. Stuhlmann, made his 
mountains way south of Victoria Nyanza to the western Nile 
ofBqua- lakes, visiting for the first time the southern and 
western shores of Albert Edward. Stuhlmann also 
ascended the Ruwenzori range to a height of over 
13,000 ft. In the same year Dr 0. Baumann, who had already 
done good work in Usambara, near the coast, started on a more 
extended journey through the region of steppes between Kili- 
manjaro and Victoria Nyanza, afterwards exploring the head- 
streams of the Kagera, the ultimate sources of the Nile. In the 
steppe region referred to he discovered two new lakes, Manyara 
and Eiassi, occupying parts of the East African valley system. 
This region was again traversed in 1893-1894 by Count von 
Gotzen, who continued his route westwards to Lake Kivu, north 
of Tanganyika, which, though heard of by Speke over thirty years 
before, had never yet been visited. He also reached for the first 
time the line of volcanic peaks north of Kivu, one of which he 
ascended, afterwards crossing the great equatorial forest by a 
new route to the Congo and the west coast. Valuable scientific 
work was done in 1893 by Dr J. W. Gregory, who ascended 
Mount Kenya to a height of 16,000 ft. In 1893-1894 Scott 
Elliot reached Ruwenzori by way of Uganda, returning by 
Tanganyika and Nyasa, and in 1896 C. W. Hobley made the 
circuit of the great mountain 'Elgon, north-east of Victoria 
Nyanza. In 1899 Mount Kenya was ascended to its summit 
by a party under H. J. Mackinder. The exploration of Mount 
Kilimanjaro has been the special work of Dr Hans Meyer, who 
first directed his attention to it in 1887. 

The region south of Abyssinia proper and north of Lake 
.udolf, being largely the basin of the Sobat tributary of the Nile, 
,s traversed by several explorers, among whom may be men- 
oned Capt. M. S. Wellby, who in 1898-1899 explored the chain 
small lakes in south-east Abyssinia, pushed on to Lake 
.udolf, and thence traversed hitherto unknown country to the 
iwer Sobat. Donaldson Smith crossed from Berbera to the 
ile by Lake Rudolf in 1899-1900, and Major H. H. Austin com- 
anded two survey parties between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 
id Lake Rudolf during 1899-1901. Meantime in south Central 
rica, the Barotse country had been partly made known by the 
issionary F. Coillard, who settled there in 1884, while the 
iddle and upper Zambezi basin were scientifically explored 
id mapped by Major A. St H. Gibbons and his assistants 
1895-1896 and 1898-1900. In the same period the Congo- 
mbezi watershed was traced by a Belgian officer, Capt. C. 
:maire, who had ascended one of the upper tributaries of 
e Kasai. 

In the early years of the igth century the first recorded 
ing of Africa took place. That crossing and all subsequent 
sings had been made either from west to east or east to west. 
ie first journey through the whole length of the continent 
'as accomplished in the two last years of the century when a 
oung Englishman, E. S. Grogan, starting from Cape Town 
ached the Mediterranean by way of the Zambezi, the central 
.e of lakes and the Nile. Other travellers followed in Grogan's 
>tsteps, among the first, Major Gibbons. 
Additions to topographical knowledge were made from about 
onwards by the international commissions which traced 
the frontiers of the protectorates of the European 
powers. On several occasions the labours of the 
commissions disclosed errors of importance in the 
maps upon which international agreements had been 
based. Among those which yielded valuable results 
were the Anglo-French commission which in 1903 
traced the Nigerian frontier from the Niger to Lake 
'had, and the Anglo-German commission which in 1903-1904 
:ed the Cameroon boundary between Yola, on the Benue, and 
Lake Chad. These expeditions and French surveys in the same 
ion during 1902-1903 resulted in the discovery that Lake Chad 
I. 12 



Vorkof 
iter- 

ational 
amis- 

oas and 
veylng 

artles. 




had greatly decreased in area since the middle of the 
century. In 1903 a French officer, Capt. E. Lenfant, succeeded 
in establishing the fact of a connexion between the Niger and 
Chad basins. Subsequently Lenfant explored the western 
basin of the Shari, determining (1907) the true upper branch 
of that river. 

In East Africa a German-Congolese commission surveyed 
(1901-1902) Lake Kivu and the volcanic region north of the 
lake, R. Kandt making , a special study of Kivu and the 
Kagera sources, while the Anglo-German boundary commission of 
1902-1904 surveyed the valley of the lower Kagera, and fixed the 
exact position of Albert Edward Nyanza. Much new information 
concerning the border-lands of British East Africa and Abyssinia 
between Lake Rudolf and the lower Juba was obtained by the 
survey executed in 1902-1903 by a British officer, Captain P. 
Maud. 

While political requirements led to the exact determination 
of frontiers, administrative needs forced the governments 
concerned to take in hand the survey of the countries under 
their protection. Before the close of the first decade of the 
2oth century tolerably accurate maps had been made of the 
German colonies, of a considerable part of West Africa, the 
Algerian Sahara and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, mainly by 
military officers. A British naval officer, Commander B. 
Whitehouse, mapped the entire coast-line of Victoria Nyanza. 
Government and railway surveys apart, the chief points of 
interest for explorers during 1904-1906 were the Ruwenzori range 
and the connexion of the basin of Lake Chad with the Niger and 
Congo systems. Lieut. Boyd Alexander was the leader of a 
party which during the years named surveyed Lake Chad and a 
considerable part of eastern Nigeria, returning to England via 
the Shari, the Ubangi and the Nile. Two members of the party, 
Capt. Claud Alexander and Capt. G. B. Gosling, died during the 
expedition. The Ruwenzori Mountains proved a great source 
of attraction. Sir H. H. Johnston had in 1900 ascended beyond 
the snow-line to 14,800 ft. ;in 1903 Dr J. J. David had reached 
from the west to a height he believed to exceed 16,000 ft.; and 
in the same year Capt. T. T. Behrens, of the Anglo-German 
Uganda boundary commission, fixed the highest summit at 
16,619 ft. During 1904-1906 some half-dozen expeditions were 
at work in the region. That of the duke of the Abruzzi was the 
most successful. In the summer of 1906 the duke or members 
of his party climbed all the highest peaks, none of which reaches 
17,000 ft., and determined the main lines of the watershed. 
Major Powell-Cotton, a British officer who had previously done 
good work in Abyssinia and British East Africa, spent 1905- 
1906 in a detailed examination of the Lado enclave and the 
country west of Ruwenzori and Albert and Albert Edward lakes. 
This expedition was specially fruitful in additions to zoological 
knowledge. 

Archaeological research, stimulated by the reports of Thomas 
Shaw, British consular chaplain at Algiers in 1719-1731, by James 
Bruce's exploration, 1765-1767, of the ruins in Barbary, and by 
the French conquest of Egypt in 1798, has been systematically 
carried out in North Africa since the middle of the igth century 
(see EGYPT and AFRICA, ROMAN). In South Africa the first 
thorough examination of the ruins in Rhodesia was made in 
1905, when Randall-Maclver demonstrated that the great 
Zimbabwe and similar buildings were of medieval or post- 
medieval origin. (F. R. C.) 

VII. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 
The eagerness with which the nations of western Europe 
partitioned Africa between them was due, as has been seen, more 
to the necessities of commerce than to mere land hunger. Yet, 
except in the north and south temperate regions, the commercial 
intercourse of the continent with the rest of the world had been 
until the closing years of the igth century of insignificant pro- 
portions. In addition to slaves, furnished by the continent from 
the earliest times, a certain amount of gold and ivory was ex- 
ported from the tropical regions, but no other product supplied 
the material for a flourishing trade with those parts. To their 

5: 



354 



AFRICA 



[ECONOMICS 



Asiatic and European invaders the Africans indeed owed many 
creature comforts the introduction of maize, rice, the sugar 
cane, the orange, the lemon and the lime, cloves, tobacco and 
many other vegetable products, the camel, the horse and other 
animals but invaluable to Africa as were these gifts they led 
to little development of commerce. The continent continued 
in virtual isolation from the great trade movements of the 
world, an isolation due not so much to its poverty in 
natural resources, as to the special circumstances which 
likewise caused so large a part of the continent to 
remain so long a terra incognita. The principal drawbacks may 
be summarized as: (i) the absence of means of communication 
with the interior; (2) the unhealthiness of the coast-lands; (3) 
the small productive activity of the natives; (4) the effects of the 
slave trade in discouraging legitimate commerce. None of these 
causes is necessarily permanent, that most difficult to remove 
being the third; the negro races finding the means of existence 
easy have little incentive to toil. The first drawback has almost 
disappeared, and the building of railways and the placing of 
steamers on the rivers and lakes a work continually progressing 
renders it year by year easier for producer and consumer to 
come together. As to the second drawback, while the coast-lands 
in the tropics will always remain comparatively unhealthy, 
improved sanitation and the destruction of the malarial mosquito 
have rendered tolerable to Europeans regions formerly notorious 
for their deadly climate. 

At various periods since the partition of the continent began, 
united action has been taken by the powers of Europe in the 
interests of African trade. The Berlin conference of 1884-1885 
decreed freedom of navigation and trade on the Congo and the 
Niger, and the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1891 secured like 
privileges for the Zambezi. The Berlin conference likewise 
enacted that over a wide area of Central Africa the conventional 
basin of the Congo there should be complete freedom of trade, a 
freedom which later on was held to be infringed in the Congo 
State and French Congo by the granting to various companies 
proprietary rights in the disposal of the product of the soil. More 
important in their effect on the economic condition of the con- 
tinent than the steps taken to ensure freedom of trade were the 
measures concerted by the powers for the suppression of the slave 
trade. The British government had for long borne the greater 
part of the burden of combating the slave trade on the east coast 
of Africa and in the Indian Ocean, but the changed conditions 
which resulted from the appearance of other European powers in 
Africa induced Lord Salisbury, then foreign secretary, to address, 
in the autumn of 1888, an invitation to the king of the Belgians 
to take the initiative in inviting a conference of the powers at 
Brussels to concert measures for " the gradual suppression of the 
Suppres- s l ave trade on the continent of Africa, and the im- 
sion <>f mediate closing of all the external markets which it 
the slave still supplies." The conference assembled in November 
1889, and on the 2nd of July 1890 a general act was 
signed subject to the ratification of the various governments 
represented, ratification taking place subsequently at different 
dates, and in the case of France with certain reservations. The 
general act began with a declaration of the means which the 
powers were of opinion might be most effectually adopted for 
" putting an end to the crimes and devastations engendered by 
the traffic in African slaves, protecting effectively the aboriginal 
populations of Africa, and ensuring for that vast continent the 
benefits of peace and civilization." It proceeded to lay down 
certain rules and regulations of a practical character on the lines 
suggested. The act covers a wide field, and includes no fewer 
than a hundred separate articles. It established a zone "between 
the 2oth parallel of north latitude, and the 22nd parallel of south 
latitude, and extending westward to the Atlantic and eastward 
to the Indian Ocean and its dependencies, comprising the islands 
adjacent to the coast as far as 100 nautical miles from the shore," 
within which the importation of firearms and ammunition \fas 
forbidden except in certain specified cases, and within which also 
the powers undertook either to prohibit altogether the importa- 
tion and manufacture of spirituous liquors, or to impose duties 



not below an agreed-on minimum. 1 An elaborate series of rules 
was framed for the prevention of the transit of slaves by sea, the 
conditions on which European powers were to grant to natives 
the right to fly the flag of the protecting power, and regulating the 
procedure connected with the right of search on vessels flying a 
foreign flag. The Brussels Act was in effect a joint declaration 
by the signatory powers of their joint and several responsibility 
towards the African native, and notwithstanding the fact that 
many of its articles have proved difficult, if not impossible, of 
enforcement, the solemn engagement taken by Europe in the face* 
of the world has undoubtedly exercised a material influence on 
the action of several of the powers. Moreover, with the increase 
of means of communication and the extension of effective 
European control, slave-raiding in the interior was largely checked 
and inter-tribal wars prevented, the natives being thus given 
security in the pursuit of trade and agriculture. 

Other important factors in the economic as well as the social 
conditions of Africa are the advance in civilization made by the 
natives in several regions and the increase of the areas found 
suitable for white colonization. The advance in civilization 
among the natives, exemplified by the granting to them of 
political rights in such countries as Algeria and Cape Colony, 
leads directly to increased commercial activity; and commerce 
increases in a much greater degree when new countries e.g. 
Rhodesia and British East Africa become the homes of Euro- 
peans. Finally, in reviewing the chief factors which govern the 
commercial development of the continent, note must be taken of 
the sparsity of the population over the greater part of Africa, and 
the efforts made to supplement the insufficient and often in- 
effective native labour by the introduction of Asiatic labourers 
in various districts of Indian coolies in Natal and elsewhere, and 
of Chinese for the gold mines of the Transvaal. 

The resources of Africa may be considered under the head of: 
(i) jungle products; (2) cultivated products; (3) animal pro- 
ducts; (4) minerals. Of the first named the most 
important are india-rubber and palm-oil, which in chlef 

. economic 

tropical Africa supply by far the largest items m the resources, 
export list. The rubber-producing plants are found 
throughout the whole tropical belt, and the most important are 
creepers of the order Apocynaceae, especially various species of 
Landolphia (with which genus Vahea is now united). In East 
Africa Landolphia kirkii (Dyer) supplies the largest amount, 
though various other species are known. Forms.of apparently 
wider distribution are L. hendelotii, which is found in the Bahr-el- 
Ghazal, and extends right across the continent to Senegambia; 
and L. (formerly Vahea) comorensis, which, including its variety 
L. florida, has the widest distribution of all the species, occurring 
in Upper and Lower Guinea, the whole of Central Africa, the 
east coast, the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. In parts of 
East Africa Clitandra orientalis is a valuable rubber vine. In 
Lagos and elsewhere rubber is produced by the apocynaceous 
tree, Funtumia elastica, and in West Africa generally by various 
species of Ficus, some species of which are also found in East 
Africa. The rubber produced is somewhat inferior to that of 
South America, but this is largely due to careless methods of 
preparation. The great destruction of vines brought about by 
native methods of collection much reduced the supply in some 
districts, and rendered it necessary to take steps to preserve and 
cultivate the rubber-yielding plants. ' This has been done in 
many districts with usually encouraging results. Experiments 
have been made in the introduction of South American rubber 
plants, but opinions differ as to the prospects of success, as the 
plants in question seem to demand very definite conditions of 
soil and climate. The second product, palm-oil, is derived from 
a much more limited area than rubber, for although the oil palm 
is found throughout the greater part of West Africa, from 10 N. 
to 10 S., the great bulk of the export comes from the coast 
districts at the head of the Gulf of Guinea. A larger supply, 

1 Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic in Africa were 
held in Brussels in 1899 and 1906. In both instances conventions 
were signed by the powers, raising the minimum duty on imported 
spirituous liquors. 



ECONOMICS] 



AFRICA 



355 



i 



* 



equal to any market demand, could easily be obtained. A third 
valuable product is the timber supplied by the forest regions, 
principally in West Africa. It includes African teak or oak 
(Oldfieldia africana), excellent for shipbuilding; the durable 
odum of the Gold Coast (Chlorophora excelsa) ; African mahogany 
(Khaya senegalensis) ; ebony (Diospyros ebenum); camwood 
(Baphia nitida) ; and many other ornamental and dye woods. 
The timber industry on the west coast was long neglected, but 
since 1898 there have been large exports to Europe. In parts of 
East Africa the Podocarpus milanjianus, a conifer, is economically 
important. Valuable timber grows too in South Africa, including 
the yellow wood (Podocarpus), stinkwood (Ocotea) , sneezewood or 
Cape ebony (Ended) and ironwood. 

Other vegetable products of importance are: Gum arabic, 
obtained from various species of acacia (especially A. Senegal), 
the chief supplies of which are obtained from Senegambia and the 
steppe regions of North Africa (Kordofan, &c.) ; gum copal, a 
valuable resin produced by trees of the leguminous order, the 
best, known as Zanzibar or Mozambique copal, coming from the 
East African Trachylobium hornemannianum, and also found in 
a fossil state under the soil; kola nuts, produced chiefly in the 
coast-lands of Upper Guinea by a tree of the order Sterculiaceae 
(Kola acuminata); archil or orchilla, a dye-yielding lichen 
(Rocclla tincloria and triciformis) growing on trees and rocks in 
East Africa, the Congo basin, &c. ; cork, the bark of the cork oak, 
which flourishes in Algeria; and alfa, a grass used in paper manu- 
facture (Machrochloa lenacissima) , growing in great abundance 
on the dry steppes of Algeria, Tripoli, &c. A product to which 
attention has been paid in Angola is the Almeidina gum or resin, 

irived from the juice of Euphorbia tirucalli. 

The cultivated products include those of the tropical and 
warm temperate zones. Of the former, coffee is perhaps the 
most valuable indigenous plant. It grows wild in many parts, 
the home of one species being in Kaffa and other Galla countries 

uth of Abyssinia, and of another in Liberia. The Abyssinian 

iffee is equal to the best produced in any other part of the world. 
!ultivation is, however, necessary to ensure the best results, 
and attention has been given to this in various European colonies. 
Plantations have been established in Angola, Nyasaland, German 
East Africa, Cameroon, the Congo Free State, &c. 

Copra, the produce of the cocoa-nut palm, is supplied chiefly 
Zanzibar and neighbouring parts of the east coast. Ground- 
nuts, produced by the leguminous plant, Arachis hypogaea, are 
grown chiefly in West Africa, and the largest export is from 
Senegal and the Gambia; while Bambarra ground-nuts (Voand- 
zeia subterranea) are very generally cultivated from Guinea to 
Natal. Cloves are extensively grown on Zanzibar and Pemba 
ids, Pemba being the chief source of the world's supply of 

ives. The chief drawbacks to the industry are the fluctuations 

the yield of the trees, and the risk of over-production in good 
seasons. 

Cotton grows wild in many parts of tropical Africa, and is 
rted in small quantities in the raw state; but the main 
export is from Egypt, which comes third among the world's 
sources of supply of the article. It is also cultivated in West 
Africa the industry in the Guinea coast colonies having been 
.eveloped since the beginning of the 2oth century and in the 

glo-Egyptian Sudan, whence came the plants from which 
ptian cotton is grown. Sugar, which is the staple crop of 

auritius, and in a lesser degree of Reunion, is also produced in 

atal, Egypt, and, to a certain extent, in Mozambique. Dates 
grown in Tunisia and the Saharan oases, especially Tafilet; 

iaize in Egypt, South Africa and parts of the tropical zone; 

heat in Egypt, Algeria and the higher regions of Abyssinia; 

ice in Madagascar. Wine is largely exported from Algeria, 

and in a much smaller quantity from Cape Colony; fruit and 

vegetables from Algeria. Tobacco is widely grown on a small 

scale, but, except perhaps from Algeria, has not become an 

important article of export, though plantations have been 

established in various tropical colonies. The cultivation of 

cocoa has proved successful in the Gold Coast, Cameroon and 

ither colonies, and in various districts the tea plant is cultivated. 




Cc 
expo 



Indigo, though not originally an African product, has become 
naturalized and grows wild in many parts, while it is also culti- 
vated on a small scale. The main difficulty in the way of tropical 
cultivation is the labour question, which has already been 
referred to. 

Of animal products one of the most important is ivory, the 
largest export of which is from the Congo Free State. The 
diminution in the number of elephants with the opening up of 
the remoter districts must in time cause a falling-off in this 
export. Beeswax is obtained from various parts of the interior 
of West Africa, and from Madagascar. Raw hides are exported 
in large quantities from South Africa, as are also the wool and 
hair of the merino sheep and Angora goat. Both hides and wool 
are also exported from Algeria and Morocco, and hides from 
Abyssinia and Somaliland. Ostrich feathers are produced 
chiefly by the ostrich farms of Cape Colony, but some are also 
obtained from the steppes to the north of the Central Sudan. 
Live stock, principally sheep, is exported from Algeria and cattle 
from Morocco. 

The exploited minerals of Africa are confined to a few districts, 
the resources of the continent in this respect being largely 
undeveloped. Since the discovery of gold in the 
Transvaal, particularly in the district known as the wealth. 
Rand (1885), the output has grown enormously, so 
that in 1898 the output of gold from South Africa was greater 
than from any other gold-field in the world. The Anglo-Boer 
War of 1899-1902 lost the Rand the leading position, but by 
1905 the output in that year over 20,800,000 was greater 
than it had ever been. The supply of gold from South Africa 
is roughly 25% of the world's output. The gold-yielding 
formations extend northwards through Rhodesia. The Gold 
Coast is so named from the quantity of gold obtained there, and 
since the close of the igth century the industry has developed 
largely in the hands of Europeans. In the Galla countries gold 
has long been an article of native commerce. It is also found 
in various parts of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and along the 
western shore of the Red Sea. Diamonds are found in large 
quantities in a series of beds known as the Kimberley shales, 
the principal mines being at Kimberley, Cape Colony. Diamonds 
are also found in Orange River Colony, while one of the richest 
diamond mines in the world the Premier is situated in 
the Transvaal near Pretoria. Some 80% of the world's pro- 
duction of diamonds comes from South Africa. Copper is found 
in the west of Cape Colony, in German South- West Africa, and 
in the Katanga country in the southern Congo basin, where vast 
beds of copper ore exist. There are also extensive deposits of 
copper in the Broken Hill district of Northern Rhodesia. It 
also occurs in Morocco, Algeria, the Bahr-el-Ghazal, &c. Rich 
tin deposits have been found in the southern Congo basin and 
in Northern Rhodesia. Iron is found in Morocco, Algeria 
(whence there is an export trade), and is widely diffused, and 
worked by the natives, in the tropical zone. But the deposits 
are generally not rich. Coal is worked, principally for home con- 
sumption, in Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Orange River 
Colony, and in Rhodesia in the neighbourhood of the Zambezi. 
Coal deposits also exist in the German territory north of Lake 
Nyasa. Phosphates are exported from Algeria and Tunisia. 
Of other minerals which occur, but are little worked, zinc, lead 
and antimony are found in Algeria, lead and manganese in Cape 
Colony, plumbago in Sierra Leone. 

The imports from foreign countries into Africa consist chiefly 
of manufactured goods, varying in character according to the 
development of the different countries in civilization. In 
Egypt, Algeria and South Africa they include most of the 
necessaries and luxuries of civilized life, manufactured cotton 
and woollen goods, especially the former, taking the first place, 
but various food stuffs, metal goods, coal and miscellaneous 
articles being also included. In tropical Africa, and generally 
where few Europeans have settled, the great bulk of the imports 
consists as a rule of cotton goods, articles for which there is a 
constant native demand. 

No continent has in the past been so lacking in means of 



AFRICA 



[COMMUNICATIONS 



communication as Africa, and it was only in the last decade 
Develo - ^ tne J ^ tn centur y tnat decided steps were taken to 
meaoi remedy these defects. The African rivers, with the 
means of exception of the middle Congo and its affluents, and 
common/- tne noddle course of the three other chief rivers, are 
generally unfavourable to navigation, and throughout 
the tropical region almost the sole routes have been native foot- 
paths, admitting the passage of a single file of porters, on whose 
heads all goods have been carried from place to place. Certain 
of these native trade routes are, however, much frequented, 
and lead for hundreds of miles from the coast to the interior. 
In the desert regions of the north transport is by caravans of 
camels, and in the south ox-wagons, before the advent of 
railways, supplied the general means of locomotion. The native 
trade routes led generally from the centres of greatest population 
or production to the seaports by the nearest route, but to this 
rule' there was a striking exception. The dense forests of Upper 
Guinea and the upper Congo proved a barrier which kept the 
peoples of the Sudan from direct access to the sea, and from 
Timbuktu to Darfur the great trade routes were either west to 
east or south to north across the Sahara. The principal caravan 
routes across the desert lead from different points in Morocco 
and Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, Kano 
and other great marts of the western and central Sudan; from 
Bengazi to Wadai; and from Assiut on the Nile through the 
Great Oasis and the Libyan desert to Darfur. South of the 
equator the principal long-established routes are those from 
Loanda to the Lunda and Baluba countries; from Benguella via 
Bih6 to Urua and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedes across 
the Kunene to the upper Zambezi; and from Bagamoyo, opposite 
Zanzibar, to Tanganyika. Many of the native routes have been 
superseded by the improved communications introduced by 
Europeans in the utilization of waterways and the construction 
of roads and railways. Steamers have been conveyed overland 
in sections and launched on the interior waterways above the 
obstructions to navigation. On the upper Nile and Albert 
Nyanza their introduction was due to Sir S. Baker and General 
C. G. Gordon (1871-1876); on the middle Congo and its affluents 
to Sir H. M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State, 
as well as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and on Lake 
Nyasa to the supporters of the Scottish mission. A small vessel 
was launched on Victoria Nyanza in 1896 by a British mercantile 
firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip in 
November 1900. On the other great lakes and on most of the 
navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before the close 
of the ipth century. However, the shallowness of the water in 
the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation possible only 
to light-draught steamers. Roads suitable for wheeled traffic 
are few. The first attempt at road-making in Central Africa 
on a large scale was that of Sir T. Powell Buxton and Mr (after- 
wards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed the first section of a 
track leading into the interior from Dar-es-Salaam (1879). A 
still more important undertaking was the " Stevenson road," 
begun in 1881 from the head of Lake Nyasa to the south end of 
Tanganyika, and constructed mainly at the expense of Mr James 
Stevenson, a director of the African Lakes Company a company 
which helped materially in the opening up of Nyasaland. The 
Stevenson road forms a link in the "Lakes route" into the 
heart of the continent. In British East Africa a road connecting 
Mombasa with Victoria Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has 
since been in great measure superseded by the railway. Good 
roads have also been made in German East Africa and Cameroon 
and in Madagascar. 

Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the 
interior of the continent, were for many years after their first 
introduction to Africa almpst entirely confined to the extreme 
north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and Natal). 
Apart from short lines in Senegal, Angola and at Lourenco 
Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1890 without a railway 
system. In Egypt the Alexandria and Cairo railway dates from 
1855, while in 1877 the lines open reached about noo miles, 
and in 1890, in addition to the lines traversing the delta, the 



Nile had been ascended to Assiut. In Algeria the construction 
of an inter-provincial railway was decreed in 1857, but was still 
incomplete twenty years later, when the total length of the lines 
open hardly exceeded 300 miles. Before 1890 an extension to 
Tunis had been opened, while the plateau had been crossed by 
the lines to Ain Sefra in the west and Biskra in the east. In 
Senegal the railway from Dakar to St Louis had been commenced 
and completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the 
Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also 
constructed during the same decade. In Cape Colony, where 
in about 1880 the railways were limited to the neighbourhood 
of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London, the next 
decade saw the completion of the trunk-line from Cape Town to 
Kimberley, with a junction at De Aar with that from Port 
Elizabeth. The northern frontier had, however, nowhere been 
crossed. In Natal, also, the main line had not advanced beyond 
Ladysmith. The settlement, c. 1890, of the main lines of the 
partition of the continent was followed by many projects for 
the opening up of the possessions and spheres of influence of 
the various powers by the building of railways; several of these 
schemes being carried through in a comparatively short time. 
The building of railways was undertaken by the governments 
concerned, nearly all the African lines being state-owned. In 
the Congo Free State a railway, which took some ten years to 
build, connecting the navigable waters of the lower and middle 
Congo, was completed in 1898, while in 1906 the middle and upper 
courses of the river were linked by the opening of a line past 
Stanley Falls. Thus the vast basin of the Congo was rendered 
easily accessible to commercial enterprise. In North Africa 
the Algerian and Tunisian railways were largely extended, and 
proposals were made for a great trunk-line from Tangier to 
Alexandria. The railway from Ain Sefra was continued south- 
ward towards Tuat, the project of a trans-Saharan line having 
occupied the attention of French engineers since 1 880. In French 
West Africa railway communication between the upper Senegal 
and the upper Niger was completed in 1904; from the Guinea 
coast at Konakry another line runs north-east to the upper 
Niger, while from Dahomey a third line goes to the Niger at Garu. 
In the British colonies on the same coast the building of railways 
was begun in 1896. A line to Kumasi was completed in 1903, 
and the line from Lagos to the lower Niger had reached Illorin in 
1908. Thence the railway was continued to the Niger at Jebba. 
From Baro, a port on the lower Niger which can be reached by 
steamers all the year round, another railway, begun in 1907, goes 
via Bida, Zungeru and Zaria to Kano, a total distance of 400 
miles. A line from Jebba to Zungeru affords connexion with 
the Lagos railway. 

But the greatest development of the railway systems was in 
the south and east of the continent. In British East Africa a 
survey for a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza was 
made in 1892. The first rails were laid in 1896 and the line 
reached the lake in December 1901. Meanwhile, there had been 
a great extension of railways in South Africa. Lines from Cape 
Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Delagoa Bay 
all converged on the newly risen city of Johannesburg, the centre 
of the Rand gold mines. A more ambitious project was that 
identified with the name of Cecil Rhodes, namely, the extension 
northward of the railway from Kimberley with the object of 
effecting a continuous railway connexion from Cape Town to 
Cairo. The line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo in 1897. 
(Bulawayo is also reached from Beira on the east coast by 
another line, completed in 1902, which goes through Portuguese 
territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the line north- 
ward from Bulawayo was begun in 1899, the Zambezi being 
bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in 1905. From 
this point the railway goes north to the Katanga district of the 
Congo State. In the north of the continent a step towards the 
completion of the Cape to Cairo route was taken in the opening 
in 1899 of the railway from Wadi Haifa to Khartum. A line 
of greater economic importance than the last named is the 
railway (completed in 1905) fro*i Port Sudan on the Red Sea 
to the Nile a little south of Berber, thus placing the Anglo- 



BIBLIOGRAPHY] 



AFRICA 



357 



Egyptian Sudan within easy reach of the markets of the world. 
A west to east connexion across the continent by rail and steamer, 
from the mouth of the Congo to Port Sudan, was arranged in 
1906 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo and 
Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado, on 
the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to meet a railway starting 
from the river Congo near Stanley Falls. A railway of consider- 
able importance is that from Jibuti in the Gulf of Aden to Harrar, 
giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia. 

Besides the railways, mentioned there are several others of 
less importance. Lines run from Loanda and other ports of 
Angola towards the Congo State frontier, and from Tanga and 
Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the 
great lakes. In British Central Africa a railway connects Lake 
Nyasa with the navigable waters of the Shire, and various lines 
have been built by the French in Madagascar. 

All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British 
West Africa, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan a'nd in Egypt south 
of Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The main lines in Lower Egypt 
and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft. 85 in. gauge. Elsewhere 
as in French West and British East Africa the lines are of metre 
(3-28 ft.) gauge. 

The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than 
that of the railways, the newer European possessions having in 
most cases been provided with telegraph lines before railway 
projects had been set on foot. In Algeria, Egypt and Cape 
Colony the systems date back to the middle of the ipth century, 
before the end of which the lines had in each country reached 
some thousands of miles. In tropical Africa the systems of 
French West Africa, where the line from Dakar to St Louis was 
begun in 1862, were the first to be fully developed, lines having 
been carried from different points on the coast of Senegal and 
Guinea towards the Niger, the main line being prolonged north- 
west to Timbuktu, and west and south to the coast of Dahomey. 
The route for a telegraph line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria 
was surveyed in 1905. The Congo region is furnished with 
several telegraphic systems, the longest going from the mouth 
of the river to Lake Tanganyika. From Ujiji on the east coast 
of that lake there is telegraphic communication via Tabora with 
Dar-es-Salaam and via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town. 
The last-named line is the longest link in the trans-continental 
line first suggested in 1876 by Sir (then Mr) Edwin Arnold and 
afterwards taken up by Cecil Rhodes. The northern link from 
Egypt to Khartum has been continued southward to Uganda, 
while another line connects Uganda with Mombasa. At the 
principal seaports the inland systems are connected with sub- 
marine cables which place Africa in telegraphic communication 
with the rest of the world. 

Numerous steamship lines run from Great Britain, Germany, 
France and other countries to the African seaports, the journey 
from any place in western Europe to any port on the African 
coast occupying, by the shortest route, not more than three 
weeks. (E. HE., F. R. C.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Authoritative works dealing with Africa as a 
whole in any of its aspects are comparatively rare. Besides such 
volumes the following list includes therefore books containing 
valuable information concerning large or typical sections of the 
continent : 

1. General Descriptions. (o) Ancient and Medieval. Herodo- 
tus, ed. G. Rawlinson, 4 vols. 1 (1880); Ptolemy's Geographia, ed. 
'.. Miiller, vol. i. (Paris, 1883-1901); Ibn Haukal, " Description de 
1'Afrique " (transl. McG. de Slane), Nouv. Journal asiatique, 1842; 
Edrisi, " Geographic " (transl. Taubert), Rec. de voyages . . . Soc. de 
Geogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836); Abulfeda, Geographic (transl. Reinaud 
a_nd Guyard, Paris, 1848-1883); M. A. P. d'Avezac, Description de 
I'Afrique ancienne (Paris, 1845); L. de Marmol, Description general 
de Africa (Granada, 1573) ; L. Sanuto, Geografia dell' Africa (Venice, 
1588) ; F. Pigafetta, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo, &c. (1597) ; 
Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa (transl. J. Pory, 
ed. R. Brown), 3 vols. (1896); O. Dapper, Naukeurige beschrijvinge 
der afrikaensche gewesten, &c. (Amsterdam, 1668) (also English 
version by Ogilvy, 1670, and French version, Amsterdam, 1686) ; 

Tellez, " Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia," A New Collection 
of Voyages, vol. vii. (1710); G. A. Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Istorica 

1 Where no place of publication is given, London is to be under- 
stood. 



Descrittione de tre Regni Congo, Matamba, el Angola (Milan, 1690) 
(account of the labours of the Capuchin missionaries and their 
observations on the country and people); J. Barbot, " Description 
of the Coasts of North and South Guinea and of Ethiopia Inferior," 
Churchill's Voyages, vol. v. (1707); W. Bosman, A New . . . 
Description of the Coasts of Guinea, &c., 2nd ed. (1721); J. B. Labat, 
Nouvelle relation de I'Afrique occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1728) ; Idem, 
Relation historique de I'Ethiopie occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1732). 
(b) Modern. B. d'Anville, Memoire cone, les rivieres de I'interteur 
de I'Afrique (Paris, n.d.) ; M. Vollkommer, Die Quellen B. d'Anville's 
fiir seine kritische Karte von Afrika ( Munich, 1904) ; C. Ritter, Die 
Erdkunde, i. Theil, I. Buch, " Afrika " (Berlin, 1822); J. M'Queen, 
Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and Central Africa 
(Edinburgh, 1821) ; Idem, Geographical Survey of Africa (1840) ;W. D. 
Cooley, Inner Africa laid open (1852); E. Reclus, Nouvelle geo- 



, 

raphie universelle, vols. x.-xiii. (1885-1888); A. H. Keane, Africa 
in Stanford's Compendium), 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1904-1907) ; F. Hahn 



. 

and W. Sievers, Afrika, 2. Aufl. (Leipzig, 1901); M. Fallex and 
A. Mairey, L'Afrique au debut du XX' siecle (Paris, 1906) ; Sir C. P. 
Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vols. iii. and iv. 
(Oxford, 1894, 1904); F. D. and A. J. Herbertson, Descriptive 
Geographies from Original Sources: Africa (1902) ; British Africa (The 
British Empire Series, vol. ii., 1899); Journal of the African Society; 
Comite de I'Afrique franfaise, Bulletin, Pans ; Mitteilungen der 
afrikan. Gesellschaft in Deutschland (Berlin, 1879-1889); Mittei- 
lungen . . . aus den deutschen Schutzegebieten (Berlin) ; H. Schirmer, 
Le Sahara (Paris, 1893); Mary H. Kingsley, West African Studies, 
2nd ed. (1901); J. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa (1897); 
Sir Harry Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols. (1902) (vol. ii. is 
devoted to anthropology) ; E. D. Morel, Affairs of West Africa(i<)O2). 

II. Geography (Physical), Geology, Climate, Flora and Fauna. 
(For Descriptive Geogr. see I.) G. Giirich, " Oberblick iiber den 
geolog. Bau des afr. Kontinents," Peterm. Mitt., 1887; A. Knox, 
Notes on the Geology of the Continent of Africa (1906) (includes a 
bibliography) ; L. von Hohnel, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E. Suess, 
Beitrage zur geologischen Kenntniss des ostlichen Afrika (Vienna, 1891) ; 
E. Stromer, Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebieten in Afrika 
(Munich, 1896); I. Chavanne, Afrika im Lichte unserer Tage: 
Bodengestalt, &c. (Vienna, 1881); F. Heidrich, " Die mittlere Hone 
Afrikas," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift- 
Valley (1896); H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile 
and its Basin (Cairo, 1906); S. Passarage, Die Kalahari: Versuch 
einer physischgeogr. Darstellung . . . des sudafr. Beckens (Berlin, 
1904) ; Idem, " Inselberglandschaften im tropischen Afrika," Naturw. 
Wochenschrift, 1904. 654-665; J. E. S. Moore, The Tanganyika 
Problem (1903); W. H. Hudleston, " On the Origin of the Marine 
(Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika," Journ. of Trans. Victoria 
Inst., 1904, 300-351 (discusses the whole question of the geological 
history of equatorial Africa) ; E. Stromer, " 1st der Tanganyika ein 
Relikten-See?" Peterm. Mitt., 1901, 275-278; E. Kohlschutter, 
" Die . . . Arbeiten der Pendelexpedition ... in Deutsch-Ost-Afrika," 
Verh. Deuts. Geographentages Breslau, 1901, 133-153; J. Cornet, 
"La geologic du bassin du Congo," Bull. Soc. Beige geol., 1898; 
E. G. Ravenstein, "The Climatology of Africa " (ten reports), 
Reports Brit. Association, 1892-1901; Idem, " Climatological 
Observations ... I. Tropical Africa " (1904) ; H. G. Lyons, " On 
the Relations between Variations of Atmospheric Pressure . . . and 
the Nile Flood," Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A, vol. Ixxvi., 1905; P. 
Reichard, " Zur Frage der Austrocknung Afrikas," Geogr. Zeitschrift, 
1895; J. Hoffmann, " Die tiefsten Temperaturen auf den Hoch- 
landlern," &c., Peterm. Mitt., 1905; G. Fraunberger, " Studien iiber 
die jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen des afrik. Kontinents," Peterm. 
Mitt., 1906; D. Oliver and Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Flora of 
Tropical Africa, 10 vols. (1888-1906); K. Oschatz, Anordnung 
der Vegetation in Afrika (Erlangen, 1900); A. Engler, Hochgebirgs- 
flora des tropischen Afrika (Berlin, 1892) ; Idem, Die Pfllanzenwelt 
Ostafrikas und der Nachbargebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1895); Idem, 
Beitrage zur Flora von Afrika (Engler's Botan. Jahrbiicher, 14 
vols. &c.) ; W. P. Hiern, Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr 
Friedrich Welwitschin 1853-1861, 2 vols. (1896^-1901) ; R. Schlechter, 
Westafrikanische Kautschuk- Expedition (Berlin, 1900) ; H. Baum, 
Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition (Berlin, 1903) (largely concerned with 
botany) ; W. L. Sclater, " Geography of Mammals, No. iv. The 
Ethiopian Region," Geog. Journal, March 1896; H. A. Bryden 
and others, Great and Small Game of Africa (1899) ; F. C. Setous, 
African Nature Notes and Reminiscences (1908); E. N. Buxton, Two 
African Trips: with Notes and Suggestions on Big-Game Preservation 
in Africa (1902) (contains photographs of living animals) ; G. 
Schillings, With Flash-light and Rifle^ in Equatorial East Africa (1906) ; 
Idem, In Wildest Africa (1907) (striking collection of photographs of 
living wild animals) ; Exploration scientifique de I'Algerie: Histoire 
naturelle, 14 vols. and 4 atlases, Paris (1846-1850); Annales du 
Musee du Congo: Botanique, Zoologie (Brussels, 1898, &c.). The 
latest results of geographical research and a bibliography of current 
literature are given in the Geographical Journal, published monthly 
by the Royal Geographical Society. 

III. Ethnology. H. Hartmann, Die Volker Afrikas (Leipzig, 
1879); B. Ankermann, ". Kulturkreise in Afrika, Zeit. f. Eth., 
vol. xxxvii. p. 54; Idem," Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Ethno- 
graphic der Sudhalfte Afrikas," Arch.f. Anth. n.f. iv. p. 24;G.Ser. i. 



358 



AFRICA, ROMAN 



Antropologia della stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897); J. Deniker, " Dis- 
tribution geogr. et caracteres physiques des Pygmees africains," La 
Geographic, Paris, vol. viii. pp. 213-220; G. W. Stow and G. M. 
Theal, The Native Races of South Africa (1905) ; K. Barthel, Volker- 
bewegungen auf der Sudhdlfte des afrik. Kontinents (Leipzig, 1893); 
A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Cold Coast (1887) ; Idem, 
The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1890); Idem, The 
Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894); H. Ling Roth, 
Great Benin, its Customs, &c. (Halifax, 1903) ; H. Frobenius, Die 
Heiden-Neger des agyptischen Sudan (Berlin, 1893) i Herbert Spencer 
and D. Duncan, Descriptive Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (1875); 
A. de Preville, Les Societes africaines (Paris, 1894); D. Macdonald, 
Africans; or, the Heart of Heathen Africa, 2 vols. (1882) , L. Fro- 
benius, Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen (Der Ursprung der 
Kultur, Band i.) (Berlin, 1898); Idem, " Die Masken und Geheim- 
bunde Afrikas," Abhandl. Kaiserl. Leopoldin.-Carolin. Deuts. Akad. 
Naturforscher, 1899, 1-278; G. Schweinfurth, Artes africanae: 
Illustrations and Descriptions of . . . industrial Arts, &c. (in German 
and English) (Leipzig, 1875) ; F. Ratzel, Die afrikanischen Bogen 
. . . eine anthrop.-geographische Studie (Leipzig, 1891); K. Weule, 
Der afrikanische Pfeil (Leipzig, 1899) ; H. Frobenius, Afrikanische 
Bautypen (Dauchau bei Miinchen, 1894); H. Schurtz, Die afrikan. 
Geiverbe (Leipzig, 1900) ; E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the 
Negro Race (1887); James Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent, 
or Africa and its Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1903) ; W. H. J. 
Bleek, Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, 2 parts 
(1862-1869); Idem, Vocabularies of the Districts of Lourenzo Marques, 
&c., &c. (1900) ; R. N. Cust, Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa, 
2 vols. (1883); F. W. Kolbe, A Language Study based on Bantu 
(1888) ; J. T. Last, Polyglotta Africana orientalis (1885) ; J. Torrend, 
Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages (1891) ; 
S. W. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (1854); C. Velten, Schilderungen 
der Suaheli von Expeditionen v. Wissmanns, &c., &c. (1901) (narra- 
tives taken down from the mouths of natives) ; A. Vierkandt, 
Volksgedichteimwestlichen Central-Afrika (Leipzig, 1895). For latest 
information the following periodicals should be consulted: 
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and 
Ireland; Man (same publishers) ; Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie; Archiv 
f. Anthropologie; L'Anthropologie. 

IV. Archaeology and Art. Publications of the Egyptian Ex- 
ploration Fund; A. Mariette-Bey, The Monuments of upper Egypt 
(1890); H. Brugsch, Die Agyptologie (Leipzig, 1891); G. Maspero, 
L' Archeologie egyptienne (Paris, 1890?); R. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus 
Agypten und Athwpien . . ., 6 vols. (Berlin, 1849-1859); G. A. 
Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia . . . illustrating the Antiquities of the 
Ancient Kingdom of Meroe (1835); Records of the Past: being 
English Translations of . . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 
12(1873-1881); Ditto, new series, 6 vols. (1890-1892); D. Randall- 
Maclver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901) (archaeology and 
ethnology of North Africa) ; G. Boissier, L' Afrique romaine: Pro- 
menades archeologiques en Algerie et en Tunisie, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1901) ; 
D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906) ; Prisse d'Avennes, 
Histoire de I'art egyptien d'apres les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris, 
1879); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt, 
2 vols. (1883); H. Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art (1900); C. H. Read 
and O. M. Dalton, Antiquities from the City of Benin and from other 
parts of West Africa (1899). 

V. Travel and Exploration. Dean W. Vincent, The Commerce 
and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus of the Erythraean 
Sea (1807) ; G. E. de Azurara, Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest 
of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols., 1896, 1899); R. H. Major, Life of 
Prince Henry the Navigator (1868) ; E. G. Ravenstein, " The Voyages 
of .Diogo Cao and Earth. Diaz," Geogr. Journ., Dec. 1900; O. Hartig, 
" Altere Entdeckungsgeschichte und Kartographie Afrikas," Mitt. 
Geogr. Gesells. Wien, 1905; J. Leyden and H. Murray, Historical 
Account of Discoveries, &c., 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1818); T. E. Bowditch, 
Account of the Discoveries o/ the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola 
and Mozambique (1824); P. Paulitschke, Die geogr. Forschung des 
afrikan. Continents (Vienna, 1880) ; A. Supan, " Ein Jahrhundert 
der Afrika-Forschung," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; R. Brown, The Story of 
Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. (1892-1895); Sir Harry Johnston, 
The Nile Quest (1903) ; James Bruce, Travels to discover the Source of 
the Nile in 1768-1773, 5 vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the 
Association for . . . Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, 1790- 
1810; Mungo Park, Travels into the Interior Districts of Africa 
(1799) ; Idem, Journal of a Mission, &c. (1815) ; Capt. J. K. Tuckey, 
Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River Zaire or Congo in 
1816 (1818); D. Denham and H. Clapperton, Narrative of Travels 
and Discoveries in N. and Cent. Africa (1826) ; R. Caillie, Journal d'un 
voyage a Temboctu et a Jenne, 3 vols., Paris (1830) ; D. Livingstone, 
Missionary Travels . . . in South Africa (1857); The Last Journals 
of David Livingstone in Central Africa, ed. H. Waller (1874); H. 
Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, 5 vols. 
('857); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, &c., in Eastern Africa 
(1860) ; Sir R. F. Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols. 
(1860) ; J. H. Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile 
(1863); Sir S. W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, 2 vols. (1866); G. 
Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1873); V. L. Cameron, 
Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877); T. Baines, The Gold Regions of South- 
Eastern Africa (1877) ; Sir H. M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, 



2 vols. (1878) ; Idem, In Darkest Africa, 2 vols. (1890) ; G. Nachtigal, 
Sahara und Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1879-1889); P. S. de Brazza, Les 
Voyages de . . . (1875-1882), Paris, 1884; J. Thomson, Through 
Masai Land (1885); H. von Wissmann, Unter Deutscher Flagge 
quer durch Afrika, &c. (Berlin, 1889); Idem, My Second Journey 
through Equatorial Africa (1891); W. Junker, Travels in Africa 
1875-1886, 3 vols. (1890-1892); L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe 
de Guinee, &c. (Paris, 1892) ; O. Baumann, Durch Masailand zur 
Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894); R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904); C. A. 
von Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (Berlin, 1896) ; L. Vanu- 
telli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bbttego: L'Omo (Milan, 1899) I 

F. Foureau, D Alger au Congo par le Tchad (Paris, 1902) ; C. Lemaire, 
Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga: Journal de route, I vol., Resultats 
des observations, 16 parts (Brussels, 1902) ; A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa 
from South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904); E. Lenfant, 
La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905) ; Boyd Alexander, From the 
Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907). 

VI. Historical and Political. H. Schurtz, Africa(World' s History, 
vol. 3, part 3) (1903) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, History of the Colonization 
of Africa by Alien Races (Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional 
chapter " Latest Developments," 1905) ; A. H. L. Heeren, Reflec- 
tions on the Politics-, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations 
of Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient 
Egypt (1881) ; A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902) ; J. de Barros, Asia: 
Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778); J. Strandes, Die Portu- 
giesenzeitvon . . . Ostafrika (Berlin, 1899) ; R. Schiick, Brandenburg- 
Preussens Kolonial-Politik . . . 1641-1721, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1889); 

G. M'Call Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa south of the 
Zambesi . . . to7/p5, 3 vols.(i9o8- ),a.nd History of South Africa 
since September 179$ (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem, Records of 
South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 18981903; Lady Lugard, A Tropical 
Dependency: Outline of the History of the Western Sudan, fc. (1905); 
Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Africa by Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909) ; 
J. S. Keltic, The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895) ; F. Van Ortroy, 
Conventions internationales definissant les limites . . . en Afrigue 
(Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference of Berlin, 1885; 
The Surveys and Explorations of British Africa (Colonial Reports, 
No. 500) (1906), and annual reports thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard, 
The Rise of our East African Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. Petit, Les 
colonies frangaises, 2 vols. (Paris, 1902-1904) ; E. Rouard de Card, 
Les Traites de protectorat conclus par la France en Afrique, 18701895 
(Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Colonies portuguaises d' Afrique 
(Lisbon, 1900) ; B.Trognitz, " Neue Arealbestimmung des Continents 
Afrika," Petermanns Mitt., 1893, 220-221; A. Supan, "Die Be- 
volkerung der Erde," xii., Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 146 (Gotha, 
1904) (deals with areas as well as population). 

VII. Commerce and Economics. A. Silva White, The Develop- 
ment of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892); K. Dove, " Grundziigc einer Wirt- 
schaftsgeographie Afrikas," Geographische Zeitschrift, 1905, 1-18; 
E. Hahn, Die Stellung Afrikas in der Geschichte des Welthandels," 
Verhandl. II. Deutsch. Geographentags zu Bremen (Berlin, 1896); 
L. de Launay, Les Richesses minerales de I' Afrique (Paris, 1903) ; 
K. Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion 
(Berlin, 1894) '< P- Reichard, " Das afrikan. Elfenbcin und sein 
Handel," Deutsche geogr. Blatter (Bremen, 1889); Sir A. Moloney, 
Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887); Dewevre, "Les 
Caoutchoucs africains," Ann. Soc. Set. Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F. 
Buxton, The African Slave Trade and_ its Remedy (1840); C. M. A. 
Lavigerie, L'Esclavage africain (Paris, 1888); E. de Renty, Les 
Chemins de fer coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1903-1905); 
H. Meyer, Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902); 
G. Grenfell, " The Upper Congo as a Waterway," Geogr. Journ., 
Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, The Nile and Zambezi Systems as 
Waterways," Journ. R. Colon. Inst., 1901; K. Lent, " Verkehrs- 
mittel in Ostafrika," Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 1894; " Trade of 
the United Kingdom with the African Continent in 1898-1902,'' 
Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual 
Series; Colonial Reports; T. H. Parke, Guide to Health in Africa 
(1893); R. W. Felkin, Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases 
in Africa (1895). 

The following bibliographies may also be consulted: J. Gay, 
Bibliographie des ouyrages relatifs d. I Afrique, &c. (San Remo, 1875) ; 
P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika- Literatur von 1500 bis 1750 (Vienne, 
1882); Catalogue of the Colonial Office Library, vol. 3, Africa 
(specially for government publications). (E. HE.) 

AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to 
that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya (Ai/3fo)). 
It comprised the whole of the portion of the African continent 
known to the ancients, except Egypt and Ethiopia. But besides 
this general sense, which occurs in Pliny (iii. 3), Pomponius 
Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the official and administrative 
language used the word Africa in a narrower sense, which is 
noticed below. The term was certainly borrowed by the Romans 
from the language of the natives. In Latin literature it was 
employed for the first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the 
interval between the First- and Second Punic Wars (Ann. vi.; 
Sat. iii.). By him the term was confined to the territory of 



AFRICA, ROMAN 



359 



Carthage and the regions composing the eastern group of the 
Atlas. Among the numerous conjectures which have been made 
as to the etymology of the term Africa ('A<pi/ci7) may be quoted 
that which derives it from the Semitic radical ine (" separate "), 
Africa being considered, in this connexion, as a Phoenician 
settlement " separated " from the mother country, Asiatic 
Phoenicia. It has also been held that the word Africa comes 
from friqi, farikia (the country of fruit). The best hypothesis 
in the writer's opinion is that maintained by Charles Tissot, 
who sees in the word " Africa " the name of the great Berber tribe, 
the Aourigha (whose name would have been pronounced Afarika), 
the modern Aouraghen, now driven back into the Sahara, but 
in ancient times the principal indigenous element of the African 
empire of Carthage (Tissot, Geogr. comp. i. 389). Thus Africa 
was originally, in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike, 
the country inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians 
called Afarik. Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was 
then excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west. 

At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Cartha- 
ginians was but a fragment of their ancient native empire. It 
comprised the territory bounded by a vague line running from 
the mouth of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of 
Tabraca (Tabarca), as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the 
mouth of the Gulf of Gabes. The rest of Africa had passed into 
the hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans. 

After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this territory 
was erected into a Roman province, and a trench, the fossa regia, 
was dug to mark the boundary of the Roman province of Africa 
and the dominions of the Numidian princes. There have been 
discovered (1907) the remains of this ditch protected by a low 
wall or a stone dyke; some of the boundary stones which marked 
its course, and inscriptions mentioning it, have also been found. 
From Testur on the Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by 
these indications for several miles along the Jebel esh-Sheid. 
The ditch ran northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina. 
The importance of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch 
which in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and 
Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the boun- 
dary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, " Le fosse des fron- 
tieres romaines " in M flanges Boissier, 1905, p. 227; L. Poinssot 
in Comples rendus de I'Acad. des Inscript. et Belles Lettres, 1907, 
p. 466; Classical Review, 1907, December, p. 255). The govern- 
ment of the Roman province thus delimited was entrusted to 
a praetor or propraetor, of whom several are now known, 
e.g. P. Sextilius, propraetor Africae, according to coins of 
Hadrumetum of the year 94 B.C. The towns which had fought 
on the side of the Romans during the Third Punic War were 
declared civitates liberae, and became exceedingly prosperous. 
They were Utica (Bu Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus 
(Dimas), Leptis Minor (Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about 
ii m. from Utica) and Theudalis. Those towns, however, 
which had remained faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like 
Carthage itself. 

After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regio Tripoli- 
tana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata, 
and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes, appears to 
have been annexed to the Roman province in a more or less 
regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus in 46 
made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the spheres 
of administration were clearly marked out. Numidia -was con- 
verted into a new province called " Africa Nova," and of this 
province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and in- 
vested with the imperium. From that time the old province of 
Africa was known as " Africa Vetus " or " Africa Propria." 

This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time. In 
31 B.C. Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to King 
Juba II. Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some 
Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia, 
which thus reverted to direct Roman control. Numidia, how- 
ever, no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached 
to the old province of Africa. From 25 B.C. the Roman province 
of Africa comprised the whole of the region between the mouth 



of the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and 
the two tumuli called the altars of the Philaeni, the immutable 
boundary between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east 
(Tissot ii. 261). In the partition of the government of the 
provinces of the Roman empire between the senate and the 
emperor, Africa fell to the senate, and was henceforth ad- 
ministered by a proconsul. Subordinate to him were the legati 
pro consule, who were placed at the head of districts called 
dioceses. At first there were only three dioceses: Cartha- 
giniensis, Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now 
Bizerta), and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine). 
At a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and perhaps 
at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana. 

The province of Africa was the only senatorial province whose 
governor had originally been invested with military powers. 
The proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of the legio III. 
Augusta and the auxiliary corps. But in A.D. 37 Caligula de- 
prived the proconsul of his military powers and gave them to the 
imperial legate (legatus Augusti pro praetore provinciae Africae), 
who was nominated directly by the emperor, and whose special 
duty it was to guard the frontier zone (Tacitus, Hist. iv. 48; 
Dio Cass. lix. 20). The headquarters of the imperial legate were 
originally at Cirta and afterwards at Lambaesa (Lambessa). 
The military posts were drawn up in echelon along the frontier 
of the desert, especially along the southern slopes of the Aures, 
as far as Ad Majores (Besseriani), and on the Tripoli tan frontier 
as far as Cydamus (Ghadames), forming an immense arc extend- 
ing from Cyrenaica to Mauretania. A network of military routes, 
constructed and kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambaesa 
in all directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as Leptis 
Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa) , Thenae and Tacape (Gabes). 
The powers of the proconsul, however, extended scarcely beyond 
the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the littoral. Towards 
194 Septimius Severus completed the reform of Caligula by 
detaching from the province of Africa the greater partof Numidia 
to constitute a special province governed by a procurator, sub- 
ordinate to the imperial legate and resident at Cirta (Tissot 
ii. 34). This province was called Numidia Cirtensis, as opposed 
to Numidia Inferior or proconsular Numidia. 

In Diocletian's great reform of the administrative system of 
the empire, the whole of Roman Africa, with the exception of 
Mauretania Tingitana (which was attached to the province 
of Spain), constituted a single diocese subdivided into six 
provinces: Zeugitana (Carthage), Byzacium (Hadrumetum, 
now Susa), Numidia Cirtensis (Cirta, Constantine), Tripolitana 
(Tripolis), Mauretania Sitifensis (Sitifis, Setif), and Mauretania 
Caesariensis (Caesarea, now Cherchel). These provinces were 
administered, according to circumstances, by a praeses of sena- 
torial rank, a legatus pro praetore, or a vir clarissimus consularis. 
Some changes were eventually necessitated by the wars with the 
Moors and the Vandals. By a treaty concluded in 476, the 
emperor Zeno recognized Genseric as master of all Africa. Re- 
conquered by Belisarius in 534, Africa formed, under the name 
of praefeclura Africae, one of the great administrative districts 
of the Byzantine empire. It was subdivided into six provinces, 
which were placed under the authority of the praetorian prefect 
of Africa. These provinces were Zeugitana (the former Pro- 
consularis), Carthage, Byzacium, Tripolitana, Numidia and 
Mauretania. The civil government was carried on by consulares 
or praesides, while the military government was in the hands of 
four duces militum, who made strenuous efforts to drive out the 
barbarians. The country was studded thickly with burgi(smaM 
forts) and clausurae (long walls), the ruins of which still subsist. 
In 647 the Arabs penetrated into Tfrikia, which was destined to 
fall for ever out of the grasp of the Romans. In 697 Carthage 
was taken. 

The bulk of the population of Roman Africa was invariably 
composed of three chief elements: the indigenous Berber tribes, 
the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician origin and the Roman 
colonists. The Berber tribes, whose racial unity is attested by 
their common spoken language and by the comparatively 
numerous Berber inscriptions that have come down to us, bore 



3 6 



AFRICA, ROMAN 



in ancient times the generic names of Numidians, Gaetulians 
and Moors or Maurusiani. Herodotus mentions a great number 
of these tribes. During the Roman period, according to Pliny, 
there were settlements of 26 indigenous tribes extending from the 
Ampsaga as far as Cyrenaica. The much more detailed list of 
Ptolemy enumerates 39 indigenous tribes in the province of 
Africa and 25 in Mauretania Caesariensis. Ammianus Marcel - 
linus, Procopius and Flavius Cresconius Corippus give still 
further names. Besides the Afri (Aourigha) of the territory of 
Carthage, the principal tribes that took part in the wars against 
the Romans were the Lotophagi, the Garamantes, the Maces, the 
Nasamones in the regions of the S.E., the Misulani or Musulamii 
(whence the name Mussulman) , the Massyli and the Massaesyli in 
the E., who were neighbours of the Moors. The non-nomads of 
these Libyan tribes dwelt in huts made of stakes supporting 
plaited mats of rush or asphodel. These dwellings, which were 
called mapalia, are the modern gourbis. African epigraphy has 
revealed the names of some of their deities: deus inmctus Aulisva; 
the god Motmanius, associated with Mercury; the god Lilleus; 
Baldir Augustus; Kautus paler; the goddess Gilva, identified 
with Tellus, and Ifru Augustus (Tissot i. 486). The Johannis of 
Corippus mentions three native divinities: Sinifere, Mastiman 
and Gurzil. There were also local divinities in all the principal 
districts. The rock bas-reliefs and other monuments showing 
native divinities are rare, and give only very summary representa- 
tions. Dolmens, however, occur in great numbers in Tunisia 
and the province of Constantine. Tumuli, too, are found through- 
out northern Africa, thejmost celebrated being that near Cherchel, 
the Kubr-er-Rumia (" tomb of the Christian lady "), which was 
regarded by Pomponius Mela as the royal burying-place of the 
kings of Numidia. 

During the Roman period the ancient Carthaginians of Phoe- 
nician origin and the bastard population termed by ancient 
authors Libyo-Phoenicians, like the modern Maltese, invariably 
formed the predominant population of the towns on the littoral, 
and retained the Punic language until the 6th century of the 
Christian era. The municipal magistrates took the title of 
su/etes in place of that of duumvirs, and in certain towns the 
Christian bishops were obliged to know the lingua Punica, since 
it was the only language that the people understood. Neverthe- 
less, the Roman functionaries, the army and the colonists from 
Italy soon brought the Latin element into Africa, where it 
flourished with such vigour that, in the 3rd century, Carthage 
became the centre of a Romano-African civilization of extra- 
ordinary literary brilliancy, which numbered among its leaders 
such men as Apuleius, Tertullian, Arnobius, Cyprian, Augustine 
and many others. 

Carthage regained its rank of capital of Africa under Augustus, 
when thousands of Roman colonists flocked to the town. Utica 
became a Roman colony under Hadrian, and the civitates liberae, 
municipia, castella, pagi and turres were peopled with Latins. 
The towns of the ancient province of Africa which received 
coloniae were very numerous: Abitensis (civitas Avittensis Bibba), 
Bisica Lucana (Tastour), Byzacium, Capsa (Gafsa), Carthage, 
Cuina, Curubis (Kurba), Hadrumetum (Susa), Hippo Diarrhytus 
or Zarytus (Bizerta), Leptis Magna (Lebda), Maxula (Ghades, 
Rades orGades),Neapolis(Nabel,Nebeul), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata 
(Zoara), colonia Scillitana (Ghasrin), Sufes (Sbiba), Tacape 
(Gabes),Thaenae or Thenae (Tina), Thelepte(Medinet Kedima), 
Thugga (Dugga), Thuburbo maius (Kasbat), Thysdrus (El Jem), 
Uthina (Wadna) and Vallis (Median). Of the municipia may be 
mentioned Gigthis or Gigthi (Bu Grara), Thibussicensium Bure 
(Tebursuk), Zita and the turris Tamalleni (Telmin). 

The province of Numidia was at first colonized principally by 
the military settlements of the Romans. Cirta (Constantine) and 
Bulla Regia (Hammam Darraj), its chief towns, received coloniae 
of soldiers and veterans, as well as Theveste (Tebessa) and 
Thamugas (Timgad). The fine ruins which have been discovered 
at the last-mentioned place have earned for it the surname of the 
African Pompeii (see below). 

Archaeology. Roman Africa has been the subject of innumer- 
able historical and archaeological researches, especially since the 



conquest of Algeria and Tunisia by the French. The country is 
covered with Roman and Byzantine remains. Each of these 
ruins has been visited by archaeologists who have copied in- 
scriptions, described the temples, triumphal arches, porticos, 
mausoleums and the other monuments which are still standing, 
collected statues or other antiquities; and in many cases they 
have actually excavated. The results of all these labours have 
been published, from about 1850 onwards, annually, and, indeed, 
almost from day to day, in various scientific periodicals. Among 
the principal of these are: Memoires de la Socittt archeologique 
de Constantine, Bulletin de la Societe geographique et archeologique 
d'Oran, Revue africaine of Algiers, to which we should add the 
Revue archeologique of Paris, the Archives des missions scien- 
tifiques and the Bulletin archeologique du Comite des travaux 
historiques and the Melanges of the French School at Rome. In 
all the towns of Algeria and Tunisia museums have been founded 
for storing the antiquities of the region; the most important of 
these are the museums of St Louis, Carthage and the palace of 
Bardo (musee Alaoui) near Tunis, those of Susa, Constantine, 
Lambessa, Timgad, Tebessa, Philippeville, Cherchel and Oran. 
Under the title of Musics et collections archeologiques de I' Algerie 
et de la Tunisie, the Ministry of Public Instruction publishes from 
time to time illustrated descriptions of all these archaeological 
treasures. In this collection have already appeared descriptions 
of the museums of Algiers by G. Doublet; of Constantine by 
G. Doublet and P. Gauckler; of Oran by R. de La Blanchere; 
of Cherchel by P. Gauckler; of Lambessa by R. Cagnat; of 
Philippeville by S. Gsell and Bertrand; of the Bardo by R. de La 
Blanchere and P. Gauckler; of Carthage by R. P. Delattre; of 
Tebessa by S. Gsell; of Susa by P. Gauckler; of Timgad by 
R. Cagnat and A. Ballu. 

The archaeological exploration of Algeria has kept pace with 
the expansion of French dominion. From 1846 to 1854 Delamarre 
published his Exploration archeologique de I' Algerie, in collabora- 
tion with the French officers. In 1850 Leon Renier was officially 
instructed to collect all the inscriptions in Algeria which should 
be found by the military expeditionary columns. This scholar 
examined first the ruins of Lambessa, an account of which he 
published in 1854 in his Melanges d'epigraphie; subsequently he 
made his important collection of Inscriptions romaines de I' Algerie 
(1855-1858) which formed the groundwork of the volume of the 
Corpus Inscr. Lot. of the Academy of Berlin, devoted to Roman 
Africa. A little later General Faidherbe published his Collection 
complete des inscriptions numidiques (1870). Apart from the 
province of Constantine, Algeria is less rich in Roman remains 
than Tunisia; mention must, however, be made of the excava- 
tions of Victor Waille at Cherchel, where were found fine statues 
in the Greek style of the time of King Juba II. ; of P. Gavault at 
Tigzirt (Rusuccuru), and finally of those of Stephane Gsell at 
Tipasa (basilica of St Salsa) and throughout the district of Setif 
and at Khamissa (Thuburticum Numidarum). In the depart- 
ment of Constantine, which is peculiarly rich in Roman remains, 
Tebessa has been most carefully explored by M. Heron de 
Villefosse. who has laid bare a beautiful temple of Jupiter, a 
triumphal arch of Caracalla, a Byzantine basilica and the gate 
of the Byzantine general Solomon. But all these ruins fade into 
insignificance in comparison with the majestic grandeur of those 
of Timgad which are almost entirely laid bare; they are de- 
scribed in Timgad, une cite africaine sous I'empire remain, by 
R. Cagnat, G. Boeswillwald and A. Ballu. 

In Tunisia, Carthage early became the object of archaeo- 
logical investigation. Major Humbert was sent there by 
Napoleon in 1808 and his notes are still preserved in the museum 
of Leiden. Chateaubriand visited and described the ruins; 
the Dane Falbe, the Englishman Nathan Davis, Beule, P. de 
Sainte-Marie and others also have carried out researches; for 
more than twenty years Pere Delattre has explored the ruins of 
Carthage (q.v.) with extraordinary success. For the rest of 
Tunisia, the first explorer interested in archaeology was Victor 
Guerin in 1860; his results are contained in his remarkable 
Voyage archeologique dans la Regence de Tunis (1862, 2 vols.). 
A. Daux, in the years preceding 1869, explored the sites of the 



AFRICAN LILY AFRIDI 



361 



ancient harbours of Utica, Hadrumetum, Thapsus (Dimas) . But 
it was the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881 which 
really gave the impetus to modern investigations in this district 
of ruined cities. They were put on a solid foundation by the 
publication of the Geographic compares of Charles Tissot (1884). 
Trained scholars were sent there annually by the French govern- 
ment: Cagnat, Saladin, Poinssot, La Blanchere, S. Reinach, 
E. Babelon, Carton, Audollent, Steph. Gsell, J. Toutain, spe- 
randieu, Gauckler, Merlin, Homo and many others, to say 
nothing of German scholars, such as Willmans and Schulten, 
and especially of a great number of enthusiastic officers of the 
army of occupation, who explored all the ancient sites, and in 
many cases excavated with great success (for their results see 
the works quoted above). It would be impossible to enumerate 
here all the monographs describing, for example, the ruins of 
Carthage, those of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan, 
the amphitheatre of El Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn, 
the royal tomb and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the 
bridge of Chemtu (Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of 
Tebursuk and Medeina (Althiburus) , the rich villa of the 
Laberii at Wadna (Uthina), the sanctuary of Saturn Balcara- 
nensis on the hill called Bu-Kornain, the ruins of the district of 
Enfida (Aphrodisium, Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis 
minor (Lemta), of Thenae (near Sfax), those of the island of 
Meninx (Jerba), of the peninsula of Zarzis, of Mactar, Sbeitla 
(Sufetula), Gigthis (Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca 
Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c. 

From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence 
as to the history and more especially the internal administration 
of Africa under the Romans has been derived. In particular 
we know how rural life was there developed, and with what care 
the water necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere 
provided. Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial 
and of minor importance; the only exceptions are certain 
statues found at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the 
Mauretanian kings. 

AUTHORITIES. Among general works on the subject may be 
mentioned: Morcelli, Africa Christiana (1816); Gustave Boissiere, 
L'Algerie romaine (and ed., 1883); E. Mercier, Histoire de I'Afrique 
septentrionale (1888); Charles Tissot, Geographic comparee de la 
province romaine d'Afrique (1884-1888), with atlas; Vivien de Saint- 
Martin, LeNord de I'Afrique dans I'antiqulte grecque et romaine (1883) 
Gaston Boissier, L'Afrique romaine (1895); Cl. Pallu de Lessert, 
Pastes des provinces africaines (Proconsulate, Nuntidie, Mauretanie) 
sous la domination romaine (18961901); R. Cagnat, L'Armee 
romaine d'Afrique (1892); A. Daux, Les Emporia pheniciens dans 
le Zeugis et le Byzacium (1869) ; Ludwig Muller, Numismatique de 
I'ancienne Afrique (1860-1862; Supplement, 1874); Ch. Diehl, 
L'Afrique byzantine (1896); Stephane Gsell, Recherches archeo- 
logiques en Afrique (1893); Paul Monceaux, Histoire litteraire de 
I'Afrique chretienne (1901-1905) ; J. Toutain, Les Cites romaines de 
la Tunisie (1895); Atlas archeologique de la Tunisie, published by 
the Ministry of Public Instruction (1895 foil.); Atlas archeologique 
de I'Algerie, published by Stephane Gsell (1900 foil.); Toulotte, 
Geographie de I'Afrique chretienne (1892-1894) ; Corpus inscriptionum 
latinarum, vol. viii. and Supplement (1881). Cf. also articles 
CARTHAGE.NUMIDIA, &c., JuouRTHA.and articles relating to Roman 
History. (E. B.*) 

AFRICAN LILY (Agapanthus umbellatus) , a member of the 
natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, 
whence it was introduced at the close of the i7th century. It is 
a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy in the south of 
England and Ireland if protected from severe frosts. It has a 
short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves, \ to 
2 ft. long, and a central flower-stalk, 2 to 3 ft. high, ending in an 
umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers. The plants are 
easy to cultivate, and are generally grown in large pots or tubs 
which can be protected from frost in winter. During the summer 
they require plenty of water, and are very effective on the 
margins of lakes or running streams, where they thrive admirably. 
They increase by offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the 
root-stock in early spring or autumn. A number of forms are 
known in cultivation; such are albidtts, with white flowers, 
aureus, with leaves striped with yellow, and variegalus, with 
leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands. There are 
also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms. 



AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Christian traveller and 
historian of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and 
may have served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians 
in A.D. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except that 
he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to the 
emperor Heliogabalus ' to ask for the restoration of the town, 
which had fallen into ruins. His mission succeeded, and Emmaus 
was henceforward known as Nicopolis. Dionysius bar-Salibi 
makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a presbyter. 
He wrote a history of theworld(Xpoco7pa$i<u, in five books)from 
the creation to the year A.D. 221, a period, according to his 
computation, of 5723 years. He calculated the period between 
the creation and the birth of Christ as 5499 years, and ante-dated 
the latter event by three years. This method of reckoning 
became known as the Alexandrian era, and was adopted by 
almost all the eastern churches. The history, which had an 
apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but copious extracts from it 
are to be found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, who used it ex- 
tensively in compiling the early episcopal lists. There are also 
fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and the Paschale Chronicon. 
Eusebius (Hist. Ecc. i. 7, cf. vi. 31) gives some extracts from his 
letter to one Aristides, reconciling the apparent discrepancy 
between Matthew and Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a 
reference to the Jewish law, which compelled a man to marry 
the widow of his deceased brother, if the latter died without 
issue. His terse and pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the 
authority of the apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's 
wordy and uncritical answer, are both extant. The ascription 
to Africanus of an encyclopaedic work entitled Keorot (em- 
broidered girdles), treating of agriculture, natural history, 
military science, &c., has been needlessly disputed on account 
of its secular and often credulous character. Neander suggests 
that it was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself 
to religious subjects. For a new fragment of this work see 
Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff. 

AUTHORITIES. Edition in M. J. Routh, Rel. Sac. ii. 219-509; 
translation in Ante-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi. 125-140. 
See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus* und die byzant. Chronographie, 
2 vols. (Leipzig, 1880-1885) ; G. Kriiger, Early Christian Literature, 
248-253; A. Harnack, Altchristl. Lift. Gesch. i. 507, ii. 70. 

AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the 
Peshawar border of the North- West Frontier province of India. 
The Afridis are the most powerful and independent tribe on the 
border, and the largest with the exception of the Waziris. Their 
special country is the lower and easternmost spurs of the Safed 
Koh range, to the west and south of the Peshawar district, in- 
cluding the Bazar and Bara valleys. On their east they are 
bounded by British districts, on the north by the Mohmands, 
on the west by the Shinwaris and on the south by the Orakzai 
and Bangash tribes. Their origin is obscure, but they are said 
to have Israelitish blood in their veins, and they have a decidedly 
Semitic cast of features. They are possibly the Aparytai of 
Herodotus, the names and positions being identical. If this 
theory is correct, they were then a powerful people, and held 
a large tract of country, but have been gradually driven back 
by the encroachments of other tribes. The tribe is divided into 
the following eight clans: Kuki Khel, Malikdin Khel, Kambar 
Khel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the 
most turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel. The first 
seven clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate 
to Tirah in the summer months. The Adam Khel (5900 fighting 
men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less 
migratory in their habits. In appearance the Afridi is a fine, 
tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face, high nose and 
cheek-bones, and a fair complexion. On his own hillside he is 
one of the finest skirmishers in the world, and in the Indian 
army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is apt to be home-sick 
when removed from the air of his native mountains. In character 
the Afridi has obtained an evil name for ferocity, craft and 
treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert Warburton, who lived eighteen 
years in charge of the Khyber Pass and knew the Afridi better 
than any other Englishman, says: " The Afridi lad from his 
1 So Eusebius. Syncellus says Alexander Severus. 



362 



AFTERGLOW AGA KHAN I. 



earliest childhood is taught by the circumstances of his existence 
and life to distrust all mankind, and very often his near relations, 
heirs to his small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his 
deadliest enemies. Distrust of all mankind, and readiness to 
strike the first blow for the safety of his own life, have therefore 
become the maxims of the Afridi. If you can overcome this 
mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by a 
great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you like 
to give him except abuse." In short the Afridi has the vices 
and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree. The fighting 
strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this estimate is 
excessive, judged by the number and size of their villages. They 
derive their importance from their geographical position, which 
gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat roads, and the 
history of the British connexion with them has been almost 
entirely with reference to these two passes. 

There have been several British expeditions against the 
separate clans: 

(1) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir 
Colin Campbell in 1850. The British connexion with the Adam 
Khel Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation 
of the Peshawar and Kohat districts. Following the example 
of all previous rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay 
the tribe a subsidy to protect the pass. But in 1850 a thousand 
Afridis attacked a body of sappers engaged in making the road, 
killing twelve and wounding six. It was supposed that they 
disliked the making of a road which would lay open their fast- 
nesses to regular troops. An expedition of 3200 British troops 
was despatched, which traversed the country and punished them. 

(2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages 
in 1853. When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in 
1850, the Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead; 
but they turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force 
of 1700 British traversed their country and destroyed their 
stronghold at Bori. The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam 
Khel, who inhabit the country lying between the Kohat Pass 
and the river Indus. 

(3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel 
Craigie in 1855. In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding themselves 
admitted to a share of the allowances of the Kohat Pass, com- 
menced a series of raids on the Peshawar border and attacked a 
British camp. An expedition of 1500 troops entered the country 
and inflicted severe punishment on the tribe, who made their 
submission and paid a fine. 

(4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel 
Mocatta in 1877. In that year the government proposed to 
reduce the Jowaki allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and 
the tribesmen resented this by cutting the telegraph wire and 

Taiding into British territory. A force of 1500 troops penetrated 
their country in three columns, and did considerable damage 
by way of punishment. 

(5) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier- 
General Keyes in 1877-78. The punishment inflicted by the 
previous expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude 
of the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British 
territory went on. A much stronger force, therefore, of 7400 
British troops, divided into three columns, destroyed their 
principal villages and occupied their country for some time, 
until the tribe submitted and accepted government terms. The 
Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed. 

(6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar 
Valley under Brigadier-General Tytler in 1878. At the time of 
the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan 
War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked 
their outposts. A force of 2500 British troops traversed their 
country, and the tribesmen made their submission. 

(7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar 
Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude in 1879. After the 
previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued 
to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan War, 
so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their country, 
and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made their submission. 



After this both the Khyber and Kohat Passes were put on a 
stable footing, and no further trouble of any consequence occurred 
in either down to the time of the frontier risings of 1897, when 
the Afridis attacked the Khyber Pass, which was defended by 
Afridi levies. 

(8) For the Tirah Campaign of 1897 see TLRAH CAMPAIGN. 

(9) In the February of 1908 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel 
again* made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James 
Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the 
following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands, 
the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan. 

See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884) ; War- 
burton's Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.) 

AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light 
appearing occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in 
the hour of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snow- 
fields in mountain regions long after sunset. The phenomenon 
is due to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions 
of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the 
component parts of white light. After the eruption of Krakatoa 
in 1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the 
world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly 
fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, and 
then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents. 

AFZELIUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born 
at Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750. He was appointed teacher of 
oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785 demonstrator 
of botany. From 1792 he spent some years on the west coast 
of Africa, and in 1797-1798 acted as secretary of the Swedish 
embassy in London. Returning to Sweden, he founded the 
Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in 1812 became 
professor of materia medica at the university. He died at Upsala 
in 1837. I n addition to various botanical writings, he published 
the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823. 

His brother, JOHAN AFZELIUS (i7S3-i837),known as ARVIDSON, 
was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother, 
PER AF (i 760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala 
in 1801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner. 

AFZELIUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor, 
poet, historian and mythologist, was born on the 8th of October 
1785. From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871 
he was parish priest of Enkoping. He is mainly known as a 
collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in the 
great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor fran 
forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816). He published also 
translations of the Samunder Edda and Herwara-Saga, and a 
history of Sweden to Charles XII. (of which a German transla- 
tion was published in 1842), as well as original poems. 

AGA, or AGHA, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying 
a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is applied to the chief 
of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery, cavalry 
and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the seraglio. It 
is also employed generally as a term of respect in addressing 
wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c. 

AGA1AMBO, or AGAUMBU, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers in 
British New Guinea, now almost extinct. In his annual report 
for 1904 the acting administrator of British New Guinea stated 
that on a visit he paid to their district he saw six males and four 
females. The Agaiambo live in huts erected on piles in the lakes 
and marshes. Dwarfish in stature but broadly built, they are 
remarkable for the shortness of their legs. They live almost 
entirely in their " dug-outs " or canoes, or actually wading in 
the water. Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water- 
lily and fish. The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly 
numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the 
raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours. In features, 
colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans. 

AGA KHAN I., His HIGHNESS THE (1800-1881), the title 
accorded by general consent to HASAN ALI SHAH (born in Persia, 
1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under the 
protection of the British government. He was believed to have 
descended in direct line from Ali by his wife Fatima, the daughter 



AGALMATOLITE AGAMEMNON 



363 



of the Prophet Mahomet. All's son, Hosain, having married 
a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of 
Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal 
house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times. 
His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs of the Beni- 
Fatimites for a number of years, at a period coeval with the 
Crusades. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was 
appointed by the emperor Fateh Ali Shah to be governor-general 
of the extensive and important province of Kerman. His rule 
was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity, 
and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and 
confidence of his master the shah, although his career was beset 
with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and 
court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however, 
1 the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, 
and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh Ali Shah. He 
fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory, 
preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay 
his headquarters. At that period the first Afghan War was at 
its height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan 
the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services 
to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the 
British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous 
services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help was 
utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier tribes, 
a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as 
their spiritual head. Napier held his Moslem ally in great 
esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political 
acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan 
reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship 
by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to 
the British government, and when he finally settled down in 
India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah section of 
Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the govern- 
ment, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with 
a large pension. From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga 
Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking 
citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to dis- 
charge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers 
in India, but towards the more numerous communities which 
acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as 
Afghanistan, Khorasan, Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even 
distant Syria and Morocco. He remained throughout unflinch- 
ingly loyal to the British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned 
influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of 
India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times 
of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several 
expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of 
India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the 
more turbulent Mahommedans in British India, which in times 
of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape 
of religious or political riots. 

He was succeeded by his eldest son, AGA KHAN II. This prince 
continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that 
won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him 
the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the Indian Empire 
and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay. 

AGA KHAN III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the 
foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became the 
head of the family and its devotees. He was born in 1877, and, 
under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of 
Persia, was given not only that religious and oriental education 
which his position as the religious leader of the Ismailiahs made 
indispensable, but a sound European training, a boon denied to 
his father and grandfather. This blending of the two systems of 
education produced the happy result of fitting this Moslem chief 
in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which 
appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties of 
a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to dis- 
charge by virtue of that position. He travelled in distant parts 
of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the 
object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare 



by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The dis- 
tinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was con- 
ferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he received like 
recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the 
sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates. 

See Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan 
(1903). (M. M. BH.) 

AGALMATOLITE (from Gr. &ya\na, statue, and Xi0os, 
stone), a soft species of mineral, also called pagodite, used by the 
Chinese for carving, especially into grotesque figures (whence 
called " figure-stone "). 

AGAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orcho- 
menus in Boeotia. He is always associated with his brother 
Trophonius as a wonderful architect, the constructor of under- 
ground shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure. 
When building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed 
one of the stones in the wall so that they could remove it whenever 
they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the 
treasure. Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes was 
caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his brother's 
head and fled with it. He was pursued by Hyrieus, and swal- 
lowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia. On this spot 
was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave; those 
who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of a ram and 
called upon the name of Agamedes. A similar story is told of 
Rhampsinitus by Herodotus (ii. 121). According to Pindar (apud 
Plutarch), the brothers built the temple of Apollo at Delphi; 
when they asked for a reward, the god promised them one in 
seven days;' on the seventh day they died. 

Pausanias ix. 37; Plutarch, Consolatio ~ad Apollonium, 14; 
Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 47. 

AGAMEMNON, one of the most distinguished of the Greek 
heroes, was the son of Atreus (king of Mycenae) and Aerope, 
grandson of Pelops, great-grandson of Tantalus and brother of 
Menelaus. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes 
(the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope's 
first husband. Atreus was murdered by Aegisthus (<?..), who 
took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly 
with his father Thyestes. During this period Agamemnon and 
Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta, whose 
daughters Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra) and 
Helen they respectively married. By Clytaemnestra, Agamemnon 
had three daughters, Iphigeneia (Iphianassa), Electra (Laodice), 
Chrysothemis, and ason, Orestes. Menelaus succeededTyndareus, 
and Agamemnon,with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus 
and Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom. He extended 
his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince 
in Greece. When Paris (Alexander), son of Priam, had carried off 
his brother's wife, he went round to the princes of the country and 
called upon them to unite in a war of revenge against the Trojans. 
He himself furnished 100 ships, and was chosen commander-in- 
chief of the combined forces. The fleet, numbering 1 200 ships, 
assembled at the port of Aulis in Boeotia. But Agamemnon had 
offended the goddess Artemis by slaying a hind sacred to her, and 
boasting himself a better hunter. The army was visited by a 
plague, and the fleet was prevented from sailing by the total 
absence of wind. Calchas announced that the wrath of the 
goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia 
(q.v.). The fleet then set sail. Little is heard of Agamemnon 
until his quarrel with Achilles (q.v.). After the capture of Troy, 
Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, fell to his lot in the distribution 
of the prizes of war. On his return, after a stormy voyage, he 
landed in Argolis. His kinsman, Aegisthus, who in the interval 
had seduced his wife Clytaemnestra, invited him to a banquet at 
which he was treacherously slain, Cassandra also being put to 
death by Clytaemnestra. According to the account given by 
Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife 
alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown 
over him to prevent resistance. Her wrath at the sacrifice of 
Iphigeneia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been 
the motives of her crime. The murder of Agamemnon was 
avenged by his son Orestes (q.v.). Although not the equal of 



364 



AGAPE 



Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon is a dignified representative 
of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief, he summons the 
princes to the council and leads the army in battle. He takes the 
field himself, and performs many heroic deeds until he is wounded 
and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault is his over- 
weening haughtiness, due to an over-exalted opinion of his 
position, which leads him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby 
bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. But his family had been 
marked out for misfortune from the outset. His kingly office had 
come to him from Pelops through the blood-stained hands of 
Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality 
which explained the hostile destiny which pursued him. The 
fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous 
tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the 
Oresteia of Aeschylus. In the legends of Peloponnesus, Agamem- 
non was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and 
in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon. 
His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at 
Amyclae. 

In works of art there is considerable resemblance between the 
representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king 
of men. He is generally characterized by the sceptre and diadem, 
the usual attributes of kings. 

See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopiidie and Roscher's 
Lexikon der Mythoiogie. 

AGAPE (Gr. &y&Tnj, " Love "), the early Christian love- 
feast. The word seems to be used in this sense in the epistle of 
Jude 12: " These are they who are hidden rocks in your love- 
feasts when they banquet with you." But this is not certain, 
for in 2 Pet. ii. 13 the verse is cited, but reading airarais 
(" deceits ") for 6.yairais, and the oldest MSS. hesitate. The 
history of the agape coincides, until the end of the 2nd century, 
with that of the eucharist (q.v.), and it is doubtful whether the 
following detailed account of the agape given in Tertullian's 
Apology (c. 39) is to be regarded as exclusive of an accompanying 
eucharist: " It is the banquet (triclinium) alone of the Christians 
that is criticised. Our supper (coena) shows its character by its 
name. It is called by a word which in Greek signifies love (i.e. 
agape). Whatever it costs, it is anyhow a clear gain that it is 
incurred on the score of piety, seeing that we succour the poorest 
by such entertainments (refrigerio) . We do not lie down at table 
until prayer has been offered to God, as it were a first taste. We 
eat only to appease our hunger, we drink only so much as it is 
good for temperate persons to do. If we satisfy our appetites, 
we do so without forgetting that throughout the night we must 
say our prayers to God. If we converse, it is with the knowledge 
that the Lord is listening. After washing our hands and lighting 
the lamps, each is invited to sing a hymn before all to God, either 
taken from holy writ or of his own composition. So we prove 
him, and see how well he has drunk. Prayer ends, as it began, 
the banquet; and we break up not in bands of brigands, nor in 
groups of vagabonds, nor do we burst out into debauchery. . . . 
This meeting of Christians we admit deserves to be made illicit, 
if it resembles illicit acts; it deserves to be condemned, if any 
complain of it on the same score on which complaints are levelled 
at factious meetings. But to do harm to whom do we ever thus 
come together?" 

The evidence of Tertullian is good for Africa. But in Egypt 
about the same time (180-210), Clement of Alexandria in his 
Pedagogus (ii. i) condemns the " little suppers which were called, 
not without presumption, agape." This word, he complains, 
should denote the heavenly food, the reasonable feast alone, and 
the Lord never used it of mere junketings. Clement wished the 
name to be reserved for the eucharist, because the love-feasts 
of the church had degenerated, as Tertullian too discovered, 
as soon as he turned Motanist. For in his tract on fasting 
(ch. xvii.) he complains that the young men misbehaved with the 
sisters after the agape. 

Among the spurious works of Athanasius is printed a tract 
entitled About Virginity, ch. xiii. of which directs how the sisters 
after the synaxis of the ninth hour (3 P.M.) are to dine: " When 
you sit down at a table and come to break bread, seal it thrice 



with the sign of the cross and thus give thanks : ' We thank thee, 
our Father, for thy holy resurrection; for through Jesus thy 
servant thou hast shewn it unto us. And as this bread on this 
table was scattered, but has been brought together and become 
one, so may thy church be brought together into thy kingdom. 
For thine is the power and the glory, for ever and ever, Amen.' 
This prayer as you break the bread, and are about to eat, you 
must say. And when you lay it on the table and desire to eat it, 
repeat the ' Our Father ' entire. But after dinner (or breakfast), 
and v/hen we rise from table, we use the prayer given above, viz. 
' Blessed be God, who hath pity and nourished! us from our 
infancy, who giveth food to all flesh. Fill our hearts with joy 
and gladness, that ever having of all things a sufficiency, we 
may superabound in all good works, in Christ Jesus our Lord, 
&c.' " The writer then enjoins that, " if two or three other virgins 
are present, they also shall give thanks over the bread set out, 
and join in the prayers. But if a catechumen be found at the 
table, she shall not be suffered to join with the full believers in 
their prayers, nor shall the latter sit with her to eat the morsel " 
(\l/uifj.bv, used specially of the sanctified bread). " Nor shall 
they sit with frivolous and joking women, if they can help it, 
for they are sanctified to God, and their food and drink have 
been hallowed by the prayers and holy words used over them. 
. . . If a rich woman sits down with them at table, and they 
see a poor woman, they shall invite her also to eat with them, 
and not put her to shame because of the rich one." The last 
words echo i Cor. x., and the prayer is nearly the same as that 
which the teaching of the Apostles assigns for the eucharistic 
rite. Here, then, we have pictured as late as the 4th century a 
Lord's supper, which like the one described in i Cor. x. is agape 
and eucharist in one, and it is held in a private house and not 
in church, and the celebrants are holy women! 

The historian Socrates (Hist. Eccl. v. 22) testifies to the 
survival in Egypt of such Lord's suppers as were love-feasts 
and eucharists in one. Around Alexandria and in the Thebaid, 
he says, they hold services on the sabbath, and unlike other 
Christians partake of the mysteries (i.e. sacrament). For after 
holding good cheer and filling themselves with meats of all kinds, 
they at eventide make the offering (irpoa^opo.) and partake of it. 
So Basil of Cappadocia (Epistle 93), about the year 350, records 
that in Egypt the laity, as a rule, celebrated the communion in 
their own houses, and partook of the sacrament by themselves 
whenever they chose. In the old Egyptian church order, known 
as the Canons of Hippolytus, there are numerous directions for 
the service of the agape, held on Sundays, saints' days or at 
commemorations of the dead. The 74th canon of the council 
of Trullo (A.D. 692) forbade the holding of symposia known as 
agapes in church. In his 54th homily (torn. v. p. 365) Chrysos- 
tom describes how after the eucharistic synaxis was over, the 
faithful remained in church, while the rich brought out meats 
and drink from their houses, and invited the poor, and furnished 
" common tables, common banquets, common symposia in the 
church itself." The council of Gangra (A.D. 355) anathematized 
the over-ascetic people who despised " the agapes based on 
faith." Only a few years later, however, the council of Laodicea 
forbade the holding of agapes in churches. The 42nd canon of 
the council of Carthage under Aurelius likewise forbade them, 
but these were only local councils. In the age of Chrysostom 
and Augustine the agape was frequent. 

In the east Syrian, the Armenian and the Georgian churches, 
respectively Nestorian, Monophysite and Greek Orthodox in 
their tenets, the agape was from the first a survival, under 
Christian and Jewish forms, of the old sacrificial systems of a 
pre-Christian age. Sheep, rams, bullocks, fowls are given 
sacrificial salt to lick, and then sacrificed by the priest and 
deacon, who has the levitical portions of the victim as his per- 
quisite. In Armenia the Greek word agape has been used ever 
since the 4th century to indicate these sacrificial meals, which 
either began or ended with a eucharistic celebration. The 
earlier usage of the Armenians is expressed in the two following 
rules recorded against them by a renegade Armenian prelate 
named Isaac, who in the 8th century went over to the Byzantine 



AGAPEMONITES 



church: " Christ did not hand down to us the teaching to 
celebrate the mystery of the offering of the bread in church, but 
in an ordinary house, and sitting at a common table. So then 
let them not sacrifice the offering of bread in churches. It was 
after supper, when his disciples were thoroughly sated, that 
Christ gave them of his own body to eat. Therefore let them 
first eat meats and be sated, and then let them partake of the 
mysteries." These old canons are adduced by way of ridiculing 
the Armenians, yet they reflect old usage. They are given in 
the Historia Monothelitarum of Combefisius, col. 317. Older 
MSS. of the Greek Euchologion contain numerous prayers to be 
offered over animals sacrificed; and in the form of agape such 
sacrifices were common in Italy and Gaul on the natalis dies 
of a saint, and Paulinus of Nola, the friend of Augustine, in his 
Latin poems, describes them (c. 400) in detail. Gregory the Great 
sent to Mellitus, bishop of London, a written rite of sacrificing 
bulls for use in the English church of the early 7th century. 
In Augustine's work against Faustus the Manichean (xx. 4), the 
latter taxes the Catholics with having turned the sacrifices of the 
heathen into agapes, their idols into martyrs, whom they worship 
with similar rites. " You appease," he says, " the shades of 
the dead with wines and banquets, you celebrate the feast-days 
of the heathen along with them . ; . in their way of living 
you have certainly changed nothing." This was true enough, 
but there is truth also in the remark of Prof. Sanday (" Eucha- 
rist " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible) that Providence even 
in its revolutions is conservative. The world could only be 
christianized on condition that old holy days and customs were 
continued. The early Christian agape admitted of adaptation 
to the older funeral and sacrificial feasts, and was so adapted. 
The association in the synoptics of the earliest eucharist with 
the paschal sacrifice provided a model, and long after the 
eucharist was separated with the agape on other days of the 
year, we still find celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday 
the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, immediately followed by an 
eucharist. The 4ist canon of the council of Carthage enacted 
that the sacraments of the altar should be received fasting, 
except on the anniversary of the Lord's supper. It is clear 
that at an earlier date the agape preceded the eucharist. 

Pagan Analogues. In ancient states common meals called 
sussitia (o-ixrcrma.) were instituted, particularly in the Doric 
states, e.g. in Lacaedemon and in Crete. Plato advocated them, 
and perhaps the later Jews imitated the Spartan community. 
Trade and other gilds in antiquity held subscription suppers or 
Zpavoi, similar to those of the early Corinthian church, usually 
to support the needs of the poorer members. These hetairiae 
or clubs were forbidden (except in cities formally allied to Rome) 
by Trajan and other emperors, as being likely to be centres of 
disaffection; and on this ground Pliny forbade the agape of the 
Bithynian churches, Christianity not being a lawful religion 
licensed for such gatherings. The custom which most resembles 
the eucharist and agape was that known as charistia described by 
Valerius Maximus ii. 1.8. It was a solemn feast attended only 
by members of one clan, at which those who had quarrelled 
were at the sacrament of the table (apua sacra mensae) reconciled. 
It was held on the zoth of February. Ovid in his Fasti, ii. 
617, alludes to it 

Proxima cognati dixere charistia cari, 
Et venit ad socios turba propinqua deos. 

AUTHORITIES. " The Canons of Hippolytus," in Duchesne's 
Origines du culte Chretien (Paris, 1898); A. Allen, Christian Insti- 
tutions (London, 1898); P. Batiffol, Etudes d'histoire (Paris, 1902 
and 1905) ; F. X. Funk, " L' Agape," in the Revue de I'histoire ecclesi- 
astique (Louvain, Jan. 1903) ; Ad. Harnack, " Brod und Wasser " 
(Texte und Untersuch. vii. 2, Leipzig, 1891); J. F. Keating, The 
Agape and the Eucharist (London, 1901); F. X. Kraus, arts. 
" Agapen " and " Mahle " in the Realencyklop. d. christl. Altertumer; 
P. Ladeuze, " L'Eucharistie et les repas communs " in the Revue de 
V orient Chretien, No. 3, 1902; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the 
Roman Empire (London, 1894); A. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und 
Litteratur (Gottingen, 1893) ; E. von der Goltz, Das Gebet in altesten 
Chnstianheit (Leipzig, 1901); F. E. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual 
of the Antenicene Church (London, 1897) ; T. Zahn, art. " Agapen " 
" Hauck's Realencyklop.; F. C. Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum 
(Oxford, 1905; it contains the oldest Latin and Greek forms), The 



Key of Truth (Oxford, 1898), and art. on " The Survival of Animal 
Sacrifices " in the American Journal of Theology (Chicago, Jan. 1903) ; 
F. X. Funk, Didascalia et Constitutions Apostolorum (Paderborn, 
1906); V. Ermoni, L' Agape (Paris, 1904); G. Horner, The Statutes 
of the Apostles, translated from Ethiopic and Arabic MSS. (London, 
1904) ; Thefr. Drescher, Diss. de vet. Christianorum Agapis (Giesse, 
1824); L. A. Muratori, Anecdota Graeca, " De agapis sublatis " 
(Patavii, 1709); I. A. Fabricius, Bibliogr. Ant. p. 587; Muenter, 
Primord. Eccl. Afr. p. 1 1 1 ; Walafrid Strabo, De Rebus Eccles. capita 
18, 19; Gregory of Tours, De miraculis S. Juliani, xxxi. ; Paulini 
Nolani Carmen xii. in S. Felicem. (F. C. C.) 

AGAPEMONITES, or COMMUNITY OF THE SON OF MAN. This 
sect, based upon the theories of various German religious mystics, 
and having for its primary object the spiritualization of the 
matrimonial state, was founded in 1846 by the Rev. Henry 
James Prince, a clergyman of the Church of England (1811-1899). 
He studied medicine, obtained his qualifications in 1832 and was 
appointed medical officer to the General Hospital in Bath, his 
native city. Compelled by ill-health to abandon his profession, 
he entered himself in 1837 as a student at St. David's Theo- 
logical College, Lampeter, where he gathered about him a band 
of earnest religious enthusiasts, known as the Lampeter Brethren, 
and was eventually ordained to the curacy of Charlinch in 
Somerset, where he had sole charge in the illness and absence 
of the rector, the Rev. Samuel Starkey. By that time he had 
contracted his first " spiritual marriage," and had persuaded 
himself that he had been absorbed into the personality of God 
and had become a visible embodiment of the Holy Spirit. D uring 
his illness Mr. Starkey read one of his curate's sermons and was 
not only " cured " forthwith, but embraced his strange aoctrines, 
and together they procured many conversions in the countryside 
and the neighbouring towns. In the end the rector was deprived 
of his living and Prince's licence withdrawn, and together with 
a few disciples they started the Cbarlinch Free Church, which 
had a very brief existence. Prince shortly afterwards became 
curate of Stoke in Suffolk, where, however, the character of 
his revivalist zeal caused his .departure at the end of twelve 
months. It was now decided that Prince, Starkey (whose sister 
Prince had married as his second wife) and the Rev. Lewis 
Prince should leave the Church of England and preach their 
own gospel; Prince opened Adullam Chapel, Brighton, and 
Starkey established himself at Weymouth. The chief success 
lay in the latter town, and thither Prince soon migrated. A 
number of followers, estimated by Prince at 500, but by his 
critics at one-fifth of the number, were got together, and it was 
given out by " Beloved " or " The Lamb " the names by which 
the Agapemonites designated their leader that his disciples 
must divest themselves of their possessions and throw them 
into the common stock. This was done, even by the poor or ill- 
furnished, all of whom looked forward to the speedy end of the 
present dispensation, and were content, for the short remainder 
of this world, to live in common, and, while not repudiating 
earthly ties, to treat them as purely spiritual. With the money 
thus obtained the house at Spaxton, which was to become the 
" Abode of Love," was enlarged and furnished luxuriously, and 
three sisters, who contributed 6000 each, were immediately 
married to three of Prince's nearest disciples. Despite the 
purely spiritual ideas which underlay the Agapemonite view 
of marriage, a son was born to one of these couples, and when 
the father endeavoured to carry it away an action was brought 
which resulted in the affirmation of the mother's right to its 
custody. The circumstance in which a fourth sister who joined 
the community was abducted by her brothers led to an inquiry 
in lunacy and to her final settlement at Spaxton. A few years 
after the establishment of the " Abode of Love," a peculiarly 
gross scandal, in which Prince and one of his female followers 
were involved, led to the secession of some of his most faithful 
friends, who were unable any longer to endure what they regarded 
as the amazing mixture of blasphemy and immorality offered 
for their acceptance. The most prominent of those who remained 
received such titles as the "Anointed Ones," the "Angel of 
the Last Trumpet," the " Seven Witnesses " and so forth. In 
1862 " Brother Prince " sent " to the kings and people of the 
earth " letters " making known to all men that flesh is saved 



3 66 



AGAPETAE AGASSIZ 



from death." At that period the Agapemonites counted their 
adherents at 600, and it was no doubt a grievous shock to them 
when their deathless founder died on the 8th of March 1899, 
four years after he had opened a branch church at Clapton, 
London, which is said to have cost 20,000. This church, 
decorated with elaborate symbolism, was styled the " Ark of 
the Covenant," and in it the elect were to await the coming of 
the Lord. 

On the death of " Brother " Prince, the Rev. T. H. Smyth- 
Pigott, pastor of the " Ark," became the acknowledged head 
of the sect. He was born in 1852, of an old Somersetshire county 
family, and, after a varied career as university man, sailor before 
the mast, soldier, coffee-planter, curate in the Church of England 
and evangelist in the Salvation Army, was converted about 
1897 to the views of Prince. For five years after this he was 
not heard of outside his own sect. On the 7th of September 
1902, however, the congregation, assembled at the Ark of the 
Covenant for service, found the communion table replaced by 
a chair. In this Pigott presently seated himself and proclaimed 
himself as the Messiah with the words, " God is no longer there," 
pointing upwards, " but here," pointing to himself. This aston- 
ishing announcement was followed by an excellent sermon on 
Christian love. Pigott's claim was at once admitted by the 
members of his sect, including even his own wife, as the ful- 
filment of the promise of Christ to appear in due time in the 
"Ark." By the outside world the affair was greeted with mingled 
ridicule and indignation, and the new Messiah had to be pro- 
tected by the police from the violence of an angry mob. After 
providing " copy " for the newspapers for a few days, however, 
the whole thing was forgotten. Pigott retired to the head- 
quarters of the sect, the " Abode of Love " in Somerset, and all 
efforts to interview him or to obtain details of the life of the 
community were abortive. At last, in August 1905, the long 
and mysterious silence was broken by the announcement that 
a son had been born to Pigott by his " spiritual wife," Miss Ruth 
Preece, an inmate of the Agapemone. This event by no means 
disconcerted the believers, who saw in it only another manifesta- 
tion of Pigott's divinity, and proclaimed it as " an earnest of 
the total redemption of man." The child was registered as 
" Glory," and, at the christening service in the chapel of the 
Abode, hymns were sung in its honour as it lay in a jewelled 
cradle in the chancel. Another child by Miss Preece, christened 
" Power," was born on the 2oth of August 1908. The publicity 
given to this event renewed the scandal, and in November an 
attempt to " tar and feather " Mr Pigott resulted in two men 
being sent to prison. Later in the month proceedings were 
instituted against him by the bishop of Bath and Wells under 
the Clergy Discipline Act. 

One outcome of the disclosures connected with the Agapemone 
deserves passing mention, as throwing some light on the origin of 
the wealth of the community. Mr Charles Stokes Read, a resident 
at the Agapemone and director of the V. V. Bread Company, was 
requested by his fellow-directors to resign, on the ground that his 
connexion with the sect was damaging the business of the company. 
He denied this to be the case and refused to resign, pleading religious 
liberty and the large interests of Agapemonites in the concern. On 
the I3th of September 1905, a meeting of the shareholders of the 
company was held, and Read " asked them to believe that it was not 
in the interests of the company, but because he knew that the Lord 
Jesus Christ had come again and was now dwelling at the Agapemone, 
that he was thus cast out by his colleagues." The motion calling on 
him to resign was carried on a poll being taken by 46,770 votes to 
2 953- (See The Times, I4th of September 1905.) 

AGAPETAE, a class of " virgins " who, in the church of the 
early middle ages, lived with professedly celibate monks to whom 
they were said to be united by spiritual love. The practice was 
suppressed by the Lateran Council of 1139. 

AGAPETUS, the name of two popes: 

AGAPETUS I., pope from 535 to 536. He was an enlightened 
pontiff and collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at Rome 
a library of ecclesiastical authors. King Theodahad sent him 
on an embassy to Constantinople, where he died, after having 
deposed Anthimus, the monophysite bishop of that town, and 
ordained Menas his successor. 

AGAPETUS II., pope from 946 to 955, at the time when Alberic, 



son of Marozia, was governing the independent republic of 
Rome under the title of " prince and senator of the Romans."* 
Agapetus, a man of some force of character, did his best to put 
a stop to the degradation into which the papacy had fallen, 
the so-called " Pornocracy," which lasted from the accession 
of Sergius III. in 904 to the deposition of John XII. in 963. His 
appeal to Otto the Great to intervene in Rome remained without 
immediate effect, since Alberic's position was too strong to be 
attacked, but it bore fruit after his death. Agapetus died on 
the 8th of November 955. 

AGAPETUS, a deacon of the church of St Sophia at Constan- 
tinople. He presented to the emperor Justinian, on his ac- 
cession in 527, a work entitled Scheda regia sive de officio regis, 
which contained advice on the duties of a Christian prince. The 
work was often reprinted and is included in Dom Anselme 
~Ba.nduri'sImperium Orientate (Paris, 1711). There is an English 
translation by Thomas Paynell (1550) and a French trans- 
lation, executed in 1612 from a Latin version by Louis XIII., 
with the assistance of his tutor, David Rivault. 

AGARDE, ARTHUR (1540-1615), English antiquary, was 
born at Foston, Derbyshire, in 1 540. He was trained as a lawyer, 
but entered the exchequer as a clerk. On the authority of 
Anthony a Wood it has been stated that he was appointed by 
Sir Nicholas Throckmorton to be deputy-chamberlain in 1570, 
and that he held this office for forty-five years. His patent of 
appointment, however, preserved in the Rolls Office, proves that 
he succeeded one Thomas Reve in the post on the nth of July 
1603. With his friends, Sir Robert Cotton and Camden, he was 
one of the original members of the Society of Antiquaries. He 
spent much labour in cataloguing the records and state papers, 
and made a special study of the Domesday Book, preparing an 
explanation of its more obscure terms. Thomas Hearne, in his 
Collection of Curious Discourses written by Eminent Antiquaries 
(Oxford, 1720), includes six by Agarde on such subjects as the 
origin of parliament, the antiquity of shires, the authority and 
privileges of heralds, &c. Agarde died on the 22nd of August 
1615 and was buried in the cloister of Westminster Abbey, on 
his tomb being inscribed "Recordorum regiorum hie prope 
depositorum diligens scrutator." He bequeathed to the exchequer 
all his papers relating to that court, and to his friend Sir Robert 
Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting to twenty volumes, 
most of which are now in the British Museum. 

AGAS, RADULPH, or RALPH (c. 1540-1621), English land- 
surveyor, was born at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, about 1540, 
and entered upon the practice of his profession in 1566. Letters 
which he wrote to Lord Burghley, describing the methods of 
surveying, are extant, and a kind of advertising prospectus of 
his abilities, in which he describes himself as clever at arithmetic 
and " skilled in writing smaule, after the skantelinge & pro- 
portion of copiynge the Oulde & New Testamentes seven tymes 
in one skinne of partchmente without anie woorde abreviate 
or contracted, which maie also serve for drawinge discriptions 
of contries into volumes portable in verie little cases." He is 
best known for his maps of Oxford (1578), Cambridge (1592) 
and London. Copies of the first two are preserved in the Bodleian 
Library. Of the map of London and Westminster, which was 
probably prepared about 1591, two copies have been preserved, 
one by the Corporation of London and the other in the Pepysian 
collection at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The map is over 
six feet long, printed from wooden blocks, and gives a valuable 
picture of the London of Elizabeth's time. Agas died on the 
26th of November 1621. 

AGASIAS. There were two Greek sculptors of this name. 
Agasias, son of Dositheus, has signed the remarkable statue 
called the Borghese Warrior, in the Louvre. Agasias, son of 
Menophilus, is the author of another striking figure of a warrior 
in the museum of Athens. Both belonged to the school of 
Ephesus and flourished about 100 B.C. 

See E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculpture, ii. p. 475. 

AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-1910), American 
man of science, son of J. L. R. Agassiz, was born in Neuchatel, 
Switzerland, on the i?th of December 1835. He came to the 



AGASSIZ 



United States with his father in 1846; graduated at Harvard 
in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, and 
taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence scien- 
tific school of the same institution in 1857; and in 1859 became 
an assistant in the United States Coast Survey. Thenceforward 
he became a specialist in marine ichthyology, but devoted much 
time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of 
mines, being superintendent of the Calumet and Hecla copper 
mines, Lake Superior, from 1866 to 1869, and afterwards, as a 
stockholder, acquiring a fortune, out of which he gave to 
Harvard, for the museum of comparative zoology and other 
purposes, some $500,000. In 1875 he surveyed Lake Titicaca, 
Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile, and made 
a collection of Peruvian antiquities for that museum, of which 
he was curator from 1874 to 1885. He assisted Sir Wyville 
Thomson in the examination and classification of the collections 
of the " Challenger " exploring expedition, and wrote the 
Review of the Echini (2 vols., 1872-1874) in the reports. Between 
1877 and 1880 he took part in the three dredging expeditions of 
the steamer " Blake," of the United States Coast Survey, and 
presented a full account of them in two volumes (1888). Of his 
other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the 
bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology; 
but he published in 1865 (with Elizabeth Gary Agassiz, his step- 
mother) Seaside Studies in Natural History, a work at once exact 
and stimulating, and in 1871 Marine Animals of Massachusetts 
Bay. 

AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (180^1873), Swiss 
naturalist and geologist, was the son of the Protestant pastor 
of the parish of Metier, on the north-eastern shore of the Lake 
of Morat (Murten See), and not far from the eastern extremity 
of the Lake of Neuchatel. Agassiz was born at this retired place 
on the 28th of May 1807. Educated first at home, then spending 
four years at the gymnasium of Bienne, he completed his ele- 
mentary studies at the academy of Lausanne. Having adopted 
medicine as his profession, he studied successively at the uni- 
versities of Zurich, Heidelberg and Munich; and he availed 
himself of the advantages afforded by these universities for 
extending his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany. 
After completing his academical course, he took in 1829 his 
degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen, and in 1830 that of 
doctor of medicine at Munich. 

Up to this time he had paid no special attention to the study 
of ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the great occu- 
pation of his life. Agassiz always declared that he was led into 
ichthyological pursuits through the following circumstances: 
In 1819-1820, J. B. Spix and C. F. P. von Martius were engaged in 
their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their return to Europe, 
amongst other collections of natural objects they brought home 
an important set of the freshwater fishes of Brazil, and especially 
of the Amazon river. Spix, who died in 1826, did not live long 
enough to work out the history of these fishes; and Agassiz, 
though little more than a youth just liberated from his academic 
studies, was selected by Prof. Martius for this purpose. He at 
once threw himself into the work with that earnestness of spirit 
which characterized him to the end of his busy life, and the task 
of describing and figuring the Brazilian fishes was completed 
and published in 1829. This was followed by an elaborate re- 
search into the history of the fishes found in the Lake of Neuchatel. 
Enlarging his plans, he issued in 1830 a prospectus of a History 
of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe. It was only in 1839, 
however, that the first part of this publication appeared, and it 
was completed in 1842. In 1832 he was appointed professor 
of natural history in the university of Neuchatel. Having 
become a professed ichthyologist, it was impossible that the 
fossil fishes should fail to attract his attention. The rich stores 
furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte 
Bolca were already well known; but very little had been accom- 
plished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early 
as 1829, with his wonted enthusiasm, planned the publication of 
the work which, more than any other, laid the foundation of his 
world-wide fame. Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons 



fossiles appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843 [1844]. They 
were magnificently illustrated, chiefly through the labours of 
Joseph Dinkel, an artist of remarkable power in delineating 
natural objects. In gathering materials for this great work 
Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting 
Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance 
from him. 

Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours rendered 
necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils 
rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fishes. They 
consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, even the bones 
being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He 
therefore adopted his well-known classification, which divided 
fishes into four groups viz. Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and 
Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal 
appendages. While Agassiz did much to place the subject on 
a scientific basis, his classification has not been found to meet 
the requirements of modern research. As remarked by Dr A. 
Smith Woodward, he sought to interpret the past structures 
by too rigorous a comparison with those of living forms. (See 
Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Natural History Museum.} 

As the important descriptive wo<k of Agassiz proceeded, it 
became obvious that it would over-tax his resources, unless 
assistance could be afforded. The British Association came to 
his aid, and the earl of Ellesmere then Lord Francis Egerton 
gave him yet more efficient help. The original drawings made for 
the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted to 1 290 in number. These 
were purchased by the Earl, and presented by him to the Geo- 
logical Society of London. In 1836 the Wollaston medal was 
awarded by the council of that society to Agassiz for his work 
on fossil ichthyology; and in 1838 he was elected a foreign 
member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile the invertebrate 
animals engaged his attention. In 1837 he issued the "Pro- 
drome " of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, 
the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839-1840 he 
published two quarto volumes on the fossil Echinoderms of 
Switzerland; and in 1840-1845 he issued his Etudes critiques sur 
les mollusques fossiles. 

Subsequently to his first visit to England in 1834, the labours of 
Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the remarkable 
fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of the north-east of Scotland. 
The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the Coccosteus and other 
genera were then made known to geologists for the first time. 
They naturally were of intense interest to Agassiz, and formed the 
subject ot a special monograph by him published in 1844-1845: 
Monographic des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou 
Systeme Dcvonien (Old Red Sandstone) des lies Britanniques et de 
Russie. 

The year 1836 witnessed the inauguration of a new investiga- 
tion, which proved to be of the utmost importance to geological 
science. Previously to this date de Saussure, Venetz, Char- 
pentier and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects 
of special study, and Charpentier had even arrived at the 
conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over 
the slopes and summits of the Jura mountains had been conveyed 
thither by glaciers. The question having attracted the attention 
of Agassiz, he not only made successive journeys to the alpine 
regions in company with Charpentier, but he had a hut con- 
structed upon one of the Aar glaciers, which for a time he made 
his home, in order to investigate thoroughly the structure and 
movements of the ice. These labours resulted in the publication 
of his grand work in two volumes entitled Etudes sur les glaciers, 
1840. Therein he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their 
moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks over 
which they travelled, and in producing the striations and roches 
moutonnSes with which we are now so familiar. He not only 
accepted Charpentier's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had 
extended across the wide plains and valleys drained by the Aar 
and the Rhone, and thus landed parts of their remains upon the 
uplands of the jura, but he went still farther. He concluded that, 
at a period geologically recent, Switzerland had been another 
Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers stretching across the 



3 68 



AGATE 



areas referred to, one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher 
Alps, had extended over the entire valley of north-western 
Switzerland until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, 
which, though they checked and deflected its further extension, 
did not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the 
summit of the range. The publication of this work gave a fresh 
impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the 
world. 

Thus familiarized with the phenomena attendant on the move- 
ments of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a discovery 
which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William Buckland. 
These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland together, and 
found in different localities clear evidence of ancient glacial 
action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society 
of London in successive communications from the two distin- 
guished observers. The mountainous districts of England and 
Wales and Ireland were also considered to constitute centres 
for the dispersion of glacial debris; and Agassiz remarked " that 
great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, 
once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel 
(boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general pro- 
duced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent 
surface, &c." 

In 1 84 2- 1 846 he issued his Nomenclator Zoologitus, a classified 
list, with references, of all names employed in zoology for genera 
and groups a work of great labour and research. With the 
aid of a grant of money from the king of Prussia, Agassiz, 
in the autumn of 1846, crossed the Atlantic, with the twofold 
design of investigating the natural history and geology of the 
United States and delivering a course of lectures on zoology, by 
invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the Lowell Institute at Boston; 
the tempting advantages, pecuniary and scientific, presented to 
him in the New World induced him to settle in the United 
States, where he remained to the end of his life. He was ap- 
pointed professor of zoology and geology in Harvard University, 
Cambridge, U.S., in 1847. I n !&5 2 he accepted a medical pro- 
fessorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, but this he 
resigned in two years. 

The transfer to a new field and the association w'th fresh objects 
of interest gave his energies an increased stimulus. Volume 
after volume now proceeded from his pen: some of his writings 
were popular, but most of them dealt with the higher departments 
of scientific research. His work on Lake Superior, and his four 
volumes of Contributions to the Natural History of the United 
States, 1857-1862, were of this latter character. We must not 
overlook the valuable service he rendered to science by the 
formation, for his own use, of a catalogue of scientific memoirs 
an extraordinary work for a man whose hands were already so 
full. This catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by the late 
Hugh E. Strickland, was published by the Ray Society under the 
title of Bibliographia Zoologiae el Geologiae, in 4 vols., 1848-1854. 
Nor must we forget that he was building up another magnificent 
monument of his industry in the Museum of Natural History, 
which rose under his fostering'care, at Cambridge. But at length 
the great strain on his physical powers began to tell. His early 
labours among the fishes of Brazil had often caused him to cast 
a longing glance towards that country, and he now resolved to 
combine the pursuit of health with the gratification of his long- 
cherished desires. In April 1865 he started for Brazil, with 
his wife and class of qualified assistants. An interesting account 
of this expedition, entitled A Journey in Brazil (1868), was 
published by Mrs Agassiz and himself after they returned home 
in August 1866. 

In 1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the southern 
shores of the North American continent, both on its Atlantic 
and its Pacific sea-boards. He had for many years yearned after 
the establishment of a permanent school where zoological science 
could be pursued amidst the haunts of the living subjects of 
study. The last, and possibly the most influential, of the labours 
of his life was the establishment of such an institution, which 
he was enabled to effect through the liberality of Mr John 
Anderson, a citizen of New York. That gentleman, in 1873, not 



only handed over to Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzard's 
Bay, on the east coast, but also presented him with $50,000 
wherewith permanently to endow it as a practical school of 
natural science, especially devoted to the study of marine 
zoology. Unfortunately he did not long survive the establish- 
ment of this institution. The disease with which he had struggled 
for some years proved fatal on the i4th of December 1873. 
He was buried at Mount Auburn. His monument is a boulder 
selected from the moraine of the glacier of the Aar near the site 
of the old Hotel des Neuchatelois, not far from the spot where 
his hut once stood; and the pine-trees which shelter his grave 
were sent from his old home in Switzerland. His extensive 
knowledge of natural history makes it somewhat remarkable 
to find that from first to last he steadily rejected the doctrine 
of evolution, and affirmed his belief in independent creations. 
When studying the superficial deposits of the Brazilian plains iii 
1865, his vivid imagination covered even that wide tropical area, 
as it had covered Switzerland before, with one vast glacier, 
extending from the Andes to the sea. This view, however, 
has not been generally accepted. His daring conceptions were 
only equalled by the unwearied industry and genuine en- 
thusiasm with which he worked them out; and if in details 
his labours were somewhat defective, it was only because he 
had ventured to attempt what was too much for any one man 
to accomplish. 

It may be interesting to mention that the charming verses 
written by Longfellow on " The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz " 
were read by the author at a dinner given to Agassiz by the 
Saturday Club in Cambridge, Mass., in 1857. 

Louis Agassiz was twice married, and by his first wife he had 
an only son, Alexander Agassiz (q.i>.~), born in 1835; in 1850, 
after her death, he married his second wife, Elizabeth Cabot 
Gary of Boston, Mass., afterwards well known as a writer and 
as an active promoter of educational work in connexion with 
Radcliffe College (see an article on Radcliffe College, by Helen 
Leah Reed in the New England Magazine for January 1895). 

AUTHORITIES. L.Agassiz,His Life and Correspondence, '2 vols., by 
E. C. (Mrs) Agassiz (London, 1885) ; Louis Agassiz, His Life and Work, 
by C. F. Holder (New York and London, 1893). (H. B. Wo.) 

AGATE, a term applied not to a distinct mineral species, but 
to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly Chalcedony 
(q.v.). According to Theophrastus the agate (dxarijs) was 
named from the river Achates, now the Drillo, in Sicily, where 
the stone was originally found. Most agates occur as nodules 
in eruptive rocks, or ancient lavas, where they represent cavities 
originally produced by the disengagement of vapour in the 
molten mass, and since filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous 
matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates, 
when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines, 
often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the 
section, whence such stones are known as banded agate, riband 
agate and striped agate. Certain agates also occur, to a limited 
extent, in veins, of which a notable example is the beautiful 
brecciated agate of Schlottwitz, near Wesenstein in Saxony 
a stone mostly composed of angular fragments of agate cemented 
with amethystine quartz. 

In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that 
waters containing silica in solution derived, perhaps, from the 
decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself per- 
colated through the rock, and deposited a siliceous coating on 
the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character 
of the solution, or in the conditions of deposit, may have caused 
corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands 
of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline quartz, 
and occasionally of opaline silica. By movement of the lava, 
when originally viscous, the vesicles were in many cases drawn 
out and compressed, whence the mineral matter with which 
they became filled assumed an elongated form, having the longer 
axis in the direction in which the magma flowed. From the fact 
that these kernels are more or less almond-shaped they are called 
amygdales, whilst the rock which encloses them is known as 
an amygdaloid. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the 



AGATE 



369 



rock is viscous, and thus form a large cavity which may become 
the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a Brazilian geode, 
lined with amethyst, of the weight of 35 tons, was exhibited 
at the Dusseldorf Exhibition of 1902. 

The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the " skin " 
of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance, 
like celadonite, delessite or " green earth," which are hydrous 
silicates rich in iron, derived probably from the decomposition 
of the augite in the mother-rock. This green silicate may give 
rise by alteration to a brown oxide of iron (limonite), producing 
a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The 
outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted 
and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the 
original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the 
cavity has been called the " priming," and upon this basis 
zeolitic minerals may be deposited, as was pointed out by Dr 
M. F. Heddle. Chalcedony is generally one of the earlier deposits 
and crystallized quartz one of later formation. Tubular channels, 
usually choked with siliceous deposits, are often visible in 
sections of agate, and were formerly regarded, especially by 
L. von Buch and J. Noggerath, as inlets of infiltration, by which 
the siliceous solutions gained access to the interior of the amyg- 
daloidal cavity. It seems likely, however, that the solution 
transuded through the walls generally, penetrating the chalce- 
donic layers,'as Heddle maintained, by osmotic action. Much of 
the chalcedony in an agate is known, from the method of arti- 
ficially staining the stone, to be readily permeable. It was 
argued by E. Reusch that the cavities were alternately filled 
and emptied by means of intermittent hot springs carrying 
silica; while G. Lange, of Idar, suggested that the tension of 
the confined steam might pierce an outlet through some weak 
point in the coating of gelatinous silica, deposited on the walls, 
so that the tubes would be channels of egress rather than of 
ingress a view supported by Heddle, who described them as 
" tubes of escape." 

It sometimes happens that horizontal deposits, or strata 
usually opaline in character, are formed on the floor of a cavity 
after the walls have been lined with successive layers of chalce- 
dony. Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not pro- 
ceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last 
deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethystine, having 
the apices of the crystals directed towards the free space, so as 
to form a crystal-lined cavity or geode. 

When the deposits in an agate have been formed on a crop 
of crystals, or on a rugose base, the cross-section presents a 
zigzag pattern, rather like the plan of a fortress with salient 
and retiring angles, whence the stone is termed fortification 
agate. If the section shows concentric circles, due either to 
stalactitic growth or to deposition in the form of bosses and beads 
on the floor, the stone is known as ring agate or eye agate. A 
Mexican agate, showing only a single eye, has received the name 
of " cyclops." Included matter of a green colour, like fragments 
of " green earth," embedded in the chalcedony and disposed 
in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, 
gives rise to moss agate. These inorganic enclosures in the agate 
have been sometimes described, even after microscopic examina- 
tion, as true vegetable structures. Dendritic markings of black 
or brown colour, due to infiltration of oxides of manganese and 
iron, produce the variety of agate known as Mocha stone. Agates 
of exceptional beauty often pass in trade under the name of 
Oriental agate. Certain stones, when examined in thin sections 
by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum, due to 
the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are 
termed rainbow agates. 

On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are 
embedded, they are set free, and, being by their siliceous nature 
extremely resistant to the action of air and water, remain as 
nodules in the soil and gravel, or become rolled as pebbles in 
the streams. Such is the origin of the " Scotch pebbles," used 
as ornamental stones. They are agates derived from the andesitic 
lavas of Old Red Sandstone age, chiefly in the Ochils and the 
Sidlaws. In like manner, the South American agates, so largely 



cut and polished at the present time, are found mostly as boulders 
in the beds of rivers. 

An enormous trade in agate-working is carried on in a small 
district in Germany, around Oberstein on the Nahe, a tributary 
of the Rhine at Bingen. Here the industry was located many 
centuries ago, in consequence of the abundant occurrence of 
agates in the amygdaloidal melaphyre of the district, notably 
in the Galgenberg, or Steinkaulenberg, overlooking the village 
of Idar, on the Idar Bach, about two miles from Oberstein. 
The abundant water-power in the neighbourhood had also a 
share in the determination of the industrial site. At the present 
time, however, steam power and even electricity are employed 
in the mills of the Oberstein district. Although the agate- 
industry is still carried on there, especially at Idar, the stones 
operated on are not of indigenous origin, but are imported mostly 
from Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) and from Uruguay, where they 
were discovered in 1827. Agate-working is also carried on to 
a limited extent at Waldkirch in the Black Forest. 

Most commercial agate is artificially stained, so that stones 
naturally unattractive by their dull grey tints come to be valuable 
for ornamental purposes. The art of staining the stone is believed 
to be very ancient. Possibly referred to by Pliny (bk. xxxvii. 
cap. 75), it was certainly practised at an early date by the Italian 
cameo-workers, and from Italy a knowledge of the art long 
kept secret and practised traditionally passed in the early 
part of the igth century to the agate- workers in Germany, 
by whom it has since been greatly developed. The colouring 
matter is absorbed by the porosity of the stone, but different 
stones and even different layers in the same stone exhibit great 
variation in absorptive power. The Brazilian agates lend them- 
selves readily to coloration, while the German agates are much 
less receptive. 

To produce a dark brown or black colour, the stone is kept 
perhaps for two or three weeks in a saccharine solution, or in 
olive oil, at a moderate temperature. After removal from this 
medium, the agate is well washed and then digested for a short 
time in sulphuric acid, which entering the pores chars or carbonizes 
the absorbed sugar or oil. Certain layers of chalcedony are 
practically impermeable, and these consequently remain un- 
coloured, so that an alternation of dark and white bands is 
obtained, thus giving rise to an onyx. If stained too dark, the 
colour may be " drawn," or lightened, by the action of nitric 
acid. 

Agate is stained red, so as to form carnelian and sardonyx, 
by means of ferric oxide. This may be derived from any iron 
compound naturally present in the stone, especially from limonite 
by dehydration on baking. Some stones are " burnt " by mere 
exposure to the heat of the sun, whereby the brown colour 
passes to red. Usually, however, an iron-salt, like ferrous 
sulphate, is artificially introduced in solution and then decom- 
posed by heat, so as to form in the pores a rich red pigment. 

A blue colour, supposed to render the agate rather like lapis 
lazuli, is produced by using first an iron salt and then a solution 
of ferrocyanide or ferricyanide of potassium; a green colour, 
like that of chrysoprase, is obtained by means of salts of nickel 
or of chromium; and a yellow tint is developed by the action 
of hydrochloric acid. 

Among the uses to which agate is applied may be mentioned 
the formation of knife-edges of delicate balances, small mortars 
and pestles for chemical work, burnishers and writing styles, 
umbrella-handles, paper-knives, seals, brooches and other 
trivial ornaments. Most of these are cut and polished in the 
Oberstein district, at a very cheap rate, from South American 
stones. 

Numerous localities in the United States and Canada yield 
agates, as described by Dr G. F. Kunz. They are abundant 
in the trap rocks of the Lake Superior region, some of the finest 
coming from Michipicoten Island, Ontario. A locality on the 
shore of the lake is called Agate Bay. Wood agate, or agatized 
wood, is not infrequently found in Colorado, California and 
elsewhere in the West, the most notable locality being the famous 
" silicified forest " known as Chalcedony Park, in Apache county, 



370 



AGATHA AGATHOCLES 



Arizona. Here there are vast numbers of water-rolled logs of 
silicified wood, in rocks of Triassic age, but only a small quantity 
of the wood is fine enough for ornamental purposes. The cellular 
tissue of the vegetable matter is filled, or even replaced, by 
various siliceous minerals like chalcedony, jasper, crystalline 
quartz and semi-opal, the silica having probably been introduced 
by thermal waters. Some of the agate shows the microscopic 
structure of araucarian wood. The agatized wood is sometimes 
known by the Indian name of shinarump. 

In India agates occur abundantly in the amygdaloidal varieties 
of the Deccan and Rajmahal traps, and as pebbles in the detritus 
derived from these rocks. Some of the finest are found in the 
agate-gravels near Ratanpur, in Rajpipla. The trade in agates 
has been carried on from early times at Cambay, where the stones 
are cut and polished. Agates are also worked at Jubbulpore. 

In many parts of New South Wales, agates, resulting from 
the disintegration of trap rocks, are common in the river-beds 
and old drifts. They occur also in Queensland, as at Agate Creek, 
running into the Gilbert river. South Africa likewise yields 
numerous agates, especially in the gravels of the Orange and 
Vaal rivers. 

It should be noted that in England agates are found not only 
in old lavas, like the andesites of the Cheviots, but also to a 
limited extent in the Dolomitic Conglomerate, an old beach- 
deposit of Triassic age in the Mendips and the neighbourhood 
of Bristol. They are also found as weathered pebbles in the 
drift of Lichfield in Staffordshire. 

For Scottish agates see M. F. Heddle, " On the Structure of 
Agates," Trans. Geolog. Soc. Glasgow, vol. xi. part ii., 1900, p. 153; 
and Mineralogy of Scotland (1901), vol. i. p. 58; J. G. Good- 
child, Proc, Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xiv., 1899, p. 191. For the 
agate-industry see G. Lange, Die Halbedelsteine (Kreuznach, 1868). 
For American agates, G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones 
of North America (1890), p. 128. For agates in general see 
Max Bauer's Precious Stones, translated by L. J. Spencer (London, 
1904). (F. W. R.*) 

AGATHA, SAINT, the patron saint of Catania, Sicily, where 
her festival is celebrated on the sth of February. The legend 
is that she was a native of Sicily (probably of Catania, though 
Palermo also claims her), of noble birth and great beauty. She 
repelled the advances of the Roman prefect sent by the emperor 
Decius to govern Sicily, and was by his orders. brutally tortured 
and finally sent to the stake. As soon as the fire was lighted, 
an earthquake occurred, and the people insisted on her release. 
She died in prison on the 5th of February 251. The rescue of 
Catania from fire during an eruption of Mount Etna was later 
attributed to St Agatha's veil. 

AGATHANGELUS, AGATHANGE or AKATHANKELOS, Armenian 
historian, lived during the 4th century, and wrote a History 
of the Reign of Dertad, or Tiridates, and of the Preaching of 
Si Gregory the Illuminator. The text of this history has been 
considerably altered, but it has always been in high favour with 
the Armenians. It has been translated into several languages, 
and Greek and Latin translations are found in thereto Sanctorum 
Bollandistarum, tome viii. As known to us the history consists of 
three parts, a history of St Gregory and his companions, the doc- 
trine of Gregory, and the conversion of Armenia to Christianity. 

See V. Langlois, Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de 
I'Armenie (Paris, 1868). 

AGATHARCHIDES, or AGATHARCHUS, of Cnidus, Greek his- 
torian and geographer, lived in the time of Ptolemy Philometor 
(181-146 B.C.) and his successors. Amongst other works, he 
wrote treatises on Asia, Europe and The Red Sea. Interesting 
extracts from the last, of some length, are preserved in Photius 
(cod. 213), who praises the style of the author, which was 
modelled on that of Thucydides. 

See H. Leopold!, De Agatharchide Cnidio Dissertatio (1892) ; C. W. 
M tiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iii., and Geographi Graeci 
Minores, i. ; E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography, ii. (1879). 

AGATHARCHUS, an Athenian painter of the sth century B.C. 
He is said by Vitruvius to have been the first to paint a scene for 
the acting of tragedies. Hence some writers, such as Karl 
Woermann, have supposed that he introduced perspective and 
illusion into painting. This is a mistaken view, for ancient 



writers know nothing of canvas scenes; the background painted 
by Agatharchus was the wooden front of the stage building, and 
it was painted, not with reference to any particular play, but as 
a permanent decorative background, representing no doubt a 
palace or temple. Agatharchus is said to have been seized by 
Alcibiades and compelled by him to paint the interior of his 
house, which shows that at the time (about 435 B.C.) decorative 
painting of rooms was the fashion. 

AGATHIAS (c. A.D. 536-582), of Myrina in Aeolis, Greek poet 
and historian. He studied law at Alexandria, completed his 
training at Constantinople and practised as an advocate (scholas- 
ticus) in the courts. Literature, however, was his favourite 
pursuit. He wrote a number of short love-poems in epic metre, 
called Daphniaca. He next put together a kind of anthology, 
containing epigrams by earlier and contemporary poets and him- 
self, under the title of a Cycle of New Epigrams. About a hundred 
epigrams by Agathias have been preserved in the Greek Antho- 
logy and show considerable taste and elegance. After the death 
of Justinian (565), some of Agathias's friends persuaded him to 
write the history of his own times. This work, in five books, 
begins where Procopius ends, and is the chief authority for the 
period 552-558. It deals chiefly with the struggles of the Byzan- 
tine army, under the command of the eunuch Narses, against 
the Goths, Vandals, Franks and Persians. The author prides 
himself on his honesty and impartiality, but he is lacking in 
judgment and knowledge of facts; the work, however, is valuable 
from the importance of the events of which it treats. Gibbon 
contrasts Agathias as " a poet and rhetorician " with Procopius 
" a statesman and soldier." 

AUTHORITIES. Editio princeps, by B. Vulcanius (1594); in the 
Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Byz. Hist., by B. G. Niebuhr (1828); in 
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Ixxxviii.; L. Dindorf, Historici Graeci 
Minores (1871); W. S. Teuffel, " Agathias von Myrine," in Philo- 
logus (i. 1846); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen 
Litteratur (2nd ed. 1897). 

AGATHO, pope from 678 to 681, was born in Sicily. He is 
noteworthy as the pope who ordered St Wilfrid to be restored to 
his bishopric at York in 679, and as the first to cease payment 
of the tribute hitherto paid on election to the emperor at Con- 
stantinople. It was during his pontificate that the 6th oecumenical 
council was held at Constantinople, to which he sent his legates 
and those from a Roman council held in 679. Agatho died on 
the zoth of January 68 1. 

AGATHOCLES (361-289 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, was born at 
Thermae Himeraeae (mod. Termini Imerese) in Sicily. The son 
of a potter who had removed to Syracuse, he learned his father's 
trade, but afterwards entered the army. In 333 he married the 
widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. 
He was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligar- 
chical party in Syracuse (?.?'.); in 317 he returned with an army 
of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic 
constitution which was then set up. Having banished or 
murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master 
of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the 
greater part of Sicily. War with Carthage followed. In 310 
Agathocles, defeated and besieged in Syracuse, took the desperate 
resolve of breaking through the blockade and attacking the 
nemy in Africa. After several victories he was at last completely 
defeated (306) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace 
with Carthage, Agathocles styled, himself king of Sicily, and 
established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly 
:han ever. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless 
:nergy, and is said to have been meditating a fresh attack on 
Carthage at the time of his death. His last years were harassed 
ay ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at 
whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to 
others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercen- 
aries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his 
ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular "tyrant." 
See Justin xxii., xxiii.; Diodorus Siculus xix., xxi., xxii. (follows 
jenerally Timaeus who had a special grudge against Agathocles) ; 
3 olybius ix. 23; Schubert, Geschichte des Agathokles (1887) ; Grote, 
History of Greece, ch. 97 ; also SICILY, History. 






AGATHODAEMON AGDE 



AGATHODAEMON, in Greek mythology, the " good spirit " 
of cornfields and vineyards. It was the custom of the Greeks to 
drink a cup of pure wine in his honour at the end of each meal 
(Aristophanes, Equites,io6). He was also regarded as the protect- 
ing spirit of the state and of individuals. He was often accom- 
panied by 'A70.01J Tuxi (good fortune), and in this aspect may be 
compared with the Roman Bonus Eventus (Pliny, Nat Hist. 
xxxvi. 23), and Genius. He is represented in works of art in the 
form of a serpent, or of a young man with a cornucopia and a 
bowl in one hand, and a poppy and ears of corn in the other. 

See Gerhard, Uber Agathodamon und Bona Dea (Berlin, 1849). 

AGATHODAEMON, of Alexandria, map designer, probably 
lived in the 2nd century A.D. Some MSS. of the Geography of 
Ptolemy contain twenty-seven maps, which are stated to have 
been drawn by Agathodaemon of Alexandria, who " delineated 
the whole world according to the eight books of Ptolemy's 
geography." As Ptolemy speaks of Iliwuces to accompany his 
treatise, these maps were probably the work of a contemporary 
acting under his instructions. About 1470 Nicolaus Doris, a 
Benedictine monk, brought out a revised edition of them, the 
names being inserted in Latin instead of Greek. 

See Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, ii. 

AGATHON (c. 448-400 B.C.), Athenian tragic poet, friend of 
Euripides and Plato, best known from his mention by Aristo- 
phanes (Thesmophoriazusae) and in Plato's Symposium, which 
describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for 
a tragedy (416). He probably died at the court of Archelaus, 
king of Macedonia. He introduced certain innovations, and 
Aristotle (Poetica, 9) tells us that the plot of his "Ai/0os was 
original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects. 

See Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 59, 106, Eccles. 100; Plato, Symp. 
198 c; Plutarch, Symp. 3; Aelian, For. Hist. xiv. 13; Kitsch, 
Opuscula, i. ; fragments in Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 

AGATHYRSI, a people of Thracian origin, who in the earliest 
historical times occupied the plain of the Maris (Maros), in the 
region now known as Transylvania. Thyrsi is supposed to be a 
Scythian form of Tpavaoi (Trausi), a Thracian tribe mentioned 
by Stephanus of Byzantium. They are described by Herodotus 
(iv. 104) as of luxurious habits, wearing gold ornaments (the 
district is still auriferous) and having wives in common. They 
tattooed their bodies (picti, Aeneid iv. 136), degrees of rank 
being indicated by the manner in which this was done, and 
coloured their hair dark blue. Like the Gallic Druids, they 
recited their laws in a kind of sing-song to prevent their being 
forgotten, a practice still in existence in the days of Aristotle 
(Problemata, xix. 28). Valerius Flaccus (Argonautica, vi. 135) 
calls them Thyrsagetae, probably in reference to their cele- 
bration of orgiastic rites in honour of some divinity akin to the 
Thracian Dionysus. In later times the Agathyrsi were driven 
farther north, and their name was unknown to the Romans in 
their original home. 

See Ammianus Marcellinus xxxi. 2. 17; Pliny, Nat. Hist. iv. \2 
[26]. 88; Ppmponius Mela ii. I. 10; W. Tomaschek, " Die alten 
Thraker," in Sitzungsber. der philosophisch-hislorischen Klasse der 
kaiserl. Akad. der Wiss. cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893). 

AGAVE, a large botanical genus of the natural order Amarylli- 
daceae, chiefly Mexican, but occurring also in the southern and 
western United States and in central and tropical South America. 
The plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally 
ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout stem 
is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the root. 
They grow slowly and flower but once after a number of years, 
when a tall stem or " mast " grows from the centre of the leaf- 
rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers. 
Vfter development of fruit the plant dies down, but suckers are 
frequently produced from the base of the stem which become 
new plants. The most familiar species is Agave americana (see 
fig.), a native of tropical America, the so-called century plant 
or American aloe (the maguey of Mexico). The number of years 
before flowering occurs depends on the vigour of the individual, 
the richness of the soil and the climate; during these years the 
plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for 
the effort of flowering. During the development of the inflor- 



escence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flower- 
stalk. In the case of A. americana and other species this is used 
by the Mexicans to make their national beverage, pulque; the 
flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently 
fermented. By distillation a spirit called mescal is prepared. 
The leaves of several species yield fibre, as for instance, A . rigida 
var. sisalana, sisal hemp (q.v.), A. decipiens, false sisal hemp; 
A. americana is the source of pita fibre, and is used as a fibre 
plant in Mexico, the West Indies and southern Europe. The 
flowering stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms 




Agave americana, Century plant or American aloe. About 4 r nat. 
size. I, Flower; 2, same flower split open above the ovary; 3, ovary 
cut across; I, 2, and 3, about i'nat. size. 

From the Botanical Magazine, by permission of Lovcll Reeve and Co. 

natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves will 
lather in water like soap. In the Madras Presidency the plant 
is extensively used for hedges along railroads. Agave americana, 
century plant, was introduced into Europe about the middle of 
the 1 6th century and is now widely cultivated for its handsome 
appearance; in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or 
yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex. As the 
leaves unfold from the centre of the rosette the impression of the 
marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger 
leaves. The plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in 
the summer months, but in the winter require to be protected 
from frost. They mature very slowly and die after flowering, 
but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the 
stem. 

AGDE, a town of southern France, in the department of 
Herault, on the left bank of the river of that name, 25 m. from 
the Mediterranean Sea and 32 m. S.W. of Montpellier on the 
Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 7146. The town lies at the foot 
of an extinct volcano, the Montagne St Loup, and is built of 
black volcanic basalt, which gives it a gloomy appearance. 
Overlooking the river is the church of St Andrd, which dates 
partly from the i2th century, and, till the Revolution, was a 
cathedral. It is a plain and massive structure with crenelated 
walls, and has the aspect of a fortress rather than of a church. 
The exterior is diversified by arched recesses forming machicola- 
tions, and the same architectural feature is reproduced in the 
square tower which rises like a donjon above the building. 
The Canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, uniting the Garonne 
with the Mediterranean, passes under the walls of the town, 



372 



AGE 



and the mouth of the Herault forms a harbour which- is protected 
by a fort. The maritime commerce of the town has declined, 
owing partly to the neighbourhood of Cette, partly to the shallow- 
ness of the Herault. The fishing industry is, however, still 
active. The chief public institutions are the tribunal of 
commerce and the communal college. 

Agde is a place of great antiquity and is said to have been 
founded under the name of ayadri iroXis (Good City) by the 
Phocaeans. The bishopric was established about the year 400 
and was suppressed in 1 790. 

SYNOD OF AGDE (Concilium Agathense). With the permission 
of the West Goth Alaric II. thirty-five bishops of southern Gaul 
assembled in person or sent deputies to Agde on the nth of 
September 506. Caesarius, bishop of Aries, presided. The 
forty-seven genuine canons of the synod deal with discipline, 
church life, the alienation of ecclesiastical property and the 
treatment of Jews. While favouring sacerdotal celibacy the 
council laid rather rigid restrictions on monasticism. It com- 
manded that the laity communicate at Christmas, Easter and 
Whitsuntide. The canons of Agde are based in part on earlier 
Gallic, African and Spanish legislation; and some of them were 
re-enacted by later councils, and found their way into collections 
such as the Hispana,' Pseudo-Isidore and Gratian. 

See Mansi viii. 319 ff. ; Hefe'.e, Conciliengeschichte, and edition, 
ii. 649 ff. (English translation, iv. 76 ff.); Herzog-Hauck, Real- 
encyklopddie, i. 242. 

AGE (Fr. Age, through late Lat. aetalicum, from aetas), a term 
used (i) of the divisions into which it is suggested that human 
history may be divided, whether regarded from the geological, 
cultural or moral aspects, e.g. the palaeolithic age, the bronze 
age, the dark ages; (2) of an historic epoch or generation; (3) of 
any period or stage in the physical life of a person, animal or 
thing; (4) of that time of life at which the law attributes full 
responsibility for his or her acts to the individual. 

(1) From the earliest times there would appear to have been the 
belief that the history of the earth and of mankind falls naturally 
into periods or ages. Classical mythology popularized the idea. 
Hesiod, for example, in his poem Works and Days, describes 
minutely five successive ages, during each of which the earth was 
peopled by an entirely distinct race. The first or golden race 
lived in perfect happiness on the fruits of the untilled earth, 
suffered from no bodily infirmity, passed away in a gentle sleep, 
and became after death guardian daemons of this world. The 
second or silver race was degenerate, and refusing to worship the 
immortal gods, was buried by Jove in the earth. The third or 
brazen race, still more degraded, was warlike and cruel, and 
perished at last by internal violence. The fourth or heroic race 
was a marked advance upon the preceding, its members being the 
heroes or demi-gods who fought at Troy and Thebes, and who 
were rewarded after death by being permitted to reap thrice a 
year the free produce of the earth. The fifth or iron race, to 
which the poet supposes himself to belong, is the most degenerate 
of all, sunk so low in every vice that any new change must be for 
the better. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, follows Hesiod exactly 
as to nomenclature and very closely as to substance. He makes 
the degeneracy continuous, however, by omitting the heroic race 
or age, which, as Grote points out, was probably introduced by 
Hesiod, not as part of his didactic plan, but from a desire to 
conciliate popular feeling by including in his poem the chief myths 
that were already current among the Greeks. Varro recognized 
three ages: (i) from the beginning of mankind to the Deluge, a 
quite indefinite period; (2) from the Deluge to the First Olym- 
piad, called the Mythical Period; (3) from the First Olympiad to 
his own time, called the Historic Period. Lucretius divided man's 
history into three cultural periods: (i) the Age of Stone; (2) the 
Age of Bronze; (3) the Age of Iron. He thus anticipated the 
conclusions of some of the greatest of modern archaeologists. 

(2) A definite period in history, distinguished by some special 
characteristic, such as great literary activity, is generally styled, 
with some appropriate epithet, an age. It is usual, for example, 
to speak of the Age of Pericles, the Augustan, the Elizabethan or 
the Victorian Ages; of the Age of the Crusades, the Dark Ages, 



the Middle Ages, the Age of Steam. Such isolated periods, with 
no continuity or necessary connexion of any kind, are obviously 
quite distinct from the ages or organically related periods into 
which philosophers have divided the whole course of human 
history. Auguste Comte, for instance, distinguishes three ages 
according to the state of knowledge in each, and he supposes that 
we are now entering upon the third of these. In the first age of 
his scheme knowledge is supernatural or fictitious; in the second 
it is metaphysical or abstract; in the third it is positive or 
scientific. Schemes somewhat similar have been proposed by 
other philosophers, chiefly of France and Germany, and seem to 
be regarded by them as essential to any complete science of 
history. 

. (3) The subject of the duration of human and animal life does 
not fall within the scope of this article, and the reader is referred 
to LONGEVITY. But the word " age " has been used by physio- 
logists tp express certain natural divisions in human development 
and decay. These are usually regarded as numbering five, viz. 
infancy, lasting to the seventh year; childhood to the fourteenth; 
youth to the twenty-first; adult life till fifty; and old age. 

(4) The division of human life into periods for legal purposes is 
naturally more sharp and definite than in physiology. It would 
be unscientific in the physiologist to name any precise year for 
the transition from one of his stages to another, inasmuch as that 
differs very considerably among different nations, and even to 
some extent among different individuals of the same nation. But 
the law must necessarily be fixed and uniform, and even where it 
professes to proceed according to nature, must be more precise 
than nature. The Roman law divided human life for its purposes 
into four chief periods, which had their subdivisions (i) in- 
fanlia, lasting till the close of the seventh year; (2) the period 
between infantia and pubertas, males becoming puberes at four- 
teen and females at twelve; (3) adolescentia, the period between 
puberty and majority; and (4) the period after the twenty-fifth 
year, when males became majores. The first period was one of 
total legal incapacity; in the second period a person could 
lawfully do certain specified acts, but only with the sanction of 
his tutor or guardian; in the third the restrictions were fewer, 
males being permitted to manage their own property, contract 
marriage and make a will; but majority was not reached until 
the age of twenty-five. By English law there are two great 
periods into which life is divided infancy, which lasts in both 
sexes until the twenty-first year, and manhood or womanhood The 
period of infancy, again, is divided into several stages, marked by 
the growing development both of rights and obligations. Thus 
at twelve years of age a male may take the oath of allegiance; at 
fourteen both sexes are held to have arrived at years of discretion, 
and may therefore choose guardians, give evidence and consent 
or disagree to a marriage. A female has the last privilege from 
the twelfth year, but the marriage cannot be celebrated until the 
majority of the parties without the consent of parents or 
guardians. At fourteen, too, both sexes are fully responsible to 
the criminal law. Between seven and fourteen there is responsi- 
bility only if the accused be proved doli capax, capable of discern- 
ing between right and wrong, the principle in that case being that 
malitia supplet aetatem. At twenty-one both males and females 
obtain their full legal rights, and become liable to all legal 
obligations. A seat in the British parliament may be taken at 
twenty-one. Certain professions, however, demand as a qualifi- 
cation in entrants a more advanced age than that of legal man- 
hood. In the Church of England a candidate for deacon's orders 
must be twenty-three (in the Roman Catholic Church, twenty- 
two) and for priest's orders twenty-four years of age; and no 
clergyman is eligible for a bishopric under thirty. In Scotland 
infancy is not a legal term. The time previous to majority, 
which, as in England, is reached by both sexes at twenty-one, is 
divided into two stages: pupilage lasts until the attainment of 
puberty, which the law fixes at fourteen in males and twelve in 
females; minority lasts from these ages respectively until twenty- 
one. Minority obviously corresponds in some degree to the 
English years of discretion, but a Scottish minor has more personal 
rights than an English infant in the last stage of his infancy, e.g. 



AGELADAS AGENT 



373 



he may dispose by will of movable property, make contracts, 
carry on trade, and, as a necessary consequence, is liable to be 
declared a bankrupt. In France the year of majority is twenty- 
one, and the nubile age eighteen for males and fifteen for females, 
with a restriction as to the consent of guardians. Age qualifica- 
tion for the chamber of deputies is twenty-five and for the senate 
forty years. In Germany, majority is reached at twenty-one, the 
nubile age is twenty for males and sixteen for females, subject to 
the consent of parents. Without the consent of parents, the age 
is twenty-five for males and twenty-four for females. The age 
qualification for the Reichstag is twenty-five. In Austria the age 
of majority is twenty-four, and the nubile age fourteen for either 
sex, subject to the consent of the parents. In Denmark, qualified 
majority is reached at eighteen and full majority at twenty-five. 
The nubile age is twenty for males and sixteen for females. In 
Spain, majority is reached at twenty-three; the nubile age is 
eighteen for males and sixteen for females. In Greece the age 
of majority is twenty-one, and the nubile age sixteen for males 
and fourteen for females. In Holland the age of majority is 
twenty-one, and the nubile age eighteen for males and sixteen 
for females. In Italy, majority is reached at twenty-one; the 
nubile age is eighteen for males and fifteen for females. In 
Switzerland the age of majority is twenty, and the nubile age is 
eighteen for males and sixteen for females. In the United States 
the age qualification for a president is thirty-five, for a senator 
thirty and for a representative twenty-five. 

AGELADAS, or (as the name is spelt in an inscription) 

AGELAIDAS, a great Argive sculptor, who flourished in the latter 
part of the 6th and the early part of the sth century B.C. He 
was specially noted for his statues of Olympic victors (of 520, 
516, 508 B.C.); also for a statue at Messene of Zeus, copied on 
the coins of that city. Ageladas was said to have been the 
teacher of Myron, Phidias and Polyclitus; this tradition is a 
testimony to his wide fame, though, historically doubtful. We 
have no work of Ageladas surviving; but we have an inscription 
hich contains the name of his son Argeiadas. 

AGEN, a city of south-western France, capital of the depart- 
ment of Lot-et-Garonne, 84 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by the Southern 
railway between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Pop. (1906) 18,640. 
It is skirted on the west by the Garonne itself, and on the north 
by its lateral canal. The river is crossed by a stone bridge, by 
a suspension bridge for foot-passengers, and by a fine canal- 
bridge, carrying the lateral. canal. Pleasant promenades stretch 
for some distance along the right bank. The town is a medley 
of old narrow streets contrasting with the wide modern boule- 
vards which cross it at intervals. The chief building in Agen 
is the cathedral of St Caprais, the most interesting portion of 
which is the apse of the I2th century with its three apse-chapels; 
the transept dates from the I2th and I3th centuries, the nave 
from the I4th to the i6th centuries; the tower flanking the 
south facade is modern. The interior is decorated with modern 
tings and frescoes. There are several other churches, among 

.em the church of the Jacobins, a brick building of the i3th 
tury, and the church of St Hilaire of the i6th century, which 
has a modern tower. In the prefecture, a building of the i8th 
century, once the bishop's palace, is a collection of historical 
portraits. The h&tel de ville occupies the former Hotel du 
Presidial, an obsolete tribunal, and contains the municipal 
library. Two houses of the i6th century, the H6tel d'Estrades 
and the Hotel de Vaurs, are used as the museum, which has a rich 
collection of fossils, prehistoric and Roman remains, and other 

tiquities and curiosities. The poet Jacques Jasmin was a 

tive of the town, which has erected a statue to him. Through 
excellent water communication it affords an outlet for the 

icultural produce of the district, and forms an entrepdt of 
trade between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Agen is the seat of a 
bishop. It is the seat of a cour.t of appeal and a court of assizes, 
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a 
chamber of commerce. There are also ecclesiastical seminaries, 
lycees for boys and girls, training-colleges, a school of commerce 
and industry, and a branch of the Bank of France. Agen is 
the market for a rich agricultural region. The chief articles of 






commerce are fattened poultry, prunes (pruneaux d'Agen) and 
other fruit, cork, wine, vegetables and cattle. Manufactures 
include flour, dried plums, pale de foie gras and other delicacies, 
hardware, manures, brooms, drugs, woven goods tiles. 

Agen (Aginnum) was the capital of the Celtic tribe of the 
Nitiobroges, and the discovery of extensive ruins attests its 
importance under the Romans. In later times it was the capital 
of the Agenais. Its bishopric was founded in the 4th century. 
Agen changed hands more than once in the course of the Albi- 
gensian wars, and at their close a tribunal of inquisition was 
established in the town and inflicted cruel persecution on the 
heretics. During the religious wars of the i6th century Agen 
took the part of the Catholics and openly joined the League in 
1589. 

See Labenazie, Histoire de la mile d'Agen et pays d'Agenois, ed. by 
A.-G. de Dampierre (1888) ; A. Ducom, La Commune d'Agen: essai 
sur son histoire et son organisation depuis son origins jusqu'au traite 
de Bretigny (1892). 

AGENAIS, or AGENOIS, a former province of France. In 
ancient Gaul it was the country of the Nitiobroges with Aginnum 
for its capital, and in the 4th century it was the Citiitas Agennen- 
sium which was a part of Aquitania Secunda and which formed 
the diocese of Agen. Having in general shared the fortunes of 
Aquitaine during the Merovingian and Carolingian periods, 
Agenais next became an hereditary countship in the part of the 
country now called Gascony (Vasconia). In 1038 this count- 
ship was purchased by the dukes of Aquitaine and counts of 
Poitiers. The marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry 
Plantagenet in 1152 brought it under the sway of England; 
but when Richard Cceur-de-Lion married his sister Joan to 
Raymund VI., count of Toulouse, in 1196, Agenais formed part 
of the princess's dowry; and with the other estates of the last 
independent count of Toulouse it lapsed to the crown of France 
in 1271. This, however, was not for long; the king of France 
had to recognize the prior rights of the king of England to the 
possession of the countship, and restored it to him in 1279. 
During the wars between the English and the French in the I4th 
and i5th centuries, Agenais was frequently taken and retaken, 
the final retreat of the English in 1453 at last leaving the king 
of France in peaceable possession. Thenceforth Agenais was 
no more than an administrative term. At the end of the ancien 
regime it formed part of the " Gouvernement " of Guienne, and 
at the Revolution it was incorporated in the department of Lot- 
et-Garonne, of which it constitutes nearly the whole. The title 
of count of Agenais, which the kings of England had allowed 
to fall into desuetude, was revived by the kings of France, and 
in 1789 was held by the family of the dukes of Richelieu. 

There is no good history of Agenais; that published by Jules 
Andrieu in 1893 (Histoire de I' Agenais, 2 vols.) being quite inade- 
quate. The Bibliographie generate de I' Agenais, by the same author 
(1886-1891, 3 vols.), may be found useful. (C. B.*) 

AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act), a name applied generally to 
any person who acts for another. It has probably been adopted 
from France, as its function in modern civil law was otherwise 
expressed in Roman jurisprudence. Ducange (s.v. Agentes) 
tells us that in the later Roman empire the officers who collected 
the grain in the provinces for the troops and the household, and 
afterwards extended their functions so as to include those of 
government postmasters or spies, came to be called agentes in 
rebus, their earlier name having been frumentarii. In law an 
agent is a person authorized, expressedly or impliedly, to act 
for another, who is thence called the principal, and who is, in 
consequence of, and to the extent of, the authority delegated 
by him, bound by the acts of his agent. (See PRINCIPAL AND 
AGENT; FACTOR, &c.) 

In Scotland the procurators or solicitors who act in the pre- 
paration of cases in the various law-courts are called agents. 
(See SOLICITOR.) 

In France the agents de change were formerly the class gener- 
ally'licensed for conducting all negotiations, as they were termed, 
whether in commerce or the money market. The term has, 
however, become practically limited to those who conduct 
transactions in public stock. The laws and regulations as to 



374 



AGENT-GENERALAGGLOMERATE 



courtiers, or those whose functions were more distinctly confined 
to transactions in merchandise, have been mixed up with those 
applicable to agents de change. Down to the year 1572 both 
functions were free; but at that period, partly for financial 
reasons, a system of licensing was adopted at the suggestion 
of the chancellor, 1'Hdpital. Among the other revolutionary 
measures of the year 1791, the professions of agent and courtier 
were again opened to the public. Many of the financial con- 
.vulsions of the ensuing years, which were due to more serious 
causes, were attributed to this indiscriminate removal of re- 
strictions, and they were reimposed in 1801. From that period 
regulations have been made from time to time as to the quali- 
fications of agents, the security to be found by them and the 
like. They are now regarded as public officers, appointed, with 
certain privileges and duties, by the government to act as 
intermediaries in negotiating transfers of public funds and com- 
mercial stocks and for dealing in metallic currency. (See STOCK 
EXCHANGE: France.) 

In diplomacy the term " agent " was originally applied to all 
" diplomatic agents," including ambassadors. With the evolu- 
tion of the diplomatic hierarchy, however, the term gradually 
sank until it was technically applied only to the lowest class 
of " diplomatic agents," without a representative character and 
of a status and character so dubious that, by the regulation 
of the congress of Vienna, they were wholly excluded from the 
immunities of the diplomatic service. (See DIPLOMACY.) 

AGENT-GENERAL, the term given to a representative in 
England of one of the self-governing British colonies. Agents- 
general may be said to hold a position mid-way between agents 
of provinces and ambassadors of foreign countries. They are 
appointed, and their expenses and salaries provided, by the 
governments of the colonies they represent, viz. Cape of Good 
Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, New South Wales, Queensland, 
South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, New 
Zealand and Canada (whose representatives are termed high 
commissioners). Their duties are to look after the political and 
economic interests of their colonies in London, to assist in all 
financial and commercial matters in which their colonies may be 
concerned, such as shipping arrangements and rates of freight, 
cable communications and rates, tenders for public works, &c., 
and to make known the products of their colonies. Those colonies 
which are not under responsible government are represented 
in London by crown agents. 

AGESANDER, a Rhodian sculptor, whose title to fame is 
that he is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 37) as author 
(with Polydorus and Athenodorus) of the group of the Laocoon. 
Inscriptions recently found at Lindus in Rhodes date Agesander 
and Athenodorus to the period 42-21 B.C. The date of the 
Laocoon seems thus finally settled, after long controversy. It 
represents the culmination of a sentimental or pathetic tendency 
in art, which is prominent in the somewhat earlier sculpture of 
Pergamum. (See GREEK ART.) 

AGESILAUS II., king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid family, 
was the son of Archidamus II. and Eupolia, and younger step- 
brother of Agis II., whom he succeeded about 401 B.C. Agis had, 
indeed, a son Leotychides, but he was set aside as illegitimate, 
current rumour representing him as the son of Alcibiades. 
Agesilaus' success was largely due to Lysander, who hoped to 
find in him a willing tool for .the furtherance of his political 
designs; in this hope, however, Lysander was disappointed, 
and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon led to his downfall. 
In 396 Agesilaus was sent to Asia with a force of 2000 Neoda- 
modes (enfranchized Helots) and 6000 allies to secure the Greek 
cities against a Persian attack. On the eve of sailing from Aulis 
he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as Agamemnon had done before 
the Trojan expedition, but the Thebans intervened to prevent 
it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival 
at Ephesus a three months' truce was concluded with Tissa- 
phernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria, but negotiations con- 
ducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination 
Agesilaus raided Phrygia, where he easily won immense booty 
since Tissaphernes had concentrated his troops in Caria. After 



spending the winter in organizing a cavalry force, he made a 
successful incursion into Lydia in the spring of 395. Tithraustes 
was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who paid with his 
life for his continued failure. An armistice was concluded 
between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy 
and again invaded Phrygia, which he ravaged until the following 
spring. He then came to an agreement with the satrap Pharna- 
bazus and once more turned southward. It was said that he 
was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack on 
Artaxerxes himself, when he was recalled to Greece owing to 
the war between Sparta and the combined forces of Athens, 
Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor states. A rapid march 
through Thrace and Macedonia brought him to Thessaly, where 
he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him. 
Reinforced by Phocian and Orchomenian troops and a Spartan 
army, he met the confederate forces at Coronea in Boeotia, 
and in a hotly contested battle was technically victorious, but 
the success was a barren one and he had to retire by way of 
Delphi to the Peloponnese. Shortly before this battle the 
Spartan navy, of which he had received the supreme command, 
was totally defeated off Cnidus by a powerful Persian fleet under 
Conon and Pharnabazus. 

Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the 
Corinthian war, making several successful expeditions into 
Corinthian territory and capturing Lechaeum and Piraeum. 
The loss, however, of a mora, which was destroyed by Iphicrates, 
neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta. 
In 389 he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but two years 
later the Peace of Antalcidas, which was warmly supported by 
Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities. When war broke out afresh 
with Thebes the king twice invaded Boeotia (378, 377), and it 
was on his advice that Cleombrotus was ordered to march against 
Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the 
Spartan supremacy overthrown. In 370 Agesilaus tried to 
restore Spartan prestige by an invasion of Mantinean territory, 
and his prudence and heroism saved Sparta when her enemies, 
led by Epaminondas, penetrated Laconia that same year, and 
again in 362 when they all but succeeded in seizing the city by 
a rapid and unexpected march. The battle of Man tinea (362), 
in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: 
Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her 
supremacy. In order to gain money for prosecuting the war 
Agesilaus had supported the revolted satraps, and in 361 he 
went to Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid Tachos 
against Persia. He soon transferred his services to Tachos's 
cousin and rival Nectanabis, who, in return for his help, gave 
him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died 
at the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years. 

A man of small stature and unimpressive appearance, he was 
somewhat lame from birth, a fact w"hich was used as an argument 
against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against 
a " lame reign." He was a successful leader in guerilla warfare, 
alert and quick, yet cautious a man, moreover, whose personal 
bravery was unquestioned. As a statesman he won himself 
both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but of his 
patriotism there can be no doubt. He lived in the most frugal 
style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns 
were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to 
enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had 
set forth. The worst trait in his character is his implacable 
hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the battle of Leuctra and 
Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy. 

See lives of Agesilaus by Xenophon (the panegyric of a friend), 
Cornelius Nepos and Plutarch ; Xenophon's Hellenica and Diodorus 
xiv., xv. Among modern authorities, besides the general histories of 
Greece, J. C. F. Manso, Sparta, iii. 39 ff. ; G. F. Hertzberg, Das Leben 
des Konigs Agesilaos II. von Sparta (1856); Buttmann, Agesilaus 
Sohn des Archidamus (1872); C. Haupt, Agesilaus in Asien (1874); 
E. von Stern, Geschichte der spartanischen und thebanischen Hege- 
monie (1884). (M. N. T.) 

AGGLOMERATE (from the Lat. agglomerare, to form into a 
ball, glomus, glomeris), a term used in botany, meaning crowded 
in a close cluster or head, and, in geology, applied to the 



AGGLUTINATION AGINCOURT 



375 



accumulations of coarse volcanic ejectamenta such as frequently 
occur near extinct or active volcanoes. Agglomerates in the 
geological sense, with which this article is concerned, consist 
typically of blocks of various igneous rocks, mixed often with 
nore or less material of rudimentary origin and embedded in a 
Sner-grained matrix, similar in nature to the coarser fragments. 
Vs distinguished from ordinary ash beds or tuffs, they are 
ssentially coarser, less frequently well-bedded;' they are less 
persistent and tend to occur locally, but may attain a very great 
tiickness. Showers of fine ash may be distributed over a wide 
rea of country and will form thin layers of great extent, 
hoarser accumulations gather only near the actual foci of 
ruption (craters, fissures, &c.). When the activity of a volcanic 
vent comes to an end, the orifice is often choked by masses of 
ebris, which will in time become compacted into firm agglomer- 
ates. Hence rocks of this type very commonly mark the sites 
of necks, the remains of once-active volcanic craters. In this 
onnexion they are of especial interest to geologists, as it is always 
nportant to be able to locate the exact points at which volcanic 
products, such as lavas and ash-beds, were emitted. 
The blocks in agglomerates vary greatly in size. Some are 
dirty or forty feet in diameter, and , weigh many tons; these 
re usually pieces of the strata through which the volcano has 
orced an outlet. They are never far from the crater; most of 
hem, in fact, lie within its boundaries, and cases are known in 
vhich enormous masses of this kind (half an acre in area) have 
en found in such situations. They are masses which have 
een dislodged, by fissures and landslides, from the crater's 
vails and have tumbled into the cavity. Pieces of sandstone, 
nestone and shale occur in the agglomerates mixed with 
olcanic materials, and very often have been baked and partly 
ecrystallized by contact with the hot igneous rocks and the 
ases discharged by the volcano. At Vesuvius such blocks of 
Itered limestone are rich in new minerals and are well known 
i collectors. 

Agglomerates also are usually full of volcanic bombs. These 
re spongy globular masses of lava which have been shot from 
he crater at a time when liquid molten lava was exposed in it, 
nd was frequently shattered by the sudden outbursts of steam. 
These bombs were more or less viscous at the moment of ejection 
nd by rotation in the air acquired their spheroidal form. They 
ire commonly one or two feet in diameter, but specimens as 
arge as nine or twelve feet have been observed. There is less 
variety in their composition at any volcanic centre than in the 
se of the foreign blocks above described. They correspond in 
iture to the lava which at the time fills the crater of the volcano, 
ad as this varies only very slowly the bombs belong mostly 
i only a few kinds of rock and are similar in composition to the 
ava flows. 

Crystalline masses of a different kind occur in some numbers 
certain agglomerates. They consist of volcanic minerals 
very much the same as those formed in the lavas, but exhibiting 
ertain peculiarities which indicate that they have formed slowly 
under pressure at considerable depths. Hence they bear a 
esemblance to plutonic igneous rocks, but are more correctly 
be regarded as agglomerations of crystals formed within the 
liquid lava as it slowly rose towards the surface, and at a sub- 
equent period cast out by violent steam explosions. The 
inidinites of the Eifel belong to this group. At Vesuvius, 
Vscension, St Vincent and many other volcanoes, they form 
not inconsiderable part -of the coarser ash-beds. Their 
commonest minerals are olivine, anorthite, hornblende, augite, 
biotite and leucite. 

Agglomerates occur wherever volcanoes are known. In many 
arts of Britain they attain a great development either in beds 
Iternating with lavas or as the material occupying necks. In the 
alter case they are often penetrated by dikes. They also show a 
steep, angular, funnel-shaped dip (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh), 
and may contain thin layers of clay or ashy sand-stone, which 
ithered in the crater during intervals of repose. (J. S. F.) 
AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally to 
fasten together with glue), a term used technically in philology 



for the method of word-formation by which two significant 
words or roots are joined together in a single word to express 
a combination of the two meanings each of which retains its 
force. This juxtaposition or conjoining of roots is characteristic 
of languages such as the Turkish and Japanese, which are there- 
fore known as agglutinative, as opposed to others, known 
generically as inflexional, in which differences of termination or 
combinations in which all separate identity disappears are 
predominant. 

The term was also formerly used by associationist philosophers 
for those mental associations which were regarded as peculiarly 
close. Combination in its simplest form has been called 
Agglutination by W. Wundt. 

AGGRAVATION (from Lat. ad, increasing, and gravis, 
heavy), the making anything graver or more serious, especially 
of offences; also used as synonymous with " irritation." In 
the canon law " aggravation " was a form 01 ecclesiastical 
censure, threatening excommunication after three disregarded 
admonitions. 

AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect 
together), in physics, a collective term for the forms or states 
in which matter exists. Three primary " states of aggregation " 
are recognized gaseous, liquid and solid. Generally, if a solid 
be heated to a certain temperature, it melts or fuses, assuming 
the liquid condition (see FUSION); if the heating be continued 
the liquid boils and becomes a vapour (see VAPORIZATION). On 
the other hand, if a gas be sufficiently cooled and compressed, it 
liquefies; this transition is treated theoretically in the article 
CONDENSATION OF GASES, and experimentally in the article 
LIQUID GASES. 

AGGTELEK, a village of Hungary, in the county of Gomor, 
situated to the south of Rozsnyo, on the road from Budapest 
to Dobsina. Pop. (1900) 557. In the neighbourhood is the 
celebrated Aggtelek or Baradla cavern, one of the largest and 
most remarkable stalactite grottos in Europe. It has a length, 
together with its ramifications, of over 5 miles, and is formed 
of two caverns one known for several centuries, and another 
discovered by the naturalist Adolf Schmidl in 1856. Two 
entrances give access to the grotto, an old one extremely narrow, 
and a new one, made in 1890, through which the exploration 
of the cavern can be made in about 8 hours, half the time it took 
before. The cavern is composed of a labyrinth of passages 
and large and small halls, and is traversed by a stream. In these 
caverns there are numerous stalactite structures, which, from 
their curious and fantastic shapes, have received such names as 
the Image of the Virgin, the Mosaic Altar, &c. The principal 
parts are the . Paradies with the finest stalactites, the Astro- 
nomical Tower and the Beinhaus. Rats, frogs and bats form 
actually the only animal life in the caves, but a great number 
of antediluvian animal bones have been found here, as well 
as human bones and numerous remains of prehistoric human 
settlements. 

AGINCOURT (AZINCOURT), a village of northern France in the 
department of Pas de Calais, 14 m. N.W. of St Pol by road, 
famous on account of the victory, on the 2sth of October 1415, of 
Henry V. of England over the French. The battle was fought in 
the defile formed by the wood of Agincourt and that of Trame- 
court, at the northern exit of which the army under d'Albret, 
constable of France, had placed itself so as to bar the way to 
Calais against the English forces which had been campaigning on 
the Somme. The night of the 24th of October was spent by the 
two armies on the ground, and the English had but little shelter 
from the heavy rain which fell. Early on the 25th, St Crispin's 
day, Henry arrayed his little army (about 1000 men-at-arms, 
6000 archers, and a few thousands of other foot). It is probable 
that the usual three " battles " were drawn up in line, each with 
its archers on the flanks and the dismounted men-at-arms in the 
centre; the archers being thrown forward in wedge-shaped 
salients, almost exactly as at Crecy (q.v.). The French, on the 
other hand, were drawn up in three lines, each line formed in deep 
masses. They were at least four times more numerous than the 
English, but restricted by the nature of the ground to the same 



AGIO AGIS 



extent of front, they were unable to use their full weight (cf. 
Bannockburn) ; further, the deep mud prevented their artillery 
from taking part, and the crossbowmen were as usual relegated to 
the rear of the knights and men-at-arms. All were dismounted 
save a few knights and men-at-arms on the flanks, who were 
intended to charge the archers of the enemy. For three hours 
after sunrise there was no fighting; then Henry, finding that the 
French would not advance, moved his army farther into the 
defile. The archers fixed the pointed stakes, which they carried 
to ward off cavalry charges, and opened the engagement with 
flights of arrows. The chivalry of France, undisciplined and 
careless of the lesson of Crecy and Poitiers, was quickly stung 
into action, and the French mounted men charged, only to be 
driven back in confusion. The constable himself headed the 
leading line of dismounted men-at-arms; weighted with their 
armour, and sinking deep into the mud with every step, they yet 
reached and engaged the English men-at-arms; for a time the 
fighting was severe. The thin line of the defenders was borne 
back and King Henry was almost beaten to the ground. But at 
this moment the archers, taking their hatchets, swords or other 
weapons, penetrated the gaps in the now disordered French, who 
could not move to cope with their unarrnoured assailants, and 
were slaughtered or taken prisoners to a man. The second line 
of the French came on, only to be engulfed in the melee; its 
leaders, like those of the first line, were killed or taken, and the 
commanders of the third sought and found their death in the 
battle, while their men rode off to safety. The closing scene of 
the battle was a half-hearted attack made by a body of fugitives, 
which led merely to the slaughter of the French prisoners, which 
was ordered by Henry because he had not enough men both to 
guard them and to meet the attack. The slaughter ceased when 
the assailants drew off. The total loss of the English is stated at 
thirteen men-at-arms (including the duke of York, grandson of 
Edward III.) and about 100 of the foot. The French lost 5000 of 
noble birth killed, including the constable, 3 dukes, 5 counts and 
90 barons; 1000 more were taken prisoners, amongst them the 
duke of Orleans (the Charles d'Orleans of literature). 
. See Sir Harris Nicolas, Battle of Agincourt; Fortescue, History of 
the British Army, vol. i.; and H. B. George, Battles of English 
History. 

AGIO (Ital. aggio, exchange, discount, premium), a term used 
in commerce in three slightly different connexions, (a) The 
variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange in the currencies 
of different countries. For example, in most of the gold-standard 
countries, the standard coin is kept up to a uniform point of 
fineness, so that an English sovereign fresh from the mint will 
bear the following constant relation to coins of other countries in 
a similar condition: i=frcs. 25-221 =mks. 20-429 = $4-867, 
&c. This is what is known as the mint par of exchange. But 
the mint par of exchange, say, between France and England is 
not necessarily the market value of French currency in England, 
or English currency in France. The balance of trade between the 
various countries is the factor determining the rate of exchange. 
Should the balance of trade (q.v.) be against England, money must 
be remitted to France in payment of the indebtedness, but owing 
to the cost for, the transmission of specie there will be a demand 
for bills drawn on Paris as a cheaper and more expeditious 
method of sending money, and it therefore will be necessary, in 
order to procure the one of the higher current value, to pay a 
premium for it, called the agio. (6) The term is also used to 
denote the difference in exchange between two currencies in the 
same country; where silver coinage is the legal tender, agio is 
sometimes allowed for payment in the more convenient form of 
gold, or where the paper currency of a country is reduced below 
the bullion which it professes to represent, an agio is payable on 
the appreciated currency, (c) Lastly, in some states the coinage 
is so debased, owing to the wear of circulation, that the real is 
greatly reduced below the nominal value. Supposing that this 
reduction amounts to 5%, then if 100 sovereigns were offered as 
payment of a debt in England while such sovereigns were current 
there at their nominal value, they would be received as just 
payment; but if they were offered as payment of the same 



amount of debt in a foreign state, they would be received only at 
their intrinsic value of 95, the additional 5 constituting the 
agio. Where the state keeps its coinage up to a standard value 
no agio is required. 

AGIRA (formerly SAN FILIPPO D'ARGIRO), a town of the 
province of Catania, Sicily, with a railway station 4^ m. to the 
south of the town, 35 m. W. of Catania. Pop. (1901) 17,738. It 
occupies the site of Agyrion, an ancient Sicel city which was ruled 
by tyrants, one of whom, Agyris, was the most powerful ruler in 
the centre of Sicily. He was a contemporary of Dionysius I. , and 
with him successfully resisted the Carthaginians when they 
invaded the territory of Agyrium in 392 B.C. Agira was not 
colonized by the Greeks until Timoleon drove out the last tyrant 
in 339 B.C. and erected various splendid buildings of which no 
traces remain. Agyrion was the birthplace of the historian 
Diodorus Siculus. 

AGIS, the name of four Spartan kings: 

(1) Son of Eurysthenes, founder of the royal house of the 
Agiadae (Pausanias iii. 2.1). His genealogy was traced through 
Aristodemus, Aristomachus, Cleodaeus and Hyllus to Heracles 
(Herodotus vii. 204), and he belongs rather to mythology than 
to history. Tradition ascribed to him the capture of the maritime 
town of Helos, which resisted his attempt to curtail its guaranteed 
rights, and the institution of the class of serfs called Helots (q.v.). 

Ephorus ap. Strabo, viii. p. 365. 

(2) Son of Archidamus II., Eurypontid, commonly called 
Agis I. He succeeded his father, probably in 427 B.C., and from 
his first invasion of Attica in 425 down to the close of the Pelopon- 
nesian war was the chief leader of the Spartan operations on 
land. After the conclusion of the peace of Nicias (421 B.C.) 
he marched against the Argives in defence of Epidaurus, and 
after skilful manoeuvring surrounded the Argive army, and 
seemed to have victory within his grasp when he unaccountably 
concluded a four months' truce and withdrew his forces. The 
Spartans were indignant, and when the Argives and their allies, 
in flagrant disregard of the truce, took Arcadian Orchomenus 
and prepared to march on Tegea, their fury* knew no bounds, 
and Agis escaped having his house razed and a fine of 100,000 
drachmae imposed only by promising to atone for his error by 
a signal victory. This promise he brilliantly fulfilled by routing 
the forces of the Argive confederacy at the battle of Mantinea 
(418), the moral effect of which was out of all proportion to the 
losses inflicted on the enemy. In the winter 417-416 a further 
expedition to Argos resulted in the destruction of the half- 
finished Long Walls and the capture of Hysiae. In 413, on the 
suggestion of Alcibiades, he fortified Decelea in Attica, where he 
remained directing operations until, after the battle of Aegospo- 
tami (405), he took the leading part in the blockade of Athens, 
which was ended in spring 404 by the surrender of the city. 
Subsequently he invaded and ravaged Elis, forcing the Eleans 
to acknowledge the freedom of their perioeci and to allow 
Spartans to take part in the Olympic games and sacrifices. He 
fell ill on his return from Delphi, where he had gone to dedicate 
a tithe of the spoils, and, probably in 401, died at Sparta, where 
he was buried with unparalleled solemnity and pomp. 

Thuc. iii. 89, iv. 2. 6, v., vii. 19. 27, viii.; Xenophon, Hettenica, 
i. I, ii. 2. 3, iii. 2. 3; Diodorus xh. 35, xiii. 72, 73, 107; Pausanias 
iii. 8. 3-8; Plutarch, Lysander ix. 14. 22, Alcibiades 23-25, Lycurgus 
12, Agesilaus i. 3, de Tranquill.Anim.6. (See PELOPONNESIAN WAR.) 

(3) Son of Archidamus III., of the Eurypontid line, commonly 
called Agis II. He succeeded his father in 338 B.C., on the very 
day of the battle of Chaeronea. During Alexander's Asiatic 
campaign he revolted against Macedonia (333 B.C.) and, with 
theTaid of Persian money and ships and a force of 8000 Greek 
mercenaries, gained considerable successes in Crete. In the 
Peloponnese he routed a force under Corragus and, although 
Athens held aloof, he was joined by Elis, Achaea (except Pellene) 
and Arcadia, with the exception of Megalopolis, which the allies 
besieged. Antipater marched rapidly to its relief at the head 
of a large army, and the allied force was defeated after a desperate 
struggle (331) and Agis was slain. 

Pausanias iii. 10. 5; Diodorus xvii. 48, 62, 63; Justin xii. i; 
2uintus Curtius iv. I, 39, vi. i; Arrian, Anabasis, ii. 13. 



AGISTMENT AGNES, SAINT 



377 



(4) Son of Eudamidas II., of the Eurypontid family, commonly 
called Agis III. He succeeded his father probably in 245 B.C., 
in his twentieth year. At this time the state had been brought 
to the brink of ruin by the growth of avarice and luxury; there 
was a glaring inequality in the distribution of land and wealth, 
and the number of full citizens had sunk to 700, of whom about 
100 practically monopolized the land. Though reared in the 
height of luxury he at once determined to restore the traditional 
institutions of Lycurgus, with the aid of Lysander, a descendant 
of the victor of Aegospotami, and Mandrocleidas, a man of noted 
prudence and courage; even his mother, the wealthy Agesistrata, 
threw herself heartily into the cause. A powerful but not 
disinterested ally was found in the king's uncle, Agesilaus, 
vho hoped to rid himself of his debts without losing his vast 
estates. Lysander as ephor proposed on behalf of Agis that all 
debts sbould be cancelled and that Laconia should be divided 
into 19,500 lots, of which 4500 should be given to Spartiates, 
whose number was to be recruited from the best of the perioeci 
and foreigners, and the remaining 15,000 to perioeci who could 
bear arms. The Agiad king Leonidas having prevailed on the 
council to reject this measure, though by a majority of only one, 
was deposed in favour of his son-in-law Cleombrotus, who assisted 
Agis in bearing down opposition by the threat of force. The 
abolition of debts was carried into effect, but the land distribu- 
tion was put off by Agesilaus on various pretexts. At this point 
Vratus appealed to Sparta to help the Achaeans in repelling 
in expected Aetolian attack, and Agis was sent to the Isthmus 
it the head of an army. In his absence the open violence and 
xtortion of Agesilaus, combined with the popular disappoint- 
nent at the failure of the agrarian scheme, brought about the 
restoration of Leonidas and the deposition of Cleombrotus, who 
ook refuge at the temple of Apollo at Taenarum and escaped 
leath only at the entreaty of his wife, Leonidas's daughter 
Thilonis. On his return Agis fled to the temple of Athene 
Chalcioecus at Sparta, but soon afterwards he was treacherously 
nduced to leave his asylum and, after a mockery of a trial, was 
strangled in prison, his mother and grandmother sharing the 
ime fate (241). Though too weak and good-natured to cope 
vith the problem which confronted him, Agis was characterized 
by a sincerity of purpose and a blend of youthful modesty with 
oyal dignity, which render him perhaps the most attractive 

ure in the whole of Spartan history. 

See Plutarch's biography. Pausanias" accounts (ii. 8. 5, vii. 7. 3, 
viii. 10. 5-8, 27. 13) of his attack on Megalopolis, his seizure of 
Pellene and his death at Mantinea fighting against the Arcadians, 
\chaeans and Sicyonians are without foundation (J. C. F. Manso, 
Sparta, iii. 2. 123-127). See also Manso, op. cit. iii. I. 276-302; 
B. Niese, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, ii. 
299-303- (M. N. T.) 

AGISTMENT. To " agist " (from O. Fr. agister, derived from 
gesir Lat. jacere to lie) is, in law, to take cattle to graze, 
for a remuneration. " Agistment," in the first instance, referred 
nore particularly to the proceeds of pasturage in the king's 
forests, but now means either (a) the contract for taking in and 

iing horses or other cattle on pasture land, for the considera- 
tion of a weekly payment of money, or (b) the profit derived 
rom such pasturing. Agistment is a contract of bailment, and 
he bailer is bound to take reasonable care of the animals entrusted 

him; he is responsible for damages and injury which result 
from ordinary casualties, if it be proved that such might have 
been prevented by the exercise of great care. There is no lien 
on the cattle for the price of the agistment, unless by express 
greement. Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, agisted 
cattle cannot be distrained on for rent if there be other sufficient 

stress to be found, and if such other distress be not found, and 
he cattle be distrained, the owner may redeem them on pay- 
the price of their agistment. The tithe of agistment or 
" tithe of cattle and other produce of grass lands," was formally 
abolished by the act of union in 1707, on a motion submitted 
with a view to defeat that measure. 

AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS, the name given to representa- 
tives elected in 1647 by the different regiments of the English 
Parliamentary army. The word really means an agent, but it 



was confused with " adjutant," often called " agitant," a title 
familiar to the soldiers, and thus the form " adjutator " came 
into use. Early in 1647 the Long Parliament wished either to 
disband many of the regiments or to send them to Ireland. The 
soldiers, whose pay was largely in arrear, refused to accept 
either alternative, and eight of the cavalry regiments elected 
agitators, called at first commissioners, who laid their grievances 
before the three generals, and whose letter was read in the House 
of Commons on the 3oth of April 1647. The other regiments 
followed the example of the cavalry, and the agitators, who 
belonged to the lower ranks of the army, were supported by 
many of the officers, who showed their sympathy by signing 
the Declaration of the army. Cromwell and other generals suc- 
ceeded to some extent in pacifying the troops by promising the 
payment of arrears for eight weeks at once; but before the return 
of the generals to London parliament had again decided to 
disband the army, and soon afterwards fixed the ist of June 
as the date on which this process was to begin. Again alarmed, 
the agitators decided to resist; a mutiny occurred in one 
regiment and the attempt at disbandment failed. Then 
followed the seizure of the king by Cornet Joyce, Cromwell's 
definite adherence to the policy of the army, the signing of the 
manifestoes, a Humble Representation and a Solemn Engagement 
and the establishment of the army council composed of officers 
and agitators. Having, at an assembly on Thriplow Heath, 
near Royston, virtually refused the offers made by parliament, 
the agitators demanded a march towards London and the 
" purging " of the House of Commons. Subsequent events are 
part of the general history of England. Gradually the agitators 
ceased to exist, but many of their ideas were adopted by the 
Levellers (?..), who may perhaps be regarded as their successors. 
Gardiner says of them, " Little as it was intended at the time, 
nothing was more calculated than the existence of this elected 
body of agitators to give to the army that distinctive political 
and religious character which it ultimately bore." 

See S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, vols. iii. and iv. 
(London, 1905). 

AGLIARDI, ANTONIO (1832- ), papal diplomatist, was 
born at Cologno (Bergamo), Italy, on the 4th of September 1832. 
He studied theology and canon law, and, after acting as parish 
priest in his native diocese for twelve years, was sent by the pope 
to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was ap- 
pointed secretary to the Propaganda. In 1884 he was created 
by Leo XIII. archbishop of Caesarea in partibus and sent to 
India to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there. In 
1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the con- 
cordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed 
secretary to the Congregation super negotiis ecdesiae extraordi- 
nariis, in 1889 became papal nuncio at Munich and in 1892 
at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical 
disputes by which Hungary was divided in 1895, he was made 
the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government 
and in 1896 was recalled. His services were rewarded by a 
cardinalate and the archbishopric of Ferrara. In 1903 he was 
named vice-chancellor of the Roman Church. 

AGNANO, LAGO DI, a circular lake, 5 m. W. of Naples, Italy. 
It was apparently not formed until the middle ages, as it is not 
mentioned by ancient writers; it was drained in 1870. It 
occupied the crater of an extinct volcano, 4 m. in circumference. 
On the south bank are the Stufe di S. Germano, natural sul- 
phureous vapour baths, and close by is the Grotta del Cane, from 
the floor of which warm carbonic acid gas constantly rises to a 
height of 18 in., the fumes of which render a dog insensible in 
a few seconds. It is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist. ii. 93). 
Remains of an extensive Roman building and some statues 
have been discovered close by. 

AGNATES (Agnati), in Roman law, persons related through 
males only, as opposed to cognates. Agnation was founded on 
the idea of the family held together by the patria potestas; 
cognatio involves simply the modern idea of kindred. 

AGNES, SAINT, a virgin martyr of the Catholic Church. The 
legend of St Agnes is that she was a Roman maid, by birth a 



378 



AGNES OF MERAN AGNOSTICISM 



Christian, who suffered martyrdom when but thirteen during 
the reign of the emperor Diocletian, on the 2ist of January 304. 
The prefect Sempronius wished her to marry his son, and on her 
refusal condemned her to be outraged before her execution, but 
her honour was miraculously preserved. When led out to die 
she was tied to a stake, but the faggots would not burn, where- 
upon the officer in charge of the troops drew his sword and 
struck off her head. St Agnes is the patron saint of young girls, 
who, in rural districts, formerly indulged in all sorts of quaint 
country magic on St Agnes' Eve (2oth-2ist January) with a 
view to discovering their future husbands. This superstition 
has been immortalized in Keats's poem, " The Eve of St Agnes." 
St Agnes's bones are supposed to rest in the church of her name 
at Rome, originally built by Constantine and repaired by Pope 
Honorius in the yth century. Here on her festival (2ist of 
January) two lambs are specially blessed after pontifical high 
mass, and their wool is later woven into pallia (see PALLIUM). 

AGNES OF MERAN (d. 1201), queen of France, was the 
daughter of Bertold IV., duke of Meran in Tirol. She is called 
Marie by some of the chroniclers. In June 1196 she married 
Philip II., king of France, who had repudiated Ingeborg of 
Denmark in 1193. The pope espoused the cause of Ingeborg; 
but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, interdict having 
been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation 
from Agnes. She died in July of the next year, at the castle 
of Poissy, and was buried in the church of St Corentin, near 
Nantes. Her two children by Philip II., Philip, count of Cler- 
mont (d. 1234), and Mary, who married Philip, count of Namur, 
were legitimized by Innocent III. in 1201 on the demand of the 
king* Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the 
remarkable influence which she exercised over Philip II. She 
has been made the heroine of a tragedy by Francois Ponsard, 
Agnes de Meranie. 

See the notes of Robert Davidsohn in Philipp. II. August von 
Frankreich und Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888). A genealogical notice is 
furnished by the Chronicon of the monk Alberic (Aubry) of Trois- 
Fontaines, (Albcricus Trium Pentium) in Pertz, Scriptores, vol. xxiii. 
pp. 872 f., and by the Genealogia Wettinensis, ibid. p. 229. 

AGNESI, MARIA GAETANA (1718-1799), Italian mathe- 
matician, linguist and philosopher, was born at Milan on the i6th 
of May 1718, her father being professor of mathematics in the 
university of Bologna. When only nine years old she had such 
command of Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address 
in that language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies 
was not improper for her sex. By her thirteenth year she had 
acquired Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, German and other 
languages. Two years later her father began to assemble in his 
house at stated intervals a circle of the most learned men in 
Bologna, before whom she read and maintained a series of theses 
on the most abstruse philosophical questions. Records of these 
meetings are given in de Brosse's Letlres sur I'ltalie and in the 
Propositions PhUosophicae, which her father caused to be 
published in 1738. These displays, being probably not alto- 
gether congenial to Maria, who was of a retiring disposition, 
ceased in her twentieth year, and it is even said that she had 
at that age a strong desire to enter a convent. Though the wish 
was not gratified, she lived from that time in a retirement 
almost conventual, avoiding all society and devoting herself 
entirely to the study of mathematics. The most valuable result 
of her labours was the Instituzioni analitiche ad uso della 
giovenlu ilaliana, a work of great merit, which was published 
at Milan in 1748. The first volume treats of the analysis of 
finite quantities, and the second of the analysis of infinitesimals. 
A French translation of the second volume by P. T. d'Antelmy, 
with additions by Charles Bossut (1730-1814), appeared at 
Paris in 1775; and an English translation of the whole work 
by John Colson (1680-1760), the Lucasian professor of mathe- 
matics at Cambridge, was published in 1801 at the expense of 
Baron Maseres. Madame Agnesi also wrote a commentary 
on the Trait6 analylique des sections coniques of the marquis de 
I'H&pital, which, though highly praised by those who saw it in 
manuscript, was never published. She invented and discussed 
the curve known as the " witch of Agnesi " (q.v.) or versiera. 



In 1750, on the illness of her father, she was appointed by Pope 
Benedict XIV. to the chair of mathematics and natural philo- 
sophy at Bologna. After the death of her father in 1752 she 
carried out a long-cherished purpose by giving herself to the 
study of theology, and especially of the Fathers. After holding 
for some years the office of directress of the Hospice Trivulzio 
for Blue Nuns at Milan, she herself joined the sisterhood, and in 
this austere order ended her days on the gth of January 1799. 

Her sister, MARIA TERESA AGNESI (1724-1780), a well-known 
Italian pianist and composer, was born at Milan in 1724. She 
composed several cantatas, two pianoforte concertos and five 
operas, Sofonisbe, Giro in Armenia, Nitocri, II Re Pastore and 
Ihsubria consolala. 

See Antonio Francesco Frisi, f.loge historique de Mademoiselle 
Agnesi, translated by Boulard (Paris, 1807) ; Milesi-Mojon, Vita 
di M. G. Agnesi (Milan, 1836); J. Boyer, "La Mathematicienne 
Agnesi," in the Revue Catholique des revues franfaises et etrangeres 
(Paris, 1897). 

AGNEW, DAVID HAYES (1818-1892), American surgeon, 
was born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of 
November 1818. He graduated from the medical department 
of the university of Pennsylvania in 1838, and a few years later 
set up in practice at Philadelphia and became a lecturer at the 
Philadelphia School of Anatomy. He was appointed surgeon 
at the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its 
pathological museum. For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he was 
connected with the medical faculty of the university of Penn- 
sylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery in 1870 
and professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the 
following year. From 1865 to 1884 except for a brief interval 
he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania Hospital. During the 
American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower 
Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired considerable 
reputation for his operations in cases of gun-shot wounds. He 
attended as operating surgeon when President Garfield was 
fatally wounded by the bullet of an assassin in 1881. He was 
the author of several works, the most important being The 
Principles and Practice of Surgery (1878-1883). He died at 
Philadelphia on the 22nd of March 1892. 

AGNI, the Hindu God of Fire, second only to Indra in the 
power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology. 
His name is the first word of the first hymn of the Rig-veda: 
" Agni, I entreat, divine appointed priest of sacrifice." The 
sacrifices made to Agni pass to the gods, for Agni is a messenger 
from and to the gods; but, at the same time, he is more than a 
mere messenger, he is an immortal, for another hymn runs: 
" No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of thee, the 
mighty One. ..." He is a god who lives among men, mira- 
culously reborn each day by the fire-drill, by the friction of the 
two sticks which are regarded as his parents; he is the supreme 
director of religious ceremonies and duties,and even has the power 
of influencing the lot of man in the future world. He is wor- 
shipped under a threefold form, fire on earth, lightning and the 
sun. His cult survived the metamorphosis of the ancient Vedic 
nature-worship into modern Hinduism, and there still are in 
India fire-priests (agnihotri) whose duty is to superintend his 
worship. The sacred fire-drill for procuring the temple-fire by 
friction symbolic of Agni's daily miraculous birth is still used. 
In pictorial art Agni is always represented as red, two-faced, 
suggesting his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with 
three legs and seven arms. 

See W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology (London, 1900); A. A. 
Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897). 

AGNOETAE (Gr. b-yvoiu, to be ignorant of), a monophysite 
sect who maintained that Christ's human nature was like other 
men's in all respects, including limited knowledge. Its founder 
was Themistius, a deacon in Alexandria in the 6th century. 
The sect was anathematized by Gregory the Great. 

AGNOIOLOGY (from Gr. K-fvoia., ignorance), the science or 
study of ignorance, which determines its quality and conditions. 

AGNOSTICISM. The term " agnostic " was invented by 
Huxley in 1869 to describe the philosophical and religious 
attitude of those who hold that we can have scientific or real 



AGNOSTICISM 



379 



knowledge of phenomena only, and that so far as what may lie 
behind phenomena is concerned God, immortality, &c. there 
is no evidence which entitles us either to deny or affirm anything. 
The attitude itself is as old as Scepticism (q.v.) ; but the expres- 
sions " agnostic " and " agnosticism " were applied by Huxley 
to sum up his deductions from those contemporary developments 
of metaphysics with which the names of Hamilton (" the Un- 
conditioned ") and Herbert Spencer (" the Unknowable ") were 
associated; and it is important, therefore, to fix precisely his 
own intellectual standpoint in the matter. Though Huxley only 
began to use the term " agnostic " in 1869, his opinions had taken 
shape some time before that date. In a letter to Charles 
Kingsley (September 23, 1860) he wrote very fully concerning 
his beliefs: 

" I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I see no reason 
for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disprov- 
ing it. I have no a priori objections to the doctrine. No man who 
has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about 
a priori difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in 
believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not? 
It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the inde- 
structibility of matter. . . . 

" It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know 
what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and 
I will not rest my life and my hopes upon' weaker convictions. . . . 

" That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But 
the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties. 
I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego, 
noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know 
that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human in- 
tellect flounders at once out of its depth." 

And again, to the same correspondent, the 5th of May 1863: 
" I have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons 
against orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest 
possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school. Neverthe- 
less I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the Christian 
would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and 
infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great 
unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us 
in the relation of a Father loves us and cares for us as Christianity 
asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, im- 
mortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what 
possible objection can I who am compelled perforce to believe in the 
immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very un- 
mistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds 
have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am 
ready to jump at them." 

Of the origin of the name " agnostic " to cover this attitude, 
Huxley gave (Coll. Ess. v. pp. 237-239) the following account: 

" When I reached intellectual maturity, and began to ask myself 
whether I was an atheist, a theist or a pantheist, a materialist or an 
idealist, a Christian or a freethinker, I found that the more I learned 
and reflected, the less ready was the answer. The one thing on which 
most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which 
I differed from them. They were quite sure they had attained a 
certain ' gnosis ' had more or less successfully solved the problem 
of existence; while I was quite sure that I had not, and had a pretty 
strong conviction that the problem was insoluble. This was my 
situation when I had the good fortune to find a place among the 
members of that remarkable confraternity of antagonists, the Meta- 
physical Society. Every variety of philosophical and theological 
opinion was represented there; most of my colleagues were -ists of 
one sort or another; and I, the man without a rag of a belief to cover 
himself with, could not fail to have some of the uneasy feelings which 
must have beset the historical fox when, after leaving the trap in 
which his tail remained, he presented himself to his normally elon- 
gated companions. So I took thought, and invented what I conceived 
to be the appropriate title of ' agnostic.' It came into my head 
as suggestively antithetic to the ' gnostic ' of Church history, who 
professed to know so much about the very things of which I was 
ignorant. To my great satisfaction the term took." 

This account is confirmed by R. H. Hutton, who in 1881 wrote 
that the word " was suggested by Huxley at a meeting held 
previous to the formation of the now defunct Metaphysical 
Society at Mr Knowles's house on Clapham Common in 1869, in 
my hearing. He took it from St Paul's mention of the altar to 
the Unknown God." Hutton here gives a variant etymology for 
the word, which may be therefore taken as partly derived from 
a-yi/ajoros (the "unknown" God), and partly from an antithesis 
to " gnostic "; but the meaning remains the same in either case. 
The name, as Huxley said, " took "; it was constantly used by 



Hutton in the Spectator and became a fashionable label for 
contemporary unbelief in Christian dogma. Hutton himself 
frequently misrepresented the doctrine by describing it as " belief 
in an unknown and unknowable God "; but agnosticism as 
defined by Huxley meant not belief, but absence of belief, as much 
distinct from belief on the one hand as from disbelief on the other; 
it was the half-way house between, the two, where all questions 
were " open." All that Huxley asked for was evidence, either 
for or against; but this he believed it impossible to get. Occa- 
sionally he too mis-stated the meaning of the word he had 
invented, and described agnosticism as meaning " that a man 
shall not say he knows or believes what he has no scientific 
ground for professing to know or believe." But as the late Rev. 
A. W. Momerie remarked, this would merely be " a definition 
of honesty; in that sense we ought all to be agnostics." 

Agnosticism really rests on the doctrine of the Unknowable, 
the assertion that concerning certain objects among them the 
Deity we never can have any " scientific " ground for belief. 
This way of solving, or passing over, the ultimate problems of 
thought has had many followers in cultured circles imbued with 
the new physical science of the day, and with disgust for the 
dogmatic creeds of contemporary orthodoxy; and its outspoken 
and even aggressive vindication by physicists of the eminence of 
Huxley had a potent influence upon the attitude taken towards 
metaphysics, and upon the form which subsequent Christian 
apologetics adopted. As a nickname the term " agnostic " was 
soon misused to cover any and every variation of scepticism, and 
just as popular preachers confused it with atheism (q.v.) in their 
denunciations, so the callow freethinker following Tennyson's 
path of " honest doubt " classed himself with the agnostics, 
even while he combined an instinctively Christian theism with a 
facile rejection of the historical evidences for Christianity. 

The term is now less fashionable, though the state of mind 
persists. Huxley's agnosticism was a natural consequence of 
the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the 'sixties, when 
clerical intolerance was trying to excommunicate scientific dis- 
covery because it appeared to clash with the book of Genesis. 
But as the theory of evolution was accepted, a new spirit was 
gradually introduced into Christian theology, which has turned 
the controversies between religion and science into other channels 
and removed the temptation to flaunt a disagreement. A 
similar effect has been produced by the philosophical reaction 
against Herbert Spencer, and by the perception that the canons 
of evidence required in physical science must not be exalted into 
universal rules of thought. It does not follow that justification 
by faith must be eliminated in spiritual matters where sight 
cannot follow, because the physicist's duty and success lie in 
pinning belief solely on verification by physical phenomena, when 
they alone are in question; and for mankind generally, though 
possibly not for an exceptional man like Huxley, an impotent 
suspension of judgment on such issues as a future life or the Being 
of God is both unsatisfying and demoralizing. 

It is impossible here to do more than indicate the path out of 
the difficulties raised by Huxley in the letter to Kingsley quoted 
above. They involve an elaborate discussion, not only of 
Christian evidences, but of the entire subject-matter alike of 
Ethics and Metaphysics, of Philosophy as a whole, and of the 
philosophies of individual writers who have dealt in their different 
ways with the problems of existence and epistemology. It is, 
however, permissible to point out that, as has been exhaustively 
argued by Professor J. Ward in his Gifford lectures for 1896-1898 
(Naturalism and Agnosticism, 1899), Huxley's challenge ("I 
know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse 
squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker 
convictions ") is one which a spiritualistic philosophy need not 
shrink from accepting at the hands of naturalistic agnosticism. 
If, as Huxley admits, even putting it with unnecessary force 
against himself," the immortality of man is not half so wonderful 
as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter," 
the question then is, how far a critical analysis of our belief in 
the last-named doctrines will leave us in a position to regard 
them as the last stage in systematic thinking. It is the pitfall 



3 8o 



AGNUS DEI AGORA 



of physical science, immersed as its students are apt to be in 
problems dealing with tangible facts in the world of experience, 
that there is a tendency among them to claim a superior status 
of objective reality and finality for the laws to which their data 
are found to conform. But these generalizations are not ultimate 
truths, when we have to consider the nature of experience itself. 
" Because reference to the Deity will not serve for a physical 
explanation in physics, or a chemical explanation in chemistry, 
it does not therefore follow," as Professor Ward says (op. cit. 
vol. i. p. 24), " that the sum total of scientific knowledge is 
equally intelligible whether we accept the theistic hypothesis 
or not. It is true that every item of scientific knowledge is con- 
cerned with some definite relation of definite phenomena, and 
with nothing else; but, for all that, the systematic organization 
of such items may quite well yield further knowledge, which 
transcends the special relations of definite phenomena." 

At the opening of the era of modern scientific discovery, with 
all its fruitful new generalizations, the still more highly generalized 
laws of epistemology and of the spiritual constitutionof man might 
well baffle the physicist and lead his intellect to " flounder." 
It is fundamentally necessary, in order to avoid such floundering, 
that the " knowledge " of things sensible should be kept distinct 
from the " knowledge " of things spiritual; yet in practice they 
are constantly confused. When the physicist limits the term 
" knowledge " to the conclusions from physical apprehensions, 
his refusal to extend it to conclusions from moral and spiritual 
apprehensions is merely the consequence of an illegitimate 
definition. He relies on the validity of his perceptions of physical 
facts; but the saint and the theologian are no less entitled to 
rely on the validity of their moral and spiritual experiences. In 
each case the data rest on an ultimate basis, undemonstrable, 
indeed, to any one who denies them (even if he be called mad for 
doing so), except by the continuous process of working out their 
own proofs, and showing their consistency with, or necessity in, 
the scheme of things terrestrial on the one hand, or the mind 
and happiness of man on the other. The tests in each case differ ; 
and it is as irrelevant for the theologian to dispute the " know- 
ledge " of the physicist, by arguments from faith and religion, 
as it is for the physicist to deny the " knowledge " of the theo- 
logian from the point of view of one who ignores the possibility 
of spiritual apprehension altogether. On the ground of secular 
history and secular evidence both might reasonably meet, as 
regards the facts, though not perhaps as to their interpretation; 
but the reason why they ultimately differ is to be found simply 
in the difference of their mental attitude towards the nature of 
" knowledge " itself a difference of opinion as to the nature 
of man. 

In addition to the literature cited above, see L. Stephen, An 
Agnostic's Apology (1893); K, Flint, Agnosticism (1903); T. Bailey 
" Quest of Faittt~cKap^ii. (1899); A. W.'Behn, English 



Saunders, The Quesi , r --, . 

Rationalism in the XlXth Century (London, 1906). 



(H. CH.) 



AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, symbolical 
of the Saviour as the " Lamb of God." The device is common 
in ecclesiastical art, but the name is especially given in the 
Church of Rome to a small cake made of the wax of the Easter 
candles and impressed with this figure. Since the 9th century 
it has been customary for the popes to bless these cakes, and 
distribute them on the Sunday after Easter among the faithful, 
by whom they are highly prized as having the power to avert 
evil. In modern times the distribution has been limited to 
persons of distinction, and is made by the pope on his accession 
and every seven years thereafter. 

Agnus Dei is also the popular name for the anthem beginning 
with these words, which is said to have been introduced into 
the missal by Pope Sergius I. (687-701). Based upon John i. 29, 
the Latin form is Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere 
nobis. In the celebration of the mass it is repeated three times 
before the communion, and it is also appended to many of the 
litanies. By the judgment in the case of " Read and others v. 
The Bishop of Lincoln " it was decided in 1890 that the singing 
of the Agnus Dei in English by the choir during the administra- 
tion of the Holy Communion, provided that the reception of 



the elements be not delayed till its conclusion, is not illegal in 
the Church of England. 

For the various ceremonies in the blessing of the Agnus Dei see 
A. Vacant, Diet, de theologie (cols. 605-613). 

AGOBARD (c. 770-840), Carolingian prelate and reformer, 
became coadjutor to Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and 
on the death of the latter succeeded him in the see (816). We 
know nothing of his early life nor of his descent. He pursued 
the same vigorous policy as his predecessor, who had been one 
of Charlemagne's most active agents in the reformation of the 
Church. He was strongly opposed to the schemes of the empress 
Judith for a redivision of the empire in favour of her son Charles 
the Bald, which he regarded as the cause of all the subsequent 
evils, and supported Lothair and Pippin against their father the 
emperor Louis I. Deposed in 835 by the council of Thionville, 
he made his peace with the emperor and was reinstated in 837. 
Agobard occupies an important place in the Carolingian re- 
naissance. He wrote extensively not only theological works 
but also political pamphlets and dissertations directed against 
popular superstitions. These last works are unique in the 
literature of the time. He denounced the trial by ordeal of fire 
and water, the belief in witchcraft, and the ascription of tempests 
to magic.maintainedthe Carolingian opposition to image-worship, 
but carried his logic farther and opposed the adoration of the 
saints. The basis for this crusade was theological, not scientific; 
but it reveals a clear intellect and independent judgment. In 
his purely theological works Agobard was strictly orthodox, 
except that he denied the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures. 
Agobard was reverenced as a saint in Lyons, and although his 
canonization is disputed his life is given by the Bollandists, 
Acta Sanctorum, Jun. ii. 748. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Agobard s works were lost until 1605, when a 
manuscript was discovered in Lyons and published by Papirius 
Masson, again by Baluze in 1666. For later editions see Potthast, 
Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi. The life of Agobard in Ebert's 
Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters (1880), Band ii., is still one 
of the best to consult. For further indications see A. Molinier, 
Sources de I'histoire de France, i. p. 235. 

AGONALIA, in ancient Rome, festivals celebrated on the 
9th of January, 1 7 th of March, 2 1 st of May, and 1 1 th of December 
in each year in honour of various divinities (Ovid, Fasti, i. 
319-332). The word is derived either from agonia, " a victim," 
or from agonium, " a festival." 

AGONIC LINES (from Gr. a-, privative, and ydivia, an angle), 
the term given to the imaginary lines on the earth's surface 
connecting points at which the magnetic needle points to the 
geographical north and south. (See MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL.) 

AGONOTHETES, in ancient Greece, the president or super- 
intendent of the sacred games. At first the person who instituted 
the games and defrayed the expenses was the Agonothetes; but 
in the great public games, such as the Olympic and Pythian, 
these presidents were the representatives of different states, or 
were chosen from the people in whose country the games were 
celebrated; thus at the Panathenaic festival at Athens ten 
athlothetae were elected for four years to superintend the various 
contests. They were variously called aiavnvrJTa.1, |3pa/3eurai, 
A-ycoi/apxai, ayuvobiKai, d0Xo0T<u (at Athens), pa^8ov\ot. or 
frapSovo/jLoi (from the rod or sceptre emblematic of their 
authority), but their functions were generally the same. 

AGORA, originally, in primitive times, the assembly of the 
Greek people, convoked by the king or one of his nobles. The 
right of speech and vote was restricted to the nobles, the people 
being permitted to express their opinion only by signs of applause 
or disapproval. The word then came to be used for the place 
where assemblies were held, and thus from its convenience as 
a meeting-place the agora became in most of the cities of Greece 
the general resort for public and especially commercial inter- 
course, corresponding in general with the Roman forum. At 
Athens, with the increase of commerce and political interest, it 
was found advisable to call public meetings at the Pnyx or the 
temple of Dionysus; but the important assemblies, such as 
meetings for ostracism, were held in the agora. In the best days 
of Greece the agora was the place where nearly all public traffic 



AGORACRITUS AGRA 



was conducted. It was most frequented in the forenoon, and then 
only by men. Slaves did the greater part of the purchasing, 
though even the noblest citizens of Athens did not scruple to 
buy and sell there. Citizens were allowed a free market; 
foreigners and metics had to pay a toll. Public festivals also 
were celebrated in the open area of the agora. At Athens the 
agora of classical times was adorned with trees planted by Cimon; 
around it numerous public buildings were erected, such as the 
council chamber and the law courts (for its topography, see 
ATHENS). Pausanias (especially vi. 24) is the great architectural 
authority on the agorae of various Greek cities, and details are 
also given by Vitruvius (v. i). 

AGORACRITUS, a Parian and Athenian sculptor of the age 
of Phidias, and said to have been his favourite pupil. His most 
noted work was the statue at Rhamnus of Nemesis, by some 
attributed to Phidias himself. Of this statue part of the head 
is in the British Museum; some fragments of the reliefs which 
adorned the pedestal are in the museum at Athens. 

AGORANOMI, magistrates in the republics of Greece, whose 
position and duties were in many respects similar to those of the 
aediles of Rome. In Athens there were ten, chosen annually by 
lot, five of whom took charge of the city and five of the Peiraeus. 
They maintained order in the markets, settled disputes, examined 
the quality of the articles exposed for sale, tested weights and 
measures, collected the harbour dues and enforced the shipping 
regulations. 

AGORDAT, a town of Eritrea, N.E. Africa, on the route 
between Massawa and Kassala. At Agojrdat on the 2ist of 
December 1893 the Italian troops under Colonel Arimondi 
inflicted a severe defeat on the followers of the khalifa. Agordat 
is protected by a strong fort. (See ERITREA and SUDAN, History.) 

AGOSTINI, LEONARDO, Italian antiquary of the i?th cen- 
tury, was born at Siena. After being employed for some time 
to collect works of art for the Barberini palace, he was appointed 
by Pope Alexander VII. superintendent of antiquities in the 
Roman states. He issued a new edition of Paruta's Sicilian 
Medals, with engravings of 400 additional specimens; and in 
conjunction with Giovanni Bellori (1615-1696) he also published 
a work on antique sculptured gems, which was translated into 
Latin by Jakob Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1685). 

AGOSTINO, or AGOSTINI [AUGUSTINUS], PAOLO (1593-1629), 
Italian musician, was born at Valerano, and studied under 
G. B. Nanini, as we learn from the dedication in the third and 
fourth books of his masses, subsequently becoming the son-in- 
law of his master. He succeeded Ugolini as conductor of the 
pope's orchestra in St. Peter's. His musical compositions are 
numerous and of great merit, an Agnus Dei for eight voices being 
specially admired. 

AGOSTINO and AGNOLO (or ANGELO) DA SIENA, Italian 
architects and sculptors in' the first half of the I4th century. 
Delia Valle and other commentators deny that they were 
brothers. They certainly studied together under Giovanni 
Pisano, and in 1317 were jointly appointed architects of their 
native town, for which they designed the Porto Romana, the 
church and convent of St Francis, and other buildings. On the 
recommendation of the celebrated Giotto, who styled them the 
best sculptors of the time, they executed in 1330 the tomb of 
Bishop Guido Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo, which Giotto 
had designed. It was esteemed one of the finest artistic works 
of the i4th century, but unfortunately was destroyed by the 
French under the duke of Anjou. 

AGOULT, MARIE CATHERINE SOPHIE DE FLAVIGNY, 
COMTESSE o'(i8o5-i876) , French author, whose nont de plume was 
" Daniel Stern," was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 3ist of 
December 1805. Her father was a French officer who had served 
in the army of the emigrant princes, and her mother was the 
daughter of a Frankfort banker. She was married in 1827 to the 
comte Charles d'Agoult. In Paris she gathered round her a 
brilliant society which included Alfred de Vigny, Sainte-Beuve, 
Ingres, Chopin, Meyerbeer, Heine and others. She was separated 
from her husband, and became the mistress of Franz Liszt. 
During her frequent travels in Switzerland, France and Italy she 



made the acquaintance of George Sand, and figures in the Leltres 
d'un voyageur as " Arabella." By Liszt she had three children 
a son who died young; Blandine, who married M. fimile OUivier; 
and Cosima, who married first Hans von Billow and later Richard 
Wagner. The story of her breach with Liszt is told under a very 
slightjdisguise in her novel Nelida (1845). On her return to Paris 
in 1841 she began to write art criticisms for the Presse, and in 
1844 she contributed to the Revue des deux Mond.es articles on 
Bettina von Arnim and on Heinrich Heine, but her views were not 
acceptable to the editor, and Daniel Stern withdrew to become a 
contributor to the Revue independante. Mme. d'Agoult was an 
ardent apostle of the ideas of '48, and from this date her salon, 
which had been literary and artistic, took on a more political 
tone; revolutionists of various nationalities were welcomed by 
her, and she had an especial friendship and sympathy for Daniele 
Manin. In 1857 she produced a national drama, Jeanne Dare, 
which was translated into Italian and presented with brilliant 
success at Turin. The most important section of Daniel Stern's 
work is her political and historical essays: Lettres republicaines 
(1848), Esquisses morales et politiques (1849), Histoire de la Re- 
volution de 1848 (3 vols., 1850-1853), Histoire des commencements 
de la Republique aux Pays-Bas (1872). Mme. d'Agoult died in 
Paris on the 5th of March 1876. Her daughter Claire Christine 
(b. 1830), who married Guy de Charnace, is known as a writer. 

See Mme. d'Agoult, Mes Souvenirs (1806-1833), 1877; A. Cuvillier 
Fleury, Portraits revolutionnaires , vol. i. (1889); J. Mazzini, Leltres 
de Joseph Mazzini a Daniel Stern (1872); A. Pommier, Madame la 
comtesse d'Agoult (Daniel Stern), 1876; A. Ungherini, " Daniel Stern" 
in the Revista repubUicana (1880, No. 9) ; S. Rocheblave, Une Amitie 
romanesque, George Sand et Madame d'Agoult (1895). 

AGOUTI, or AGUTI, the West Indian name of Dasyprocta aguti, 
a terrestrial rodent of the size of a rabbit, common to Trinidad 
and Guiana, and classed in the family Caviidae. Under the same 
term may be included the other species of Dasyprocta, of which 
there are about half a score in tropical America. Agoutis are 
slender-limbed rodents, with five front and three hind toes (the 
first front toe very minute), and very short tails. The hair, 
especially on the hind-quarters, is coarse and somewhat rough; 
the colour being generally rufous brown. The molar teeth have 
cylindrical crowns, with several islands and a single lateral fold of 
enamel when worn. In habits agoutis are nocturnal, dwelling in 
forests, where they conceal themselves during the day in hollow 
tree-trunks, or in burrows among roots. Active and graceful in 
their movements, their pace is either a kind of trot or a series of 
springs following one another so rapidly as to look like a gallop. 
They take readily to water, in which they swim well. Their food 
comprises leaves, roots, nuts and other fruits. They do much 
harm to plantations of sugar-cane and bananas. In captivity the 
females produce only one or two young at a birth. 

AGRA, an ancient city of India, which gives its name to a 
district and division in the United Provinces. It is famous for 
containing the most perfect specimens of Mogul architecture. 
Agra, like Delhi, owes much of its importance in both historical 
and modem times to the commercial and strategical advantages 
of its position. The river Jumna, which washes the walls of 
its fort, was the natural highway for the traffic of the rich delta 
of Bengal to the heart of India, and it formed, moreover, from 
very ancient times, the frontier defence of the Aryan stock settled 
in the plain between the Ganges and the Jumna against their 
western neighbours, hereditary freebooters who occupied the 
highlands of Central India. No place was better fitted for both an 
emporium and a frontier fortress. The river formed an unfordable 
barrier and also a useful means of communication. Jehangir tells 
us in his autobiography that before his father Akbar built the 
present fort, the town was defended by a citadel of great antiquity. 
For three hundred years the Afghans and other tribes came down 
from the north and founded kingdoms; and their power radiated 
from Delhi and Agra. It was Sikandar, of the house of Lodi 
(A.D. 1500), the last of the Afghan dynasties, who realized the 
strategic importance of Agra as a point for keeping in check his 
rebellious vassals to the south. He removed his court there, and 
Agra from being " a mere village of old standing," says a Persian 
chronicler, became the capital of a kingdom. In 1 526 the city was 



3 82 



AGRA CANAL AGRAPHA 



captured by the emperor Baber, the famous Koh-i-noor diamond 
being part of the loot; and it was here that Baber announced 
that his invasion was to be a permanent conquest, acd not a mere 
temporary inroad. It was Baber's grandson Akbar that built the 
present fort, whose strong and lofty walls of red sandstone are a 
mile and a.half in circumference. The building was completed in 
1665, when Charles II. was on the throne of England and the 
plague was devastating London. Another building of much the 
same date is the red stone palace generally attributed to Akbar, 
but probably of an earlier time, which is the finest example of 
pure Hindu architecture; while the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, 
is an equally perfect example of the Mahommedan style. 

But the glory of Agra, the most splendidly poetic building in 
the world, is the Taj Mahal, the mausoleum built (A.D. 1632) by 
the emperor Shah Jahan for the remains of his 
Mahal. favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in which he himself also 
lies buried. The building is built of white marble 
throughout, crowned with a great white dome in the centre, and 
with a smaller dome at each of its four corners. From the marble 
terrace which surrounds it rise four tall minarets of the same 
material, one at each corner. The Taj has been modelled and 
painted more frequently than any other building in the world, and 
the word pictures of it are numberless. But it can only be 
described as a dream in marble. It amply justifies the saying 
that the Moguls designed like Titans and finished like jewellers. 
In regard to colour and design the Taj ranks first in the world for 
purely decorative workmanship; while the perfect symmetry of 
its exterior once seen can never be forgotten, nor the aerial grace 
of its domes, rising like marble bubbles into the azure sky. In his 
History of Architecture, Fergusson says of it: 

" This building is an early example of that system of inlaying with 
precious stones which became the great characteristic of the style 
of the Moghals after the death of Akbar. All the spandrils of the 
Taj, all the angles and more important architectural details, are 
heightened by being inlaid with precious stones such as agates, 
bloodstones, jaspers and the like. These are combined in wreaths, 
scrolls and frets, as exquisite in design as they are beautiful in colour, 
and relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid, they 
form the most beautiful and precious style of ornament ever adopted 
in architecture. It is lavishly bestowed on the tombs themselves 
and the screens which surround them, but more sparingly introduced 
on the mosque that forms one wing of the Taj, and on the fountains 
and surrounding buildings. The judgment, indeed, with which this 
style of ornament is apportioned to the various parts, is almost as 
remarkable as the ornament itself, and conveys a high idea of the 
taste and skill of the architects of this age." 

Of the Taj as a whole Lord Roberts says in his Forty-one 
Years in India: 

" Neither words nor pencil could give to the most imaginative 
reader the slightest idea of the all-satisfying beauty and purity of 
this glorious conception. To those who have not already seen it I 
would say, ' Go to India. The Taj alone is well worth the journey.' " 

The Taj was designed by Us tad Isa, variously described as a 
Byzantine Turk and a native of Shiraz in Persia. The pietra 
dura work belongs to the Persian school; and the common 
belief that it was designed by Austin de Bordeaux, a French 
architect in the service of Shah Jahan, is probably incorrect. 

Agra was formerly the capital of the North- West Provinces, but 
after the Mutiny the seat of government was removed to Alla- 
habad. Situated 841 m. from Calcutta it is now an important 
railway centre, whence two main lines diverge southwards 
towards Bombay. In 1901 the population was 188,022, showing 
an increase of 1 2 % during the decade. The city contains cotton 
mills, factories for ginning and pressing cotton, a tannery and 
boot factory and flour mill. There are also two missionary 
colleges. 

The DISTRICT or AGRA has an area of 1856 sq. m. Its 
general appearance is that common to the Doab, a level plain 
intersected by watercourses and ravines. Its general elevation 
is estimated at from 650 to 700 ft. above the level of the sea. The 
district is intersected by the Jumna, and is also watered by the 
Agra canal. The principal crops are millets, pulses, barley, 
wheat, cotton and a little indigo. The population in 1901 was 
1,060,528, showing an increase of 6 % during the decade. 

The DIVISION OF AGRA has an area of 10,154 s q- m - In 



1901 the population was 5,249,542, showing an increase of 10% 
during the decade, attributed to the extension of irrigation from 
canals. It comprises the six districts of Muttra, Agra, Farukh- 
abad, Mainpuri, Etawah and Etah. 

For an account of the architecture of Agra see Fergusson's History 
of Architecture; Cities of India (1903), by G. W. Forrest; Enchanted 
India (1899), by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevitch ; and E. B. Havell, 
Handbook to Agra and the Taj (1904). (C. L.) 

AGRA CANAL, an important Indian irrigation work, available 
also for navigation, in Delhi, Gurgaon, Muttra and Agra districts, 
and Bharatpur state. The canal receives its water from the 
Jumna river at Okla, about 10 m. below Delhi. The weir across 
the Jumna was the first attempted in Upper India upon a founda- 
tion of fine sand; it is about 800 yds. long, and rises 7 ft. above 
the summer level of the river. From Okla the canal follows the 
high land between the Khari-nadi and the Jumna, and finally 
joins the Banganga river about 20 m. below Agra. Navigable 
branches connect the canal with Muttra and Agra. It was 
opened in 1874. 

A6RAM (Hungarian Zagrdb, Croatian Zagreb), the capital of 
Croatia-Slavonia, and a royal free town of Hungary; pleas- 
antly situated between the north bank of the Save and the 
mountains which culminate in Sljeme (3396 ft.); 187 m. by 
rail S. of Vienna. Pop. (1890) 38,742; (1900) 57,930, or with 
garrison 61,002. Agram is the seat of the ban, or viceroy, of 
Croatia-Slavonia, of the Banal and Septemviral courts, the 
highest in the land, and of a chamber of commerce. It is also 
the meeting-place of the parliament; but local affairs are con- 
ducted by a municipal council. The city is divided into three 
districts. The Kapitel-Stadt, sometimes called the Bishop's 
Town, with the palace of the Roman Catholic archbishop, and his 
late Gothic cathedral, dating from the isth century, lies eastward 
of the Medvesfiak, a brook which flows into the Save. The Upper 
Town, on high ground west of the Medvescak, contains the 
palace of the ban and the natural history museum. On the 
south, the Lower Town is separated from the other districts by 
the Ilica, a long street traversed by a cable tramway. In it are 
the business and industrial quarters; the palace of justice; the 
academy of science, with picture-galleries, a library and a 
collection of antiquities; the theatre; the Franz Josef Univer- 
sity, founded in 1874 to teach theology, law and philosophy; 
the synagogue; and the only Protestant church existing in 
the country at the beginning of the 2oth century. Roman 
Catholic churches and schools are numerous. Besides the large 
Maximir park and botanical gardens, many of the squares are 
planted with trees and adorned with statues; while the whole 
city is surrounded by vineyards and country houses. Tobacco, 
leather, linen, carpets and war-material are manufactured in 
Agram, which also contains the works of the Hungarian state 
railways, and has a brisk trade in grain, wine, potash, honey, 
silk and porcelain. 

In 1094 Agram was founded by Ladislaus I. of Hungary, as 
the seat of a bishop; and on the expulsion of its Mongol colony, 
in 1242, it was raised to the rank of a royal free city. For cen- 
turies a bitter feud raged between the Kapitel-Stadt and the 
Upper Town, until these rivals were forced to join hands against 
the Turks. Agram, already the political centre of Croatia- 
Slavonia, was selected as the capital in 1867. It suffered severely 
from earthquake in 1880 and 1901. 

AGRAPHA (i.e. "unwritten"), the name given to certain 
utterances ascribed, with some degree of certainty, to Jesus, 
which have been preserved in documents other than the Gospels, 
e.g. Acts xx. 35; i Tim. v. 18; i Cor. vii. 10-12, and the Logia 
(q.v.) discovered in 1897 and 1903 at Oxyrhyncus. Two inter- 
esting examples of such sayings may be quoted: (i) " That 
which is weak shall be saved by that which is strong "; (2) 
" Jesus, on whom be peace, has said: 'The world is merely a 
bridge; ye are to pass over it, and not to build your dwellings 
upon it.' " The first of these is from the Apostolic Canons 
(c. A.D. 300), the second was found by the missionary Alexander 
Duff inscribed in Arabic on the gateway of the mosque at Fateh- 
pur Sikri. 



AGRARIAN LAWS 



383 




The earliest modern collection of such sayings was by Cotelerius, 
Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta. (1677-1688), followed by J. E. Grabe, 
Spicelegium (1698 and 1700), and J. B. Fabricius, Codex Apocryph. 
N. T. (2nd ed., 1719). See also A. Resch, Agrapha (Leipzig, 1889) ; 
J. H. Ropes, Die Spriiche Jesu (Leipzig, 1896); and the article 
" Sayings " in J. Hastings' Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. 

AGRARIAN LAWS (Lat. ager, land). Under this heading 
we deal with the disposal of the public land (ager publicus) of 
ancient Rome. It was a principle of the Republican constitution 
that no gratuitous disposition of state property should be made 
without the consent of the people. Hence many of the ordinances 
affecting the public land were laws (leges) in the strictest sense of 
that word It is, however, both justifiable and convenient to 
consider in this article all the regulations that were made for the 
administration of the public land by the executive authorities, 
as well as by the people during the Republic, and by the com- 
mands of the emperor, which had the force of law during the 
Principate. 

The existence of public land, first in Italy, and then in the 
Mediterranean world, was the outcome of two ideas which are 
very familiar to students of antiquity. This land was the prize 
of conquest and was one of the means of defraying the current 
expenses of state-administration. For the latter purpose land 
is often leased or allowed to be occupied on the condition of the 
payment of dues. But it may be made to fufil another purpose 
as well this purpose being the satisfaction of the individual 
needs of poorer citizens. To meet this object the land is usually 
assigned, and on assignment generally ceases to be the property 
of the state. But it often happens that the state is not wholly 
disinterested in undertaking such acts of assignment. It gains 
security and territorial control by planting garrisons in conquered 
country, and it relieves itself of the necessity of providing for 
its poorer classes whether by state-aid or by a hazardous tamper- 
ing with the rights of private property. In this use to which 
public land could be turned we see at once the connexion 
between agrarian legislation and colonization a connexion 
which was so close that when a Roman spoke of an agrarian law 
he seems generally to have understood by it a law establishing 
a colony and also the two aspects of colonization, the military 
and the social. These two objects were indissolubly connected 
roughout the whole of the earlier period of Roman agrarian 
ignation. They only became separated in the period subse- 
uent to the Gracchi in so far as social motives still continued 
be operative when military precautions had ceased to be 
ecessary. It is probable that one of the chief motives which 
prompted infant Rome to war with her neighbours was the 
land-hunger of her citizens. This hunger she satisfied after 
inquest by annexing a portion of the enemy's territory. The 
mount thus confiscated varied from time to time. It was 
iually a third, but sometimes a half or even two-thirds, and 
fter the fall of Capua in the Second Punic War the whole terri- 
ry of the state was annexed. It is possible that by the close 
f the 2nd century B.C. one-half of the land of Italy belonged 
Rome whether in private ownership or as the property of the 
,tate. Annexation was carried on in the provinces on a relatively 
aller scale; but Rome retained as domain-land much of the 
irritory of communities which had been destroyed, such as 
'arthage and Corinth, and the estates of former kings, such as 
e lands of the Attalids in the Chersonese. Other domains in 
icily and Greece, such as the territory of Leontini in the former, 
>r Oropus in the latter case, are also found. This peculiar prop- 
'ty of the Roman state in the provinces must be carefully 
istinguished from the general overlordship which Rome was 
lUpposed to hold over all provincial soil, expressed in the state- 
ment that provincials had only possession or usufruct of their 
land (Gaius ii. 7; Gromatici, p. 36, Lachmann). This overlord- 
ihip was probably merely a legal fiction by which the juristic 
ind assigned a reason for the fact that the provincials paid a 
nd tax from which Italians were exempt. 
Such portions of the territories of conquered cities as were 
not claimed by Rome were as a matter of course left in the un- 
disturbed possession of these cities. If the city was a federate 
itate (civitas foederata) , his possession was guaranteed by a treaty; 



if it was a free city, the guarantee was made by charter; if it 
was neither federate nor free, the abandonment of the territory 
by Rome must have been taken as a sufficient guarantee of the 
city's right to possess, although statements relative to the sur- 
render may have been contained in the charter of the province 
(lex provinciae) to which the city belonged. But, whether the 
states were federate, free or stipendiary, there was only one case 
in which it was important to specify precisely that land had 
been restored (redditus) to its former occupants. This was the 
case where Rome had marked out a territory for assignment to 
her own citizens, but where in or near the limits of the assignment 
some of the land had been left in the hands of its former pro- 
prietors. Such land was noted in the state registers as redditus 
iseteri possessori. Sometimes it was found that such an ancient 
possessor owned pieces of land separated from one another. In 
such cases an exchange might be effected between him and some 
other possessor, so that his possessions might be continuous. 
The fac.t of such an exchange was symbolized in the registers 
by the entry of land redditus et commutatus pro suo. 

When the claims of earlier owners had been satisfied, the 
state proceeded to deal with such land as it retained. It dealt 
with it in two ways. It either alienated it, whether in exchange 
for a price or gratuitously; or it kept it as a source of revenue, 
whether on a system of lease or on some system of remunerative 
occupation. We may first consider the cases in which the state 
decided to alienate. The land might be sold for the benefit of 
the treasury. Typical instances of this treatment are furnished 
by the sale of some Campanian land during the Second Punic War 
(Livy xxviii. 46, xxxii. 7). The censors may have directed the 
sale, but it was executed by the quaestors as the regular officials 
of the treasury. Hence such land was described as ager quaes- 
torius. The land was sold in definitely marked out plots, and 
we must suppose that, as a rule, when this sale had been effected, 
the lots fell under the absolute ownership of their purchasers. 
Yet there was some period of Roman history when this ownership 
was (at least in certain cases) conditioned. The Roman writers 
on agriculture speak of conditions and their neglect (Gromatici, 
p. 115). The conditions were probably those of military service 
or frontier defence. The epoch of history at which this con- 
ditioned ownership was recognized cannot be determined. It 
is a form of tenure that would be equally appropriate to the 
needs of the earliest period of Roman history and to those of 
imperial times. 

The second mode of alienation was that by assignation. Lands 
thus assigned were known as agri dati assignati. The gift on 
the part of the state was gratuitous, and ownership passed wholly 
to the assignee. The land so given was definitely surveyed, 
marked out and registered. Such an assignment might take 
one of two possible forms. It might be the means of establishing 
a new " plantation " (colonia), with some independent political 
organization of its own, however slight a settlement, therefore, 
which could be thought of as an entity separate from the city 
of Rome and from any other municipality. Or it might be the 
means of providing allotments for individuals who remained 
domiciled at Rome or continued to be members of some already 
existing municipality. It has been frequently held in modern 
times that this latter method of assignment is the one which 
our ancient authorities describe as assignment to individuals 
(mritim), and that the antithesis lies between the " colonial " 
and the " viritane " method of distribution. It is true that the 
passages which speak of the latter mode of assignation need not, 
and perhaps cannot, be interpreted as presenting the antithesis 
(Varro, de Re Rustica, i. 2. 7, i. 10. 2; Livy iv. 48, v. 24; 
Festus, p. 373; Gromatici, pp. 154, 160); yet it is not improb- 
able that the antithesis is latent in this specific use of the term. 
It seems clear that the idea of assignation to, and, therefore, 
of ownership by, individuals must originally have been developed 
in contrast to the idea of ownership by some larger group (see 
ROMAN LAW). When the stage of individual ownership was 
reached, all assignation was " viritane," but only some assigna- 
tion was " colonial." " Viritane " was, therefore, the wider 
term which would cover, and may sometimes have been used 



384 



AGRARIAN LAWS 



specially to denote, the system of non-colonial assignment. The 
amount granted to individuals in assignments of both types 
varied from time to time. It was reckoned in terms of the 
jugerum, which was approximately f of an English acre. The 
earliest and smallest assignment was 2 jugera an amount so 
small that it seems to presuppose on the part of the recipient 
some share in common or gentile property or some additional 
private property of his own. Other quotas were 3,31^, 7, 10+14 
jugera. The last was the maximum amount granted before the 
time of Ti. Gracchus (133 B.C.), and it was held by representatives 
of the old school that 7 jugera were as much as any frugal Roman 
should want (Pliny, Historia Naturalis, xviii. 18). The division 
was carried out by commissions of 3, 5 or 10 men appointed by 
the people (Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii. 7. 17). The land which 
the state retained as ager pwblicus was always placed in the hands 
of individuals, who occupied it in some manner remunerative 
to the state. These individuals (possessores) were never regarded 
as owners of the land thus occupied. It remained the property 
of the state, was held without a contract (precario) and could 
be resumed by the state at will. But though the possessors 
had no claim against the state, their ownership could be defended 
against all other individual claimants; and it seems probable 
that from an early date the praetor's possessory interdict was 
used to protect all occupiers, provided their tenure had been 
acquired neither by force (vi) nor by seizureof land in its occupiers' 
absence (clam), nor by mere permission of the previous holder 
to occupy (precario alter ab altero). Moreover, Appian says that 
possessors of this type could transfer their land by inheritance, 
and that the land was accepted as security by creditors. This 
kind of occupation, therefore, though clearly distinguished from 
ownership (dominium), was yet regarded as a perfectly secure 
form of tenure. All occupiers of public land paid dues to the 
state through a state contractor (publicanus) . These dues 
varied in amount, and in the method of their collection. We 
learn from Appian that the ordinary dues paid by occupiers of 
arable land in Italy were -fa of seed crops and of plant produce. 
Owners who turned cattle or sheep on pasture land belonging 
to the state also paid fixed dues to the treasury. The occupiers 
of the Roman public land in Campania paid a large rent (Cic. 
de leg. Agr. i. 7. 21). Appian's account of the public land (Bell. 
Civ. i. 7) would lead us to suppose that the amount of tax paid 
by the occupier, and the method adopted by the state for the 
collection of the revenues, depended upon the nature of the land 
at the time when it first passed to a possessor. He says that 
some of the public land which was in a good state of cultivation 
was let on lease; but that with regard to the poorer devastated 
land proclamation was made that anyone might squat on it 
and till it in return for the small payment in kind mentioned 
above. It has been questioned whether the land 'described by 
Appian and by Cicero as let on lease, of which the Campanian 
land and some lands in Sicily are typical, represents a legally 
distinct class. It seems probable that the distinction is one of 
practice rather than of law, and that the difference lay not in 
the relation between the state and the possessor (as would be 
the case if the leased land were really let to individuals by the 
censor, while the occupied land was held by mere permission of 
the state without any contract) but in the details of the contract 
between the censor and the publicanus with regard to the collec- 
tion of the dues. The conditions of the tenure of the Roman 
public land in Africa are known to us from the Lex Agraria of 
in B.C. (Bruns, Fontes, i. 3. n, w. Ssfoll.). Here the publicanus 
is the middleman between the state and the possessor, and 
purchases from the censor the right of collecting dues. The 
law places no restriction on bargaining between the censor and 
the publicanus, but enacts that no possessor or pastor shall ever 
be required by the publicanus to pay more than the amount 
prescribed by the censors of 1 1 5 B.C. These conditions may be 
regarded as typical for the occupation of public lands. And 
when Cicero speaks of public land as let on lease (locatus) by 
the censor, he no doubt refers to the farming of the taxes to a 
publicanus for a fixed period, and not to the letting of the land. 
This seems clear from a passage (in Verr. iii. 6. 12) where he 



speaks of land in Sicily which had been restored by Rome to 
former owners as being leased. The land itself could not be 
leased by Rome if it belonged not to Rome but to the Sicilian 
inhabitants; but the collection of the revenues due to Rome 
could be so leased to Publicani (q.v.). And the same explanation 
would apply to Cicero's statements that the Campanian land 
was let on lease by the censors (cf. Festus, s.v. vendUiones) . The 
view that there was a distinct class of the public land which was 
let out for a fixed teim of years to tenants on a definite lease, 
unlike the ordinary public land which was always held in occupa- 
tion merely at will (precario), has been maintained by W. A. 
Becker, and seems to be supported, with the help of conjecture, 
by a few passages in Cicero and by Hyginus (Gromatici, p. 116). 
But the passage of Hyginus is barely intelligible even on this 
supposition; and Cicero's repeated statement that the Campanian 
land was expressly exempted from the legislation of the Gracchi 
(cf. Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. cit. v. 6) shows that there was not 
sufficient distinction between the Campanian tenure and that 
of other public land in Italy to make this definite exception 
by name superfluous. The Sempronian law could obviously 
not touch land which the state had leased to occupiers on the 
basis of a definite contract. Moreover, we have absolutely no 
evidence for such a contract, even in Cicero's speeches against 
Rullus, when he might be expected to mention it as an objection 
to Rullus's bill. That there were some distinctive characteristics 
about the tenure of certain lands, of which the Campanian land 
is typical, seems proved by the repeated association of these 
lands with certain special lands in the provinces, especially at 
Leontini in Sicily, and by some passages in the Gromatici where 
agri tiectigales are spoken of as a distinct class. But what these 
characteristics were cannot be clearly determined. It seems 
certain that in every case the possessor occupied precario, and 
that only in the bargain between the censor and the middleman 
was there room for contract. Thus the state was justified in 
the claim to resume public land which it made in many of the 
Agrarian laws. 

The earliest agrarian measures of which we have any record 
are the distributions of land conquered in war to poor citizens, 
which later authorities attribute to Numa and Servius Tullius. 
Such assignments, however, are not the result of legislative acts, 
but of a voluntary surrender on the king's part of his own 
portion of the spoils. It is probable that the agrarian law which 
resulted from the proposals of Spurius Cassius (consul 486 B.C.) 
was the first attempt made by the Roman people to exercise its 
control over the occupation of state territory. According to 
the traditional account, Cassius proposed that such portion ot 
lands lately conquered from the Hernici as fell to the Roman 
state should be divided in equal shares between the Roman 
plebs and the Latins; and further that poor citizens should 
receive allotments of land previously conquered, and occupied 
without any legal right by the Patricians. The inclusion of 
the Latins in the distribution was afterwards dropped; but the 
law in its final form certainly asserted the right of the Plebeians 
to take their share in the public land. The accounts given of it 
by Livy and Dionysius are no doubt coloured by their know- 
ledge of later agrarian legislation, and it seems hardly likely 
that the proposal to resume and redistribute public land already 
occupied was made at this early stage; but it probably challenged 
the exclusive claim of Patricians to occupy. We hear of another 
agrarian law proposed by the tribune Lucius Icilius in 456 B.C. 
(Lex Icilia de Aventino publicando) which regulated in some way 
the tenure of public land on the Aventine. In 376 B.C. the 
tribunes Licinius and Sextius introduced into their laws, for 
the promotion of the privileges of the plebs, a clause enacting 
that no more than 500 jugera of land should be occupied by a 
single cultivator. It seems almost certain from Livy's account 
that this measure referred only to the occupation of ager publicus, 
though some modern authorities have upheld the view that it 
dealt with land held on any kind of tenure, others again that it 
dealt only with private property in land. According to Appian, 
the law also enacted that only 100 cattle and 500 sheep might 
be turned by one owner on the public pastures. But it failed 



AGREDA 



385 



of its object because it did not provide any adequate machinery 
for the resumption by the state of land held in excess of the 
prescribed amount, and was therefore easily evaded. The next 
agrarian law we hear of was a more special measure dealing with 
lands conquered from the Senones and Picentines. In 232 B.C. 
C. Flaminius, then tribune of the plebs, proposed to resume 
these lands for the state, although they were already occupied 
by large landholders, and to distribute them in allotments to poor 
citizens. The measure met with much opposition from the richer 
classes, and did not gain the sanction of the senate; but 
C. Flaminius ignored constitutional usage and brought it direct 
efore the council of the plebs, by which it was made law. In 
133 B.C. the tribune Tiberius Gracchus (q.v.) re-enacted the 
arlier measure of Licinius and Sextius, with the additional 
provisions that each owner might occupy 250 jugera for each 
son, in addition to the original 500, and that a commission of 
hree (iii. iiiri agris dandis adsignandis) should be appointed to 
out the terms of the law. He also enacted that the land 
cupied in excess of the prescribed amount, and on that account 
sumed for the state by the land commission, should be dis- 
tributed in inalienable lots to poor citizens. Subsequent modi- 
fications of those provisions which dealt with the powers of 
he land commission led to a re-enactment of the whole by 
Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, tribune in 123 B.C. But 
vithin 15 years from the tribunate of C. Gracchus the whole 
of his law had been rendered null by three further enactments. 
The first of these permitted the sale of land allotted under the 
which thus tended to return into the hands of its former 
ccupiers as private property, which the state had no longer 
any right to resume. The second abolished the commission 
appointed to carry out the terms of the law, thus putting a stop 
to further resumption and distribution, and also transformed 
xisting occupiers into owners of the land they occupied, paying 
only a small due to the treasury. The third (probably the sur- 
viving Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. cit.) abolished the payment. This 
aw belongs to the year in B.C. The dates of the two former 
jws are uncertain, but it is probable that the first was passed in 
121, the second in 119 or 118. From this time forward a 
change comes over land legislation. The ordinary public land 
in Italy, in the hands of occupiers, which had given rise to all 
he agrarian legislation between 376 and in, had practically 
eased to exist. The Campanian land still remained, but the 
ame reasons which led to its exemption from the Gracchan 
legislation seem to have continued to protect its holders until 
63 B.C. In the meantime several agrarian laws were passed 
vhich provided for the distribution of land placed in some other 
vay at the disposal of the state. In 100 B.C. Appuleius Satur- 
ninus (q.v.), tribune of the plebs, proposed the allotment of lands 
cently taken from the Cimbri in Gaul. This law was passed, 
jut eventually declared null by the senate, with the rest of 
iturninns's laws. A more dangerous precedent was set by 
Sulla in his dictatorship (82-81 B.C.). He was the first to con- 
cate the lands of his political foes, and of communities which 
iad resisted him, and treating them as ager publicus, assign 
hem to his veterans as a prize. This example was followed by 
Dctavian (Augustus) and Antony (M. Antonius) after their 
proscriptions in 43 B.C. A third method of providing land for 
distribution was that adopted by Servilius Rullus (q.v.) in 
63 B.C. His bill enacted that land should be purchased in Italy 
vith money gained by the sale of Roman territories abroad, and 
Hotted to citizens. A commission of ten (x. viri agris dandis 
dsignandis), annually elected by 9 out of the 35 tribes, was to 
arry out the terms of the law. Rullus also ventured to propose 
he distribution of the Campanian land, which had hitherto 
en respected by all agrarian reformers. It was chiefly on this 
ound that Cicero in his three speeches on the Agrarian law 
succeeded in exciting such a general feeling against it that it was 
entually withdrawn. In 60 B.C. the tribune L. Flavius brought 
forward a bill for the distribution of lands to Pompey's veterans, 
he Campanian land was certainly to be included in the dis- 
ribution, and it is clear from Cicero that the bill in some way 
dealt violently with the rights of private owners. It also, how- 



ever, enacted that land should be purchased by the state with 
the wealth which Pompey's conquests had brought into the 
treasury. The last proposal was supported by Cicero, but the 
bill seems to have been dropped, only to reappear in more 
moderate form in the following year. A consular bill, the lex 
Julia Campana, was passed by Julius Caesar in 59 B.C., which 
provided for the settlement of Pompey's veterans on the Cam- 
panian land, and other lands purchased by the state from private 
owners in Italy with the full consent of the latter. In its 
original form, the bill omitted all reference to the Campanian 
land, which seems to have been included by Caesar in the dis- 
tribution only when the continued and unreasoning opposition 
of the senate had goaded him to extreme measures. A commission 
of twenty was to be appointed to carry out the law, from which 
Caesar himself was expressly excluded. This measure finally 
settled the question of the Campanian land, which now passed 
out of the category of ager publicus. The last agrarian law of 
the republic was that passed in 44 B.C. on the proposal of the 
consul M. Antonius, or of his brother L. Antonius. We have 
no detailed account of the measure, but it seems to have pro- 
vided grants of land for veterans, and was to be administered by 
seven commissioners. The law was afterwards cancelled by decree 
of the senate, probably on the ground of some technical flaw. 
The emperor Vespasian attempted to reclaim for the state small 
oddments of land (subseciva) which were held by neighbouring 
owners to whom they had never been definitely assigned. The 
attempt met with violent opposition, and though resumed by 
Titus, was finally crushed by Domitian, who issued an edict re- 
cognizing all oddments of land thus held to be private property. 

AUTHORITIES. Niebuhr, History of Rome (English translation), 
ii. p. 129 foil. (Cambridge, 1832); Becker, Handbuch der romischen 
Alterthiimer, iii. 2, p. 142 (Leipzig, 1843); Marquardt, Romische 
Staatsverwaltung, i. p. 96 foil. (Leipzig, 1881); Madvig, Verjassung 
und Verwaltung des romischen Staates, ii. p. 364 foil. (Leipzig, 1882), 
(See also ROME, History.) (A. H. J. G. ; A. M . CL.) 

AGREDA, MARIA FERNANDEZ CORONEL, ABBESS or, 
known in religion as Sor (Sister) Maria de Jesus (1602-1665), was 
the daughter of Don Francisco Coronel and of his wife Catalina 
de Arana. She was born at Agreda, on the borders of Navarre 
and Aragon, on the 2nd of April 1602. All her family were power- 
fully influenced by the ecstatic piety of Spain in that age. Her 
biographer, Samaniego, records that even as an infant in arms she 
was filled with divine knowledge. Her stupidity as a child is 
piously accounted for by extreme humility. From childhood she 
was favoured by ecstasies and visions. When she was fifteen the 
whole family entered religion. The father, now an old man, and 
the two sons entered the Franciscan house of San Antonio de 
Nalda. Maria, her .mother and sister established a Franciscan 
nunnery in the family house at Agreda, which, when Maria's 
reputation had extended, was replaced by the existing building. 
She began it with one hundred reals (one pound sterling) lent her 
by a devotee, and it was completed in fourteen years by voluntary 
gifts. Much against her own wish, we are told, she was appointed 
abbess at the age of twenty-five. In 1668, four years after her 
death, the Franciscans published a story that at the age of 
twenty-two she had been miraculously conveyed to Mexico, to 
convert a native people, and had made five hundred journeys 
through the air for that purpose in one year. Though the rule 
required the abbess to be changed every three years, Maria 
remained the effective ruler of Agreda till her death. The Virgin 
was declared abbess, and Maria acted as her locum tenens. In her 
later years she inclined to the " internal prayer," and neglect of 
the outward offices of the church, which was usual with the 
" alumbrados " or Quietists. The Inquisition took notice of her, 
but she was not proceeded against with severity. Maria's 
importance in religion and Spanish history is based on two 
grounds. In the earlier part of her life, while the Franciscan, 
Francisco Andres de la Torre, was her confessor, she wrote an 
Introduction to the History of the Most Blessed Virgin. It was 
destroyed by the direction of another confessor. Later on, by the 
order of her superiors, and under the guidance of her Franciscan 
confessor, Andres de Fuen Mayor, she wrote The Mystic City oj 
God. It is an extraordinary book, full of apocryphal history, 



3 86 



AGRICOLA 



visions and scholasticism, which professes to have been written by 
divine inspiration, and is devoted to praise of the Virgin. In 
1642 she sent to Philip IV. an account of a vision she had had, of 
a council of the infernal powers for the destruction of Catholicism 
and Spain. The king visited her when on his way to Aragon to 
suppress the rebellion of Catalonia. A long correspondence, 
which lasted till her death on the 29th of March 1665, was begun. 
The king folded a sheet of paper down the middle and wrote on 
the one side of the division. The answers were to be written on 
the other and the sheet returned. By a pious fraud copies were 
kept at Agreda. How far Maria was only the mouthpiece of the 
Franciscans must of course be a matter of doubt. Her corre- 
spondence was apparently suspended whenever her confessor was 
absent. She must, however, have co-operated at least, and it is 
certain that the Franciscans, who were very unfortunate in some 
of their pious women, owed not a little to her. The letters are in 
excellent Spanish, are curious reading, and are invaluable as 
illustrations for the second part of the reign of Philip IV. 

The correspondence of Sor Maria with the king has been published 
in full by Don F. Siluela, Cartas de la Venerable Madre Sor Maria de 
Agreda y del Senor Rey Don Filipe IV. (Madrid, 1885). The Mystic 
City of God is one of the most characteristic monuments of Mariolatry, 
and has continued to be much in favour with supporters of the dogma 
of the Immaculate Conception. It appeared in Madrid in 1668, with 
a biographical introduction by Samamego, has been often reprinted, 
and was translated into French and Italian. It was for a time 
reserved by the Index, both Spanish and Papal, but was taken off 
by the influence of the Franciscans and of Spain, the chief supporters 
of the Immaculate Conception. An account of Maria de Agreda 
will be found in the Tracts of Michael Geddes (London, 1706), vol. iii. , 
written by a competent critic and Anglican divine of the 1 8th century 
who detested " enthusiasm." (D. H.) 

AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719), German 
landscape painter, was born and died at Regensburg (Ratisbon). 
He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting England, 
HoUand and France, and residing for a considerable period at 
Naples. His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are 
remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful 
representation of varied phases of climate. In composition his 
style shows the influence of Caspar Poussin, while in light and 
colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His pictures are to be found 
in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, Florence, Naples and many 
other towns of both Germany and Italy. 

AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG 
(1490-1555), German scholar and man of science, known as " the 
father of mineralogy," was born at Glauchau in Saxony on the 
24th of March 1490. Gifted with a precocious intellect, he early 
threw himself into the pursuit of the " new learning," with such 
effect that at the age of twenty he was appointed Rector exlra- 
ordinarius of Greek at the so-called Great School of Zwickau, and 
made his appearance as a writer on philology. After two years he 
gave up his appointment in order to pursue his studies at Leipzig, 
where, as rector, he received the powerful support of the pro- 
fessor of classics, Peter Mosellanus (1493-1524), a celebrated 
humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in corre- 
spondence. Here he also devoted himself to the study of medicine, 
physics and chemistry. After the death of Mosellanus he went 
for a short time to Italy, where he took his doctor's degree. On 
his return he settled as practising physician in the Joachimstal, a 
centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly " to 
fill in the gaps in the art of healing," partly to test what had been 
written about mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the 
methods of their treatment. His thorough grounding in philology 
and philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and 
this enabled him to construct out of his studies and observations 
of minerals a logical system which he began to publish in 1528. 
Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus, the first attempt to 
reduce to scientific order the knowledge won by practical work, 
brought Agricola into notice. In 1 530 Prince Maurice of Saxony 
appointed him historiographer with an annual allowance, and he 
migrated to Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, in order 
to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed 
their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town 
physician and electing him burgomaster. His popularity was, 



however, short-lived. Chemnitz was a violent centre of the 
Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his 
allegiance to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his 
office. He now lived apart from the contentious movements of 
the time, devoting himself wholly to learning. His chief interest 
was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself also with 
medical, mathematical, theological and historical subjects, his 
chief historical work being the Dominatores Saxonici a prima 
origins ad hanc aetatem, published at Freiberg. In 1544 he 
published the De ortu et causis subterraneorum, in which he laid 
the first foundations of a physical geology, and criticized the 
theories of the ancients. In 1545 followed the De natura eorum 
quae effluunl e terra; in 1546 the De veteribus el novis metallis, 
a comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of 
minerals; in 1548 the De animantibus subterraneis; and in the 
two following years a number of smaller works on the metals. 
His most famous work, the De re metallica, libri xii., was pub- 
lished in 1556, though apparently finished several years before, 
since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated 1550. 
It is a complete and systematic treatise on mining and metallurgy, 
illustrated with many fine and interesting woodcuts and contain- 
ing, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the technical 
terms used in the Latin text. It long remained a standard work, 
and marks its author as one of the most accomplished chemists 
of his time. Believing the black rock of the Schlossberg at 
Stolpen to be the same as Pliny's basalt, he applied this name to 
it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been per- 
manently incorporated in the vocabulary of science. 

In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the 
tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end 
his days in peace. He remained to the end a staunch Catholic, 
though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran creed; and 
it is said that his life was ended by a fit of apoplexy brought on 
by a heated discussion with a Protestant divine. He died at 
Chemnitz on the 2ist of November 1555, and so violent was the 
theological feeling against him, that he was not suffered to rest in 
the town to which he had added lustre. Amidst hostile demon- 
strations he was carried to Zeitz, seven miles from Chemnitz, and 
there buried. 

See article by Giimbel in Allgem. Deutsche Biog. (1875); 
F. L. Becher, Georg Agricola und Werner (Freiberg, 1819); F. A. 
Schmidt, Georg Agricola's Bermannus mil Einleitung (Freiberg, 
1806); Poggendorff, Biographisches Handworterbuch; Agricola s 
works passim. 

AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93), Roman states- 
man and general, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, was 
born on the i3th of June A.D. 37 (according to others, 39) at 
Forum Julii (Frejus) in Gallia Narbonensis. His father, Julius 
Graecinus, having been put to death by Caligula, Agricola was 
brought up by his mother Julia Procilla. After studying philo- 
sophy at Massilia, he entered the army and served (59) under 
Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. In 61 he returned to Rome, 
where he married Domitia Decidiana, a Roman lady of dis- 
tinction. In 63 he was quaestor in Asia, in 65 tribune, in 68 
praetor, and when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, he 
immediately declared himself his supporter. In 70 he was 
appointed to the command of the 2oth legion in Britain, then 
stationed at Deva (Chester). On his return to Rome at the end 
of three years he was made censor, raised to the rank of patrician, 
and appointed governor of Aquitania (74-78) . Appointed consul 
suffectus in the following year, he was admitted into the college 
of pontiffs and made governor of Britain. In the same year 
he betrothed his daughter to Tacitus. Although the legation of 
Britain lasted as a rule only three years, Agricola held the post 
for at least seven and succeeded in reconciling the inhabitants to 
Roman rule and inducing them to adopt the customs and civil- 
ization of their conquerors. His military achievements were 
equally brilliant. After conquering the Ordovices in North 
Wales and the island of Mona (Anglesey), during the next two 
years he carried his victorious arms to the Taiis (Tay; others 
read Tanaus, perhaps the north Tyne), and in his fourth cam- 
paign fortified the country between Clota and Bodotria (the 
firths of Clyde and Forth) as a protection against the attacks of 






AGRICOLA AGRICULTURAL GANGS 



38? 



the Caledonians. Having explored the coasts of Fife and 
Forfar, he gained a decisive victory over the Caledonians unde: 
Galgacus at the Graupian hill (see BRITAIN, Roman). His 
successes, however, had aroused the envy and suspicion o: 
Domitian. He was recalled to Rome, where he lived a life o: 
studied retirement, to avoid the possibility of giving offence to 
the tyrant. He died in 93, poisoned, it was rumoured, by the 
emperor's orders. The Life of Agricola by his son-in-law Tacitus 
is practically a panegyric or funeral oration. 

See Urlichs, De Vita et Honoribus Agricolae (1868); Dio Cassius 
xxxix. 50, Ixvi. 20; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire 
(Eng. trans., 1886), i. 183-184, 194. 

AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774), German 
musician, was born at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the 
4th of January 1720. While a student of law at Leipzig he 
studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1741 he went 
to Berlin, where he studied musical composition. He was soon 
generally recognized as one of the most skilful organists of his 
time; and in 1751, as the result of a comic opera, // Filosofo 
connnto in amore, performed at Potsdam, he was made court 
composer to Frederick the Great. He died in Berlin on the 
ist of December 1774. In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich 
Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra. 
Besides several operas of merit, he composed instrumental 
pieces and church music. His reputation chiefly rests, however, 
on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects. He 
wrote under the pseudonym of Flavio Anicio Olibrio. 

AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), 
JOHANNES (1494-1566), German Protestant reformer, was born 
n the 2Oth of April 1494, at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes 
:alled Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he 
>on gained the friendship of Luther. In 1519 he accompanied 
uther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and 
ted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in 
ittenberg, he went to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the re- 
'ormed mode of worship. He had resided there only a month 
hen he was called to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as 
cher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai 
urch. In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and 
as welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a 
utroversy, which had been begun ten years before and been 
emporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. 
;ricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the 
t to stigmatize by the now well-known name Antinomian 
?..), maintaining that while the unregenerate were still under 
e Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under 
ie gospel alone. In consequence of the bitter controversy with 
uther that resulted, Agricola in 1540 left Wittenberg secretly 
Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to the elector 
Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of 
;is obnoxious views. Luther, however, seems not to have so 
cepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin. The elector 
oachim II. of Brandenburg, having taken him into his favour, 
ppointed him court preacher and general superintendent. He 
icld both offices until his death in 1566, and his career in 
randenburg was one of great activity and influence. Along 
ith Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael 
elding, titular bishop of Sidon, he prepared the Augsburg 
terim of 1548. He endeavoured in vain to appease the Adi- 
.phoristic controversy (see ADIAPHORISTS). He died during an 
idemic of plague on the 22iid of September 1566. Agricola 
wrote a number of theological works which are now of little 
interest. He was the first to make a collection of German 
proverbs which he illustrated with a commentary. The most 
mplete edition, which contains seven hundred and fifty pro- 
rbs, is that published at Wittenberg in 1592; a modern one 
that of Latendorf, 1862. 

See Cordes, Joh. Agricola' s Schriften moglichst verzeichnet (Altona, 
Life by G. Kawerau (1881), who also wrote the notice in 
Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol., where other literature is 

ted. 
AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556), German musician, was 
rn about 1500 in Lower Silesia. His German name was Sohr 



pro 
con 

I 



or Sore. From 1524 till his death he lived at Magdeburg, whera 
he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the Protestant 
school. The senator and music-printer Rhau, of Wittenberg, 
was a close friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing 
valuable material concerning the change from the old to the 
new system of notation, he published. Agricola was also the 
first to harmonize in four parts Luther's chorale, Bin' feste Burg. 

Four other Agricolas 1 are known as composers between the 
end of the isth century and the middle of the lyth. 

In the i8th century we find Burney, in the course of his tour 
in Germany (1772), much impressed by JOHANN FRIEDRICH 
AGRICOLA (1720-1774), court composer and director of the royal 
chapel to Frederick the Great. This Agricola was a pupil of 
Bach, and a fine organist and clever writer on music, especially 
on operatic style, the problems of which were beginning to be 
raised by French writers_aud composers in preparation for the 
work of Gluck. 

AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN) 
(1443-1485), Dutch scholar, was born at Baflo, near.Groningcn, in 
1443- He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as 
master of arts. After residing for some time in Paris, he went 
in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the 
celebrated Theodorus Gaza (1400-1478) on the Greek language. 
Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned to his native 
country about 1479, and was soon afterwards appointed syndic 
of Groningen. In 1482, on the invitation'of Johann von Dalberg, 
bishop of Worms (1445-1503), whose friendship he had gained 
in Italy, he accepted a professorship at Heidelberg, and for 
three years delivered lectures there and at Worms on the litera- 
ture of Greece and Rome. By his personal influence much more 
than by his writings he did much for the promotion of learning 
in Germany; and Erasmus and other critics of the generation 
immediately succeeding his own are full of his praises. In his 
opposition to the scholastic philosophy he in some degree antici- 
pated the great intellectual revolution in which many of his 
pupils were conspicuous actors. He died at Heidelberg on the 
28th of October 1485. His principal work is De inventione 
dialectica, libri Hi., in which he attempts to change the scholastic 
philosophy of the day. 

See T. F. Tresling, Vita et Merita Rudolphi Agricolae (Groningen, 
1830); y. Bezold, R. Agricola (Miinchen, 1884); and Ihm, Der 
Humanist R. Agricola, sein Leben and seine Schriften (Paderb., 1893). 

AGRICULTURAL GANGS, groups of women, girls and boys 
organized by an independent gang-master, under whose super- 
vision they execute agricultural piece-work for farmers in certain 
parts of England. They are sometimes called " public gangs " 
to distinguish them from " private gangs " consisting of workers 
engaged by the farmer himself, and undertaking work solely for 
turn, under his own supervision or under that of one of his men. 
The system was for long prevalent in the counties of Cambridge- 
shire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk 
and Suffolk, and is still to be found in a much modified form in 
the fen district. The practice dates from the latter years of the 
reign of George III., when the low-lying, marshy lands surround- 
"ng the basin of the Wash were being rapidly drained and con- 
verted into rich alluvial districts. The unreformed condition of 
the poor-law, under which the support of the poor fell upon each 
individual parish, instead of a union of parishes, made landlords 
reluctant to erect cottages on the reclaimed land for the benefit 
of their tenants. Labour had to be obtained for the cultivation 
of these new lands, and that of women, girls and boys, being 
cheaper than the labour of men, was consequently very largely 
employed. The tendency to moral and physical ruin which 
resulted from this nomadic life was so great that an inquiry into 
the condition of agricultural child-labour was included in the 
reference to the commission on child-labour appointed in 1862, 
and the results were so startling that the Agricultural Gangs 
Act was passed in 1867, forbidding the employment of any child 
under eight years old, and of any female under a male gang- 
master unless a female licensed to act as gang-mistress were also 
1 Alexander, died 1506; Johann, flor. 1600; Wolfgang Christoph, 
lor. 1630; and George Lucfwig, 1643-1676. 



3 88 



AGRICULTURE 



[ANCIENT SYSTEMS 



present. Gang-masters must be licensed by two justices, and 
may not hold a liquor license. The distance to be traversed 
on foot is fixed by the justices, and the licenses must be renewed 
every six months. Later legislation made more stringent the 
regulations under which children are employed in agricultural 
gangs. By the Elementary Education Act 1876, repealing and 
re-enacting the principal provisions of the Agricultural (Children) 
Act 1873, no child shall be employed under the age of eleven 
years, and none between eleven years and thirteen years before 
the child has obtained a certificate of having reached the 
standard of education fixed by a by-law in force in the district. 

AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ager, field, and colere, to cultivate), 
the science, art and industry of utilizing the soil so as to produce 
the means of human subsistence, embracing in its widest sense 
the rearing of live-stock as well as the raising of crops. The 
history of agriculture is the history of man in his most primitive, 
and most permanent aspect. Hence the nations of antiquity 
ascribed to it a divine origin; Brahma in Hindustan, Isis in 
Egypt, Demeter in Greece, and Ceres in Italy, were its founders. 
The simplest form of agriculture is that in which crops are raised 
from one patch of ground till it is exhausted, when it is allowed 
to go wild and abandoned for another. This " extensive " 
husbandry is found in combination with a nomadic or semi- 
nomadic and pastoral organization, such as that of the German 
tribes described by Caesar and Tacitus (see especially Germania, 
26). The discovery of the uses of the bare fallow and of manure, 
by making it possible to raise crops from the same area for an 
indefinite period, marks a stage of progress. This " intensive " 
culture in a more or less developed form was practised by the 
great nations of antiquity, and little decided advance was made 
till after the middle ages. The introduction of new plants, which 
made it possible to dispense with the bare fallow, and still later 
the application to husbandry of scientific discoveries as to soils, 
plant constituents and manures, brought abcjut a revolution 
in farming. But the progress of husbandry, evidenced by the 
production of larger and better crops with more certainty, is 
due to that rationalizing of agricultural practices which is the 
work of modern times. What before was done in the light of 
experience is nowadays done in the light of knowledge. Even 
the earliest forms of intensive cultivation demand the practice 
of the fundamental processes of husbandry ploughing, manur- 
ing, sowing, weeding, reaping. It is the improvements in methods, 
implements and materials, brought about by the application 
of science, that distinguish the husbandry of the 2oth century 
from that of medieval and ancient times. 

Ancient Husbandry. The monumental records of Egypt are 
the source of the earliest information on farming. The Egypt 
Egypt f * ne Pharaohs was a country of great estates farmed 
either by tenants or by slaves or labourers under the 
superintendence of stewards. It owed its fertility to the Nile, 
which, inundating the land near its banks, was distributed by 
means of canals over more distant portions of its valley. The 
autumnal subsidence of the river was followed by shallow 
ploughing performed by oxen yoked to clumsy wooden ploughs, 
the clods being afterwards levelled with wooden hoes by hand. 
Next came the sowing, the seed being pressed into the soil by 
the feet of sheep which were driven over the fields. At harvest 
the corn was cut high on the stalk with short sickles and put 
up in sheaves, after which it was carried to the threshing-floor 
and there trodden out by the hoofs of oxen. Winnowing was 
done by women, who tossed the grain into the air with small 
wooden boards, the chaff being blown away by the winds. Wheat 
and barley were the chief crops, and another plant, perhaps 
identical with the durra, i.e. millet, of modern Egypt, was also 
cultivated. The latter, when ripe, was pulled up by the roots, 
and the grain was separated by means of an implement re- 
sembling a comb. To these crops may be added peas, beans 
and many herbs and esculent roots. Oxen were much prized, 
and breeding was carried on with a careful eye to selection. 
Immense numbers of ducks and geese were reared. 

Diodorus Siculus, writing of later times, says that cattle were 
sent during a portion of each year to the marshy pastures of 



the delta, where they roamed under the care of herdsmen. They 
were fed with hay during the annual inundation, and at other 
times tethered in meadows of green clover. The flocks were 
shorn twice annually (a practice common to several Asiatic 
countries), and the ewes yeaned twice a year. (See also EGYPT.) 

The agriculture of the region bordering the Tigris and 
Euphrates, like that of Egypt, depended largely on irrigation, 
and traces of ancient canals are still to be seen in Babylonia. 
But beyond the fact that both Babylonia and Assyria were 
large producers of cereals, little is known of their husbandry. 

The nomads of the patriarchal ages, whilst mainly dependent 
upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper. 
The tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary Blbllcal 
circumstances common to all shepherds alike. During accounts 
the summer they frequented the mountainous districts, among 
and retired to the valleys to winter. Vast flocks of the 
sheep and of jjoat constituted their wealth, although 
they also possessed oxen. When the last were abundant, 
it seems to be an indication that tillage was practised. 
Job, besides immense possessions in flocks and herds, had 
500 yoke of oxen, which he employed in ploughing, and a " very 
great husbandry." Isaac, too, conjoined tillage with pastoral 
husbandry, and that with success, for " he sowed in the land 
Gerar, and reaped an hundred-fold " a return which, it would 
appear, in some favoured regions, occasionally rewarded the 
labour of the husbandman. In the parable of the sower, Jesus 
Christ mentions an increase of thirty, sixty and an hundred fold. 

Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans, the 
Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of 
antiquity. The Mosaic Institute contained an agrarian law, 
based upon an equal division of the soil amongst the adult males, 
a census of whom was taken just before their entrance into 
Canaan. Provision was thus made for 600,000 yeomen, assigning 
(according to different calculations) from sixteen to twenty-five 
acres of land to each. This land, held in direct tenure from 
Jehovah, their sovereign, was in theory inalienable. The 
accumulation of debt upon it was prevented by the prohibition 
of interest, the release of debts every seventh year, and the 
reversion of the land to the proprietor, or his heirs, at each return 
of the year of jubilee. The owners of these small farms cultivated 
them with much care, and rendered them highly productive. 
They were favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and one which 
their skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones 
were carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered 
from canals and conduits, communicating with the brooks and 
streams with which the country " was well watered everywhere," 
and enriched by the application of manures. The seventh year's 
fallow prevented the exhaustion of the soil, which was further 
enriched by the burning of the weeds and spontaneous growth 
of the Sabbatical year. The crops chiefly cultivated were wheat, 
millet, barley, beans and lentils; to which it is supposed, on 
grounds not improbable, may be added rice and cotton. The 
chief implements were a wooden plough of simple and light 
construction, a hoe or mattock, and a light harrow. The ox 
and the ass were used for labour. The word "oxen," which 
occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in the Septua- 
gint and Vulgate, denotes the species, rather than the sex. As 
the Hebrews did not mutilate any of their animals, bulls were 
in common use. The quantity of land ploughed by a yoke 
of oxen in one day was called a yoke or acre. Towards the 
end of October, with which month the rainy season begins, seed- 
time commenced, and of course does so still. The seedtime, 
begun in October, extends, for wheat and some other white 
crops, through November and December; and barley continues 
to be sown until about the middle of February. The seed 
appears to have been sometimes ploughed in, and at other 
times to have been covered by harrowing. The cold winds 
which prevail in January and February frequently injured 
the crops in the more exposed and higher districts. The 
rainy season extends from October to April, during which time 
refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night, and generally 
at intervals of a few days. The harvest was earlier or later as 



ANCIENT SYSTEMS] 



AGRICULTURE 



389 



wh 

1 



the rains towards the end of the season were more or less copious. 
It, however, generally began in April, and continued through 
May for the different crops in succession. In the south, and in 
the plains, the harvest, as might be expected, commenced some 
weeks earlier than in the northern and mountainous districts. 
The slopes of the hills were carefully terraced and irrigated 
wherever practicable, and on these slopes the vine and olive 
were cultivated with great success. At the same time the hill 
districts and neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for 
numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of 
a mixed husbandry. Not by a figure of speech but literally, every 
Israelite sat under the shadow of his own vine and fig-tree; 
whilst the country as a whole is described (2 Kings xviii.32)as 
a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land 
oil olive and of honey." 

The earliest known forms of intensive husbandry were based 
chiefly upon the proximity of rivers and irrigation. The agri- 
Oreece culture of classical ages was slightly more developed in 
so far as the husbandman of Greece and Rome was less 
able to leave to nature the fertilization of the soil. Greece being 
a mountainous land was favourable to the culture of the vine 
rather than to that of cereals. Scanty, information on its agri- 
culture is to be derived from the Works and Days of Hesiod (about 
the 8th century B.C.), the Oeconomicus of Xenophon (4th century 
B.C.), the History of Plants and the Origin of Plants of Theo- 
phrastus (4th century B.C.). The latter is the first writer on 
botany, and his works also contain interesting remarks on 
manures, the mixing of soils and other agricultural topics (see 
also GEOPONICI). Greek husbandry had no salient character- 
istics. The summer fallow with repeated ploughing was its basis. 
The young crop was hoed, reaping was performed with a sickle, 
and a high stubble left on the ground as manure. The methods 
of threshing and winnowing were the same as those in use in 
ancient Egypt. Wheat, barley and spelt were the leading crops. 
Meadows were pastured rather than mown. Attica was famous 
for its oh'ves and figs, but general agriculture excelled in Pelo- 
ponnesus, where, by means of irrigation and drainage, all the 
available land was utilized. 

In the early days of the Roman republic land in Italy was held 
.rgely by small proprietors, and agriculture was highly esteemed 
and classed with war as an occupation becoming a free 
man. The story of Cincinnatus, twice summoned from 
ie plough to the highest offices in the state, illustrates the status 
the Roman husbandman. The later tendency was towards the 
absorption of smaller holdings into large estates. As wealth 
increased the peasant-farmer gave way before the large land- 
owner, who cultivated his property by means of slave-labour, 
superintended by slave-bailiffs. The low price of grain, which 
is imported in huge quantities from Sicily and other Roman 
ivinces, operated to crush the small holder, at the same time 
as it made arable farming unremunerative. Sheep-raising, 
involving larger holdings, less supervision and less labour, was 
eferred by the capitalist land-holder to the cultivation of the 
'heat, spelt, vines or olives which were the chief crops of the 
untry. Lupine, beans, peas and vetches were grown for 
"odder, and meadows, often artificially watered, supplied hay. 
Swine and poultry were used for food to a greater extent than 
oxen, which were bred chiefly for ploughing. The following 
epitome of Virgil's advice to the husbandman in the first book of 
the Georgics suggests the outline of Roman husbandry: " First 
learn the peculiarities of your soil and climate. Plough the 
fallow in early spring, and plough frequently twice in winter, 
twice in summer unless your land is poor, when a light ploughing 
in September will do. Either let the land lie fallow every other 
year or else let spelt follow pulse, vetches or lupine. Repetition 
of one crop exhausts the ground; rotation will lighten the 
strain, only the exhausted soil must be copiously dressed with 
manure or ashes. It often does good to burn the stubble on the 
ground. Harrow down the clods, level the ridges by cross 
ploughing, work the land thoroughly. Irrigation benefits a sandy 
soil, draining a marshy soil. It is well to feed down a luxuriant 
crop when the plants are level with the ridge tops. Geese and 








cranes, chicory, mildew, thistles, cleavers, caltrops, darnel and 
shade are farmer's enemies. Scare off the birds, harrow up the 
weeds, cut down all that shades the crop. Ploughs, waggons, 
threshing-sledges, harrows, baskets, hurdles, winnowing-fans are 
the farmer's implements. The plough consists of several parts 
made of seasoned wood. The threshing-floor must be smooth and 
rammed hard to leave no crevices for weeds and small animals to 
get through. Some steep seed in soda and oil lees to get a larger 
produce. Careful annual selection by hand of the best seed is the 
only way to prevent degeneration. It is best to mow stubble and 
hay at night when they are moist." 

In addition to the use of several kinds of animal and other 
manures, green crops were sometimes ploughed in by the Romans. 
The shrewdness which, more than inventiveness, characterized 
their husbandry comes out well in the following quotation from 
the i8th book of the Natural History of Pliny: " Cato would 
have this point especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm 
be good and fertile; also, that near it there be plenty of labourers 
and that it be not far from a large town; moreover, that it have 
sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by water or 
land. Also that the house be well built, and the land about it as 
well managed. They are in error who hold the opinion that the 
negligence and bad husbandry of the former owner is good for his 
successor. Now, I say there is nothing more dangerous and 
disadvantageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out of 
heart; and therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one 
who has managed it well, and not rashly to despise and make 
light of the skill and knowledge of another." 

Roman writers on agriculture (see GEOPONICI) are more 
numerous than those of Greece. The earliest important treatises 
are the De re Rustica of Cato (234-149 B.C.) and the Rerum 
Rusticarum Libri of Varro. More famous than either are the 
Georgicsoi Virgil, published about 30 B.C., and treating of tillage, 
horticulture, cattle-breeding and bee-keeping. The works of 
Columella (ist century A.D.) and of Palladius (4th century A.D.) 
are exhaustive treatises, and the Natural History of the elder 
Pliny (A.D. 23-70) contains considerable information on hus- 
bandry. Under the later empire agriculture sank into a condition 
of neglect, in which it remained throughout the Dark Ages. In 
Spain its revival was due to the Saracens, and by them, and their 
successors the Moors, agriculture was carried to a high pitch of 
excellence. The work on agriculture 1 of Ibn-al-Awam, who 
lived in the i2th century A.D., treats of the varieties of soils, 
manuring, irrigation, ploughing, sowing, harvesting, stock, 
horticulture, arboriculture and plant diseases, and is a lasting 
record of their skill and industry. 

The subsequent history of agriculture is treated in the following 
pages primarily from the British standpoint. Doubtless Flanders 
may claim to be the pioneer of " high farming " in medieval 
times, other countries following her lead in many respects. It is 
not, however, necessary to deal with the agricultural evolution of 
continental Europe, the gradual progress of agriculture as a whole 
being well enough typified in the story of its development in 
England, which indeed has led the way in modern times. After 
sections on the history and chief modern features of British 
agriculture, a separate account is given of the general features of 
American agriculture. 

HISTORY OF ENGLISH AGRICULTURE 

The " combined " or " common-field " system of husbandry 
practised by the village community or township (see VILLAGE 
COMMUNITIES) may be taken as the starting-point of English 
agriculture, in which, till the end of the i8th century, it is a 
dominant influence. The territory of the " township " consisted 
of arable land, meadow, pasture and waste. The arable land 
was divided into two or, more usually, three fields, which were 
cut up into strips bounded by balks and allotted to the villagers 
in such a way that one holding might include several discon- 
nected strips in each field a measure designed to prevent the 
whole of the best land falling to one man. The fields were fenced 
in from seed-time to harvest, after which the fences were taken 
1 Translation by Clement-Mullet (Paris, 1864). 



390 



AGRICULTURE 



[BRITISH 



down and the cattle turned in to feed on the stubble. Accord- 
ing to early methods of cropping, which were destined to prevail 
for centuries, wheat, the chief article of food, was sown in one 
autumn, reaped the next August; the following spring, oats or 
barley were sown, and the year following the harvest was a 
period of fallow. This procedure was followed on each of the 
three fields so that in every year one of them was fallow. In 
addition to the cereals, beans, peas and vetches were grown to 
some extent. The meadow-land was also divided into strips 
from which the various holders drew their supply of hay. The 
pasture-land was common to all, though the number of beasts 
which one man might turn into it was sometimes limited. 
Rough grazing could also be had on the outlying waste lands. 
In the absence of artificial grasses and roots, hay was very 
valuable; it constituted almost the only winter food for live 
stock, which were consequently in poor condition in spring. 

Under the manorial system, the rise of which preceded the 
Norman Conquest, communal methods of husbandry remained, 
but the position of the cultivator was radically altered. 
" Villeins," instead of free-holders, formed the most numerous 
class of the population. They were bound to the soil and occu- 
pied holdings of scattered strips (amounting usually to a virgate 
or 30 acres) in return for a payment partly in labour and partly 
in kind. A portion of the manor, generally about a third, con- 
stituted the lord's demesne, which, though sometimes separate, 
usually consisted of strips intermingled with those of his villeins. 
It thus formed part of the common farm and was cultivated by 
the villeins and their oxen under the superintendence of a 
bailiff. Below the villeins in the social scale came the cottiers 
possessing smaller holdings, sometimes only a garden, and no 
oxen. Free tenants and, after the Norman Conquest, slaves 
formed small proportions of the population. During the middle 
ages cattle and sheep were the chief farm animals, but the inter- 
mixture of stock consequent on the common-field system was 
a barrier to improvement in the breed and conduced to the 
propagation of disease. Oxen, usually yoked in teams of eight, 
were used for ploughing. Sheep were small and their fleeces 
light, nevertheless, owing to the meagreness of the yields of 
cereals' and the demand for wool for export, sheep-farming 
was looked to, as early as the 1 2th century, as the chief source 
of profit. Pigs and poultry were universally kept. The treatise 
on husbandry of Walter of Henley, dating from the early i3th 
century, is very valuable as describing the management of the 
demesne under the two- or three-field system. The following 
are typical passages: 

' " April is a good season for fallowing, if the earth breaks up behind 
the plough ; for second fallowing after St John's Day when the dust 
rises behind the plough; for seed-ploughing when the earth is well 
settled and not too cracked; however, the busy man cannot be 
always waiting on the seasons." " At sowing do not plough large 
furrows, but little and well laid together, that the seed may fall 
evenly." 

" Know that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughings, 
except lands that are sown each year, and that each ploughing costs 
6d. more or less and the harrowing id. It is well to sow at least two 
bushels to the acre." 

" Change your seed every year at Michaelmas, for the seed grown 
on other land will bring you more than that grown on your own." 

" Neither sell your stubble nor move it from the ground unless 
you need it for thatching. Have manure put up in heaps and mixed 
with earth." 

" Ridge marshy ground so as to let the water run off." 

During the I3th century there arose a tendency to commute 
labour-rents for money payments. This change led to the 
gradual disappearance of tenants in villeinage the villeins and 
cottiers and the rise on the one hand of the small independent 
farmer, on the other of the hired labourer. The plague of 1348 
marks an epoch in English agriculture. The diminution of the 
population by one-half led to a scarcity of labour and an increase 
of wages which deprived the landowner of his narrow margin 
of profit. To meet this situation, the Statute of Labourers 
(1351) enacted that no man should refuse to work at the same 
rate of wages as prevailed before the plague. In addition the 

1 Walter of Henley mentions six bushels per acre as a satisfactory 
crop. 



landowners attempted to revive the disappearing system of 
labour-rents. The bitter feelings engendered between em- 
ployer and employed culminated in the peasants' revolt of 1381. 
Meanwhile large numbers of landowners were forced to adopt 
one of two alternatives. In some cases they ceased to farm their 
own land and let it out on lease often together with the stock 
upon it; or else they abandoned arable culture, laid down their 
demesnes to pasture, enclosed the waste lands and devoted them- 
selves to sheep-farming. In the latter course they were en- 
couraged by the high prices of wool during the i4th century, and 
by Edward III.'s policy of fostering both the export of wool and 
the home manufacture of woollen goods. The i5th century, 
barren of progress in methods of husbandry, was -in its early 
years moderately prosperous. Later on the increasing abandon- 
ment of arable husbandry for sheep-farming brought about a 
less demand for labour, and rural depopulation was accelerated 
as the peasant was deprived of his grazing-ground by the en- 
closure of more and more of the waste land. 2 

From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. to the end of 
Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for the encourage- 
ment of tillage, though probably to little purpose. Agrlcul . 
" Where in some towns," says the statute 4th tun under 
Henry VII. (1488), " two hundred persons were occu- the Tudor* 
pied and lived of their lawful labours, now there are **"' 
occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall 
into idleness"; therefore it is ordained that houses which 
within three years have been let for farms, with twenty acres 
of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld, under 
the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the king 
or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century afterwards the 
practice had become still more alarming; and in 1534 a new 
act was tried, apparently with as little success. " Some have 
24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep, some 10,000, some 6000, some 
4000, and some more and some less "; and yet it is alleged the 
price of wool had nearly doubled, " sheep being come to a few 
persons' hands." A penalty was therefore imposed on all who 
kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in farm more 
than two tenements of husbandry. By the 3Qth Elizabeth (1597) 
arable land made pasture since the ist Elizabeth shall be again 
converted into tillage, and what is arable shall not be converted 
into pasture. 

The literature of agriculture, in abeyance since the treatise 
of Walter of Henley, makes another beginning in the i6th 
century. The best of the early works is the Book of Husbandry 
(ist ed. 1523), commonly ascribed to Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, 
a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign of Henry VIII., but 
more probably written by his elder brother John. This was 
followed by the Book of Surveying and Improvements (1523), by the 
same author. In the former treatise we have a clear and minute 
description of the rural practices of that period, and from the 
latter may be learned a good deal of the economy of the feudal 
system in its decline. 

The Book of Husbandry begins with a description of the plough 
and other implements, after which about a third part of it is 
occupied with the several operations as they succeed one another 
throughout the year. Among other passages in this part of the 
work, the following deserve notice: 

"Somme (ploughs) wyll tournthe sheld bredith at every landsende, 
and plowe all one way ' ; the same kind of plough that is now found 
so useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he observes, that 
"they be good on even grounde that lyeth lyghte "; and on such 
lands they are still most commonly employed. Cart-wheels were 
sometimes bound with iron, of which he greatly approves. On the 
much agitated question about the employment of horses or oxen 
in labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated. 

" In some places," he says, "a horse plough is better," and in 
others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he gives the pre- 
ference. Beans and peas seem to have been common crops. He 
mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley and oats; and after 
describing the method of harrowing " all maner of cornnes," we 
find the roller employed. "They used to role their barley grounde 

2 This process of enclosure must be distinguished from that of 
enclosing the arable common fields which, though advocated by 
Fitzherbert in a passage quoted below proceeded slowly till the 
i 8th century. 



BRITISH] 



AGRICULTURE 



39 1 



after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde even to mowe." Under 
the article " To falowe," he observes, " the greater clottes (clods) the 
better wheate, for the clottes kepe the wheat warme all wynter; and 
at March they will melte and breake and fal in manye small peces, 
the whiche is a new dongynge and refreshynge of the corne." This 
is agreeable to the present practice, founded on the very same 
reasons. " In May, the shepe fplde is to be set out " ; but Fitzherbert 
does not much approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages 
in a very judicious manner. " In the latter end of May and the 
begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede the corne " ; and then we have 
an accurate description of the different weeds, and the instruments 
and mode of weeding. Next conies a second ploughing of the fallow ; 
and afterwards, in the latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows 
begins. Of this operation, and of the forks and rakes and the hay- 
making there is a very good account. The corn harvest naturally 
follows : rye and wheat were usually shorn, and barley and oats cut 
with the scythe. The writer does not approve of the common 
practice of cutting wheat high and then mowing the stubbles. " In 
Somersetshire," he says, " they do shere theyr wheat very lowe; and 
the wheate strawe that they purpose to make thacke of, they do not 
threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it in sheves, and call it rede, 
and therewith they thacke theyr houses." He recommends the 
practice of setting up corn in shocks, with two sheaves to cover eight, 
instead of ten sheaves as at present probably owing to the straw 
being then shorter. The corn was commonly housed; but if there 
be a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a scaffold 
and not upon the ground. The fallow received a third ploughing in 
September, and was sown about Michaelmas. " Wheat is moost 
commonlye sowne under the forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the 
falowe, and then plpwe it under"; and this branch of his subject 
is concluded with directions about threshing, winnowing and other 
kinds of barn-work. 

Fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock. " An housbande," he 
says, " can not well thryue by his corne without he have other 
cattell, nor by his cattell without corne. And bycause that shepe, in 
myne opynyon, is the mooste profytablest cattell that any man can 
haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe." His remarks 
on this subject are so accurate that one might imagine they came 
from a storemaster of the present day. 

In some places at present "they neuer seuertheir lambesfrom their 
dammes " ; " and the poore of the peeke (high) countre'ye, and such 
other places, where, as they vse to mylke theyr ewes, they vse to 
wayne theyr lambes at 12 weekes olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue 
or syxe weekes " ; but that, he observes, " is greate hurte to the ewes, 
and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the ramme at the tyme 
of the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne." " In June is tyme to 
shere shepe ; and ere they be shorne, they must be verye well washen, 
the which shall be to the owner greate profyte in the sale of his wool, 
and also to the clothe-maker." 

His remarks on horses, cattle, &c., are not less interesting; and 
there is a very good account of the diseases of each species, and some 
just observations on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the 
same pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work. 

The author then points out the great advantages of enclosure; 
recommends " quycksettynge, dychynge and hedgeyng "; and gives 
particular directions about settes, and the method of training a hedge, 
as well as concerning the planting and management of trees. Fitz- 
herbert throws some light on the position of women in the agri- 
culture of his day. "It is a wyues occupation," he says, " to wynowe 
all maner of cornes, to make malte, to washe and wrynge, to make 
heye, shere corne, and, in time of nede, to helpe her husbande to 
fyll the mucke wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode 
heye, corne and suche other; and to go or ride to the market to sel 
butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, capons, hennes, pygges, gese, 
and all maner of cornes." 

The Book of Surveying adds considerably to our knowledge 
of the rural economy ol that age. " Four maner of commens " 
are described; several kinds of mills for corn and other purposes, 
and also " quernes that goo with hand"; different orders of 
tenants, down to the " boundmen," who " in some places con- 
tynue as yet "; " and many tymes, by colour thereof, there be 
many freemen taken as boundmen, and their lands and goods is 
taken from them." Lime and marl are mentioned as common 
manures, and the former was sometimes spread on the surface to 
destroy heath. Both draining and irrigation are noticed, though 
the latter but slightly. And the work concludes with an inquiry 
" how to make a township that is worth XX. marke a yere, 
worth XX. li. a year," advocating the transition from communal 
or open field to individual or enclosure farming. 

" It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standeth in 
tyllage in the playne countrey, there be errable landes to plowe and 
sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr horses and mares upon, and 
common pasture to kepe and pasture their catell, beestes and shepe 
upon; and also they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey upon. 
Than to let it be known how many acres of errable lande euery man 
hath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde to chaunge with 






his neyghbours, and to leve them toguyther, and to make hym one 
seuerall close in euery felde for his errable lands; and his leyse in 
euery felde to leve them togyther in one felde, and to make one seuerall 
close for them all. And also another seuerall close for his portion 
of his common pasture, and also his porcion of his medowe in a 
seuerall close by itselfe, and al kept in seureall both in wynter and 
somer; and euery cottage shall haue his portion assigned hym 
accordynge to his rent, and than shall nat the ryche man ouerpresse 
the poore man with his cattell ; and euery man may eate his oun 
close at his pleasure. And vndoubted, that hay and strawe that will 
find one beest in the house wyll finde two beestes in the close, and 
better they shall lyke. For those beestis in the house have short 
heare and thynne, and towards March they will pylle and be bare ; 
and therefore they may nat abyde in the fylde before the heerdmen 
in winter tyme for colde. And those that lye in a close undera hedge 
haue longe heare and thyck, and they will neuer pylle nor be bare ; 
and by this reason the husbande maye kepe twyse so many catell 
as he did before. 

" This is the cause of this apprpwment. Nowe euery husbande 
hath sixe seuerall closes, whereof iii. be for corne, the fourthe for his 
leyse, the fyfte for his commen pastures, and the sixte for his haye ; 
and in wynter time there is but one occupied with corne, and than 
hath the husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lente come, and that he 
hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture felde al sommer. 
And when he hath mowen his medowe, then he hath his medowe 
grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catell that wold be amended, 
or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them in any close he wyll, the 
which is a great advantage; and if all shulde lye commen, than 
wolde the edyche of the corne feldes and the aftermath of all the 
medowes be eaten in X. or XII. dayes. And the rych men that hath 
moche catell wold have the advantage, and the poore man can have 
no help nor relefe in wynter when he hath moste nede ; and if an 
acre of lande be wort he sixe pens, or it be enclosed, it will be worth 
VIII. pens, when it is enclosed by reason of the compostying and 
dpngyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day and 
nighte; and if any of his thre closes that he hath for his corne be 
worne or ware bare, than he may breke and plowe up his close that 
he hadde for his layse, or the close that he hadde for his commen 
pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with corne, and let the other lye 
for a time, and so shall he have always reist grounde, the which will 
bear moche corne with lytel donge; and also he shall have a great 
profyte of the wod in the hedges whan it is growen; and not only 
these profytes and advantages beforesaid, but he shall save moche 
more than al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate, 
drinke and wages of a shepherde, the wages of the heerdmen, and 
the wages of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as charge- 
able as all his holle rente; and also his corne shall be better saved 
from eatinge or destroyeng with catel. For dout ye nat but heerde- 
men with their catell, shepeherdes with theirshepe, and tieng of horses 
and mares, destroyeth moch corne, the which the hedges wold save. 
Paraduenture some men would say that this shuld be against the 
common weale, bicause the shepeherdes, heerdmen and swyne-herdes 
shuld than be put out of wages. To that it may be answered, 
though these occupations be not used, there be as many newe 
occupations that were not used before ; as getting of quicke settes, 
diching, hedging and plashing, the which the same men may use 
and occupye." 

The next author who writes professedly on agriculture is 
Thomas Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry, 
published in 1562, enjoyed such lasting repute that in 1723 Lord 
Molesworth recommended that it should be taught in schools. 
In it the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, and then 
follows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 42 pages more. 
It is written in verse. Amidst much that is valueless there are 
some useful notices concerning the state of agriculture at the 
time in different parts of England. Hops, which had been intro- 
duced in the early part of the i6th century, and on the culture 
of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reginald Scott, are 
mentioned as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after 
barley. Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. En- 
closures must have been numerous in some counties; and there 
is a very good comparison between " champion (open fields) 
country and several," which Blith afterwards transcribed into 
his Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips and rape, 
not yet cultivated in the fields, are mentioned among the herbs 
and roots for the kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser 
about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherbert's works. 

In 1577 appeared the Foure Bookes of Husbandry, translated, 
with augmentation, from the work of Conrad Heresbach. Much 
stress is laid on the value of manure, and mention is made of 
clover. 

Fitzherbert, in deploring the gradual discontinuance of the 
practice of marling land, had alluded to the grievance familiar 



39 2 



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in modern times of tenants " who, if they should marl and make 
their holdings much better, fear lest they should be put out, 
or make a great fine or else pay more rent." This subject is 
treated at length in Sir John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue (ist 
ed. 1607), the next agricultural work demanding notice. The 
author, writing from the landowner's point of view, ascribes the 
rise in rents and the rise in the price of corn 1 to the " emulation " 
of tenants in competing for holdings, a practice implying that 
the agriculture of the period was prosperous. Norden's work 
contains many judicious observations on the " different natures 
of grounds, how they may be employed, how they may be 
bettered, reformed and amended." The famous meadows near 
Salisbury are mentioned, where, when cattle have fed their fill, 
hogs, it is said, " are made fat with the remnant namely, with 
the knots and sappe of the grasse." " Clouer grasse, or the grasse 
honey suckle " (white clover), is directed to be sown with other 
hay seeds. " Carrot rootes " were then raised in several parts 
of England, and sometimes by farmers. London street and 
stable dung was carried to a distance by water, and appears from 
later writers to have been got for the trouble of removing. 
Leases of 21 years are recommended for persons of small capital 
as better than employing it in purchasing land. The works of 
Gervase Markham, Leonard Mascall, Gabriel Plattes and other 
authors of the first half of the i yth century may be passed over, 
the best part of them being preserved by Blith and Hartlib, who 
are referred to below. 

Sir Richard Weston's Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant 
and Flanders was published by Hartlib in 1645, ar >d its title 
indicates the source to which England owed much of its sub- 
sequent agricultural advancement. Weston was ambassador 
from England to the elector palatine in 1619, and had the merit 
of being the first who introduced the great clover, as it was then 
called, 'into English agriculture, about 1652, and probably turnips 
also. Clover thrives best, he says, when you sow it on the 
barrenest ground, such as the worst heath ground in England. 
The ground is to be pared and burnt, and unslacked lime must 
be added to the ashes. It is next to be well ploughed and 
harrowed; and about 10 Ib of clover seed must be sown on 
an acre in April or the end of March. If you intend to preserve 
seed, then the second crop must be let stand till it come to a full 
and dead ripeness, and you shall have at the least five bushels 
per acre. Being once sown, it will last five years; the land, when 
ploughed, will yield, three or four years together, rich crops of 
wheat, and after that a crop of oats, with which clover seed is 
to be sown again. It is in itself an excellent manure. Sir Richard 
adds; and so it should be, to enable land to bear this treatment. 
Before 1655 the culture of clover, exactly according to the present 
method, seems to have been well known in England, and it had 
also made its way to Ireland. 

A great many works on agriculture appeared during the 
time of the Commonwealth, of which Walter Blith's Improver 
Improved and Samuel Hartlib's Legacie are the most valuable. 
The first edition of the former was published in 1649, and of the 
latter in 1651; and both of them were enlarged in subsequent 
editions. In the first edition of the Improver Improved no 
mention is made of clover, nor in the second of turnips, but in the 
third, clover is treated of at some length, and turnips are recom- 
mended as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which should 
be extended from the kitchen garden to the field. Sir Richard 
Weston must have cultivated turnips before this; for Blith 
says that Sir Richard affirmed to himself that he fed his swine 
with them. They were first given boiled, but afterwards the 
swine came to eat them raw, and would run after the carts, and 
pull them forth as they gathered them an expression which 
conveys an idea of their being cultivated in the fields. 

Blith's book is the first systematic work in which there are 
some traces of alternate husbandry or the practice of interposing 
clover and turnip between culmiferous crops. He is a great 
enemy to commons and common fields, and to retaining land in 

1 During the i6th century wheat had risen in price, and between 
1606 and 1618 never fell below 305. a quarter. At the same time 
wages remained low. 



old pasture, unless it be of the best quality. His description of 
the different kinds of ploughs is interesting; and he justly 
recommends such as were drawn by two horses (some even by 
one horse) in preference to the weighty and clumsy machines 
which required four or more horses or oxen. The following 
passage indicates the contemporary theory of manuring: " In 
thy tillage are these special opportunities to improve it, either 
by liming, marling, sanding, earthing, mudding, snayl-coddihg, 
mucking, chalking, pidgeons-dung, hens-dung, hogs-dung or 
by any other means as some by rags, some by coarse wool, by 
pitch marks, and tarry stuff, any oyly stuff, salt and many 
things more, yea indeed any thing almost that hath any liquid- 
ness, foulness, saltness or good moysture in it, is very natural! 
inrichment to almost any sort of land." Blith speaks of an 
instrument which ploughed, sowed and harrowed at the same 
time; and the setting of corn was then a subject of much dis- 
cussion. Blith was a zealous advocate of drainage and holds 
that drains to be efficient must be laid 3 or 4 ft. deep. 
The drainage of the Great Level of the Fens was prosecuted 
during the i;th century, but lack of engineering skill and the 
opposition of the fen-men hindered the reclamation of a now 
fertile region. 

Hartlib's Legacie contains, among some very judicious direc- 
tions, a great deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies 
which the writer complains of in English agriculture must be 
placed to the account of climate, and never have been or can 
be supplied. Some of his recommendations are quite unsuitable 
to the state of the country, and display more of general.knowledge 
and good intention than of either the theory or practice of 
agriculture. Among the subjects deserving notice may be 
mentioned the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as a 
preventive of smut; changing every year the species of grain, 
and bringing seed corn from a distance; ploughing down green 
crops as manure; and feeding horses with broken oats and chaff. 
This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blith about the 
advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture. " It were no 
losse to this island," he says, " if that we should not plough at 
all, if so be that we could certainly have corn at a reasonable 
rate, and likewise vent for all our manufactures of wool "; and 
one reason for this is, that pasture employs more hands than 
tillage, instead of depopulating the country, as was commonly 
imagined. The grout, which he mentions as " coming over to us 
in Holland ships," about which he desires information, was 
probably the same as shelled barley; and mills for manufac- 
turing it were introduced into Scotland from Holland towards 
the beginning of the i8th century. 

Among the other writers previous to the Revolution mention 
must be made of John Ray the botanist and of John Evelyn, 
both men of great talent and research, whose works are still in 
high estimation. 

The first half of the tyth century was a period of agricultural 
activity, partly due, no doubt, to the increase of enclosed farms. 
Marling and liming are again practised, new agricultural imple- 
ments and manures introduced, and the new crops more widely 
used. But the Civil War and the subsequent political disturb- 
ances intervened to prevent the continuance of this progress, and 
the agriculture of the end of the century seems to have relapsed 
into stagnation. 

Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the i6th and the greater 
part of the i7th century very little is known; no professed 
treatise on the subject appeared till after the Revolution. Scottish 
The south-eastern counties were the earliest improved, agri- 
and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have been very culture at 
wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the eastern ^ /(// . 
coast in that year, says, " We observed little or no 
fallow ground in Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which they 
manured with sea wreck. The men seemed to be very lazy, and 
may be frequently observed to plough in their cloaks. It is the 
fashion of them to wear cloaks when they go abroad, but especi- 
ally on Sundays. They have neither good bread, cheese nor 
drink. They cannot make them, nor will they learn. Their 
butter is very indifferent, and one would wonder how they could 



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contrive to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of 
coal-wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticated 
barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built of 
stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one room, many 
of them no chimneys, the windows very small holes and not 
glazed. The ground in the valleys and plains bear very good 
corn, but especially bears barley or bigge, and oats, but rarely 
wheat and rye." 

It is probable that no great change had taken place in Scotland 
from the end of the i sth century, except that tenants gradually 
became possessed of a little stock of their own, instead of having 
their farm stocked by the landlord. " The minority of James V., 
the reign of Mary Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars 
of her grandson Charles I. , were all periods of lasting waste. The 
very laws which were made during successive reigns for protecting 
the tillers of the soil from spoil are the best proofs of the deplor- 
able state of the husbandman." 1 

In the 1 7th century those laws were made which paved the way 
for an improved system of agriculture in Scotland. By a statute 
of 1633 landholders were enabled to have their tithes valued, 
and to buy them either at nine or six years' purchase, according 
to the nature of the property. The statute of 1685, conferring on 
landlords a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very 
different tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture. But the 
two Acts in 1695, for the division of commons and separation of 
intermixed properties, facilitated improvements. 

From the Revolution to the accession of George III. the 
progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as might 
be imagined from the great exportation of corn. It 
ofagricat- is probable that very little improvement had taken 
tare from place, either in the cultivation of the soil or in the 
'*** ' management of live stock, from the Restoration down 
to the middle of the i8th century. Clover and turnips 
were confined to a few districts, and at the latter period were 
scarcely cultivated at all by common farmers in the northern 
part of the island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, it is 
necessary to notice only such as describe some improvement in 
the modes of culture, or some extension of the practices that were 
formerly little known. 

In John Houghton's Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a 
periodical work begun in 1681 , there is one of the earliest notices of 
turnips being eaten by sheep: " Some in Essex have their fallow 
after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, by which means 
the turnips are scooped, and so made capable to hold dews and 
rain water, which, by corrupting, imbibes the nitre of the air, and 
when the shell breaks it runs about and fertilizes. By feeding the 
sheep, the land is dunged as if it had been folded; and those 
turnips, though few or none be carried off for human use, are a 
very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so, though they 
only plough the turnips in without feeding." This was written 
in February 1694. Ten years before, John Worlidge, one of his 
correspondents, and the author of the Sy sterna A griculturae ( 1 669) , 
observes, " Sheep fatten very well on turnips, which prove an 
excellent nourishment for them in haM winters when fodder is 
scarce; for they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots 
in the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin. Ten 
acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c., will feed as many 
sheep as one hundred acres thereof would before have done." 

The next writer of note is John Mortimer, whose Whole Art 
of Husbandry, a regular, systematic work of considerable merit, 
was published in 1707. 

From the third edition of Hartlib's Legacie we learn that 
:lover was cut green and given to cattle; and it appears that 
this practice of soiling, as it is now called, had become very 
common about the beginning of the i8th .century, wherever 
clover was cultivated. Rye-grass was now sown along with it. 
Turnips were hand-hoed and extensively employed in feeding 
sheep and cattle. 

The first considerable improvement in the practice of that 

(riod was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, 
10 about the year 1701 invented the drill, and. whose Horse- 
1 Chalmers' Caledonia, vol. ii. p. 732. 



hoeing Husbandry, published in 1731, exhibits the first decided 
step in advance upon the principles and practices of his pre- 
decessors. Not contented with a careful attention to details, 
Tull set himself, with admirable skill and perseverance, to 
investigate the growth of plants, and thus to arrive at a know- 
ledge of the principles by which the cultivation of field-crops 
should be regulated. Having arrived at the conclusion that the 
food of plants consists of minute particles of earth taken up by 
their rootlets, it followed that the more thoroughly the soil in 
which they grew was disintegrated, the more abundant would 
be the "pasture" (as he called it) to which their fibres would 
have access. He was thus led to adopt that system of sowing 
his crops in rows or drills, so wide apart as to admit of tillage of the 
intervals, both by ploughing and hoeing, being continued until 
they had well-nigh arrived at maturity. Such reliance did he 
place in the pulverization of the soil that he grew as many as 
thirteen crops of wheat on the same field without manure. 

As the distance between his rows appeared much greater than 
was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants, he begins 
by showing that these roots extend much farther than is com- 
monly believed, and then proceeds to inquire into the nature of 
their food. After examining several hypotheses, he decides this 
to be fine particles of earth. The chief and almost the only use 
of dung, he thinks, is to divide the earth, to dissolve " this 
terrestrial matter, which affords nutriment to the mouths of 
vegetable roots "; and this can be done more completely by 
tillage. It is therefore necessary not only to pulverize the soil 
by repeated ploughings before it be seeded, but, as it becomes 
gradually more and more compressed afterwards, recourse must 
be had to tillage while the plants are growing; and this is hoeing, 
which also destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of 
their nourishment. 

The leading features of Tull's husbandry are his practice of 
laying the land into narrow ridges of 5 or 6 ft., and upon 
the middle of these drilling one, two, or three rows, distant 
from one another about 7 in. when there were three, and 10 in. 
when only two. The distance of the plants on one ridge from 
those on the contiguous one he called an interval; the distance 
between the rows on the same ridge, a space or partition; the 
former was stirred repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by 
the hand-hoe. 

" Hoeing," he says, " may be divided into deep, which is our 
horse-hoeing; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing; 
and also the shallow horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt 
rows, where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches. 
This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a succenadeum to 
it, and can neither supply the use of dung nor fallow, and may 
be properly called scratch-hoeing." But in his mode of forming 
ridges his practice seems to have been original; his implements, 
especially his drill, display much ingenuity; and his claim to 
the title of founder of the present horse-hoeing husbandry of 
Great Britain seems indisputable. 

Contemporary with Tull was Charles, 2ndViscountTownshend, 
a typical representative of the large landowners to whom the 
strides made by agriculture in the i8th century were due. The 
class to which he belonged was the only one which could afford 
to initiate improvements. The bulk of the land was still farmed 
by small tenants on the old common-field system, which made 
it impossible for the individual to adopt a new crop rotation and 
hindered innovation of every kind. On the other hand, the small 
farmers who occupied separated holdings were deterred from 
improving by the fear of a rise in rent. Townshend's belief in 
the growing of turnips gained him the nickname of " Turnip 
Townshend." In their cultivation he adopted Tull's practice 
of drilling and horse-hoeing, and he was also the founder of the 
Norfolk or four-course system, the first of those rotations which 
dispense with the necessity of a summer-fallow and provide 
winter-keep for live-stock (see below, Rotation of Crops), The 
spread of these principles in Norfolk made it, according to Arthur 
Young (writing in 1770), one of the best cultivated counties in 
England. In the latter half of the century another Norfolk 
farmer, Thomas William Coke of Holkham, earl of Leicester, 



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(1752-1842), figures as a pioneer of high-farming. He was one 
of the first to use oil-cake and bone-manure, to distinguish the 
feeding values of grasses, to appreciate to the full the beneficial 
effects of stock on light lands and to realize the value of long 
leases as an incentive to good farming. 

Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the end of 
the 1 7th century, we are almost entirely ignorant. The first 
... work, written by James Donaldson, was printed in 

culture la 1697, under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or, 
Scotland an Inquiry into the Present Manner of Tilling and 
la the 18th M anur i n g the Ground in Scotland. It appears from 
this treatise that the state of the art was not more 
advanced at that time in North Britain than it had been 
in England in the time of Fitzherbert. Farms were divided 
into infield and outfield; corn crops followed one another with- 
out the intervention of fallow, cultivated herbage or turnips, 
though something is said about fallowing the outfield; en- 
closures were very rare; the tenantry had not begun to emerge 
from a state of great poverty and depression; and the wages of 
labour, compared with the price of corn, were much lower than 
at present, though that price, at least in ordinary years, must 
appear extremely moderate in our times. Leases for a term of 
years, however, were not uncommon; but the want of capital 
rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt any spirited 
improvements. 

The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is The Country- 
man's Rudiments, or an Advice to the Farmers in East Lothian, 
how to labour and improve their Grounds, said to have been written 
by John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven about the time of the 
Union, and reprinted in 1723. The author bespeaks the favour 
of those to whom he addresses himself in the following significant 
terms: " Neither shall I affright you with hedging, ditching, 
marling, chalking, paring and burning, draining, watering and 
such like, which are all very good improvements indeed, and 
very agreeable with the soil and situation of East Lothian, but 
I know ye cannot bear as yet a crowd of improvements, this 
being only intended to initiate you in the true method and 
principles of husbandry." The farm-rooms in East Lothian, 
as in other districts, were divided into infield and outfield. 

" The infield (where wheat is sown) is generally divided by the 
tenant into four divisions or breaks, as they call them, viz. one 
of wheat, one of barley, one of pease and one of oats, so that the 
wheat is sowd after the pease, the barley after the wheat and the 
oats after the barley. The outfield land is ordinarily made use of 
promiscuously for feeding of their cows, horse, sheep and oxen; 'tis 
also dunged by their sheep who lay in earthen folds ; and sometimes, 
when they have much of it, they fanch or fallow a part of it yearly." 

Under this management the produce seems to have been 
three times the seed ; and yet, says the writer, " if in East 
Lothian they did not leave a higher stubble than in other places 
of the kingdom, their grounds would be in a much worse con- 
dition than at present they are, though bad enough." " A good 
crop of corn makes a good stubble, and a good stubble is the 
equalest mucking that is." Among the advantages of enclosures, 
he observes, " you will gain much more labour from your ser- 
vants, a great part of whose time was taken up in gathering 
thistles and other garbage for their horses to feed upon in their 
stables; and thereby the great trampling and pulling up and 
other destruction of the corns while they are yet tender will 
be prevented." Potatoes and turnips are recommended to be 
sown in the yard (kitchen-garden). Clover does not seem to have 
been in use. Rents were paid in corn; and for the largest farm, 
which he thinks should employ no more than two ploughs, the 
rent was about six chalders of victual " when the ground is very 
good, and four in that which is not so good. But I am most fully 
convinced they should take long leases or tacks, that they may 
not be straitened with time in the improvement of their rooms; 
and this is profitable both for master .and tenant." 

Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the early 
part of the i8th century. The first attempts at improvement 
cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a number of 
landholders formed themselves into a society, under the title 
of the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in 



Scotland. John, 2nd earl of Stair, one of their most active 
members, is said to have been the first who cultivated turnips in 
that country. The Select Transactions of this society were 
collected and published in 1743 by Robert Maxwell, who took a 
large part in its proceedings. It is evident from this book 
that the society had exerted itself with success in intro- 
ducing cultivated herbage and turnips, as well as in improving 
the former methods of culture. But there is reason to believe 
that the influence of the example of its numerous members did 
not extend to the common tenantry, who not unnaturally were 
reluctant to adopt the practices of those by whom farming was 
perhaps regarded as primarily a source of pleasure rather than 
of profit. Though this society, the earliest probably in the 
United Kingdom, soon counted upwards of 300 members, it 
existed little more than 20 years. 

In the introductory paper in Maxwell's collection we are told 
that 

" The practice of draining, enclosing, summer fallowing, sowing 
flax, hemp, rape, turnip and grass seeds, planting cabbages after, 
and potatoes with, the plough, in fields of great extent, is introduced ; 
and that, according to the general opinion, more corn grows now 
yearly where it was never known to grow before, these twenty years 
last past, than perhaps a sixth of all that the kingdom was in use 
to produce at any time before." 

In 1757 Maxwell issued another work entitled The Practical 
Husbandman; being a collection of Miscellaneous papers on 
Husbandry, &c. In it the greater part of the Select Transactions 
is republished, with a number of new papers, among which an 
Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for the im- 
provement of it, is the most valuable. In this he lays it down 
as a rule that it is bad husbandry to take two crops of grain 
successively, which marks a considerable progress in the know- 
ledge of modern husbandry; though he adds that in Scotland 
the best husbandmen after a fallow take a crop of wheat; after 
the wheat, peas; then barley, and then oats; and after that 
they fallow again. The want of enclosures was still a matter of 
complaint. The ground continued to be cropped so long as it 
produced two seeds; the best farmers were contented with four 
seeds, which was more than the general produce. 

The gradual advance in the price of farm produce soon after 
the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of popula- 
tion and of wealth derived from manufactures and lsi g 
commerce, gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry, 
augmented agricultural capital and called forth a more skilful and 
enterprising race of farmers. 

A more rational system of cropping now began to take the 
place of the thriftless and barbarous practice of sowing succes- 
sive crops of corn until the land was utterly exhausted, and then 
leaving it foul with weeds to recover its power by an indefinite 
period of rest. Green crops, such as turnips, clover and rye 
grass, began to be alternated with grain crops, whence the name 
alternate husbandry. 

The writings of Arthur Young (<?..)> secretary to the Board 
of Agriculture, describe the transition from the old to the new 
agriculture. In many places turnips and clover were still 
unknown or ignored. Large districts still clung to the old 
common-field system, to the old habits of ploughing with 
teams of four or eight, and to slovenly methods of cultivation. 
Young's condemnation of these survivals was as pronounced as 
his support of the methods of the large farmers to whom he 
ascribed the excellence of the husbandry of Kent, Norfolk and 
Essex. He realized that with the enclosure of the waste lands 
and the absorption of small into large holdings, the common- 
field farmer must migrate to the town or become a hired labourer; 
but he also realized that to feed a rapidly growing industrial 
population, the land must be improved by draining, marling, 
manuring and the use of better implements, in short by the 
investment of the capital which the yeoman farmer, content to 
feed himself and his own family, did not possess. The enlarge- 
ment of farms, and in Scotland the letting of them under leases 
for a considerable term of years, continued to be a marked feature 
in the agricultural progress of the country until the end of the 
century, and is to be regarded both as a cause and a consequence 



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of that progress. The passing of some 3500 enclosure bills, affect- 
ing between 5 and 55 million acres, during the reign of George 
III., before which the whole number was between 200 and 250, 
shows how rapidly the break-up of the common-field husbandry 
and the cultivation of new land now proceeded. The disastrous 
American War for a time interfered with the national prosperity; 
but with the return of peace in 1783 the cultivation of the 
country made more rapid progress. The quarter of a century 
immediately following 1760 is memorable for the introduction 
of various important improvements. It was during this period 
that the genius of Robert Bakewell produced an extraordinary 
change in the character of our more important breeds of live 
stock, more especially by the perfecting of a new race of sheep 
the well-known Leicesters. Bakewell's fame as a breeder was 
for a time enhanced by the improvement which he effected on 
the Long-horned cattle, then the prevailing breed of the midland 
counties of England. These, however, were ere long rivalled 
and afterwards superseded by the Shorthorn or Durham breed, 
which the brothers Charles and Robert Colling obtained from 
the useful race of cattle that had long existed in the valley of 
the Tees, by applying to them the principle of breeding which 
Bakewell had already established. To this period also belong 
George and Matthew Culley the former a pupil of Bakewell 
who left their paternal property on the bank of the Tees and 
settled on the Northumbrian side of the Tweed, bringing with 
them the valuable breeds of live stock and improved husbandry 
of their native district. The improvements introduced by these 
energetic and skilful farmers spread rapidly, and exerted a most 
beneficial influence upon the border counties. 

From 1784 to 1795 improvements advanced with steady steps. 
This period was distinguished for the adoption and working 
out of ascertained improvements. Small's swing plough and 
Andrew Meikle's threshing-machine, although invented some 
years before this, were now perfected and brought into general 
use, to the great furtherance of agriculture. Two important 
additions were about this time made to the field crops, viz. the 
Swedish turnip and potato oat. The latter was accidentally 
discovered in 1788, and both soon came into general cultivation. 
In the same year Merino sheep were introduced by George III., 
who was a zealous farmer. For a time this breed attracted much 
attention, and sanguine expectations were entertained that it 
would prove of national importance. Its unfitness for the pro- 
duction of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine clothing wool 
from other countries, soon led to its total rejection. 

In Scotland the opening up of the country by the construction 
of practicable roads, and the enclosing and subdividing of farms 
by hedge and ditch, was now in active progress. The former 
admitted of the general use of wheel-carriages, of the ready con- 
veyance of produce to markets, and in particular of the extended 
use of lime, the application of which was immediately followed 
by a great increase of produce. The latter, besides its more 
obvious advantages, speedily freed large tracts of country from 
stagnant water and their inhabitants from ague, and prepared 
the way for the underground draining which soon after began to 
be practised. Dawson of Frogden in Roxburghshire is believed 
to have been the first who grew turnips as a field crop to any 
extent. It is on record that as early as 1764 he had 100 acres of 
drilled turnips on his farm in one year. An Act passed in 1770, 
which relaxed the rigour of strict entails and afforded power to 
landlords to grant leases and otherwise improve their estates, had 
a beneficial effect on Scottish agriculture. 

The husbandry of the country was thus steadily improving, 
when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved in the wars 
of the French Revolution. In 1795, under the joint operation of 
a deficient harvest and the diminution in foreign supplies of 
grain owing to outbreak of war, the price of wheat, which, for the 
twenty preceding years, had been under 505. a quarter, suddenly 
rose to 8is. 6d., and in the following year reached p6s. In 1797 
the fear of foreign invasion led to a panic and run upon the banks, 
in which emergency the Bank Restriction Act, suspending cash 
payment, was passed, and ushered in a system of unlimited credit 
transactions. Under the unnatural stimulus of these extra- 



ordinary events, every branch of industry extended with un- 
exampled rapidity. But in nothing was this so apparent as in 
agriculture; the high prices of produce holding out a great 
inducement to improve lands then arable, to reclaim others that 
had previously lain waste, and to bring much pasture-land under 
the plough. Nor did this increased tillage interfere with the 
increase of live stock, as the green crops of the alternate hus- 
bandry more than compensated for the diminished pasturage. 
This extraordinary state of matters lasted from 1795 to 1814, 
the prices of produce even increasing towards the close of that 
period. The average price of wheat for the whole period 
was 895. 7d. per quarter; but for the last five years it was 
1075., and in 1812 it reached 1263. 6d. The agriculture of Great 
Britain, as a whole, advanced with rapid strides during this 
period; but nowhere was the change so great as in Scotland. 
Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty years, is probably 
without parallel in the history of any other country. This is 
accounted for by a concurrence of circumstances. Previous to 
this period the husbandry of Scotland was still in a backward 
state as compared with the best districts of England, where many 
practices, only of recent introduction in the north, had been in 
general use for generations. This disparity made the subsequent 
contrast the more striking. The land in Scotland was now, with 
trifling exceptions, let on leases for terms varying from twenty to 
thirty years, and in farms of sufficient size to employ at the least 
two or three ploughs. The unlimited issues of government paper 
and the security afforded by these leases induced the Scottish 
banks to afford every facility to landlords and tenants to embark 
capital in the improvement of the land. The substantial educa- 
tion supplied by the parish schools, of which nearly the whole 
population could then avail themselves, had diffused through all 
ranks such a measure of intelligence as enabled them promptly 
to discern and skilfully and energetically to take advantage of 
this spring-tide of prosperity, and to profit by the agricultural 
information now plentifully furnished by means of the Bath and 
West of England Society, established in 1777; the Highland 
Society, instituted in 1784; and the National Board of Agricul- 
ture, in 1793. 

The restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment of 
the Corn Laws in 1815, mark the beginning of another era in the 
history of agriculture. The sudden return to peace- 
prices was followed by a time of severe depression, low 
wages, diminished rents and bad farming. The fall 
in prices was aggravated, first by the unpropitious weather and 
deficient harvest of the years 1816, 1817, and still more by the 
passing in 1819 of the bill restoring cash payments, which, coming 
into operation in 1821, caused serious embarrassment to all 
persons who had entered into engagements at a depreciated 
currency, which had now to be met with the lower prices of an 
enhanced one. The frequency of select-committees and commis- 
sions, which sat in 1814, 1821 and 1822, 1833 and 1836, testifies 
to the gravity of the crisis. The years 1830-1833 are especially 
memorable for a disastrous outbreak of sheep-rot and for agrarian 
outrages, caused partly by the dislike of the labourers to the 
introduction of agricultural machines. 

During this period of depression, which lasted till the 'forties, 
want of confidence prevented any general improvement in 
agricultural methods. At the same time, certain developments 
destined to exercise considerable influence in later times are 
to be noted. Before the close of the i8th century, and during 
the first quarter of the igth, a good deal had been done in the 
way of draining the land, either by open ditches or by James 
Elkington's system of deep covered drains. In 1834 James 
Smith of Deanston promulgated his system of thorough draining 
and deep ploughing, the adoption of which immeasurably im- 
proved the clay lands of the country. The early years of the 
reign of Queen Victoria witnessed the strengthening of the union 
between agriculture and chemistry. The Board of Agriculture 
in 1803 had commissioned Sir Humphry Davy to deliver a 
course of lectures on the connexion of chemistry with vegetable 
physiology. In 1840 the appearance of Chemistry in its Appli- 
cation to Agrkulture and Physiology by Justus von Liebig set 






AGRICULTURE 



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on foot a movement in favour of scientific husbandry, the most 
notable outcome of which was the establishment by Sir John 
Bennet Lawes in 1843 of the experimental station of Rotham- 
sted. Since Blith's time bone was the one new fertilizer that 
had come into use. Nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano and 
superphosphate of lime in the form of bones dissolved by sulphuric 
acid were now added to the list of manures, and the practice 
of analysing soils became more general. Manual labour in 
farming operations began to be superseded by the use of drills, 
hay-makers and horse-rakes, chaff-cutters and root-pulpers. 
The reaping-machine, invented in 1812 by John Common, 
improved upon by the Rev. Patrick Bell in England and by 
Cyrus H. McCormick and others in America, and finally perfected 
about 1879 by the addition of an efficient self-binding apparatus, 
is the most striking example of the application of mechanics to 
agriculture. Improvements in the plough, harrow and roller 
were introduced, adapting those implements to different soils 
and purposes. The steam-engine first took the place of horses 
as a threshing power in 1803, but it was not until after 1850 that 
it was applied to the plough and cultivator. The employment 
of agricultural machines received considerable impetus from the 
Great Exhibition of 1851. The much-debated Corn Laws, after 
undergoing various modifications, and proving the fruitful 
source of business uncertainty, social discontent and angry 
partisanship, were finally abolished in 1846, although the act 
was not consummated until three years later. Several other 
acts of the legislature passed during this period exerted a bene- 
ficial influence on agriculture. Of these, the first in date and 
importance is the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836. Improve- 
ment was also stimulated by the Public Money Drainage 
Acts 1846-1856, under which government was empowered to 
advance money on certain conditions for the improvement of 
estates. Additional facilities were granted by the act passed 
in 1848 for disentailing estates, and for burdening such as are 
entailed with the share of the cost of certain specified im- 
provements. 

Meanwhile much had been done in the organization of agri- 
cultural knowledge. Mention has already been made of the 
institution of the Highland Society and the National Board of 
Agriculture. These institutions were the means of collecting 
a vast amount of statistical and general information connected 
with agriculture, and by their publications and premiums made 
known the practices of the best-farmed districts and encouraged 
their adoption elsewhere. These associations were soon aided 
in their important labours by numerous local societies which 
sprang up in all parts of the kingdom. After a highly useful 
career, under the presidency till 1813 of Sir John Sinclair, the 
Board of Agriculture was dissolved in 1819, but left in its statis- 
tical account, county surveys and other documents much 
interesting and valuable information regarding the agriculture 
of the period. In 1800 the original Farmers' Magazine came 
into existence under the editorship of Robert Brown of 
Markle, the author of the well-known treatise on Rural A/airs. 
The Highland Society having early extended its operations to 
the whole of Scotland, by and by made a corresponding addition 
to its title, and as the Highland and Agricultural Society of 
Scotland gradually extended its operations. In 1828, shortly 
after the discontinuance of the Farmers' Magazine, its Prize 
Essays and Transactions began to be issued statedly in connexion 
with the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. This society early 
began to hold a great show of live stock, implements, &c. In 
1842 certain Midlothian tenant-farmers had the merit of 
originating an Agricultural Chemistry Association (the first of 
its kind), by which funds were raised for the purpose of conduct- 
ing such investigations as the title of the society implies. After 
a successful trial of a few years this association was dissolved, 
transferring its functions to the Highland and Agricultural 
Society. 

In England the Agricultural Society was founded in 1838, 
with the motto " Practice with Science," and shortly afterwards 
incorporated by royal charter. In 1845 the Royal Agricultural 
College at Cirencester was incorporated. This era of revival 



was not, however, without its calamities. The foot-and-mouth 
disease first appeared about 1840, having been introduced, as is 
supposed, by foreign cattle. It spread rapidly over the country, 
affecting all domesticated animals except horses, and although 
seldom attended by fatal results, caused everywhere great alarm 
and loss. It was soon followed by the more terrible lung-disease, 
or pleuro-pneumonia. In 1865 the rinderpest, or steppe murrain, 
originating amongst the vast herds of the Russian steppes, had 
spread westward over Europe, until it was brought to London 
by foreign cattle. Several weeks elapsed before the true char- 
acter of the disease was known, and in this brief space it had 
already been carried by animals purchased in Smithfield market 
to all parts of the country. After causing the most frightful 
losses, it was at last stamped out by the resolute slaughter of all 
affected animals and of all that had been in contact with them. 
Severe as were the losses in flocks and herds from these imported 
diseases, they were eclipsed by the ravages of the mysterious 
potato blight, which, first appearing in 1845, pervaded the whole 
of Europe, and in Ireland especially proved the precursor of 
famine and pestilence. 

A short period of low prices followed the repeal of the Corn 
Laws, wheat averaging only 385. 6d. a quarter in 1851, but the 
years from 1852 to 1875 were the most prosperous of the century. 
The letters written by Sir James Caird to The Times during 
1850, and republished in 1852 under the title English Agriculture 
in 1850-1851, give a general review of English agriculture at 
the time. The scientific and mechanical improvements of the 
first half of the century were widely adopted, while the prices 
of the protectionist period showed little decline. Amelioration 
in all breeds of domesticated animals was manifested, not so 
much in the production of individual specimens of 'high merit 
as in the diffusion of these and other good breeds over the 
country, and in the improved quality of live stock as a whole. 
The fattening of animals was conducted on more scientific 
principles. Increased attention was successfully bestowed on 
the improvement of field crops. Improved varieties, obtained 
by cross-impregnation either naturally or artificially brought 
about, were carefully propagated and generally adopted, and in- 
creased attention was bestowed on the cultivation of the natural 
grasses. The most important additions to the list of field crops 
were Italian rye-grass, winter beans, white Belgian carrot and 
alsike clover. 

The last quarter of the igth century proved, however, a fateful 
period for British agriculture. The great future that seemed 
to await the application of steam power to the tillage 
of the soil proved illusory. The clay soils of England, 
the latent fertility of which was to be brought into 
play in a fashion that should mightily augment the 
home-grown supplies of food, remained intractable, and the 
extent of land devoted to the cultivation of corn crops, instead 
of expanding, diminished in a marked degree. British farmers 
of long experience look back to 1874 as the last of the really 
good years, and consider that the palmy days of British agri- 
culture began to dwindle at about that time. The shadow of the 
approaching depression had already fallen upon the land before 
the year 1875 had run its course, and the outlook became ominous 
as the decade of the 'seventies neared its close. One memorable 
feature was associated with 1877 in that this was the last year 
in which the dreaded cattle plague (rinderpest) made its appear- 
ance in England. The same year, 1877, was the last also in 
which the annual average price of English wheat (then 565. gd.) 
exceeded 508. a quarter. With declining prices for farm produce 
came that year of unhappy memory, 1879, when persistent rains 
and an almost sunless summer ruined the crops and reduced 
many farmers to a state of destitution. Much of the grain was 
never harvested, whilst owing mainly to the excessive floods 
there commenced an outbreak of liver-rot in sheep, due to the 
ravages of the fluke parasite. This continued for several years, 
and the mortality was so great that its adverse effects upon the 
ovine population of the country were still perceptible ten years 
afterwards. A fall in rents was the necessary sequel of the 
agricultural distress, to inquire into which a royal commission 



" 



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397 



was appointed in 1879, under the chairmanship of the duke of 
Richmond and Gordon. Its report, published in 1882, testified 
to " the great extent and intensity of the distress which has 
fallen upon the agricultural community. Owners and occupiers 
have alike suffered from it. No description of estate or tenure 
has been exempted. The owner in fee and life tenant, the 
occupier, whether of large or of small holding, whether under 
lease, or custom, or agreement, or the provisions of the Agricul- 
tural Holdings Act all without distinction have been involved 
in a general calamity." The two most prominent causes assigned 
for the depression were bad seasons and foreign competition, 
aggravated by the increased cost of production and the heavy 
losses of live stock. Abundant evidence was forthcoming as 
to the extent to which agriculture had been injuriously affected 
" by an unprecedented succession of bad seasons." As regards 
the pressure of foreign competition, it was stated to be greatly 
in excess of the anticipations of the supporters, and of the 
apprehensions of the opponents of the repeal of the Corn Laws. 
Whereas formerly the farmer was to some extent compensated 
by a higher price for a smaller yield, in recent years he had had 
to compete with an unusually large supply at greatly reduced 
prices. On the other hand, he had enjoyed the advantage of 
an extended supply of feeding-stuffssuch as maize, linseed- 
cake and cotton-cake and of artificial manures imported from 
abroad. The low price ofagriculturalproduce, beneficial though 
it might be to the general community, had lessened the ability 
of the land to bear the proportion of taxation which had hereto- 
fore been imposed upon it. The legislative outcome of the 
findings of this royal commission was the Agricultural Holdings 
Act 1883, a measure which continued in force in its entirety 
till 1901, when a new act came into operation. 

The apparently hopeless outlook for corn-growing compelled 
farmers to cast about for some other means of subsistence, and 
to rely more than they had hitherto done upon the possibilities 
of stock-breeding. It was in particular the misfortunes of the 
later 'seventies that gave the needed fillip to that branch of 
stock-farming concerned with the production of milk, butter 
and cheese, and from this period may be said to date the revival 
of the dairying industry, which received a powerful impetus 
through the introduction of the centrifugal cream separator, 
and was fostered by the British Dairy Farmers' Association 
(formed in 1875). The generally wet character of the seasons 
in 1879 and the two or three years following was mainly respon- 
sible for the high prices of meat, so that the supplies of fresh beef 
and mutton from Australia which now began to arrive found a 
ready market, and the trade in imported fresh meat which was 
thus commenced has practically continued to expand ever since. 
The great losses arising from spoilt hay crops served to stimulate 
experimental inquiry into the method of preserving green fodder 
known as ensilage, with the result that the system eventually 
became successfully incorporated in the ordinary routine of 
agricultural practice. A contemporaneous effort in the direction 
of drying hay by artificial means led to nothing of practical 
importance. By 1882 the cry as to land going out of cultivation 
became loud and general, and the migration of the rural popula- 
tion into the towns in search of work continued unchecked (see 
below, Agricultural Population). In 1883 foot-and-mouth disease 
was terribly rampant amongst the herds and flocks of Great 
Britain, and was far more prevalent than it has ever been since. 
It was about this time that the first experiments were made 
(in Germany) with basic slag, a material which had hitherto 
been regarded as a worthless by-product of steel manufacture. 
A year or two later field trials were begun in England, with the 
final result that basic slag has become recognized as a valuable 
source of phosphorus for growing crops, and is now in constant 
demand for application to the soil as a fertilizer. 

In 1883 the veterinary department of the Privy Council 
which had been constituted in 1365 when the country was 
ravaged by cattle plague was abolished by order in council, 
and the " Agricultural Department " was substituted, but no 
alteration was effected in the work of the department, so far as 
it related to animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for 



Great Britain) was formed under an act of parliament of that 
year (see AGRICULTURE, BOARD or). The election took place 
in the same year (1889) of the first county councils, and the 
allotment to them of various sums of money under the Local 
Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890 enabled local provision 
to be made for the promotion of technical instruction in agri- 
culture (see below, Agricultural Education). It was about this 
time that the value of a mixture of lime and sulphate of copper 
(bouillie bordelaise), sprayed in solution upon the growing plants, 
came to be recognized as a check upon the ravages of potato 
disease. . 

The general experience of the decade of the 'eighties was 
that of disappointing summers, harsh winters, falling prices, 
declining rents and the shrinkage of land values. It is true that 
one season of the series, that of 1887, was hot and droughty, 
but the following summer was exceedingly wet. Nevertheless, 
the decade closed more hopefully than it opened, and found 
farmers taking a keener interest in grass land, in live stock and 
in dairying. Cattle-breeders did well in 1889, but sheep-breeders 
fared better; on the other hand, owing to receding prices, corn- 
growers were more disheartened than ever. With the incoming 
of the last decade of the century there seemed to be some 
justifiable hopes of the dawn of better times, but they were 
speedily doomed to disappointment. In 1891 excessively heavy 
autumn rains washed the arable soils to such an extent that the 
next season's corn crops were below average. Wheat in parti- 
cular was a poor crop in 1892, and the low yield was associated 
with falling prices due to large imports. The hay crop was very 
inferior, and in some cases it was practically ruined. This gave 
a stimulus to the trade in imported hay, which rose from 61,237 
tons in 1892 to 263,050 tons in 1893, and despite some large 
home-grown crops in certain subsequent years (1897 and 1898) 
this expansion has never since been wholly lost. 

The misfortunes of 1892 proved to be merely a preparation 
for the disasters of 1893, i n which year occurred the most de- 
structive drought within living memory. Its worst effects were 
seen upon the light land farms of England, and so deplorable 
was the position that a royal commission on agricultural de- 
pression was appointed in September of that year under the 
chairmanship of Mr Shaw Lefevre (afterwards Lord Eversley). 
Thus, within the last quarter of the igth century and, as a 
matter of fact, only fourteen years apart two royal commissions 
on agriculture were appointed, the one in a year of memorable 
flood, 1879, and the other in a year of disastrous drought, 1893. 
The report of the commission of 1893 was issued in March 1896. 
Amongst its chief recommendations were those relating to 
amendments in the Agricultural Holdings Acts, and to tithe rent- 
charge, railway rates, damage by game, sale of adulterated 
products, and sale of imported goods (meat, for example) as 
home produce. Two legislative enactments arose out of the 
work of this commission. In the majority report it was stated 
" that, in order to place agricultural lands in their right position 
as compared with other ratable properties, it is essential that 
they should be assessed to all local rates in a reduced propor- 
tion of their ratable value." The Agricultural Rates Act 1896 
gave effect to this recommendation. Its objects were to relieve 
agricultural land from half the local rates, and to provide the 
means of making good out of imperial funds the deficiency in local 
taxation caused thereby. It was provided that the act should 
continue in force only till the 3ist of March 1902, but a further 
act in 1901 extended the period by four years, and in 1905 its 
operation was extended to the 3ist of March 1910. The other 
measure arising out of the report of the royal commission of 1893 
was the Agricultural Holdings Act 1900. This was an amending 
act and not a consolidating act; consequently it had to be read 
as if incorporated into the already existing acts. As affecting 
agricultural practice there were three noteworthy improvements 
in respect of the making of which, without the consent of or 
notice to his landlord, a tenant might claim compensation (i) 
the consumption on the holding " by horses, other than those 
regularly employed on the holding," of corn, cake or other 
feeding-stuff not produced on the holding; (2) the " consumption 



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[BRITISH 



on the holding by cattle, sheep, or pigs, or by horses other than 
those regularly employed on the holding, of corn proved by 
satisfactory evidence to have been produced and consumed on 
the holding "; (3) " laying down temporary pasture with clover, 
grass, lucerne, sainfoin or other seeds sown more than two years 
prior to the determination of the tenancy." A further act was 
passed in 1906 (the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906) which im- 
proved the tenant's position in respect of freedom of cropping, 
disposal of produce and compensation for disturbance. 

After 1894, in which' year the brilliant prospects of a bountiful 
harvest were ultimately extinguished by untimely and heavy 
rains, all the remaining seasons of the closing decade of the igth 
century were dominated by drought. A fact that was amply 
illustrated, moreover, is that the period of incidence of a drought 
is not less important than its duration, and the same is true of 
abnormal rainfall. A spring drought, a summer drought, an 
autumn drought, each has its distinctive characteristics in so far 
as the effect upon the crops is concerned. The hot drought of 
1893 extended over the spring and summer months, but there 
was an abundant rainfall in the autumn; correspondingly there 
was an unprecedented^ bad yield of corn and hay crops, but a 
moderately fair yield of the main root crops (turnips and swedes). 
In 1899 the drought became most intense in the autumn after 
the corn crops had been harvested, but during the chief period, 
of growth of the root crops; correspondingly the corn crops of 
that year rank very well amongst the crops of the decade, but 
the yield of turnips and swedes was the worst on record. It is 
quite possible for a hot dry season to be associated with a large 
yield of corn, provided the drought is confined to a suitable period, 
as was the case in 1896 and still more so in 1898; the English 
wheat crops in those years were probably the biggest in yield 
per acre that had been harvested since 1868, which is always 
looked back upon as a remarkable year for wheat. The drought 
of 1898 was interrupted by copious rains in June, and these 
falling on a warm soil led to a rapid growth of grass and, as 
measured by yield per acre, an exceedingly heavy crop of hay. 

With the exceptions of 1891 and 1894, every year in the period 
1891-1900 was stricken by drought. The two meteorological 
events of the decade which will probably live longest in the 
recollection were, however, the terrible drought of 1893, result- 
ing in a fodder famine in the succeeding winter, and the severe 
frost of ten weeks' duration at the beginning of 1895. Between 
these two occurrences came the disastrous decline in the value 
of grain in the autumn of 1894, when the weekly average price 
of English wheat fell to the record minimum of 175. 6d. per im- 
perial quarter. As a consequence, the extent of land devoted 
to wheat in the British Isles receded in 1895 to less than 13 
million acres. The year 1903 was memorable for a very heavy 
rainfall, comparable though not equal in its disastrous effects to 
that of 1879. Successful trials of sulphate of copper solution 
as a means of destroying charlock in corn crops took place in 
the years 1898-1900. Charlock is a most persistent cruciferous 
weed, but if sprayed when young with the solution named it is 
killed, the corn plants being uninjured. In 1901 the formation 
of the Agricultural Organization Society marked the first sys- 
tematic attempt to organize co-operation among the farmers 
of Great Britain. In the subsequent years the principle, which 
had already made great progress in Ireland, began to obtain a 
hold in England and Wales, where, in 1906, there were 145 local 
co-operative societies with a turn -over of 350,000. 

Amongst legislative measures of importance to agriculturists 
mention' should be made, in addition to those that have been 
referred to, of the Tithe Rent-charge Recovery Act 1891, which 
transfers the liability for payment of tithe from the occupier to 
the owner. In the same year was passed the Markets and Fairs 
(Weighing of Cattle) Act. The object of the Small Holdings Act 
1892 was to facilitate the acquisition of small agricultural hold- 
ings. It provided that a county council might acquire any suit- 
able land, with the object of allotting from one to fifty acres, 
or, if more than fifty acres, of an annual value not exceeding 50, 
to persons who desired to buy, and would themselves cultivate, 
the holdings. If, owing to proximity to a town or otherwise, the 



prospective value were too high, the council might hire such land 
for the purpose of letting it. (See ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLD- 
INGS for this and other acts.) The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs 
Act 1893 compelled sellers of fertilizers (i.e. manures), manu- 
factured or imported, to state the percentage of the nitrogen, of 
the soluble and insoluble phosphates, and of the potash in each 
article sold, and this statement was to have the effect of a war- 
ranty. Similar stringent conditions applied as regards the sale of 
feeding-stuffs for live stock. The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs 
Act 1906, amending and re-enacting the act of 1893, provided 
for the compulsory appointment by county councils of official 
samplers. It also provides penalties for breaches of duty by the 
seller, but grants him protection in cases where he is not morally 
responsible. The Finance Act of 1894, with its great changes in 
the death duties, overshadowed all other acts of that year both in 
its immediate effects and in its far-reaching consequences. The 
Copyhold Consolidation Act 1894 supersedes six previous copy- 
hold statutes, but does not effect any alteration in the law concern- 
ing enfranchisement. The Diseases of Animals Act 1896 provided 
for the compulsory slaughter of imported live stock at the place 
of landing. The Light Railways Act and the Locomotives on 
Highways Act were added to the statute book in 1896, and 
various clauses in the Finance Act effected reforms in respect of 
the death duties, the land-tax, farmers' income-tax and the beer 
duty. The Chaff-cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897 is a 
measure very similar in its intention to the Threshing Machines 
Act 1878, and provides for the automatic prevention of accidents 
to persons in charge of chaff-cutting machines. The Sale of Food 
and Drugs Act 1899 has special reference in its earlier sections 
to the trade in dairy produce and margarine. In 1899 was also 
passed the act establishing the Department of Agriculture and 
Technical Instruction in Ireland. 

The year 1900 saw the passing of a Workmen's Compensation 
Act, which extended the benefits of the act of 1897 to agricultural 
labourers. 

Acreage 'and Yields of British Crops. 

The most notable feature in connexion with the cropping of the 
land of the United Kingdom between 1875 and 1905 was the 
lessened cultivation of the cereal crops associated with an expan- 
sion in the area of grass land. At the beginning of the period the 
aggregate area under wheat, barley and oats was nearly iOj 
million acres; at_the close it did not amount to 8 million acres. 
There was thus a withdrawal during the period of over 25 million 
acres from cereal cultivation. From Table I., showing the 
acreages at intervals of five years, it will be learnt that the loss 
fell chiefly upon the wheat crop, which at the close of the period 

TABLE I. Areas of Cereal Crops in the United Kingdom 
A cres. 



Year. 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Oats. 


Total. 


1875 
1880 
1885 
1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 


3,514,088 
3,065,895 
2,553-092 
2,483-595 
1,456,042 
1,901,014 
1,836,598 


2,751,362 
2,695,000 
2,447,169 
2,300,994 
2,346,367 
2,172,140 
1,872,305 


4.176,177 
4,191,716 
4,282,594 
4-137,790 
4,527,899 
4,H5,633 
4,137,406 


10,441,627 
9,952,611 
9,282,855 
8,922,379 
8,330,308 
8,218,787 
7,846,309 



occupied barely more than half the area assigned to it at the 
beginning. If the land taken from wheat had been cropped with 
one or both of the other cereals, the aggregate area would have 
remained about the same. This, however, was not the case, for 
a fairly uniform decrease in the barley area was accompanied by 
somewhat irregular fluctuations in the acreage of oats. To the 
decline in prices of home-grown cereals the decrease in area is 
largely attributable. The extent of this decline is seen in Table 
II., wherein are given the annual average prices from 1875 to 
1905, calculated upon returns from the 190 statutory markets of 
England and Wales (Corn Returns Act 1882). These prices are 
per imperial quarter, that is, 480 Ib of wheat, 400 Ib of barley 
and 312 ft of oats, representing 60 Ib, 50 Ib and 39 Ib per bushel 
respectively. After 1883 the annual average price of English 
wheat was never so high as 405. per quarter, and only twice after 



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AGRICULTURE 



399 



1892 did it exceed 305. In one of these exceptional years, 1898, 
the average rose to 343., but this was due entirely to a couple of 
months of inflated prices in the early half of the year, when the 
outbreak of war between Spain and the United States of America 
coincided with a huge speculative deal in the latter country. The 

TABLE II. Gazette Annual Average Prices per Imperial Quarter 
of British Cereals in England and Wales, 1875-1905. 



Year. 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Oats. 




s. d. 


s. d. 


s. d. 


1875 


45 2 


38 5 


28 8 


1876 


46 2 


35 2 


26 3 


1877 


56 9 


39 8 


25 ii 


1878 


46 5 


40 2 


24 4 


1879 


43 10 


34 o 


21 9 


1880 


44 4 


33 i 


23 i 


1881 


45 4 


31 ii 


21 9 


1882 


45 i 


31 2 


21 IO 


1883 


4i 7 


31 10 


21 5 


1884 


35 8 


30 8 


20 3 


1885 


32 10 


30 I 


20 7 


1886 


31 o 


26 7 


19 o 


1887 


32 6 


25 4 


16 3 


1888 


31 10 


27 10 


16 9 


1889 


29 9 


25 10 


17 9 


1890 


31 it 


28 8 


18 7 


1891 


37 o 


28 2 


20 o 


1892 


30 3 


26 2 


19 10 


1893 


26 4 


25 7 


18 9 


1894 


22 IO 


24 6 


17 I 


1895 


23 I 


21 II 


14 6 


1896 


26 2 


22 II 


H 9 


1897 


3 2 


23 6 


16 II 


1898 


34 o 


27 2 


18 5 


1899 


25 8 


25 7 


17 o 


1900 


26 ii 


24 ii 


17 7 


1901 


26 9 


25 2 


18 5 


1902 


28 i 


25 8 


2O 2 


1903 


26 9 


22 8 


17 2 


1904 


28 4 


22 4 


16 4 


1905 


29 8 


24 4 


17 4 



weekly average prices of English wheat in 1898 fluctuated between 
485. id. and 253. sd. per quarter, the former being the highest 
weekly average since 1882. The minimum annual average was 
22S. icd. in 1894, in the autumn of which year the weekly average 
sank to 1 75. 6d. per quarter, the lowest on record. Wheat was 
so great a glut in the market that various methods were devised 
for feeding it to stock, a purpose for which it is not specially 
suited; in thus utilizing the grain, however, a smaller loss was 
often incurred than in sending it to market. In 1 894 the monthly 
average price for October, the chief month for wheat-sowing in 
England, was only 175. 8d. per quarter, and farmers naturally 
shrank from seeding the land freely with a crop which could not 
be grown except at a heavy loss. The result was that in the 
following year the wheat crop of the United Kingdom was 
harvested upon the smallest area on record less than ij million 
acres. In only one year, 1878, did the annual average price of 
English barley touch 403. per quarter; it never reached 305. 
after 1885, whilst in 1895 it fell to so low a level as ais. nd. The 
same story of declining prices applies to oats. An average of 203. 
per quarter was touched in 1891 and 1902, but with those excep- 
tions this useful feeding grain did not reach that figure after 1885. 
In 1895 the average price of 480 ft) of wheat, at 235. id., was 
identical with that of 312 Ib of oats in 1880, and it was less in the 
preceding year. The declining prices that have operated against 
the growers of wheat should be studied in conjunction with 
Table III., which shows, at intervals of five years, the imports of 
TABLE III. Imports into the United Kingdom of Wheat Grain, 
and of Wheat Meal and Flour Cwt. 



Year. 


Wheat Grain.' 


Meal and Flour. 


Total. 


1875 
1880 
1885 
1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 


51,876,517 
55,261,924 
61,498,864 
60,474,180 

81,749,955 
68,669,490 
97,622,752 


6,136,083 
10,558,312 
15,832,843 

15,773,336 
18,368,410 
21,548,131 
11,954,763 


58,012,600 
65,820,236 
77-331,707 
76,247,516 
100,118,365 
90,217,621 
109,577,515 



wheat grain and of wheat meal and flour into the United King- 
dom. The import of the manufactured product from 1875 to 1900 
increased at a much greater ratio than that of the raw grain, for 
whilst in 1875 the former represented less than one-ninth of the 
total, by 1900 the proportion had risen to nearly one-fourth. 
The offal, which is quite as valuable as the flour itself, was thus 
retained abroad instead of being utilized for stock-feeding 
purposes in the United Kingdom. In the five subsequent years 
the proportion was fundamentally altered, so that with a greatly 
increased importation of grain, that of meal and flour was in the 
proportion of about one-ninth. The highest and lowest areas of 
wheat, barley and oats in the United Kingdom during the period 
1875-1905 were the following: 

Wheat . 3,514,088 acres in 1875; 1,407,618 acres in 1904. 
Barley . 2,931,809 1879; 1,872,305 1905. 
Oats . 4,527,899 ,,1895:3,998,200 ,,1879. 

These show differences amounting to 2,106,470 acres for 
wheat, 1,059,504 acres for barley, and 529,699 acres for oats. 
The acreage of wheat, therefore, fluctuated the most, and that 
of oats the least. Going back to 1869, it is found that the extent 
of wheat in that year was 3,981,989 acres or very little short of 
four million acres. 

The acreage of rye grown in the United Kingdom as a grain 
crop is small, the respective maximum and minimum areas during 
the period 1875-1905 having been 102,676 acres in 1894 and 
47,937 acres in 1880. Rye is perhaps more largely grown as a 
green crop to be fed off by sheep, or cut green for soiling, in the 
spring months. 

Of corn crops other than cereals, beans and peas are both 
less cultivated than formerly. In the period 1875-1905 the area 
of beans in the United Kingdom fluctuated between 574,414 
acres in 1875 and 230,429 acres in 1897, and that of peas between 
318,410 acres in 1875 and 155,668 acces in 1901. The area of 
peas (175,624 acres in 1905) shrank by nearly one-half, and that 
of beans (256,383 acres in 1905) by more than one-half. Taking 
cereals and pulse corn together, the aggregate areas of wheat, 
barley, oats, rye, beans and peas in the United Kingdom varied 
as follows over the six quinquennial intervals embraced in the 
period 1875-1905: 

Year. Acres. Year. Acres. 

1875 . . 11,399,030 1890 . . 9,574,249 
1880 . . 10,672,086 1895 . . 8,865,338 
1885 . . 10,014,625 1900 . . 8,707,602 

1905 . 8,333,770 

Disregarding minor fluctuations, there was thus a loss of corn 
land over the 30 years of 3,065,260 acres, or 27%. 

The area withdrawn from corn-growing is not to be found 
under the head of what are termed " green crops." In 1905 the 
total area of these crops in the United Kingdom was 4,144,374 
acres, made up thus: 

Crop. Acres. 

Potatoes 1,236,768 

Turnips and swedes 1,879,384 

Mangel 477,540 

Cabbage, kohl-rabi and rape .... 225,315 

Vetches or tares 139,285 

Other green crops 186,082 

The extreme aggregate areas of these crops during the thirty 
years were 5,057,029 acres in 1875 and 4,109,394 acres in 1904. 
At five-year intervals the areas were: 

Year. Acres. Year. Acres. 

1875 5,057-029' 1890 . . 4-534-H5 

1880 . . 4,746,293 1895 . . 4,399,949 

1885 . . 4,765,195 1900 . . 4,301,774 

1905 . . 4.144-374 

These crops, therefore, which, except potatoes, are used mainly 
for stock-feeding, have like the corn crops been grown on 
gradually diminishing areas. 

The land that has been lost to the plough is found to be still 
further augmented when an inquiry is instituted into the area 
devoted to clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The 
areas of five-year intervals are given in Table IV. Under the 
old Norfolk or four-course rotation (roots, barley, clover, wheat) 
land thus seeded with clover or grass seeds was intended to be 



400 



AGRICULTURE 



[BRITISH 



ploughed up at the end of a year. Labour difficulties, low 
prices of produce, bad seasons and similar causes provided in- 
ducements for leaving the land in grass for two years, or over 
three years or more, before breaking it up for wheat. In many 
cases it would be decided to let such land remain under grass 
indefinitely, and thus it would no longer be enumerated in the 
Agricultural Returns as temporary grass land, but would pass 
into the category of permanent grass land, or what is often 
spoken of as " permanent pasture." Whilst much grass land has 
been laid down with the intention from the outset that it should 
be permanent, at the same time some considerable areas have 
through stress of circumstances been allowed to drift from the 
temporary or rotation grass area to the permanent list, and have 
thus still further diminished the area formerly under the dominion 
of the plough. The column relating to permanent grass in 
Table IV. shows clearly enough how the British Isles became 

TABLE IV. Areas of Grass Land (excluding Heath and Mountain 
Land) in the United Kingdom Acres. 



Year. 


Temporary (i.e. 
under rotation). 


Permanent 
(i.e. not broken up 
in rotation). 


Total. 


1875 
1880 
1885 
1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 


6,337,953 
6,389,232 
6,738,206 
6,097,210 
6,061,139 
6,025,025 
5,779.323 


23,772,602 
24,717,092 
25,616,071 
27,115,425 

27,831,117 
28,266,712 
28,865,373 


30,110,555 
31,106,324 

32,354,277 
33,212,635 
33,892,256 

34,291,737 
34,644,696 



more pastoral, while the figures already given demonstrate the 
extent to which they became less arable. In the period 1875- 
1905 the extreme areas returned as " permanent pasture " a 
term which, it should be clearly understood, does not include 
heath or mountain land, of which there are in Great Britain 
alone about 13 million acres used for grazing were 23,772,602 
acres in 1875, and 28,865,373 acres in 1905. Comparing 1905 
with 1875 the increase in permanent grass land amounted to 
over five million acres, or about 21 %. 

On account of the greater humidity and mildness of its climate, 
Ireland is more essentially a pastoral country than Great Britain. 
The distribution between the two islands of such important crops 
of arable land as cereals and potatoes is indicated in Table V. 
The figures are those for 1905, but, though the absolute acreages 

TABLE V. Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in Great Britain 
and Ireland in 1905. 



Great Britain 
Ireland 

Total 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Acres. 

1.796,993 
37,860 


Acres. 
1,713,664 
154,645 


1,834,853 


1,868,309 


Great Britain 
Ireland 

Total 


Oats. 


Potatoes. 


3.051,376 
1,066,806 


608,473 
6i6,755 


4,118,182 


1,225,228 



vary somewhat from year to year, there is not much variation 
in the proportions. The comparative insignificance of Ireland 
in the case of the wheat and barley crops, represented by 2 and 
8% respectively, receives some compensation when oats and 
potatoes are considered, about one-fourth of the area of the 
former and more than half that of the latter being claimed by 
Ireland. It is noteworthy, however, that Ireland year by year 
places less reliance upon the potato crop. In 1888 the area of 
potatoes in Ireland was 804,566 acres, but it continuously con- 
tracted each year, until in 1905 it was only 616,755 acres, or 
187,811 acres less than 17 years previously. 

A similar comparison for the several sections of Great Britain, 
as set forth in Table VI., shows that to England belong about 
95 % of the wheat area, over 80 % of the barley area, over 60 % 
of the oats area, and over 70% of the potato area, and these 



proportions do not vary much from year to year. The figures 
for cereals are important, as they indicate that it is the farmers 
of England who are the chief sufferers through the diminishing 
prices of corn; and particularly is this true of East Anglia, where 
corn-growing is more largely pursued than in any other part of the 

TABLE VI. Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in England, Wales 
and Scotland, and in Great Britain, in 1905. 



England 
Wales 
Scotland 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Acres. 
1,704,281 

44-<>73 
48,641 


Acres. 
1,410,287 

91,243 
212,134 


Great Britain 


1,796,995 


1,713,664 


England 
Wales 
Scotland 


Oats. 


Potatoes. 


1,880,475 
207,929 
962,972 


' 434,773 
29,435 
144,265 


Great Britain 


3,051,376 


608,473 



country. Scotland possesses nearly one-third of the area of oats 
and nearly one-fourth of that of potatoes. Beans are almost 
entirely confined to England, and this is even more the case with 
peas. The mangel crop also is mainly English, the summer in 
most parts of Scotland being neither long enough nor warm 
enough to bring it to maturity. 

The Produce of British Crops. 

Whilst the returns relating to the acreage of crops and the 
number of live stock in Great Britain have been officially collected 
in each year since 1866, the annual official estimates of the 
produce of the crops in the several sections of the kingdom do 
not extend back beyond 1885. The practice is for the Board of 
Agriculture to appoint local estimators, who report in the autumn 
as to the total production of the crops in the localities respectively 
assigned to them. By dividing the total production, say of wheat, 
in each county by the number of acres of wheat as returned by 
the occupiers on June 4, the estimated average yield per acre is 
obtained. It is important to notice that the figures relating to 
total production and yield per acre are only estimates, and it is 
not claimed for them that they are anything more. The fact 
that much of the wheat to which the figures apply is still in the 
stack after the publication of the figures shows that the latter 
are essentially estimates. The total produce of any crop in a 
given year must depend mainly upon the acreage grown, whilst 
the average yield per acre will be determined chiefly by the 
character of the season. In Table VII. are shown, in thousands 

TABLE VII. Estimated Annual Total Produce of Corn Crops in 
the United Kingdom, 1890-1905 Thousands of Bushels. 



Year. 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Oats. 


Beans. 


Peas. 


1890 


75,994 


80,794 


171,295 


1 1, 860 


6313 


1891 


74,743 


79,555 


166,472 


10,694 


5777 


1892 


60,775 


76,939 


168,181 i 7,054 


5028 


1893 


50.913 


65,746 


168,588 


4,863 


4756 


1894 


60,704 


78,601 


190,863 


7,198 


6229 


1895 


38,285 


75,028 


174,476 


5,626 


4732 


1896 


58,247 


77-825 


162,860 


6,491 


4979 


1897 


56,296 


72,613 


163,556 


6,650 


5250 


1898 


74,885 


74,731 


172,578 


7,267 


4858 


1899 


67,261 


74,532 


166,140 


7,566 


4431 


1900 


54,322 


68,546 


165,137 


7,469 


4072 


1901 


53,928 


67,643 


161,175 


6,154 


4017 


1902 


58,278 


74,439 


184,184 


7-704 


5106 


1903 


48,819 


65,310 


172,941 


7,535 


4812 


1904 


37,920 


62,453 


176,755 


5,901 


4446 


1905 


6o,333 


65,004 


166.286 


8,262 


4446 



of bushels, the estimated produce of the corn crops of the United 
Kingdom in the years 1890-1905. The largest area of wheat 
in the period was that of 1890, and the smallest was that of 
1904; the same two years are seen to have been respectively 
those of highest and lowest total produce. It is noteworthy 
that in 1895 tne country produced about half as much wheat 



BRITISH] 



AGRICULTURE 



401 



as in any one of the years 1890, 1891 and i8g8. The produce 
of barley, like that of oats, is less irregular than that of wheat, the 
extremes for barley being 80,794,000 bushels (1890) and 62,453,000 
bushels (1904), and those for oats 190,863,000 bushels (1894) 
and 161,175,000 bushels (1901). Similar details for potatoes, 
ots and hay, brought together in Table VIII., show that the 

TABLE VIII. Estimated Annual Total Produce of Potatoes, Roots 
and Hay in the United Kingdom, 1890-1905 Thousands of 
Tons. 



Year. 


Potatoes. 


Turnips. 


Mangels. 


Hay. 


1890 


4622 


32,002 


6709 


14,466 


1891 


6090 


29,742 


7558 


12,671 


1892 


5634 


3L4I9 


7428 


n,567 


i893 


6541 


31,110 


5225 


9,082 


1894 


4662 


30,678 


73io 


15-699 


1895 


7065 


29,221 


6376 


12,238 


1896 


6263 


28,037 


5875 


11,416 


1897 


4107 


29-785 


7379 


I4. 43 


1898 


6225 


26,499 


7228 


I5,9i6 


1899 


5837 


20,370 


7604 


12,898 


1900 


4577 


28,387 


9650 


13.742 


1901 


7043 


25,298 


9224 


11,358 


1902 


5920 


29,116 


10,809 


15,246 


1903 


5277 


23,523 


8212 


14,955 


1904 


6230 


28,033 


8813 


14,860 


1905 


7186 


26,563 


9493 


13,554 



production of potatoes varies much from year to year. The 
imports of potatoes into the United Kingdom vary, to some 
extent inversely; thus, the low production in 1897 was accom- 
panied by an increase of imports from 3,921,205 cwt. in 1897 to 
6,751,728 cwt. in 1898. No very great reliance can be placed 
upon the figures relating to turnips (which include swedes), as 
these are mostly fed to sheep on the ground, so that the estimates 
as to yield are necessarily vague. Mangels are probably more 
closely estimated, as these valuable roots are carted and stored 
for subsequent use for feeding stock. Under hay are included 
the produce of clover, sainfoin and rotation grasses, and also 
that of permanent meadow. The extent to which the annual 
production of the leading fodder crop may vary is shown in the 
table by the two consecutive years 1893 an d 1894; from only 
nine million tons in the former year the production rose to up- 
wards of fifteen million tons in the latter, an increase of over 



: 



Turning to the average yields per acre, as ascertained by 
ividing the number of acres into the total produce, the results 
of a decade are collected in Table IX. The effects of a prolonged 



drought, as distinguished from spring and summer drought, are 
shown in the very low yield of turnips in 1899. Mangels are 
sown earlier and have a longer period of growth than turnips; if 
they become well established in the summer they are less sus- 
ceptible to autumn drought. The hay made from clover, sain- 
foin and grasses under rotation generally gives a bigger average 
yield than that from permanent grass land. The mean values at 
the foot of the table they are not, strictly speaking, exact 
averages indicate the average yields per acre in the United 
Kingdom to be about 31 bushels of wheat, 33 bushels of barley, 
40 bushels of oats, 28 bushels of beans, 26 bushels of peas, 4$ tons 
of potatoes, 135 tons of turnips and swedes. i8j tons of mangels, 
32 cwt. of hay from temporary grass, and 29 cwt. of hay from 
permaneht grass. Although enormous single crops of mangels 

TABLE X. Decennial Average Yields in Great Britain of Wheat, 
Barley and Oats Bushels per acre. 



i o- Year 
Periods. 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Oats. 


1885-1894 


29-32 


33-02 


38-21 


1886-1895 


28-81 


32-68 


38-23 


1887-1896 


29-49 


32-82 


38-13 


1888-1897 


29-19 


32-97 


38-5I 


1889-1898 


29-86 


33-26 


38-86 


1890-1899 


30-15 


33-50 


38-81 


1891-1900 


29-92 


33-13 


38-46 


1892-1901 


29-88 


32-80 


38-26 


1893-1902 


30-53 


32-83 


38-64 


1894-1903 


30-95 


33-16 


39-05 


1895-1904 


30-56 


32-82 


38-81 


1896-1905 


31-21 


33-04 


38-92 



are sometimes grown, amounting occasionally to 100 tons per 
acre, the general average yield of i8J tons is about 5 tons more 
than that of turnips and swedes. Again, although from the 
richest old permanent meadow-lands very heavy crops of 
hay are taken season after season, the general average yield of 
permanent grass is about 3 cwt. of hay per acre less than that 
from clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The general 
average yields of the corn crops are not fairly comparable one 
with the other, because they are given by measure and not by 
weight, whereas the weight per bushel varies considerably. For 
purposes of comparison it would be much better if the yields of 
corn crops were estimated in cwt. per acre. This, indeed, is the 
practice in Ireland, and in order to incorporate the Irish figures 
with those for Great Britain so as to obtain average values for the 
United Kingdom, the Irish yields are calculated into bushels at 



TABLE IX. Estimated Annual Average Yield per Acre of Crops in United Kingdom, 1895-1904. 



Year. 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Oats. 


Beans. 


Peas. 


Pota- 

tnfQ 


Turnips 
and 


Mangels. 


Hay. 


Rota- 


Perman- 














LUC9. 


Swedes. 




tion. 


ent. 




Bush. 


Bush. 


Bush. 


Bush. 


Bush. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Cwt. 


Cwt. 


'895 


26-33 


32-09 


38-67 


22-98 


22-62 


5-64 


13-11 


16-44 


29-08 


25-21 


1896 


33-63 


34-16 


37-97 


25-69 


25-34 


4-93 


12-79 


14-99 


27-95 


24-14 


1897 


29-07 


32-91 


38-84 


28-91 


27-55 


3-47 


13-90 


18-03 


32-53 


30-7I 


1898 


34-75 


36-24 


42-27 


3I-I3 


27-60 


5-23 


12-74 


17-71 


36-49 


34-27 


1899 


32-76 


34-64 


40-57 


30-19 


27-22 


4-82 


9-97 


17-41 


31-04 


29-11 


1900 


28-61 


3I-67 


39-97 


28-18 


25-89 


3-77 


14-29 


19-97 


32-42 


30-98 


1901 


30-93 


3I-70 


39-35 


24-29 


25-97 


5-8i 


12-95 


19-37 


28-98 


23-85 


1902 


32-91 


35-83 


44-50 


31-49 


28-51 


4-92 


I5-3S 


20-85 


35-29 


32-57 


1903 


30-15 


32-38 


40-81 


3I-27 


26-56 


4-45 


12-44 


17-19 


33-07 


31-27 


1904 


26-97 


3I-25 


40-80 


23-23 


25-75 


5-24 


14-83 


18-57 


33-43 


3 1. -04 


Mean, 






















10 






















years 


30-85 


33-28 


40-35 


27-68 


26-24 


4-84 


13-21 


18-18 


32-06 


29-32 


1905 


32-88 


34-79 


40-38 


32-33 


25-71 


5-86 


14-19 


19-91 


32-24 


28-37 



spring and summer drought, like that of 1893, are exemplified in 
the circumstance that four corn crops and the two hay crops all 
registered very low average yields that year, viz. wheat 26-08 
bushels, barley 29-30 bushels, oats 38-14 bushels, beans 19-61 
bushels, rotation hay 23-55 cwt., permanent hay 20-41 cwt. 
On the other hand, the season of 1898 was exceptionally favour- 
able to cereals and to hay. The effects of a prolonged autumn 



the rate qf 60 Ib to the bushel 
of wheat, of beans and of peas, 
50 Ib to the bushel of barley 
and 39 Ib to the bushel of oats. 
The figure denoting the 
general average yield per acre 
of any class of crop needs re- 
adjustment after every succes- 
sive harvest. If a decennial 
period be taken, then for the 
purpose of the new calculation 
the earliest year is omitted 
and the latest year added, the 
number of years continuing at 
ten. Adopting this course in 
the case of the cereal crops of 
Great Britain the decennial 
averages recorded in Table X. 
are obtained, the period 1885- 
1894 being the earliest decade 
for which the official figures are available. It thus appears 
that the average yield of wheat in Great Britain, as calcu- 
lated upon the crops harvested during the ten years (1896- 
1905), exceeded 31 bushels to the acre, whereas, for the ten 
years ended 1895, it fell below 29 bushels. A large expansion 
in the acreage of the wheat crop would probably be at- 
tended by a decline in the average yield per acre, for when a 






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[BRITISH 



crop is shrinking in area the tendency is to withdraw from it first 
the land least suited to its growth. The general average for the 
United Kingdom might then recede to rather less than 28 bushels 
of 60 Ib per bushel, which was for a long time the acceptec 
average unless, of course, improved methods of cultivating anc 
manuring the soil were to increase its general wheat-yielding 
capacity. 1 

Crops and Cropping. 

The greater freedom of cropping and the less close adherence to 
the formal system of rotation of crops, which characterize the 
early years of the 2oth century, rest upon a scientific basis. 
Experimental inquiry has done much to enlighten the farmer as 
to the requirements of plant-life, and to enable him to see how 
best to meet these requirements in the case of field crops. He 
cannot afford to ignore the results that have been gradually 
accumulated the truths that have been slowly established at 
the agricultural experiment stations in various parts of the 
world. Of these stations the greatest, and the oldest now existing, 
is that at Rothamsted, Harpenden, Herts, England, which was 
founded in 1843 by Sir John Bennet Lawes (q.v.). The results of 
more than half a century of sustained experimental inquiry were 
communicated to the world by Lawes and his collaborator, Sir 
J. H. Gilbert, in about 130 separate papers or reports, many of 
which were published, from 1847 onwards, in the Journal of the 
Royal Agricultural Society of England. 2 

In the case of plants the method of procedure was to grow some 
of the most important crops of rotation, each separately year 
after year, for many years in succession on the same land, (a) 
without manure, (b) with farmyard manure and (c) with a great 
variety of chemical manures; the same description of manure 
being, as a rule, applied year after year on the same plot. Experi- 
ments on an actual course of rotation, without manure, and with 
different manures, have also been made. Wheat, barley, oats, 
beans, clover and other leguminous plants, turnips, sugar beet, 
mangels, potatoes and grass crops have thus been experimented 
upon. Incidentally there have been extensive sampling and 
analysing of soils, investigations into rainfall and the composition 
of drainage waters, inquiries into the amount of water transpired 
by plants, and experiments on the assimilation of free nitrogen. 

Cereals. Amongst the field experiments there is, perhaps, not 
one of more universal interest than that in which wheat was 
grown for fifty-seven years in succession, (a) without manure, 
(b) with farmyard manure and (c) with various artificial manures. 
The results show that, unlike leguminous crops such as beans or 
clover, wheat may be successfully grown for many years in suc- 
cession on ordinary arable land, provided suitable manures be 
applied and the land be kept clean. Even without manure the 
average produce over forty-six years, 1852-1897, was nearly 
thirteen bushels per acre, or about the average yield per acre of 

1 The higher yield of wheat in the later years of the igth century 
appears to be largely attributable to better grain-growing seasons. 
The yields in the experimental wheat-field at Rothamsted where 
there is no change either of land or of treatment indicate this. 
Tne following figures show the average yields per acre of the selected 
plots at Rothamsted over six 8-yearly periods from 1852 to 1899, 
and afford evidence that the higher yield of later years is due to the 
seasons : 

Bushels (of 60 ft) 
Average of per acre 

8 years 1852-1859 28 

8 1860-1867 28 

1868-1875 27 

1876-1883 25- 

1884-1891 ...... 29 

1892-1899 30 



8 
B 

8 



32 

16 



1852-1883 2 7 | 

1884-1899 30 



48 1852-1899 28J 

The average of the first thirty-two years was thus 27^ bushels per 
acre, of the last sixteen years 30 bushels, and of the whole forty-eight 
years 28} bushels. 

2 See J. B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert, Rothamsted Memoirs on 
Agricultural Chemistry and Physiology, 7 vols. (1893-1899); A. D 
Hall, Book of the Rothamsted Experiments (1905). 



the wheat lands of the whole world. Mineral manures alone give 
very little increase, nitrogenous manures alone considerably more 
than mineral manures alone, but the mixture of the two con- 
siderably more than either separately. In one case, indeed, the 
average produce by mixed minerals and nitrogenous manure was 
more than that by the annual application of farmyard manure; 
and in seven out of the ten cases in which such mixtures were 
used the average yield per acre was from over two to over eight 
bushels more than the average yield of the United Kingdom 
(assuming this to be about twenty-eight bushels of 60 Ib per 
bushel) under ordinary rotation. It is estimated that the 
reduction in yield of the unmanured plot over the forty years, 
1852-1891, after the growth of the crops without manure during 
the eight preceding years, was, provided it had been uniform 
throughout, equivalent to a decline of one-sixth of a bushel from 
year to year due to exhaustion that is, irrespectively of fluctua- 
tions due to season. It is related that a visitor from the United 
States, talking to Sir John Lawes, said, " Americans have learnt 
more from this field than from any dther agricultural experiment 
in the world." 

Experiments upon the growth of barley for fifty years in 
succession on rather heavy ordinary arable soil resulted in show- 
ing that the produce by mineral manures alone is larger than that 
without manure; that nitrogenous manures alone give more 
produce than mineral manures alone; and that mixtures of 
mineral and nitrogenous manure give much more than either 
used alone generally twice, or more than twice, as much as 
mineral manures alone. Of mineral constituents, whether used 
alone or in mixture with nitrogenous manures, phosphates are 
much more effective than mixtures of salts of potash, soda and 
magnesia. The average results show that, under all conditions 
of manuring excepting with farmyard manure the produce 
was less over the later than over the earlier periods of the experi- 
ments, an effect partly due to the seasons. But the average 
produce over forty years of continuous growth of barley was, in 
all cases where nitrogenous and mineral manures (containing 
phosphates) were used together, much higher than the average 
produce of the crop grown in ordinary rotation in the United 
Kingdom, and very much higher than the average in most other 
countries when so grown. The requirements of barley within the 
soil, and its susceptibility to the external influences of season, are 
very similar to those of its near ally, wheat. Nevertheless there 
are distinctions of result dependent on differences in the habits of 
the two plants, and in the conditions of their cultivation accord- 
ingly. In the British Isles wheat is, as a rule, sown in the autumn 
on a heavier soil, and has four or five months in which to dis- 
tribute its roots, and so it gets possession of a wide range of soil 
and subsoil before barley is sown in the spring. Barley, on the 
other hand, is sown in a lighter surface soil, and, with its short 
period for root-development, relies in a much greater degree on 
the stores of plant-food within the surface soil. Accordingly it 
is more susceptible to exhaustion of surface soil as to its nitro- 
genous, and especially as to its mineral supplies; and in the 
common practice of agriculture it is found to be more benefited 
ay direct mineral manures, especially phosphatic manures, than 
is wheat when sown under equal soil conditions. The exhaustion 
of the soil induced by both barley and wheat is, however, char- 
acteristically that of available nitrogen; and when, under the 
ordinary conditions of manuring and cropping, artificial manure 
s still required, nitrogenous manures are, as a rule, necessary for 
Dbth crops, and, for the spring-sown barley, superphosphate also. 
Although barley is appropriately grown on lighter soils than 
wheat, good crops, of fair quality, may be grown on the heavier 
soils after another grain crop by the aid of artificial manures, 
Drovided that the land is sufficiently clean. Experiments similar 
:o the foregoing were carried on for many years in succession at 
Rothamsted upon oats, and gave results which were in general 
accordance with those on the other cereal crops. 

Additional significance to the value of the above experiments 
on wheat and barley is afforded by the fact that the same series, 
with but slight modifications, has also been carried out since 
1876 at the Woburn (Bedfordshire) experimental farm of the 






BRITISH] 



AGRICULTURE 



403 



Royal Agricultural Society of England, the soil here being of 
light sandy character, and thus very different from the heavy 
soil of Rothamsted. The results for the thirty years, 1877-1906, 
are in their general features entirely confirmatory of those 
ibtained at Rothamsted. 

Root-Crops. Experiments upon root-crops chiefly white 
mips, Swedish turnips (swedes) and mangels have resulted 
the establishment of the following conclusions. Both the 
antity and the quality of the produce, and consequently its 
ding value, must depend greatly upon the selection of the 
:st description of roots to be grown, and on the character and 
ie amount of the manures, and especially on the amount of 
itrogenous manure employed. At the same time, no hard- 
d-fast rules can be laid down concerning these points. Inde- 
ndently of the necessary consideration of the general economy 
the farm, the choice must be influenced partly by the character 
the soil, but very much more by that of the climate. Judgment 
tunded on knowledge and aided by careful observation, both 
the field and in the feeding-shed, must be relied upon as the 
guide of the practical farmer. Over and above the great advan- 
.ge arising from the opportunity which the growth of root-crops 
:ords for the cleaning of the land, the benefits of growing the 
t-crop in rotation are due (i) to the large amount of manure 
plied for its growth, (2) to the large residue of the manure left 
the soil for future crops, (3) to the large amount of matter 
t once returned as manure again in the leaves, (4) to the large 
ount of food produced, and (5) to the small proportion of the 
ost important manurial constituents of the roots which is 
tained by store or fattening animals consuming them, the rest 
turning as manure again; though, when the roots are consumed 
for the production of milk, a much larger proportion of the con- 

t'ltuents is lost to the manure. 
Leguminous Crops and the Acquisition of Nitrogen. The fact 
at the growth of a leguminous crop, such as red clover, leaves 
e soil in a higher condition for the subsequent growth of a grain 
sp that, indeed, the growth of such a leguminous crop is to 
a great extent equivalent to the application of a nitrogenous 
manure for the cereal crop was in effect known ages ago. 
Nevertheless it was not till near the approach of the closing 
decade of the igth century that the explanation of this long- 
established point of agricultural practice was forthcoming. It 
was in -the year 1886 that Hellriegel and Wilfarth first published 
in Germany the results of investigations in which they demon- 
strated that, through the agency of micro-organisms dwelling 
in nodular outgrowths on the roots of ordinary leguminous 
plants, the latter are enabled to assimilate the free nitrogen of 
the air. The existence of the root nodules had long been recog- 
nized, but hitherto no adequate explanation had been afforded 
as to their function. 

Since Hellriegel's striking discovery farm crops have been 
conveniently classified as nitrogen-accumulating and nitrogen- 
consuming. To the former belong the ordinary leguminous 
crops the clovers, beans, peas, vetches or tares, sainfoin, 
lucerne, for example which obtain their nitrogen from the air, 
and are independent of the application of nitrogenous manures, 
whilst in their roots they accumulate a store of nitrogen which 
will ultimately become available for future crops of other 
kinds. It is, in fact, fully established that these leguminous 
crops acquire a considerable amount of nitrogen by the fixation 
of the free nitrogen of the atmosphere under the influence of 
the symbiotic growth of their root-nodule-microbes and the 
higher plant. The cereal crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize) ; 
the cruciferous crops (turnips, cabbage, kale, rape, mustard); 
the solanaceous crops (potatoes); the chenopodiaceous crops 
(mangels, sugar-beets), and other non-leguminous crops have, 
so far as is known, no such power, and are therefore more or 
less benefited by the direct application of nitrogenous manures. 
The field experiments on leguminous plants at Rothamsted have 
shown that land which is, so to speak, exhausted so far as the 
growth of one leguminous crop is concerned, may still grow very 
luxuriant crops of another plant of the same natural order, 
but of different habits of growth, and especially of different 



character and range of roots. This result is doubtless largely 
dependent on the existence, the distribution and the condition 
of the appropriate microbes for the due infection of the different 
descriptions of plant, for the micro-organism that dwells sym- 
biotically with one species is not identical with that which 
similarly dwells with another. It seems certain that success in 
any system involving a more extended growth of leguminous 
crops in rotations must be dependent on a considerable variation 
in the description grown. Other essential conditions of success 
will commonly include the liberal application of potash and 
phosphatic manures, and sometimes chalking or liming for the 
leguminous crop. As to how long the leguminous" crop should 
occupy the land, the extent to which it should be consumed 
on the land, or the manure from its consumption be returned, 
and under what conditions the whole or part of it should be 
ploughed in these are points which must be decided as they 
arise in practice. It seems obvious that the lighter and poorer 
soils would benefit more than the heavier or richer soils by the 
extended growth of leguminous crops. 

Remarkable as Hellriegel's discovery was, it merely furnished 
the explanation of a fact which had been empirically established 
by the husbandman long before, and had received most intelligent 
application when the old four-course (or Norfolk) rotation was 
devised. But it gave some impetus to the practice of green 
manuring with leguminous crops, which are equally capable 
with such a crop as mustard of enriching the soil in humus, 
whilst in addition they bring into the soil from the atmosphere 
a quantity of nitrogen available for the use of subsequent crops 
of any kind. In Canada and the United States this rational 
employment of a leguminous crop for ploughing in green is 
largely resorted to for the amelioration of worn-out wheat lands 
and other soils, the condition of which has been lowered to an 
unremunerative level by the repeated growth year after year 
of a cereal crop. The well-known paper of Lawes, Gilbert and 
Pugh (1861), " On the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation, 
with special reference to the Question whether Plants assimilate 
free or uncombined Nitrogen," answered the question referred 
to in the negative. The attitude taken up later on with regard 
to this problem is set forth in the following words, which are 
quoted from the Memoranda of the Rothamsted Experiments, 
1900 (p. 7): 

" Experiments were commenced in 1857, and conducted for several 
years in succession, to determine whether plants assimilate free or 
uncombined nitrogen, and also various collateral points. Plants 
of the gramineous, the leguminous and of other families were 
operated upon. The late Or Pugh took a prominent part in this 
inquiry. The conclusion arrived at was that our agricultural plants 
do not themselves directly assimilate the free nitrogen of the air by 
their leaves. 

" In recent years, however, the question has assumed quite a new 
aspect. It now is whether the free nitrogen of the atmosphere is 
brought into combination under the influence of micro-organisms, 
or other low forms, either within the soil or in symbiosis with a 
higher plant, thus serving indirectly as a source of nitrogen to 
plants of a higher order. Considering that the results of Hellriegel 
and Wilfarth on this point were, if confirmed, of great significance 
and importance, it was decided to make experiments at Rothamsted 
on somewhat similar lines. Accordingly, a preliminary series was 
undertaken in 1888; more extended series were conducted in 1889 
and in 1890; and the investigation was continued up to the com- 
mencement of the year 1895. Further experiments relating to 
certain aspects of the subject were begun in 1898. The results 
have shown that, when a soil growing leguminous plants is infected 
with appropriate organisms, there is a development of the so-called 
leguminous nodules on the roots of the plants, and, coincidently, 
increased growth and gain of nitrogen." 

The conclusions of Hellriegel and Wilfarth have thus been 
confirmed by the later experiences of Rothamsted, and since 
that time efforts have been directed energetically to the practical 
application of the discovery. This has taken the form of in- 
oculating the soil with the particular organism required by the 
particular kind of leguminous crop. To this end the endeavour 
has been made to produce preparations which shall contain in 
portable form the organisms required by the several plants, 
and though, as yet, it can hardly be claimed that they have 
been generally successful, the work done justifies hopes 






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[BRITISH 



that the problem will eventually be solved in a practical 
direction. 

Grass. Another field experiment of singular interest is that 
relating to the mixed herbage of permanent meadow, for which 
seven acres of old grass land were set apart in Rothamsted Park 
in 1856. Of the twenty plots into which this land is divided, 
two were left without manure from the outset, two received 
ordinary farmyard manure for a series of years, whilst the 
remainder each received a different description of artificial or 
chemical manure, the same being, except in special cases, applied 
year after year on the same plot. During the growing season 
the field affords striking evidence of the influence of different 
manurial dressings. So much, indeed, does the character of 
the herbage vary from plot to plot that the effect may fairly 
be described as kaleidoscopic. Repeated analyses have shown 
how greatly both the botanical constitution and the chemical 
composition of the mixed herbage vary according to the descrip- 
tion of manure applied. They have further shown how dominant 
is the influence of season. Such, moreover, is the effect of 
different manures that the gross produce of the mixed herbage 
is totally different on the respective plots according to the 
manure employed, both as to the proportion of the various 
species composing it and as to their condition of development 
and maturity. 

The Rotation of Crops. 

The growth, year after year, on the same soil of one kind of 
plant unfits it for bearing further crops of the kind which has 
exhausted it, and renders them less vigorous and more liable to 
disease. The farmer therefore arranges his cropping in such a 
way that roots, or leguminous crops, succeed the cereal crops. 

It is not only the conditions of growth, but the uses to which 
the different crops are put, that have to be considered in the case 
of rotation. Thus the cereal crops, when grown in rotation, 
yield more produce for sale in the season of growth than when 
grown continuously. Moreover, the crops alternated with the 
cereals accumulate very much more of mineral constituents 
and of nitrogen in their produce than do the cereals themselves. 
By far the greater proportion of those constituents remains in 
circulation in the manure of the farm, whilst the remainder 
yields highly valuable products for sale in the forms of meat 
and milk. For this reason these crops are known as " restora- 
tive," cereals the produce of which is sold off the farm being 
classed as " exhaustive." With a variety of crops, again, the 
mechanical operations of the farm, involving horse and hand 
labour, are better distributed over the year, and are therefore 
more economically performed. The opportunities which rotation 
cropping affords for the cleaning of the land from weeds is 
another distinct element of advantage. Although many different 
rotations of crops are practised, they may for the most part be 
considered as little more than local adaptations of the system 
of alternating root-crops and leguminous crops with cereal 
crops, as exemplified in the old four-course rotation roots, 
barley, clover, wheat. 

Under this system the clover is ploughed up in the autumn, 
the nitrogen stored up in its roots being left in the soil for the 
nourishment of the cereal crop. The following summer the 
wheat crop is harvested, and an opportunity is afforded for 
extirpating weeds which in the three previous years have re- 
ceived little check. Or, where the climate is warm and the soil 
light, a " catch-crop," i.e. rye, vetches, winter-oats or some 
other rapidly-growing crop may be sown in autumn and fed off 
or otherwise disposed of prior to the root-sowing. On heavy 
soils, however, the farmer cannot afford to curtail the time 
necessary for thorough cultivation of the land. The cleaning 
process is carried on through the next summer by means of 
successive hoeings of the spring-sown root-crop. As turnips or 
swedes may occupy the ground till after Christmas little time 
is left for the preparation of a seed-bed for barley, but as the 
latter is a shallow-rooted crop only surface-stirring is required. 
Clover is sown at the same time or shortly after the cereal and 
thus occupies the land for two years. 



The rotations extending to five, six, seven or more years are, 
in most cases, only adaptations of the principle to variations of 
soil, altitude, aspect, climate, markets and other local conditions. 
They are effected chiefly by some alteration in the description 
of the root-crop, and perhaps by the introduction of the potato 
crop; by growing a different cereal, or it may be more than one 
cereal consecutively; by the growth of some other leguminous 
crop than- clover, since " clover-sickness " may result if that 
crop is grown at too short intervals, or the intermixture of grass 
seeds with the clover, and perhaps by the extension by one or 
more years of the period allotted to this member of the rotation. 
Whatever the specific rotation, there may in practice be devia- 
tions from the plan of retaining on the farm the whole of the 
root-crops, the straw of the grain crops and the leguminous 
fodder crops (clover, vetches, sainfoin, &c.) for the production 
of meat or milk, and, coincidently, for that of manure to be 
returned to the land. It is equally true that, when under the 
influence of special local or other demand proximity to towns, 
easy railway or other communication, for example the products 
which would otherwise be retained on the farm are exported 
from it, the import of town or other manures is generally an 
essential condition of such practice. This system of free sale, 
indeed, frequently involves full compensation by purchased 
manures of some kind. Such deviations from the practice of 
merely selling grain and meat off the farm have much extended 
in recent years, and will probably continue to do so under the 
altered conditions of British agriculture, determined by very 
large imports of grain, increasing imports of meat and of other 
products of stock-feeding, and very large imports of cattle-food 
and other agricultural produce. More attention is thus being 
devoted to dairy produce, not only on grass farms, but on those 
that are mainly arable. 

The benefits that accrue from the practice of rotation are well 
illustrated in the results obtained from the investigations at 
Rothamsted into the simple four-course system, which may 
fairly be regarded as a self-supporting system. Reference may 
first be made to the important mineral constituents of different 
crops of the four-course rotation. Of phosphoric acid, the cereal 
crops take up as much as, or more than, any other crops of the 
rotation, excepting clover; and the greater portion thus taken 
up is lost to the farm in the saleable product the grain. The 
remainder, that in the straw, as well as that in the roots and the 
leguminous crops, is supposed to be retained on the farm, except- 
ing the small amount exported in meat and milk. Of potash, 
each of the rotation crops takes up very much more than of 
phosphoric acid. But much less potash than phosphoric acid 
is exported in the cereal grains, much more being retained in the 
straw, whilst the other products of the rotation the root and 
leguminous crops which are also supposed to be retained on 
the farm, contain very much more potash than the cereals, 
and comparatively little of it is exported in meat and milk. Thus 
the whole of the crops of rotation take up very much more of 
potash than of phosphoric acid, whilst probably even less of it is 
ultimately lost to the land. Of lime, very little is taken up by 
the cereal crops, and by the root-crops much less than of potash; 
more by the leguminous than by the other crops, and, by the 
clover especially, sometimes much more than by all the other 
crops of the rotation put together. Very little of the lime of 
the crops, however, goes off in the saleable products of the farm 
in the case of the self-supporting rotation under considera- 
tion. Although, therefore, different, and sometimes very large, 
amounts of these typical mineral constituents are taken up by 
the various crops of rotation, there is no material export of any 
in the saleable products, excepting of phosphoric acid and of potash; 
and, so far at least as phosphoric acid is concerned, experience 
has shown that it may be advantageously supplied in purchased 
manures. 

Of nitrogen, the cereal crops take up and retain much less than 
any of the crops alternated with them, notwithstanding the 
circumstance that the cereals are very characteristically benefited 
by nitrogenous manures. The root-crops, indeed, may contain 
two or more times as much nitrogen as either of the cereals, 



BRITISH] 



AGRICULTURE 



405 



and the leguminous crops, especially the clover, much more 
than the root-crops. The greater part of the nitrogen of the 
cereals is, however, sold off the farm; but perhaps not more 
than 10 or 15% of that of either the root-crop or the clover (or 
other forage leguminous crop) is sold off in animal increase or in 
milk. Most of the nitrogen in the straw of the cereals, and a very 
large proportion of that of the much more highly nitrogen- 
yielding crops, returns to the land as manure, for the benefit of 
future cereals and other crops. As to the source of the nitrogen 
of the root-crops the so-called " restorative crops " these are 
as dependent as any crop that is grown on available nitrogen 
within the soil, which is generally supplied by the direct appli- 



cation of nitrogenous manures, natural or artificial. Under such 
conditions of supply, however, the root-crops, gross feeders as 
they are, and distributing a very large extent of fibrous feeding 
root within the soil, avail themselves of a much larger quantity 
of the nitrogen supplied than the cereal crops would do in 
similar circumstances. This result is partly due to their period 
of accumulation and growth extending even months after the 
period of collection by the ripening cereals has terminated, and 
at the season when nitrification within the soil is most active, 
and the accumulation of nitrates in it is the greatest. When 
a full supply of both mineral constituents and nitrogen is at 
command, these root-crops assimilate a very large amount of 



TABLE XI. The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Ib. per Acre. 



Crop. 


Weight of Crop. 


Total 
Pure 
Ash. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Sul- 
phur. 


Potash. 


Soda. 


Lime. 


Mag- 
nesia. 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Chlor- 
ine. 


Silica. 


At 
Harvest. 


Dry. 


Wheat, grain, 30 bushels . 
,, straw .... 


1, 800 
1,1158 


1530 
2653 


30 
142 


34 
16 


2-7 
5-1 


9-3 

19-5 


0-6 

2-O 


I-O 
8-2 


3-6 
3-5 


14-2 
6-9 


O-I 

2-4 


0-6 
96-3 


Total crop 




4.958 


4183 


172 


50 


7-8 


28-8 


2-6 


9-2 


7-1 


2I-I 


2-5 


96-9 


Barley, grain, 40 bushels . 
,, straw .... 

Total crop 


2,080 
2,447 


1747 
2080 


46 
in 


35 
'4 


2-9 
3-2 


9-8 
25-9 


I-I 

3-9 


1-2 

8-0 


4-0 
2-9 


16-0 
47 


c-5 
3-6 


11-8 
56-8 


4.527 


3827 


157 


49 


6-1 


35-7 


5-o 


9-2 


6-9 


20-7 


4-1 


68-6 


Oats, grain, 45 bushels 
,, straw .... 

Total crop 


1,890 
2,835 


1625 
2353 


5i 
140 


34 
18 


fS 


9-1 

37-o 


0-8 
4-6 


1-8 
9-8 


3-6 
5-1 


13-0 
6-4 


o-5 
6-1 


19-9 
65-4 


4-725 


3978 


191 


52 


8-0 


46-1 


5-4 


11-6 


8-7 


19-4 


6-6 


85-3 


Maize, grain, 30 bushels . 


i, 680 
2,208 


1500 

1877 


22 

99 


28 
15 


1-8 


6-5 
29-8 


0-2 


o-5 


3'4 


IO-O 

8-0 


O-2 


o-5 


Total crop 




3,888 


3377 


121 


43 




36-3 








18-0 






Meadow hay, ij ton . 


3,36o 


2822 


203 


49 


57 


5-9 


9-2 


32-1 


14-4 


12-3 


14-6 


56-9 


Red Clover hay, 2 tons . 


4,480 


3763 


258 


98 


9.4 


83-4 


5'i 


90-1 


28-2 


24-9 


9-8 


7-0 


Beans, grain, 30 bushels . 


1,920 
2,240 


1613 
1848 


58 

99 


78 
29 


4'4 
4'9 


24-3 
42-8 


0-6 
1-7 


2-9 

26-3 


4-2 
5'7 


22-8 

6-3 


i-i 
4'3 


0-4 
6-9 


Total crop 




4,160 


346i 


157 


107 


9'3 


67-1 


2-3 


29-2 


9-9 


29-1 


5-4 


7'3 


Turnips, root, 17 tons 
leaf .... 


38,080 

11.424 


3126 
1531 


218 
146 


61 
49 


15-2 
57 


108-6 
40-2 


17-0 

7-5 


25-5 
48-5 


57 
3-8 


22-4 

10-7 


10-9 

II-2 


2-6 

5-1- 


Total crop 




49,504 


4657 


364 


no 


20-9 


148-8 


24-5 


74-0 


9-5 


33-1 


22-1 


7-7 


Swedes, root, 14 tons 
leaf 

Total crop 


31,360 
4-704 


3349 
706 


163 
75 


70 

28 


14-6 

3'2 


63-3 
16-4 


22-8 

9-2 


19-7 

22-7 


6-8 
2-4 


16-9 
4-8 


6-8 
8-3 


3-1 
3-6 


36,064 


4055 


238 


98 


17-8* 


797 


32-0 


42-4 


9-2 


21-7 


iS-i 


6-7 


Mangels, root, 22 tons 
leaf .... 

Total crop 


49,28O 
18,233 


59H 
1654 


426 
254 


98 
5i 


4'9 
9-1 


222-8 

77-9 


69-4 

49-3 


15-9 
27-0 


18-3 
24-2 


36-4 
16-5 


42-5 
40-6 


8-7 
9-2 


67.513 


7568 


680 


149 


14-0 


300-7 


118-7 


42-9 


42-5 


52-9 


83-1 


17-9 


Potatoes, tubers, 6 tons . 


13.440 


336o 


127 


46 


2-7 


76-5 


3-8 


3-4 


6-3 


2.1-5 


4.4 


2-6 



*Calculated from a single analysis only. 



carbon from the atmosphere, and produce, besides nitrogenous 
food materials, a very large amount of the carbohydrate sugar, 
as respiratory and fat-forming food for the live stock of the farm. 
The still more highly nitrogenous leguminous crops, although 
not characteristically benefited by nitrogenous manures, never- 
theless contribute much more nitrogen to the total produce of the 
rotation than any of the other crops comprised in it. It is the 
leguminous fodder crops especially clover, which has a much 
more extended period of growth, and much wider range of 
collection within the soil and subsoil, than any of the other 
crops of the rotation that yield in their produce the largest 
amount of nitrogen per acre. Much of this is doubtless 
, taken up as nitrate, yet the direct application of nitrate of 
soda has comparatively little beneficial influence on their 
' growth. The nitric acid is most likely taken up chiefly as 
, nitrate of lime, but probably as nitrate of potash also, and 



it is significant that the high nitrogen-yielding clover takes 
up, or at least retains, very little soda. Table XI., from War- 
ington's Chemistry of the Farm, igth edition (Vinton and Co.), 
will serve to illustrate the subjects that have been discussed in 
this section. 

For further information on the routine and details of farming, 
reference may be made to the articles under the headings of the 
various crops and implements. 

British Live Stock. 

The numbers of live stock in the United Kingdom are shown 
at five-yearly intervals in Table XII. Under horses are em- 
braced only unbroken horses and horses used solely for agri- 
culture (including mares kept for breeding). The highest and 
lowest annual totals for the United Kingdom in the period 1875- 
1905 were the following: 






406 



AGRICULTURE 



[BRITISH 





Highest. 


Lowest. 


Difference. 


Horses . 
Cattle . . 
Sheep . 
Pigs. . . 


2,116,800 in 1905 
1 1 ',674,0 1 9 1905 
33,642,808 1892 
4,362,040 ,, 1890 


1,819,687 in 1875 

9.731-537 ,- 1877 
27,448,220 ,, 1882 
2,863,488 1880 


295-H3 

1,942,482 
6,194,588 
1,498,552 



After 1892 cattle, which in that year numbered 11,519,417, 
and sheep declined continuously for three years to the totals of 
1895, the diminution being mainly the result of the memorable 
drought of 1893. Sheep, which numbered 32,571,018 in 1878, 
declined continuously to 27,448,220 in 1882 a loss of over five 
million head in five years. This was chiefly attributable to the 
ravages of the liver fluke which began in the disastrously wet 
season of 1879. Pigs, being prolific breeders, fluctuate more 
widely in numbers than cattle or sheep, for the difference of 
1,498,552 in their case represents one-third of the highest total, 
whereas the difference is less than one-seventh for horses, less 
than one-sixth for cattle, and less than one-fifth for sheep. The 

TABLE XII. Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the 
United Kingdom. 



Year. 


Horses. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Pigs. 


1875 
1880 
1885 
1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 


1,819,687 
1,929,680 
1,909,200 
1,964,911 
2,112,207 
2,000,402 
2,116,800 


10,162,787 

9,871,153 
10,868,760 
10,789,858 

10,753,314 
11,454,902 
11,674,019 


33,491,948 
30,239,620 
30,086,200 
31,667,195 

29,774.853 
31,054,547 

29,076,777 


3,495,167 
2,863,488 
3,686,628 
4,362,040 
4,238,870 
3,663,669 
3,601,659 



relative proportions as distinguished from the actual numbers 
in which stock are distributed over the several sections of the 
United Kingdom do not vary greatly from year to year. Table 
XIII., in which the totals for the United Kingdom include those 
for the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, illustrates the prepon- 
derance of the sheep-breeding industry in the drier climate of 
Great Britain, and of the cattle-breeding industry in the more 
humid atmosphere of Ireland. In Great Britain in 1905, for 
every head of cattle there were about four head of sheep, whereas 
in Ireland the cattle outnumbered the sheep. Again, whilst 
Great Britain possessed only half as many cattle more than 

TABLE XIII. Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the 
United Kingdom in 1905. 



1905- 


Horses. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Pigs. 


England . 
Wales 
Scotland . 


1,204,124 
161,923 
206,386 


5,020,936 

738,789 
1,227,295 


14,698,018 

3,534,967 
7,024,211 


2,083,226 

211,479 
130,214 


Great Britain . 


1,572,433 


6,987,020 


25,257,196 


2,424,919 


Ireland 


534,875 


4,645,215 


3,749,352 


1,164,316 


United \ 
Kingdom 1 \ 


2,116,800 


11,674,019 


29.076,777 


3,601,659 



Ireland, she possessed six times as many sheep. The cattle 
population of England alone slightly exceeded that of Ireland, 
but cattle are more at home on the broad plains of England than 
amongst the hills and mountains of Wales and Scotland, which 
are suitable for sheep. Hence, whilst in England sheep were not 
three times as numerous as cattle, in Wales they were nearly 
five times, and in Scotland nearly six times as many. Great 
Britain had twice as many pigs as Ireland, but the swine industry 
is mainly English and Irish, and England possessed more than 
six times as many pigs as Wales and Scotland together, the 
number in the last-named country being particularly small. 
One English county alone, Suffolk, maintained more pigs than 
the whole of Scotland. 

British Imports of Live A nimals and Meat. 
The stock-breeders and graziers of the United Kingdom have, 
equally with the corn-growers, to face the brunt of foreign 
competition. 

1 Including Channel Islands and Isle of Man. 



Up to 1896 store cattle were admitted into the United King- 
dom for the purpose of being fattened, but under the Diseases 
of Animals Act of that year animals imported since then have 
to be slaughtered at the place of landing. The dimensions of 
this trade are shown in Table XIV. 

TABLE XIV. Numbers of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs imported into the 
United Kingdom, 1891-1905. 



Year. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Pigs. 


1891 


507,407 


1 344,504 


542 


1892 


502,237 


: 79.048 


3826 


1893 


340,045 


62,682 


138 


1894 


475.440 


484,597 


8 


1895 


415.565 


1,065,470 


321 


1896 


562,553 


769,592 


4 


1897 


618,321 


611,504 




1898 


569,066 


663,747 


450 


1899 


503,504 


607,755 




1900 


495,645 


382,833 




1901 


495,635 


383,594 




1902 


419,488 


293,203 




1903 


522,546 


354,241 




1904 


549,532 


382,240 




1905 


565,139 


183,084 


150 



The animals come mainly from the United States of America, 
Canada and Argentina, and the traffic in cattle is^nore uniform 
than that in sheep, whilst that in pigs seems practically to have 
reached extinction. The quantities of dead meat imported 
increased with great rapidity from 1891 to 1905, a circumstance 
largely due to the rise of the trade in chilled and frozen meat. 
Fresh beef in this form is imported chiefly from the United 
States and Australasia, fresh mutton from Australasia and 
Argentina. 

Table XV. shows how rapidly this trade expanded during the 
decade of the 'nineties. The column headed bacon and hams 
indicates clearly enough that the imports of fresh meat did not 
displace those of preserved pig meat, for the latter expanded from 
4,715,000 cwt. to 7,784,000 cwt. during the decade. The column 
for all dead meat includes not only the items tabulated, but also 

TABLE XV. Quantities of Dead Meat imported into the United 
Kingdom, 1891-1905 Thousands of Cwt. 



Year. 


Fresh. 
Beef. 


Fresh 
Mutton. 


Fresh 
Pork. 


Bacon 
and Hams. 


All 
Dead Meat. 


1891 


1921 


1663 


128 


4715 


9.790 


1892 


2080 


1700 


132 


5135 


10,500 


'893 


1808 


1971 


182 


4187 


9,305 


1894 


2104 


2295 


1 80 


4819 


10,610 


i895 


2191 


2611 


288 


5353 


ii,977 


1896 


2660 


2895 


299 


6009 


13,347 


1897 


3010 


3193 


348 


6731 


14,729 


1898 


3101 


3314 


558 


7684 


i6,445 


1899 


3803 


3446 


669 


7784 


17,658 


1900 


4128 


3393 


695 


7444 


17,912 


1901 


4509 


3608 


792 


7633 


18,764 


1902 


3707 


3660 


655 


6572 


16,971 


1903 


4160 


4017 


706 


6298 


17.498 


1904 


435 


3495 


610 


6696 


I7,5i7 


1905 


5038 


3811 


506 


6817 


18,680 



the following, the quantities stated being those for 1905: Beef, 
salted, 142,806 cwt.; beef, otherwise preserved, 598,030 cwt.; 
preserved mutton, 30,111 cwt.; salted pork, 205,965 cwt.; dead 
rabbits, 656,078 cwt.; meat, unenumerated, 875,032 cwt. The 
quantities of these are relatively small, and, excepting rabbits 
from Australia, they show no general tendency to increase. The 
extent to which these growing imports were associated with a 
decline in value is shown in Table XVI. 

The trend of the import trade in meat, live and dead (exclusive 
of rabbits) , may be gathered from Table X VII. , in which are given 
the annual average imports from the eight quinquennial periods 
embraced between 1866 and 1905. An increase in live cattle 
accompanied a decrease in live sheep and pigs, but the imports of 
dead meat expanded fifteen-fold over the period, 

The rate at which the trade in imported frozen mutton in- 
creased as compared with the industry in home-grown mutton 
is illustrated in the figures published annually by Messrs W. 



BRITISH] 



AGRICULTURE 



407 



Weddel and Company, from which those for 1885 and 1890 and 
for each year from 1895 to 1906 are given in Table XVIII. The 
home-grown is the estimated dead weight of sheep and lambs 
slaughtered, which is taken at 40 % of the total number of sheep 
and lambs returned each year in the United Kingdom. In the 

TABLE XVI. Average Values of Fresh Meat, Bacon and Hams 
imported into the United Kingdom, 1891-1905 per Cwt. 



Year. 


Fresh 
Beef. 


Fresh 
Mutton. 


Fresh 
Pork. 


Bacon. 


Hams. 




s. d. 


s. d. 


s. d. 


s. d. 


s. d. 


1891 


42 i 


39 6 


47 6 


37 ii 


46 4 


1892 


42 5 


40 6 


46 ii 


40 10 


47 4 


1893 


42 4 


39 3 


50 o 


53 o 


58 5 


1894 


40 o 


37 1 


48 5 


43 10 


49 i 


1895 


39 o 


35 2 


46 i 


39 o 


44 ii 


1896 


37 10 


32 7 


45 ii 


34 6 


43 o 


1897 


38 5 


3 3 


44 o 


35 5 


42 8 


1898 


38 2 


29 7 


41 10 


36 2 


39 6 


1899 


38 8 


31 7 


41 ii 


35 10 


41 5 


1900 


39 7 


34 5 


43 o 


41 9 


46 10 


1901 


39 6 


36 7 


43 4 


47 i 


48 8 


1902 


42 8 


37 9 


44 2 


52 9 


52 i 


1903 


4 3 


39 o 


44 i 


52 10 


55 i 


1904 


37 i 


39 3 


45 2. 


47 i 


49 ii 


1905 


35 6 


38 6 


46 o 


46 6 


47 4 



nported column is given the weight of fresh (frozen) mutton and 
amb imported, plus the estimated dead weight of the sheep 

nported on the hoof for slaughter. The quantity imported in 
1899 was double that in 1890, and quadruple that in 1885. More- 
over, in 1885 the imported product was only about one-seventh 

TABLE XVII. Average Annual Imports of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs, 
and of Dead Meat, into the United Kingdom over eight ^-yearly 
Periods. 



Period. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Pigs. 


Dead Meat. 




No. 


No. 


No. 


Cwt. 


1866-1870 


194.947 


610,300 


64,827 


1,155,867 


1871-1875 


215,990 


864,516 


74,040 


3-134,175 


1876-1880 


272,745 


938,704 


44,6i3 


5,841,913 


1881-1885 


387,282 


974,316 


24-355 


6,012,495 


1886-1890 


438,098 


800,599 


19,437 


7,681,729 


1891-1895 


448,139 


407,260 


967 


10,436,549 


1896-1900 


549,818 


607,086 


9i 


15,785,354 


1901-1905 


510,468 


319,272 


30 


17,384-366 



much as the home-grown, whereas in 1890 it was more than 

ne-fourth, and in 1906 close on two- thirds. This large import 

rade in fresh meat, which sprang up entirely within the last 

quarter of the igth century, has placed an abundance of cheap 

nd wholesome food well within the reach of the great industrial 

TABLE XVIII. Home Product and Imports of Sheep and Mutton 
into the United Kingdom Thousands of Tons. 



Year. 


Home- 
grown. 


Imported. 


Year. 


Home- 
grown. 


Imported. 


1885 
1890 

1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 


322 

339 
319 
329 
327 
333 
339 


47 
92 
157 
164 

175 
182 
187 


1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 


332 
330 
322 
3i8 
3" 
312 

313 


179 

191 
191 

2I0 1 
185 
195 
207 



opulations of the United Kingdom. At the same time it cannot 
: gainsaid that it has opened the way to fraud. Butchers have 
limed off upon their customers imported fresh meat as home- 
own, and secured a dishonest profit by charging for it the prices 
of the latter, which are considerably in excess of those of the 
nported product. 

Sale of Cattle by Live Weight. 

In connexion with the internal live stock trade of Great Britain 

attention must be directed to the Markets and Fairs (Weighing 

of Cattle) Act 1891. The object of this measure is to replace the 

1 In 1903 two of the principal sources of supply of mutton shipped 

i excess of their exportable surplus, for which they suffered severely 

1904 hence the somewhat irregular movements after 1903. 



old-fashioned system of guessing at the weight of an animal by 
the sounder method of obtaining the exact weight by means of 
the weighbridge. The grazier buys and sells cattle much less 
frequently than the butcher buys them, so that the latter is 
naturally more skilled in estimating the weight of a beast through 
the use of the eye and the hand. The resort to the weighbridge 
should put both on an equality, and its use tends to increase. 
Under the act, as supplemented by an order of the Board of 
Agriculture in 1905, there were in that year 26 scheduled places 
in England and 10 in Scotland, or 36 altogether, from which 
returns were obtained. The numbers of cattle (both fat and 
store) weighed at scheduled places in 1893 and 1905" were 
respectively 7-59 and 18 % of those entering those markets. The 
numbers for Scotland are greater throughout than those for 
England, 72 % of the fat cattle entering the scheduled markets in 
Scotland in igos 2 having been weighed, while in England the 
proportion was only 20 %. Little use is made of the weighbridge 
in selling store-cattle, sheep or swine. As the main object of 
the act is to obtain records of prices, it follows that only in so 
far as statements of the prices realized, together with the descrip- 
tion of the animals involved, are obtained, is the full advan- 
tage of the statute secured. In 1905 the average price per cwt. 
for fat cattle in Great Britain was 325. nd. as compared with 
355. 2d. in 1900. 

Food-values and Early Maturity. 

In the feeding experiments which have been carried on 
at Rothamsted it has been shown that the amount consumed 
both for a given live weight of animal within a given time, and 
for the production of a given amount of increase, is, as current 
food-stuffs go, measurable more by the amounts they contain 
of digestible and available non-nitrogenous constituents than 
by the amounts of the digestible and available nitrogenous 
constituents they supply. The non-nitrogenous substance (the 
fat) in the increase in live weight of an animal is, at any rate in 
great part, if not entirely, derived from the non-nitrogenous 
constituents of the food. Of the nitrogenous compounds in food, 
on the other hand, only a small proportion of the whole consumed 
is finally stored up in the increase of the animal in other words, 
a very large amount of nitrogen passes through the body beyond 
that which is finally retained in the increase, and so remains 
for manure. Hence it is that the amount of food consumed to 
produce a given amount of increase in live weight, as well as that 
required for the sustentation of a given live weight for a given 
time, should provided the food be not abnormally deficient 
in nitrogenous substance be characteristically dependent on 
its supplies of digestible and available non-nitrogenous con- 
stituents. It has further been shown that, in the exercise of 
force by animals, there is a greatly increased expenditure of 
the non-nitrogenous constituents of food, but little, if any, of 
the nitrogenous. Thus, then, alike for maintenance, for increase, 
and for the exercise of force, 'the exigencies of the system are 
characterized more by the demand for the digestible non- 
nitrogenous or more specially respiratory and fat-forming con- 
stituents than by that for the nitrogenous or more specially 
flesh-forming ones. Hence, as current fattening food-stuffs 
go assuming, of course, that they are not abnormally low in 
the nitrogenous constituents they are, as foods, more valuable 
in proportion to their richness in digestible and available non- 
nitrogenous than to that of their nitrogenous constituents. As, 
however, the manure of the animals of the farm is valuable 
largely in proportion to the nitrogen it contains, there is, so far, 
an advantage in giving a food somewhat rich in nitrogen, pro- 
vided it is in other respects a good one, and, weight for weight, 
not much more costly. 

The quantity of digestible nutritive matter in 1000 Ib of 
ordinary feeding-stuffs when supplied to sheep or oxen is shown 
in Table XIX. This table is taken from Warington's Chemistry 
of the Farm, igth edition (Vinton and Co.) , to which reference may 
be made for a detailed discussion of the feeding of animals. 

In the fattening of animals for the butcher the principle of 
* Returns for only ten months were available for this year. 



408 



AGRICULTURE 



[BRITISH 



early maturity has received full recognition. If the sole purpose 
for which an animal is reared is to prepare it for the block and 
this is the case with steers amongst cattle and with wethers 
amongst sheep the sooner it is ready for slaughter the less 
should be the outlay involved. During the whole time the 
animal is living the feeder has to pay what has been termed the 
" life tax " that is, so much of the food has to go to the main- 
tenance of the animal as a living organism, independently of 
that which may be undergoing conversion into what will sub- 
sequently be available in the form of beef or mutton. If a bullock 
can be rendered fit for the butcher at the age of two or three 
years, will the animal repay another year's feeding? It has 
been proved at the Christmas fat stock shows that the older a 
bullock gets the less will he gain in weight per day as a result 
of the feeding. With regard to this point the work of the Smith- 
field Club deserves recognition. This body was instituted in 
1798 as the Smithfield Cattle and Sheep Society, the title being 

TABLE XIX. Digestible Matter in 1000 Ib. of various Foods. 





Total 
Organic 
Matter. 


Nitrogenous 
Substances. 


Fat. 


Soluble 
Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Fibre. 


Albu- 
minoids. 


Amides, 
etc. 


Cotton cake (decorticated) . 


691 


374 


18 


128 


158 


13 


(undecorticated) 


422 


15 


13 


5 


177 


32 


Linseed cake 


655 


230 


II 


103 


266 


45 


Peas 


747 


'75 


25 


12 


499 


36 


Beans 


733 


196 


28 


12 


446 


51 


Wheat 1 


786 


92 


13 


15 


656 


10 


Oats 


600 


81 


7 


45 


441 


26 


Barley 


715 


70 


4 


19 


607 


15 


Maize 


786 


73 


6 


44 


651 


12 


Rice meal . 


612 


67 


10 


1 02 


411 


22 


Wheat bran 


585 


90 


20 


27 


426 


22 


Malt sprouts 


68 1 


114 


71 


ii 


379 


106 


Brewers' grains 


137 


34 


2 


H 


67 


20 


(dried) . 


529 


136 


8 


57 


266 


62 


Pasture grass 


156 


19 


ii 


6 


84 


36 


Clover (bloom beginning) 


123 


17 


8 


5 


63 


3 


Clover hay (medium) . 


440 


47 


25 


13 


242 


113 


Meadow hay (best) 


5" 


60 


18 


13 


269 


151 


(medium) 


485 


40 


12 


12 


269 


152 


(poor) 


460 


29 


5 


10 


242 


174 


Maize silage .... 


124 


i 


7 


7 


75 


34 


Bean straw .... 


412 


40 


6 


211 


155 


Oat straw .... 


38i 


7 


5 


7 


163 


199 


Barley straw .... 


426 


4 


3 


6 


211 


202 


Wheat straw .... 


351 


4 


4 


ISO 


193 


Potatoes .... 


213 


5 


9 


i 


195 


3 


Mangels (large) 


89 


i 


8 


1 


74 


6 


(small) . 


109 


2 


6 


| 


96 


5 


Swedes .... 


87 


2 


7 


i 


71 


6 


Turnips . .... 


68 


I 


5 


i 


56 


5 



changed to that of the Smithfield Club in 1802. The original 
object the supply of the cattle markets of Smithfield and other 
places with the cheapest and best meat is still kept strictly 
in view. The judges, in making their awards at the show held 
annually in December, at Islington, North London (since 1862), 
are instructed to decide according to quality of flesh, lightness 
of offal, age and early maturity, with no restrictions as to feeding, 
and thus to promote the primary aim of the club in encouraging 
the selection and breeding of the best and most useful animals 
for the production of meat, and testing their capabilities in respect 
of early maturity. At the first show, held at Smithfield in 1799, 
two classes were provided for cattle and two for sheep, the prizes 
offered amounting to 52 : ios. In 1839 the classes comprised 
seven for cattle, six for sheep, and one for pigs, with prizes to 
the amount of 300. By 1862 the classes had risen to 29 for 
cattle, 17 for sheep and 4 for pigs, and the prize money to 
2072. At the centenary show in 1898 provision was made for 
40 classes for cattle, 29 for sheep, 18 for pigs, and 7 for animals 
to be slaughtered, whilst to mark the importance of the occasion 
the prizes offered amounted to close upon 5000 in value. In 

1 In the absence of experiments it is assumed that wheat is 
digested like other foods of the same class. 



1907 there were 38 classes for cattle, 29 for sheep, 20 for pigs, 
and 1 2 for carcase competitors, and the value of the prizes was 
4113. The sections provided for cattle are properly restricted 
to what may be termed the beef breeds; in the catalogue order 
they are Devon, South Devon, Hereford, Shorthorn, Sussex, 
Red Polled, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Welsh, Highland, 
Cross-bred, Kerry and Dexter, and Small Cross-bred. 

It will be noticed that such characteristically milking breeds 
as the Ayrshire, Jersey and Guernsey have no place here. 
Provision is made, however, for all the well-known breeds of sheep 
and swine. In the cattle classes, aged beasts of huge size and 
of considerably over a ton in weight used to be common, but in 
recent years the tendency has been to reduce the upper limit of 
age, and thus to bring out animals ripe for the butcher in a shorter 
time than was formerly the case. An important step in this 
direction was taken in 1896, when the senior class for steers, 
viz. animals three to four years old, was abolished, the maximum 
age at which steers were allowed to compete 
for prizes being reduced to three years. The 
cow classes were abolished in 1897, and in the 
schedule of the 1905 exhibition the classes for 
each breed of cattle were (i) for steers not 
exceeding two years old, (2) for steers above 
two years and not exceeding three years old, 
and (3) for heifers not exceeding three years 
old. The single exception is provided by the 
slowly-maturing Highland breed of cattle, for 
which classes were allotted to (i) steers not 
exceeding three years old, (2) steers or oxen 
above three years old (with no maximum 
limit), and (3) heifers not exceeding four 
years old. As illustrating heavy weights, 
there were in the 1893 show, out of 310 entries 
of cattle, four beasts which weighed over a 
ton. They were all steers of three to four 
years old, one being a Hereford weighing 20 
cwt. 2 qr. 4 Ib, and the others Shorthorns 
weighing respectively 20 cwt. 2 qr., 20 cwt. 
3 qr. 21 Ib, and 22 cwt. 2 qr. 18 ft). In the 
1895 show, out of 356 entries of cattle, there 
were seven beasts of more than a ton in 
weight. They were all three to four years 
old, and comprised four Shorthorns (top 
weight 21 cwt. i qr. 18 Ib), one Sussex (22 
cwt. 3 qr. 7 Ib), and two cross-breds (top 
weight 20 cwt. 3 qr. 24 Ib). In the 1899 show, 
with 311 entries of cattle, and the age limited 
to three years, no beast reached the weight 
of a ton, the heaviest animal being a cross- 
bred(Aberdeen-Angus and Shorthorn) which,at 
three years old, turned the scale at 19 cwt. i qr. 5 Ib. Out of 
301 entries in 1905 the top weight was 19 cwt. i qr. 25 Ib in the 
case of a Shorthorn steer. Useful figures for purposes of com- 
parison are obtained by dividing the weight of a fat beast by 
the number of days in its age, the weight at birth being thrown 
in. The average daily gain in live weight is thus arrived at, and 
as the animal increases in age this average gradually diminishes, 
until the daily gain reaches a stage at which it does not afford 
any profitable return upon the food consumed. At the centenary 
show of the Smithfield Club in 1898 the highest average daily 
gains in weight amongst prize-winning cattle were provided by a 
Shorthorn-Aberdeen cross-bred steer (age, one year seven months; 
daily gain 2-47 Ib); a Shorthorn steer (age, one year seven 
months; daily gain, 2-44 Ib); and an Aberdeen-Shorthorn 
cross-bred steer (age, one year ten months; daily gain, 2-33 Ib). 
These beasts, it will be observed, were all under two years old. 
Amongst prize steers of two and a half to three years old, on the 
same occasion, the three highest daily average gains in live 
weight were 2-07 Ib for an Aberdeen- Angus, 1-99 Ib for a Short- 
horn-Aberdeen cross-bred and 1-97 Ib for a Sussex. In the sheep 
section of the Smithfield show the classes for ewes were finally 
abolished in 1898, and the classes restricted to wethers and 



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wether lambs, whose function is exclusively the production of 
meat. At the 1905 show, sheep of each breed, and also cross-breds, 
competed as (i) wether lambs under twelve months old, and (2) 
wether sheep above twelve and under twenty-four months old. 
The only exception was in the case of the slowly-maturing 
Cheviot and mountain breeds, for which the second class was for 
ether sheep of any age above twelve months. Of prize sheep at 
ie centenary show the largest average daily gain was 0-7 7 Ib per 
,d given by Oxford-Hampshire cross-bred wether lambs, aged 
ie months two weeks. In the case of wether sheep, twelve to 
wenty-four months old, the highest daily increase was 0-56 Ib 
per head as yielded by Lincolns, aged twenty-one months. 
Within the last quarter of the igth century the stock-feeding 
practices of the country were much modified in accordance with 
these ideas of early maturity. The three-year-old wethers and 
older oxen that used to be common in the fat stock markets 
are now rarely seen, excepting perhaps in the case of mountain 
breeds of sheep and Highland cattle. It was in 1875 that the 
Smithfield Club first provided the competitive classes for lambs, 
and in 1883 the champion plate offered for the best pen of sheep 
of any age in the show was for the first time won by lambs, a 
pen of Hampshire Downs. The young classes for bullocks were 
established in 1880. The time-honoured notion that an animal 
must have completed its growth before it could be profitably 
fattened is no longer held, and the improved breeds which now 

;st rival one another as regards the early period at which they 
y be made ready for the butcher by appropriate feeding and 
nagement. 
n 1895 the Smithfield Club instituted a carcase competition 
in association with its annual show of fat stock, and it has been 
continued each year since. The cattle and sheep entered for this 
competition are shown alive on the first day, at the close of which 
they are slaughtered and the carcases hung up for exhibition, 
with details of live and dead weights. The competition thus 
constitutes what is termed a " block test," and it is instructive 
in affording the opportunity of seeing the quality of the carcases 
furnished by the several animals, and in particular the relative 
proportion and distribution of fat and lean meat. The live 
animals are judged and subsequently the carcases, and, though the 
results sometimes agree, more often they do not. Tables are con- 
structed showing the fasted live weight, the carcase weight, and 
the weight of the various parts that are separated from and not 
included with the carcase. An abundance of lean meat and a 
moderate amount of fat well distributed constitutes a better 
carcase, and a more economical one for the consumer, than a 
carcase in which gross accumulations of fat are prominent. To 
add to the educational value of the display, information as to the 
methods of feeding would be desirable, as it would then be 
possible to correlate the quality of the meat with the mode of its 
manufacture. A point of high practical interest is the ratio of 
carcase weight to fasted live weight, and in the case of prize- 
winning carcases these ratios usually fluctuate within very narrow 
limits. At the 1899 show, for example, the highest proportion of 
the carcase weight to live weight was 68 % in the case of an 
Aberdeen-Angus steer and of a Cheviot wether, whilst the lowest 
was 6 1 %, afforded alike by a Shorthorn-Sussex cross-bred heifer 
and a mountain lamb. A familiar practical method of estimating 
carcase weight from live weight is to reckon one Smithfield stone 
(8 Ib) of carcase for each imperial stone (14 Ib) of live weight. 
This gives carcase weight as equal to 57 % of live weight, a 
ratio much inferior to the best results obtained at the carcase 
competition promoted by the Smithfield Club. 

Breed Societies. 

A noteworthy feature of the closing decades of the igth century 
was the formation of voluntary associations of stockbreeders, 
with the object of promoting the interests of the respective breeds 
of live stock. As a typical example of these organizations the 
Shire Horse Society may be mentioned. It was incorporated in 
1878 to improve and promote the breeding of the Shire or old 
English race of cart-horses, and to effect the distribution of sound 
and healthy sires throughout the country. The society holds 



annual shows, publishes annually the Shire Horse Stud Book and 
offers gold and silver medals for competition amongst Shire 
horses at agricultural 'shows in different parts of the country. 
The society has carried on a work of high national importance, 
and has effected a marked improvement in the character and 
quality of the Shire horse. What has thus voluntarily been done 
in England would in most other countries be left to the state, or 
would not be attempted at all. It is hardly necessary to say that 
the Shire Horse Society has never received a penny of public 
money, nor has any other of the voluntary breeders' societies. 
The Hackney Horse Society and the Hunters' Improvement 
Society are conducted on much the same lines as the Shire Horse 
Society, and, like it, they each hold a show in London in the 
spring of the year and publish an annual volume. Other horse- 
breeders' associations, all doing useful work in the interests of 
their respective breeds, are the Suffolk Horse Society, the 
Clydesdale Horse Society, the Yorkshire Coach Horse Society, 
the Cleveland Bay Horse Society, the Polo Pony Society, the 
Shetland Pony Stud Book Society, the Welsh Pony and Cob 
Society and the New Forest Pony .Association. Thoroughbred 
race-horses are registered in the General Stud Book. The Royal 
Commission on Horse Breeding, which dates from 1887, is, as its 
name implies, not a voluntary organization. Through the com- 
mission the money previously spent upon Queen's Plates is 
offered in the form of " King's Premiums " (to the number of 
twenty-eight in 1907) of 150 each for thoroughbred stallions, on 
condition that each stallion winning a premium shall serve not 
less than fifty half-bred mares, if required. The winning stallions 
are distributed in districts throughout Great Britain, and the use 
of these selected sires has resulted in a decided improvement in 
the quality of half-bred horses. The annual show of the Royal 
Commission on Horse Breeding is held in London jointly and 
concurrently with that of the Hunters' Improvement Society. 

Of organizations of cattle-breeders the English Jersey Cattle 
Society, established in 1878, may be taken as a type. It offers 
prizes in butter-test competitions and milking trials at various 
agricultural shows, and publishes the English Herd Book and 
Register of Pure-bred Jersey Cattle. This volume records the 
births in the herds of members of the society, and gives the 
pedigrees of cows and bulls, besides furnishing lists of prize- 
winners at the principal shows and butter-test awards, and 
reports of sales by auction of Jersey cattle. Other cattle 
societies, all well caring for the interest of their respective breeds, 
are the Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland, the 
Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn Association, the Hereford Herd Book 
Society, the Devon Cattle Breeders' Society, the South Devon 
Herd Book Society, the Sussex Herd Book Society, the Long- 
horned Cattle Society, the Red Polled Society, the English 
Guernsey Cattle Society, the English Kerry and Dexter Cattle 
Society, the Welsh Black Cattle Society, the Polled Cattle 
Society (for the Aberdeen- Angus breed), the English Aberdeen- 
Angus Cattle Association, the Galloway Cattle Society, the Ayr- 
shire Cattle Herd Book Society, the Highland Cattle Society of 
Scotland and the Dairy Shorthorn Association. 

In the case of sheep the National Sheep Breeders' Association 
looks after the interests of flockmasters in general, whilst most 
of the pure breeds are represented also by separate organizations. 
The Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association may be taken 
as a type of the latter, its principal object being to encourage the 
breeding of Hampshire Down sheep at home and abroad, and to 
maintain the purity of the breed. It publishes an annual Flock 
Book, the first volume of which appeared in 1890. In this book 
are named the recognized and pure-bred sires which have been 
used, and ewes which have been bred from, whilst there are also 
registered the pedigrees of such sheep as are proved to be eligible 
for entry. Prizes are offered by the society at various agri- 
cultural shows where Hampshire Down sheep are exhibited. 
Other sheep societies include the Leicester Sheep Breeders' 
Association, the Cotswold Sheep Society, the Lincoln Longwool 
Sheep Breeders' Association, the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' 
Association, the Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association and 
Flock Book Society, the Southdown Sheep Society, the Suffolk 






AGRICULTURE 



[BRITISH 



Sheep Society, the Border Leicester Sheep Breeders' Society, the 
Wensleydale Longwool Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock 
Book Society, the Incorporated Wensleydale Blue-faced Sheep 
Breeders' Association and Flock Book Society, the Kent Sheep 
Breeders' Association, the Devon Longwool Sheep Breeders' 
Society, the Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders' Association, the 
Cheviot Sheep Society and the Roscommon Sheep Breeders' 
Association. 

The interests of pig-breeders are the care of the National Pig 
Breeders' Association, in addition to which there exist the 
British Berkshire, the Large Black Pig, and the Lincoln Curly- 
Coated White Pig Societies, and the Incorporated Tamworth Pig 
Breeders' Association. 

The addresses of the secretaries of the various live-stock 
societies in the United Kingdom are published annually in the 
Live Stock Journal Almanac. 

The Maintenance of the Health of Live Stock. 

It was not till the closing decade of the igth century that the 
stock-breeders of the United Kingdom found themselves in a 
position to prosecute their industry free from the fear of the 
introduction of contagious disease through the medium of store 
animals imported from abroad for fattening on the native pas- 
tures. By the Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 &6o Viet. c. 15) 
it was provided that cattle, sheep and pigs imported into the 
United Kingdom should be slaughtered at the place of landing. 
The effect was to reduce to a minimum the risk of the introduction 
of disease amongst the herds and flocks of the country, and at the 
same time to confine the trade in store stock exclusively to the 
breeders of Great Britain and Ireland. This arrangement makes 
no difference to the food-supply of the people, for dead meat 
continues to arrive at British ports in ever-increasing quantity. 
Moreover, live animals are admitted freely from certain coun- 
tries, provided such animals are slaughtered at the place of 
landing. At Deptford, for example, large numbers of cattle and 
sheep which thus arrive mainly from Argentina, Canada and 
the United States are at once slaughtered, and so furnish a 
steady supply of fresh-killed beef and mutton. The animals 
which are shipped in this way are necessarily of the best quality, 
because the freight on a superior beast is no more costly than on 
an inferior one, and the proportion of freight to sale price is there- 
fore less. With this superior description of butchers' stock all 
classes of home-grown stock good, bad and indifferent have, 
of course, to compete. The Board of Agriculture has the power 
to close the ports of the United Kingdom against live animals 
from any country in which contagious disease is known to exist. 
This accounts for the circumstance that so few countries none 
of them in Europe enjoy the privilege of sending live animals to 
British ports. In 1900 the discovery early in the year of the 
existence of foot-and-mouth disease amongst cattle and sheep 
shipped from Argentina to the United Kingdom led to the issue 
of an order by which all British ports were closed against live 
animals from the country named. This order came into force on 
the 3oth of April, and the result was a marked decline in the 
shipments of live cattle and sheep from the River Plate, but a 
decided increase in the quantity of frozen meat sent thence to the 
United Kingdom. 

The last quarter of the igth century witnessed an important 
change in the attitude of public opinion towards legislative 
control over the contagious diseases of animals. When, after 
the introduction of cattle plague or rinderpest in 1865, the 
proposal was made to resort to the extreme remedy of slaughter 
in order to check the ravages of a disease which was pursuing 
its course with ruinous results, the idea was received with public 
indignation and denounced as barbarous. Views have undergone 
profound modification since then, and the most drastic remedy 
has come to be regarded as the most effective, and in the long 
run the least costly. The Cattle Diseases Prevention Act 1866 
(29 & 30 Viet. c. 2) made compulsory the slaughter of diseased 
cattle, and permitted the slaughter of cattle which had been 
exposed to infection, compensation being provided out of the 
rates. The Act 30 & 31 Viet. c. 1 25, 1867, is of historical interest, 



in that it contains the first mention of pleuro-pneumonia, and the 
exposure in any market of cattle suffering from that disease 
was made an offence. The Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act 
1869 (32 & 33 Viet. c. 70) revoked all former acts, and defined 
disease to mean cattle plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth 
disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab and glanders, together with any 
disease which the Privy Council might by order specify. The 
principle of this act in regard to foreign animals was that of 
free importation, with power for the Privy Council to prohibit 
or subject to quarantine and slaughter, as circumstances seemed 
to require. The act of 1869 was at that time the most complete 
measure that had ever been passed for dealing with diseases 
of animals. The re-introduction of cattle plague into England 
in 1877 led to the passing of the Act 41 & 42 Viet. c. 74, 1878, 
which repealed the act of 1869, and affirmed as a principle the 
landing of foreign animals for slaughter only, though free im- 
portation or quarantine on the one hand and prohibition on the 
other were provided for in exceptional circumstances. By an 
order of council which came into operation in December 1878, 
swine fever was declared to be a disease for the purposes of the 
act of that year. It was not, however, till October 1886 that 
anthrax and rabies were officially declared to be contagious 
diseases for the purposes of certain sections of the act of 1878. 
In 1884 the Act 47 & 48 Viet. c. 13 empowered the Privy Council 
to prohibit the landing of animals from any country in respect 
of which the circumstances were not such as to afford reason- 
able security against the introduction of foot-and-mouth disease. 
After one or two other measures of minor importance came the 
Act 53 & 54 Viet. c. 14, known as the Pleuro-pneumonia Act 
1890, which transferred the powers of local authorities to slaughter 
and pay compensation in cases of pleuro-pneumonia to the Board 
of Agriculture, and provided further for the payment of such 
compensation out of money specifically voted by parh'ament. 
This measure was regarded at the time as a marked step in 
advance, and was only carried after a vigorous campaign in its 
favour. In 1892 by the Act 55 & 56 Viet. c. 47 power was given 
to the Board of Agriculture to use the sums voted on account 
of pleuro-pneumonia for paying the costs involved in dealing 
with foot-and-mouth disease; under this act the board could 
order the slaughter of diseased animals and of animals in contact 
with these, and could pay compensation foranimals so slaughtered. 
Under the provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act 
J893 (56 & 57 Viet. c. 43) swine fever in Great Britain was, from 
the ist of November in that year, dealt with by the Board of 
Agriculture in the same way as pleuro-pneumonia, the slaughter 
of infected swine being carried out under directions from the 
central authority, and compensation allowed from the imperial 
exchequer. In 1894 was passed the Diseases of Animals Act 
(57 & 58 Viet. c. 57), the word "contagious" being omitted 
from the title. This was a measure to consolidate the Contagious 
Diseases (Animals) Acts 1878-1893. In it "the expression 
' disease ' means cattle plague (that is to say, rinderpest, or the 
disease commonly called cattle plague), contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia of cattle (in this act called pleuro-pneumonia), 
foot-and-mouth disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab, or swine fever 
(that is to say, the disease known as typhoid fever of swine, 
soldier purples, red disease, hog cholera or swine plague)." The 
Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 & 60 Viet. c. 15) rendered 
compulsory the slaughter of imported live stock at the place 
of landing, a boon for which British stock-breeders had striven 
for many years. The ports in Great Britain at which foreign 
animals may be landed are Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, Hull, Liver- 
pool, London,\'Manchester and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Animals 
from the Channel Islands may be landed at Southampton. 

The Diseases of Animals. 

Under the Diseases of Animals Acts 1894 and 1896 weekly 
returns are issued by the Board of Agriculture of outbreaks of 
anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders (including farcy), 
pleuro-pneumonia, rabies and swine fever in the counties of 
Great Britain; also monthly returns of outbreaks of sheep-scab. 

Cattle plague, or rinderpest, has not been recorded in Great 



BRITISH] 



AGRICULTURE 



411 



Britain since 1877. In that year there were 47 outbreaks dis- 
tributed over five counties and involving 263 head of cattle. 

The course of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain between 
1877 and 1905 inclusive is told in Table XX., from which the 

TABLE XX. Outbreaks of Foot-and- Mouth Disease in Great Britain, 
1877-1905. 



Year. 


Counties. 


Out- 
breaks. 


Animals attacked. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Swine. 


Other 
Animals. 


1877 


55 


858 


5.640 


7,405 


2,099 




1878 


45 


235 


912 


8,609 


245 




1879 


29 


137 


261 


15,681 


5 




1880 


38 


1,461 


20,918 


9,572 


1,886 


2 


1881 


49 


4,833 


59,484 


117-152 


6,330 


80 


1882 


49 


1,970 


23,973 


11,412 


2,564 


I 


1883 


75 


18,732 


219,289 


217,492 


24,332 


32 


1884 


55 


949 


12,186 


14-174 


1, 860 


I 


1885 


10 


30 


354 


34 


30 




1886 


i 


i 


10 








1892 


15 


95 


1,248 


3,412 


107 




1893 


2 


2 


30 








1894 


3 


3 


7 


261 






1900 


9 


21 


214 


50 


2 




1901 


3 


12 


43 


626 






1902 


i 


I 


2 


' 118 







years 1887 to 1891, 1895 to 1899 and 1903 to 1905 inclusive 
are omitted, because there was no outbreak during those periods. 
The disease is seen to have attained its maximum virulence in 
1883. 

Sheep-scab is a loathsome skin disease due to an acarian 
parasite. Table XXI. shows the number of outbreaks and the 
number of counties over which they were distributed from 
1877 to 1905. The recorded outbreaks were more numerous 
in the decade of the 'nineties than in that of the 'eighties, though 
possibly this may have been due to greater official activity in 
the later period. The largest number of sheep attacked was 

TABLE XXI. Outbreaks of Sheep-Scab in Great Britain, 
1877-1905. 



Year. 


Counties. 


Outbreaks. 


Year. 


Counties. 


Outbreaks. 


1877 
1880 
1885 


77 
70 
69 


3214 
1556 
1512 


1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 


II 
78 
73 


1506 
3092 

1939 
918 



68,713 (in 1877). It is compulsory on owners to notify the 
authorities as to the existence of scab amongst their sheep. By 
the Diseases of Animals Act (1903) powers to prescribe the dipping 
of sheep, irrespective of the presence or otherwise of sheep scab, 
were conferred upon the Board of Agriculture. ' An inspector 
of the board or of the local authority was by the same act 
authorized to enter premises and examine sheep. Each year 
the disorder runs a similar course, the outbreaks dwindling to 
a minimum in the summer months, June to August, and attaining 
a maximum in the winter months, December to February. It 
is chiefly in the " flying " flocks and not in the breeding flocks 
that the disease is rife, and it is so easily communicable that a 
drove of scab-infested sheep passing along a road may leave 
behind them traces sufficient to set up the disorder in a drove 
of healthy sheep that may follow. For its size and in relation 
to its sheep population Wales harbours the disease to a far 
greater extent than the other divisions of Great Britain. 

The fatal disease known as anthrax did not form the subject of 
official returns previous to the passing of the Anthrax Order of 
1886. Isolated outbreaks are of common occurrence, and from 
the totals for Great Britain given in Table XXII. it would appear 
that there is little prospect of the eradication of this bacterial 
disorder. 

Glanders (including farcy) was the subject during the twenty- 
four years 1877-1900 of outbreaks in Great Britain ranging 
between a minimum of 518 in 1877 and a maximum of 1657 in 
1892; in the former year 758 horses were attacked, and in the 
latter 3001. A recrudescence of the disease marked the closing 
years of the igth century, the outbreaks having been 748 in 1898, 



853 in 1899 and 1119 in 1900. The counties of Great Britain 
over which the annual outbreaks have been distributed have 
ranged between 24 in 1890 and 52 in 1879. As a matter of fact, 

TABLE XXII. Outbreaks of Anthrax in Great Britain, 
1895-1905. 



Year. 


Counties. 


Outbreaks. 


Animals attacked. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Swine. 


Horses. 


1895 


66 


434 


604 


158 


140 


32 


1896 


64 


488 


632 


34 


200 


38 


1897 


67 


433 


521 


39 


284 


38 


1898 


73 


556 


634 


22 


161 


39 


1899 


67 


534 


634 


69 


253 


3 


1900 


74 


571 


668 


40 


204 


44 


1901 


63 


651 


708 


76 


152 


35 


1902 


71 


678 


746 


50 


192 


44 


1903 


78 


767 


809 


48 


234 


51 


1904 


77 


1049 


i"5 


62 


365 


47 


1905 


84 


970. 


1001 


53 


210 


53 



however, the disease is strongly centred upon the metropolitan 
area, more than half of the outbreaks being reported from the 
county of London alone. 

The Rabies order was passed in 1886, and the number of 
counties in Great Britain in which cases of rabies in dogs were 
reported in each subsequent year is shown in Table XXIII. 
In addition there have been some cases of rabies in animals other 
than dogs. The disease was very rife in 1895, but the extensive 
application of the muzzling restrictions of the Board of Agri- 
culture was accompanied by so steady a diminution in the 

TABLE XXIII. Cases of Rabies in Dogs in Great Britain, 
1887-1902. 



Year. 


Counties. 


Cases. 


Year. 


Counties. 


Cases. 


1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 

1893 
1894 


28 

19 

20 
20 
17 

12 

18 
17 


217 
1 60 
312 
129 
79 
38 
93 
248 


1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 


29 

41 
3 
10 

4 

2 
I 

4 


672 
438 
151 
17 
9 
6 
I 
13 



prevalence of the disease, that it was thought the latter had been 
extirpated. The entire revocation of the muzzling order, which 
accordingly followed, proved, however, to be premature, and 
it became necessary to reimpose it in the districts where it had 
last been operative, namely, certain parts of South Wales. No 
cases were reported in 1903, 1904 or 1905. 

Pleura-pneumonia in Great Britain was dealt with by the 
local authorities up to the year 1890. Between 1870 and 1889 
the annual outbreaks had ranged between a minimum of 312 
in 1884 and a maximum of 3262 in 1874, the largest number of 
cattle attacked in any one year being 7983 in 1872. The largest 
number of counties over which the outbreaks were distributed 
was 72 in 1873. On the ist of September 1890 the Board of 
Agriculture assumed powers with respect to pleuro-pneumonia 
under the Diseases of Animals Act of that year. Their adminis- 
tration was attended by success, for from 192 outbreaks in 
Great Britain in 1891 the total fell to 35 in 1892 and to 9 in 
1893. In the four subsequent years, 1894-1897, the outbreaks 
numbered 2, i, 2. and 7 respectively. In January 1898 
an outbreak was discovered in a London cow-shed. This 
proved to be the last case in the igth century of what at one 
time had been a veritable scourge to cattle-owners and a source 
of heavy financial loss. 

Between 1879 and 1892 inclusive, administration with regard 
to swine-fever was entrusted to local authorities. The largest 
number of outbreaks reported in any one of those years was 
7926 in 1885, and the smallest 1717 in 1881. In 1893 the Board 
of Agriculture took over the management, and Table XXIV. 
shows the number of counties in which swine-fever existed, the 
number of outbreaks confirmed and the number of swine 
slaughtered by order of the board in each year since. The trouble 
with this disease has been mainly in England, the outbreaks in 



412 



AGRICULTURE 



[BRITISH 



Wales and Scotland being comparatively few. What are termed 

" swine-fever infected areas " are scheduled by the board when 

and where circumstances seem to require, and the movement 

TABLE XXIV. Outbreaks of Swine Fever in Great Britain, 

1894-1905. 



Year. 


Counties. 


Outbreaks 
confirmed . 


Swine slaughtered as 
diseased, or as having been 
exposed to infection. 


1894 


73 


5682 


56,296 


1895 


73 


6305 


69,931 


1896 


77 


5166 


79,586 


1897 


74 


2155 


40,432 


1898 


72 


25H 


43,756 


1899 


7i 


2322 


30,797 


1900 


62 


1940 


17,933 


1901 


71 


314 


1 5,237 


1902 


67 


1688 


8,263 


1903 


63 


1478 


7,933 


1904 


64 


1196 


5,603 


1905 


58 


817 


3,876 



of swine within such areas is prohibited, much inconvenience to 
trade resulting from restrictions of this kind. Frequently, more- 
over, the exhibition of pigs at agricultural shows has to be 
abandoned in consequence of these swine-fever regulations. 

The Trade in Live Stock between Ireland and Great Britain. 

The compulsory slaughter at the place of landing does not 
extend to animals shipped from Ireland into Great Britain, and 
this is a matter of the highest importance to Irish stock-breeders, 
who find their best market close at hand on the east of St George's 
Channel. Table XXV. shows the number of cattle, sheep and 
pigs shipped from Ireland into Great Britain in each of the 
fifteen years 1891-1905, the numbers of horses similarly 
shipped being also indicated. On the average rather more than 
half the total of cattle is made up of store animals for fattening 
or breeding purposes, the fattening of Irish stores being a busi- 
ness of considerable magnitude in Norfolk and other counties. 
Calves constitute about one-twelfth of the total number of cattle. 

TABLE XXV. Imports of Live Stock from Ireland into Great 
Britain, 1891-1905. 



Year. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Pigs. 


Horses. 


1891 


630,802 


893.175 


503,584 


33-396 


1892 


624,457 


1,080,202 


500,951 


32,481 


1893 


688,669 


1,107,960 


456,571 


30,390 


1894 


826,954 


957.101 


584.967 


33-589 


1895 


791,607 


652,578 


547.220 


34,56o 


1896 


681,560 


737,306 


610,589 


39,856 


1897 


746,012 


804,515 


695.307 


38,422 


, 1898 


803,362 


833.458 


588,785 


38,804 


1899 


772,272 


871,953 


688,553 


42,087 


1900 


745,519 


862,263 


715,202 


35,6o6 


1901 


642,638 


843.325 


596,129 


25,607 


1902 


959,241 


1,055,802 


637.972 


25,260 


1903 


897,645 


825,679 


569,920 


27,719 


1904 


772,363 


739,266 


505,080 


27,500 


1905 


749,131 


700,626 


363,823 


30,723 



Most of the pigs sent from Ireland into Great Britain are fat, 
the store pigs accounting for less than one-tenth of the total 
number. The returns from Ireland under the Diseases of Animals 
Acts 1894 and 1896 are less significant than those of Great 
Britain. Thus, in the year ending June 1905, they included 
4 outbreaks of anthrax, 219 of swine-fever and 343 of sheep- 
scab, while there were no cases of rabies. Compared with the 
export trade in live stock from Ireland to Great Britain the 
reciprocal trade from Great Britain to Ireland is small, and is 
largely restricted to animals for breeding purposes. Owing to 
the reappearance of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain 
early in 1900 the importation of cattle, sheep, goats and swine 
therefrom into Ireland was temporarily suspended by the 
authorities in the latter country. 

Exports of Animals from the United Kingdom. 
The general export trade of the United Kingdom in living 
animals represented an aggregate average annual value over the 



five years 1896-1900 of 1,017,000 as against 935,801 over the 
five years 1901-1905. To these sums the value of horses alone 
contributed about three-fourths, Belgium taking more than half 
the number of exported horses. The export trade in cattle 
sheep and pigs is practically restricted to pedigree animals 
required for breeding purposes, and though its aggregate value 

TABLE XXVI. Quantities and Value of Home-bred Live Stock 
exported from the United Kingdom, 1900-1905. 



Year. 


Horses. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Pigs. 


Other 
Animals. 


1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 


30,038 
27,612 
30,032 
34,798 
32,955 
47,708 


2,742 
1,648 
2,428 
2,736 
3,3" 
3,938 


4,934 
2,761 
3,596 
5,579 
8,142 
8,378 


435 
378 
515 
776 
732 
931 


75.642 
68,012 
60,941 
52,095 
50,873 
50,307 


1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 



681,927 
605,699 
635,661 
734,598 
581,339 
875,647 



"8,337 
61,812 

96,153 
140,244 
146,210 
190,406 



53,306 
25,727 
29,069 
67,758 
88,421 
I 33,4i3 



3032 
3437 
5053 
7053 
7850 
8024 



45,241 
45.476 
56,691 

48,335 
43,868 
41,061 



is not large it is of considerable importance to stock-breeders, as 
it is a frequent occurrence for buyers for export to Argentina, 
Australasia, Canada, the United States and elsewhere to bid 
freely at the sale rings, and often to pay the highest prices, thus 
stimulating the sales and encouraging the breeding of the best 
types of native stock. Details for the six years 1900-1905 are 
summarized in Table XXVI. 

Implements and Machinery. 

It is the custom of the Royal Agricultural Society of England 
to invite competitions at its annual shows in specified classes 
of implements, and an enumeration of these will indicate the 
character of the appliances which were thus brought into pro- 
minence in the latter years of the igth and the early years of the 
2oth century. These trials taking place, with few intermissions, 
year after year serve to direct the public mind to the develop- 
ment, which is continually in progress, of the mechanical aids 
to agriculture. The awards here summarized are quite distinct 
from those of silver medals which are given by the society in 
the case of articles possessing sufficient merit, which are entered 
as " new implements for agricultural or estate purposes." 

In 1875, at Taunton, special prizes were awarded for one- 
horse and two-horse mowing-machines, hay-making machines, 
horse-rakes (self-acting and not self-acting), guards to the drums 
of threshing-machines, and combined guards and feeders to the 
drums of threshing-machines. In 1876, at Birmingham, the 
competitions were of self-delivery reapers, one-horse reapers 
and combined mowers and reapers without self-delivery. In 

1878, at Bristol, the special awards were all for dairy appliances 
milk-can for conveying milk long distances, churn for milk, 
churn for cream, butter-worker for large dairies, butter- 
worker for small dairies, cheese-tub, curd knife, curd mill, 
cheese-turning apparatus, automatic means of preventing 
rising of cream, milk-cooler and cooling vat. A gold medal 
was awarded for a harvester and self-binder (McCormick's). In 

1879, at Kilburn, the competition was of railway waggons to 
convey perishable goods long distances at low temperatures. 
In 1880 at Carlisle, and in 1881 at Derby, the special awards 
were for broadside steam-diggers and string sheaf-binders re- 
spectively. In 1882, at Reading, a gold medal was given for a 
cream separator for horse power, whilst a prize of 100 guineas 
offered for the most efficient and most economical method of 
drying hay or corn crops artificially, either before or after being 
stacked, was not awarded. In 1883, at York, a prize of 50 was 
?iven for a butter dairy suitable for not more than twenty cows, 
tn 1884, at Shrewsbury, a prize of 100 was awarded for a sheaf- 
binding reaper, and one of 50 for a similar machine. In 1885, 
at Preston, the competitions were concerned with two-horse, 
three-horse and four-horse whipple-trees, and packages for 



BRITISH] 



AGRICULTURE 



conveying fresh butter by rail. In 1886, at Norwich, a prize of 
25 was awarded for a thatch-making machine. In 1887, at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, a prize of 200 went to a compound portable 
agricultural engine, one of 100 to a simple portable agricultural 
engine, and lesser prizes to a weighing-machine for horses and 
cattle, a weighing-machine for sheep and pigs, potato-raisers 
and one-man-power cream separators. In 1888. at Nottingham, 
hay and straw presses for steam-power, horse-power and hand- 
power were the subjects of competition. In 1889, at Windsor, 
prizes were awarded for a fruit and vegetable evaporator, a 
paring and coring machine, a dairy thermometer, parcel post 
butter-boxes to carry different weights, and a vessel to contain 
preserved butter. In 1800, at Plymouth, competitions took 
place of light portable engines (a) using solid fuel, (b) using 
liquid or gaseous fuel, grist mills for use on a farm, disintegrators, 
and cider-making plant for use on a farm. In 1891, at Doncaster, 
special prizes were given for combined portable threshing and 
finishing machines, and cream separators (hand and power). 
In 1892, at Warwick, the competitions related to ploughs 
single furrow (a) for light land, (b) for strong land, (c) for 
press drill and broad-cast sowing; two-furrow; three-furrow; 
digging (a) for light land, (b) for heavy land; and one-way 
ploughs. In 1893, at Chester, self-binding harvesters and 
sheep-shearing machines (power) were the appliances respec- 
tively in competition. In 1894, at Cambridge, the awards 
were for fixed and portable oil engines, potato-spraying and 
tree-spraying machines, sheep-dipping apparatus and churns. 
In 1895, at Darlington, the competitions were confined to 
hay-making machines and clover-making machines. In 1896, 
at Leicester, prizes were awarded after trial to potato- 
planting machines, potato-raising machines and butter-drying 
machines. In 1897, at Manchester, special awards were made 
for fruit baskets and milk-testers. In 1898, at Birmingham, a 
prize of 100 was given for a self-moving vehicle for light loads, 
100 and 50 for self-moving vehicles for heavy loads, and 10 
for safety feeder to chaff-cutter, in accordance with the Chaff- 
cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897. In 1899, at Maidstone, 
special prizes were offered for machines for washing hops with 
liquid insecticides, cream separators (power and hand), machines 
for the evaporation of fruit and vegetables, and packages for 
the carriage of (a) soft fruit, (b) hard fruit. In 1900, at York, 
the competitions were concerned with horse-power cultivators, 
self-moving steam diggers, milking machines and sheep-shearing 
machines (power and hand). In 1901, at Cardiff, competition 
was invited in portable oil engines, agricultural locomotive oil 
engines and small ice-making plant suitable for a dairy. In the 
years 1903 and 1904 petrol motors adapted for ploughing and 
other agricultural operations formed a prominent feature of the 
exhibits. 

The progress of steam cultivation has not justified the hopes 
that were once entertained in the United Kingdom concerning 
this method of working implements in the field. It was about 
the year 1870 that its advantages first came into prominent 
notice. At that time, owing to labour disputes, the supply of 
hands was short and horses were dear. The wet seasons that set 
in at the end of the 'seventies led to so much hindrance in the 
work on the land that the aid of steam was further called for, and 
it seemed probable that there would be a lessened demand for 
horse power. It was found, however, that the steam work was 
done with less care than had been bestowed upon the horse 
tillage, and the result was that steam came to be regarded as an 
auxiliary to horse labour rather than as a substitute for it. In 
this capacity it is capable of rendering most valuable assistance, 
for it can be utilized in moving extensive areas of land in a very 
short time. Accordingly, when a few -days occur early in the 
season favourable to the working of the land, much of it can be 
got into a forward condition, whilst horses are set free for the 
lighter operations. The crops can then be sown in due time, 
which in wet years, and with the usual teams of horses kept on 
a farm, is not always practicable. Much advantage arises from 
the steam working of bastard fallows in summer, and after 
harvest a considerable amount of autumn cultivation can be 



done by steam power, thus materially lightening the work in the 
succeeding spring. On farms of moderate size it is usual to hire 
steam tackle as required, the outlay involved in the purchase 
of a set being justifiable only in the case of estates or of very 
big farms where, when not engaged in ploughing, or in culti- 
vating, or in other work upon the land, the steam-engine may 
be employed in threshing, chaff-cutting, sawing and many 
similar operations which require power. The labour question 
again became acute in the early years of the 2oth century, when, 
owing to the scarcity of hands and the high rate of wages, self- 
binding harvesters were resorted to in England for the ingather- 
ing of the corn crops to a greater extent than ever before. For 
the same reason potato-planting and potato-lifting machines 
were also in greater requisition. 

Agricultural Population and Wages. 

The last half of the igth century witnessed a remarkable 
diminution of the British rural population. The decrease has 
assumed serious proportions since 1871, as before that date the 
supply of rural labour exceeded the demand. A large number of 
agricultural labourers were thus only in partial employment, and 
their withdrawal from the land was of minor importance as com- 
pared with the shrinkage in the number of those permanently 
employed. The following tables indicate the extent of rural 
depopulation : 

Number of " Persons engaged in Agriculture " in the United 
Kingdom, 1851-1901. 



1851. 


1861. 


1871. 


1881. 


1891. 


1901. 


3,453-500 


3,080,500 


2,744,000 


2,573,900 


2,394-500 


2,262,600 



The number of " agricultural labourers and shepherds," which 
affords a more precise index, declined in a still more marked degree. 



1851. 


1861. 


1871. 


1881. 


1891. 


1901. 


1,110,311 


1,098,261 


923,332 


830,452 


756,557 


609,105 



The decrease in the demand for labour is attributable chiefly to 
the reduction of the cultivated area and the laying down to pasture 
of land once under the plough, and to the increasing use of agri- 
cultural machinery. It may, however, be noticed that the period 
1850-1903 was marked by a steady increase of the cash wages of 
the farm labourer, as indicated in the following table from the Report 
on the Earnings of Agricultural Labourers issued by the Board of 
Trade in 1905. 

Average Weekly Cash Wages of ordinary Agricultural Labourers 
employed on certain Farms in England and Wales. 



Year. 


England and Wales, 
69 farms. 


Eastern counties, 
12 farms. 




s. d. 


s. d. 


1850 


9 3i 


8 8 


1855 


IO IlJ 


ii 5 


i860 


10 II 


10 8 


1865 


it 3 


10 5 


1870 


II IOj 


ii ii 


1875 


13 7, 


12 III 


1880 


13 21 


12 I 


1885 


13 I 


ii 5 


1890 


13 i 


II Of 


i895 


13 2* 


II 


1900 


14 5i 


13 ii 


1903 


H 7 


13 2j 



(See also ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS.) 
Agricultural Education. 

In Great Britain agricultural education as a whole lacks the 
scope and co-ordination which it has in some continental 
countries. Centres at which higher agricultural education is 
given are; however, numerous. The chief are: 
The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester 
Aspatria Agricultural College, Carlisle. 
Tamworth Agricultural College. 

*Agricultural and Horticultural College, Uckfield, Sussex. 
*Agricultural and Horticultural College, Holme Chapel, 
Cheshire. 






AGRICULTURE 



[AMERICAN 



*Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, Kingston, Derby. 

"Harper-Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop. 

^Lancashire County School, Harris Institute, Preston. 

*University College of North Wales, Bangor. 

"University of Leeds. 

"Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

"Cambridge University. 

"University College, Reading. 

"South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye. 

"University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. 

"Agricultural Institute, Ridgmont (Bedfordshire County 
Council). 

"Essex County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford. 

In the year 1904-1905 10,600 was devoted by the Board of 
Agriculture to agricultural instruction and experiments. Of this 
sum the greater part was divided amongst the institutions 
marked with an asterisk in the above list. The first three named 
are private establishments. The county councils also expend 
sums varying at their own discretion on instruction in dairy-work, 
poultry-keeping, farriery and veterinary science, horticulture, 
agricultural experiments, agricultural lectures at various centres, 
scholarships at, and grants to, agricultural colleges and schools; 
the whole amount in 1904-1905 reaching 87,472.' The sum 
spent by individual counties varies considerably. In 1904-1905 
Lancashire (8510), Kent (5922) and Cheshire (4310) spent 
most in this direction. In some instances colleges are supported 
entirely by one county, as is the Holmes Chapel College, Cheshire; 
in others a college is supported by several affiliated counties, as in 
the case of the agricultural department of the University College, 
Reading, which acts in connexion with the counties of Berks, 
Oxon, Hants and Buckingham. The organization and supply of 
county agricultural instruction is often carried out through the 
medium of the institution to which the county is affiliated. In 
Scotland higher agricultural instruction is given at: 

Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College. 
Edinburgh University, Agriculture Department. 
West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow. 
Aberdeen and North of Scotland Agricultural College. 
University of St. Andrews. 

A typical course at one of the higher colleges lasts for two years 
and includes instruction under the heads of soils and manure, 
crops and pasture, live stock, foods and feeding, dairy work, 
farm and estate management and farm bookkeeping, surveying, 
agricultural buildings and machinery, agricultural chemistry, 
agricultural botany, veterinary science and agricultural ento- 
mology. Experimental farms are attached to the colleges. 

The facilities for intermediate are far inferior to those for higher 
agricultural education. Schools for farmers' sons and daughters, 
and others, answering to the fcoles pratiques d 1 agriculture (see 
FRANCE), are few, the principal being the Dauntsey Agricultural 
School. Wiltshire, the Hampshire Farm School, Basing, and the 
Farm School at Newton Rigg, Penrith, Cumberland, maintained 
by the county councils of Cumberland and Westmorland. Occa- 
sionally grammar schools have agricultural sides, and in evening 
continuation schools agricultural classes are sometimes held. 
Both elementary day schools and continuation schools are in 
many cases provided with gardens in which horticultural teaching 
is given. 

In Ireland agricultural education is under the supervision of 
the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for 
Ireland, founded in 1899. Higher education is given at the Royal 
College of Science, Dublin; the Albert Agricultural College, 
Glasnevin; and the Munster Institute, Cork, for female students, 
where dairying and poultry- keeping are prominent subjects. 
Winter classes for boys over sixteen years of age are held at 
centres in some counties, and there are winter schools of agri- 
culture at Downpatrick, Monaghan and Mount Bellew (Co. 
Galway); while lectures are given at farmers' meetings by 

This sum was furnished out of a total of 693,851, forming the 
residue grant allocated for the purposes of education to the various 
county councils of England and Wales under the Local Taxation 
(customs and Excise) Act 1890. 



itinerant instructors. The Department carries on agricultural 
experiment-stations at Athenry (Co. Galway), Ballyhaise (Co. 
Cavan) and Clonakilty (Co. Cork), where farm apprentices are 
received and instructed. 

AGRICULTURE ix THE UNITED STATES 

Agriculture has been the chief and most characteristic work 
of the American people, that in which they have achieved the 
greatest results in proportion to the resources at command, 
that in which their economic superiority has been most strikingly 
manifest. In ten years from 1 790, the mean population of the 
period being 4,500,000, 65,000 sq. m. were for the first time 
brought within the limits of settlement, crossed with roads and 
bridges, covered with dwellings, both public and private, much 
of it also cleared of primeval forest; and this in addition to 
keeping up and improving the whole extent of previous settle- 
ments, and building towns and cities, at a score of favoured 
points. In the next decade, the mean number of inhabitants 
being about 6,500,000, population extended itself over 98,000 
sq. m. of absolutely new territory, an area eight times as large as 
Holland. Between 1810 and 1820, besides increasing the density 
of population on almost every league of the older territory, 
besides increasing their manufacturing capital twofold, in spite 
of a three years' war, the people of the United States advanced 
their frontier to occupy 101,000 sq. m., the mean population 
being 8,250,000. Between 1820 and 1830, 124,000 sq. m. were 
brought within the frontier and made the seat of habitation 
and cultivation; between 1830 and 1840, 175,000 sq. m.; 
between 1840 and 1850, 215,000 sq. m. The Civil War, indeed, 
checked the westward flow of population, though it caused no 
refluence, but after 1870 great progress was made in the creation 
of new farms and the development of old. 

That which has allowed this great work to be done so rapidly 
and fortunately has been, first, the popular tenure of the soil, 
and, secondly, the character of the agricultural class. At no 
time have the cultivators of the soil north of the Potomac and 
Ohio constituted a peasantry in the ordinary sense of that term. 
They have been the same kind of men, out of precisely the same 
homes, generally with the same early training, as those who 
filled the learned professions or who were engaged in manu- 
facturing or commercial pursuits. Switzerland and Scotland 
have, in a degree, approached the United States in this particular; 
but there is no other considerable country where as much mental 
activity and alertness has been applied to the cultivation of the 
soil as to trade and manufactures. 

But even the causes which have been adduced would have 
Failed to produce such effects but for the exceptional inventive 
ingenuity of the American. The mechanical genius which has 
entered into manufacturing in the United States, the engineering 
skill which has guided the construction of the greatest works 
of the continent, have been far exceeded in the hurried " im- 
provements " of the pioneer farm; in the housing of women, 
children and live stock and gathered crops against the storms 
of the first few winters; in the rough-and-ready reconnaissances 
which determined the " lay of the land " and the capabilities 
of the soil; in the preparation for the thousand exigencies of 
primitive agriculture. It is no exaggeration to say that the 
chief manufacture of the United States, prior to 1900, was the 
manufacture of 5,740,000 farms, comprising 841,200,000 acres. 
The people of the United States, finding themselves on a 
continent containing an almost limitless extent of land of fair 
average fertility, having at the start but little accumulated 
capital and urgent occasions for the economy of labour, have 
elected to regard the land in the earliest stages of occupation 
as practically of no value, and to regard labour as of high value. 
In pursuance of this view they have freely sacrificed the land, 
so far as was necessary, in order to save labour, systematically 
cropping the fields on the principle of obtaining the largest 
results with the least expenditure, limiting improvements to 
what was demanded for immediate uses, and caring little about 
returning to the soil an equivalent for the properties taken from 
it in the harvests of successive years. But, so far as the northern 



AMERICAN 7 ] 



AGRICULTURE 



states are concerned, the enormous profits of this alleged wasteful 
cultivation have in the main been applied, not to personal con- 
sumption, but to permanent improvements, not indeed to 
improvements of the land, but to what were still more needed 
in the situation, namely, improvements upon the land. The 
first-fruits of a virgin soil have been expended in forms which 
have vastly enhanced the productive power of the country. 
The land, doubtless, as one factor of that productive power, 
became temporarily less efficient than it would have been under 
a conservative European treatment; but the joint product of 
the three factors land, labour and capital was for the time 
enormously increased. Under this regimen the fertility of the 
land, of course, in time necessarily declined, sooner or later, 
according to the nature of the crops grown and to the degree 
of original strength in the soil. Resort was then had to new 
fields farther west. The granary of the continent moved first 
to western New York, thence into the Ohio valley, and then, 
again, to the banks of the Mississippi. The north and south line 
dividing the wheat product of the United States into two equal 
parts was in 1850 drawn along the 82nd meridian (81 58' 49"). 
In 1860 that line was drawn along the 86th (86 i' 38"), in 1870 
along the 8pth (88 48' 40"), in 1880 along the goth (90 30' 46"), 
in 1890 along the 93rd (93 9' 18"), and' in 1900 along the 95th 
(94 59' 23"). Meanwhile one portion of the inhabitants of the 
earlier settlements joined in the movement across the face of 
the continent. As the grain centre passed on to the west they 
followed it, too restless by character and habit to find pleasure 
in the work of stable communities. A second portion of the 
inhabitants became engaged in raising, upon limited areas, 
small crops, garden vegetables and orchard fruits, and in pro- 
ducing butter, milk, poultry and eggs, for the supply of the 
cities and manufacturing towns which had been built up out of 
the abundant profits of the primitive agriculture. Still another 
portion of the agricultural population gradually became occupied 
in the more careful and intense culture of the cereal crops upon 
the better lands, the less eligible fields being allowed to spring 
up in brush and wood. Deep ploughing and thorough drainage 
were resorted to; fertilizers were employed to bring up and to 
keep up the soil ; and thus began the serious systematic agricul- 
ture of the older states. Something continued to be done in 
wheat, but not much. New York raised 13 million bushels 
in 1850; thirty years later she raised n million bushels; and 
fifty years later io| million bushels. Pennsylvania raised 15^ 
million bushels in 1850; in 1880 she raised 195 million bushels; 
and in 1900 205 million bushels. More is done in Indian corn 
(maize), that most prolific cereal, the backbone of American 
agriculture; still more is done relatively in buckwheat, barley 
and rye. Pennsylvania, though the eleventh state in wheat 
production in 1905, stood first in rye and second in buckwheat 
(ninth in oats). New York was only twenty-first in wheat, 
but first in buckwheat (tenth in barley), fourth in rye. We do 
not, however, reach the full significance of the situation until 
we account for the fourth portion of the former agricultural 
population, in noting how naturally and fortunately commercial 
and manufacturing cities spring up in the sites which have been 
prepared for them by the lavish expenditure of the enormous 
profits of a primitive agriculture upon permanently useful im- 
provements of a constructive character. These towns are the 
gifts of agriculture. 

Besides the extension of cultivated area, very little was 
accomplished in the way of agricultural improvement before 
1850. With some few exceptions the methods of cultivation 
were substantially the same as those of colonial days, and were 
marked by crudeness, waste and a general adherence to rule-of- 
thumb principles. The year 1850 roughly marks the beginning 
of a period of improvement and development. The Irish famine 
of 1846 and the German political troubles of 1848 were followed 
by an unprecedented emigration to America of highly desirable 
European labourers, for whom there were cheap and abundant 
lands. The period from 1850 to 1870 was marked by a steady 
owth, which, in the western states, was highly stimulated by 
Civil War. While this conflict withdrew a certain amount 



of productive energy from agricultural pursuits, it tended at the 
same time to increase the value of farm labour and of farm 
products and to extend the use of machinery in order to offset 
the deficient labour supply. Agricultural machinery had been 
employed before the war, but only to a very small extent. In 
1864, 70,000 reapers and mowers were manufactured, twice as 
many as in 1862, and manufacturers were unable to supply the 
demand. Moreover, in the years 1860, 1861 and 1862 the wheat 
crops of Great Britain and the European continent were failures, 
while those of the United States, far removed from the theatre 
of military operations, were unusually large. The wheat exports 
to Great Britain in 1861 were three times as great as those of 
any previous year, and the strong demand from abroad was an 
additional stimulus to higher prices. In 1864 agricultural prices 
were from too to 200 % higher than in 1861, while transportation 
charges had only slightly advanced and in some instances had 
actually decreased. In the middle of the war the farmers' profits 
were normal; toward the end they had increased enormously. 
This marvellous agricultural prosperity of a nation engaged in 
one of the world's most formidable wars has no counterpart in 
modern history. In the decade from 1860 to 1870 there was a 
steady increase in cultivated area, in agricultural products and 
in population. The value of the farm lands in the northern 
states in 1870 exceeded that of 1860 by five dollars an acre. On 
the other hand, the farm lands of the southern states had declined 
in value to an almost equal amount; but after 1870 these states 
also made substantial progress, and in 1880 they produced more 
cotton than in 1860, when the greatest crop under the slave 
system was grown. 

Since 1870 the most important factors in this development 
have been the employment of more scientific methods of pro- 
duction and the more extensive use of machinery. The study 
of soils with a view of adapting to them the most suitable crops 
and fertilizers; the increased attention given to diversified 
farming and crop rotation; the introduction and successful 
growth of new plants (e.g. the date palm in Arizona and Cali- 
fornia, and tea in South Carolina); tile drainage; the ensilage 
of forage; more careful selection in breeding; the use of 
inoculation to prevent Texas fever in cattle and cholera in 
swine, of tuberculin to discover the presence of tuberculosis in 
cows, of organic ferments to hasten the progress of butter-making, 
of the " Babcock test " for ascertaining the amount of fat in 
milk, of fungicides and insecticides to destroy fruit and vegetable 
pests, such are but a few manifestations of the spread of scien- 
tific knowledge among the farming population of the United 
States. Nearly every county has some- sort of agricultural 
society; in 1899 there were about 1500 of these organizations, 
some of which, especially those holding annual fairs, received 
state aid. 

With the improvement in technical processes of production 
came the conquest of the arid regions of the western states. 
Irrigation was first employed in the west by the Mormons in 
1847; but as late as 1870 only about 20,000 acres had been 
irrigated. In 1880 the irrigated area was approximately 
i, 000,000 acres, and in the decade from 1889 to 1899 it increased 
from 3,631,381 to 7,539.545 acre s, a gain of 107-6 %. By 
1902 there had been a still further increase to 9,478,852 acres, 
a gain of 25- 7 % in three years. As many of the streams available 
for irrigation purposes lie within more than one state, the control 
of water supply is a proper matter for federal jurisdiction, and 
in June 1902 Congress provided for an extensive system of 
irrigation works in thirteen states and three territories. The 
cost of the work is defrayed from the proceeds of the sales of 
government lands within the states and territories affected 
by the act. The measure is not paternalistic; the settlers on 
the lands, which are divided into farms of not less than 40 nor 
more than 160 acres, are required to make annual payments 
to the government in proportion to the water service they have 
received, until the original cost of the works has been met. The 
first of these works, the so-called Truckee-Carson project, of 
Nevada, was completed in June 1905, and at the end of that 
year eight projects, in as many different states, were under 



416 



AGRICULTURE 



[AMERICAN 



construction; bids had been received for three more, and the 
seven others had received the approval of the secretary of the 
interior. With these initial undertakings it was estimated that 
i ,000,859 acres could be reclaimed. In addition to supplying the 
soils with water, means have been found of ridding them of their 
alkali, or of rendering it harmless; and this is an element of 
reclamation hardly less important than irrigation itself. A third 
step in the reclamation of desert lands is arid farming that is, 
the adapting to the soils of crops that require a minimum amount 
of moisture, and the utilization, to the fullest possible extent, 
of the meagre amount of rainfall in the region. Experiments 
conducted in this direction in Utah produced promising results. 

The development of farming machinery has kept pace with 
the general progress in scientific agriculture. Although numer- 
ous patents were issued for such machinery before 1850, its use, 
with the exception of the cotton gin, was very restricted before 
that date. Even iron ploughs were not in general use until 
1842, and a really scientific plough was practically unknown 
before 1870. Thirty years later the large farms of the Pacific 
states were ploughed, harrowed and sowed with wheat in a 
single operation by fifty-horse-power traction engines drawing 
ploughs, harrows and press drills. Since 1850 there has been 
a transition from the sickle and the scythe to a machine that in 
one operation mows, threshes, cleans and sacks the wheat, 
and in five minutes after touching the standing grain has it 
ready for the market. Hay-stackers, potato plantersand diggers, 
feed choppers and grinders, manure-spreaders, check-row corn 
planters and ditch-digging machines are some of the common 
labour-saving devices. By the 28th of August 1907 the United 
States Patent Office had issued patents for 13,212 harvesting 
machines, 6352 threshers, 6680 harrows and diggers, 9649 
seeders and planters, and 13,171 ploughs. In the manufacture 
of agricultural machinery the United States leads the world. 
The total value of the implements and machinery used by 
farmers of the United States in 1880 was $406,520,055; in 1890 
$494,247,467; in 1900 $761,261,550, a gain in this last decade 
f 54%- The total value of the implements and machinery 
manufactured in 1850 was $6,842,611; in 1880 $68,640,486; 
in 1890 $81,271,651; in 1900 $101,207,428. These figures, 
however, are a very poor indication of the actual use of 
machinery, on account of the rapid decrease in prices following 
its manufacture on a more extensive- scale and by improved 
methods. 

The effects of the new agriculture are apparent from the 
following figures: By the methods of 1830 it required 64 hours 
and 15 minutes of man-labour and cost $3-71 to produce an acre 
of wheat; by the methods employed in 1896 it required 2 hours 
and 58 minutes of man-labour and cost 72 cents. To produce 
an acre of barley in 1830 required 63 hours of man-labour and 
cost $3-59; in 1896 it required 2 hours and 43 minutes and cost 
60 cents. An acre of oats produced by the methods of 1830 
required 66 hours and 1 5 minutes of man-labour and cost $3 73 ; 
the methods of 1893 required only 7 hours and 6 minutes and 
cost $1-07. With the same unit of labour the average quantity 
of all leading crops produced by modern methods is about five 
times as great as that produced by the methods employed 
in 1850, and the cost of production is reduced by one half. 
From 1880 to 1900 the average number of acres of leading crops 
per male worker increased from 23-3 to 31-0, or 34%; the 
number of horses per worker from 1-7 to 2-3, or 35 %; and the 
value of agricultural product per person employed from $286-82 
to $454-37, or 58-4%. 

There are numerous other factors that have operated to the 
benefit of the agriculturist. Increased transportation facilities 
and lower freight charges have widened his market. The pro- 
cesses of canning, packing, preserving and refrigerating have 
produced a similar effect, and have also provided a means for 
the disposal of surplus perishable products that otherwise would 
be lost. The utilization of by-products, as, for example, the 
conversion of cotton seed into oil, fertilizers and food for live 
stock, has become another source of profit. 

Great economic and social changes have resulted from this 



progress. There has been a great division of labour in agri- 
culture. Makers of agricultural implements, of butter and 
cheese, cotton ginners, grist and wheat millers, are now classed 
in the United States census reports as manufacturers, but all 
their work was once done on the farm. The farmer is now more 
of a specialist and more dependent on other industries than 
formerly. He has changed from a producer for home con- 
sumption or a local market to a producer for a world market. 
Unfortunately, his knowledge of economic laws has lagged 
behind his progress in scientific agriculture. The farming class 
at times have experienced periods of great depression, largely 
on account of their inability to adjust their crops to changing 
conditions in the world's markets, and in such cases have been 
prone to seek a remedy in radical legislation. Periods of agri- 
cultural discontent at different times have been marked by the 
political activity of the " Grangers " and of the " Farmers' 
Alliance." and even by the formation of new political parties 
such as the Greenback party in 1874 and the Populist or People's 
party in 1892 whose strength lay mainly in the agricultural 
states. The new industrial conditions that produced com- 
binations among manufacturers were much slower in their effect 
upon the farming element, but gradually led to increasing 
co-operation and to the organization of the growers of various 
commodities for marketing their crops. The fruit growers of 
California and the tobacco growers of Kentucky have furnished 
interesting examples of such organizations. Under the improved 
conditions there is less drudgery on the farm; the farmer does 
more work, produces more, and yet has more leisure than 
formerly. Better roads, rural free mail delivery, telephone and 
electric lines are removing the isolation of country life, and to 
some extent are diminishing the attractions of the cities for th<> 
rural population. 

Covering as it does the breadth of the North American con- 
tinent, with 3,000,000 sq. m. of land surface, not including 
Alaska and the islands, of which over 800,000,000 acres are in 
farms and over 400,000,000 in actual cultivation, representing 
every variety of soil and all the climatic life zones of the world, 
except the extreme boreal and the hottest tropical, the United 
States affords an important subject of study in respect of agri- 
culture. Its cotton, wheat and meat are large factors in all 
markets, and its many other agricultural products are distributed 
throughout the civilized world. To the student the equipment 
and methods of agriculture in the United States form as interest- 
ing a subject of examination as do its resources and production. 
In quantity, distribution and inter-relation of heat and moisture 
the chief factors in agricultural production the United States 
is greatly blessed. We find in this vast' territory all the agricul- 
tural belts mapped by the biologist, producing all varieties of 
cereals, fruits and breeds of live stock, whilst all kinds of soils, 
adapted to different crops, are spread out at all altitudes from 
8000 ft. down to sea-level. 

The story of the vast and varied agriculture of the United 
States can be outlined by extracts from the figures published by 
the Census, the Agricultural and other government departments. 

As a result of the great supply of available land the number of 
farms in the United States increased between 1850 and 
1900 from 1,449,073 to 5,739,657: their total acreage Fanal . 
increased from 293,560,614 to 841,201,546 acres; their 
improved acreage increased from 113,032,614 to 414,793,191 acres; 
and their unimproved 1 acreage from 180,528,000 to 426,408,355 
acres. Table XXVII. exhibits the increases of number of farms, 
total and improved acreage by decades. 

The largest percentage of increase of improved land was 50-7, 
from 1870 to 1880; the lowest was in the decade 1860 to 1870, the 
period of the Civil War, and was 15-8. The chief cause of this 
wonderful development of agriculture is the large area of cheap 
public lands which has been available for immigrants and natives 
alike. Up to 1906, under the Homestead Act of the 2Oth of May 
1862, the number of entries, both final and pending, covered 
185,385,000 acres. Between 1875 and 1905 the public and Indian 
lands sold for cash and under homestead and timber culture laws, as 
well as those allotted by scrip, granted to the colleges of agriculture 

1 " Unimproved " land includes land which has never been 
ploughed, mown or cropped, and also land once cultivated but now 
overgrown with trees or shrubs. 



AMERICAN] 



AGRICULTURE 



and mechanic arts and other institutions, and by military bounty 
land warrants, and selected by states and railroad corporations, 
covered about 430,000,000 acres. In addition to this, the states 
and railroad corporations sold a large amount of land to farmers 
of which we have no accurate record. This vast territory, greater 

TABLE XXVII. Percentage of Increase of Number and Acreage of 
Farms by Census Decades. 



The United States. 


Number of 
Farms. 


Acreage. 


Total. 


Improved. 


1850 to 1860 
i860 1870 
1870 ,, 1880 
1880 ,, 1890 
1890 ,, 1900 


41-1 
30-1 
50-7 
13-9 

257 


38-7 

O-I 

3i-5 
16-2 
35-o 


44'3 
15-8 
50-7 
25-6 
16-0 


1850 to 1900 


296-0 


186-5 


267-1 



in extent than Germany and France combined, was added to 
the farms of the country in thirty years. In many cases railroad 
building has made the settlement of the public lands possible for 
the first time, and the building of branch lines, by providing means 
for transporting products to market, has greatly facilitated the 
acquisition of other lands. The mileage of railways 
increased 310-7 % bet ween 1 870 and 1905. The in- 
teresting fact is that this increase corresponds 
geographically to the increase in farms. 

The agricultural statistics do not include any farm 
of less than three acres unless it produced at least 
$500 worth of products in the preceding year. The 
census of 1900 showed that the average size of farms 
was 146 acres, or nine acres more than in 1890 and 
57 acres less than in 1850. This fact, however, does 
not indicate a general tendency toward the con- 
solidation of holdings. The increase in the average size of farms 
in the whole country is due to the extension of grazing lands in 
the Rocky Mountain region and in Texas, and to the enlarge- 
ment of the wheat fields in the Mississippi valley. On the other 
hand, in the southern states there has been a steady breaking up of 
holdings and decrease in the average size of farms since the close 
of the Civil War. In the New England states, where dairying has 
become the leading agricultural industry, there was an increase of 
2-2 acres in the size of farms during the decade 1890-1900. This 
increase was more than offset by the decrease in the Atlantic states 
from New York to Maryland inclusive (2-8 acres), where there has 
been a subdivision of farms following the increased attention given 
to the growing of fruits and vegetables for cities. The same tendency 
is noted in the states of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. As will be seen 
from Table XXVIII., the average farm, which steadily diminished 
in size from 1850 to 1880, increased between 1880 and 1900. 

TABLE XXVIII. Average Acreage of Farms and Proportion of 
Improved Land therein. 



Statisticians usually put it at 40 %, and this is probably more nearly 
correct (Table XXX.). 

The wages paid farm labourers, as ascertained by the Department 
of Agriculture, are rather low compared with the average wages of 
labour, but not lower than the wages of other unskilled labour. The 
average monthly wage of the agricultural labourer, without board, 
was $19-50 in 1870, $16-42 in 1880, $18-33 ' n '890, $17-70 in 1895, 
and $20-23 in 1899, when the maximum for any state was $45-10 
in Nevada, the minimum $10-06 in South Carolina. The wages of 
the American farm labourer were at this last date named (1899) 
higher than for any other farm labourer save in Canada and the 
British colonies of Australasia; though lower than wages paid in 
American cities, they have greater purchasing power. J. R. Dodge, 
in " Farm Labour in the United States " (vol. XL, Report of- Industrial 
Commission on Agriculture, &c., 1901), says: " In addition to wages 
the married labourer has a house free of rent, a garden, firewood, 
pasturage and other perquisites. The enterprising labourer usually 
becomes a tenant and afterwards a farm-owner." 

The figures for farm capital and the value of agricultural products 
are so vast that it is extremely difficult to put them in an intelligible 
form. The farm capital of the United States reported by y a i m O f 
the census of 1900 reached $20,514,002,000, a sum more f arms an< / 
than four times the capital invested in manufactures, products. 
the main classes being, in round numbers: Land, 
fences and buildings, $16,674,690,000; machines and implements. 

TABLE XXIX. Number of Farms of Specified Tenure. 



Year. 


Number of 
Farms. 


Number 
Owners. 1 


af farms o 
Cash 
Tenants. 


aerated by 

Share 
Tenants. 2 


Percentaj 
Owners. 


r e of farms t 
Cash 
Tenants. 


>perated by 

Share 
Tenants. 


1880 
1890 
1900 


4,008,907 
4,564,641 
5,737,372 


2,984,306 
3,269,728 
3,712,408 


322,357 
454, 6 59 
751,665 


702,244 
840,254 
1,273,299 


74-5 
71-6 
64-7 


8-0 

IO-O 

13-1 


17-5 
18-4 

22-2 





Whole Farm. 


Proportion of 
Improved Land. 


1850 
1860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 


202 -6 
199-2 
153-3 
J33-7 
I36-5 
146-6 


38-5 
40-1 

46-3 
53-1 
57-4 
49-3 



he acreage of North Atlantic farms decreased from 112-6 in 1850 

> 95-3 in 1890, and increased in 1890-1900 to 96-5 acres. In the 
South Atlantic states the average was 376-4 acres in 1850, and there 
has been steady decrease, so that in 1900 it was 108-4, or one-third 
less than the average for the entire country. In the north central 
states the averages of 1850 and 1900 were nearly the same (143-3 
and 144-5 respectively), with the minimum (121-9 acres) in 1880. 
The south central states averaged 291 acres in 1850, 321-3 in 1860, 
144 in 1890, and 155-4 i n J9OO. The maximum decade for the 
western states was that ending in 1850 (694-9 acres), and the mini- 
mum 1880 (312-9); and the average in 1900 was 386-1 acres. 

Table XXIX. gives the number of farms, together with their 
distribution, under different forms of tenure in the years 1880, 1890 
and 1900. 

The steady drift towards farm tenancy of late is believed to be 
injurious to production; but it is impossible to prove this, so great 
has been the aggregate increase in products. 

The number of persons engaged in agriculture as a business in 
Agri- I 9 was IO -38j.7.65, or 36 % of all persons in gainful 

cultural occupations. It is interesting to note that 977,336 of these 
occopa- were women. This is an increase of 2,667, 890 persons over 
tloas. 1880. Thus, if the farm family is the same size as that of 

the remainder of the population it is probably slightly 
larger the agricultural population would be 36 % of the whole. 

I. 14 



$761,262,000; live stock $3,078,050,000. The products of the 
farms in the census year 1899 were valued at $4,739,119,000. 
Between 1850 and 1900 the aggregate farm capital increased 416 %. 
The greatest increase of farm capital was between 1850 and 1860, 
101 %; the next was the decade 1880-1890, when the increase was 
32 %. Between 1890 and 1900 the increase was 28%. 

TABLE XXX. Number of Persons of Ten Years of Age and over in 
the different Agricultural Pursuits in 1900. 



Occupation. 


Total Persons. 


Dairymen and women 
Farmers and farm superintendents . 
Farm labourers 
Gardeners, nurserymen and viticulturists 
Lumbermen and raftsmen .... 
Stock-raisers, herders, &c. .... 
Turpentine-farmers and labourers . 
Wood-choppers 
Other pursuits 

Total 


10,875 
5,674-875 
4-410,877 
61,788 
72,020 
84,988 

24-737 
36,075 
5,530 


10,381,765 



The growth of farm area and of capital invested in agriculture was 
followed by a proportionate increase in the chief crops (Table XXX I.) . 

The distinguishing featnre of the period 1870-1880 was the rate 
of increase of barley, Indian corn, wheat and oats. Since 1870 the 
production of nearly all of the farm crops increased more rapidly 
than the population, the most absolute proof of the substantial 
prosperity of the people. The increase in population for the fifty 
years from 1840 to 1890 was 267 %; from 1870 to 1880, 30 %; from 
1 880 to 1890, 25 %; from 1890 to 1 900, 21 %; but the food and 
other supplies far exceeded the demands of even this great population. 

TABLE XXXI. Production of certain Farm Crops from 1870 to 1905 
Millions of Bushels. 





Indian Corn. 


Wheat. 


Oats. 


Barley. 


1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

1905 


1094 
1717 
1489 
2105 
2707 


235 
498 

399 
522 

693 


247 
418 

523 
809 

953 


26 
45 
67 

5 ? 
136 



Table XXXII. gives important facts with regard to the cereal 
production of the United States between 1870 and 1905. 

The average farm price of wheat declined, as is shown in that 
table, from $1-05 per bushel for the decade 1870-1880 to 65-3 
cents for the period 1890-1899. The farm prices of the other 



1 Includes farms operated by owners, part-owners, owners and 
tenants, and managers. 

2 Tenants of farms rented for a share of the products. 



418 



AGRICULTURE 



[AMERICAN 



cereals declined less during the thirty years. Corn declined from 
an average farm price of 42-6 cents per bushel for 1870-1880 to 
34-4 cents in 1890-1899. The average production per acre shows 
nothing conclusive with regard to the fertility of the soil of the 
country. The expansion of the crop area usually causes a lowering 
of the average yield per acre by distributing the culture, fertilizers, 
&c., over more surface. Likewise the contraction of crop area will 
usually increase the average yield per acre of the entire country. 

TABLE XXXII. Average Yield and Value of Cereal Crops in the United States, by Periods 

of Years, 1870-1905. 



Period. 


Indian Corn. 


Wheat. 


Oats. 


Average 
Farm Price 
per Bushel. 


Average 
Yield per 
Acre. 


Average 
Farm Price 
per Bushel. 


Average 
Yield per 
Acre. 


Average 
Farm Price 
per Bushel. 


Average 
Yield per 
Acre. 


1870 to 1880 . . 
1880 1889 . . 
1890 1899 . . 
1900 1905 . . 

1870 1880 . . 
1880 1889 . . 
1890 1899 . . 
1900 1905 . 


Dollars. 
0-426 
393 
344 
440 
Bai 
0-738 
589 
433 
433 


Bushels. 
^27-1 
24-1 
24-1 
24-9 
ley 

22-1 

21-7 

23-3 
25-9 


Dollars. 
1-05 
827 
653 
706 
R 
0-701 
622 
522 
570 


Bushels. 
12-4 

I2-I 
I3'I 
13-6 

ye 
14-1 
11-9 
14-0 
15-7 


Dollars. 
0-353 
39 
277 

318 
Buck 

0-715 
642 

507 
588 


Bushels. 
28-4 
26-6 
26-2 

30-7 
wheat 

17-7 

12-8 

16-8 
17-9 



The average yield of wheat per acre was 12-4 bushels in the decade 
1870-1880, and 13-1 in the period 1890-1899; of Indian corn, 
27-1 in 1870-1880, and 24-1 in 1880-1899 continuously. Oats 
fell off from 28-4 in 1870-1880 to 26-2 bushels per acre in 1890- 
1899. The averages for the years 1900-1905 show an increase 
over the previous decade both in yields and (with the exception of 
the price of barley) in prices of all the cereals. 

The agricultural returns for 1890-1905 may be taken as an 



illustration of the cereal production of the United States. The 
figures for wheat, oats and Indian corn are presented in Tables 
XXXIII., XXXIV. and XXXV. 

The acreage and production of wheat have steadily increased. 
The acreage in Indian corn, the great American crop, reached its 
highest in 1902, 94,043,613 acres, and its production its highest 
figure in 1905, 2,707,993,540 bushels. 

Producing as the United States does so much more than its people 
can consume, its exports form a large per- 
centage of some of the crops, as Table 
XXXVI. shows. 

Large portions of some of these crops, like 
Indian corn and oats, are exported in the 
form of animals and animal products (meats, 
lard, hides, &c.). The hay crop is almost 
entirely used in this way, and the tendency 
is to convert more and more of these crops 
into these higher-priced products. Still, the 
time is far distant when domestic consump- 
tion will come anywhere near overtaking 
domestic production, especially of wheat 
and the other cereals. The certain extension 
of acreage with the growth of demand and 
price, the increased use of agricultural im- 
plements, and the improvement of methods 
will be sure to keep up a large surplus for 
export for many years to come. The Depart- 
ment of Agriculture has found that for 



home use there were required per head 5-5 bushels of wheat, 28-6 
bushels of Indian corn, and 10-7 bushels of oats, the computations 
being made from the figures for population, production and exports 
for 1888-1892; in 1905, 6-15 bushels of wheat and wheat-flour, 
28-59 bushels of Indian corn and corn-meal. The following number 
of acres in these crops was required, therefore, to supply the home 
demand for 1888-1892: 0-43 of an acre in wheat, 1-15 acre in corn, 
and 0-43 acre in oats per head of the population. Taking the year 



TABLE XXXIII. Acreage, Production, Value, Prices and Exports of Wheat in the 

United States in 1890-1905. 



Year. 


Acreage. 


Average 
Yield per 
Acre. 


Production. 


Average 
Farm Price 
per Bushel, 
1st Dec. 


Farm Value, 
1st Dec. 


Domestic Exports, 
including Flour, 
Fiscal Years 
beginning 1st July. 




Acres. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Cents. 


Dollars. 


Bushels. 


1890 


36,087,154 


n-l 


399,262,000 


83-8 


334,773,678 


106,181,316 


1891 


39,916,897 


I5'3 


611,780,000 


83-9 


513,472,711 


225,665,812 


1892 


38,554430 


13-4 


515,949,000 


62-4 


322,111,881 


191,912,635 


1893 


34,629,418 


n-4 


396,131,725 


53-8 


213,171,381 


164,283,129 


1894 


34,882,436 


13-2 


460,267,416 


49-1 


225,902,025 


144,812,718 


1895 


34,047.332 


13-7 


467,102,947 


50-9 


237.938,998 


126,443,968 


1896 


34,618,646 


12-4 


427,684,346 


72-6 


310,602,539 


145,124,972 


1897 


39,465,066 


I3'4 


530,149,168 


80-8 


428,547,121 


217,306,005 


1898 


44,055.278 


I5'3 


675,148,705 


58-2 


392,770,320 


222,694,920 


1899 


44,592,516 


12-3 


547.303,846 


58-4 


319,545,259 


186,096,762 


1900 


42,495,385 


12-3 


522,229,505 


61-9 


323,515,177 


215,990,073 


1901 


49,895,514 


15-0 


748,460,218 


62-4 


467,350,156 


234,772,516 


1902 


46,202,424 


H'5 


670,063,008 


63-0 


422,224,117 


202,905,598 


1903 


49,464,967 


12-9 


637,821,835 


69-5 


443,024,826 


120,727,613 


1904 


44.074.875 


12-5 


552,399.517 


92-4 


510,489,874 


44,112,910 


1905 


47,854,079 


H-5 


692,979,489 


74-8 


518,372,727 






TABLE XXXIV. Acreage, Production, Value, Prices, Exports and Imports of Oats in the United States 

in 1890-1905. 



Year. 


Acreage. 


Average 
Yield per 
Acre. 


Production. 


Average 
Farm Price 
per Bushel, 
1st Dec. 


Farm Value, 
1st Dec. 


Domestic Exports, 
including Oatmeal, 
Fiscal Years 
beginning 1st July. 


Imports during 
Fiscal Years 
beginning 1st July. 




Acres. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Cents. 


Dollars. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


1890 


26,431,369 


19-8 


523,621,000 


42-4 


222,048,486 


1,382,836 


41,848 


1891 


25,581,861 


28-9 


738,394,ooo 


31-5 


232,312,267 


10,586,644 


47,782 


1892 


27,063,835 


24-4 


661,035,000 


31-7 


209,253,611 


2,700,793 


49,433 


1893 


27.273,033 


23-4 


638,854,850 


29-4 


187,576,092 


6,290,229 


31,759 


1894 


27,023,553 


24-5 


662,036,928 


32-4 


214,816,920 


1,708,824 


330,317 


1895 


27,878,406 


29-6 


824,443,537 


19-9 


163,655,068 


15,156,618 


66,602 


1896 


27,565,985 


25-7 


707,346,404 


18-7 


132,485,033 


37,725,083 


893,908 


1897 


25,730,375 


27-2 


698,767,809 


21-2 


147,974-719 


73,880,307 


25,093 


1898 


25,777,110 


28-4 


720,906,643 


25-5 


186,405,364 


33,534.264 


28,098 


1899 


26,341,380 


30-2 


796,177,713 


24-9 


198,167,975 


45,048,857 


54.576 


1900 


27.364,795 


29-6 


809,125,989 


25-8 


208,669,233 


42,268,931 


32,107 


1901 


28,541,476 


25-8 


736,808,724 


39-9 


293,658,777 


13,277,612 


38,978 


1902 


28,653,144 


34'5 


987,842,712 


30-7 


303,584,852 


8,381,805 


150,065 


1903 


27,638,126 


28-4 


784,094,199 


34'i 


267,661,665 


1 ,960,740 


183,983 


1904 


27,842,669 


32-1 


894-395,552 


31-3 


279,900,013 


8,394,692 


55.699 


1905 


28,046,746 


34-o 


953,216,197 


29-1 


277,047,537 







AMERICAN] 



AGRICULTURE 

TABLE XXXV. Acreage, Production, Value, Prices and Exports of Indian Corn in the 
United Stales in 1890-1905. 



419 



Year. 


Acreage. 


Average 
Yield per 
Acre. 


Production. 


Average 
Farm Price 
per Bushel, 
1st Dec. 


Farm Value, 
1st Dec. 


Domestic Exports, 
including Corn- 
Meal, Fiscal Years 
beginning 1st July. 




Acres. 


Bushels. 


Bushels. 


Cents. 


Dollars. 


Bushels. 


1890 


71,970,763 


20-7 


1 ,489,970,000 


50-6 


754-433,451 


32,041,529 


1891 


76,204,515 


27-0 


2,060,154,000 


40-6 


836,439,228 


.76,602,285 


1892 


70,626,658 


23-1 


1,628,464,000 


39-4 


642,146,630 


47,121,894 


1893 


72,036,465 


22-5 


1,619,496,131 


36-5 


591,625,627 


66,489,529 


1894 


62,582,269 


19-4 


1,212,770,052 


457 


554,719,162 


28,585,405 


1895 


82,075,830 


26-2 


2,151,138,580 


25-3 


544-985,534 


101,100,375 


1896 


81,027,156 


28-2 


2,283,875,165 


21-5 


491,006,967 


178,817,417 


1897 


80,095,051 


23-8 


1,902,967,933 


26-3 


501,072,952 


212,055,543 


1898 


77,721,781 


24-8 


1,924,184,660 


28-7 


552,023,428 


117,255,046 


1899 


82,108,587 


25-3 


2,078,143,933 


30-3 


629,210,110 


213,123,412 


1900 


83,320,872 


25-3 


2,105,102,516 


357 


751,220,324 


181,405,473 


1901 


91,349,928 


16-7 


1,522,519,891 


60-5 


921,555,768 


28,028,688 


1902 


94,043,613 


26-8 


2,523,648,312 


4-3 


1,017,017,349 


76,639,261 


1903 


88,091,993 


25-5 


2,244,176,925 


42-5 


952,868,801 


58,222,061 


1904 


92,231,581 


26-8 


2,467,480,934 


44-1 


1,087,461,440 


90,293,483 


1905 


94,011,369 


28-8 


2,707,993,540 


41-2 


1,116,696,738 






890 as an illustration, this gave a surplus area in wheat of 1 1 ,264,478 

cres, of 2,648,404 acres in Indian corn, and of 238,162 acres in oats. 

Tables XXXVII. and XXXVIII. give the number, total value 

nd average price of farm animals in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1906. 



animals. The fluctuation in prices of mules has been parallel to 
that for horses. 

The returns for milch cows show an increase throughout the 
period 1880-1899 in every year, with the exception of 1895-1899, 



TABLE XXXVI. Percentage of Crops Exported. 
1878-1905. 



Averages for Period 



Crop. 



Wheat 

Indian corn 

Rye 

Oats 

Barley 

Potatoes . 

Cotton 



Annual Average. 



1878-1882. 



27-84 

4-82 

10-30 

37 

1-55 

37 

72-80 



1888-1892. 



17-68 
3-49 

-80 



66-79 



1894-1896. 



15-96 
5-39 

12-21 

2-22 

I2-96 

30 

73-60 



1896-1904. 



29-9 
6-4 

19-5 
37 

12-15 
0-31 

66-3' 



1905- 



7.99 
3-66 



6i-55 



TABLE XXXVII. Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 1880-1906. 



January I. 


Horses. 


Mules. 


Milch Cows. 


Number. 


Value. 


Number. 


Value. 


Number. 


Value. 


1880 
1890 
1900 
1906 


11,201,800 
14,213,837 

13,537-524 
18,718,578 


$613,296,611 
978,516,562 
603,969,442 
1,510,889,906 


1,729,500 
2,331,027 
2,086,027 
3,404,061 


$105,948,319 
182,394,099 
111,717,092 

334,680,520 


12,027,000 
15,952,883 
16,292,360 
19,793,866 


$279,899,420 
352,152,133 
514,812,106 

582,788,592 



after which there was a steady rise in numbers. For 
the first ten years the numbers increased 32-6 %, and 
from 1890 to 1899, -2 %. The total value of milch 
cows increased each year until 1884, then decreased 
until 1891, with a gradual increase until the end of 
the period. The farm price of milch cows rose from 
$23-27 in 1880 to $31-37 in 1884, then fell to $21-40 
in 1892, after which there was a steady increase to 
$31-60 in 1899, and afterwards a slight fall, $29-44 
being the average farm value on the ist of January 
1906. 

No marked changes in the numbers of sheep have 
taken place. During the period 1880-1890 there was 
an increase in numbers amounting to about 8-8 %. 
After 1893 there was a rather steady decrease, with 

fluctuations amount- 
ing to a marked de- 
pression after 1894. 
This industry is very 
susceptible to adverse 
influences, and felt 
keenly a depression in 
the price of wool. The 
increase began again in 
1898, and in 1903 the 
figure of 63,964,876 



anuary I. 



1880 
1890 
1900 
1906 



Other Cattle. 



Number. 



21,231,000 
36,849,024 
27,610,054 
47,067,656 



Value. 



$341,761,154 
560,625,137 
689,486,260 
746,171,709 



Sheep. 



Number. 



40,765,900 
44-336,072 
41,883,065 
50,631,619 



Value. 



$90,230,537 
100,659,761 
122,665,913 
179,056,144 



Swine. 



Number. 



34,034,100 
51,602,780 
37,079,356 
52,102,847 



Value. 



$145-781,515 
243,418,336 
185,472,321 
321,802,571 



Total Value of 
Farm Animals. 



$1,576,917,556 
2,418,766,028 
2,228,123,134 
3,675,389,442 



was reached ; in 
it was 50,631,619. 
The numbers 
values of swine 
stantly fluctuate 
the movement 
value of 



1906 

and 
con- 
with 

and 



TABLE XXXVIII. Average Value of Farm Animals in the 
United States on 1st January, 1880-1906. 



Year. 



1880 
',1890 
1900 
1906 



Horses. 



$5475 
68-84 
44-61 
80-72 



M ules. 



$61-26 
78-25 
53-56 
98-31 



Milch 
Cows. 



$23-27 
22-14 
31-60 
29-44 



Other 
Cattle. 



$16-10 
15-21 
24-97 
I5-85 



Sheep. 



Pa-ai 

2-27 
2-93 

3-54 



Swine. 



$4-28 
4-72 
5-00 
6-18 



After the Civil War the number of horses increased and prices 
gradually declined. In 1893 tne number of horses reached 16,206,802 
(an increase of over 5,005,002 or 44-6 % over the number in 1880), 
J in 1906, 18,718,578. The average farm price of horses increased 
$54-75 in 1880 to $74-64 in 1884, after which there was a 
ise to $31-51 in 1896, followed by a rise to $80-72 in 1906. 
extension of street-car lines, and the substitution of cable and 
electric power for that of horses, the use of bicycles and, later, of 
automobiles, and the improvement of farm-machinery, in which 
horses are less and less used as power-producers and steam is more 
mon, have been factors in decreasing the demand for these 

1 For 1899-1900 to 1904-1905 




the Indian 
corn crops. The returns 
for 1890 (51,602,780) 
showed a numerical increase of 51-6% over those of 1880; then 
followed a steady decrease in numbers down to 1900 (37,079,356), 
since which time there has been considerable increase, so that 
in 1906 there were 52,102,847 the maximum excepting 1901, 
when there were 56,982,142 swine on farms. The movement 
in values was similar to that in numbers. From $4-28 in 1880, the 
average farm price of hogs increased steadily to $6-75 in 1883. The 
lowest figure, $4-15, was reached in 1891, and after numerous 
fluctuations it became $4-40 in 1899 and $7-78 in 1903; in 1906 it 
was $6-18. 

The total value of farm animals showed a steady increase from 
1880 to 1890, with slight variations in 1885 and 1886. Following 
1890 there was a steady decrease with the exception of slight in- 
creases in 1892 and 1893. In 1880 the total value of farm animals 
in the United States was $1,576,917,556. In 1890 it had increased 
to $2,418,766,028, or 53-4 %. In 1896 the value had diminished to 
$1,727,926,084 a decrease of 28-6 % from the 1890 values, and an 
increase of 9-6 % over those of 1880. The value in 1906 showed an 
increase of 133 % over that of 1880. 

The exports of live stock and its products have increased enor- 
mously in recent years, both in quantity and value. This is especially 
true of the exportation of beef, cattle and meat products. The 
exports ot cattle increased from 182,750 in 1880 to 331,720 in 1895, 
or 8ii %, and to 567,806 in 1905 or 210 % over 1880, and values 



420 



AGRICULTURE 



[AMERICAN 



from $13,340,000 in 1880 to $30,600,000 in 1895, an increase of 
129 %, and to $40,590,000 in 1905 or 204 %. The average value of 
cattle exported increased from $19 in 1870 to $73 in 1880 and $92 
in 1895, decreasing to $71-50 in 1905. Only the best and heaviest 
cattle are exported, these, of course, commanding a much higher 
price than the average of the country. 

The total value of farm animals exported from the United States 
has fluctuated greatly. On the whole, however, the value increased 
from $16,000,000 in round numbers in 1880 to $46,500,000 in 1905, or 
190 %. Table XXXIX. shows the number and value of live animals 
exported between 1880 and 1905. 

Since 1890 there has been a great development in the production 
of fruit and vegetables. Local market gardens are numerous in the 



vicinity of all cities, and highly specialized " truck gardening," 
that is, the growing of early fruits and vegetables for transportation 
to distant markets where the seasons are later, has made rapid 
progress in the South Atlantic states. The census reports of 1900 
use the potato acreage in these states as an index of the rate of 
development of truck gardening; the southern potato being largely 
a truck garden crop. In seven counties of Virginia the increase in 
acreage from 1889 to 1899 was 100%; in eleven counties of North 
Carolina, 314 %; in five counties of South Carolina, 134 %; in nine 
counties of Georgia, 1 1 1 % ; in six counties of Florida, 309 % ; in 
five counties of Alabama, 277 %. Irish and sweet potatoes are the 
most important vegetables raised ; the North Central states leading 
in the production of the former and the South Atlantic states in 



TABLE XXXIX. Number and Value of Farm Animals exported from the United States, 1880-1905. 



Year 
ending 
30th 


Horses. 


Mules. 


Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Swine. 


Total Value. 






















June. 


Number. 


Value. 


Number. 


Value. 


Number. 


Value. 


Number. 


Value. 


Number. 


Value. 




1880 


3.060 


$675,139 


5,198. 


$532,362 


182,756 


$13,344,195 


209,137 


$892,647 


83,434 


$42 1 ,089 


$15,865,432 


1885 


i,947 


377,692 


1,028 


127,580 


135,890 


12,906,690 


234,509 


512,568 


55,025 


579,183 


14.503,713 


1890 


3,501 


680,410 


3,544 


447,108 


394,836 


31,261,131 


67,521 


243,077 


91,148 


909,042 


33,540,768 


1894 


5,246 


1,108,995 


2,063 


240,961 


359,278 


33,461,922 


132,370* 


832,763 


1,553 


14,753 


35,659,394 


1895 


13,984 


2,209,298 


2,515 


186,452 


331,722 


30,603,796 


405,748 


2,630,686 


7,130 


72,424 


35,702,656 


1900' 


64,722 


7,612,616 


43,369 


3,919,478 


397,286 


30,635,153 


125,772 


733,477 


51,180 


394,813 


43,295,537 


1901' 


82,250 


8,873,845 


34,405 


3,210,267 


459,218 


37,566,980 


297,925 


1,933,000 


22,318 


238,465 


51,822,557 


1902' 


103,020 


10,048,046 


27,586 


2,692,298 


392,884 


2^,902,212 


358,720 


i ,940,060 


8,368 


88,330 


44,670,946 


1903 


34,007 


3,152,159 


4,294 


521,725 


402,178 


29,848,936 


176,961 


1,067,860 


4.03 1 


40-923 


34,631,603 


1904 


42,001 


3,189,100 


3,658 


412,971 


593,409 


42,256,291 


301,313 


1,954,604 


6,345 


53,78o 


47,866,746 


1905 


34,822 


3,175-259 


5-826 


645,464 


567,806 


40,598,048 


268,365 


1,687,321 


44,496 


414,692 


46,520,784 



the production of the latter. The growth of the Irish potato 
industry is shown by the following table : 



Year. 


Acreage. 


Yield (bushels). 


1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1905 


1,325.119 
1,842,510 
2,651,579 
2,611,054 
2,996,757 


114,775,000 
167,659,570 
148,289,696 
210,926,897 
260,741,294 



The production of sweet potatoes, as reported in census years, 
was as follows : 



Year. 


Acreage. 


Yield (bushels). 


1869 
1879 
1889 
1899 


444,817 
524,588 
537,447 


21,709,824 
33,378,693 
43,950,261 
42,526,696 



The total acreage in vegetables reported in 1899 was 5,753,191 
or 2 % of the acreage in all crops; the value of the yield was 
$242,170,148 or 8-3 % of the value of all crops. 

The value of the fruit crop of 1899 was $131,423,517; the value of 
orchard fruits was $83,751,840; of grapes, $14,090,937; of small 
fruits, $25,030,877 ; of sub-tropical fruits, $8,549,863. The develop- 
ment of fruit-growing during the decade 1889-1899 appears from 
the following table : 



Crop. 


Yield (bushels). 


1889. 


1899. 


Apples 
Apricots . 
Cherries . 
Peaches . 
Pears 
Plums and Prunes 


143,105,689 
1,001,482 
1,476,719 
36,367,747 
3,064,375 
2,554,392 


175-397,626 
2,642,128 
2,873,499 
IS.433,623 2 
6,625,417 
8,764,032 



In 1899 California contributed 21.5 % of the fruit crop; New 
York, 12-1%; Pennsylvania, 7-5%; Ohio, 6-8%; and Michigan 
4-5 % 

Agricultural Education. 

The agricultural schools of the United States owe their origin 
to the movement against the old classical school and in favour 
of technical education which began in most civilized nations 
about the middle of the igth century. A rapidly growing 
country with great natural resources needed men educated in 
the sciences and arts of life, and this want was first manifested 

1 The demand for horses for the British troops in South Africa 
affected these years. 

1 Decrease due to a severe frost in the winter of 1898-1899, which 
destroyed the peach crop in most of the states. 



in the United States by a popular agitation on behalf of agri- 
cultural schools. A number of so-called agricultural schools 
were started between 1850 and 1860 in the eastern and middle 
states, where the movement made itself most felt, but without 
trained teachers and suitable methods they accomplished very 
little. They were only ordinary schools with farms attached. 
The second constitution of the state of Michigan, adopted in 
1850, provided for an agricultural school, and this was the first 
one established in the United States. The General Assembly 
of the state of Pennsylvania incorporated the Farmers' High 
School, now the State College, in 1854. Maryland incorporated 
her agricultural college in 1856, and Massachusetts chartered 
a school of agriculture in the same year. The agitation, which 
finally reached Congress, led to the establishment of the so-called 
" land-grant " or agricultural colleges. The establishment of 
these colleges was due chiefly to the wisdom and foresight of 
Justin S. MorrDl, who introduced the first bill for their endow- 
ment in the House of Representatives on the i4th of December 
1857, saw the latest one approved by the president on the 3oth of 
August 1890, and is justly known, therefore, as the father of the 
American agricultural colleges. The first act for the benefit of 
these colleges, passed in 1862, was entitled " An Act donating 
public lands to the several states and territories which may 
provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic 
arts," and granted to each state an amount of land equal to 
30,000 acres for each senator and representative in Congress to 
which the state was entitled at that time. The object of the 
grant was stated to be " the endowment, support and main- 
tenance of at least one college " (in each state), " where the 
leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and 
classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such 
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic 
arts ... in order to promote the liberal and practical educa- 
tion of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and pro- 
fessions in life." The total number of acres of land granted 
to the states under this act was 10,320,843, of which by far the 
greater part is sold. This grant has produced an endowment 
fund amounting to $12,045,629. The land still unsold in 1905 
amounted to 844,164 acres, valued at $4,168,746. The invested 
land-grant funds yielded these colleges a total annual income 
of $855,083 in 1905.' Including the United States appropriation 
under a supplementary act of 1890, commonly known as the 
Second Morrill Act, which now gives each college $25,000 a year, 
the interest on the land-grant and all other invested funds, all 
state appropriations and other sources of revenue, these colleges 
had in 1904-1905 a total income of $11,659,955. Sixty-six 






AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF 



421 



institutions had been organized under this act up to 1905, of 
which sixty- three maintain courses in agriculture; twenty-one 
are departments of agriculture and engineering in state univer- 
sities; twenty-seven are separate colleges of agriculture and 
mechanic arts; and the remainder are organized in various 
other ways. Separate schools for persons of African descent 
had been established under this act in sixteen southern states. 
These colleges take students prepared in the common schools 
and give them a course of from two to four years in the sciences 
pertaining to agriculture. Many of them offer short courses, 
varying from four to twelve weeks in length, in agriculture, 
horticulture, forestry and dairying, which are largely attended. 
Agricultural experiment stations are connected with all the 
colleges, and many of them conduct farmers' institutes, farmers' 
reading clubs and correspondence classes. 

The agricultural experiment stations of the United States 
grew up in connexion with the agricultural colleges. Several 
of the colleges early attempted to establish separate departments 
for research and practical experiments, on the plan of the German 
stations. The act establishing the Agricultural College of Mary- 
land required it to conduct " a series of experiments upon the 
cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted to the latitude 
and climate of the state of Maryland." This was the first sug- 
gestion of an experiment station in America, but resulted in 
little. The first experiment station was established at Middle- 
town, Connecticut, in 1875, partly under state aid, partly 
through a gift from Orange Judd, partly in connexion with the 
Sheffield Scientific School, which from 1863 to 1892 was the 
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for the state of Con- 
necticut, and partly under control of Wesleyan University, 
which contributed the use of its chemical laboratory; in 1877 
it was removed to New Haven. The state of Connecticut made 
in 1875 an appropriation of $2800 (and in 1877 $5000 per annum) 
for this school the first state appropriation of the kind. The 
state of North Carolina established, on the i2th of March 1877, 
an agricultural experiment and fertilizer control station in 
connexion with its state university. The Cornell University 
experiment station was organized by that institution in 1879. 
The New Jersey station was organized in 1880 and the station 
of the University of Tennessee in 1882. From these beginnings 
the experiment stations multiplied until, when Congress passed 
the National (or Hatch) Experiment Station Act in 1887, there 
were seventeen already in existence. The Hatch Experiment 
Station Act, so called from the fact that its leading advocate was 
William Henry Hatch (1833-1896) of Missouri, appropriated 
$15,000 a year to each agricultural college for the purpose of 
conducting an agricultural experiment station. The object of 
the stations was declared to be, " to conduct original researches 
or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and animals; 
the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the 
remedies for the same; the chemical composition of useful 
plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative 
advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying 
series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trqes for acclima- 
tion; the analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition 
of manures, natural or artificial, with experiments designed to 
test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the 
adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the com- 
position and digestibility of the different kinds of food for 
domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved 
in the production of butter and cheese; and such other re- 
searches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural 
industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed 
advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs 
of the respective states or territories." The stations were 
authorized to publish annual reports and also bulletins of pro- 
gress for free distribution to farmers. The franking privilege 
was given to these publications. The office of experiment 
f stations, in the Department of Agriculture, was established in 
1888 to be the head office and clearing-house of these stations. 
Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation in all the 
states and territories, including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and 



the Philippines. Alabama, Hawaii, Connecticut, New Jersey 
and New York each maintain separate stations, supported 
wholly or in part by -state funds; Louisiana has a station for 
sugar, and Missouri for fruit experiments. Excluding all branch 
stations, the total number of experiment stations in the United 
States is sixty, and of these fifty-five receive the national appro- 
priation. The total income of the stations during 1904 was 
$1,508,820, of which $720,000 was received from the national 
government and the remainder was derived from societies, 
fees for analyses of fertilizers, sale of products, &c. The stations 
employed 795 persons in the work of administration and re- 
search; the chief classes being directors, 71; chemists, 163; 
agriculturists, 47; agronomists, 41; besides numerous horti- 
culturists, botanists, entomologists, physicists, bacteriologists, 
dairymen, weather observers and irrigation experts. The 
stations publish annual reports and bulletins, besides a large 
number of " press " bulletins, which are reproduced in the 
agricultural and county papers. They act as bureaus of informa- 
tion on all farm questions, and carry on an extensive corre- 
spondence covering all conceivable questions. Their mailing 
lists aggregate half a million names. In addition to the experi- 
ment stations there is in nearly every state an officer or a special 
board whose duty is to look after its agricultural interests. 
Eighteen states, one territory, Porto Rico and the Philippine 
Islands have a single official, usually called the Commissioner 
of Agriculture. Twenty-six states, one territory and Hawaii, 
have Boards of Agriculture. Information concerning the 
Agricultural Department of the United States will be found 
under AGRICULTURE, BOARD or. 

See the articles on the various sorts of crops; also CATTLE, 
HORSE, PIG, SHEEP, &c.; DAIRY AND DAIRY-FARMING, HORTI- 
CULTURE, FRUIT AND FLOWER-FARMING, POULTRY AND POULTRY- 
FARMING; SOIL, GRASS AND GRASSLAND, MANURE, DRAINAGE 
OF LAND, IRRIGATION, SOWING, REAPING, HAY AND HAY- 
MAKING, PLOUGH, HARROW, THRESHING. 

LITERATURE. Besides the contemporary works cited in the text, 
see the article " Agricultura " in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and 
Roman Antiquities (1890), and the article " Agriculture " in I. A. 
Barrel's Dictionnaire d' Agriculture (1885-1892); R. E. Prothero, 
Pioneers and Progress of English Farming (1888); sections on agri- 
culture by W. J. Corbett, R. E. Prothero and W. E. Bear in Traill's 
Social England (1901-1904); J. E. T. Rogers, History of Agriculture 
and Prices in England from 1259 to 1793 (7 vols., 1866-1902) ; 
W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce during 
the Early and Middle Ages (2 vols., 1905 and 1907); D. M'Donald, 
Agricultural Writers from Sir Walter of Henley to Arthur Young, 
1200-1800 (London, 1908); H. Rider Haggard, Rural England, 
2 vols. (1902) ; Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, ed. by C. E. Green 
and D. Young (Edinburgh, 1907-1908); Cyclopaedia of American 
Agriculture, ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York and London, 1907-1908) ; 
W. S. Harwood, The New Earth (New York, 1906) ; T. B. Collins, 
The New Agriculture (New York, 1906) ; Journals of the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England and other agricultural societies. 
Amongst general works on practical agriculture the following may 
be mentioned: Stephens's Book of the Farm, 3 vols., revised by 
J. Macdonald (Edinburgh, 1908) ; William Fream, Elements of 
Agriculture (London, 1905); Rural Science Series, ed. by L. H. 
Bailey (New York and London, 1895, &c.) ; Morton's Handbooks of 
the Farm (London); R. Wallace, Farm Livestock of Great Britain 
(Edinburgh, 1907) ; Youatt's Complete Grazier, rewritten by W. 
Fream (London, 1900) ; E. V. Wilcox, Farm Animals (New York, 
1907). (W. FR. ; R. TR.) 

AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF. The Board of Agriculture and 
Fisheries, in England, owes its foundation to the establishment 
of a veterinary department of the privy council in 1865, when the 
country was ravaged by cattle plague. An order in council 
abolished the name " veterinary department " in 1883 and sub- 
stituted that of " agricultural department," but no alteration was 
effected in the work of the department, so far as it related to 
animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for Great Britain) 
was formed under an act of parliament of that year, and the 
immediate control of the agricultural department was transferred 
from the clerk of the privy council to the secretary of the Board 
of Agriculture, where it remains. 

A minister of agriculture had for years been asked for in the 
interests of the agricultural community, and the functions of this 
office are discharged by the president of the Board of Agriculture 



422 



AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF 



and Fisheries, whose appointment is a political one, and may or 
may not carry with it a seat in the cabinet. The board consists 
of the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries 
of state, the first lord of the treasury, the chancellor of the ex- 
chequer, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and the 
secretary for Scotland. The establishment consists of a pre- 
sident, secretary, assistant secretaries, &c. The salary of the 
president is 2000 a year, and that of the secretary 1500 a year. 

The Board of Agriculture on its establishment took over from 
the privy council the responsibilities of the Contagious Diseases 
(Animals) Acts, besides the comprehensive duties of the Land 
Commission. The board, through its intelligence division, col- 
lects and prepares statistics relating to agriculture and forestry, 
and in 1904 appointed a number of honorary agricultural corre- 
spondents throughout the country for the purpose of bringing 
to the notice of the board any special circumstances affecting the 
practice of agriculture, horticulture and forestry, or the transport 
of farm, garden and fc r est produce in their districts. The land 
division of the board prepares the annual agricultural and produce 
returns, and the three divisions, the animals, intelligence and 
land, take proceedings under the following acts: the Diseases of 
Animals Acts, the Markets and Fairs (Weighing of Cattle) Acts, 
the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1809, the Merchandise 
Marks Acts 1887 to 1905, the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act 
1893, the Tithe Acts 1836 to 1891, the Copyhold Act 1894, the 
Inclosure Acts 1845 to 1899, the Agricultural Holdings Acts 
1883 to 1900, the Drainage and Improvement of Land Acts, the 
Universities and College Estates Acts 1858 to 1898, the Glebe 
Lands Act 1888, &c. The board also has charge of the inspection 
of schools (not being public elementary schools) in which technical 
instruction is given in agriculture or forestry, and institutes such 
experimental investigations as may be deemed conducive to the 
progress of agriculture and forestry. 

The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom is under the 
control of the board, as well as the arrangements for the advert- 
isement and sale of the publications of the Geological Survey. 
In 1903 the powers and duties formerly vested in the commis- 
sioners of the Office of Works, relating to the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Kew, were transferred to the board. The various 
departments of the board are (i) chief clerk's branch and indoor 
branch of animals division; (2) outdoor branch of the animals 
division; (3) veterinary department; (4) fisheries branch; (5) 
intelligence department; (6) educational branch; (7) accounts 
branch; (8) inclosure and common branch; (9) copyhold and 
tithe branch; (10) statistical branch; (n) law branch; (12) 
survey, land improvement and land drainage branch. 

In 1903, in pursuance of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries 
Act 1903, the powers and duties of the Board of Trade under the 
Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts, the Sea Fisheries Regula- 
tion Acts and other acts relating to the industry of fishing, were 
transferred from that department to the Board of Agriculture, 
and its name was changed to its present form. The Department 
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland covers much 
the same ground. The Annual Report of the Proceedings of the 
Board of Agriculture under the Tithe and other Acts for 1902 
contains a full account of its powers and duties. 

In the British colonies the interests of agriculture are looked 
after in New South Wales, by an under-secretary for mines 
and agriculture; in Victoria, by a member of the executive 
council who holds the portfolio of lands and agriculture; in 
Queensland, by an under-secretary for agriculture; in New 
Zealand, by a minister for lands and agriculture; in Canada (see, 
for more detail, the article Canada, Canadian Agriculture), by 
a minister for agriculture (the various provinces have also depart- 
ments of agriculture). The government of India has a secretary 
of revenue and agriculture. Cape Colony has a secretary for 
agriculture, a member of the cabinet; in the Transvaal Colony 
the director of agriculture is a departmental secretary; in Natal, 
the minister for agriculture is a member of the executive council, 
and the establishment consists, in addition, of a secretary, a 
director of agriculture, an entomologist, a dairy expert and a 
conservator of forests. Cyprus has a director of agriculture. 



United States. The Department of Agriculture dates its rank 
as an executive department from 1889. It was first established 
as a department in 1862, ranking as a bureau, with a commis- 
sioner in charge. In addition to the commissioner there were 
appointed a statistician, chemist, entomologist and superintend- 
ent of a propagatory and experimental farm. Its scope was then 
somewhat limited, but its work was gradually enlarged by the 
appointment of a botanist in 1868, a microscopist in 1871, the 
creation of a forestry department in 1877, a bureau of animal 
industry in 1884 and the establishment of agricultural experiment 
stations throughout the country in 1887. In 1889 the department 
became an executive department, the principal official being 
designated Secretary of Agriculture, with a seat in the president's 
cabinet. His salary is $8000 a year. The secretary is now 
charged with the supervision of all business relating to the agri- 
cultural and productive industries. The fisheries have a separate 
bureau, and the public lands and mining interests are cared for 
in the Department of the Interior; but with these exceptions, 
all the productive interests are looked after by the Department of 
Agriculture. The department now comprises (i) the weather 
bureau, which has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue 
of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for 
the benefit of agriculture, commerce and navigation; the gauging 
and reporting of rivers; the reporting of temperature and rain- 
fall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar and other interests; the 
display of frost and cold waves signals; and the distribution of 
meteorological information in the interest of agriculture and 
commerce; (2) the bureau of animal industry, which makes 
investigations as to the existence of contagious pleuro-pneumonia 
and other dangerous and communicable diseases of live stock, 
superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original 
investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases, 
and reports on the conditions and means of improving the animal 
industries of the country; (3) the bureau of plant industry, 
which studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture. Its 
work is classified under the general subjects of pathological 
investigations, physiological investigations, taxonomic investiga- 
tions, agronomic investigations, horticultural investigations and 
seed and plant introduction investigations; (4) the forest service, 
which is occupied with experiments, investigations and reports 
dealing with the subject of forestry, and with the dissemination of 
information upon forestry matters; (5) the bureau of chemistry, 
which investigates methods proposed for the analysis of plants, 
fertilizers and agricultural products, and makes such analyses as 
pertain in general to the interests of agriculture; (6) the bureau of 
soils, which is entrusted with the investigation, survey and map- 
ping of soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the 
rise of alkali in the soil and the drainage of soils ; and the investi- 
gation of the methods of growing, curing and fermentation of 
tobacco in the different tobacco districts; (7) the bureau of 
entomology, which obtains and disseminates information regard- 
ing insects injurious to vegetation; (8) the bureau of biological 
survey, which studies the geographic distribution of animals and 
plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also 
investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and 
recommends measures for the preservation of beneficial, and the 
destruction of injurious, species; (9) the division of accounts and 
disbursements; (10) the division of publications; (n) the bureau 
of statistics, which collects information as to the condition, 
prospects and harvests of the principal crops, and of the number 
and status of farm animals. It records, tabulates and co- 
ordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution and 
consumption, and issues monthly and annual crop reports for the 
information of producers and consumers. The section of foreign 
markets makes investigations and disseminates information 
concerning the feasibility of extending the demands of foreign 
markets for the agricultural products of the United States; th 
bureau also makes investigations of land tenures, cost of pr 
ducing farm products, country life education, transportation and 
other lines of rural economies; (12) the library; (13) the office 
of experiment stations which represents the department in it 
relations to the experiment stations which are now in operatic 






AGRIGENTUM 



423 



in all the states; it collects and disseminates general information 
regarding agricultural schools, colleges, stations, and publishes 
accounts of agricultural investigations at home and abroad; it 
also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations, aids in the conduct 
of co-operative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and 
work, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assist- 
ance as will best promote the purposes for which they were 
established; it conducts investigations relative to irrigation 
and drainage; (14) the office of public roads, which collects 
information concerning systems of road management, conducts 
investigations regarding the best method of road-making, and 
prepares publications on this subject. 

In the following countries there are state departments of agri- 
culture: Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, (industry, agriculture and 
public works), Bulgaria (commerce and agriculture), Denmark, 
France, Norway (agriculture and public accounts), Italy, Japan 
(agriculture and commerce), Prussia (agriculture, woods and forests), 
Russia (agriculture and crown domains), Sweden. 

AGRIGENTUM (Gr. 'A.Kpayas, mod. Girgenti (?..)), an 
ancient city on the south coast of Sicily, 2^m. from the sea. 
It was founded (perhaps on the site of an early Sicanian settle- 
ment) by colonists from Gela about 58-2 B.C., and, though the 
lastest city of importance founded by the Greeks in Sicily, soon 
acquired a position second to that of Syracuse alone, owing 
to its favourable situation for trade with Carthage and to the 
fertility of its territory. Pindar (Pyth. xii. 2) calls it xaXXiora 
Pportav TToXiwi'. The buildings for which it is famous all belong 
to the first two centuries of its existence. Phalaris, who is said 
to have roasted his enemies to death in a brazen bull (Pindar, 
Pyth. i. 184), ruled as tyrant from 570 to 554. What form of 
government was established after his fall is uncertain; we know 
only that, after a long interval, Theron became tyrant (488-473) ; 
but his son Thrasydaeus was expelled after an unsuccessful war 
with Hiero in 472 and a democracy established. In the struggle 
between Syracuse and Athens (415-413) the city remained 
absolutely neutral. Its prosperity continued to increase (its 
population is given at over 200,000) until in 405 B.C., despite 
the help of the Siceliot cities, it was captured and plundered 
by the Carthaginians, a blow from which it never entirely re- 
covered. It was colonized by Timoleon in 338 B.C. with settlers 
from Velia in Lucania, and in the time of the tyrant Phintias 
(289-279) it had regained some of its power. In the First Punic 
War, however, it was sacked by the Romans (261) and the 
Carthaginians (255), and finally in the Second Punic War by the 
Romans (210). But it still retained its importance as a trading 
and agricultural centre, even in the Roman period, exporting 
not only agricultural products but textile fabrics and sulphur. 
In the local museum are tiles used for stamping cakes of sulphur, 
which show that the mines, at any rate from the 3rd century, 
were imperial property leased to contractors. 

The site is one of great natural strength and remarkable 
beauty, though quite unlike that of other Greek cities in Sicily. 
The northern portion of it consists of a lofty ridge with two 
summits, the westernmost of which is occupied by the modern 
town (985 ft.), while the easternmost, which is slightly higher, 
bears the name of Rock of Athena, owing to its identification 
in modern days with the acropolis of Acragas as described by 
Polybius, who places upon it the temple of Zeus Atabyrius (the 
erection of which was attributed to the half mythical Phalaris) 
and that of Athena. 1 It must be confessed that the available 
space (about 70X20 yds.) on the eastern summit (where there 
are some remains of ancient buildings) is so small that there 
would be only room for a single temple, which must have been 
occupied by the two deities jointly, if the new theory is correcl 
(see Notizie degll scavi, 1902, 387 and reft). In the modern town 
on the other hand, the remains of one temple are to be seen in 
the church of S. Maria dei Greci, while the other is generally 
ipposed to have occupied the site of the cathedral, though no 

1 E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (Oxford, 1891), i. 433, accept 
le name " Rock of Athena " and yet puts the acropolis on the site 
the modern town, arguing further that the cathedral hill was an 
ropolis within an acropolis (II. and XVII.). 



AGRIGENTUM 
(Girgenti) 



Wall. 

Contours at intervals of 

10 metres = 32 -8 feet. 




traces of it are visible. But whichever of these two summits 
was the acropolis proper, 2 it is certain that both were included 
in the circuit of the city walls. On the north both summits are 
defended by cliffs; on the south the ground slopes away somewhat 
abruptly from the eastern summit towards the plateau on 
which the town stood, while the western summit is separated 
from .this plateau by a valley traversed by a branch of the Hypsas 
[mod. Drago], the deep ravine of which forms the western 
boundary and defence of the city. On the east of the city is 
the valley of the Acragas [Fiume S. Biagio], from which the city 
took its name and which, though shallower than that of the 
Hypsas, still affords a sufficient obstacle to attack, and the two 
unite a little way to the south of the town; at the mouth was 
the ancient harbour, small and now abandoned. 

The most famous remains of the ancient city are the temples, 
the most important of which form a row along the low cliffs at 
the south end of the city. All are built in the Doric style, of 
the local porous stone, which is of a warm red brown colour, full 
of fossil shells and easily corroded when exposed to the air. It 
should be noted that their traditional names, with the exception 
of that of Zeus and that of Asclepius, have no foundation in 
fact, while the attribution of the temple in antis, into the cello, 
of which the church of S. Biagio has been built, is uncertain. 3 
They are described in R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die 
griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin, 1899), 
138-184. Of all these temples the oldest is probably that of 
Heracles, while the best preserved are those of Hera and Con- 
cordia, which are very similar in dimensions; the latter, indeed, 

2 Some writers place Kamikos, the city of the mythical Sican 
Kokalos, on the site of Acragas or its acropolis; but it appears to 
have lain to the north-west, possiblyat Caltabellotta, lom. north-east 
of Sciacca. We hear of it even in the Punic Wars as a fortified post of 
Acragas- (E. A. Freeman, Hist, of Sic. i. 495). 

3 The attribution to Demeter is supported by the discovery o 
votive terra-cottas, representing Demeter and Kore in the neigh- 
bourhood, while the conjecture that it .was dedicated to the river- 
god Acragas rests on its position above the river, in the valley of which , 
indeed, a statue which may represent the deity has been discovered. 



424 



AGRIMONY AGRIPPA 



lacks nothing but its roof, owing its preservation to its conversion 
into the cathedral in 597 by Gregory II., bishop of Girgenti. 
Both temples belong to the best period of the Doric style and 
are among the finest in existence. In front of the former, as 
in front of those of Heracles and Zeus, stood a huge altar for 
burnt offerings, as long as the facade of the temple itself. The 
cetta of the temple of Heracles underwent considerable modifica- 
tions in Roman times, and the discovery in it of a statue of 
Asclepius seems to show that the cult of this deity superseded 
the original one. 

In the colossal temple of Zeus the huge Atlantes (figures of 
Atlas), 25 ft. in height, are noticeable. They seem to have stood 
in the intercolumniations half-way up the outside wall and to 
have supported the epistyle. The collapse both of this temple 
and of that of Heracles must be attributed to an earthquake; 
many fallen blocks of the former were removed in 1756 for the 



construction of the harbour of Porto Empedocle. The four 
columns erected on the site of the temple of Castor and Pollux 
are a modern (and incorrect) restoration in which portions of 
two buildings have been used. Of that of Hephaestus only two 
columns remain, while of that of Asclepius, a mile to the south 
of the town, an anta and two pillars are preserved. It was in 
the latter temple that the statue of the god by Myron stood; 
it had probably been carried off to Carthage, was given to the 
temple by P. Scipio Africanus from the spoils of that city and 
aroused the cupidity of Verres. 

The other remains within the city walls are of surprisingly 
small importance; near the picturesque church of S. Nicolo is 
the so-called Oratory of Phalaris, a shrine of the 2nd century B.C., 
27 J ft. long (including the porch) by 23 J ft. wide; and not far off 
on the east is a large private house with white tesselated pave- 
ments, probably pre-Roman in origin but slightly altered in 





Demeter 

(Acragas?). 


Hera 
Lacinia. 


Con- 
cordia. 


Heracles. 


Zeus. 


Castor 
and 
Pollux. 


Unnamed 
near 
Castor 
and 
Pollux. 


Hephae- 
stus. 


Asclepius. 


Athena. 


Length excluding 






















steps ' 


90? 


I25 i 


I2 9i 


220 


361 












Breadth 


4i 




55* 


83 


'73i 




67- 


it 


,' o 'i 


>ie 


Length of cella . 




93 




156 


S3 2 


91 




v 


2 


^o 


Breadth of cella . 




32! 


3 1 * 


45i 


H4i 


33 










Height of columns 






















with capitals . 




21 


22 


33 


62? 


I9l 










Diameter of 






















columns at 






















bottom 




4* 


4i 


6* 


14 


4 




5 


,1 


. 4? 


Original number of 


















3 


*TB 


columns . 




34 


34 


38 


38 


34 










Class . . . 


In antis. 


Perip- 
teros 
hexa- 


Perip- 
teros 
hexa- 


Peripteros 
hexastylos. 


Pseudo 
peripteros 
hepta- 


Peripteros 
hexastylos. 




Peripteros 
hexastylos. 


Prostyles 
pseudo- 
peripteros. 


Perip- 
teros. 


Approximate date 


450 B.C. 


stylos. 
480-440 


stylos. 
440-420 


5OO B.C. 


stylos. 
450 B.C. 


338-210 




after 338 


before 210 


488-472 






B.C. 


B.C. 






B.C. 




B.C. 


B.C. 


B.C. 



the Roman period (R. P. Jones and E. A. Gardner in Journal 
of Hellenic Studies, xxvi., 1906, 207). Foundations of other 
buildings are to be seen in other parts of the site, but of little 
interest. The huge fishpond, spoken of by Diodorus as being 
7 stadia in circumference (xi. 25), is to be seen at the south-west 
corner of the city; it is an enormous excavation in the rock 
with drains in its sides, at the bottom of which there is now a 
flourishing orange garden. 

The line of the city walls can be distinctly traced for most of 
the circuit, but the actual remains of them are inconsiderable. 
On the east and west the ravines already mentioned afforded, 
in the main, a sufficient protection, so that a massive wall was 
unnecessary, while near the south-eastern angle a breastwork 
was formed by the excavation of the natural rock, 12 which in 
later times was honeycombed with tombs. E. A. Freeman 
attributes the southern portion of the walls to Theron (Hist, 
of Sic. ii. 224), but the question depends upon the date of the 
temple of Heracles; and if Koldewey and Puchstein are right 
in dating it so early as 500 B.C., it is probable that the wall was 
in existence by that time. Close to this temple on the west is 
the site of the gate known in later times as the Porta Aurea, 
through which the modern road passes, so that no traces now 
remain. 

Tombs of the Greek period have mainly been found on the 
west of the town, outside the probable line of the walls, between 
the Hypsas and a small tributary, the latter having been spanned 
by a bridge, now called Ponte dei Morti, of which one massive 
pier, 45 ft. in width, still exists. Just outside the south wall 
is a Roman necropolis, with massive tombs in masonry, and a 
Christian catacomb, and a little farther south a tomb in two 
stories, a mixture of Doric and Ionic architecture, belonging 
probably to the 2nd century B.C., though groundlessly called 

1 Dimensions in English feet. 

2 Polybius ix. 27 ir<u T& TXOJ 4jr2 Trirpos &KpoT 
ft lv aiiro<t>vout g 



the Tomb of Theron. A village of the Byzantine period has 
been explored at Balatizzo, immediately to the south of the 
modern town (Nolizie degli Scam, 1900, 511-520). The walls 
of the dwellings are entirely cut out of the natural rock. 

See J. Schubring, Historische Topographic von Akragas (Leipzig, 
1870); R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, op. cit.; C. Hulsen in Paul 
Wissowa, Encyclopddie, i. 1187. (T. As.) 

AGRIMONY (from the Lat. agrimonia, a transformation 
&pytn<jivri, a word of unknown etymology), a slender perennial 
herb (botanical name, Agrimonia Eupatoria, natural order 
Rosaceae), 15 to 3 ft. high, growing in hedge-banks, copses and 
borders of fields. The leafy stem ends in spikes of small yellow 
flowers. The flower-stalk becomes recurved in the fruiting 
stage, and the fruit bears a number of hooks which enable it to 
cling to rough objects, such as the coat of an animal, thus ensur- 
ing distribution of the seed. The plant is common in Britain 
and widely spread through the north temperate region. The 
underground woody stem is astringent and yields a yellow dye. 

The name has been unsystematically given to several other 
plants; for instance: bastard, Dutch, hemp or water agrimony 
(Eupatorium cannabinum) ; noble or three-leaved agrimony 
(Anemone hepatica); water agrimony (Bidens); and wild 
agrimony (Potenlilla anserina). 

AGRIONIA, an ancient Greek festival, which was celebrated 
annually at Orchomenus in Boeotia and elsewhere, in honour of 
Dionysus Agrionius, by women and priests at night. The women, 
after playfully pretending for some time to search for the god, 
desisted, saying that he had hidden himself among the Muses. 
The tradition is that the daughters of Minyas, king of Orcho- 
menus, having despised the rites of the god, were seized with 
frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children. At this festival 
it was originally the custom for the priest of the god to pursue 
a woman of the Minyan family with a drawn sword and kill her. 
(Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 102, Quaest. Graecae 38.) 

AGRIPPA, a sceptical philosopher, whose date cannot 



ft 

of 
ial 
:er 



AGRIPPA 



425 



accurately determined. He must have lived later than 
Aenesidemus, who is generally said to have been a contemporary 
of Cicero. To him are ascribed the five tropes (irevre rpoiroi) 
which, according to Sextus Empiricus, summarize the attitude 
of the later ancient sceptics. The first trope emphasizes the 
disagreement of philosophers on all fundamental points; know- 
ledge comes either from the senses or from reason. Some 
thinkers hold that nothing is known but the things of sense; 
others that the things of reason alone are known; and so on. 
It follows that the only wise course is to be content with an 
attitude of indifference, neither to affirm nor to deny. The 
second trope deals with the validity of proof; the proof of one 
so-called fact depends on another fact which itself needs demon- 
stration, and so on ad infinitum. The third points out that the 
data of sense are relative to the sentient being, those of reason 
to the intelligent ; mind; that in different conditions things 
themselves are seen or thought to be different. Where, then, is 
the absolute criterion? Fourthly, if we examine things fairly, 
we see that in point of fact all knowledge depends on certain 
hypotheses, or facts taken for granted. Such knowledge is 
fundamentally hypothetical, and might well be accepted as 
such without the labour of a demonstration which is logically 
invalid. The fifth trope points out the impossibility of proving 
the sensible by the intelligible inasmuch as it remains to estab- 
lish the intelligible in its turn by the sensible. Such a process 
is a vicious circle and has no logical validity. A comparison of 
these tropes with the ten tropes enumerated in the article 
AENESIDEMUS shows that scepticism has made an advance into 
the more abtruse questions of metaphysics. The first and the 
third include all the ideas expressed in the ten tropes, and the 
other three systematize the more profound difficulties which 
new thinkers had developed. Aenesidemus was content to 
attack the validity of sense-given knowledge; Agrippa 'goes 
further and impugns the possibility of all truth whatever. His 
reasons are those of modern scepticism, the reasons which by 
their very nature are not susceptible of disproof. 

See Diogenes Laertius x. 88, and Zeller's Greek Philosophy. Also 
the articles SCEPTICISM; AENESIDEMUS. 

AGRIPPA, HEROD, I. (c. 10 B.C.-A.D. 44), king of Judea, the 
son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the 
Great, was born about 10 B.C. His original name was Marcus 
Julius Agrippa. Josephus informs us that, after the murder 
of his father, Herod the Great sent him to Rome to the court of 
Tiberius, who conceived a great affection for him, and placed 
him near his son Drusus, whose favour he very soon won. On 
the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had been recklessly extrava- 
gant, was obliged to leave Rome, overwhelmed with debt. 
After a brief seclusion, Herod the Tetrarch, his uncle, who had 
married Herodias, his sister, made him Agoranomos (Overseer 
of Markets) of Tiberias, and presented him with a large sum of 
money; but his uncle being unwilling to continue his support, 
Agrippa left Judea for Antioch and soon after returned to Rome, 
where he was welcomed by Tiberius and became the constant 
campanion of the emperor Gaius (Caligula), then a popular 
favourite. Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a 
slave whom he had made free, to express a wish for Tiberius' 
death and the advancement of Gaius, was betrayed to the 
emperor and cast into prison. In A.D. 37 Caligula, having 
ascended the throne, heaped wealth and favours upon Agrippa, 
set a royal diadem upon his head and gave him the tetrarchy 
of Batanaea and Trachonitis, which Philip, the son of Herod 
the Great, had formerly possessed. To this he added that held 
by Lysanias; and Agrippa returned very soon into Judea to 
'take possession of his new kingdom. In A.D. 39 he returned 
to Rome and brought about the banishment of Herod Antipas, 
to whose tetrarchy he succeeded. On the assassination of Cali- 
gula (A.D. 41) Agrippa contributed much by his advice to main- 
tain Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, while he 
made a show of being in the interest of the senate. The emperor, 
in acknowledgment, gave him the government of Judea, while the 
kingdom of Chalcis in Lebanon was at his request given to his 
brother Herod. Thus Agrippa became one of the greatest princes 



of the east, the territory he possessed equalling in extent that 
held by Herod the Great. He returned to Judea and governed 
it to the great satisfaction of the Jews. His zeal, private and 
public, for Judaism is celebrated by Josephus and the rabbis; 
and the narrative of Acts xii. gives a typical example of it. 
About the feast of the Passover A.D. 44, James the elder, the 
son of Zebedee and brother of John the evangelist, was seized 
by his order and put to death. He proceeded also to lay hands 
on Peter and imprisoned him. After the Passover he went to 
Caesarea, where he had games performed in honour of Claudius, 
and the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him to sue 
for peace. According to the story in Acts xii., Agrippa, gor- 
geously arrayed, received them in the theatre, and addressed 
them from a throne, while the audience cried out that his was 
the voice of a god. But " the angel of the Lord smote him," 
and shortly afterwards he died " eaten of worms." The story 
in Acts differs slightly from that in Josephus, who describes 
how in the midst of his elation he saw an owl perched over his 
head. During his confinement by Tiberius a like omen had been 
interpreted as portending his speedy release, with the warning 
that should he behold the same sight again he would die within 
five days. He was immediately smitten with violent pains, 
and after a few days died. Josephus says nothing of his being 
" eaten of worms," but the discrepancies between the two 
stories are of slight moment. A third account omits all the 
apocryphal elements hi the story and says that Agrippa was 
assassinated by the Romans, who objected to his growing power. 
See articles in Ency. Bibl. (W. J. Woodhouse), Jewish Ency. (M. 
Brann), with further references; N. S. Libowitz, Herod and Agrippa 
(New York, 2nd ed., 1898); Gratz, Geschichte d. Juden, iii. 318-361. 

AGRIPPA, HEROD, II. (27-100), son of the preceding, and like 
him originally Marcus Julius Agrippa, was born about A.D. 27, 
and received the tetrarchy of Chalcis and the oversight of the 
Temple on the death of his uncle Herod, A.D. 48. In A.D. 53 he 
was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him other 
provinces instead of it. In the war which Vespasian carried on 
against the Jews Herod sent him 2000 men, by which it appears 
that, though a Jew in religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the 
Romans, whose assistance indeed he required to secure the peace 
of his own kingdom. He died at Rome in the third year of 
Trajan, A.D. 100. He was the seventh and last king of the family 
of Herod the Great. It was before him and his sister Berenice 
(q.v., 8.2) that St Paul pleaded his cause at Caesarea (Acts xxvi.). 
He supplied Josephus with information for his history. 

AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS (63-12 B.C.), Roman states- 
man and'general, son-in-law and minister of the emperor Augus- 
tus, was of humble origin. He was of the same age as Octavian 
(as the emperor was then called), and was studying with him at 
Apollonia when news of Julius Caesar's assassination (44) 
arrived. By his advice Octavian at once set out for Rome. 
Agrippa played a conspicuous part in the war against Lucius, 
brother of Mark Antony, which ended in the capture of Perusia 
(40). Two years later he put down a rising of the Aquitanians 
in Gaul, and crossed the Rhine to punish the aggressions of the 
Germans. On his return he refused a triumph but accepted the 
consulship (37). At this time Sextus Pompeius, with whom war 
was imminent, had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy. 
Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for his ships, 
which he accomplished by cutting through the strips of land 
which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming 
an outer harbour; an inner one was also made by joining the 
lake Avernus to the Lucrinus (Dio Cassius xlviii. 49 ; Pliny, Nat. 
Hist, xxxvi. 24). About this time Agrippa married Pomponia, 
daughter of Cicero's friend Pomponius Atticus. Having been 
appointed naval commander-in-chief he put his crews through a 
course of training, until he felt in a position to meet the fleet of 
Pompeius. In 36 he was victorious at Mylae and Naulochus, and 
received the honour of a naval crown for his services. In 33 he 
was chosen aedile and signalized his tenure of office by effecting 
great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring" and building 
aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the sewers, and constfucting 
baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also first gave 



426 



AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM 



a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. The em- 
peror's boast that he had found the city of brick but left it of 
marble (" marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset," 
Suet. Aug. 29) might with greater propriety have been uttered 
by Agrippa. He was again called away to take command of the 
fleet when the war with Antony broke out. The victory at 
Actium (31), which gave the mastery of Rome and the empire of 
the world to Octavian, was mainly due to Agrippa. As a token 
of signal regard Octavian bestowed upon him the hand of his 
niece Marcella (28). We must suppose that his wife Pomponia 
was either dead or divorced. In 27 Agrippa was consul for the 
third time, and in the following year the senate bestowed upon 
Octavian the emperial title of Augustus. Probably in com- 
memoration of the battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated 
the Pantheum still in existence as La Rotonda. The inscription 
on the portico states that it was erected by him during his third 
consulship. His friendship with Augustus seems to have been 
clouded by the jealousy of his father-in-law Marcellus, which was 
probably fomented by the intrigues of Livia, the second wife of 
Augustus, who feared his influence with her husband. The result 
was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governor- 
ship of Syria a sort of honourable exile; but as a matter of fact 
he only sent his legate to the East, while he himself remained at 
Lesbos. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a 
year, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could 
not dispense with his services. It is said that by the advice of 
Maecenas he resolved to attach Agrippa still more closely to him 
by making him his son-in-law. He accordingly induced him to 
divorce Marcella and marry his daughter Julia (21), the widow of 
Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty and abilities and her 
shameless profligacy. In 19 Agrippa was employed in putting 
down a rising of the Cantabrians in Spain. He was appointed 
governor of Syria a second time (17), where his just and prudent 
administration won him the respect and good-will of the pro- 
vincials, especially the Hebrew population. His last public 
service was the bloodless suppression of an insurrection in 
Pannonia (13). He died at Campania in March of the year 
following his fifty-first year. Augustus honoured his memory 
by a magnificent funeral. 

Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography. 
Under his supervision Julius Caesar's design of having a complete 
survey of the empire made was carried out. From the materials 
at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on 
marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade 
built by his sister Polla. Amongst his writings an autobiography, 
now lost, is referred to. Agrippa left several children; by 
Pomponia, a daughter Vipsania, who became the wife of the 
emperor Tiberius; by Julia three sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar 
and Agrippa Postumus, and two daughters, Agrippina the elder, 
afterwards the wife of Germanicus, and Julia, who married 
Lucius Aemilius Paullus. 

See Dio Cassius xlix.-liv. ; Suetonius, Augustus; Velleius Pater- 
culus ii. ; Josephus, Antiq. Jud. xv. 10, xvi. 2; Turnbull, Three 
Dissertations, one of the characters of Horace, Augustus and Agrippa 



(1740); Frandsen, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (1836); Motte, Etude 
sur Marcus Agrippa (1872); Nispi-Landi, Marcus Agrippa e i suoi 
tempi (1901); D. Detlefsen, Ursprung, Einrichtung and Bedeutung 



der Erdkarte Agrippas (1906); V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine 
Zeit, vol. i. 762 foil., ii. 432 foil. 

AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, HENRY CORNELIUS (1486- 
I S3S)> German writer, soldier, physician, and by common 
reputation a magician, belonged to a family many members of 
which had been in the service of the house of Habsburg, and was 
born at Cologne on the i4th of September 1486. The details of 
his early life are somewhat obscure, but he appears to have 
obtained a knowledge of eight languages, to have studied at the 
university of Cologne and to have passed some time in France. 
When quite young he entered the service of the German king, 
Maximilian I., and in 1508 was engaged in an adventurous enter- 
prise in Catalonia. He probably served Maximilian both as 
soldier and as secretary, but his wonderful and varied genius was 
not satisfied with these occupations, and he soon began to take 
a lively interest in theosophy and magic. In 1509 he went to the 



university of D61e, where he lectured on John Reuchlin's De 
Verbo mirifico, but his teaching soon caused charges of heresy to 
be brought against him, and he was denounced by a monk named 
John Catilinet in lectures delivered at Ghent. As a result Agrippa 
was compelled to leave Dole; proceeding to the Netherlands he 
took service again with Maximilian. In 1510 the king sent him 
on a diplomatic mission to England, where he was the guest of 
Colet, dean of St Paul's, and where he replied to the accusations 
brought against him by Catilinet. Returning to Cologne he 
followed Maximilian to Italy in 1 5 1 1 , and as a theologian attended 
the council of Pisa, which was called by some cardinals in opposi- 
tion to a council called by Pope Julius II. He remained in Italy 
for seven years, partly in the service of William VI., marquis of 
Monferrato, and partly in that of Charles III., duke of Savoy, 
probably occupied in teaching theology and practising medicine. 
In 1515 he lectured at the university of Pavia on the Pimander 
of Hermes Trismegistus, but these lectures were abruptly ter- 
minated owing to the victories of Francis I., king of France. 
In 1518 the efforts of one or other of his patrons secured for 
Agrippa the position of town advocate and orator, or syndic, 
at Metz. Here, as at Dole, his opinions soon-brought him into 
collision with the monks, and his defence of a woman accused 
of witchcraft involved him in a dispute with the inquisitor, 
Nicholas Savin. The consequence of this was that in 1520 
he resigned his office and returned to Cologne, where he stayed 
about two years. He then practised for a short time as a 
physician at Geneva and Freiburg, but in 1524 went to Lyons 
on being appointed physician to Louise of Savoy, mother of 
Francis I. In 1528 he gave up this position, and about this time 
was invited to take part in the dispute over the legality of the 
divorce of Catherine of Aragon by Henry VIII.; but he pre- 
ferred an offer made by Margaret, duchess of Savoy and regent 
of the Netherlands, and became archivist and historiographer 
to the emperor Charles V. Margaret's death in 1530 weakened 
his position, and the publication of some of his writings about 
the same time aroused anew the hatred of his enemies; but 
after suffering a short imprisonment for debt at Brussels he lived 
at Cologne and Bonn, under the protection of Hermann of Wied, 
archbishop of Cologne. By publishing his works he brought him- 
self into antagonism with the Inquisition, which sought to stop 
the printing of De occulta philosophia. He then went to France, 
where he was arrested by order of Francis I. for some disparaging 
words about the queen-mother; but he was soon released, and 
on the i8th of February 1535 died at Grenoble. He was married 
three times and had a large family. Agrippa was a man of great 
ability and undoubted courage, but he lacked perseverance 
and was himself responsible for many of his misfortunes. In 
spite of his inquiring nature and his delight in novelty, he re- 
mained a Catholic, and had scant sympathy with the teaching 
of the reformers. His memory was nevertheless long defamed 
in the writings of the monks, who placed a malignant inscrip- 
tion over his grave. Agrippa 's work, De occulta philosophia, was 
written about 1510, partly under the influence of the author's 
friend, John Trithemius, abbot of Wiirzburg, but its publication 
was delayed until 1531, when it appeared at Antwerp. It is 
a defence of magic, by means of which men may come to a 
knowledge of nature and of God, and contains Agrippa's idea 
of the universe with its three worlds t>r spheres. His other 
principal work, De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum el Artiunt 
atque Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio, was written about 1527 
and published at Antwerp in 1531. This is a sarcastic attack 
on the existing sciences and on the pretensions of learned men. 
In it Agrippa denounces the accretions which had grown up 
around the simple doctrines of Christianity, and wishes for a 
return to the primitive belief of the early Christian church. He 
also wrote De Nobilitate et Praecellentia Feminei Sexus, dedicated 
to Margaret. of Burgundy, De matrimonii Sacramento and other 
smaller works. An edition of his works was published at Leiden 
in 1550 and they have been republished several times. 

See H. Morley, Life of H. C. Agrippa (London, 1856); A. Prost, 
Les Sciences et les arts occultes au X VI. siecle: Corneille Agrippa, sa vie 
et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1881) ; A. Daguet, Cornelius Agrippa (Pans, 1856). 



AGRIPPINA AGUESSEAU 



427 



I 



AGRIPPINA, the " elder," daughter of Marcus Vipsanius 
Agrippa by his third wife Julia, was the grand-daughter of 
Augustus and the wife of Germanicus. She accompanied her 
husband to Germany, when the legions on the Rhine revolted 
after the death of Augustus (A.D. 14). Three years later she 

JLS in the East with Germanicus (q.v.), who died at Antioch in 19, 
isoned, it was said, by order of Cn. Calpurnius Piso, governor 
ol Syria. Eager to avenge his death, she returned to Rome and 
boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. To avoid 
iublic infamy Piso committed suicide. Tiberius and his favourite 
:janus feared that her ambition might lead her to attempt 
secure the throne for her children, and she was banished to 
ie island of Pandataria off the coast of Campania, where she 
ied on the iSth of October 33, starved to death by herself, or, 
rding to some, by order of Tiberius. Two of her sons, Nero 
d Drusus, had already fallen victims to the machinations of 
janus. Agrippina had a large family by Germanicus, several 
whom died young, while only two are of importance 
.grippina the . " younger " and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded 
^berius under the name of Caligula. It is remarkable that, 
though Tiberius had ordered the execution of his elder 
irothers, by his will he left Caligula one of the heirs of the 
Empire. Agrippina was a woman of the highest character 
and exemplary morality. There is a portrait of her in the 
Capitoline Museum at Rome, and a bronze medal in the British 
Museum representing the bringing back of her ashes to Rome 
by order of Caligula. 

See Tac. Ann. i.-vi.; Suetonius, Tiberius, 53; Dio Cassius Ivii. 
6, Iviii. 22, lix. 3; Elizabeth Hamilton, Memoirs of the Life of 
Igrippina (1804); Burkhard, Agrippina, des Agrippa Tochter 
(1846) ; Stahr, Romische Kaiserfrauen (1880). 

AGRIPPINA, the "younger" (A.D. 16-59), daughter of 
ermanicus and Agrippina the elder, sister of Caligula and 
icther of Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the 
Rhine, afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae 
(mod. Cologne). Her life was notorious for intrigue and perfidy. 
By her first husband, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, she was 
the mother of the emperor Nero; her second husband was 
Passienus Crispus, whom she was accused of poisoning. Assisted 
by the influential freedman Pallas, she induced her uncle the 
emperor Claudius to marry her after the death of Messalina, and 
adopt the future Nero as heir to the throne in place of Britan- 
nicus. Soon afterwards she poisoned Claudius and secured 
the throne for her son, with the intention of practically ruling 
m his behalf. Being alarmed at the influence of the freedwoman 
.cte over Nero, she threatened to support the claims of the 
Ightful heir Britannicus. Nero thereupon murdered the young 
prince and decided to get rid of his mother. Pretending a re- 
nciliation, he invited her to Baiae, where an attempt was 
iade to drown her on a vessel especially constructed to founder. 
As this proved a failure, he had her put to death at her country 
house. Agrippina wrote memoirs of her times, referred to by 
'acitus (Ann. iv. 53). Her character is set forth in Racine's 
'itannicus. 

See Tac. Ann. xii., xiii., xiv. ; Dio Cassius lix.-lxi. ; Suetonius, 
'era, 34; Stahr, Agrippina, die Mutter Neros (1880); Raffay, Die 
femoiren der Kaiserin Agrippina (1884); B. W. Henderson, The 
ife and Principate of the Emperor Nero (1903) ; also article NERO. 

AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival held at Agrae near 
Athens, in honour of Artemis Agrotera, in fulfilment of a vow 
ade by the city, before the battle of Marathon, to offer in 
rifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in 
be conflict. The number being so great, it was decided to offer 
> goats yearly. 

See Plutarch, De Malignitate Herodoti, 26; Xenophon, Anab. 
2. 12; Aelian, Var. Hist. ii. 25; Schol. on Aristophanes, Equites, 

AGUADILLA, a town and port near the northern extremity 
the W. coast of Porto Rico. Pop. (1899) 6425. It has a 
fairly good and safe anchorage, and is the commercial outlet for 
a very fertile agricultural district. The town is attractively 
situated and well built, and is connected by railway with Maya- 
guez, 20 m. distant, and also with Ponce and San Juan. The 



neighbouring district produces sugar-cane, tobacco, cattle, 
cocoanuts, oranges and lemons. The bay is supposed to have 
been first visited by Columbus (November 1493), though the 
town was not founded until 1775. 

AGUADO, ALEXANDRE MARIE, marquis de Las Marismas 
del Guadalquivir, viscount de Monte Ricco (1784-1842), 
Spanish banker, was born of Jewish parentage at Seville, on 
the 2gth of June 1784. He began life as a soldier, fighting with 
distinction in the Spanish war of independence on the side of 
Joseph Bonaparte. After the battle of Baylen (1808) he entered 
the French army, in which he rose to be colonel and aide-de-camp 
to Marshal Soult. He was exiled in 1815, and immediately 
started business as a commission-agent in Paris, where, chiefly 
through his family connexions in Havana and Mexico, he 
acquired in a few years enough wealth to enable him to undertake 
banking. The Spanish government gave him full powers to 
negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830 and 1831; and Ferdinand 
VII. rewarded him with the title of marquis, the decorations 
of several orders and valuable mining concessions in Spain. 
Aguado also negotiated the Greek loan of 1834. In 1828, having 
become possessed of large estates in France, including the chateau 
Margaux, famous for its wine, he was naturalized as a French 
citizen. He died at Gijon in Spain on the i4th of April 1842, 
leaving a fortune computed at 60,000,000 francs, and a splendid 
collection of pictures which at his death was bought by the 
French government. 

AGUASCALIENTES, an inland state of Mexico, bounded 
N., E. and W. by the state of Zacatecas, and S. by Jalisco. 
Pop. (est. 1900) 102,416, a gradual decrease since the census 
years of 1895 and 1879; area, 2970 sq. m. The state occupies 
an elevated plateau, extending from two spurs of the Sierra 
Madre, called the Sierra Fria and Sierra de Laurel, eastward to 
the rolling fertile plains of its eastern and south-eastern districts. 
It is well watered by numerous small streams and one larger 
river, the Aguascalientes or Rio Grande, and has a mild healthy 
climate with a moderate rainfall. The fertile valleys of the 
north and west are devoted to agriculture and the plains to stock- 
raising. Indian corn, flour, cattle, horses, mules and hides are 
exported to the neighbouring states. Mining industries are 
still undeveloped, but considerable progress has been made in 
manufactures, especially of textile fabrics. The state has good 
railway communications and a prosperous trade. The capital, 
Aguascalientes, named from the medicinal hot springs near it, 
is a flourishing commercial and manufacturing city. Pop. (est. 
1900) 35,052. It has cotton factories, smelting works, potteries, 
tanneries, distilleries, and wagon and tobacco factories. It is a 
station on the Mexican Central railway, 364 m. by rail north- 
west of the city of Mexico, and is connected by rail with Tampico 
on the Gulf of Mexico. The city is well built, has many fine 
churches and good public buildings, street cars and electric 
lights. The surrounding district is well cultivated and produces 
an abundance of fruit and vegetables. Other prominent towns 
of the state are Rincon de Romos (or Victoria de Calpulalpam), 
Asientos de Ibarra and Calvillo, the first having more and the 
others less than 5000 inhabitants. 

AGUE (from Lat. acuta, sharp; sc. febris, fever), the common 
name given to a form or stage of malarial disease; the ague fit 
is the cold, shivering stage, and hence the word is also loosely 
used for any such paroxysm. Simple ague is of much the same 
type whether in temperate or tropical climates, and may take 
various forms (quotidian, tertian, quartan), passing into " re- 
mittent fever." The symptoms are discussed, together with 
causation, &c., in the article MALARIA. For " brow-ague " 
see NEURALGIA. 

AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D' (1668-1751), chancellor 
of France, illustrious for his virtues, learning and talents, was 
born at Limoges, of a family of the magistrature. His father, 
Henri d' Aguesseau, a hereditary councillor of the parlement 
of Metz, was a man of singular ability and breadth of view who, 
after holding successively the posts of intendant of Limousin, 
Guyenne and Languedoc, was in 1685 called to Paris as coun- 
cillor of state, appointed director-general of commerce and 



428 



AGUILAR AHAB 



manufactures in 1695, president of the council of commerce in 
1 700 and a member of the council of the regency for finance. By 
him Francois d'Aguesseau was early initiated into affairs and 
brought up in religious principles deeply tinged with Jansenism. 
He studied law under Jean Domat, whose influence is apparent 
in both the legal writings and legislative work of the chancellor. 
When little more than twenty-one years of age he was, through 
his father's influence with the king, appointed one of the three 
advocates-general to the parlement of Paris; and the eloquence 
and learning which he displayed in his first speech gained him 
a very high reputation. D'Aguesseau was in fact the first great 
master of forensic eloquence in France. 

In 1700 he was appointed procurator-general; and in this 
office, which he filled for seventeen years, he gained the greatest 
popularity by his defence of the rights of the Gallican Church 
in the Quietist troubles and in those connected with the bull 
Unigenitus (see JANSENISM). In February 1717 he was made 
chancellor by the regent Orleans; but was deprived of the seals 
in January of the following year and exiled to his estate of 
Fresnes in Brie, on account of his steady opposition to the 
projects of the famous John Law, which had been adopted by 
the regent and his ministers. In June 1720 he was recalled to 
satisfy public opinion; and he contributed not a little by the 
firmness and sagacity of his counsels to calm the public dis- 
turbance and repair the mischief which had been done. Law 
himself had acted as the messenger of his recall; and it is said 
that d'Aguesseau's consent to accept the seals from his hand 
greatly diminished his popularity. The parlement continuing its 
opposition to the registering of the bull Unigenitus, d'Aguesseau, 
fearing a schism and a religious war in France, assisted Guillaurne 
Dubois, the favourite of the regent, in his endeavour to force 
the parlement to register the bull, acquiesced in the exile of the 
magistrates and allowed the Great Council to assume the power 
of registration, which legally belonged to the parlement alone. 
The people unjustly attributed his conduct to a base compliance 
with the favourite. He certainly opposed Dubois in other 
matters; and when Dubois became chief minister d'Aguesseau 
was deprived of his office (March i, 1722). 

He retired to his estate, where he passed five years of which he 
always spoke with delight. The Scriptures, which he read and 
compared in various languages, and the jurisprudence of his 
own and other countries, formed the subjects of his more serious 
studies; the rest of his time was devoted to philosophy, literature 
and gardening. From these occupations he was recalled to 
court by the advice of Cardinal Fleury in 1727, and on the 
1 5th of August was named chancellor for the third time, but 
the seals were not restored to him till ten years later. During 
these years he endeavoured to mediate in the disputes between 
the court and the parlement. When he was at last reinstated 
in office, he completely withdrew from all political affairs, and 
devoted himself entirely to his duties as chancellor and to the 
achievement of those reforms which had long occupied his 
thoughts. He aimed, as others had tried before him, to draw 
up in a single code all the laws of France, but was unable to 
accomplish his task. Besides some important enactments 
regarding donations, testaments and successions, he introduced 
various regulations for improving the forms of procedure, for 
ascertaining the limits of jurisdictions and for effecting a greater 
uniformity in the execution of the laws throughout the several 
provinces. These reforms constitute an epoch in the history of 
French jurisprudence, and have placed the name of d'Aguesseau 
in the same rank with those of L'H6pital and Lamoignon. As 
a magistrate also he was so conscientious that the due de Saint- 
Simon in his Memoirs complained that he spent too much time 
over the cases that came before him. 

In 1750, when upwards of eighty-two years of age, d'Aguesseau 
retired from the duties without giving up the rank of chancellor. 
He died on the gth of February of the following year. 

His grandson, HENRI CARDIN JEAN BAPTISTE, MARQUIS 
D'AGUESSEAU (1746-1826), was advocate-general in the parle- 
ment of Paris and deputy in the Estates- General. Under the 
Consulate he became president of the court of appeal and later 



minister at Copenhagen. He was elected to the French Academy 
in 1787. 

Of d'Aguesseau's works the most complete edition is that of the 
eminent lawyer Jean Marie Pardessus, published in 16 vols. (1818- 
1820); his letters were edited separately by Rives (1823); a selec- 
tion of his works, (Euvres choisies, was issued, with a biographical 
notice, by E. Falconnet in 2 vols. (Paris, 1865). The far greater 
part of his works relate to matters connected with his profession, 
but they also contain an elaborate treatise on money; several 
theological essays ; a life of his father, which is interesting from the 
account which it gives of his own early education; and Metaphysical 
Meditations, written to prove that, independently of all revelation 
and all positive law, there is that in the constitution of the human 
mind which renders man a law to himself. 

See Boullee, Histoire de la vie et des outrages du chancelier 
d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1835); Fr. Monnier, Le Chancelier d'Aguesseau 
(Paris, 1860; 2nd ed., 1863); Charles Butler, Mem. of Life of H. F. 
d'Aguesseau, &c. (1830). 

AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847), English writer, the daughter 
of a Jewish merchant in London, was born in June 1816. Her 
works consist chiefly of religious fiction, such as The Vale of 
Cedars (1850) and Home Influence (1847). She also wrote, in 
defence of her faith and its professors, The Spirit of Judaism 
(1842) and other works. Her services were acknowledged 
gratefully by the " women of Israel " in a testimonial which they 
presented shortly before her death, which took place at Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main on the i6th of September 1847. 

AGUILAR, or AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern 
Spain, in the province of Cordova; near the small river Cabra, 
and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (1900) 13,236. 
Aguilar " of the Frontier " was so named in the middle ages 
from its position on the border of the Moorish territories, which 
were defended by the castle of Anzur, now a ruin; but the 
spacious squares and modern houses of the existing town retain 
few vestiges of Moorish dominion. The olives and white wine 
of Aguilar are celebrated in Spain, although the wine, which 
somewhat resembles sherry, is known as Montilla, from the 
adjacent town of that name. Salt springs exist in the neigh- 
bourhood, and to the south there are two small lakes, Zonar 
and Rincon, which abound in fish. 

AGUILAS, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province 
of Murcia, on the Mediterranean Sea, at the terminus of a 
railway from Huercal-Overa. Pop. (1900) 15,868. Aguilas is 
built on the landward side of a small peninsula, between two 
bays the Puerto Ponente, a good harbour, on the south-west, 
and the Puerto Levanto, which is somewhat dangerous to 
shipping in rough weather, on the north-east. It is the chief 
outlet for the Spanish trade in esparto grass, and for the iron 
ore and other mineral products of the neighbourhood. It has 
also some trade in fruit and grain. The imports consist chiefly 
of coal. In 1904, 296 vessels, of 238,274 tons, cleared at this 
port. 

AGUILERA, VENTURA RUIZ (1820-1881), Spanish poet, 
was born in 1820 at Salamanca, where he graduated in medicine. 
He removed to Madrid in 1844, engaged in journalism and won 
considerable popularity with a collection of poems entitled 
Ecos nacionales (1849). His Elegias y Armonlas (1863) was no 
less successful, but his Sdliras (1874) and Estaciones del ano (1879) 
showed that his powers were declining. He wrote under the 
obvious influence of Lamartine, preaching the gospel of liberal- 
ism and Christianity in verses which, though deficient in force, 
leave the impression of a sincere devotion and a charming 
personality. He became director of the national archaeological 
museum at Madrid, where he died on the ist of July 1881. 

AGUILLON (AGUILONIUS), FRANCOIS D' (1566-1617), 
Flemish mathematician. Having entered the Society of Jesus 
in 1586, he was successively professor of philosophy at Douai 
and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp. He wrote a treatise 
on optics in six books (Antwerp, 1613), notable for containing 
the principles of stereographic projection. 

AHAB (in Heb. 'ak'db, " father's brother "), king of Israel, 
the son and successor of Omri, ascended the throne about 
875 B.C. (i Kings xvi. 29-34). He married Jezebel, the daughter 
of the king of Sidon, and the alliance was doubtless the means 
of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury 



'AHAI AHASUERUS 



429 



in their train. We read of his building an ivory palace and 
founding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the flourish- 
ing commerce of Phoenicia. 1 The material prosperity of his 
reign, which is comparable with that of Solomon a century 
before, was overshadowed by the religious changes which his 
marriage involved. Although he was a worshipper of Yahweh, 
as the names of his children prove (cp. also xxii. 5 seq.), his wife 
was firmly attached to the worship of the Tyrian Baal, Melkart, 
and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building 
a temple in honour of Baal in Samaria. This roused the in- 
dignation of those prophets whose aim it was to purify the 
worship of Yahweh (see ELIJAH). During Ahab's reign Moab, 
which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary; 
Judah, with whose king, Jehoshaphat, he was allied by marriage, 
was probably his vassal; only with Damascus is he said to have 
had strained relations. The one event mentioned by external 
sources is the battle at Karkar (perhaps Apamea), where Shal- 
maneser II. of Assyria fought a great confederation of princes 
from Cilicia, N. Syria, Israel, Ammon and the tribes of the Syrian 
desert (854 B.C.). Here Ahabbu Sir'lai (Ahab the Israelite) with 
Baasha, son of Ruhub (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are 
allied with Bir-'idri (Ben-hadad), Ahab's contribution being 
reckoned at 2000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are 
comparatively .large and possibly include forces from Tyre, 
Judah, Edom and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed a victory, 
but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849 
and 846 against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to 
show that he met with no lasting success. According to the 
Old Testament narratives, however, Ahab with 7000 troops had 
previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings, 
who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year 
obtained a remarkable victory over him at Aphek, probably 
in the plain of Sharon ( i Kings xx.). A treaty was made whereby 
Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from 
Ahab's father (i.e. Omri, but see xv. 20, 2 Kings xiii. 25), and 
trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted. 
A late popular story (xx. 35-42, akin in tone to xii. 33-xiii. 34) 
condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction 
of the king and his land. Three years later, war broke out on 
the east of Jordan, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went 
to recover Ramoth-Gilead and was mortally wounded (xxii.). 
He was succeeded by his sons (Ahaziah and Jehoram). 

It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these 
events (LXX. places i Kings xxi. immediately after xix.). How 
the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common 
enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records, 
are questions which have perplexed all recent writers. The reality 
of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact ithat it has been 
suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote " Ahab " for his son 
" Jehoram " (Kamphausen, Chronol. d. hebr. Kon., Kittel), and 
that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has 
been questioned (Horner, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., 1898, p. 244)." 
Whilst the above passages in i Kings view Ahab not unfavour- 
ably, there are others which give a less friendly picture. The 
tragic murder of Naboth (see JEZEBEL), an act of royal encroach- 
ment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused 
the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found 
their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic 
teaching of more than one age. (See KINGS.) His denunciation 
of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the worship 
of Yahweh and Yahweh alone, form the keynote to a period 
which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in which 
Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure. 

The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab in 
Mic. vi. 16 may point to legislative measures of these kings, and 
the reference to the incidents at the building of Jericho (i Kings 
rvi. 34) may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices, familiar 

'Ahab's ivory palace found its imitators (i Kings xxii. 39; Am. 
iii. 15). The ivory was probably brought by the Phoenicians from 
Cyprus or from one of the works on the coast of Asia Minor. 

8 See the discussions by Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 91 seq., and by 
Whitehouse, Diet. Bib. i. 53. 



in nearly all parts of the world, were not unknown in Israel at 
this period. 3 This has in fact been confirmed by excavation in 
Palestine. 

Another Ahab is known only as an impious prophet in the 
time of the Babylonian exile (Jer. xxix. 21). (S. A. C.) 

'AHAI, of Sabha, an 8th-century Talmudist of high renown. 
He was author of Quaestiones (Sheilloth), a collection of homilies 
(at once learned and popular) on Jewish law and ethics. This is 
recorded to have been the first work written by a Jewish scholar 
after the completion of the Talmud. 

AHASUERUS (the Latinized form of the Hebrew w'nijpro;;' 
in LXX. 'Aaffovrjpos, once in Tobit 'Acruij/jos), a royal Persian 
or Median name occurring in three of the books of the Old 
Testament and in one of the books of the Apocrypha. In every 
case the identification of the person named is a matter of 
controversy. 

In Dan. ix. i Ahasuerus is the father of Darius the Mede, who 
" was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans " after the 
conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this Darius 
was is one of the most difficult questions in ancient history. 
Nabonidos (Nabunaid, Nabu-nahid) was immediately succeeded 
by Cyrus, who ruled the whole Persian empire. Darius may 
possibly have acted under Cyrus as governor of Babylon, but 
this view is not favoured by Dan. vi. i, vi. 25, for Darius (v. 31) is 
said to have been sixty-two years old at the time (638 B.C.) . This 
would make him contemporary with Nebuchadrezzar, which 
agrees with Tob. xiv. 15, where we read " of the destruction of 
Nineveh, which Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus took captive." 
As a matter of fact, however, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar were 
the conquerors of Nineveh, and the latter was the father of 
Nebuchadrezzar. Cyrus did, on ascending the throne of Babylon, 
appoint a governor of the province, but his name was Gobryas, 
the son of Mardonius. The truth is, no doubt, as Prof. Sayce 
points out, that the book of Daniel was not meant to be strictly 
historical. As Prof. Driver says, " tradition, it can hardly be 
doubted, has here confused persons and events in reality dis- 
tinct " (Literature of the Old Test. (6) p. 500). 

In Ezra iv. 6 Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to 
whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing the 
rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem. Here the sequence of 
the reigns in the Biblical writer and in the profane historians 
in the one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius; in the other, 
Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius led in the past (Ewald, &c.) 
to the identification of Ahasuerus with Cambyses (529-522 B.C.), 
son of Cyrus. The name Khshayarsha, however, has been found 
in Persian inscriptions, and has been thought to be equivalent to 
the Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) of the Greeks. On Babylonian tablets 
both the forms Khishiarshu and Akkashiarshi occur amongst 
others. Modern scholars, therefore, identify the Ahasuerus of 
Ezra with Xerxes. 

In the book of Esther the king of Persia is called 
Ahasuerus (rendered in LXX. " Artaxerxes " throughout). The 
identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, the 
son and successor of Xerxes, though countenanced by Josephus, 
deserves little consideration. Most students are agreed that he 
must be a monarch of the Achaemenian dynasty, earlier than 
Artaxerxes I. ; and opinion is divided between Darius Hystaspes 
and Xerxes. In support of the former view it is alleged, among 
other things, that Darius was the first Persian king of whom it 
could be said, as in Esther i. i, that he " reigned from India even 
unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven and twenty pro- 
vinces "; and that it was also the distinction of Darius that 
(Esther x. i) he laid " a tribute upon the land and upon the isles 
of the sea " (cf. Herod, iii. 89). In support of the identification 
with Xerxes it is alleged (i) that the Hebrew 'Ahashverosh is 
the natural equivalent of the old Persian Khshayarsha, the true 
name of Xerxes; (2) that there is a striking similarity of 
character between the Xerxes of Herodotus and the Ahasuerus 
of Esther; (3) that certain coincidences in dates and events 

'See Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, pp. 46 sqq.; Haddon, Study 
of Man, pp. 347 sqq.; P. Sartori, Zeitschr. fiir Ethnologic, 1898, 
pp. I seq. 



430 



AHAZ AHMAD IBN HANBAL 



corroborate this identity, as, e.g., the feast in the king's third 
year (cf. Esther i. 3 with Herod, vii. 8), the return of Xerxes 
to Susa in the seventh year of his reign and the marriage of 
Ahasuerus at Shushan in the same year of his. To this it may 
be added that the interval of four years between the divorce of 
Vashti and the marriage of Esther is well accounted for by the 
intervention of an important series of events fully occupying 
the monarch's thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece. 

See articles " Ahasuerus " in the Encyclopaedia Siblica, Hastings' 
Dictionary, the Jewish Encyclopaedia ; S. R. Driver, Introd. to the Lit. 
vfthe Old Test. ; Friedrich Delitzsch in the Calwer Bibellexikon (1893). 

AHAZ (Heb. for "[Yahweh] holds "), son of Jotham, grand- 
son of Uzziah or Azariah and king of Judah. After the death 
of Menahem, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin (rather Rasun), 
king of Syria, allied against Assyria, invaded Judah, and laid 
siege to Jerusalem in the hope of setting up one of their puppets 
upon the throne. At the same time the Edomites recovered 
Elath on the Gulf of Akabah (so read in 2 Kings xvi. 6; cp. also 
2 Chron. xxviii. 16 sqq.) and Judah was isolated. Notwith- 
standing the counsel of Isaiah (Is. vii. 1-17), Ahaz lost heart and 
used the temple funds to call in the aid of Tiglath-pileser IV., who 
after attacking the Philistines destroyed the power of Syria, 
taking care to exact heavy tribute from Judah, which led to 
further despoliation of the temple. It was as a vassal that Ahaz 
presented himself to the Assyrian king at Damascus, and he 
brought back religious innovations (2 Kings xvi. io sqq.; for 
the priest Urijah see Is. viii. 2) and new ideas to which he pro- 
ceeded to give effect. His buildings are referred to in 2 Kings 
xx. n, xxiii. 12; cf. perhaps Jer. xxii. 15: " art thou a true king 
because thou viest with Ahaz " (see the LXX.). Ahaz was 
succeeded by his son Hezekiah. 

On the ritual changes which he introduced see W. R. Smith, 
Relig. of Semites (2), pp. 485 sqq. ; and on his reign, idem, Prophets of 
Israel (2), pp. 415 sqq. On 2 Kings xvi. 3 (cf. 2 Chron. xxviii. 3) 
see MOLOCH. See further ISAIAH and JEWS. 

AHAZIAH (" he whom Yahweh sustains "), the name of two 
kings in the Bible, one of Israel, the other of Judah. (i) Ahaziah, 
8th king of Israel, was the son and successor of Ahab, and reigned 
for less than two years. On his accession the Moabites refused 
any longer to pay tribute. Ahaziah lost his life through a fall from 
the lattice of an upper room in his palace, and it is stated that 
in his illness he sent to consult the oracle of Baal-zebub at Ekron; 
his messengers, however, were met by Elijah, who bade them 
return and tell the king he must die (2 Kings i. 2-17; cf. Luke ix. 
54-56). (2) Ahaziah, 6th king of Judah, was the son of Jehoram 
and Ahab's daughter Athaliah, and reigned one year. He is 
described as a wicked and idolatrous king, and was slain by Jehu, 
son of Nimshi. He is variously called Jehoahaz and Azariah. 

AHENOBARBUS (" brazen-bearded "), the name of a plebeian 
Roman family of the gens Domitia. The name was derived from 
the red beard and hair by which many of the family were dis- 
tinguished. Amongst its members the following may be 
mentioned: 

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, tribune of the people 
104 B.C., brought forward a law (lex Domitia de Sacerdoliis) by 
which the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by 
the people in the comilia tributa (seventeen of the tribes voting) 
instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by Sulla, re- 
vived by Julius Caesar and (perhaps) again repealed by Marcus 
Antonius, the triumvir (Cicero, De Lege Agraria, ii. 7; Suetonius, 
Nero, 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex maximus in 103, 
consul in 96 and censor in 92 with Lucius Licinius Crassus the 
orator, with whom he was frequently at variance. They took 
joint action, however, in suppressing the recently established 
Latin rhetorical schools, which they regarded as injurious to 
public morality (Aulus Gellius xv. n). 

Lucius DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, husband 
of Porcia the sister of Cato Uticensis, friend of Cicero and enemy 
of Caesar, and a strong supporter of the aristocratical party. 
At first strongly opposed to Pompey, he afterwards sided with 
him against Caesar. He was consul in 54 B.C., and in 49 he was 
appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of Gaul. 



After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the Pompeian 
troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender. Although 
treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred up Massilia 
(Marseilles) to an unsuccessful resistance against him. After 
its surrender, he joined Pompey in Greece and was slain in the 
flight after the battle of Pharsalus, in which he commanded the 
right wing against Antony (Caesar, Bellum Civile, i., ii., Hi.; 
Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, B.C. ii. 82). 

GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, accom- 
panied his father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been 
pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome in 46. After Caesar's 
assassination he attached himself to Brutus and Cassius, and in 
43 was condemned by the lex Pedia as having been implicated 
in the plot. He obtained considerable naval successes in the 
Ionian Sea against the triumvirate, but finally, through the 
mediation of Asinius Pollio, became reconciled to Antony, who 
made him governor of Bithynia. He took part in Antony's 
Parthian campaigns, and was consul in 32. When war broke 
out between Antony and Octavian, he at first supported Antony, 
but, disgusted with his intrigue with Cleopatra, went over to 
Octavian shortly before the battle of Actium (31). He died 
soon afterwards(Dio Cassius xlviii.-l; Appian, Bell. Civ. iv., v.). 
His son was married to An tonia, daughter of Antony, and became 
the grandfather of the emperor Nero. . 

See Drumann, Geschichte Rom., 2nd ed. by Groebe.vol. iii. pp.14 ff. 

AHITHOPHEL (Heb. for " brother of foolishness, " i.e. 
foolish!), a man of Judah whose son was a member of David's 
bodyguard. He was possibly the grandfather of Bathsheba 
(see 2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34), a view which has been thought to 
have some bearing on his policy. He was one of David's most 
trusted advisers, and his counsel was " as though one inquired 
of the word of God." He took a leading part in Absalom's 
revolt, and his defection was a severe blow to the king, who 
prayed that God would bring his counsel to " foolishness." 

The subsequent events are rather obscure. At Ahithophel's 
advice Absalom first took the precaution of asserting his claim 
to the throne by seizing his father's concubines (cf. ABNER). 
The immediate pursuit of David was then suggested; the 
advice was accepted, and the sequence of events shows that the 
king, being warned of this, fled across the Jordan (2 Sam. xvi. 
20-23, xvii. 1-4,. 22). Inconsistent with this is the account of 
the intervention of Hushai, whose counsel of delay (in order to 
gather all Israel " from Dan to Beersheba "), in spite of popular 
approbation, was not adopted, and with this episode is con- 
nected the tradition that the sagacious counsellor returned to 
his home and, having disposed of his estate, hanged himself. 
Instances of suicide are rare in the Old Testament (cf. SAUL), 
and it is noteworthy that in this case, at least, a burial was not 
refused. (See further ABSALOM; DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS or.) 

AflMAD IBN flANBAL (780-855), the founder, involuntarily 
and after his death, of the Hanbalite school of canon law, was 
born at Bagdad in A.H. 164 (A.D. 780) of parents from Merv but 
of Arab stock. He studied the Koran and its traditions (hadtth, 
sunna) there and on a student journey through Mesopotamia, 
Arabia and Syria. After his return to Bagdad he studied under 
ash-Shafi'I between 195 and 198, and became, for his life, a 
devoted Shafi-'ite. But his position in both theology and law 
was more narrowly traditional than that of ash-Shafi'I; he 
rejected all reasoning, whether orthodox or heretical in its 
conclusions, and stood for acceptance on tradition (naql) only 
from the Fathers. (See further on this, MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION 
and MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) In consequence, when al-Ma'mun 
and, after him, al-Mo'tasim and al-Wathiq tried to force upon 
the people the rationalistic Mo'tazilite doctrine that the Koran 
was created, Ibn Hanbal, the most prominent and popular 
theologian who stood for the old view, suffered with others 
grievous imprisonment and scourging. In 234, under al-Mota- 
wakkil, the Koran was finally decreed uncreated, and Ibn 
Hanbal, who had come through this trial better than any of 
the other theologians, enjoyed an immense popularity with the 
mass of the people as a saint, confessor and ascetic. He died 
at Bagdad in 241 (A.D. 855) and was buried there. There was 



AHMAD SHAH AHMEDABAD 



43 1 



P A -i 
I 



much popular excitement at his funeral, and his tomb was known 
and visited until at least the i4th century A.D. 

On his great work, the Musnad, a collection of some thirty thou- 
sand selected traditions, see Goldziher in ZDMG, 1. 465 ff. For his 
life and works generally see W. M. Patten, Ahmed ibn Hanbal and 
the Mihna; C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arab. Lit. i. 181 ff . ; 
F. Wustenfeld, Schafi'iten, 55 ff . ; M'G. de Slane's transl. of Ibn 
Khallikan, i. 44 ff. ; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, 
1 10, 157, index. (D. B. MA.) 

AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773), founder of the Durani dynasty 
in Afghanistan, was the son of Sammaun-Khan, hereditary 
chief of the Abdali tribe. While still a boy Ahmad fell into the 
hands of the hostile tribe of Ghilzais, by whom he was kept 
prisoner at Kandahar. In March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir 
Shah, who soon afterwards gave him the command of a body of 
cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of 
Nadir in 1747, Ahmad, having failed in an attempt to seize the 
Persian treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where he easily 
persuaded the native tribes to assert their independence and 
accept him as their sovereign. He was crowned at Kandahar 
in October 1747, and about the same time he changed the name 
of his tribe to Durani. Two things may be said to have con- 
tributed greatly to the consolidation of his power. He inter- 
fered as little as possible with the independence of the different 
tribes, demanding from each only its due proportion of tribute 
and military service; and he kept his army constantly engaged 
in brilliant schemes of foreign conquest. Being possessed of the 
Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to intercept a 
consignment of treasure on its way to the shah of Persia, he had 
all the advantages which great wealth can give. He first crossed 
the Indus in 1748, when he took Lahore; and in 1751, after a 
feeble resistance on the part of the Mahommedan viceroy, he 
became master of the en tire Punjab. In 17 50 he took Nishapur, 
and in 1752 subdued Kashmir. His great expedition to Delhi 
was undertaken in 1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great 
Mogul for the recapture of Lahore. Ahmad entered Delhi with 
his army in triumph, and for more than a month the city was 
given over to pillage. The shah himself added to his wives a 
princess of the imperial family, and bestowed another upon his 
son Timur Shah, whom he made governor of the Punjab and 
Sirhind. As his viceroy in Delhi he left a Rohilla chief in whom 
he had all confidence, but scarcely had he crossed the Indus 
when the Mahommedan wazir drove the chief from the city, 
killed the Great Mogul and set another prince of the family, a 
tool of his own, upon the throne. The Mahratta chiefs availed 
lemselves of these circumstances to endeavour to possess them- 
selves of the whole country, and Ahmad was compelled more 
than once to cross the Indus in order to protect his territory 
from them and the Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his 
garrisons. In 1758 the Mahrattas obtained possession of the 
Punjab, but on the 6th of January 1761 they were totally routed 
by Ahmad in the great battle of Panipat. In a later expedition 
inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten 
estwards immediately afterwards in order to quell an insur- 
tion in Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and 
mad was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining- the 
immand of the Punjab. After lengthened suffering from a 
rrible disease, said to have been cancer in the face, he 
ied in 1773, leaving to his son Timur the kingdom he had 
:ounded. 

AHMED I. (1589-1617), sultan of Turkey, was the son of 
ahommed III., whom he succeeded in 1603, being the first 
ttoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his 
lajority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he 
lowed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa, who 
entually succeeded him. In the earlier part of his reign he 
gave proofs of decision and vigour, which were belied by his 
subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession 
>th in Hungary and in Persia terminated unfavourably for 
rkey, and her prestige received its first check in the peace 
Sitvatordk, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid 
iy Austria was abolished. Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure 
.ring the remainder of his reign, which ended in 1617, and 



demoralization and corruption became as general throughout 
the public service as indiscipline in the ranks of the army. The 
use of tobacco is said to have been introduced into Turkey during 
Ahmed I.'s reign. 

AHMED II. (1643-1695), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan 
Ibrahim, succeeded his brother Suleiman II. in 1691. His chief 
merit was to confirm Mustafa Kuprili as grand vizier. But 
a few weeks after his accession Turkey sustained a crushing 
defeat at Slankamen from the Austrians under Prince Louis 
of Baden and was driven from Hungary; during the four years 
of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed 
died, worn out by disease and sorrow. 

AHMED III. (1637-1736), sultan of Turkey, son of Mahommed 
IV., succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his 
brother Mustafa II. He cultivated good relations with England, 
in view doubtless of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded 
a refuge in Turkey to Charles XII. of Sweden, after his defeat 
at Poltava (1709). Forced against bis will into war with Russia, 
he came nearer than any Turkish sovereign before or since to 
breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his Grand Vizier 
Baltaji Mahommed Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding 
near the Pruth (1711). In the treaty which Russia was compelled 
to sign Turkey obtained the restitution of Azov, the destruction 
of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the tsar 
should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the 
Poles or the Cossacks. Discontent at the leniency of these terms 
was so strong at Constantinople that it nearly brought on a 
renewal of the war. In 1715 the Morea was taken from the 
Venetians. This led to hostilities with Austria, in which Turkey 
was unsuccessful, and Belgrade fell into the hands of Austria 
(1717). Through the mediation of England and Holland the 
peace of Passarowitz was concluded (1718), by which Turkey 
retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost Hungary. 
A war with Persia terminated in disaster, leading to a revolt 
of the janissaries, who deposed Ahmed in September 1730. 
He died in captivity some years later. 

AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD, a city and district of British 
India in the northern division of Bombay. The city was once 
the handsomest and most flourishing in western India, and it 
still ranks next to Agra and Delhi for the beauty and extent 
of its architectural remains. It was founded by Ahmad Shah 
in A.D. 1411 on the site of several Hindu towns, which had pre- 
ceded it, and was embellished by him with fine buildings of 
marble, brought from a distance. The Portuguese traveller 
Barbosa, who visited Gujarat in A.D. 1511 and 1514, described 
Ahmedabad as " very rich and well embellished with good 
streets and squares supplied with houses of stone and cement." 
In Sir Thomas Roe's time, A.D. 1615, " it was a goodly city as 
large as London." During the course of its history it has passed 
through two periods of greatness, two of decay and one of revival. 
From 1411 to 1511 it grew in size and wealth; from 1512 to 1572 
it declined with the decay of the dynasty of Gujarat; from 
1572 to 1709 it renewed its greatness under the Mogul emperors; 
from 1709 to 1809 it dwindled with their decline; and from 
1818 onwards it has again increased under British rule. 

The consequence of all these changes of dynasty was that 
Ahmedabad became the meeting-place of Hindu, Mahommedan 
and Jain architecture. Ahmad Shah pulled down Hindu temples 
in order to build his mosques with the material. The Jama 
Masjid itself, which he built in A.D. 1424, with its three hundred 
pillars fantastically carved, is a Hindu temple converted into 
a mosque (see INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, Plate III., fig. 1 5) . One of 
the finest buildings is the modern Jain temple of Hathi Singh out- 
side the Delhi gate, which was built only in 1848, and is a stand- 
ing monument to the endurance of Jain architectural art The 
external porch, between two circular towers, is of great magnifi- 
cence, most elaborately ornamented, and leads to an outer court, 
with sixteen cells on either side. In the centre of this court is 
a domed porch of the usual form with twenty pillars. The 
court leads to an inner porch of twenty-two pillars, two stories 
in height. This inner porch conducts to a triple sanctuary. 
James Fergusson wrote of this temple that " each part increases 



432 



AHMEDNAGAR AHMED VEFIK 



in dignity to the sanctuary; and whether looked at from its 
courts or from outside, it possesses variety without confusion, 
and an appropriateness of every part to the purpose for which 
it was intended." But perhaps the most unique sight in 
Ahmedabad is the two windows in Sidi Said's mosque of filigree 
marble work. The design is an imitation of twining and inter- 
laced branches, a marvel of delicacy and grace, and finer than 
anything of the kind to be found in Agra or Delhi. 

The modern city of Ahmedabad is situated on the left bank 
of the river Sabarmati, and is still surrounded by walls en- 
closing an area of about 2 sq. m. Its population in 1901 
was 185,889. It has a station on the Bombay and Baroda 
railway, 309 m. from Bombay, whence branch lines diverge 
into Kathiawar and Mahi Kantha, and is a great centre for both 
trade and manufacture. Its native bankers, shopkeepers and 
workers are all strongly organized in gilds. It has cotton mills 
for spinning and weaving, besides many handlooms, and factories 
for ginning and pressing cotton. Other industries include the 
manufacture of gold and silver thread, silk brocades, pottery, 
paper and shoes. The prosperity of Ahmedabad, says a native 
proverb, hangs on three threads silk, gold and cotton; and 
though its manufactures are on a smaller scale than formerly, 
they are still moderately flourishing. The military cantonment, 
3 m. north of the native town, is the headquarters of the 
northern division of the Bombay command, with an arsenal. 

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDABAD lies at the head of the Gulf of 
Cambay, between Baroda and Kathiawar. Area 3816 sq. m. 
The river Sabarmati and its tributaries, flowing from north-east 
to south-west into the Gulf of Cambay, are the principal streams 
that water the district. The north-eastern portion is slightly 
elevated, and dotted with low hills, which gradually sink into 
a vast plain, subject to inundation on its western extremity. 
With the exception of this latter portion, the soil is very 
fertile, and some parts of the district are beautifully wooded. 
The population in 1901 was 795,967, showing a decrease of 14 % 
in the decade, due to the effects of famine. The principal 
crops are millets, cotton, wheat and pulse. The district is 
traversed by the Bombay and Baroda railway, and has two 
seaports, Dholera and Gogo, the former of which has given its 
name to a mark of raw cotton in the Liverpool market. It 
suffered severely in the famine of 1899-1900. 

AHMEDNAGAR, or AHMADNAGAR, a city and district of 
British India in the Central division of Bombay on the left bank 
of the river S'na. The town is of considerable antiquity, having 
been founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of a 
more ancient city, Bhingar. This Ahmad established a new 
monarchy, which lasted till its overthrow by Shah Jahan in 1636. 
In 1759 the Peshwa obtained possession of the place by bribing, 
the Mahommedan commander, and in 1797 it was ceded by the 
Peshwa to the Mahratta chief Daulat Rao Sindhia. During the 
war with the Mahrattas in 1803 Ahmednagar was invested by a 
British force under General Wellesley and captured. It was 
afterwards restored to the Mahrattas, but again came into the 
possession of the British in 1817, according to the terms of the 
treaty of Poona. The town has rapidly advanced in prosperity 
under British rule. Several mosques and tombs have been con- 
verted to the use of British administration. The old industries 
of carpet- weaving and paper-making have died out; but there 
is a large trade in cotton and silk goods, and in copper and brass 
pots, and there are factories for ginning and pressing cotton. 
Ahmednagar is a station on the loop line of the Great Indian 
Peninsula railway, 218 m. from Bombay, and a military 
cantonment, being the headquarters of a brigade in the 6th 
division of the western army corps. The population in 1901 
was 43,032. 

The DISTRICT OF AHMEDNAGAR is a comparatively barren tract 
with a small rainfall. The area is 6586 sq. m. The popula- 
tion in 1901 was 837,695, showing a decrease of 6 % in the 
decade, due to the results of famine. The bulk of the population 
consists of Mahrattas and Kunbis, the latter being the agricul- 
turists. On the north the district is watered by the Godavari 
and its tributaries the Prawara and the Mula; on the north-east 



by the Dor, another tributary of the Godavari; on the east by 
the Sephani, which flows through the valley below the Balaghat 
range; and in the extreme south by the Bhima and its tributary 
the Gor. The Sina river, another tributary of the Bhima, flows 
through the Nagar and Karjat talukas. The principal crops are 
millet, pulse, oil-seeds and wheat. The district suffered from 
drought in 1896-1897, and again in 1899-1900. 

AHMED TEWFIK, PASHA (1845- ), Turkish diplomatist, 
was the son of Ismail Hakki Pasha. He was at first in the army, 
but left the service in 1862; four years later he entered the 
diplomatic service, being employed at various European capitals. 
He became minister at Athens in 1883 and ambassador in Berlin 
in 1884. He was appointed minister for foreign affairs (Kharijie 
Naziri) in 1896. 

AHMED VEFIK, PASHA (1819-1891), Turkish statesman and 
man of letters, was born in Stambul in 1819. He was the son of 
Rouheddin Effendi, at one time charge d'affaires in Paris, an 
accomplished French scholar, who was, therefore, attached, in the 
capacity of secretary-interpreter, to Reshid Pasha's diplomatic 
mission to Paris in 1834. Reshid took Ahmed with him and 
placed him at school, where he remained about five years and 
completed his studies. He then returned to Constantinople, and 
was appointed to a post in the bureau de traduction of the ministry 
for foreign affairs. While thus employed he devoted his leisure 
to the translation of Moliere's plays into Turkish and to the 
compilation of educational books dictionaries, historical and 
geographical manuals, &c. for use in Turkish schools, with the 
object of promoting cultivation of the French language among 
the rising generation. In 1847 he brought out the first edition 
of the Salnameh, the official annual of the Ottoman empire. 
Two years later he was appointed imperial commissioner in the 
Danubian principalities, and held that office till early in 1851 
when he was sent to Persia as ambassador a post which suited 
his temperament, and in which he rendered good service to his 
goverment for more than four years. Recalled in 1855, he was 
sent on a mission to inspect the eastern frontiers, and on his 
return was appointed member of the Grand Council of Justice, 
and was entrusted with the revision of the penal code and the 
code of procedure. This work occupied him until the begin- 
ning of 1860, when he was sent as ambassador to Paris, for the 
special purpose of averting the much-dreaded intervention of 
France in the affairs of Syria. But Ahmed Vefik's abrupt frank- 
ness, irascibility and abhorrence of compromise unfitted him for 
European diplomacy. He offended the French government; his 
mission failed, and he was recalled in January, 1861. None the 
less his integrity of purpose was fully understood and appreciated 
in Paris. On his return he was appointed minister of the Evkaf, 
but he only retained his seat in the cabinet for a few months. He 
was then for a brief period president of the Board of Audit, and 
subsequently inspector of the Anatolian provinces, where he was 
engaged for more than three years. His next appointment was 
that of director-general of customs, whence he was removed to 
the office of musteshar of the grand vizierate, and in the following 
year entered the cabinet of Midhat Pasha as minister of public 
instruction, but very soon retired to his seat in the Council of 
State and remained out of office until 1875, when he represented 
Turkey at the International Telegraphic Conference in St Peters- 
burg. He was president of the short-lived Turkish parliament 
during its first session March 19 to June 28, 1877 and at 
its close was appointed vali of Adrianople, where he rendered 
invaluable aid to the Red Cross Society. On his recall, at the 
beginning of 1878, he accepted the ministry of public instruction 
in the cabinet of Ahmed Hamdi Pasha, and on the abolition of 
the grand vizierate (February 5, 1878) he became prime minister 
and held office till about the middle of April, when he resigned. 
Early in the following year he was appointed vali of Brusa, where 
he remained nearly four years, and rendered admirable services 
to the province. The drainage of the pestilent marshes, the 
water-supply from the mountains, the numerous roads, the 
suppression of brigandage, the multiplication of schools, the vast 
development of the silk industry through the substitution of 
mulberry plantations for rice-fields, the opening out of the mineral 



AHOM AHRENS 



433 




springs of Chilli, the introduction of rose-trees and the produc- 
tion of otto of roses all these were Ahmed Vefik's work; and he 
became so popular that when in 1882 he was recalled, it was 
thought advisable that he should be taken away secretly by 
night from the konak in Brusa and brought to his private 
residence on the Bosporus. A few days after his return he was 
in appointed prime minister (December i, 1882), but Ahmed 
'efik demanded, as the condition of his acceptance of office, that 
e should choose the other members of the cabinet, and that a 
umber of persons in the sultan's entourage should be dismissed, 
pon this, the sultan, on the 3rd of December, revoked the irade 
f the ist of December, and appointed Said Pasha prime minister, 
'or the rest of his life Ahmed Vefik, by the sultan's orders, was 
ctically a prisoner in his own house; and eventually he died, 
the ist of April 1891, of a renal complaint from which he had 
ing been a sufferer. Ahmed Vefik was a great linguist. He spoke 
id wrote French perfectly, and thoroughly understood English, 
German, Italian, Greek, Arabic and Persian. From all these 
languages he translated many books into Turkish, but wrote no 
original work. His splendid library of 15,000 volumes contained 
priceless manuscripts in many languages. In his lifetime he 
appreciably aided the progress of education; but, as he had no 
following, the effects of his labour and influence in a great measure 
faded away after his death. In all his social and family relations 
Ahmed Vefik was most exemplary. His charity knew no bounds. 
He was devoted to his aged mother and to his one wife and 
children. To his friends and acquaintances he was hospitable, 
courteous and obliging; his conversation was intellectual and 
refined, and in every act of his private life he manifested the 
spirit of a true gentleman. At home his habits, attire and mode 
of life were quite Turkish, but he was perfectly at his ease in 
European society; he had strong English proclivities, and 
numbered many English men and women amongst his intimate 
friends. In public life his gifts were almost sterilized by pecu- 
liarities of- temperament and incompatibility with official sur- 
roundings; and his mission as ambassador to Persia and his 
administration of Brusa were his only thorough successes. But 
his intellectual powers, literary erudition and noble character 
made him for the last forty years of his life a conspicuous figure 
eastern Europe. (E. W.*) 

AHOM, or AHAM, a tribe of Shan descent inhabiting the Assam 
alley, and, prior to the invasion of the Burmese at the com- 
mencement of the i pth century, the dominant race in that 
country. The Ahoms, together with the Shans of Burma and 
Eastern China and the Siamese, were members of the Tai race. 
The name is believed to be a corruption of the word " A-sam," 
the latter part of which is identical with " Shan " (properly 
Sham ") and with " Siam." Under their king Su-ka-pha 
icy invaded Assam (?..) from the East in the year A.D. 1228, 
giving their name to the country. For a century and a half from 
1228 the successors of Su-ka-pha appear to have ruled un- 
disturbed over a small territory in Lakkimpur and Sibsagar 
stricts. The extension of their power westward down the 
ey of the Brahmaputra was very gradual, and its success 
was by no means uniform. In the time of Aurangzeb the Ahom 
kings held sway over the entire Brahmaputra valley from Sadiya 
to near Goalpara, and from the skirts of the southern hills to 
the Bhutia frontier on the north. The dynasty attained the 
height of its power under Rudra Singh, who is said to have 
ascended the throne in 1695. In the following century the power 
of the Ahoms began to decay, alike from internal dissensions 
and the pressure of outside invaders. The Burmese were called 
in to the assistance of one of the contending factions in 1810. 
Having once obtained a foothold in the country, they established 
their power over the entire valley and ruled with merciless bar- 
barity, until they were expelled by the British in 1824-1825. 
In the census of 1901 the total Ahom population in Assam was 

/turned at 178,049. 
The Ahoms retained the form of government in Assam peculiar 
to the Shan tribes, which may be briefly described as an organ- 
ized system of personal service in lieu of taxation. Their 
gion was pagan, being quite distinct from Buddhism; but 



: 



th 
g" 

12 

disu 
dist 
vail 



in Assam they gradually became Hinduized, and their kings 
finally adopted Hindu names and titles. They believed that 
there were in the beginning no heavenly bodies, air or earth, 
only water everywhere, over which at first hovered a formless 
Supreme Being called Pha. He took corporeal shape as a huge 
crab that lay floating, face upwards, upon the waters. In turn 
other animals took shape, the last being two golden spiders from 
whose excrement the earth gradually rose above the surrounding 
ocean. Pha then formed a female counterpart of himself, who 
laid four eggs, from which were hatched four sons. One of these 
was appointed to rule the earth, but died and became a spirit. 
His son also died and became the national household deity of- 
the Ahoms. The origin of mankind is connected with a flood- 
legend. The only survivors of the flood, and of the conflagra- 
tion that followed it, were an old man and a pumpkin-seed. 
From the latter there grew a gigantic gourd. This was split 
open by a thunderbolt, the old man sacrificing himself to save 
the lives of those who were inside, and from it there issued the 
progenitors of the present races of men, beasts, birds, fishe 
and plants. The kings claimed independent divine origin. 

The religion and language have both died out, being only 
preserved by a few priests of the old cult; but even among 
them the tradition of the pronunciation of the language has 
been lost. The Ahoms had a considerable literature, much of 
which is still in existence. Their historic sense was very fully 
developed, and many priests and nobles maintained bu-ran-jis 
(i.e. " stores of instruction for the ignorant "), or chronicles, 
which were carefully written up from time to time. A few of 
these have been translated, but as yet no European scholar 
possesses knowledge sufficient to enable him to study these 
valuable documents at first hand. 

The Ahom language is the oldest member of the Tai branch 
of the Siamese-Chinese linguistic family of which we have any 
record. It bears much the same relationship to Siamese and 
Shan that Latin does to Italian. It is more nearly related to 
modern Siamese than to modern Shan, but possesses many 
groups of consonants which have become simplified in both. 
It is a language of the isolating class, in which every word is a 
monosyllable, and may be employed either as a noun or as a 
verb according to its context and its position in a sentence. 
In the order of words, the genitive follows the noun it governs, 
and, as usual in such cases, the relations of time and place are 
indicated by prefixes, not by suffixes. The meanings of the 
monosyllables were differentiated, as in the other Tai languages 
and in Chinese, by a system of tones, but these were rarely 
indicated in writing, and the tradition regarding them is lost. 
The language had an alphabet of its own, which was clearly 
related to that of Burmese. 

See E. A. Gait, A History of Assam (Calcutta, 1906). For the 
language see The Linguistic Survey of India, vol. ii. (Calcutta, 1906) 
(contains grammar and vocabulary) ; G. A. Grierson, " Notes on 
Ahom," in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenliindischen Gesell- 
schaft, vol. Ivi., 1902, pp. I ff. (contains grammar and vocabulary, 
with specimens), and An Ahom Cosmogony, with a translation 
and a vocabulary of the Ahom language," in the Journal of the 
Royal Asiatic Society for 1904, pp. 181 ff. (G. A. GR.) 

AHR, a river of Germany. It is a left-bank tributary of the 
Rhine, into which it falls at Sinzig, rising in the Eifel mountains, 
and having a total length of 55 m. It flows at first through 
rather monotonous country, but the latter portion of its course, 
from the village of Altenahr, over which tower the ruins of the 
castle of Ahr, or Are (loth century), is full of romantic beauty. 
It is well stocked with trout, and the steep declivities of the 
lower valley furnish red wines of excellent quality. 

AHRENS, FRANZ HEINRICH LUDOLF (1809-1881), German 
philologist, was born at Helmstedt on the 6th of June 1809. 
After studying at Gottingen (1826-1829) under K. O. Mtiller 
and Ludolf Dissen, and holding several educational appoint- 
ments,, in 1849 he succeeded G. F. Grotefend as director of the 
Lyceum at Hanover, a post which he filled with great success 
for thirty years. He died on the 25th of September 1881. His 
most important work is De Graecae Linguae Dialectis (1839-1843, 
new ed. by Meister, 1882-1889), which, although unfortunately 



434 



AHRIMAN AICKIN 



incomplete, dealing only with Aeolic and Doric, and in some 
respects superseded by modern research, will always remain a 
standard treatise on the subject. He also published Bucolicorum 
Graecorum Reliquiae (1855-1859); studies on the dialects of 
Homer and the Greek lyrists; on Aeschylus; and some excellent 
school-books. A volume of his minor works (ed. Haberlin) was 
published in 1891, which also contains a complete list of his 
writings. 

AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Apei/idwos in Aristotle, or 'Apetjuavr/s in 
Agathias; in the Avesta, Angro Mainyush) " the Destructive 
Spirit ") , the name of the principle of evil in the dualistic doctrine 
of Zoroaster. The name does not occur in the Old Persian 
inscriptions. In the Avesia he is called the twin-brother of the 
Holy Spirits, and contrasted either with the Holy Spirit of 
Ormazd or with Ormazd himself. He is the all-destroying Satan, 
the source of all evil in the world and, like Ormazd, exists since 
the beginning of the world. Eventually, in the great world 
catastrophe, he will be defeated by Ormazd and disappear. The 
later sect of the Zervanites held that both were visible manifesta- 
tions of the primeval principle Zruvan akarana (Infinite Time). 
(See ZOROASTER.) 

AHRWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine 
province, on the river Ahr and the Remagen-Adenau line of 
railway. Pop. 5000. It is a town of medieval aspect and is 
surrounded by ancient walls, with battlements and four gates 
in good repair. There is a Gothic church (dating from 1245). 
A convent school of the Ursuline nuns is a prominent feature 
on a hill to the south. The trade is almost exclusively confined 
to the manufacture and export of the wines of the district. 

AHT, a confederacy of twenty-two tribes of North American 
Indians of the Wakashan stock. They are settled on the west 
coast of Vancouver, British Columbia. The chief tribes included 
are the Nitinaht, Tlaasaht or Makah, Tlaokiwaht or Clahoquaht, 
Ahansaht and Ehatishaht. The confederacy numbers some 
3500. 

AHTENA (" ice people '.'), the name of an Athapascan tribe 
of North American Indians, in the basin of Copper River, 
Alaska. 

See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington, 
1907). 

AHVAZ, a town of Persia, in the province of Arabistan, on 
the left bank of the river Karun, 48 m. S. of Shushter, in 31 18' 
N., 49 E. It has been identified with the Aginis of Nearchus, 
500 stadia from Susa, and occupies the site of what was once 
an extensive and important city. Of this ancient city vast 
remains are left, extending several miles along the bank of the 
river. Among the most remarkable are the ruins of a bridge 
and a citadel, or palace, besides vestiges of canals and water- 
mills, which tell of former commercial activity. There are also 
the ruins of a band, or stone dam of great strength, which was 
thrown across the river for the purposes of irrigation. The band 
was 1 1 50 yds. in length and had a diameter of 24 ft. at its base. 
Remains of massive structure are still visible, and many single 
blocks in it measure from 8 to 10 ft. in thickness. Ahvaz reached 
the height of its prosperity in the i2th and ijth centuries and 
is now a collection of wretched hovels, with a small rectangular 
fort in a state of ruin, and an Arab population of about 400. 
Since the opening of the Karun to foreign commerce in October 
1888, another settlement called Benderi Nassiri, in compliment 
to the Shah Nassir ed din (d. 1896), has been established on a 
slight elevation overlooking the river at the point below the 
rapids where steamers come to anchor, about one mile below 
Ahvaz. It has post and telegraph offices; and agencies of some 
mercantile firms, a British vice-consul (since 1004) and a 
Russian consular agent (since 1902) are established there. The 
new caravan road to Isfahan, opened for traffic in 1000, promised, 
if successful, to give Ahvaz greater commercial importance. 

AI [Sept. 'Ayyai, 'Ayyat and Tot; Vulg. Hai\, a small 
royal city of the Canaanites, E. of Bethel. The meaning of 
the name may be " the stone heap "; but it is not necessarily 
a Hebrew word. Abraham pitched his tent between Ai and 
Bethel (Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3) ; but it is chiefly noted for its capture 



and destruction by Joshua (vii. 2-5, viii. 1-29), who made it 
" a heap for ever, even a desolation." It is mentioned by Isaiah 
(x. 28), and also after the captivity (Ezra ii. 28; Neh. vii. 32), 
but then probably was not more than a village. In the later 
Hebrew writings the name sometimes has a feminine form, 
Aiath (Is. x. 28), Aija (Neh. xi. 31). The definite article is 
usually prefixed to the name in Hebrew. The site was known, 
and some scanty ruins still existed, in the time of Eusebius and 
Jerome (Onomast., s.v. 'Ayyai). Dr E. Robinson was unable 
to discover any certain traces of either name or ruins. He 
remarks, however (Bib. Researches, ed. 1856, i. p. 443), that it 
must have been close to Bethel on account of Biblical narrative 
(Josh. viii. 1 7) . A little to the south of a village called Deir Di wan, 
and one hour's journey south-east from Bethel, is the site of an 
ancient place called Khirbet Haiydn, indicated by reservoirs hewn 
in the rock, excavated tombs and foundations of hewn stone. 
This may possibly be the site of Ai; it agrees with all the in- 
timations as to its position. It has also been identified with 
a mound now called el-Tell (" the heap "), but though the name 
of a neighbouring village, Turmus Aya, is suggestive, it is in 
the wrong direction from Bethel. In this view recent authorities, 
such as G. A. Smith, generally coincide. 

See Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1869, p. 123; 
1874, P- 62; 1878, pp. 10, 132, 194; 1881, p. 254. (R. A. S. M.) 

AI BONITO, an inland town of the electoral district of Guayama, 
Porto Rico, on the highway between San Juan and Ponce, 
25 m. E.N.E. of the latter. It is the, capital of a municipal 
district of the same name. Pop. (1899) of the town, 2085; of 
the district, 8596. The town is about 2200 ft. above sea level, 
and owing to its cool climate and freedom from malaria it has 
been chosen as an acclimatizing station and sanatorium for 
foreigners. It is surrounded by coffee plantations, and tobacco 
of excellent quality is raised in the vicinity. The town was 
considerably damaged by the great hurricane of the 8th of 
August 1899. 

AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (1848- ), French 
poet and dramatist, was born at Toulon on the 4th of February 
1848. His father, Jean Aicard, was a journalist of some dis- 
tinction, and the son early began his career in 1867 with Les 
Jeunes Croyances, followed in 1870 by a one-act play produced at 
the Marseilles theatre. His poems include: Les Rebellions et les 
apaisemenls (1871); Poemes de Provence (1874), and La Chanson 
de I' enfant (1876), both of which were crowned by the Academy; 
Miette et Nore (1880), a Provencal idyll; Le Lime d'heures de 
I'amour (1887); Jesus (1896), &c. Of his plays the most suc- 
cessful was Le Pere Lebonnard (1890), which was originally 
produced at the Theatre Libre. Among his other works are the 
novels, LeRoide Camargue{ 1890), L'A me d'unenfant (1898) and 
Tatas (1901), Benjamine (1906) and La Venus de Milo (1874), 
an account of the discovery of the statue from unpublished 
documents. 

AICHINGER, GREGOR (c. -1565-1628), one of the greatest 
German composers of the Golden Age. He was organist to the 
Fugger family of Augsburg in 1584. In 1599 he went for a two 
years' visit to Rome. This was for musical and not for ecclesi- 
astical reasons, though he had taken orders before his appointment 
under Fugger. Proske, in the preface to vol. ii. of his Musica 
Divina, calls him a priest of Regensburg, and is inclined to give 
him the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style. 
Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful and 
somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology. 

AICKIN, FRANCIS (d. 1805), Irish actor, first appeared in 
London in 1765 as Dick Amlet in Vanbrugh's The Confederacy at 
Drury Lane. He acted there, send at Covent Garden, until 1792. 
His repertory consisted of over eighty characters, and among his 
best parts were the Ghost in Hamlet and Jaques in As You Like 
It. His success in impassioned declamatory r61es obtained for 
him the nickname of " Tyrant." 

His younger brother JAMES AJCKIN (d. 1803) was playing lead- 
ing parts in both comedy and tragedy at the Edinburgh theatre, 
when he gave offence to his public by his protest against the 
discharge of a fellow-actor. He therefore went to London, and 



AIDAN AIDS 



435 



from 1767 to 1800 was a member of the Drury Lane Company 
and for some years a deputy manager. He quarrelled with John 
Philip Kemble, with whom, in 1792, he fought a bloodless duel. 

AIDAN (d. 606), king of the Scottish kingdom of Dalriada, was 
the son of Gabran, king of Dalriada, and became king after th 
death of his kinsman King Conall, when he was crowned at lona 
by St Columba. He refused to allow his kingdom to remain in 
dependence on the Irish Dalriada, but coming into collision with 
his southern neighbours he led a large force against jEthelfrith 
king of the Northumbrians, and was defeated at a place called 
Daegsanstane, probably in Liddesdale. 

See Bede, Historiae Ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum, edited by 
Plummer (Oxford, 1896); Adamnan, Vita S. Columbae, edited 
by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894). 

AIDAN, or ^DAN, first bishop of Lindisfarne, a monk of Hii 
lona), was sent by the abbot Senegi to Northumbria, at the 
equest of King Oswald, A.D. 634-635. He restored Christianity, 
nd in accordance with the traditions of Irish episcopacy chose 
he island of Lindisfarne, close to the royal city of Bamborough, 
( his see. Although he retained the Irish Easter, his character 
ad energy in missionary work won him the respect of Honorius 
nd Felix. He survived Oswald, and died shortly after the 
lurder of his friend Oswine of Deira, on the 3ist of August 651, 
the 1 7th year of his episcopate. 
See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. Plummer), iii. 3, 5, 17, 25. 
AIDE-DE-CAMP (Fr. for camp-assistant or, perhaps, field- 
sistant), an officer of the personal staff of a general, who acts 
his confidential secretary in routine matters. In Great 
Britain the office of aide-de-camp to the king is given as a reward 
an honorary distinction. In many foreign armies the word 
djutant is used for an aide-de-camp, and adjutant general for a 
oyal aide-de-camp. The common abbreviation for aide-de-camp 
i the British service is " A.D.C.," and in the United States " aid." 
governors, such as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, have also, 
a rule, officers on their staffs with the title and functions of 
aides-de-camp. 

AIDIN, (i) A vilayet in the S.W. of Asia Minor including the 
ancient Lydia, Ionia, Caria and western Lycia. It derives its 
name from the Seljuk emir who took Tralles, and is the richest 
and most productive province of Asiatic Turkey. The seat of 
government is Smyrna. (2) The principal town of the valley of 
the Menderes or Maeander, about 70 m. E.S.E. of Smyrna. It is 
called also Giizel Hissar from the beauty of its situation on the 
lower slopes of Mons Messogis and along the course of the ancient 
Eudon. It is the capital of a sanjak. It was taken by the 
Seljuks, Aidin and Mentesh, late in the I3th century, and about 
1390, when ruled by Isa Bey, a descendant of the first-named, 
acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty. In the Seljuk period it was 
a secondary city under the provincial capital, Tireh (q.v.). In 
the 1 7th century it came under the power of the Karasmans of 
Manisa and remained so till about 1820. Aidin is on the Smyrna- 
Dineir railway, has large tanneries and sweetmeat manufac- 
tories, and exports figs, cotton and raisins. It was greatly 
damaged by an earthquake in 1899. On a neighbouring height 
are to be seen the ruins of the ancient Tralles (q.v.), the site to 
which the name Gtizel Hissar was particularly given by the 
Seljuks. Aidin is the seat of a British consular agent. As there 
are considerable numbers of Greeks, Armenians and Jews among 
the inhabitants, there are a Greek cathedral, several churches and 
synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish mosques. (D. G. H.) 
AIDONE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta. From 
the town of Caltanisetta it is 22 m. E.S.E. direct (18 m. S.S.W. of 
the railway station of Raddusa, which is 41 m. W. of Catania). 
Pop. (1901) 8548. There are some interesting churches of the 
i4th century (see E. Mauceri in L'Arte, 1906, 17). On the Serra 
Orlando, a mountain not far off, are the extensive remains of an 
unknown city, the finest in eastern Sicily, but rapidly suffering 
destruction from the spread of cultivation and unauthorized 
excavations. 

See P. Orsi in Atti del Congresso di Scienze Storiche, vol. v. 178 
(Rome, 1904). 

AIDS, a term of medieval finance, were part of the service due 
to a lord from his men, and appear to have been based upon the 



principle that they ought to assist him in special emergency 
or need. The occasions for demanding them and the amount 
to be demanded would thus be matters of dispute, while the 
loose use" of the term to denote many different payments in- 
creases the difficulty of the subject. 

Both in Normandy and in England, in the I2th century, the 
two recognized occasions on which, by custom, the lord could 
demand " aid," were (i) the knighting of his eldest son, (2) the 
marriage of his eldest daughter; but while in England the third 
occasion was, according to Glanvill, as in Normandy, his pay- 
ment of " relief " on his succession, it was, according to the 
Great Charter (1215), the lord's ransom from captivity. By 
its provisions, the king covenanted to exact an " aid " from his 
barons on these three occasions alone and then only a " reason- 
able " one except by " the common counsel " of his realm. 
Enormous importance has been attached to this provision, as 
establishing the principle of taxation by consent, but its scope 
was limited to the barons (and the city of London), and the word 
" aids " was omitted from subsequent issues of the charter. The 
barons, on their part, covenanted to claim from their feudal 
tenants only the above three customary aids. The last levy by 
the crown was that of James I. on the knighting of his eldest 
son (1609) and the marriage of his daughter (1613). 

From at least the days of Henry I. the term " aid " was also 
applied (i) to the special contributions of boroughs to the king's 
revenue, (2) to a payment in lieu of the military service due from 
the crown's knights. Both these occur on the pipe roll of 1 130, 
the latter as auxilium milUum (and possibly as auxilium comi- 
tatus). The borough " aids " were alternatively known as 
" gifts " (dona), resembling in this the " benevolences " of later 
days. When first met with, under Henry I., they are fixed 
round sums, but under Henry II. (as the Dialogue on the Exchequer 
explains) they were either assessed on a population basis by 
crown officers or were sums offered by the towns and accepted 
by them as sufficient. In the latter case the townsfolk were 
collectively responsible for the amount. The Great Charter, as 
stated above, extended specially to London the limitation on 
baronial " aids," but left untouched its liability to tallage, a 
lower and more arbitrary form of taxation, which the towns 
shared with the crown's demesne manors, and which London 
resisted in vain. The two exactions, although distinct, have 
to be studied together, and when in 1296-1297 Edward I. was 
Forced to his great surrender, he was formerly supposed by 
historians to have pledged himself, under De tallagio non conce- 
dendo, to levy no tallage or aid except by common consent of 
Siis people. It is now held, however, that he limited this con- 
cession to " aides, mises," and " prises," retaining the right to 
tallage. Eventually, by a statute of 1340, it was provided that 
the nation should not be called upon " to make any common 
aid or sustain charge " except by consent of parliament. The 
aids spoken of at this period are of yet another character, 
namely, the grant of a certain proportion of all " movables " 
(i.e. personal property), a form of taxation introduced about 
n 88 and now rapidly increasing in importance. These sub- 
sidies were conveniently classed under the vague term " aids," 
as were also the grants made by the clergy in convocation, the 
;erm covering both feudal and non-feudal levies from -the 
ligher clergy and proportions not only of " movables " but of 
ecclesiastical revenues as well. 

The "knight's aid" of 1130 spoken of above is probably 
dentical with auxilium exercitus spoken of in the oldest cus- 
tumals of Normandy, where the phrase appears to represent what 
was known in England as " scutage." Even in England the 
)hrase " quando Rex accipit auxilium de militibus " occurs in 
1 1 66 and appears to be loosely used for scutage. 
The same loose use enabled the early barons to demand 
aid " from their tenants on various grounds, such as their 
ndebtedness to the Jews, as is well seen in the Norfolk fragments 
of returns to the Inquest of Sheriffs (1170). 

Sheriff's aid was a local payment of a fixed nature paid in 
early days to the sheriff for his service. It was the subject of 
a hot dispute between Henry II. and Becket in 1163. 



436 



AIGRETTE AIGUILLON 



AUTHORITIES. Stubbs' Constitutional History and Select Charters ; 
M'Kechnie's Magna Carta ; Pollock and Maitland's History of English 
Law ; Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond ; Dialogus de Scaccario 
(Oxford, 1892); Madox's History of the Exchequer; Round's Feudal 
England, and The Commune of London; The Pipe Rolls (Record 
Commission and Pipe Roll Society). (J. H. R.) 

AIGRETTE (from the Fr. for egret, or lesser white heron), 
the tufted crest, or head-plumes of the egret, used for adorning 
a woman's head-dress, the term being also given to any similar 
ornament, in gems, &c. An aigrette is also worn by certain 
ranks of officers in the French army. By analogy the word is 
used in various sciences for feathery excrescences of like appear- 
ance, as for the tufts on the heads of insects, the feathery down 
of the dandelion, the luminous rays at the end of electrified 
bodies, or the luminous rays seen in solar eclipses, diverging 
from the moon's edge. 

AIGUES-MORTES, a town of south-eastern France, in the 
department of Card 25 m. S.S.W. of Nimes, on a branch line 
of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 3577. 
Aigues-Mortes occupies an isolated position in the marshy plain 
at the western extremity of the Rhone delta, 23 m. from the 
Golfe du Lion. It owes its celebrity to the medieval fortifications 
of remarkable completeness with which it is surrounded. They 
form a parallelogram 596 yds. long by 149 yds. broad, and con- 
sist of crenellated walls from 25 to 36 ft. in height, dominated 
at intervals by towers. Of these, the Tour de Constance, built 
by Louis IX., is the most interesting; it commands the north- 
western angle of the ramparts, and contains two circular, 
vaulted chambers, used as prisons for Protestants after the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes. The remainder of the 
fortifications were built in the reign of Philip III. Aigues- 
Mortes is the meeting-place of several canals connecting it with 
Beaucaire, with Cette, with the Lesser Rhone and with the 
Mediterranean, on which it has a small port. Fishing and the 
manufacture of soda are the chief industries with which the 
town is connected. It has trade in coal, oranges and other fruits, 
and in wine. In the surrounding country there are important 
vineyards, which are preserved from disease by periodical sub- 
mersion. There is a statue in the town in memory of Louis IX. 
who embarked from Aigues-Mortes in 1248 and 1270 for the 
seventh and eighth crusades. To further the prosperity of the 
town a most liberal charter was granted to it, and in addition 
the trade of the port was artificially fostered by a decree re- 
quiring that every vessel navigating within sight of its lights 
should put in there. This ordinance remained in force till the 
reign of Louis XIV. 

AIGUILLE (Fr. for needle), the sharp jagged points above 
the snow-line, standing upon the massif of a mountain split by 
frost action along joints or planes of cleavage with sides too 
steep for snow to rest upon them. Aiguilles are thus the forms 
remaining from the splitting up of the high ridges with house- 
roof structure into detached pinnacles. 

AIGUILLETTE (Fr. diminutive of aiguille, a needle; the 
obsolete English form is " aglet "), originally a tag of metal, 
often made of precious metals and richly chased, attached to 
the end of a lace or ribbon, and pointed, so as to pass more easily 
through eyelet holes. The term was, in time, applied to any 
bright ornament or pendant for the dress made of metal, and 
is now specially used of ornamental cords and tags of gold and 
silver lace, worn on naval and military uniforms. The aiguillette 
is fastened to the shoulder, the various cords hanging down 
therefrom being fastened at their other end on the front of the 
coat. 

AIGUILLON, EMMANUEL ARMAND DE WIGNEROD DU 
PLESSIS DE RICHELIEU, Due D' (1720-1782), French states- 
man, nephew of the marechal de Richelieu, was born on the 3ist 
of July 1720. He entered the army at the age of seventeen, and 
at the age of nineteen was made colonel of the regiment of Brie. 
He served in the campaigns in Italy during the War of the 
Austrian Succession, was seriously wounded at the siege oi 
Chateau-Dauphin (1744), was taken prisoner (1746) and was 
made marlchal de camp in 1748. His marriage in 1740 with 
Louise Felicite de Brehan, daughter of the comte de P161o, 



coupled with his connexion with the Richelieu family, gave 
lim an important place at court. He was a member of the 
so-called parti devot, the faction opposed to Madame de Pompa- 
dour, to the Jansenists and to the parlement, and his hostility 
to the new ideas drew upon him the anger of the pamphleteers. 
[n 1753 he was appointed commandant (governor) of Brittany 
and soon became unpopular in that province, which had retained 
a large number of privileges called " liberties." He first came 
nto collision with the provincial estates on the question of the 
royal imposts (1758), but was then blamed for his inertia in 
;he preparation of a squadron against England (1759), and 
inally alienated the parlement of Brittany by violating the 
srivileges of the province (1762). In June 1764 the king, at 
the instance of d'Aiguillon, quashed a decree of the parlement for- 

ding the levying of new imposts without the consent qf the 
estates, and refused to receive the remonstrances of the parlement 
against the duke. On the nth of November 1765 La Chalotais, 
the procureur of the parlement, was arrested, but whether at 
the instigation of d'Aiguillon is not certain. The conflict between 
d'Aiguillon and the Bretons lasted two years. In the place of the 
parlement, which had resigned, d'Aiguillon organized a tribunal 
of more or less competent judges, who were ridiculed by the 
pamphleteers and ironically termed the bailltage d'Aiguillon. 
In 1768 the duke was forced to suppress this tribunal, and 
returned to court, where he resumed his intrigue with the parti 
devot and finally obtained the dismissal of the minister Choiseul 
(December 24, 1770). When Louis XV., acting on the advice 
of Madame Dubarry, reorganized the government with a view 
to suppressing the resistance of the parlements, d'Aiguillon was 
made minister of foreign affairs, Maupeou and the Abbe Terray 
(1715-1778) also obtaining places in the ministry. The new 
ministry, albeit one of reform, was very unpopular, and was 
styled the " triumvirate." All the failures of the government 
were attributed to the mistakes of the ministers. Thus 
d'Aiguillon was blamed for having provoked the coup d'etat of 
Gustavus III., king of Sweden, in 1 772, although the instructions 
of tke comte de Vergennes, the French ambassador in Sweden, 
had been written by the minister, the due de la Vrilliere. 
D'Aiguillon, however, could do nothing to rehabilitate French 
diplomacy; he acquiesced in the first division of Poland, re- 
newed the Family Compact, and, although a supporter of the 
Jesuits, sanctioned the suppression of the society. After the 
death of Louis XV. he quarrelled with Maupeou and with the 
young queen, Marie Antoinette, who demanded his dismissal 
from the ministry (1774). He died, forgotten, in 1782. In no 
circumstances had he shown any special ability. He was more 
fitted for intrigue than for government, and his attempts to 
restore the status of French diplomacy met with scant success. 

See Memoir es du ministere du due d'Aiguillon (3rd ed., Paris and 
Lyons, 1792), probably written by J. L. Soulavie. On d'Aieuillpn's 
governorship of Brittany see Carre, La Chalotais et le due d'Aiguillon 
(Paris, 1893); Marion, La Bretagne et le due d'Aiguillon (Paris, 
1898) ; and Barthelemy Pocquet, Le Due d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais 
(Paris, 1901-1902). The three last have full bibliographies. See 
also Flammermont, Le Chancelier Maupeou et les parlements (Paris, 
1883) ; Frederic Masson, Le Cardinal de Bernis (Paris, 1884). 

AIGUILLON, MARIE MADELEINE DE WIGNEROD DU 
PONT DE COURLAY, DUCHESSE D' (1604-1675), daughter of 
Cardinal Richelieu's sister. In 1620 she married a nephew of the 
constable de Luynes, Antoine de Beauvoir du Roure, sieur de 
Combalet, who died in 1622. In 1625, through her uncle's 
influence, she was made a lady-in-waiting (dame d'atour) to the 
queen-mother, and in 1638 was created duchess of Aiguillon. 
She did not marry a second time, although Richelieu wished to 
marry her to a prince either to the comte de Soissons or to the 
king's brother. After the death of the cardinal (1642) she retained 
her honours and titles, but withdrew from the court, and devoted 
herself entirely to works of charity. She entered into relations 
with Saint Vincent de Paul and helped him to establish the 
hospital for foundlings. She also took part in organizing the 
General Hospital and several others in the provinces. She died 
on the I7th of April 1675. She was the patroness of Corneille, 
who in 1636 dedicated to her his tragedy of The Cid. 



AIGUN AILLY 



437 



See E. Flechier, Oraison funebre de Mme. Marie de Wignercd, 
duchesse d'Aiguillon; Bonneau-Avenant, La duchesse d'Aiguillon 
(1879); Memoires de Saint-Simon, ed. by A. de Boislisle (1879 
et seq.). 

AIGUN, or AIHUN (also Sakhalyan-ula-khoto), a town of China 
province Hei-lung-kiang, in northern Manchuria, situated on 
the right bank of the Amur, in a fertile and populous region, 
20 m. below Blagovyeshchensk, where it occupies nearly 2 m. 
on the bank of the river. There is a palisaded fort in the 
middle of the town, inside of which is the house of the fu-tit 
(governor). Its merchants carry on an active local trade in 
grain, mustard, oil and tobacco, and some of its firms supply 
the Russian administration with grain and flour. During the 
" Boxer " rising of 1900 it was, for a few weeks, the centre of 
military action directed against the Russians. The population, 
of some 20,000, includes a few hundred Mussulmans. The town 
was founded first on the left bank of the Amur, below the mouth 
of the Zeya, but was abandoned, and the present town was 
founded in 1684. It was here that Count Muraviev concluded, 
in May 1857, the Aihun treaty, according to which the left bank 
of the Amur was conceded to Russia. 

AIKEN, a city ajid the county-seat of Aiken county, South 
Carolina, U.S.A., 17 m. E.N.E. of Augusta, Georgia. Pop. (1890) 
2362; (1900) 3414 (2131 of negro descent) ; (1910) 3911. It 
is served by the Southern railway, and by an electric line con- 
necting with Augusta. Aiken is a fashionable winter resort, 
chiefly frequented by Northerners, and is pleasantly situated 
about 500 ft. above sea level in the heart of the famous sand-hill 
and pine-forest region of the state. The dry and unusually 
equable temperature (mean for winter 50 F., for spring 57 F., 
and for autumn 64 F.) and the balmy air laden with the frag- 
rance of the pine forests have combined to make Aiken a health 
and pleasure resort; its climate is said to be especially bene- 
ficial for those afflicted with pulmonary diseases. There are 
fine hotels, club houses and cottages, and the Palmetto Golf 
Links near the city are probably the finest in the southern 
states; fox-hunting, polo, tennis and shooting are among the 
popular sports. There are some excellent drives in the vicinity. 
The city is the seat of the Aiken Institute (for whites) and the 
Schofield Normal and Industrial School (for negroes). There 
are lumber mills, cotton mills and cotton-gins; and cotton, 
farm products and artificial stone are exported. Considerable 
quantities of aluminium are obtained from the kaolin deposits 
in the vicinity. The city's water supply is obtained from 
artesian wells. Aiken ,vas settled in the early part of the igth 
century, but was not incorporated until 1835, when it was 
named in honour of William Aiken (1806-1887), governor of 
the state in 1844-1847, and a representative in Congress in 
1851-1857- 

AIKIN, ARTHUR (1773-1854), English chemist and mineralo- 
gist, was born on the igth of May 1773, at Warrington in Lanca- 
shire. He studied chemistry under Priestley and gave attention 
to the practical applications of the science. To mineralogy he 
was likewise attracted, and he was one of the founders of the 
Geological Society of London, 1807, and honorary secretary, 
1812-1817. To the transactions of that society he contributed 
papers on the Wrekin and the Shropshire coalfield, &c. Later 
he became secretary of the Society of Arts, and in 1841 treasurer 
of the Chemical Society. In early life he had been for a short 
time a Unitarian minister. He was highly esteemed as a man 
of sound judgment and wide knowledge. He died in London 
on the isth of April 1854. 

PUBLICATIONS. Journal of a Tour through North Wales and part 
of Shropshire; with observations in Mineralogy and other branches 
of Natural History (London, 1797) ; A Manual of Mineralogy (1814; 
ed. 2, 1815); A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy (with his 
brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814). 

AIKIN, JOHN (1747-1822), English doctor and writer, was 
born at Kibworth-Harcourt, and received his elementary 
education at the Noncomformist academy at Warrington, 
where his father was tutor. He studied medicine in the univer- 
sity of Edinburgh, and in London under Dr William Hunter. 
He practised as a surgeon at Chester and Warrington. Finally, 



he went to Leyden, took the degree of M.D. (1780), and in 1784. 
established himself as a doctor in Yarmouth. In 1792 he re- 
moved to London, where he practised as a consulting physician. 
But he concerned himself more with the advocacy of liberty of 
conscience than with his professional duties, and he began at 
an early period to devote himself to literary pursuits. In con- 
junction with his sister, Mrs Barbauld (q.ii.), he published a 
popular series of volumes entitled Evenings at Home (6 vols., 
1792-1795), excellently adapted for elementary family reading, 
which were translated into almost every European language. 
In 1798 Dr Aikin retired from professional life and devoted 
himself with great industry to various literary undertakings, 
among which his General Biography (10 vols., 1799-1815) holds 
a conspicuous place. Besides these, he published Biog. Memoirs 
of Medicine (1780); Lives of John Selden and Archbishop Usher 
(1812) and other works. He edited the Monthly Magazine from 
1796 to 1807, and conducted a paper called the Athenaeum from 
1807 to 1809, when it was discontinued. Aikin died in 1822. 

His daughter, LUCY AIKIN (1781-1864), born at Warrington 
on the 6th of November 1781, had some repute as a historical 
writer. After producing various books for the young, and a 
novel, Larimer (1814), she published in 1818 her Memoirs of the 
Court of Queen Elizabeth, which passed through several editions. 
This was followed by Memoirs of the Court of James I. (1822), 
Memoirs of the Court of Charles I. (1833) and a Life of Addison 
(1843). Miss Aikin died at Hampstead, where she had lived for 
forty years, on the 2gth of January 1864. 

See a Memoir of John Aikin, with selections of his miscellaneous 
pieces (1823), by his daughter; and the Memoirs, Miscellanies and 
Letters of Lucy Aikin (1864), including her correspondence (1826- 
1842) with William Ellery Channing, edited by P. H. Le Breton. 

AIRMAN, WILLIAM (1682-1731), British portrait-painter, was 
born at Cairney, Forfarshire. He was intended by his father for 
the bar, but followed his natural bent by becoming a pupil under 
Sir John Medina, the leading painter of the day in Scotland. In 
1707 he went to Italy, resided in Rome for three years, after- 
wards travelled to Constantinople and Smyrna, and in 1712 
returned home. In Edinburgh, where he practised as a portrait- 
painter for some years, he enjoyed the patronage of the duke of 
Argyll; and on his removal to London in 1723 he soon obtained 
many important commissions. Perhaps his most successful 
work was the portrait of the poet Gay. He also painted por- 
traits of himself, Fletcher of Saltoun, William Carstares and 
Thomson the poet. The likenesses were generally truthful and 
the style was modelled very closely upon that of Sir Godfrey 
Kneller. Aikman held a good position in literary society and 
counted among his personal friends Swift, Pope, Thomson, Allan 
Ramsay, Somervile and Mallet. 

AILANTHUS (more correctly ailanius, from ailanto, an 
Amboyna word probably meaning " Tree of the Gods," or 

Tree of Heaven "), a genus of trees belonging to the natural 
order Simarubaceae. The best known species, A. glandulosa, 
Chinese sumach or tree of heaven, is a handsome, quick-growing 
tree with spreading branches and large compound leaves, re- 
sembling those of the ash, and bearing numerous pairs of long 
pointed leaflets. The small greenish flowers are borne on 
3 ranched panicles; and the male ones are characterized by 
having a disgusting odour. The fruits are free in clusters, and 
each is drawn out into a long wing with the seed in the middle. 
The wood is fine grained and satiny. The tree, which is a native 
of China and Japan, was introduced into England in 1751 and 
is a favourite in parks and gardens. A silk spinning moth, the 
ailanthus moth (Bombyx or Philosamia cynthia), lives on its 
eaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry 
silk, but inferior to it in fineness and gloss. This moth is common 
near many towns in the eastern United States; it is about 
5 in. across, with angulated wings, and in colour olive brown, 
with white markings. Other species of ailanthus are: A. 
'mberbiflora and A. punctata, important Australian timber-trees; 
and A . excelsa, common in India. 

AILLY, PIERRE D' (1350-1420), French theologian, was born 
at Compiegne in 1350 of a bourgeois family, and studied in Paris 



438 



AILLY 



at the celebrated college of Navarre. He became a licentiate of 
arts in 1367, procurator of the French " nation " in 1372, bachelor 
of theology in 1372, and licentiate and doctor in that faculty 
in 1381. 

Since 1378 Western Christendom, in consequence of the election 
of the two popes Urban VI. and Clement VII., had been divided 
into two obediences. In the spring of 1379 Pierre d'Ailly, in 
anticipation even of the decision of the university of Paris, had 
carried to the pope of Avignon the " role " of the French nation, 
but notwithstanding this prompt adhesion he was firm in his 
desire to put an end to the schism, and when, on the 2oth of May 
1381, the university decreed that the best means to this end was 
to try to gather together a general council, Pierre d'Ailly sup- 
ported this motion before the king's council in the presence of the 
duke of Anjou. The dissatisfaction displayed shortly after by 
the government obliged the university to give up this scheme, 
and was probably the cause of Pierre d'Ailly's temporary retire- 
ment to Noyon, where he held a canonry. There he continued 
the struggle for his side in a humorous work, in which the parti- 
sans of the council are amusingly taken to task by the demon 
Leviathan. 

After his return to Paris, where from 1384 onwards he filled 
the position of master of the college of Navarre, and took part in 
a violent campaign against the chancellor of Notre-Dame, he was 
twice entrusted with a mission to Clement VII. in 1388 to defend 
the doctrines of the university, and especially those concerning 
the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin, against the preaching 
friar Jean de Montson, and in 1389 to petition in the name of the 
king for the canonization of the young cardinal Peter of Luxem- 
burg. The success which attended his efforts on these two 
occasions, and the eloquence which he displayed, perhaps con- 
tributed to his choice as the king's almoner and confessor. ,. At the 
same time, by means of an exchange, he obtained to the highest 
dignity in the university, becoming chancellor of Notre-Dame de 
Paris. 

When in 1394 Benedict XIII. succeeded Clement VII. at 
Avignon, Pierre d'Ailly was entrusted by the king with a mission 
of congratulation to the new pontiff. His obsequious language 
on this occasion, and the favours with which it was rewarded, 
formed a too violent contrast to the determined attitude of the 
university of Paris, which, tired of the schism, was even then 
demanding the resignation of the two pontiffs. Pierre d'Ailly 
himself had not long before taken part in the drawing up of a 
letter to the king in which the advantages of this double abdica- 
tion were set forth, but since then his zeal had seemed to cool a 
little. None the less, on his return from Avignon, he again in 
the presence of the king enlarged upon the advantages offered by 
the way which the university commended. But the suspicions 
aroused by his conduct found further confirmation when he 
caused himself or allowed himself to be nominated bishop of 
Le Puy by Benedict XIII. (April 2, 1395). The great number 
of benefices which he held left room for some doubt as to his dis- 
interestedness. Henceforward he was under suspicion at the 
university, and was excluded from the assemblies where the union 
was discussed. 

Some time afterwards Pierre d'Ailly became bishop of Cambrai 
(March 19, 1397) by the favour of the pope, who had yielded no 
whit, and, by virtue of this position, became also a prince of the 
empire. In order to take possession of his new see, he had to 
brave the wrath of the duke of Burgundy, override the resistance 
of the clergy and bourgeoisie, and even withstand an armed 
attack on the part of several lords; but his protector, the duke 
of Orleans, had his investiture performed by Wenceslaus, king of 
the Romans. The latter, though a partisan of the pope of Rome, 
took the opportunity of enjoining on Pierre d'Ailly to go in his 
name and argue with the pope of Avignon, a move which had as 
its object to persuade Benedict XIII. to an abdication, the 
necessity of which was becoming more and more evident. How- 
ever, the language of the bishop of Cambrai seems on this occasion 
to have been lacking in decision; however that may be, it led to 
no felicitous result. 

France next tried to bring violent pressure to bear to conquer 



the obstinacy of Benedict XIII. by threatening a formal with- 
drawal from his obedience. Pierre d'Ailly, who, in spite of his 
attachment to the pope, had been carried away by the example of 
the kingdom, was among the first who, in 1403, after experience 
of what had happened, counselled and celebrated the restoration 
of obedience. He was sent by Charles VI. on an embassy to 
Benedict XIII. and seized this opportunity of lavishing on the 
pontiff friendly congratulations mingled with useful advice. Two 
years later, before the same pontiff, he preached in the city of 
Genoa a sermon which led to the general institution, in the 
countries of the obedience of Avignon, of the festival of the 
Holy Trinity. 

At the ecclesiastical council which took place at Paris in 1406 
Pierre d'Ailly made every effort to avert a new withdrawal from 
the obedience and, by order of the king, took the part of defender 
of Benedict XIII., a course which yet again exposed him to attacks 
from the university party. The following year he and his disciple 
Gerson formed part of the great embassy sent by the princes to 
the two pontiffs, and while in Italy he was occupied in praise- 
worthy but vain efforts to induce the pope of Rome to remove 
himself to a town on the Italian coast, in the neighbourhood of his 
rival, where it was hoped that the double abdication would take 
place. Discouraged by his failure to effect this, he returned to 
his diocese of Cambrai at the beginning of 1408. At this time he 
was still faithful to Benedict XIII., and the disinclination he felt 
to joining the members of the French clergy who were on the 
point of ratifying the royal declaration of neutrality excited the 
anger of Charles VI. 's government, and a mandate, which was 
however not executed, ordered the arrest of the bishop of 
Cambrai. 

It was not till after the cardinals of the two colleges had led to 
the convocation of the general council of Pisa that Pierre'd'Ailly 
renounced the support of Benedict XIII., and, for want of a better 
policy, again allied himself with the cause which he had cham- 
pioned in his youth. In the council lay now, to judge from his 
words, the only chance of salvation; and, in view of the require- 
ments of the case, he began to argue that, in case of schism, a 
council could be convoked by any one of the faithful, and would 
have the right to judge and even to depose the rival pontiffs. 
This was, in fact, the procedure of the council of Pisa, in which 
Pierre d'Ailly took part. After the declaration of the deposition 
of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. it went on to the election of 
Alexander V. (June 26th, 1409). This pope reigned only ten 
months; his successor, John XXIII., raised Pierre d'Ailly to the 
rank of cardinal (June 6, 1411), and further, to indemnify him 
for the loss of the bishopric of Cambrai, conferred upon him the 
administration of that of Limoges (November 3, 1412), which 
was shortly after exchanged for the bishopric of Orange. He also 
nominated Pierre d'Ailly as his legate in Germany (March 18, 

1413)- 

Forgetting these benefits, the cardinal of Cambrai was one of 
the most formidable adversaries of John XXIII. at the council of 
Constance. Convinced as he was of the necessity for union and 
reform, he contributed more than any one to the adoption of the 
principle that, since the schism had survived the council of Pisa, 
it was necessary again to take up the work for a fundamental 
union, without considering the rights of John XXIII. any more 
than they had those of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. From 
this point of view Pierre d'Ailly, together with his compatriot 
Cardinal Fillastre, took the preponderating part during the first 
few months. Afterwards, seeing the trend of events, he showed 
some uneasiness and hesitation. He refused, however, to under- 
take the defence of John XXIII., and only appeared in the trial of 
this pope to make depositions against him, which were sometimes 
of an overwhelming character. 

Among the important matters which claimed his attention at 
Constance may be mentioned also the condemnation of the errors 
of Wycliffe and the trial of John Huss. The reading in public 
of his two treatises De Potestate ecdesiastka and De Reformatione 
Ecdesiae revealed, besides ideas very peculiar to himself on the 
reform and constitution of the church, his design of reducing the 
power of the English in the council by denying them the right of 






AILSA CRAIG AIN 



439 



forming a separate nation (October i-November i, 1416). By 
this campaign, which exposed him to the worst retaliation of the 
English, he inaugurated his role of " procurator and defender of 
the king of France." 

When at last the question arose of giving the Christian world a 
new pope, this time sole and uncontested, Pierre d'Ailly defended 
the right of the cardinals, if not to keep the election entirely in 
their own hands, at any rate to share in the election, and he 
brought forward an ingenious system for reconciling the preten- 
sions of the council with the rights of the Sacred College. In this 
way was elected Pope Martin V. (November n, 1417), and the 
task of Pierre d'Ailly was at last finished. 

The predominance of the Anglo-Burgundians in France having 
made it impossible for him to stay there, he went to Avignon to 
end his days in melancholy calculations arising from the calami- 
ties of which he had been the witness, and the astrological 
reckonings, in which he found pleasure, of the chances for and 
against the world coming to an end in the near future. He died 
on the gth of August 1420. 

Pierre d'Ailly's written works are numerous. A great part of 
them was published with the works of Gerson (by Ellies du Pin, 
Antwerp, 1706); another part appeared in the i5th century, 
probably at Brussels, and there are many treatises and sermons 
still unpublished. In philosophy he was a nominalist. Many 
questions in science and astrology, such as the reform of the 
calendar, attracted his attention. His other works consisted of 
theological essays, ascetic or exegetic, questions of ecclesiastical 
discipline and reform, and of various polemical writings called 
forth for the most part by the schism. 

Whatever reservations may be made as to a certain interested 
or ambitious side of his character, Pierre d'Ailly, whose devotion 
to the cause of union and reform is incontestable, remains one 
of the leading spirits of the end of the I4th and beginning of 
the 1 5th centuries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. Tschackert, Peter von Ailli (Gotha, 1877); 
L. Salembier, Petrus de Alliaco (Lille, 1886); H. Denifle et Em. 
Chatelain, Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, t. iii. (Paris, 
1894); N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d'Occident (Paris, 
4 vols., 1896-1902); and Bibliotheque de I'ecole des chartes, vol. Ixv., 
1904, pp. 557-574- (N. V.) 

AILSA CRAIG, an island rock at the mouth of the Firth 
of Clyde, 10 m. W. of Girvan, Ayrshire, Scotland. It is of 
conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, and rises abruptly 
to a height of 1114 ft. The only side from which the rock can 
be ascended is the east; the other sides being for the most part 
perpendicular, and generally presenting lofty columnar forms, 
though not so regular as those of Staffa. This island is composed 
of micro-granite with riebeckite, of great interest on account of 
the rare occurrence of this type in Britain. It is comparatively 
fine-grained and of a greyish colour. Its essential constituents 
are felspar, quartz and riebeckite a soda amphibole. The 
last of these minerals occurs in small irregular patches between 
the idiomorphic felspars which Dr J. J. H. Teall has found to 
be a soda orthoclase. The rock is allied to paisanite described 
by C. A. Osann and has been termed ailsite by Professor M. F. 
Heddle. It forms part of an intrusive mass which, on the south 
and west cliffs of the island, has a columnar arrangement and 
is traversed by dykes of dolerite, most of which run in a north- 
west direction. The age of this mass is uncertain, as its relations 
to other rocks are not visible in the island. As riebeckite- 
granophyre has been found in Skye it may be of Tertiary age. 
The rock is a favourite material for curling-stones, about three- 
fourths (according to estimate) of those in use in the countries 
where the game obtains being made of it. On this account 
curling-stones are popularly known as " Ailsas " or " Ailsa 
Craigs." A columnar cave exists towards the northern side of 
the island, and on the eastern are the remains of a tower, with 
several vaulted rooms. Two springs occur and some scanty 
grass affords subsistence to rabbits, and, on the higher levels, 
to goats. The precipitous parts are frequented by large flocks 
of solan geese and other sea birds. The lighthouse on the 
southern side shows a flashing light visible for 13 m. In 1831 
the twelfth earl of Cassillis became first marquis of Ailsa, taking 



the title from the Craig, which was his property. When John 
Keats was in Girvan during his Scottish tour in 1818 he apostro- 
phized the rock in a fine sonnet. 

AIMAK, or EIMAK (Mongolian for " clan," or section of a 
tribe), the name given to certain nomadic or semi-nomadic 
tribes of Mongolian stock inhabiting the north and north-west 
Afghan highlands immediately to the north of Herat. They were 
originally known as "chahar (the four) Eimaks," because there 
were four principal tribes: the Taimani (the predominating 
element in the population of Ghur), the Ferozkhoi, the Jamshidi 
and, according to some authorities, the Hazara. The Aimak 
peoples number upwards of a quarter of a million, and speak 
a dialect said to be closely related to the Kalmuck. They are 
Sunnite Mahommedans in distinction from the Hazara who are 
Shiites. They are predominantly of Iranian or quasi-Iranian 
blood, while the Hazara are Turanian. They are a bold, wild 
people and renowned fighters. 

AIMARD, GUSTAVE, the pen-name of OLIVIER GLOUX (1818- 
1883), French novelist, who was born in Paris on the I3th of 
September 1818. He made use of the materials collected in a 
roving and adventurous youth and early manhood in numerous 
romances in the style of J. Fenimore Cooper. Among the best 
of them are: Les Trappeurs de I' Arkansas (1858); La Grande 
flibuste (1860); Nulls mexicaines (1863); La Forget merge (1870). 
He died in Paris on the 2Oth of June 1883. Many of his novels 
have been translated into English. 

AIMOIN (c. g6o-c. 1010), French chronicler, was born at 
Villefranche de Longchapt about 960, and in early life entered 
the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and passed 
the greater part of his life. His chief work is a Historia Fran- 
corum, or Libri V. de gestis Francorum, which deals with the 
history of the Franks from the earliest times to 653, and was 
continued by other writers until the middle of the i2th century. 
It was much in vogue during the middle ages, but its historical 
value is now regarded as slight. It has been edited by G. Waitz 
and published in the Monumenla Germaniae hislorica : Scriptores, 
Band xxvi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). He also wrote a 
Vita Abbonis, abbatis Floriacensis, the last of a series of lives 
of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of Abbo, have 
been lost. This has been published by J. Mabillon in the Ada 
sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti (Paris, 1668-1701). Aimoin's 
third work was the composition of books ii. and iii. of the Miracula 
Sancti Benedicti, the first book of which was written by another 
monk of Fleury named Adrevald. This also appears in the 
Ada sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti. 

Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from 
Aimoin, a monk of St Germain-des-Pres, who wrote De miraculis 
sancti Germani, and a fragment De Normanorum gestis circa 
Parisiacam urbem et de divina in eos ultione tempore Caroli calm. 
Both of these are published in the Historiae Francorum Scriptores, 
Tome ii. (Paris, 1639-1649). 

See Histoire litteraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869). 

AIN, a department on the eastern frontier of France, formed 
in 1790 from Bresse, the Pays de Gex, Bugey, Dombes and 
Valromey, districts of Burgundy. It is bounded N. by the 
departments of Jura and Saone-et-Loire, W. by Sa6ne-et-Loire 
and Rhone, S. by Isere, and E. by the departments of Savoie 
and Haute-Savoie and the Swiss cantons Geneva and Vaud. 
Pop. (1906) 345,856. Area 2248 sq. m. The department takes 
its name from the river Ain, which traverses its centre in a 
southerly direction and separates it roughly into two well- 
marked physical divisions a region of mountains to the east, 
and of plains to the west. The mountainous region is occupied 
by the southern portion of the Jura, which is divided into parallel 
chains running north and south and decreasing in height from 
east to west. The most easterly of these chains, that forming 
the Pays de Gex in the extreme north-east of the department, 
contains the Cret de la Neige (6653 ft.) and other of the highest 
summits in the whole range. The district of Bugey occupies 
the triangle formed by the Rhone in the south-east of the depart- 
ment. West of the Ain, with the exception of the district covered 
by the Revermont, the westernmost chain of the Jura, the country 



440 



AINGER AINSWORTH 



is flat, consisting in the north of the south portion of the Bresse, 
in the south of the marshy Dombes. The chief rivers of the 
eastern region are the Valserine and the Seran, right-hand 
tributaries of the Rhone, which forms the eastern and southern 
boundary of the department; and the Albarine and Oignin, 
left-hand affluents of the Ain. The Bresse is watered by the 
Veyle and the Reyssouze, both flowing into the Saone, which 
washes the western limit of the department. The climate is 
cold in the eastern and central districts of Ain, but it is on the 
whole healthy, except in the Dombes. The average rainfall 
is about 38 in. The soil in the valleys and plains of the depart- 
ment, especially in the Bresse, is fertile, producing large quantities 
of wheat, as well as oats, buckwheat and maize. East of the 
Ain, forests of fir and oak abound on the mountains, the lower 
slopes of which give excellent pasture for sheep and cattle, and 
much cheese is produced. Horse-raising is carried on in the 
Dombes. The pigs and fowls of the Bresse and the geese and 
turkeys of the Dombes are largely exported. The vineyards 
of Bugey and Revermont yield good wines. The chief mineral 
product is the asphalt of the mines of Seyssel on the eastern 
frontier, besides which potter's clay, building stone, hydraulic 
lime and cement are produced in the department. There are 
many corn and saw mills and the wood-working industry is 
important. Silk fabrics, coarse woollen cloth, paper and clocks 
are manufactured. Live-stock and agricultural products are 
exported; the chief imports are wood and raw silk. The depart- 
ment is within the judicial circumscription of the appeal court 
of Lyons and the educational circumscription (academic) of 
Lyons. It forms part of the archiepiscopal province of Besancon. 
The Rhone and the Sa6ne are navigable for considerable distances 
in the department; the chief railway is that of the Paris-Lyon- 
Mediterranee Company, whose line from Macon to Culoz traverses 
the department. Ain is divided into five arrondissements 
those of Bourg and Trevoux in the west, and those of Gex, 
Nantua and Belley in the east; containing in all 36 cantons 
and 455 communes. Bourg is the capital and Belley is the seat 
of a bishop. Jujurieux, in the arrondissement of Nantua, has 
the most important silk factory in the department, occupying 
over 1000 workpeople. Bellegarde on the eastern frontier is 
an industrial centre; it has a manufactory of wood-pulp, and 
saw and flour mills, power for which is obtained from the waters 
of the Rhone. Oyonnax and its environs, north of Nantua, 
are noted for the production of articles in wood and horn, 
especially combs. St Rambert, in the arrondissement of Belley, 
besides being of industrial importance for its manufactures of 
silk and paper, possesses the remains of a Benedictine abbey, 
powerful in the nth, izth and I3th centuries. The Gothic 
church of Ambronay in the arrondissement of Belley, the church 
of St Paul de Varax (about 9 m. S.W. of Bourg), a building in 
the Romanesque style of Burgundy, and that of Nantua (izth 
century), are of architectural interest. Ferney, 4 m. S.W. of 
Gex, is famous as the residence of Voltaire from 1758-1778. 

AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1904), English divine and man of 
letters, was born in London on the gth of February 1837, the 
son of an architect. He was educated at King's College, London, 
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was ordained in 1860 
to a curacy at Alrewas, near Rugeley. There he remained until 
1864, when he became an assistant master at the Sheffield 1 
Collegiate School. His connexion with the Temple church, in 
London, began in 1866, when he was appointed reader; and in 
1894 he succeeded Dr Vaughan as master. In 1887 he was 
presented to a canonry in Bristol cathedral, and he was chaplain- 
in-ordinary to Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. He died 
on the 8th of February 1904. Canon Ainger's gentle wit and 
humour, his generosity and lovable disposition, endeared him 
to a wide circle. In literature his name is chiefly associated 
with his sympathetic appreciation of Charles Lamb and Thomas 
Hood. His works include: Charles Lamb (1882) and Crabbe 
(1903) in the " English Men of Letters " series; editions of 
Lamb's Essays of Elia (1883) and of his Letters (1888; 2nd ed., 
1904), of the Poems (1897) of Thomas Hood, with a biographical 
introduction; The Life and Works of Charles Lamb (12 vols., 



1899-1900); articles on Tennyson and Du Maurier in the 
Dictionary of National Biography; The Gospel and Human 
Life (1904), sermons; Lectures and Essays (2 vols., 1905), edited 
by the Rev. H. C. Beeching. 

See also Edith Sichel, The Life and Letters of Canon Ainger (1906). 

AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMMANUEL (1807-1870), 
German artist and glass-painter, was born at Munich on the i4th 
of February 1807. By the advice of Gartner, director of the 
royal porcelain manufactory, he devoted himself to the study 
of glass-painting, both as a mechanical process and as an art, 
and in 1828 he was appointed director of the newly-founded 
royal painted-glass manufactory at Munich. The method 
which he gradually perfected there was a development of the 
enamel process adopted in the Renaissance, and consisted in 
actually painting the design upon the glass, which was sub- 
jected, as each colour was laid on, to carefully-adjusted heating. 
The earliest specimens of Ainmuller's work are to be found in 
the cathedral of Regensburg. With a few exceptions, all the 
windows in Glasgow cathedral are from his hand. Specimens 
may also be seen in St Paul's cathedral, and Peterhouse, Cam- 
bridge, and Cologne cathedral contains some of his finest 
productions. Ainmuller had considerable skill as an oil-painter, 
especially in interiors, his pictures of the Chapel Royal at 
Windsor and of Westminster Abbey being much admired. He 
died on the gth of December 1870. 

AINSWORTH, HENRY (1571-1622), English Nonconformist 
divine and scholar, was born of yeoman stock in 1570/1 at 
S wanton Morley, Norfolk. He was for four years from December 
1587 a scholar of Caius College, Cambridge, and, after associat- 
ing with the Puritan party in the Church, eventually joined the 
Separatists. Driven abroad about the year 1593, he found a 
home in " a blind lane at Amsterdam." He acted as " porter " 
to a scholarly bookseller in that city, who, on discovering his 
skill in the Hebrew language, made him known to his country- 
men. When part of the London church, of which Francis 
Johnson (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in Amsterdam, 
Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher. In 1596 he 
took the lead in drawing up a confession of their faith, which 
he reissued in Latin in 1598 and dedicated to the various univer- 
sities of Europe (including St Andrews, Scotland). Johnson 
joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and Ainsworth composed 
An Apology or Defence of such true Christians as are commonly 
but unjustly called Brownisls. The task of organizing the church 
was not easy and dissension was rife. Of Ainsworth it may be 
said that, though often embroiled in controversy, he never put 
himself forward; yet he was the most steadfast and cultured 
champion of the principles represented by the early Congre- 
gationalists. Amid all the strife of controversy, he steadily 
pursued his rabbinical studies. The combination was so unique 
that many, like the encyclopaedists L. Moreri and J. H. Zedler, 
have made two Henry Ainsworths one Dr Henry Ainsworth, 
a learned, biblical commentator; the other H. Ainsworth, an 
arch-heretic and " the ringleader of the Separatists at Amster- 
dam." Some confusion has also been occasioned through his 
not unfriendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who 
abjured the Anglican for the Roman church. In 1608 Ainsworth 
answered Richard Bernard's The Separatist Schisme. But his 
ablest and most arduous minor work in controversy was his 
reply to John Smyth (commonly called "the Se-Baptist "), 
entitled a Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used 
in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the 
Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth (1609). In 
1610 he was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of 
their church, from F. Johnson and those who adhered to him. 
For some time a difference of principle, as to the church's right 
to revise its officers' decisions, had been growing between them, 
Ainsworth taking the more Congregational view. (See CONGRE- 
GATIONALISM.) But in spirit he remained a man of peace. His 
memory abides through his rabbinical learning. The ripe fruit 
of many years' labour appeared in his Annotations on Genesis 
(1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers (1619); 
Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical version, 1612); 






AINSWORTH AINU 



441 



Song of Solomon (1623). These were collected in folio in 1627, and 
again in 1639, and later in various forms. From the outset the 
Annotations took a commanding place, especially among con- 
tinental scholars, and he established for English nonconformity a 
tradition of culture and scholarship. There is no probability 
about the narrative given by Neal in his History of the Puritans 
(ii. 47) that he was poisoned by certain Jews. He died in 1622, 
or early in 1623, for in that year was published his Seasonable 
Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists, in 
which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy. 

LITERATURE. John Worthington's Diary (Chetham Society), by 
Crossley, i. 263-266; works of John Robinson (1851) ; H. M. Dexter, 
Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years (1880) ; W. E. A. 
Axon, H. Ainsworth, the Puritan Commentator (1889) ; F. J. Powicke, 
Henry Barrow and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam (1900); J. H. 
Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational Pioneers (1906). 

AINSWORTH, ROBERT (1660-1743), English schoolmaster 
and author, was born at Eccles, near Manchester, in September 
1660. After teaching for some time at Lever's Grammar School 
i Bolton, he removed to London, where he conducted a boarding- 
chool, first at Bethnal Green and then at Hackney. He soon 
ade a moderate fortune which gave him leisure to pursue his 
:lassical studies. Ainsworth's name is- associated with his Latin- 
Jnglish Dictionary, begun in 1714, and published in 1736 as 
Thesaurus linguae Latinae compendiarius. It was long ex- 
tensively used in schools, and often reprinted, the later editions 
eing revised and enlarged by other hands, but it is now super- 
eded. Ainsworth was also the author of some useful works on 
classical antiquities, and a sensible treatise on education, en- 
titled The most Natural and Easy Way of Institution (1698), in 
vhich he advocates the teaching of Latin by conversational 
nethods and deprecates punishment of any sort. He died in 
London on the 4th of April 1743. 

AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON (1805-1882), English 
novelist, son of Thomas Ainsworth, solicitor, was born at Man- 
chester on the 4th of February 1805. He was educated at 
lanchester Grammar School and articled to the firm of which 
father was a member, proceeding to London in 1824 to 
omplete his legal training at the Inner Temple. At the age of 
twenty-one he married a daughter of John Ebers the publisher, 
and started in his father-in-law's line of business. This, however, 
oon proved unprofitable and he decided to attempt literary 
vork. A novel called Sir John Chiverlon, in which he appears 
i have had a share, had attracted the praise of Sir Walter Scott, 
ad this encouragement decided him to take up fiction as a 
areer. In 1834 he published Rookwood, which had an immediate 
success, and thenceforth he was always occupied with the com- 
pilation of " historical " novels. He published about forty such 
stories, of which the best-known are Jack Sheppard (1839), The 
Tower of London (1840), Guy Fawkes (1841), OldSt Paul's (1841) 
ind Windsor Castle (1843). He edited Bentley's Miscellany, in 
vhich Jack Sheppard was published as a serial, and in 1842 he 
ecame proprietor of Ainsworth's Magazine. In 1853 it ceased 
appear, and Ainsworth bought the New Monthly Magazine. 
le continued his literary activity until his death, but his later 
stories were less striking than the earlier ones. He died at 
^.eigate on the 3rd of January 1882 and was buried at Kensal 
ireen. Ainsworth had a lively talent for plot, and his books 
bave many attractive qualities. The glorification of Dick Turpin 
Rookwood, and of Jack Sheppard in the novel that bears his 
ame, caused considerable outcry among straitlaced elders. In 
bis later novels Ainsworth confined himself to heroes less open 
criticism. His style was not without archaic affectation and 
awkwardness, but when his energies were aroused by a striking 
situation he could be brisk, vigorous and impressive. He did 
i great deal to interest the less educated classes in the historical 
omances of their country, and his tales were invariably in- 
structive, clean and manly. 

AINTAB (anc. Dolichf), a town in the vilayet of Aleppo and 
ncient Cyrrhestica district of N. Syria. Pop. 45,000, two-thirds 
loslem. The site of Doliche, famous for its worship of Baal 
(Zeus Dolichenus), adopted by the Seleucids and eventually 
spread all over the Roman empire, lies at Duluk, two hours N.W.; 



but nothing is to be seen there except a mound. The place was 
probably of Hittite origin and does not appear to have been 
settled by Greeks. The bazaars of Aintab are a great centre for 
" Hittite " antiquities, found at various sites from Sakchegozu 
on the west to Jerablus on the east. The modern town lies in 
the open treeless valley of the Sajur, a tributary of the Euphrates, 
and on the right bank, 65 m. north-east of Aleppo, with which it is 
connected by a chausste, passing through Killis. This road pro- 
ceeds east to the great crossing of Euphrates at Birejik, and thus 
Aintab lies on the highway between N. Syria and Urfa-Mosul and 
has much transit trade and numerous khans. In the middle ages 
its strong castle (Hamtab) was an important strategic point, 
taken by Saladin about A.D. 1183; and it supplied the last base 
from which Ibrahim Pasha marched in 1839 to win his decisive 
victory over the Turks at Nezib, about 25 m. distant north-east. 
Lying high (3500 ft.) and swept by purifying winds, Aintab is 
a comparatively clean and healthy spot, though not free from 
ophthalmia and the " Aleppo button," and it has been selected 
by the American Mission Board as its centre for N. Syria. 
" Central Turkey College," educational and medical, lies on high 
ground west. It was burnt down in 1891, but rebuilt; it has a 
dependency for girls within the town. Thanks to its presence the 
Armenian protestants are a large and rich community, which 
suffered less in the massacre of 1895 than the Gregorians. There 
is a small Episcopalian body, which has a large unfinished 
church, and a schismatic " catholicos," who has vainly tried to 
gain acceptance into the Anglican communion. There is also a 
flourishing Franciscan mission. Striped cloths and pekmez, a 
sweet paste made from grapes, are the principal manufactures; 
and tobacco and cereals the principal cultures. The town is 
unusually well and solidly built, good stone being obtained 
near at hand. The Moslem inhabitants are mainly of Turko- 
man origin, and used to owe fealty to chieftains of the 
family of Chapan Oglu, whose headquarters were at Yuzgat in 
Cappadocia. (D. G. H.) 

AINU (" man "), a race inhabiting the northernmost islands of 
Japan. Little definite is known about their earliest history, but 
it is improbable that they are, as has been urged, the aborigines 
of Japan. The most accurate researches go to prove that they 
were immigrants, who reached Yezo from the Kuriles, and sub- 
sequently crossing Tsugaru strait, colonized a great part of the 
main island of Japan, exterminating a race of pit-dwellers to 
whom they gave the name of koro-pok-guru (men with sunken 
places). These koro-pok-guru were of such small stature as to be 
considered dwarfs. They wore skins of animals for clothing, and 
that they understood the potter's art and used flint arrow-heads 
is clearly proved by excavations at the sites of their pits. The 
Ainu, on the contrary, never had any knowledge of pottery. 
Ultimately the Ainu, coming into contact with the Japanese, who 
had immigrated from the south and west, were driven northward 
into the island of Yezo, where, as well as in the Kuriles and in the 
southern part of Sakhalin, they are still found in some numbers. 
When, at the close of the i8th and the beginning of the igth 
century, Russian enterprises drew the attention of the Japanese 
government to the northern districts of the empire, the Tokugawa 
shoguns adopted towards the Ainu a policy of liberality and 
leniency consistent with the best principles of modern coloniza- 
tion. But the doom of unfitness appears to have begun to 
overtake the race long ago. History indicates that in ancient 
times they were fierce fighters, able to offer a stout resistance to 
the incomparably better armed and more civilized Japanese. 
To-day they are drunken, dirty, spiritless folk, whom it is 
difficult to suppose capable of the warlike role they once played. 
Their number, between 16,000 and 17,000, is virtually stationary. 
The Ainu are somewhat taller than the Japanese, stoutly built, 
well proportioned, with dark-brown eyes, high cheek-bones, 
short broad noses and faces lacking length. The hairiness of the 
Ainu has been much exaggerated. They are not more hairy than 
many Europeans. Never shaving after a certain age, the men 
have full beards and moustaches, but the stories of Ainu covered 
with hair like a bear are quite unjustified by facts. Men and 
women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of 



442 



AIR 






the head, but trim it semicircularly behind. The women tattoo 
their mouths, arms, and sometimes their foreheads, using for 
colour the smut deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark. 
Their original dress is a robe spun from the bark of the elm tree. 
It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is folded round the 
body and tied with a girdle of the same material. Females wear 
also an undergarment of Japanese cloth. In winter the skins of 
animals are worn, with leggings of deerskin and boots made from 
the skin of dogs or salmon. Both sexes are fond of ear-rings, 
which are said to have been made of grape-vine in former times, 
but are now purchased from the Japanese, as also are bead neck- 
laces, which the women prize highly. Their food is meat, when- 
ever they can procure it the flesh of the bear, the fox, the wolf, 
the badger, the ox or the horse fish, fowl, millet, vegetables, 
herbs and roots. They never eat raw fish or flesh, but always 
either boil or roast it. Their habitations are reed-thatched huts, 
the largest 20 ft. square, without partitions and having a fireplace 
in the centre. There is no chimney, but only a hole at the angle 
of the roof; there is one window on the eastern side and there are 
two doors. Public buildings do not exist, whether in the shape 
of inn, meeting-place or temple. The furniture of their dwellings 
is exceedingly scanty. They have no chairs, stools or tables, but 
sit on. the floor, which is covered with two layers of mats, one of 
rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging 
mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets. 
The men use chop-sticks and moustache-lifters when eating; the 
women have wooden spoons. Uncleanliness is characteristic of 
the Ainu, and all their intercourse with the Japanese has not 
improved them in that respect. The Rev. John Batchelor, in his 
Notes on the Ainu, says that he lived in one Ainu habitation for 
six weeks on one occasion, and for two months on another, and 
that he never once saw personal ablutions performed, or cooking 
or eating utensils washed. 

Not having been at any period acquainted with the art of 
writing, they have no literature and are profoundly ignorant. 
But at schools established for them by the Japanese in recent 
times, they have shown that their intellectual capacity is not 
deficient. No distinct conception of a universe enters into their 
cosmology. They picture to themselves many floating worlds, 
yet they deduce the idea of rotundity from the course of the sun, 
and they imagine that the " Ainu world " rests on the back of a 
fish whose movements cause earthquakes. It is scarcely possible 
to doubt that this fancy is derived from the Japanese, who used 
to hold an identical theory. The Ainu believe in a supreme 
Creator, but also in a sun-god, a moon-god, a water-god and a 
mountain-god, deities whose river is the Milky Way, whose 
voices are heard in the thunder and whose glory is reflected in the 
lightning. Their chief object of actual worship appears to be the 
bear. Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop) writes: " The peculiarity 
which distinguishes their rude mythology is the worship of the 
bear, the Yezo bear being one of the finest of his species. But 
it is impossible to understand the feelings t>y which this cult is 
prompted, for although they worship the animal after their 
fashion and set up its head in their villages, yet they trap it, kill 
it, eat it and sell its skin. There is no doubt that this wild beast 
inspires more of the feeling which prompts worship than the 
inanimate forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished 
as bear-worshippers, and their greatest religious festival or 
saturnalia as the Festival of the Bear. . . . Some of their rude 
chants are in praise of the bear, and their highest eulogy on a man 
is to compare him to a bear." They have no priests by profession. 
The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are 
necessary; ceremonies confined to making libations of wine, 
uttering short prayers and offering willow sticks with wooden 
shavings attached to them, much as the Japanese set up the well- 
known gohei (sacred offerings) at certain spots. The Ainu gives 
thanks to the gods before eating, and prays to the deity of fire in 
time of sickness. He thinks that his spirit is immortal, and that 
it will be rewarded hereafter in heaven or punished in hell, both 
of which places are beneath the earth, hell being the land of 
volcanoes; but he has no theory as to a resurrection of the body 
or metempsychosis. He preserves a tradition about a flood which 



seems to be the counterpart of the Biblical deluge, and about an 
earthquake which lasted a hundred days, produced the three 
volcanoes of Yezo and created the island by bridging the waters 
that had previously separated it into two parts. 

The Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws and judged by 
Japanese tribunals, but in former times their affairs were ad- 
ministered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for ad- 
ministrative purposes the country was divided into three districts, 
Saru, Usu and Ishikari, which were under the ultimate control of 
Saru, though the relations between their respective inhabitants 
were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functions 
of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number 
of a community's members sat in judgment upon its criminals. 
Capital punishment did not exist, nor was imprisonment resorted 
to, beating being considered a sufficient and final penalty, except 
in the case of murder, when the nose and ears of the assassin were 
cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Little as the Japanese 
and the Ainu have in common, intermarriages are not infrequent, 
and at Sambutsu especially, on the eastern coast, many children 
of such marriages may be seen. Doenitz, Hilgendorf and Dr B. 
Scheube, arguing from a minute investigation of the physical 
traits of the Ainu, have concluded that they are Mongolians; 
according to Professor A. H. Keane the Ainu " are quite distinct 
from the surrounding Mongolic peoples, and present several 
remarkable physical characters which seem to point to a remote 
connexion with the Caucasic races. Such are a very full beard, 
shaggy or wavy black or dark-brown hair, sometimes covering 
the back and chest; a somewhat fair or even white complexion, 
large nose, straight eyes and regular features, often quite hand- 
some and of European type. They seem to be a last remnant of 
the Neolithic peoples, who ranged in prehistoric times across the 
northern hemisphere from the British Isles to Manchuria and 
Japan. They are bear-worshippers, and have other customs in 
common with the Manchurian aborigines, but the language is 
entirely different, and they have traditions of a time when they 
were the dominant people in the surrounding lands." It should 
be noted finally that the Ainu are altogether free from ferocity or 
exclusiveness, and that they treat strangers with gentle kindness. 

See Rev. John Batchelor, The A inu and their Folk-lore(London,i 90 1) ; 
Romyn Hitchcock, The Ainos of Japan (Washington, 1892) ; H. von 
Siebold, Uber die Aino (Berlin, 1881); Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop), 
Korea and her Neighbours (1898) ; Basil Hall Chamberlain, Language, 
Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan viewed in the 
Light of Aino Studies and Aino Fairy-tales (1895). 

AIR, or ASBEN, a country of West Africa, lying between 15 
and 19 N. and 6 and 10 E. It is within the Sahara, of which 
it forms one of the most fertile regions. The northern portion 
of the country is mountainous, some of the peaks rising to a 
height of 5000 ft. Richly wooded hollows and extensive plains 
are interspersed between the hills. The mimosa, the dum palm 
and the date are abundant. Some of the plains afford good 
pasturage for camels, asses, goats and cattle; others are desert 
tablelands. In the less frequented districts wild animals abound, 
notably the lion and the gazelle. The country generally is of 
sandstone or granite formation, with occasional trachyte and 
basaltic ranges. There are no permanent rivers; but during 
the rainy season, from August to October, heavy floods convert 
the water-courses in the hollows of the mountains into broad 
and rapid streams. Numerous wells supply the wants of the 
people and their cattle. To the south of this variegated region 
lies a desert plateau, 2000 ft. above sea-level, destitute of water, 
and tenanted only by the wild ox, the ostrich and the giraffe. 
Still farther south is the fairly fertile district of Damerghu, of 
which Zinder is the chief town. Little of the soil is under culti- 
vation except in the neighbourhood of the villages. Millet, 
dates, indigo and senna are the principal productions. The 
great bulk of the food supplies is brought from Damerghu, and 
the materials for clothing are also imported. A great caravan 
annually passes through Air, consisting of several thousand 
camels, carrying salt from Bilma to the Hausa states. 

Air was called Asben by the native tribes until they were 
conquered by the Berbers. The present inhabitants are for the 
most part of a mixed race, combining the finer traits of the 



AIR AIR-ENGINE 



443 



3 



Berbers with negro characteristics. The sultan of Air is to a 
great extent dependent on the chiefs of the Tuareg tribes in- 
habiting a vast tract of the Sahara to the north-west. A large 
part of his revenue is derived from tribute exacted from the 
salt caravans. Since 1890 Air has been included in the French 
sphere of influence in West Africa. 

Agades, the capital of the country, which has a circuit of 
3^ m., is built on the edge of a plateau 2500 ft. high, and is 
supposed to have been founded by the Berbers to serve as a 
secure magazine for their extensive trade with the Songhoi 
empire. The language of the people is a dialect of Songhoi. 
In former times Agades was a place of great traffic, and had a 
population of about 50,000. Since the beginning of the i6th 
century the prosperity of the town has, however, gradually de- 
clined. F. Foureau, who visited Agades in 1899, stated that 
more than half the total area was deserted and ruinous. The 
houses, which are built of clay, are low and flat-roofed; and the 
only buildings of importance are the chief mosque, which is 
surmounted by a tower 95 ft. high, and the sultan's residence, 
a massive two-storied structure pierced with small windows. 
The chief trade is grain. The great salt caravans pass through 

as well as pilgrims on their way to Mecca. 

AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," 
low "), the atmosphere that surrounds the earth; Gr. 
<M?P, the lower thick air, being distinguished from aWrjp, the 
upper pure air. With the development of analytical and especi- 
ally of pneumatic chemistry, the air was recognized not to be 
one homogeneous substance, as was long supposed, and different 
" airs," or gases, came to be distinguished. Thus oxygen gas, 
at the end of the i8th century, was known as dephlogisticated air, 
nitrogen or azote as phlogisticated air, hydrogen as inflammable 
air, carbonic acid gas as fixed air. The name is now ordinarily 
restricted to what is more accurately called atmospheric air 
the air we breathe the invisible elastic fluid which surrounds 
the earth (see ATMOSPHERE). Probably the sense of atmosphere 
or environment led (though this is disputed by etymologists) 
the further use of the word " air " to mean " manner " or 

appearance "; and so to its employment (cf. Lat. modus) 

music for " melody." (See ARIA.) 

AIRAY, HENRY (is6o?-i6i6), English Puritan divine, was 

irn at Kentmere, Westmorland, but no record remains of the 
date of either birth or baptism. He was the son of William 
Airay, the favourite servant of Bernard Gilpin, " the apostle 
of the North," whose bounty showed itself in sending Henry 
and his brother Evan (or Ewan) to his own endowed school, 

here they were educated " in grammatical learning," and were 
attendance at Oxford when Gilpin died. From Wood's 

thenae we glean the details of Airay's college attendance. 

He was sent to St Edmund's hall in 1579, aged nineteen or 

icreabouts. Soon after he was translated to Queen's College, 
ere he became pauper puer serviens; that is, a poor serving 

ild that waits on the fellows in the common hall at meals, 

.d in their chambers, and does other servile work about the 

illege." His transference to Queen's is perhaps explained by 
having been Gilpin's college, and by his Westmorland origin 
giving him a claim on Eaglesfield's foundation. He graduated 
B.A. on the igth of June 1583, M.A. on the isth of June 1586, 

.D. in 1594 and D.D. on the I7th of June 1600 all in 

icen's College. " About the time he was master " (1586) " he 
Entered holy orders, and became a frequent and zealous preacher 
the university." His Commentary on the Epistle to the 

'hilippians (1618, reprinted 1864) is a specimen of his preach- 
before his college, and of his fiery denunciation of popery 
and his fearless enunciation of that Calvinism which Oxford 
in common with all England then prized. In 1598 he was 
chosen provost of his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor 
of the university. In the discharge of his vice-chancellor's 
duties he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early 
s manifesting his antagonism to the prevailing Puritanism. 

He was also rector of Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a 
living which involved him in a trying but successful litigation, 

hereof later incumbents reaped the benefit. He died on the 



UUI 

:> 



6th of October 1616. His character as a man, preacher, divine, 
and as an important ruler in the university, will be found por- 
trayed in the Epistle by John Potter, prefixed to the Commentary. 
He must have been a fine specimen of the more cultured Puritans 
possessed of a robust common-sense in admirable contrast 
with some of his contemporaries. 

AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876), Scottish poet, was born at 
Bowden, Roxburghshire, on the 28th of August 1802. He was 
educated at Edinburgh University, where he made the acquaint- 
ance of Carlyle and James Hogg, and he decided to devote 
himself to literary work. He published Martzoufle, a Tragedy, 
with other Poems (1826), a volume of essays, and a long narrative 
poem in several cantos, The Captive of Fez (1830). For a year 
he edited the Edinburgh Weekly Journal, and for twenty-eight 
years the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Herald. In 1848 he 
published a collected edition of his poems, which met with much 
favour. Carlyle said that he found in them " a healthy breath 
as of mountain breezes." Among Aird's other friends were De 
Quincey, Lockhart, Stanley (afterwards dean of Westminster) 
and Motherwell. He died at Dumfries on the 2 sth of April 1876. 

AIRDRIE, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, 
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 22,228. It is situated n m. E. of 
Glasgow by the North British railway, and also communicates 
with Glasgow by the Monkland Canal (which passes within i m. 
of the town), as well as by the Caledonian railway via Coatbridge 
and Whifflet. The canal was constructed between 1761 and 
1 790, and connects with the Forth and Clyde Canal near Mary- 
hill. Airdrie was a market town in 1695, but owes its prosperity 
to the great coal and iron beds in its vicinity. Other industries 
include iron and brass foundries, engineering, manufactures 
of woollens and calicoes, silk-weaving, paper-making, oil and 
fireclay. The public buildings comprise the town hall, county 
buildings, mechanics' institute, academy, two fever hospitals 
and free library, the burgh having been the first town in Scotland 
to adopt the Free Library Act. Airdrie unites with Falkirk, 
Hamilton, Lanark and Linlithgow in sending one member to 
parliament. The parish of New Monkland, in which Airdrie 
lies, was formed (with Old Monkland)in 1640 out of the ancient 
barony of Monkland, so named from the fact that it was part of 
the lands granted by Malcolm IV. to the monks of Newbattle. 

AIRE, a town of south-western France, in the department 
of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 22 m. S.E. of Mont-de- 
Marsan on the Southern railway between Morcenx and Tarbes. 
Pop. (1906) 2283. It is the seat of a bishopric, and has a 
cathedral of the I2th century and an episcopal palace of the 
nth, 1 7th and i8th centuries. Both have undergone frequent 
restoration. They are surpassed in interest by the church of 
St Quitterie in Mas d'Aire, the suburb south-west of the town. 
The latter is a brick building of the I3th and i4th centuries, with 
a choir in the Romanesque style, and a fine western portal which 
has been much disfigured. The crypt contains several Gallo- 
Roman tombs and the' sarcophagus (5th century) of St Quitterie. 
Aire has two ecclesiastical seminaries. 

Aire (Atura, Vicus Julii) was the residence of the kings of 
the Visigoths, one of whom, Alaric II. (q.v.), there drew up his 
famous code. The bishopric dates from the 5th century. 

AIRE, a town of northern France, on the river Lys, in the 
department of Pas-de-Calais, 12 m. S.S.E. of St Omer by rail. 
Pop. (1006) 4258. The town lies in a low and marshy situation 
at the junction of three canals. The chief buildings are the 
church of St Pierre (isth and i6th centuries), which has an 
imposing tower and rich interior decoration; a h6tel de ville 
of the i8th century; and the Bailliage (i6th century), a small 
building in the Renaissance style. Aire has flour-mills, leather 
and oil works, and nail manufactories, and trade in agricultural 
produce. 

In the middle ages Aire belonged to the counts of Flanders, 
from whom in 1188 it received a charter, which is still extant. 
It was given to France by the peace of Utrecht 1713. 

AIR-ENGINE, the name given to heat-engines which use air 
for their working substance, that is to say for the substance 
which is caused alternately to expand and contract by application 



444 



AIR-ENGINE 



and removal of heat, this process enabling a portion of the 
applied heat to be tiansformed into mechanical work. Just as 
the working substance which alternately takes in and gives 
out heat in the steam-engine is water (converted during a part 
of the action into steam), so in the air-engine it is air. The 
practical drawbacks to employing air as the working substance 
of a heat-engine are so great that its use has been very limited. 
Such attempts as have been made to design air-engines on a 
large scale have been practical failures, and are now interesting 
only as steps in the historical development of applied thermo- 
dynamics. In the form of motors for producing very small 
amounts of power air-engines have been found convenient, 
and within a restricted field they are still met with. But even 
in this field the competition of the oil-engine and the gas-engine 
is too formidable to leave to the air-engine more than a very 
narrow chance of employment. 

One of the chief practical objections to air-engines is the great 
bulk of the working substance in relation to the amount of heat 
that is utilized in the working of the engine. To some extent this 
objection may be reduced by using the air in a state of com- 
pression, and therefore of greater density, throughout its opera- 
tion. Even then, however, the amount of operative heat is 
very small in comparison with that which passes through the 
steam-engine, per cubic foot swept through by the piston, for 
the change of state which water undergoes in its transformation 
into steam involves the taking in of much more heat than can 
be communicated to air in changing its temperature within such 
a range as is practicable. Another and not less serious objection 
is the practical difficulty of getting heat into the working air 
through the walls of the containing vessel. The air receives heat 
from an external furnace just as water does in the boiler of a 
steam-engine, by contact with a heated metallic surface, but it 
takes up heat from such a surface with much less readiness 
than does water. The waste of heat in the chimney gases is 
accordingly greater; and further, the metallic shell is liable 
to be quickly burned away as a result of its contact at a high 
temperature with free oxygen. The temperature of the shell 
is much higher than that of a steam boiler, for in order to secure 
that the working air will take up a fair amount of heat, the upper 
limit to which its temperature is raised greatly exceeds that of 
even high-pressure steam. This objection to the air-engine 
arises from the fact that the heat comes to it from external 
combustion; it disappears when internal combustion is resorted 
to; that is to say, when the heat is generated within the envelope 
containing the working air, by the combustion there of gaseous 
or other fuel. Gas-engines and oil-engines and other types of 
engine employing internal combustion may be regarded as 
closely related to the air-engine. They differ from it, however, 
in the fact that their working substance is not air, but a mixture 
of gases a necessary consequence of internal combustion. It 
is to internal combustion that they owe their success, for it 
enables them to get all the heat of combustion into the working 
substance, to use a relatively very high temperature at the top 
of the range, and at the same time to escape entirely the draw- 
backs that arise in the air-engine proper through the need of 
conveying heat to .the air through a metallic shell. 

A form of air-engine which was invented in 1816 by the Rev. 
R. Stirling is of special interest as embodying the earliest applica- 
tion of what is known as the " regenerative " principle, the 
principle namely that heat may be deposited by a substance 
at one stage of its action and taken up again at another stage 
with but little loss, and with a great resulting change in the 
substance's temperature at each of the two stages in the operation. 
The principle has since found wide application in metallurgical 
and other operations. In any heat-engine it is essential that 
the working substance should be at a high temperature while 
it is taking in heat, and at a relatively low temperature when 
it is rejecting heat. The highest thermodynamic efficiency will 
be reached when the working substance is at the top of its 
temperature range while any heat is being received and at the 
bottom while any heat is being rejected as is the case in the 
cycle of operations of the theoretically imagined engine of Carnot. 



(See THERMODYNAMICS and STEAM-ENOINE.) In Carnot's cycle 
the substance takes in heat at its highest temperature, then 
passes by adiabatic expansion from the top to the bottom of 
its temperature range, then rejects heat at the bottom of the 
range, and is finally brought back by adiabatic compression 
to the highest temperature at which it again takes in heat, and 
so on. An air-engine working on this cycle would be intolerably 
bulky and mechanically inefficient. Stirling substituted for 
the two stages of adiabatic expansion and compression the 
passage of the air to and fro through a " regenerator," in which 
the air was alternately cooled by storing its heat in the material 
of the regenerator and reheated by picking the stored heat up 
again on the return journey. The essential parts of one form 
of Stirling's engine are shown in fig. i . There A is the externally- 
fired heating vessel, the lower part of which contains hot air 
which is taking in heat from the furnace beneath. A pipe from 
the top of A leads to the working cylinder (B). At the top of A is 
a cooler (C) consisting of pipes through which cold water is made 
to circulate. In A there is a displacer (D) which is connected 
(by parts not shown) with the piston in such a manner that it 
moves down when the piston has moved up. The air-pressure 
is practically the same above and below D, for these spaces are 
in free communication with 
one another through the 
regenerator (E), which is an 
annular space stacked loosely 
with wire-gauze. When D 
moves down, the hot air is 
driven up through the re- 
generator to the upper part 
of the containing vessel. It 
deposits its heat in the wire- 
gauze, becoming lowered in 
temperature and conse- 
quently reduced in pressure. 
The piston (B) descends, and 
the air, now in contact with 
the cooling pipes (C) , gives up 
heat to them. Then the dis- 
placer (D) is raised. The air 
passes down through its 

regenerator picking up the ^-Stirling's Air-Engine, 

heat deposited there, and 

thereby having its temperature restored and its pressure 
raised. It then takes in heat from the furnace, expanding 
in volume and forcing the piston (B) to rise, which completes 
the cycle. The engine was double-acting, another heating 
vessel like A being connected with the upper end of the working 
cylinder at F. The stages at which heat is taken from the fur- 
nace and rejected to the cooler (C) are approximately isothermal 
at the upper and lower limits of temperature respectively, and 
the cycle accordingly is approximately " perfect " in the thermo- 
dynamic sense. The theoretical indicator diagram is made up 
of two isothermal lines for the taking in and rejection of heat, 
and two lines of constant volume for the two passages through 
the regenerator. This engine was the subject of two patents 
(by R. and S. Stirling) in 1827 and 1840. A double-acting 
Stirling engine of 50 horse-power, using air which was maintained 
by a pump at a fairly high pressure throughout the operations, 
was used for some years in the Dundee Foundry, where it is 
credited with having consumed only 1-7 ft of coal per hour 
per indicated horse-power. The coal consumption per brake- 
horse-power was no doubt much greater. It was finally abandoned 
on account of the failure of the heating vessels. 

The type survives in some small domestic motors, an example 
of which, manufactured under the patent of H. Robinson, is 
shown in fig. 2. In this there is no compressing pump, and the 
main pressure of the working air is simply that of the atmo- 
sphere. The whole range of pressure is so slight that no packing 
is required. Here A is the vessel in which the air is heated and 
within which the displacer works. It is heated by a small coke- 
fire or by a gas flame in C. It communicates through a passage 




AIREY AIRY 



445 




'IG. 2. Robinson's form of Stirling's 
Engine. 



(D) with the working cylinder (B) . The displacer (E) , which takes 
its motion through a rod (I) from a rocking lever (F) connected by 
a short link to the crank-pin, is itself the regenerator, its con- 
struction being such that the air passes up and down through 
it as in one of the original Stirling forms. The cooler is a water 
vessel (G) through which water circulates from a tank (H). 
Messrs. Hayward and Tyler's " Rider " engine may be mentioned 
as another small hot-air motor which follows nearly the Stirling 
cycle of operations. 

An attempt to develop a powerful air-engine was made in 
America about 1833 by John Ericsson, who applied it to marine 
propulsion in the ship " Caloric," but without permanent 
success. Like Stirling, Ericsson used a regenerator, but with 
this difference that the pressure instead of the volume of the 

air remained constant while 
it passed in each direction 
through the regenerator. 
Cold air was compressed by 
a pump into a receiver, 
where it was kept cool 
during compression and 
from which it passed through 
a regenerator into the work- 
ing cylinder. In so passing 
it took up heat and ex- 
panded. It was then allowed 
to expand further, taking 
in heat frotn a furnace 
under tLe cylinder and 
failing in pressure. This 
expansion was continued 
till the pressure of the 
working air fell nearly to 
that of the atmosphere. It 
was then discharged through 
tie regenerator, depositing heat for the next charge of air in 
urn to take up. The indicator diagram approximated to a 
orm made up of two isothermal lines and two lines of constant 
pressure. 

In the transmission of power by compressed air (see POWER 
TRANSMISSION) the air-driven motors are for the most part 
nachines resembling steam-engines in the general features of 
heir pistons, cylinders, valves and so forth. Such machines 
re not properly described as air-engines since their function 
i not the conversion of heat into work. Incidentally, however, 
hey do in some cases partially discharge that function, namely, 
vhen what is called a " preheater " is used to warm up the 
ompressed air before it enters in the motor cylinder. The 
object of this device is not, primarily, to produce work from 
eat, but to escape the inconveniences that would otherwise 
irise through extreme cooling of the air during its expansion. 
Without preheating the expanding air becomes so cold as to be 
liable to deposit snow from the moisture held in suspension, 
nd thereby to clog the valves. With preheating this is avoided, 
id the amount of work done by a given quantity of air is 
ncreased by the conversion into work of a part of the sup- 
plementary energy which the preheater supplies in the form of 
beat. (J. A. E.) 

AIREY, RICHARD AIREY, BARON (1803-1881), British 
eneral, was the son of Lieutenant-General Sir George Airey 
(1761-1833) and was born in 1803. He entered the army in 
1821, became captain in 1825, and served on the staff of Sir 
Frederick Adam in the Ionian Islands (1827-1830) and on that 
of Lord Aylmer in North America (1830-1832). In 1838 Airey, 
hen a lieutenant-colonel, went to the Horse Guards, where in 
1852 he became military secretary to the commander-in-chief, 
ord Hardinge. In 1854 he was given a brigade command in 
he army sent out to the East; from which, however, he was 
amediately transferred to the onerous and difficult post of 
quartermaster-general to Lord Raglan, in which capacity he 
erved through the campaign in the Crimea. He was made a 
lajor-general in December 1854, and it was universally recog- 



nized in the army that he was the best soldier on Lord Raglan's 
staff. He was made a K.C.B., and was reported upon most 
favourably by his superiors, Lord Raglan and Sir J. Simpson. 
Airey was a quartermaster-general in the older sense of the 
word, i.e. a chief of the general staff, but a different view of 
the duties of the office was then becoming recognized. Public 
opinion held him and his department responsible for the failures 
and mismanagement of the commissariat. Airey demanded an 
inquiry on his return to England and cleared himself completely, 
but he never recovered from the effects of the unjust persecution 
of which he had been made the victim, though the popular view 
was not shared by his military superiors. He gave up his post 
at the front to become quartermaster-general to the forces at 
home. In 1862 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and from 
1865 to 1870 he was governor of Gibraltar, receiving the G.C.B. 
in 1867. In 1870 he became adjutant-general at headquarters, 
and in 1871 attained the full rank of general. In 1876, on 
his retirement, he was created a peer, and in 1879-1880 he 
presided over the celebrated Airey commission on army reform. 
He died at the house of Lord Wolseley, at Leatherhead, on the 
i4th of September 1881. 

AIR-GUN, a gun in which the force employed to propel the 
bullet is the elasticity of compressed atmospheric air. It has 
attached to it, or constructed in it, a reservoir of compressed 
air, a portion of which, liberated into the space behind the bullet 
when the trigger is pulled, propels the bullet from the barrel by 
its expansion. The common forms of air-gun, which are merely 
toys, are charged by compressing a spiral spring, one end of 
which forms a piston working in a cylinder; when released by 
a pull on the trigger, this spring expands, and the air forced out 
in front of it propels the bullet. Air-guns of this kind are some-- 
times made to resemble walking-sticks and are then known as 
air-canes. 

AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892), British Astro- 
nomer Royal, was born at Alnwick on the 27th of July 1801. He 
came of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a 
family of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland, 
in the i4th century; but the branch to which he belonged, 
having suffered in the civil wars, removed to Lincolnshire, where 
for several generations they lived as farmers. George Airy was 
educated first at elementary schools in Hereford, and afterwards 
at Colchester Grammar School. In 1819 he entered Trinity 
College, Cambridge, as a sizar. Here he had a brilliant career, 
and seems to have been almost immediately recognized as the 
leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of 
Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as senior wrangler 
and obtained first Smith's prize. On the ist of October 1824 he 
was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was ap- 
pointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to 
Thomas Turton. This chair he held for little more than a year, 
being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy 
and director of the new Cambridge observatory. Some idea of 
his activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects 
during these early years may be gathered from the fact that 
previous to this appointment he had contributed no less than 
three important memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions of the 
Royal Society, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 
At the Cambridge observatory Airy soon gave evidence of his 
remarkable power of organization. The only telescope erected 
in the establishment when he took it in charge was the transit 
instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By the 
adoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduc- 
tion, he was able to keep his observations reduced practically up 
to date, and published them annually with a degree of punctu- 
ality which astonished his contemporaries. Before long a mural 
circle was installed, and regular observations were instituted with 
it in 1833. In the same year the duke of Northumberland pre- 
sented the Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass of 
12 in. aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs 
and under his superintendence, although the erection was not 
completed until after his removal to Greenwich in 1835. Airy's 
writings during this time are divided between mathematical 



446 



AIRY 



physics and astronomy. The former are for the most part 
concerned with questions relating to the theory of light, arising 
out of his professorial lectures, among which may be specially 
mentioned his paper " On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with 
Circular Aperture." In 1831 the Copley medal of the Royal 
Society was awarded to him for these researches. Of his astro- 
nomical writings during this period the most important are his 
investigation of the mass of Jupiter, his report to the British 
Association on the progress of astronomy during the ipth century, 
and his memoir On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of 
the Earth and Venus. 

One of the sections of his able and instructive report was 
devoted to " A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in 
England with that in other Countries," very much to the dis- 
advantage of England. This reproach was subsequently to a 
great extent removed by his own labours. 

Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus 
and the earth is in some respects his most remarkable achieve- 
ment. In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar tables he 
had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their con- 
structor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain. Eight 
times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to thirteen 
times that of the earth that the difference amounts to only the 
j-J-jfth of the earth's mean motion, and from the fact that the 
term depending on this difference, although very small in itself, 
receives in the integration of the differential equations a multi- 
plier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a 
sensible inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans, cxxii. 
67). The investigation that brought about this result was 
probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's 
time in planetary theory, and represented the first specific 
improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the 
establishment of the theory of gravitation. In recognition of this 
work the medal of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded 
to him in 1833. 

In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succes- 
sion to John Pond, and thus commenced that long career of 
wisely directed and vigorously sustained industry at the national 
observatory which, even more perhaps than his investigations in 
abstract science or theoretical astronomy, constitutes his chief 
title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of his 
appointment was such that Lord Auckland, the first lord of the 
Admiralty, considered that " it ought to be cleared out," while 
Airy admitted that " it was in a queer state." With his usual 
energy he set to work at once to reorganize the whole manage- 
ment. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the 
library on a proper footing, mounted the new (Sheepshanks) 
equatorial and organized a new magnetic observatory. In 1847 
an altazimuth was erected, designed by Airy to enable observa- 
tions of the moon to be made not only on the meridian, but 
whenever she might be visible. In 1848 Airy invented the reflex 
zenith tube to replace the zenith sector previously employed. 
At the end of 1,850 the great transit circle of 8 in. aperture and 
ii ft. 6 in. focal length was erected, and is still the principal 
instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1 859 
of an equatorial of 13 in. aperture evoked the comment in his 
journal for that year, " There is not now a single person employed 
or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr 
Pond's time " ; and the transformation was completed by the 
inauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 and of the photo- 
graphic registration of sun-spots in 1873. 

The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated 
planetary observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830 
was already in progress under Airy's supervision when he became 
Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook the further 
laborious task of reducing the enormous mass of observations 
of the moon made at Greenwich during the same period under 
the direction, successively, of J. Bradley, N. Bliss, N. Maskelyne 
and John Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of 
money was allotted by the Treasury. As the result, no less than 
8000 lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were, 
in 1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form that 



they could be used directly for comparison with the theory and 
for the improvement of the tables of the moon's motion. For 
this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the Royal 
Astronomical Society, and it at once led to the discovery by 
P. A. Hansen of two new inequalities in the moon's motion. 
After completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before 
engaging in any theoretical investigation in connexion with 
them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the 
subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under 
the patronage of the king of Denmark, but that, owing to the 
death of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there was 
danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he applied to 
the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. His 
request was immediately granted, and thus it came about that 
Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune were dedicated to La Haute 
Amiraute de sa Majeste la Reine de la Grande Bretagne el d'Irlande. 

One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his 
determination of the mean density of the earth. In 1826 the 
idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of 
pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep mine. 
His first attempt, made in the same year, at the Dolcoath mine 
in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident to one of the 
pendulums; a second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding 
of the mine, and many years elapsed before another opportunity 
presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the 
Harton pit near South Shields in 1854. Their immediate result 
was to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded 
that at the top by 1 9 \ ' 8 6 th of its amount, the depth being 
1256 ft. From this he was led to the final value of 6-566 for 
the mean density of the earth as compared with that of water 
(Phil. Trans, cxlvi. 342). This value, although considerably 
in excess of that previously found by different methods, was 
held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the 
observations were carried out and discussed, to be " entitled to 
compete with the others on, at least, equal terms." 

In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory 
in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on the 
prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description 
of his method will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal 
Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiv. No. 3. It consisted essentially 
in the adoption of Delauny's final numerical expressions for 
longitude, latitude and parallax, with a symbolic term attached 
to each number, the value of which was to be determined by 
substitution in the equations of motion. In this mode of treat- 
ing the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though 
the amount of labour is such as might well have deterred a 
younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of it 
might be entrusted to a mere computer. The work was published 
in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some 
little time previously he had been harassed by a suspicion that 
certain errors had crept into the computations, and accordingly 
he addressed himself to the task of revision. But his powers 
were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to 
examine sufficiently into the matter. In 1890 he tells us how a 
grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps, 
and pathetically adds, " My spirit in the work was broken, 
and I have never heartily proceeded with it since." In 1881 
Sir George Airy resigned the office of Astronomer Royal and 
resided at the White House, Greenwich, not far from the 
Royal Observatory, until his death, which took place on the 
2nd of January 1892. 

A complete list of Airy's printed papers, numbering no less 
than 518, will be found in his Autobiography, edited in 1896 by 
his son, Wilfrid Airy, B. A., M. Inst.C.E. Amongst the most 
important of his works not already mentioned may be named the 
following: Mathematical Tracts (1826) on the Lunar Theory, 
Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of 
Variations, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were adde 
tracts on the Planetary Theory and the Undulatory Theory 
Light; Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpos 
of discovering a correction for the deviation of the Compass produce* 
by the Iron of the Ships (1839); On the Theoretical Explanation of 



AISLABIE AISSE 



447 



\ 



an apparent new Polarity in Light (1840); Tides and Waves 

(1842). 

He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, its pre- 
sident in 1871, and received both the Copley and Royal medals. 
He was five times president of the Royal Astronomical Society, 
was correspondent of the French Academy and belonged to many 
other foreign and American societies. He was D.C.L. of Oxford 
and LL.D. of Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 1872 he was made 
K.C.B. In the same year he was nominated a Grand Cross in 
the Imperial Order of the Rose of Brazil; he also held the 
Prussian Order " Pour le Merite," and belonged to the Legion of 
Honour of France and to the Order of the North Star of Sweden 
and Norway. 

See also Proc. Roy. Society, li. I (E. J. Routh); Month. Notices 
Roy. Astr. Society, Hi. 212; Observatory, xv. 74 (E. Dunkin) ; 
Nature, 3ist of Oct. 1878 (A. Winnecke), 7th of Jan. 1892; The 
Times, 5th of Jan. 1892; R. Grant's Hist, of Piiys. Astronomy; 
R. P. Graves's Life of Sir W. Rowan Hamilton. (A. A. R.*) 

AISLABIE, JOHN (1670-1742), English politician, was born 
.t Goodramgate, York, on the 7th of December 1670. He was 
the fourth son of George Aislabie, principal registrar of the 
archiepiscopal court of York. In 1695 he was elected member 
of parliament for Ripon. In 1712 he was appointed one of the 
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, 
and in 1714 became treasurer of the navy, being sworn in two 
years later as a member of the privy council. In March 1718 
he became chancellor of the exchequer. The proposal of the 
South Sea Company to pay off the national debt was strenuously 
supported by Aislabie, and finally accepted in an amended 
form by the House of Commons. After the collapse of that 
company a secret committee of inquiry was appointed by the 
Commons, and Aislabie, who had in the meantime resigned the 
seals of his office, was declared guilty of having encouraged and 
promoted the South Sea scheme with a view to his own ex- 
orbitant profit, and was expelled the House. Though committed 
to the Tower he was soon released, and was allowed to retain 
the property he possessed before 1718, including his country 
estate, to which he retired to pass the rest of his days. He died 
. 1742. 

'AISLE (from Lat. ala, a wing), a term which in its primary 
:nse means the wing of a house, but is generally applied in 
architecture to the lateral divisions of a church or large building, 
e earliest example is that found in the basilica of Trajan, 
hich had double aisles on either side of the central area; the 
same number existed in the original church of St Peter's at 
Rome, in the basilica at Bethlehem, and according to Eusebius 
in the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The aisles 
are divided from the nave or central area by colonnades or 
arcades, and may flank also the transept or choir, being dis- 
inguished as nave-aisles, transept-aisles or choir-aisles. If 
ie choir is semi-circular, and the aisles, carried round, give 
cess to a series of chapels, the whole arrangement is known 
the chevet. As a rule in Great Britain there is only one aisle 
each side of the nave, the only exceptions being Chichester 
id Elgin cathedrals, where there are two. Many European 
.thedrals have two aisles on each side, as those of Paris, Bourges, 
.miens, Troyes, St Sernin, Toulouse, Cologne, Milan, Seville, 
bledo; and in those of Paris, Chartres, Amiens and Bourges, 
;ville and Toledo, double aisles flank the choir on each side. 
The cathedral at Antwerp has three aisles on each side. 
In some of the churches in Germany the aisles are of the same 
height as the nave. These churches are known as Hallenkirchen, 
the principal examples being St Stephen's, Vienna, the Weisse- 
kirche at Soest, St Martin's, Landshut, Munich cathedral, and 
e Marienkirche at Danzig. (R. P. S.) 

AISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of France, 
'ormed in 1790 from portions of the old provinces of Ile-de- 
France and Picardy. Area 2866 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 534,495. 
It is bounded N. by the department of Nord and the kingdom 
of Belgium, E. by the department of Ardennes, S.E. by that 
of Marne, S. by that of Seine-et-Marne, and W. by those of Oise 
and Somme. The surface of the department consists of un- 
dulating and well-wooded plains, intersected by 



sen 
arc. 
The 
whi. 



JUfl 

<e 
r 



numerous 



valleys, and diversified in the north-east by hilly ground which 
forms a part of the mountain system of the Ardennes. Its 
general slope is from north-east, where the culminating point 
(930 ft.) is found, to south-west, though altitudes exceeding 
750 ft. are also found in the south. The chief rivers are the 
Somme, the Escaut and the Sambre, which have their sources 
in the north of the department; the Oise, traversing the north- 
west, with its tributaries the Serre and the Aisne, the latter of 
which joins it beyond the limits of the department; and the 
Marne and the Ourcq in the south. The climate is in general 
cold and humid, especially in the north-east. Agriculture is 
highly developed; cereals, principally wheat and oats, and 
beetroot are the chief crops; potatoes, flax, hemp, rape and 
hops are also grown. Pasturage is good, particularly in the 
north-east, where dairy-farming flourishes. Wine of medium 
quality is grown on the banks of the Marne and the Aisne. 
Bee-farming is of some importance. Large tracts of the depart- 
ment are under wood; the chief forests are those of Nouvion 
and St Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain in the centre, 
and Villers-Cotterets in the south. The osiers grown in the 
vicinity of St Quentin supply an active basket-making industry. 

Though destitute of metals Aisne furnishes abundance of 
freestone, gypsum and clay. There are numerous tile and brick 
works in the department. Its most important industrial estab- 
lishments are the mirror manufactory of St Gobain and the 
chemical works at Chauny, and the workshops and foundries 
of Guise, the property of an association of workpeople organized 
on socialistic lines and producing iron goods of various kinds. 
The manufacture of sugar is very important; brewing, distilling, 
flour-milling, iron-founding, the weaving and spinning of cotton, 
wool and silk, and the manufacture of iron goods, especially 
agricultural implements, are actively carried on. Aisne imports 
coal, iron, cotton and other raw material and machinery; it 
exports cereals, live-stock and agricultural products generally, 
and manufactured goods. The department is served chiefly 
by the lines of the Northern railway; in addition, the main line 
of the Eastern railway to Strassburg traverses the extreme 
south. The Oise, Aisne and Marne are navigable, and canals 
furnish 170 m. of waterway. Aisne is divided into five 
arrondissements St Quentin and Vervins in the north, Laon 
in the centre, and Soissons and Chateau-Thierry in the south 
and contains 3 7 cantons and 841 communes. It forms part of the 
educational division (academic) of Douai and of the region of 
the second army corps, its military centre being at Amiens, where 
also is its court of appeal. Laon is the capital, and Soissons 
the seat of a bishopric of the province of Reims. Other important 
places are Chateau-Thierry, St Quentin and Coucy-le-Chateau. 
La Ferte-Milon has remains of an imposing chateau of the i4th 
and 1 5th centuries with interesting fortifications. The ruined 
church at Longpont (i3th century) is the relic of an import- 
ant Cistercian abbey; Urcel and Mont-Notre-Dame have fine 
churches, the first entirely in the Romanesque style, the second 
dating from the i2th and i3th centuries, to which period the 
church at Braisne also belongs. At Premontre the buildings 
of the abbey, which was the cradle of the Premonstratensian 
order, are occupied by a lunatic asylum. 

A'JSSE- [a corruption of HAIDEE], MADEMOISELLE (c. 1694- 
1733), French letter-writer, was the daughter of a Circassian 
chief, and was born about 1694. Her father's palace was 
pillaged by the Turks, and as a child of four years old she was 
sold to the comte de Ferriol, the French ambassador at Constanti- 
nople. She was brought up in Paris by Ferriol's sister-in-law 
with her own sons, MM. d'Argental and Pont de Veyle. Her 
great beauty and romantic history made her the fashion, and 
she attracted the notice of the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans, 
whose offers she had the strength of mind to refuse. She formed 
a deep and lasting attachment to the Chevalier d'Aydie, by 
whom she had a daughter. She died in Paris on the I3th of 
March 1733. Her letters to her friend Madame Calandrini 
contain much interesting information with regard to con- 
temporary celebrities, especially on Mme. du Deffand and Mme. 
de Tencin, but they are above all of interest in the picture they 



AITON AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 



afford of the writer's own tenderness and fidelity. Her Lettres 
were edited by Voltaire (1787), by J. Ravenel, with a notice 
by Sainte-Beuve (1846) and by Eugene Asse (1873). Mile. Alsse 
has been the subject of three plays: by A. de Lavergne and 
P. Woucher (1854), by Louis Bouilhet (1872) and by Dejoux 
(1898). 

See also Courteault, Une Idylle au XVIII' stick, Mile. A'isse et 
le Chevalier d'Aydie (Magon, 1900); and notices prefixed to the 
editions of 1846 and 1873. There is an interesting essay by E. Gosse 
in his French Profiles (1905). 

AITON, WILLIAM (1731-1793), Scottish botanist, was born 
near Hamilton in 1731. Having been regularly trained to the 
profession of a gardener, he travelled to London in 1754, and 
became assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the 
Physic Garden at Chelsea. In 1759 he was appointed director 
of the newly established botanical garden at Kew, where he 
remained until his death on the 2nd of February 1793. He 
effected many improvements at the gardens, and in 1789 he 
published Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants there 
cultivated. A second and enlarged edition of the Hortus was 
brought out in 1810-1813 by his eldest son, WILLIAM TOWNSEND 
AITON (1766-1849), who succeeded him at Kew and was com- 
missioned by George IV. to lay out the gardens at the Pavilion, 
Brighton. 

AITZEMA, LIEUWE (LEO) VAN (1600-1669), Dutch historian 
and statesman, was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the igth of 
November 1600. In 1617 he published a volume of Latin poems 
under the title of Poemata Juvenilia, of which a copy is preserved 
in the British Museum. He made a special study of politics and 
political science and was for thirty years resident for the towns 
of the Hanseatic League at the Hague, where he died on the 23rd 
of February 1669. His most important work was the Saken van 
Staet in Oorlogh in ende omtrenl de Vefeenigte Nederlanden (14 vols. 
4to, 1655-1671), embracing the period from 1621 to 1668. It 
contains a large number of state documents, and is an invaluable 
authority on one of the most eventful periods of Dutch history. 

Four continuations of the history, by the poet and historian 
Lambert van den Bos, were published successively at Amsterdam 
in 1685, 1688, 1698 and 1699. The Derde Vervolg Zijnde het vierde 
Stuck van het Vervolgh op de Historic, &c., brings the history down 
to 1697. 

AIVALI (Gr. Kydonia), a prosperous town on the W. coast of 
Asia Minor, opposite the island of Mitylene. Pop. 21,000. It 
stands near the site of the Aeolian Heraclea, on rising ground at 
the end of a bay which is separated from the Gulf of Adramyt- 
tium, and protected from the prevailing winds by the Moschonisi 
Islands (Hecatonnesoi). In 1821 it was burned to the ground 
during a fight between the Turks and the Greeks, and a large 
number of its Greek population killed or enslaved. It is one of 
the most thriving towns in the Levant, with a purely Greek 
population distinguished for its commercial, industrial and 
maritime enterprise. The exports are olive oil, grain and wood, 
and a fleet of fishing-boats supplies Constantinople and Smyrna 
with fish; the exports in 1902 were valued at 987,070, and the 
imports at 336,693. 

AIWAN, the reception-hall or throne-room of a Parthian or 
Sassanian palace. 

AIX, a city of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondisse- 
ment in the department of Bouches-du- Rh&ne, 18 m. N. of 
Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 19,433. It is situated in a plain 
overlooking the Arc, about a mile from the right bank of the 
river. The Cours Mirabeau, a wide thoroughfare, planted with 
double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses and decorated 
by three fountains, divides the town' into two portions. The 
new town extends to the south, the old town with its wide but 
irregular streets and its old mansions dating from the i6th, 
1 7th and i8th centuries lies to the north. Aix is an important 
educational centre, being the seat of the faculties of law and 
letters of the university of Aix-Marseille, and the north and east 
quarter of the town, where the schools and university buildings 
are situated, is comparable to the Latin Quarter of Paris. The 
cathedral of St Sauveur, which dates from the i ith, 1 2th and I3th 
centuries, is situated in this portion of Aix. It is preceded by a 






rich portal in the Gothic style with elaborately carved doors, and 
is flanked on the north by an uncompleted tower. The interior 
contains tapestry of the i6th century and other works of art. 
The archbishop's palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin the 
cathedral on its south side. The church of St Jean de Malte, 
dating from the I3th century, contains some valuable pictures. 
The hdtel de ville, a building in the classical style of the middle 
of the 1 7th century, looks on to a picturesque square. It contains 
some fine wood-work and a large library which includes many 
valuable MSS. At its side rises a handsome clock-tower erected 
in 1505. Aix possesses many beautiful fountains, one of which 
in the Cours Mirabeau is surmounted by a statue of Rene, count 
of Provence, who held a brilliant court at Aix in the i sth century. 
Aix has thermal springs, remarkable for their heat and containing 
lime and carbonic acid. The bathing establishment was built in 
1705 near the site of the ancient baths of Sextius, of which 
vestiges still remain. The town, which is the seat of an arch- 
bishop and court of appeal, and the centre of an academic (educa- 
tional circumscription), numbers among its public institutions a 
court of assizes, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and 
a chamber of arts and manufactures. It also has training-colleges, 
a lycee, a school of art and technics, museums of antiquities, 
natural history and painting, and several learned societies. The 
industries include flour-milling, the manufacture of confectionery, 
iron-ware and hats, and the distillation of olive-oil. Trade is in 
olive-oil, almonds and stone from the neighbouring quarries. 

Aix (Aquae Sextiae) was founded in 123 B.C. by the Roman 
consul Sextius Calvinus, who gave his name to its springs. In 
102 B.C. its neighbourhood was the scene of the defeat inflicted 
on the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius. In the 4th century it 
became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda. It was occupied 
by the Visigoths in 477, in the succeeding century was repeatedly 
plundered by the Franks and Lombards, and was occupied by the 
Saracens in 731. Aix, which during the middle ages was the 
capital of the county of Provence, did not reach its zenith until 
after the i2th century, when, under the houses of Aragon and 
Anjou, it became an artistic centre and seat of learning. With 
the rest of Provence, it passed to the crown of France in 1487, and 
in 1501 Louis XII. established there the parlement of Provence 
which existed till 1789. In the I7th and i8th centuries the town 
was the seat of the intendance of Provence. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Ger. Aachen, Dutch Aken), a city and 
spa of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, situated in a pleasant 
valley, 44 m. W. of Cologne and contiguous to the Belgian and 
Dutch frontiers, to which its municipal boundaries extend. Pop. 
(1885) 95,725; (1905) including Burtscheid, 143,906. Its posi- 
tion, at the centre of direct railway communications with Cologne 
and Diisseldorf respectively on the E. and Liege-Brussels and 
Maestricht- Antwerp on the W., has favoured its rise to one of 
the most prosperous commerical towns of Germany. The city 
consists of the old inner town, the former ramparts of which have 
been converted into promenades, and the newer outer town and 
suburbs. Of the ancient gates but two remain, the Ponttor on 
the N.W. and the Marschiertor on the S. Its general appearance 
is that rather of a spacious modern, than of a medieval city full of 
historical associations. 

Of the cluster of buildings in the centre, which are conspicuous 
from afar, the town hall (Rathaus) and the cathedral are specially 
noteworthy. The former, standing on the south side of the market 
square, is a Gothic structure, erected in 1353-1370 on the ruins of 
Charlemagne's palace. It contains the magnificent coronation 
hall of the emperors (143 ft. by 61 ft.), in which thirty-five 
German kings and eleven queens have banqueted after the 
coronation ceremony in the cathedral. The two ancient towers, 
the Granusturm to the W. and the Glockenturm to the E., both 
of which to a large extent had formed part of the Carolingian 
palace, were all but destroyed in the fire by which the Rathaus was 
seriously damaged in 1883. Their restoration was completed in 
1902. Behind the Rathaus is the Grashaus, in which Richard of 
Cornwall, king of the Romans, is said to have held his court. It 
was restored in 1 889 to accommodate the municipal archives. The 
cathedral is of great historic and architectural interest. Apart 






AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 



449 



from the spire, which was rebuilt in 1884, it consists of two parts 
of different styles and date. The older portion, the capella in 
palatio, an octagonal building surmounted by a dome, was 
designed on the model of San Vitale at Ravenna by Udo of Metz, 
was begun under Charlemagne's auspices in 796 and consecrated 
by Pope Leo III. in 805. After being almost entirely wrecked by 
Norman raiders it was rebuilt, on the original lines, in 983, by the 
emperor Otto III. It is surrounded on the first story by a sixteen- 
sided gallery (the Hochmunster) adorned by antique marble arid 
granite columns, of various sizes, brought by Charlemagne's 
orders from Rome, Ravenna and Trier. These were removed by 
Napoleon to Paris, but restored to their original positions after 
the peace of 181 5. The mosaic representing Christ surrounded by 
"the four-and-twenty elders," which originally lined the cupola, 
had almost entirely perished by the igth century, but was re- 
stored in 1882 from a copy made in the 1 7th century. Interesting 
too are the magnificent west doors, cast in bronze by native 
workmen in 804. Underneath the dome, according to tradition, 
was the tomb of Charlemagne, which, on being opened by Otto 
III. in 1000, disclosed the body of the emperor, vested in white 
coronation robes and seated on a marble chair. This chair, now 
placed in the gallery referred to, was used for centuries in the 
imperial coronation ceremonies. The site of the tomb is marked 
by a stone slab, with the inscription Carlo Magno, and above it 
hangs the famous bronze chandelier presented by the emperor 
Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in 1168. Charlemagne's bones are 
preserved in an ornate shrine in the Hungarian Chapel, lying to 
the north of the octagon. The casket was opened in 1906, at the 
instance of the emperor William II., and the draperies enclosing 
the body were temporarily removed to Berlin, with a view to the 
reproduction of similar cloth. The Gothic choir, forming the 
more modern portion of the cathedral, was added during the 
latter half of the i4th and the beginning of the i sth century, and 
contains the tomb of the emperor Otto III. The cathedral 
possesses many relics, the more sacred of which are exhibited 
only once every seven years, when they attract large crowds of 
worshippers. 

Of the other thirty-three churches in the city those of 
St Foillan (founded in the I2th century, but twice rebuilt, in 
the i sth and i7th centuries, and restored in 1883) and St Paul, 
with its beautiful stained-glass windows, are remarkable. In 
addition to those already mentioned, Aix-la-Chapelle possesses 
several fine secular buildings: the Suermondt museum, con- 
taining besides other miscellaneous exhibits the fine collection 
of pictures by early German, Dutch and Flemish masters, 
presented to the town by Bartholomaus Suermondt (d. 1887); 
the public Library; the theatre; the post-office; and the fine 
new central railway station. Among the schools may be men- 
tioned the magnificently equipped Rhenish- Westphalian Poly- 
technic School (built 1865-1870) and the school of mining and 
electricity, founded in 1897. 

There are many fine streets and squares and some handsome 
public monuments, notably among the last the fountain on the 
market square surmounted by a statue of Charlemagne, the 
bronze equestrian statue of the emperor William I. facing the 
theatre, the Kriegerdenkmal (a memorial to those who fell in 
the war of 1870) and the Kongress-Denkmal, a marble hall in 
antique style erected in 1844 on the Adalberts-Steinweg to 
commemorate the famous congress of 1818 (see below). Of the 
squares, the principal is the Friedrich-Wilhelmplatz, on which 
lies the Eiisenbrunnen with its colonnade and garden, the chief 
resort of visitors taking the baths and waters. 

The hot sulphur springs of Aix-la-Chapelle were known to the 
Romans and have been celebrated for centuries as specific in 
the cure of rheumatism, gout and scrofulous disorders. There 
are six in all, of which the Kaiserquelle, with a temperature of 
136 F., is the chief. In the neighbouring Burtscheid (in- 
; corporated in 1897 with Aix-la-Chapelle) are also springs of 
far higher temperature, and this suburb, which has also a 
Kurgarten, is largely frequented during the season. 

In respect of trade and industry Aix-la-Chapelle occupies a 

Kce. Its cloth and silk manufactures are important, and 



owing to the opening up of extensive coalfields in the district 
almost every branch of iron industry is carried on. It has some 
large breweries and manufactories of chemicals, and does a 
considerable trade in cereals, leather, timber and wine. It is 
also an important banking centre and has several insurance 
societies of reputation. 

The country immediately surrounding Aix-la-Chapelle presents 
many attractive features. From the Lousberg and the Salvator- 
berg to the north, the latter crowned by a chapel, magnificent 
views of the city are obtained; while covering the hills 2 m. 
west stretches the Stadtwald, a forest with charming walks and 
drives. 

History. Aix-la-Chapelle is the Aquisgranum of the Romans, 
named after Apollo Granus, who was worshipped in connexion 
with hot springs. As early as A.D. 765 King Pippin had a 
" palace " here, in which it is probable that Charlemagne was 
born. The greatness of Aix was due to the latter, who between 
777 and 786 built a magnificent palace on the site of that of his 
father, raised the place to the rank of_the second city of the 
empire, and made it for a while the centre of Western culture 
and learning. From the coronation of Louis the Pious in 813 
until that of Ferdinand I. in 1 531 the sacring of the German kings 
took place at Aix, and as many as thirty-two emperors and kings 
were here crowned. In 851, and again in 882, the place was 
ravaged by the Northmen in their raids up the Rhine. It was 
not, however, till late in the I2th century (1172-1176) that 
the city was surrounded with walls by order of the emperor 
Frederick I., to whom (in 1 166) and to his grandson Frederick II. 
(in 1215) it owed its first important civic rights. These were 
still further extended in 1250 by the anti-Caesar William of 
Holland, who had made himself master of the place and of the 
imperial regalia, after a long siege, in 1248. The liberties of the 
burghers were, however, still restrained by the presence of a 
royal advocatus (Vogt) and bailiff. In 1300 the outer ring of 
walls was completed, the earlier circumvallation being marked 
by the limit of the Altstadt (old city). In the i4th century Aix, 
now a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, played a conspicuous 
part, especially in the league which, between 1351 and 1387, kept 
the peace between the Meuse and the Rhine. In 1450 an in- 
surrection led to the admission of the gilds to a share in the 
municipal government. In the i6th century Aix began to 
decline in importance and prosperity. It lay too near the 
French frontier to be safe, and too remote from the centre of 
Germany to be convenient, as a capital; and in 1562 the election 
and coronation of Maximilian II. took place at Frankfort-on- 
Main, a precedent followed till the extinction of the Empire. 
The Reformation, too, brought its troubles. In 1580 Pro- 
testantism got the upper hand; the ban of the empire followed 
and was executed by Ernest of Bavaria, archbishop-elector of 
Cologne in 1 598. A relapse of the city led to a new ban of the 
emperor Matthias in 1613, and in the following year Spinola's 
Spanish troops brought back the recalcitrant city to the Catholic 
fold. In 1656 a great fire completed the ruin wrought by the 
religious wars. By the treaty of Luneville (1801) Aix was in- 
corporated with France as chief town of the department of the 
Roer. By the congress of Vienna it was given to Prussia. 
The contrast between the new regime and the ancient tradition 
of the city was curiously illustrated in 1818 by a scene described 
in Metternich's Memoirs, when, before the opening of the 
congress, Francis I., emperor of Austria, regarded by all Ger- 
many as the successor of the Holy Roman emperors, knelt at 
the tomb of Charlemagne amid a worshipping crowd, while the 
Protestant Frederick William III. of Prussia, the new sovereign 
of the place, stood in the midst, " looking very uncomfortable." 

See Quix, Geschichte der Stadt Aachen (1841); Pick, Aus Aachens 
Vergangenheit (Aachen, 1895); Bock, Karls des grossen Pjalzkapellt 
(Cologne, 1867); and Beissel, Aachen als Kurort (1889). 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESSES OF. Three congresses 
have been held at Aix-la-Chapelle: the first in 1668, the 
second in 1748, the third in 1818. 

i. The treaty of the 2nd of May 1668, which put an end t.o 
the War of Devolution, was the outcome of that of St Germain 



450 



AIX-LES-BAINS AIYAR 



signed on the isth of April by France and the representatives 
of the powers of the Triple Alliance. The treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle left to France all the conquests made in Flanders 
during the campaign of 1667, with all their " appartenances, 
dtpendances et annexes." a vague provision of which, after the 
peace of Nijmwegen (1680), Louis XIV. took advantage to 
occupy a number of villages and towns adjudged to him by his 
Chambres de reunion as dependencies of the cities and territories 
acquired in 1668. On the other hand, France restored to Spain 
the cities of Cambrai, Aire and Saint-Omer, as well as the pro- 
vince of Franche Comte. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was 
placed under the guarantee of Great Britain, Sweden and 
Holland, by a convention signed at the Hague on the 7th of 
May 1669, to which Spain acceded. 

See Jean du Mont, baron de Carlscroon, Corps universel diplo- 
matique (Amst., 1726-1731). 

2. On the 24th of April 1748 a congress assembled at Aix-la- 
Chapelle for the purpose of bringing to a conclusion the struggle 
known as the War of Austrian Succession. Between the 3oth of 
April and the aist of May the preliminaries were agreed to 
between Great Britain, France and Holland, and to these Maria 
Theresa, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, the kings of Sardinia 
and Spain, the duke of Modena, and the republic of Genoa 
successively gave their adhesion. The definitive treaty was 
signed on the i8th of October, Sardinia alone refusing to accede, 
because the treaty of Worms was not guaranteed. Of the 
provisions of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the most important 
were those stipulating for (i) a general restitution of conquests, 
including Cape Breton to France, Madras to England and the 
barrier towns to the Dutch; (2) the assignment to Don Philip 
of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla; (3) the 
restoration of the duke of Modena and the republic of Genoa to 
their former positions; (4) the renewal in favour of Great 
Britain of the Asiento contract of the i6th of March 1713, and 
of the right to send an annual vessel to the Spanish colonies; 
(5) the renewal of the article of the treaty of 1718 recognizing 
the Protestant succession in the English throne; (6) the recog- 
nition of the emperor Francis and the confirmation of the 
pragmatic sanction, i.e. of the right of Maria Theresa to the 
Habsburg succession; (7) the guarantee to Prussia of the duchy 
of Silesia and the county of Glatz. 

Spain having raised objections to the Asiento clauses, the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was supplemented by that of Madrid 
(Sth of October 1750), by which Great Britain surrendered her 
claims under those clauses in return for a sum of 100,000. 

See A. J. H. de Clercq, Recueil des traites de la France; F. A. 
Wenk, Corpus juris gentium recentissimi, 1735-1772, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 
1786), jp. 337; Comte G. de Garden, Hist, des traites de paix, 1848- 
1887, in. p. 373- 

3. The congress or conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, held in the 
autumn of 1818, was primarily a meeting of the four allied 
powers Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia to decide 
the question of the withdrawal of the army of occupation from 
France and the nature of the modifications to be introduced 
in consequence into the relations of the four powers towards 
each other, and collectively towards France. The congress, of 
which the first session was held on the ist of October, was 
attended by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, the emperor 
Francis I. of Austria, and Frederick William III. of Prussia, in 
person. Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh and 
the duke of Wellington, Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by 
Counts Capo d'Istria and Nesselrode, Prussia by Prince Harden- 
berg and Count Bernstorff. The due de Richelieu, by favour of 
the allies, was present on behalf of France. The evacuation 
of France was agreed to in principle at the first session, the 
consequent treaty being signed on the 9th of October. The 
immediate object of the conference being thus readily disposed 
of, the time of the congress was mainly occupied in discussing 
the form to be taken by the European alliance, and the " military 
measures," if any, to be adopted as a precaution against a fresh 
outburst on the part of France. The proposal of the emperor 
Alexander I. to establish a " universal union of guarantee " on 
the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, after much debate, broke 



down on the uncompromising opposition of Great Britain; and 
the main outcome of the congress was the signature, on the 
iSth of November, of two instruments: (i) a secret protocol 
confirming and renewing the quadruple alliance established by 
the treaties of Chaumont and Paris (of the 2oth of November 
1815) against France; (2) a public "declaration " of the in- 
tention of the powers to maintain their intimate union, 
" strengthened by the ties of Christian brotherhood," of which 
the object was the preservation of peace on the basis of respect 
for treaties. The secret protocol was communicated in confi- 
dence to Richelieu; to the declaration France was invited 
publicly to adhere. 

Besides these questions of general policy, the congress con- 
cerned itself with a number of subjects left unsettled in the 
hurried winding up of the congress of Vienna, or which had 
arisen since. Of these the most important were the questions 
as to the methods to be adopted for the suppression of the slave- 
trade and the Barbary pirates. In neither case was any decision 
arrived at, owing (i) to the refusal of the other powers to agree 
with the British proposal for a reciprocal right of search on 
the high seas; (2) to the objection of Great Britain to inter- 
national action which would have involved the presence of a 
Russian squadron in the Mediterranean. In matters of less 
importance the congress was more unanimous. Thus, on the 
urgent appeal of the king of Denmark, the king of Sweden 
(Bernadotte) received a peremptory summons to carry out the 
terms of the treaty of Kiel; the petition of the elector of Hesse 
to be recognized as king was unanimously rejected; and 
measures were taken to redress the grievances of the German 
mediatized princes. The more important outstanding questions 
in Germany, e.g. the Baden succession, were after consideration 
reserved for a further conference to be called at Frankfort. In 
addition to these a great variety of questions were considered, 
from that of the treatment of Napoleon at St Helena, to the 
grievances of the people of Monaco against their prince and the 
position of the Jews in Austria and Prussia. An attempt made 
to introduce the subject of the Spanish colonies was defeated 
by the opposition of Great Britain. Lastly, certain vexatious 
questions of diplomatic etiquette were settled once for all (see 
DIPLOMACY). The congress, which broke up at the end of 
November, is of historical importance mainly as marking the 
highest point reached in the attempt to govern Europe by an 
international committee of the powers. The detailed study of 
its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost 
insurmountable obstacles to any really effective international 
system. 

AUTHORITIES. F.O. Records (the volumes marked Continent, 
Aix-la-Chapelle, To and from Viscount Castlereagh'); State Papers; 
G. F. de Martens, Nouveau recueil de traites, &c. (Gottingen, 
1817-1842); F. de Martens, Recueil des traites conclus par la 
Russie, &c. (1874 in progr.); F. von Gentz, Depeches inedites, 
&c., ed. Baron Prokesch-Osten, 3 vols. (1876-1877); Metter- 
nich, Memoirs; Wellington, Suppl. Despatches; Castlereagh, 
Correspondence, &c. (W. A. P.) 

AIX-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the department of 
Savoie, near the Lac du Bourget, and 9 m. by rail N. of Chambe'ry. 
Pop. (1001) 4741. It is 846 ft. above the level of the sea. It 
was a celebrated bathing-place, under the name of Aquae 
Gratianae, in the time of the Romans, and possesses numerous 
ancient remains. The hot springs, which are of sulphureous 
quality, and have a temperature of from 109 to 113 F., are 
still much frequented, attracting annually many thousands of 
visitors. They are used for drinking as well as for bathing 
purposes. 

AIYAR, SIR SHESHADRI (1845-1901), native statesman of 
Mysore, India, was the son of. a Brahman of Palghat in the 
district of Malabar. He was educated at the provincial school 
at Calicut and the presidency college in Madras, and entered the 
government service as a translator. In 1868 he was transferred 
to Mysore under Runga Charlu, and for thirteen years filled 
various offices in that state; but when Mysore was restored to 
native rule in i88i,he became personal assistant to Runga Charlu, 
whom hesucceededasdiwaniniSSs. For the next seventeen years 



AIYAR AJANTA 



sw; 





he laboured assiduously to promote the economic and industrial 
development of the state, and proved an able assistant to the 
Maharaja Chamarajendra. By means of railway, irrigation and 
mining works, he added greatly to the wealth of the state, and 
put it on a sound financial footing. He retired in 1900, was 
made K. C.S.I, in 1893 and died on the i3th of September 1901. 

AIYAR, SIR TIRUVARUR MUTUSWAMY (1832-1895), 
native Indian judge of the high court of Madras, was born of 
poor parents in the village of Vuchuwadi, near Tanjore, on the 
z8th of January 1832. His widowed mother was forced by 
poverty to remove with Mutuswamy and his brother to Tiruvarar, 
where the former learnt Tamil, and soon set to work under the 
village accountant at a monthly salary of one rupee. About 
this time he lost his mother, whose memory he cherished with 
reverence and affection to the last. His duty took him to the 
court-house of the tehsildar, Mr Naiken, who soon remarked 
his extraordinary intelligence and industry. There was an 
English school at Tiruvarar, where Mutuswamy managed to 
pick up an elementary knowledge of the English language. 
Mr Naiken then sent him to Sir Henry Montgomery's school 
at Madras, as a companion to his nephew, and there he won 
prizes and scholarships year after year. , In 1854 he won a prize 
of 500 rupees offered to the students of the Madras presidency 
by the council of education for the best English essay. This 
success brought him to the notice of Sir Alexander Arbuthnot 
and Mr Justice Holloway. He was offered help to proceed to 
England and compete for the civil service, but being a Brahman 
and married, he declined to cross the ocean. Instead he entered 
the subordinate government service, and was employed in such 
various posts as school-teacher, record-keeper in Tanjore, and 
in 1856 deputy-inspector of schools. At this time the Madras 
authorities instituted the examination for the office of pleaders, 
and Mutuswamy came out first in the first examination, even 
beating Sir T. Madhavarao, his senior by many years. Mutu- 
iwamy was then appointed in succession district munsiff at 
anquebar, deputy-collector in Tanjore in 1859, sub-judge of 
tuth Kanara in 1865, and a magistrate of police at Madras 
in 1868. While serving in the last post he passed the examination 
for the degree of bachelor of laws of the local university. He 
was next employed as a judge of the Madras small causes court, 
until in 1878 he was raised to the bench of the high court, which 
office he occupied with ability and distinction for over fifteen 
years, sometimes acting as the chief justice. He attended by 
invitation of the viceroy the imperial assemblage at Delhi in 
1877. In 1878 he received the honour of C.I.E. and in 1893 the 
K.C.I.E. was conferred on him. But he did not live long to 
enjoy this dignity, dying suddenly in 1895. Mutuswamy was 
too devoted to his offical work to give much time to other 
pursuits. Still he took his full share in the affairs of the Madras 
university, of which he was nominated a fellow in 1872 and a 
syndic in 1877, and was well acquainted with English law, 
literature and philosophy. He was through life a staunch 
Brahman, devout and amiable in character, with a taste for 
ancient music of India and the study of the Vedas and other 
ipartments of Sanskrit literature. 

AJACCIO, the capital of Corsica, on the west coast of the 
and, 210 m. S.E. of Marseilles. Pop. (1906) 19,021. Ajaccio 
:upies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the 
Tthern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour, lying to 
the east of the town, is protected on the south by a peninsula 
which carries the citadel and terminates in the Citadel jetty; 
to the south-west of this peninsula lies the Place Bonaparte, 
a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the 
mild climate of the town. Apart from one or two fine thorough- 
fares converging to the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean 
and narrow and the town has a deserted appearance. The 
house in which Napoleon I, was born in 1769 is preserved, and 
his associations with the town are everywhere emphasized by 
street-names and statues. The other buildings, including the 
cathedral of the i6th century, are of little interest. The town 
is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century 
d of a prefect. It has tribunals of first instance and of com- 




merce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a 
library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, 
founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763. 
Ajaccio has small manufactures of cigars and macaroni and 
similar products, and carries on shipbuilding, sardine-fishing 
and coral-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins, 
chestnuts and gallic acid. The port is accessible by the largest 
ships, but its accommodation is indifferent. In 1 904 there entered 
603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared 608 vessels 
with a tonnage of 202,502. The present town of Ajaccio lies 
about two miles to the south of its original site, from which it 
was transferred by the Genoese in 1492. Occupied from 1553 
to 1559 by the French, it again fell to the Genoese after the treaty 
of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year. The town finally passed 
to the French in 1768. Since 1810 it has been capital of the 
department of Corsica. 

AJAI6ARH, or ADJYGURH, a native state of India, in Bun- 
delkhand, under the Central India agency. It has an area of 
771 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 78,236. The chief, 
who is a Bundela Rajput, bears the title of sawai maharaja. 
He has an estimated revenue of about 15,000, and pays a tribute 
of 460. He resides at the town of Naushahr, at the foot of 
the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state takes its name. 
This fort is situated on a very steep hill, more than 800 ft. above 
the town of the same name; and contains the ruins of temples 
adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. It was captured 
by the British in 1809. The town is subject to malaria. The 
state suffered severely from famine in 1868-1869, and again 
in 1896-1897. 

AJANTA (more properly AJUNTHA) , a village in the dominions 
of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India (N. lat. 20 32' by E. long. 
75 48'), celebrated for its cave hermitages and halls. The caves 
are in a wooded and rugged ravine about 35 m. from the village. 
Along the bottom of the ravine runs the river Wagura, a moun- 
tain stream, which forces its way into the valley over a bluff 
on the east, and forms in its descent a beautiful waterfall, 
or rather series of waterfalls, 200 ft. high, the sound of which 
must have been constantly audible to the dwellers in the 
caves. These are about thirty in number, excavated in the 
south side of the precipitous bank of the ravine, and vary from 
35 to no ft. in elevation above the bed of the torrent. The caves 
are of two kinds dwelling-halls and meeting-halls. The former, 
as one enters from the pathway along the sides of the cliff, have 
a broad verandah, its roof supported by pillars, and giving 
towards the interior on to a hall averaging in size about 35 ft. 
by 20 ft. To left and right, and at the back, dormitories are 
excavated opening on to this hall, and in the centre of the back, 
facing the entrance, an image of the Buddha usually stands 
in a niche. The number of dormitories varies according to the 
size of the hall, and in the larger ones pillars support the roof 
on all three sides, forming a sort of cloister running round the 
hall. The meeting-halls go back into the rock about twice as 
far as the dwelling-halls; the largest of them being 943 ft. from 
the verandah to the back, and 415 ft. across, including the 
cloister. They were used as chapter-houses for the meetings of 
the Buddhist Order. The caves are in three groups, the oldest 
group being of various dates from 200 B.C. to A.D.20O, the second 
group belonging, approximately, to the 6th, and the third group 
to the 7th century A.D. Most of the interior walls of the caves 
were covered with fresco paintings, of a considerable degree of 
merit, and somewhat in the style of the early Italian painters. 
When first discovered, in 1817, these frescoes were in a fair 
state of preservation, but they have since been allowed to go 
hopelessly to ruin. Fortunately, the school of art in Bombay, 
especially under the supervision of J. Griffiths, had copied in 
colours a number of them before the last vestiges had disappeared, 
and other copies of certain of the paintings have also been made. 
These copies are invaluable as being the only evidence we now 
have of pictorial art in India before the rise of Hinduism. The 
expression " Cave Temples " used by Anglo-Indians of such 
halls is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college monastery. 
Hsiian Tsang informs us that Dinnaga, the celebrated Buddhist 



AJAX AJMERE 



452 

philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books 
on logic, resided there. In its prime the settlement must have 
afforded accommodation for several hundreds, teachers and 
pupils combined. Very few of the frescoes have been identified, 
but two are illustrations of stories in Arya Sura's Jataka Mala, 
as appears from verses in Buddhist Sanskrit painted beneath 
them. 

See J. Burgess and Bhagwanlal Indraji, Inscriptions from the Case 
Temples of Western India (Bombay, 1881); J. Fergusson and 
J. Burgess, Cave Temples of Indiz (London, 1880); J. Griffiths, 
Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta (London, 2 vols., 
1896-1897). (T. W. R. D.) 

AJAX (Gr. Alas), a Greek hero, son of Oueus, king of Locris, 
called the " lesser " or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish him from 
Ajax, son of Telamon. In spite of his small stature, he held his 
own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was brave, next 
to Achilles in swiftness of foot and famous for throwing the spear. 
But he was boastful, arrogant and quarrelsome; like the Tela- 
monian Ajax, he was the enemy of Odysseus, and in the end the 
victim of the vengeance of Athene, who wrecked his ship on his 
homeward voyage (Odyssey, iv. 409). A later story gives a more 
definite account of the offence of which he was guilty. It is said 
that, after the fall of Troy, he dragged Cassandra away by force 
from the statue of the goddess at which she had taken refuge as 
a suppliant, and even violated her (Lycopkron, 360, Quintus 
Smyrnaeus xiii. 422). For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm 
on the coast of Euboea. and he himself was struck by lightning 
(Virgil, A en. i. 40). He was said to have lived after his death in 
the island of Leuke. He was worshipped as a national hero by 
the Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always 
left a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when 
drawn up in battle array. He was the subject of a lost tragedy 
by Sophocles. The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently 
represented in Greek works of art, for instance on the chest of 
Cypselus described by Pausanias (v. 17) and in extant works. 

AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Cyprus, a legendary hero of 
ancient Greece, To distinguish him from Ajax, son of Ofleus. he 
was called the " great " or Telamonian Ajax. In Homer's Iliad 
he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, second only 
to Achilles in strength and bravery, and the " bulwark of the 
Achaeans." He engaged Hector in single combat and, with the 
aid of Athene, rescued the body of Achilles from the hands of the 
Trojans. In the competition between him and Odysseus for 
the armour of Achilles, Agamemnon, at the instigation of Athene, 
awarded the prize to Odysseus. This so enraged Ajax that it 
caused his death (Odyssey, xL 541). According to a later and 
more definite story, his disappointment drove him mad; he 
rushed out of his tent and fell upon the flocks of sheep in the camp 
under the impression that they were the enemy; on coming to 
his senses, he slew himself with the sword which he had received 
as a present from Hector. This is the account of his death given 
in the Ajax of Sophocles (Pindar, Nemea, 7; Ovid, Met. xiii. i). 
From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, 
which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name AI, also 
expressive of lament (Pausanias L 35. 4). His ashes were de- 
posited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the 
entrance of the Hellespont. Like Achilles, he is represented as 
living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the 
Danube (Pausanias iii. 19. n). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric 
legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great- 
grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis, 
where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called 
Aianteia was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this 
festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was 
placed, a practice which recalls the Roman Itctisternium. The 
identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a 
mat ter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come in to 
their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted 
a line in the Iliad (ii. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting 
the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic 
hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the 
market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was called after his name. 



Many illustrious Athenians Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades. the 
historian Thucydides traced their descent from Ajax. 

See D. Bassi, La Leggenda di Aiace Tdamonio (1890); P. Girard, 
" Ajax, fits de Telamon. ' 1905, in Rome des etudes grecques, tome 18; 
J. Vurtheim, De Ajacis Origine, Cultu, Patria (Leiden, 1907), accord- 
ing to whom he and Ajax Oileus, as depicted in epos, were originally 
one, a Locrian daemon somewhat resembling the giants. When this 
spirit put on human form and became known at the Saroaic Gulf, he 
developed into the " greater " Ajax, while among the Locrians he 
remained the " lesser. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 13 (from a 
black-figured Corinthian vase) represents the suicide of Ajax. 

AJMERE, or AJMER, a city of British India in Rajputaaa, 
which gives its name to a district and also to a petty province 
called Ajmere-Meirwara. It is situated in 26 a/ N. lat and 

44' E. long., on the lower slopes of Taragarh hill, in the 
Aravalli mountains. To the north of the city is a large artificial 
lake called the Anasagar, whence the water supply of the place 
is derived. 

The chief object of interest is the darga, or tomb of a famous 
Mahommedan saint named Mayud-uddin. It is situated at the 
foot of the Taragarh mountain, and consists of a block of white 
marble buildings without much pretension to architectural 
beauty. To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress, 
performed a pilgrimage on foot from Agra in accordance with 
the terms of a vow he had made when praying for a son. The 
large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the whole way, to 
mark the daily halting-place of the imperial pilgrim, are still 
extant. An ancient Jain temple, now converted into a Mahom- 
medan mosque, is situated on the lower slope of the Taragarh hul 
With the exception of that part used as a mosque, nearly the 
whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are 
not excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any 
remains of Hindu art. Forty columns support the roof, but no 
two are alike, and great fertility of invention is manifested in the 
execution of the ornaments. The summit of Taragarh hill, over- 
hanging Ajmere, is crowned by a fort, the lofty thick battlements 
of which run along its brow and enclose the table-land. The walk 
are 2 m. in circumference, and the fort can only be approached 
by steep and very roughly paved planes, commanded by the fort 
and the outworks, and by the hfll to the west. On coming into 
the hands of the F.nglish, the fort was dismantled by order of 
Lord William Bentinck, and is now converted into a sanatorium 
for the troops at Nasirabad. Ajmere was founded about the 
year 145 A.D. by Aji, a Chauhan, who established the dynasty 
which continued to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of 
fortune) while the repeated waves of Maliommedan invasion 
swept over India, until it eventually became an appanage of the 
crown of Delhi in 1193. Its internal government, however, was 
handed over to its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy 
tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Delhi 
till 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. In 1509 
the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of 
Mewar and Marwar, and was ultimately conquered in 1 53 2 by the 
latter prince, who in bis turn in 1559 had to give way before the 
emperor Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Moguls, witk 
occasional revolts, tifl 1770, when it was ceded to the Mahrattas, 
from which time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of 
a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the Mewar 
and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by the 
Mahrattas. In 1818 the latter ceded it to the British in return for 
a payment of 50,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed 
unbroken peace and a stable government. 

The modern city is an important station on the Rajputan* 
railway, 615 m. from Bombay and 275 m. from Delhi, wftfc 
a branch running due south to the Great Indian Peninsula main 
line. The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome 
houses. The city trade chiefly consists of salt and opium, 
former is imported in large quantities from the Sambar lake and 
Ramsur. Oil-making is also a profitable branch of trade. Cotto 
cloths are manufactured to some extent, for the dyeing of whh 
the city has attained a high reputation. The educational instittt 
tions include the Mayo Rajkumar college, opened in 
training the sons of the nobles of Rajputana, on the lines of an 



AJMERE-MERWARA AKABA 



453 






English public school. Population (1901) 73,839, showing an 
increase of 10 % in the decade. 

The DISTRICT OF AJMERE, which forms the largest part of the 
province of Ajmere-Merwara, has an area of 2069 sq. m. The 
eastern portion of the district is generally flat, broken only by 
gentle undulations, but the western parts, from north-west to 
south-west, are intersected by the great Aravalli range. Many of 
the valleys in this region are mere sandy deserts, with an occa- 
sional oasis of cultivation, but there are also some very fertile 
cts; among these is the plain on which lies the town of Ajmere. 
i valley, however, is not only fortunate in possessing a noble 
ficial lake, but is protected by the massive walls of the Nag- 

ithar range or Serpent rock, which forms a barrier against the 

ad. The only hills in the district are the Aravalli range and its 

Ishoots. Ajmere is almost totally devoid of rivers, the Banas 
ng the only stream which can be dignified with that name, 

nd it only touches the south-eastern boundary of the district 
as to irrigate the pargana of Samur. Four small streams 
the Sagarmati, Saraswati, Khari and Dai also intersect the 
district. In the dry weather they are little more than brooks. 
The population in 1901 was 7453, showing a decrease of 
13 % in the decade. Besides the city of Ajmere, the district 
contains the military station of Nasirabad, with a population 
of 22,494. 

AJMERE-MERWARA, a division or petty province of British 
India, in Rajputana, consisting of the two districts of Ajmere 
and Merwara, separated from each other and isolated amid 
native states. The administration is in the hands of a commis- 
sioner, subordinate to the governor-general's agent for Rajputana. 
The capital is Ajmere city. The area is 2710 sq. m. The 
plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmere, may be 
considered as the highest point in the plains of Hindustan; 
from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away 
on every side towards river valleys on the east, south, west and 
towards the desert region on the north. The Aravalli range is 
the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills 
which runs between Ajmere and Nasirabad marks the watershed 
of the continent of India. The rain which falls on one side 
drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that 
which falls on the other side into the Luni, which discharges 
itself into the Runn of Cutch. The province is on the border of 
what may be called the arid " zone " ; it is the debatable land 
between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and 
beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps 
up the Nerbudda valley from Bombay and crossing the table- 
land at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and 
Kotah and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal 
river. The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Cutch are de- 
prived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those 
countries, and the greater part of the remainder is deposited 
on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli mountains, 
leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and 
still less for Ajmere. It is only when the monsoon is in con- 
siderable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. 
The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges 
from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Raj- 
putana, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude 
of Ajmere. On the varying strength of these two monsoons the 
rainfall of the district depends. The agriculturist in Ajmere- 
Merwara can never rely upon two good harvests in succession, 
province subject to such conditions can hardly be free from 
tine or scarcity for any length of time; accordingly it was 
risited by two famines, one of unprecedented severity, and one 
scarcity, in the decade 1891-1901. In June 1900 the number of 
persons in receipt of relief was 143,000, being more than one- 
fourth of the total population. 

Q 1901 the population was 476,912, showing a decrease of 

2% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Among 
Hindus, the Rajputs are land-holders, and the Jats and Gujars are 
cultivators. The Jains are traders and money-lenders. The 
aboriginal tribe of Mers are divided between Hindus and Mahom- 
medans. The chief crops are millet, wheat, cotton and oil- 



seeds. There are several factories for ginning and pressing 
cotton, the chief trading centres being Beawar and Kekri. 

AJODHYA, an ancient city of India, the prehistoric capital 
of Oudh, in the Fyzabad district of the United Provinces. It is 
situated on the right bank of the Gogra. In the present day the 
old city has almost entirely disappeared, and its site is marked 
only by a heap of ruins; but in remote antiquity Ajodhya was 
one of the largest and most magnificent of Indian cities. It is 
said to have covered an area of 56 m., and was the capital of 
the kingdom of Kosala, the court of the great king Dasaratha, 
the fifty-sixth monarch of the Solar line in descent from Raja 
Manu. The opening chapters of the Ramayana recount the 
magnificence of the city, the glories of the monarch and the 
virtues, wealth and loyalty of his people. Dasaratha was the 
father of Rama Chandra, the hero of the epic. A period of 
Buddhist supremacy followed the death of the last king of the 
Solar dynasty. On the revival of Brahmanism Ajodhya was 
restored by King Vikramaditya (c. 57 B.C.). Kosala is also 
famous as the early home of Buddhism, and of the kindred 
religion of Jainism, and claims to be the birthplace of the 
founders of both these faiths. The Chinese traveller, Hsiian 
Tsang, in the 7th century, found 20 Buddhist temples with 
3000 monks at Ajodhya among a large Brahmanical popu- 
lation. The modern town of Ajodhya contains 96 Hindu temples 
and 36 Mussulman mosques. Little local trade is carried on, 
but the great fair of Ramnami held every year is attended by 
about 500,000 people. 

AKABA, GULF OF, the Sinus Aelaniticus of antiquity, the 
eastern of the two divisions into which the Red Sea bifurcates 
near its northern extremity. It penetrates into Arabia Petraea 
in a N.N.E. direction, from 28 to 29 32' N., a distance of 
loo m., and its breadth varies from 12 to 17 m. The entrance 
is contracted by Tiran and other islands, so that the passage 
is rendered somewhat difficult; and its navigation is dangerous 
on account of the numerous coral reefs, and the sudden squalls 
which sweep down from the adjacent mountains, many of which 
rise perpendicularly to a height of 2000 ft. The gulf is a con- 
tinuation southward of the Jordan-' Araba depression. Raised 
beaches on the coast show that there has been a considerable 
elevation of the sea-bed. The only well-sheltered harbour 
is that of Dahab (the Golden Port) on its western shore, 
about 33 m. from the entrance and 29 m. E. of Mount 
Sinai. Near the head of the gulf is Jeziret Faraun (medieval 
Graye), a rocky islet with the ruins of a castle built by Baldwin 
I. (c. 1115). 

About 25 m. from the head of the gulf and on its eastern side 
is the TOWN OF AKABA, with a picturesque medieval castle, built 
for the protection of pilgrims on their way from Egypt to Mecca. 
In the neighbourhood are extensive groves of date palms, and 
there is an ample supply of good water. Akaba is of considerable 
historical interest and of great antiquity, being the Elath or 
Eloth of the Bible, and one of the ports whence Solomon's fleet 
sailed to Ophir. By the Romans, who made it a military post, 
it was called Aelana. It continued to be the seat of great 
commercial activity under the early Moslem caliphs, who 
corrupted the name to Haila or Ailat. In the loth century an 
Arab geographer described it as the great port of Palestine and 
the emporium of the Hejaz. In the I2th century the town 
suffered at the hands of Saladin and thereafter fell into decay. 
In 1841 the town was recognized by Turkey, together with the 
Sinai peninsula, as part of Egypt. At that time Egyptian 
pilgrims frequented Akaba in large numbers. In 1892, on the 
accession of the khedive Abbas II., Turkey resumed possession 
of Akaba, the Egyptian pilgrims having deserted the land route 
to Mecca in favour of a sea passage. In 1906 the construction 
was begun of a branch line joining Akaba to the Mecca railway 
and thus giving through communication with Beirut. Early 
in the same year the Turks occupied Taba, a village at the 
mouth of a small stream 8 m. by land W. by S. of Akaba, near 
which is the site, not identified, of the Ezion-Geber of Scripture, 
another of the ports whence the argosies of the Israelites sailed. 
Taba being on the Egyptian side of the frontier, Great Britain 



454 



AKA HILLS AKENSIDE 



intervened on behalf of Egypt, and in May 1906 secured the 
withdrawal of the Turks. 

AKA HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of 
India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Akas. It 
lies north of the Darrang district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, 
and is bounded on the east by the Daphla Hills and on the west 
by independent Bhutia tribes. The Aka country is very difficult 
of access, the direct road from the plains leading along the 
precipitous channel of the Bhareli river, which divides the Aka 
from the Daphla country. The Akas are a brave people, and 
the men are strong and well-made. Their reputation as raiders 
is sufficiently shown in the division of the tribe into two clans, 
the Hazari-khoas or " eaters of a thousand hearths," and the 
Kapah-chors or "thieves that lurk in the cotton fields." In 
the early years of British occupation, about 1829, they gave 
much trouble; and in 1883 they broke out once more into their 
old habits. They raided into the British district of Darrang 
and carried off several native forest officers as hostages. An 
expedition was sent against them under General Sale Hill with 
860 troops, which was completely successful. All its objects 
were satisfactorily accomplished, namely, the recovery of the 
captives, the surrender of all firearms, the payment of the fine 
inflicted by government, the complete submission of the tribe 
and the survey of the country. 

AKALKOT, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of 
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs, situated between 
the British district of Sholapur and the nizam's dominions. 
It forms part of the Deccan table-land, and has a cool and agree- 
able climate. Area 498 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 82,047, showing 
an increase of 8 % in the decade. Estimated revenue, 26,586; 
the tribute is 1000. The chief, who is a Mahratta of the 
Bhonsla family, resides at Poona on a pension, while the state is 
under British management. 

The town of Akalkot is situated near the Great Indian Penin- 
sula railway, which traverses the state. Pop. 8348. 

AKBAR, AKHBAR or AKBER, JELLALADIN MAHOMMED 
(154 2-1 605), one of the greatest and wisest of the Mogul emperors. 
He was born at Umarkot in Sind on the i4th of October 1542, his 
father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short 
time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more than twelve 
years' exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however, 
he had held only for a few months when he died. Akbar suc- 
ceeded his father in 1556 under the regency of Baira'n Khan, a 
Turkoman noble, whose energy in repelling pretenders to the 
throne, and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army, 
tended greatly to the consolidation of the newly recovered 
empire. Bairam, however, was naturally despotic and cruel; 
and when order was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary 
to take the reins of government into his own hands, which he did 
by a proclamation issued in March 1 560. The discarded regent 
lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to establish an 
independent principality in Malwa, but at last he was forced to 
cast himself on Akbar's mercy. The emperor not only freely 
pardoned him, but magnanimously offered him the choice of a 
high place in the army or a suitable escort for a pilgrimage to 
Mecca, and Bairam preferred the latter alternative. When Akbar 
ascended the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly 
been comprised within the Mogul empire owned his authority, and 
he devoted himself with great determination and success to the 
recovery of the revolted provinces. Over each of these, as it was 
restored, he placed a governor, whom he superintended with 
vigilance and wisdom. He tried by every means to develop and 
encourage commerce; he had the land accurately measured for 
the purpose of rightly adjusting taxation; he gave the strictest 
instructions to prevent extortion on the part of the taxgatherers, 
and in many other respects displayed an enlightened and equit- 
able policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth year of 
Akbar's reign, the empire had more than regained all that it had 
lost, the recovered provinces being reduced, not to subjection 
only as before, but to a great degree of peace, order and content- 
ment. Akbar's method of dealing with what must always be the 
chief difficulty of one who has to rule widely diverse races, affords 



perhaps the crowning evidence of his wisdom and moderation. 
In religion he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant exclu- 
siveness of that creed was quite foreign to his character. Scepti- 
cism as to the divine origin of the Koran led him to seek the true 
religion in an eclectic system. He accordingly set himself to 
obtain information about other religions, sent to Goa, requesting 
that the Portuguese missionaries there should visit him, and 
listened to them with intelligent attention when they came. As 
the result of these inquiries, he adopted the creed of pure deism and 
a ritual based upon the system of Zoroaster. The religion thus 
founded, however, having no vital force, never spread beyond the 
limits of the court, and died with Akbar himself. But though his 
eclectic system failed, the spirit of toleration which originated it 
produced in other ways many important results, and, indeed, 
may be said to have done more to establish Akbar's power on a 
secure basis than all his economic and social reforms. He con- 
ciliated the Hindus by giving them freedom of worship; while at 
the same time he strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brah- 
manical practices, such as trial by ordeal and the burning of 
widows against their will. He also abolished all taxes upon 
pilgrims as an interference with the liberty of worship, and the 
capitation tax upon Hindus, probably upon similar grounds. 
Measures like these gained for him during his lifetime the title of 
" Guardian of Mankind," and caused him to be held up as a model 
to Indian princes of later times, who in the matter of religious 
toleration have only too seldom followed his example. 

Akbar was a munificent patron of literature. He established 
schools throughout his empire for the education of both Hindus 
and Moslems, and he gathered round him many men of literary 
talent, among whom may be mentioned the brothers Feizi and 
Abul Fazl. The former was commissioned by Akbar to translate 
a number of Sanskrit scientific works into Persian; and the 
latter (see ABUL FAZL) has left, in the Akbar-Nameh, an enduring 
record of the emperor's reign. It is also said that Akbar em- 
ployed Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit missionary, to translate the four 
Gospels into Persian. 

The closing years of Akbar's reign were rendered very unhappy 
by the misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in youth, the 
victims of intemperance; and the third, Salim, afterwards the 
emperor Jahangir, was frequently in rebellion against his father. 
These calamities were keenly felt by Akbar, and may even 
have tended to hasten his death, which occurred at Agra on the 
1 5th of October 1605. His body was deposited in a magnificent 
mausoleum at Sikandra, near Agra. 

See G. B. Malleson, Akbar (" Rulers of India " series), 1890. 

AKCHA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town 
lies 42 m. westward of Balkh on the road to Andkhui. It is 
protected by a mud wall and a citadel. Estimated population 
8000, chiefly Uzbegs. The khanate is small, but well watered and 
populous. The rivers rising in the southern mountains, which no 
longer reach the Oxus, terminate in vast swamps near Akcha, and 
into these the debris of such vegetation as yearly springs up on 
the slopes of the southern hills is washed down in time of flood. 

AKEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the 
Elbe, 25 m. E. S. E. of Magdeburg, with a branch line to Cothen 
(8 m.). Pop. (1900) 7358. It has manufactures of cloth, 
leather, chemicals and optical instruments; large quantities of 
beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood; and there is 
a considerable transit trade on the Elbe. 

AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770), English poet and physician, 
was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the gth of November 1721. 
He was the son of a butcher, and was slightly lame all his life 
from a wound he received as a child from his father's cleaver. 
All his relations were dissenters, and, after attending the free 
school of Newcastle, and a dissenting academy in the town, 
he was sent (1739) to Edinburgh to study theology with a view 
to becoming a minister, his expenses being paid from a special 
fund set aside by the dissenting community for the education 
of their pastors. He had already contributed " The Virtuoso, 
in imitation of Spenser's style and stanza " (173?) to the Gentle- 
man's Magazine, and in 1738 " A British Philippic, occasioned 
by the Insults of the Spaniards, and the present Preparations 



AKERMAN AKHALTSIKH 



455 



for War" (also published separately). After he had spent 
one winter as a student of theology, he entered his name as a 
student of medicine. He repaid the money that had been 
advanced for his theological studies, and with this change of 
mind he seems to have drifted to a mild deism. His politics, 
says Dr Johnson, were characterized by an " impetuous eager- 
ness to subvert and confound, with very little care what shall 
be established," and he is caricatured in the republican doctor 
of Smollett's Peregrine Pickle. He was elected a member of 
the Medical Society of Edinburgh in 1740. His ambitions 
already lay outside his profession, and his gifts as a speaker 
made him hope one day to enter parliament. In 1740 he printed 
his " Ode on the Winter Solstice " in a small volume of poems. 
In 1741 he left Edinburgh for Newcastle and began to call 
himself surgeon, though it is doubtful whether he practised, 
and from the next year dates his life-long friendship with Jere- 
miah Dyson (1722-1776). During a visit to Morpeth in 1738 
he had conceived the idea of his didactic poem, " The Pleasures 
of the Imagination." He had already acquired a considerable 
literary reputation when he came to London about the end of 

1 743, and offered the work to Dodsley for i 20. Dodsley thought 
the price exorbitant, and only accepted the terms after submitting 
the MS. to Pope, who assured him that this was " no everyday 
writer." The three books of this poem appeared in January 

1744. His aim, Akenside tells us in the preface, was " not so 
much to give formal precepts, or enter into the way of direct 
argumentation, as, by exhibiting the most engaging prospects 
of nature, to enlarge and harmonize the imagination, and by 
that means insensibly dispose the minds of men to a similar 
taste and habit of thinking in religion, morals and civil life." 
Akenside's powers fell short of this lofty design; his imagination 
was not brilliant enough to surmount the difficulties inherent 
in a poem dealing so largely with abstractions; but the work 
was well received by the general public. His success was not 
unchallenged. Gray wrote to Thomas Wharton that it was 
" above the middling," but " often obscure and unintelligible 

id too much infected with the Hutchinson 1 jargon." 
Into a note added by Akenside to the passage in the third 
book dealing with ridicule, William Warburton chose to read 
a reflexion on himself. Accordingly he attacked the author 
of the Pleasures of the Imagination which was published 
anonymously in a scathing preface to his Remarks on Several 
Occasional Reflections, in answer to Dr Middleton . . . (1744). 
This was answered, nominally by Dyson, in An Epistle to the 
Rev. Mr Warburton, in which Akenside no doubt had a hand. 
It was in the press when he left England in 1744 to secure a 
medical degree at Leiden. In little more than a month he had 
completed the necessary dissertation, De ortu et incremento 
foetus humani, and received his diploma. Returning to England 
he attempted without success to establish a practice in North- 
ampton. In 1744 he published his Epistle to Curio, attacking 
William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) for having abandoned 
his liberal principles to become a supporter of the government, 
and in the next year he produced a small volume of Odes on 
Several Subjects, in the preface to which he lays claim to correct- 
ness and a careful study of the best models. His friend Dyson 
had meanwhile left the bar, and had become, by purchase, 
clerk to the House of Commons. Akenside had come to London 
and was trying to make a practice at Hampstead. Dyson took 
a house there, and did all he could to further his friend's interest 
in the neighbourhood. But Akenside's arrogance and pedantry 
frustrated these efforts, and Dyson then took a house for him 
in Bloomsbury Square, making him independent of his profession 
by an allowance stated to have been 300 a year, but probably 
greater, for it is asserted that this income enabled him to " keep 
a chariot," and to live " incomparably well." In 1746 he wrote 
his much-praised "Hymn to the Naiads," and he also became 
a contributor to Dodsley's Museum, or Literary and Historical 
Register. He was now twenty-five years old, and began to devote 

The reference is to Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), author of 
an Inquiry into the Original oj our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue 




himself almost exclusively to his profession. He was an acute 
and learned physician. He was admitted M.D. at Cambridge 
in 1753, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1754, and 
fourth censor in 1755. In June 1755 he read the Gulstonian 
lectures before the College, in September 1756 the Croonian 
lectures, and in 1759 the Harveian oration. In January 1759 
he was appointed assistant physician, and two months later 
principal physician to Christ's Hospital, but he was charged 
with harsh treatment of the poorer patients, and his unsym- 
pathetic character prevented the success to which his undeniable 
learning and ability entitled him. At the accession of George III. 
both Dyson and Akenside changed their political opinions, 
and Akenside's conversion to Tory principles was rewarded by 
the appointment of physician to the queen. Dyson became 
secretary to the treasury, lord of the treasury, and in 1774 
privy councillor and cofferer to the household. 

Akenside died on the 23rd of June 1770, at his house in 
Burljngton Street, where the last ten years of his life had been 
spent. His friendship with Dyson puts his character in the most 
amiable light. Writing to his friend so early as 1 744, Akenside 
said that the intimacy had " the force of an additional conscience, 
of a new principle of religion," and there seems to have been no 
break in their affection. He left all his effects and his literary 
remains to Dyson, who issued an edition of his poems in 1772. 
This included the revised version of the Pleasures of Imagination, 
on which the author was engaged at his death. The first book 
of this work defines the powers of imagination and discusses 
the various kinds of pleasure to be derived from the perception 
of beauty; the second distinguishes works of imagination from 
philosophy; the third describes the pleasure to be found in 
the study of man, the sources of ridicule, the operations of the 
mind, in producing works of imagination, and the influence of 
imagination on morals. The ideas were largely borrowed from 
Addison's essays on the imagination and from Lord Shaftesbury. 
Professor Dowden complains that " his tone is too high-pitched; 
his ideas are too much in the air; they do not nourish them- 
selves in the common heart, the common life of man." Dr 
Johnson praised the blank verse of the poems, but found fault 
with the long and complicated periods. Akenside's verse was 
better when it was subjected to severer metrical rules. His 
odes are very few of them lyrical in the strict sense, but they are 
dignified and often musical, while the few " inscriptions " he 
has left are felicitous in the extreme. 

The best edition of Akenside's Poetical Works is that prepared 
(1834) by Alexander Dyce for theAldine Edition of the BritishPoets, 
and reprinted with small additions in subsequent issues of the series. 
See Dyce's Life of Akenside prefixed to his edition, also Johnson's 
Lives of the Poets, and the Life, Writings and Genius of Akenside 
(1832) by Charles Bucke. 

AKERMAN, JOHN YONGE (1806-1873), English antiquarian, 
distinguished chiefly in the department of numismatics, was 
born in Wiltshire. He became early known in connexion with 
his favourite study, having initiated the Numismatic Journal in 
1836. In the following year he became the secretary of the 
newly established Numismatic Society. In 1848 he was elected 
secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, an office which he was 
compelled to resign in 1860 on account. of failing health. Akerman 
published a considerable number of works on his special subject, 
the more important being a Catalogue of Roman Coins (1839); 
a Numismatic Manual (1840); Roman Coins relating to Britain 
(1844); Ancient Coins Hispania, Gallia, Britannia (1846); 
and Numismatic Illustrations of the New Testament (1846). He 
wrote also a Glossary of Words used in Wiltshire (1842) ; Wiltshire 
Tales, illustrative of the Dialect (1853); an d Remains of Pagan 
Saxondom (1855). 

AKHALTSIKH (Georgian Akhaltsikhe, "new fortress"), a 
fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, government of Tiths, 
68 m. E. of Batum, in 41 40' N. lat., 43 i' E. long., on a tribu- 
tary of the Kura, at an altitude of 3375 ft. The new town is on 
the right bank of the river, while the old town and the fortress 
are on the opposite bank. There is trade in silk, honey and wax, 
and brown coal is found in the neighbourhood. The silver 
filigree work is famous. Pop. (1897) 15,387, of whom many 



45 6 



AK-HISSAR AKKA 



were Armenians, as against 15,977 in 1867. From 1579 to 1828 
Akhaltsikh was the capital of Turkish Armenia. In the last- 
mentioned year it was captured by the Russians. The Turks 
invested it in 1853. 

AK-HISSAR (anc. Thyateira, the " town of Thya "), a town 
situated in a fertile plain on the Giirduk Chai (Lycus), in the 
Aidin vilayet, 58 m. N.E. of Smyrna. Pop. about 20,000, 
Mussulmans forming two-thirds. Thyateira was an ancient 
town re-peopled with Macedonians by Seleucus about 290 B.C. 
It became an important station on the Roman road from Per- 
gamum to Laodicea, and one of the "Seven Churches" of Asia 
(Rev. ii. 18), but was never a metropolis or honoured with a 
neocorate, though made the centre of a conventus by Caracalla. 
The modern town is connected with Smyrna by railway, and 
exports cotton, wool, opium, cocoons and cereals. The in- 
habitants are Greeks, Armenians and Turks. The Greeks are 
of an especially fine type, physical and moral, and noted all 
through Anatolia for energy and stability. W. M. Ramsay 
believes them to be direct descendants of the ancient Christian 
population; but there is reason to think they are partly sprung 
from more recent immigrants who moved in the i8th century 
from western Greece into the domain of the Karasmans of Manisa 
and Bergama, as recorded by W. M. Leake. Cotton of excellent 
quality is grown in the neighbourhood, and the place is cele- 
brated for its scarlet dyes. 

See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches (1904) ; M. Clerc, 
De rebus Thyatirenorum (1893). 

AKHMIM, or EKHMIM, a town of Upper Egypt, on the right 
bank of the Nile, 67 m. by river S. of Assiut, and 4 m. above 
Suhag, on the opposite side of the river, whence there is railway 
communication with Cairo and Assuan. It is the largest town 
on the east side of the Nile in Upper Egypt, having a population 
in 1007 of 23,795, tof whom about a third were Copts. Akhmim 
has several mosques and two Coptic churches, maintains a 
weekly market, and manufactures cotton goods, notably the 
blue shirts and check shawls with silk fringes worn by the poorer 
classes of Egypt. Outside the walls are the scanty ruins of two 
ancient temples. In Abulfeda's days (i3th century A.D.) a very 
imposing temple still stood here. Akhmim was the Egyptian 
Apu or Khen-min, in Coptic Shmin, known to the Greeks as 
Chemmis or Panopolis, capital of the gth or Chemmite nome of 
Upper Egypt. The ithyphallic Min (Pan) was here worshipped 
as " the strong Horus." Herodotus mentions the temple 
dedicated to " Perseus " and asserts that Chemmis was remark- 
able for the celebration of games in honour of that hero, after 
the manner of the Greeks, at which prizes were given; as a 
matter of fact some representations are known of Nubians and 
people of Puoni (Somalic coast) clambering up poles before the 
god Min. Min was especially a god of the desert routes on the 
east of Egypt, and the trading tribes are likely to have gathered 
to his festivals for business and pleasure, at Coptos (which was 
really near to Neapolis, Kena) even more than at Akhmim. 
Herodotus perhaps confused Coptos with Chemmis. Strabo 
mentions linen-weaving as an ancient industry of Panopolis, 
and it is not altogether a coincidence that the cemetery of 
Akhmim is one of the chief sources of the beautiful textiles of 
Roman and Coptic age that are brought from Egypt. Monas- 
teries abounded in this neighbourhood from a very early date; 
Shenout (Sinuthius) , the fiery apostle and prophet of the Coptic 
national church, was a monk of Atrepe (now Suhag), and led the 
populace to the destruction of the pagan edifices. He died in 
451; some years earlier Nestorius, the ex-patriarch, had suc- 
cumbed perhaps to his persecution and to old age, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Akhmim. Nonnus, the Greek poet, was born at 
Panopolis at the end of the 4th century. (F. LL. G.) 

AKHTAL [GHIYATH IBN HARITH] (c. 640-710), one of the most 
famous Arabian poets of the Omayyad period, belonged to the 
tribe of Taghlib in Mesopotamia, and was, like his fellow-tribes- 
men, a Christian, enjoying the freedom of his religion, while 
not taking its duties very seriously. Of his private life few 
details are known, save that he was married and divorced, 
and that he spent part of his time in Damascus, part with his 



tribe in Mesopotamia. In the wars of the Taghlibites with the 
Qaisites he took part in the field, and by his satires. In the 
literary strife between his contemporaries Jarir and Ferazdaq 
he was induced to support the latter poet. Akhtal, Jarir and 
Ferazdaq form a trio celebrated among the Arabs, but as to 
relative superiority there is dispute. In the 'Abbasid period 
there is no doubt that Akhtal's Christianity told against his 
reputation, but Abu 'Ubaida placed him highest of the three on 
the ground that amongst his poems there were ten flawless 
qasidas (elegies), and ten more nearly so, and that this could 
not be said of the other two. The chief material of his poems 
consists of panegyric of patrons and satire of rivals, the 
latter being, however, more restrained than was usual at the 
time. 

The Poetry of al-Akhtal has been published at the Jesuit press in 
Beirut, 1891. A full account of the poet and his times is given in 
H. Lammens' Le chantre des Omiades (Paris, 1895) (a reprint from 
the Journal Asiatique for 1894). (G. W. T.) 

AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 
near the Vorskla river, connected by a branch (n m.) with the 
railway from Kiev to Kharkov. It has a beautiful cathedral, 
built after a plan by Rastrelli in 1753, to which pilgrims resort 
to venerate an ikon of the Virgin. There are manufactures of 
light woollen stuffs and a trade in corn, cattle and the produce 
of domestic industries. The environs are fertile, the orchards 
producing excellent fruit. A fair is held on the 9th of May. The 
place was founded by the Poles in 1642. Pop. (1867) 17,411; 
(1900) 25,965. 

AKKA (TiKKi-TiKKi), a race of African pygmies first seen by 
the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870, when he was in the 
Mangbettu country, N.W. of Albert Nyanza. The home of the 
Akka is the dense forest zone of the Aruwimi district of the Congo 
State. They form a branch of the primitive pygmy negroid race, 
and appear to be divided into groups, each with its own chief. Of 
all African " dwarfs " the Akka are believed the best representa- 
tives of the " little people " mentioned by Herodotus. Giovanni 
Miani, the Italian explorer who followed Schweinfurth, obtained 
two young Akka in exchange for a dog and a calf. These, sent to 
Italy in 1873, were respectively 4 ft. 4 in. and 4 ft. 8 in. high, 
while the tallest seen by Schweinfurth did not reach 5 ft. None 
of the four Akka brought to Europe in 1874 and 1876 exceeded 
3 ft. 4 in. The average height of the race would seem to be some- 
what under 4 ft., but sufficient measurements have not been 
taken to allow of a conclusive statement. Schweinfurth says the 
Akka have very large and almost spherical skulls (this last detail 
proves to be an exaggeration). They are of the colour of coffee 
slightly roasted, with hair almost the same colour, woolly and 
tufted; they have very projecting jaws, flat noses and protrud- 
ing lips, which give them an " ape-like " appearance. Marked 
physical features are an abdominal protuberance which makes all 
Akka look like pot-bellied children, and a remarkable hollowing 
of the spine into a curve like an S. Investigation has shown that 
these are not true racial characteristics, but tend to disappear, 
the abdominal enlargement subsiding after some weeks of regular 
and wholesome diet. The upper limbs are long, and the hands, 
according to Schweinfurth, are singularly delicate. The lower 
limbs are short, relatively to the trunk, and curve in somewhat, 
the feet being bent in too, which gives the Akka a topheavy, 
tottering gait. There is a tendency to steatopygia among the 
women. The Akka are nomads, living in the forests, where they 
hunt game with poisoned arrows, with pitfalls and springs set 
everywhere, and with traps built like huts, the roofs of which, 
hung by tendrils only, fall in on the animal. They collect ivory 
and honey, manufacture poison, and bring these to market to 
exchange for cereals, tobacco and iron weapons. They are 
courageous hunters, and do not hesitate to attack even elephants, 
both sexes joining in the chase. They are very agile, and are 
said by the neighbouring negroes to leap about in the high grass 
like grasshoppers. They are timid as children before strangers, 
but are declared to be malevolent and treacherous fighters. In 
dress, weapons and utensils they are as the surrounding negroes. 
They build round huts of branches and leaves in the forest 






AKKAD AKOLA 



457 



S 



clearings. They seem in no way a degenerate race, but rather a 
people arrested in development by the forest environment. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (1895); G. A. 
Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (London, 1873); Dr W. Pleyte, 
Chapitres supplementaires du Livre des Marts, traduction el commen- 
taire (Leiden, 1883); Sir H. H. Johnston, Uganda Protectorate 
(London, 1902). 

AKKAD (Gr. versions dpxaS and ix^o), a Hebrew name, 
mentioned only once in the Old Testament (Gen. x. 10), for one 
of the four chief cities, Akkad, Babel, Erech and Calneh, which 
constituted the nucleus of the kingdom of Nimrod in the land 
of Shinar or Babylonia. This Biblical city, Akkad, was most 
probably identical with the northern Babylonian city known to us 
as Agade (not Agane, as formerly read), which was the principal 
seat of the early Babylonian king Sargon I. (Sargani-Sarali), 
whose date is given by Nabonidus, the last Semitic king of 
Babylonia (555-537 B.C.), as 3800 B.C., which is perhaps too 
old by 700 or 1000 years. 1 The probably non-Semitic name 
Agade occurs in a number of inscriptions 2 and is now well 
attested as having been the name of an important ancient 
capital. The later Assyro-Babylonian Semitic form Akkadu ("of 
or belonging to Akkad ") is, in all likelihood, a Semitic loan form 
from the non-Semitic name Agade, and seems to be an additional 
demonstration of the identity of Agade and Akkad. The usual 
signs denoting Akkadu in the Semitic narrative inscriptions were 
read in the non-Semitic idiom uri-ki or ur-ki, " land of the city," 
which simply meant that Akkadu was the land of the city par 
excellence, i.e. of the city of Agade of Sargon I., which remained 
for a long period the leading city of Babylonia. 3 

It is quite probable that the non-Semitic name Agade may 
mean "crown (ago) of fire (de)"* in allusion to litar, "the 
brilliant goddess," the tutelar deity of the morning and evening 
star and the goddess of war and love, whose cult was observed in 
very early times in Agade. This fact is again attested by 
Nabonidus, whose record 5 mentions that the Istar worship of 
Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, another 
personification of the Istar idea, whose shrine was at Sippar. It 
is significant in this connexion that there were two cities named 
Sippar, one under the protection of Shamash, the sun-gcd, and 

ie under this Anunit, a fact which points strongly to theprobable 
roximity of Sippar and Agade. In fact, it has been thought that 
Agade-Akkad was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of 

ie Euphrates, and was probably the oldest part of the city of 

ippar. 

In the Assyro-Babylonian literature the name Akkadu appears 
part of the royal title in connexion with Sumer; viz. non- 

mitic: lugal Kengi (kt) Uru (ki) = sar mat Sumeri u Akkadi, 

king of Sumer and Akkad," which appears to have meant 
simply " king of Babylonia." It is not likely, as many scholars 
have thought, that Akkad was ever used geographically as a 
distinctive appellation for northern Babylonia, or that the name 
Sumer (q.v.) denoted the southern part of the land, because kings 

10 ruled only over Southern Babylonia used the double title 

king of Sumer and Akkad," which was also employed by 

irthern rulers who never established their sway farther south 
.n Nippur, notably the great Assyrian conqueror Tiglath- 
ileser III. (745-727 B.C.). Professor McCurdy has very reason- 
ably suggested 6 that the title "king of Sumer and Akkad" 
indicated merely a claim to the ancient territory and city of 
Akkad together with certain additional territory, but not neces- 
sarily all Babylonia, as was formerly believed. 

A discussion of the interesting question relating to the non- 

imitic so-called Sumero-Akkadian language and race will be 
.nd in the article SUMER. 

1 Prince, Nabonidus, p. v. 

1 In the Sargon inscriptions; Bab. Exped. of the Univ. of Penn. 

pi. i, nr. i, line 6; pi. 2, nr. 2, line 5; pi. 3, nr. 3, fine 3b; 
also xi. pi. 49, nr. 119 and in Nebuchadnezzar, col. ii. line 50 
(Hilprecht, Freibrief Neb.); Cun. Texts from Bab. Tablets, pi. i, 
nr. 91146, line 3. 

1 Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, i. pp. 365, 373-374. 

1 Prince, " Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, pp. 23, 73, Journal 

Biblical Literature, 1906. 
I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 28. 

' History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. I IO. 




LITERATURE. Schrader, Zur Frage n. d. Ursprung d. altbab- 
Kultur (1883); Keilinschriflen und Geschichtsforschung, pp. 533 f.; 
Fried. Delitzsch, Wo lag das Parodies? (1881), p. 198; Paul 
Haupt, Akkadische und Sumerische Ketischrifttexte (1881), pp. 133 ff. ; 
Die Sumerische Akkadische Sprache, Verh. 5-ten Orient. Cong. ii. 
pp. 249-287; Die sumerischen Familiengesetze (1879); Zimmern, 
Babylonische Busspsalmen (1885), pp. 71 f.; Hommel, Gesch. Bab. 
Assyr. (1885), pp. 240 ff.; Tiele, Bab. Assyr. Gesch. (1888), p. 68; 
W. H. Ward, Hebraica (1886), pp. 79-86; McCurdy, Presb. and Ref. 
Review, Jan. 1891, pp. 58-81 ; History, Prophecy and the Monuments 
(1894), 79-85, 94-110; Hugo Winckler, Untersuchungen zur 
altortentalischen Geschtchte ( 1 886) , pp. 65 ff. In Rabbinical literature, 
Louis Ginzberg, in Monatschrift, xliii. 486; and Jewish Encyclopaedia, 
i. p. 149. (J. D. PR.) 

AKKERMAN (in old Slav. Byelgorod, "white town"), a town, 
formerly a fortress, of south-west Russia, in the government of 
Bessarabia, situated on the right bank of the estuary (liman) of 
the Dniester, 1 2 m. from the Black Sea. The town stands on the 
site of the ancient Milesian colony of Tyras. Centuries later it 
was rebuilt by the Genoese, who called it Mauro Castro. The 
Turks first acquired possession of it in 1484. It was taken by the 
Russians in 1770, 1774 and 1806, but each time returned to the 
Turks, and not definitely annexed to Russia until 1881. A treaty 
concluded here in 1826 between Russia and the Porte secured 
considerable advantages to the former. It was the non-observ- 
ance of this treaty that led to the war of 1828. The harbour is too 
shallow to admit vessels of large size, but the proximity of the 
town to Odessa secures for it a thriving business in wine, salt, fish, 
wool and tallow. The salt is obtained from the saline lakes 
(limans) in the neighbourhood. The town, with its suburbs, 
contains beautiful gardens and vineyards. It is surrounded by 
ramparts, and commanded by a citadel. Pop. (1900) 32,470. 

AKHOLINSK, one of the governments belonging to the 
governor-generalship of the Steppes in Asiatic Russia, formerly 
known as the Kirghiz Steppe; bounded by the government of 
Turgai on the W., by that of Tobolsk on the N., of Semi-pala- 
tinsk on the E., and of Syr-darya on the S. Area 229,544 sq. m., 
of which 4535 are lakes. In the north the government is low 
and dotted with salt lakes, and is sandy on the banks of the 
Irtysh in the north-east. An undulating plateau stretches 
through the middle, watered by the Ishim and its tributary the 
Nura. The plains gradually rise southwards, where a broad 
spur of the Tarbagatai mountains stretches north-westwards, 
containing gold, copper and coal. Many lakes, of which the 
largest is Teniz, are scattered along the northern slope of these 
hills. Farther south, towards Lake Balkash, on the south- 
eastern frontier, is a wide waterless desert, Bek-pak-dala, or 
Famine Steppe. This section of the government is drained by 
the Sary-su and Chu, the latter on the southern boundary- 
line. The climate is continental and dry, the average tempera- 
tures at the town of Akmolinsk being for the year 35, January 
i -5, July 70; rainfall, only 9 in. The population, which was 
686,863 in 1897 (324,587 women), consists chiefly of Russians 
in the northern and middle portions, and of Kirghiz (about 
350,000), who breed cattle, horses and sheep. The urban 
population was only 74,069. Agriculture is successfully carried 
on in the north, the Siberian railway running between Petro- 
pavlovsk and Omsk through a very fertile, well-populated 
region. Steamers ply on the Irtysh. The government is divided 
into five districts, the chief towns of which are: Omsk (pop. 
53,050 in 1900), formerly capital of West Siberia, now capital 
of this government and also of the governor-generalship of the 
Steppes; Akmolinsk, or Akmolly (9560 in 1897), on the Ishim, 
260 m. S.S.W. of Omsk, and chief centre for the caravans coming 
from Tashkent and Bokhara; Atbasar (3030); Kokchetav 
(5000); and Petropavlovsk (21,769 in 1901). 

AKOLA, a town and district of India, in Berar, otherwise 
known as the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The town is on 
the Murna tributary of the Purna river, 930 ft. above the sea, 
Akola proper being on the west bank, and Tajnapetb, containing 
the government buildings and European residences, on the east 
bank. It is a station on the Nagpur branch of the Great Indian 
Peninsula railway and is 383 m. E.N.E. of Bombay. It had a 
population (1901) of 29,289. It is walled, and has a citadel 
built in the early years of the i9th century. Akola is one of 



AKRON ALA 



the chief centres of the cotton trade in Berar, and has numerous 
ginning factories and cotton presses. Among the educational 
establishments are a government high school, and an industrial 
school supported by a Protestant mission. 

The DISTRICT OF AKOLA as reconstituted in 1905 has an area 
of 4111 sq. m., the population of this area in 1901 being 754,804. 
(Before the alteration of the boundaries the area of the district 
was 2678 sq. m., and the population 582,540.) The surface of 
the country is generally flat, the greater part being situated in 
the central valley of Berar. On the north it is bounded by the 
Melghat hills. By the addition of Basim and Mangrul taluks in 
1905, the district includes the eastern part of the Ajanta hills, 
with peaks rising to 2000 ft., and the tableland of Basim (?..). 
North of the Ajanta hills the country is drained eastward by 
the Puma affluent of the Tapti and its tributaries. None of 
the rivers is navigable. The climate resembles that of Berar 
generally, but the heat during April to mid-June, when the rains 
begin, is very great, the average temperature at the town of 
Akola in May for the twenty-five years ending 1901 being 94-4 F. 
But even during the hot season the nights are cool. The annual 
rainfall averages 34 in. In the Purna valley the soil is every- 
where a rich black loam, and nearly the whole of the land is 
cultivated. Very little land is under irrigation. The principal 
crop is cotton, and the staple grain millet. Wheat and pulses 
are also grown. The history of Akola is not distinguished from 
that of the other portions of Berar. In 1317-1318 it was added 
to the Delhi empire, became independent under the Bahmani 
dynasty in 1348, and in 1596 again fell under the sway of the 
Moguls. In 1724 it came, with the rest of Berar, under the 
dominion of the nizam, being assigned to the British in 1853. 

AKRON, a city and the county-seat of Summit county, Ohio, 
U.S.A., on the Little Cuyahoga river, about 35 m. S. by E. of 
Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 27,601; (1900) 42,728, of whom 7127 
were foreign-born (3227 being German, 1104 English, and 
641 Irish) ; (1910) 69,067. It is served by the Baltimore 
& Ohio, the Erie, the Northern Ohio, and the Cleveland, 
Akron & Columbus railways, by inter-urban electric lines and 
by the Ohio Canal. The city is situated in a region abound- 
ing in lakes, springs and hills; it is about 1000 ft. above sea-level, 
whence its name (from Gr. &Kpov, height); and attracts many 
summer visitors. It is the seat of Buchtel College (co-educa- 
tional; non-sectarian), which was founded by the Ohio Univer- 
salist Convention in 1870, was opened in 1872, and was named 
in honour of its most liberal benefactor, John R. Buchtel (1822- 
1892), a successful business man who did much to promote the 
industrial development of Akron. Buchtel College provides 
three courses leading to the degrees of A.B., Ph.B. and S.B.; 
it has a school of music, a school of art and an academy; in 
1908 there were 267 students. Coal is mined in the neigh- 
bourhood. The river furnishes considerable water-power; and 
among the city's most important manufactures are rubber and 
elastic goods (value, 1905, $13,396,974; 83-9 % of the total of 
this industry in the state and 21-3% of the total for the United 
States, Akron ranking first among the cities of the country in 
this industry), printing and publishing product (value, 1905, 
$2,834,639), foundry and machine-shop product (value, 1905, 
$2,367,764), and pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay (value, 1905, 
$1,718,033; nearly twice the value of the output in 1900, 
Akron ranking fourth among the cities of the United States in 
this industry in 1905). Other important manufactures are food 
preparations (especially of oats) and flour and grist mill products. 
The value of the total manufactured products (under the 
" factory " system) in 1905 was $34,004,243, an increase in five 
years of 54- 5 %. Akron was settled about 1825, was incorporated 
as a village in 1836, was made the county-seat in 1842, and in 
1865 was chartered as a city. 

See S. A. Lane, Fifty Years and over of Akron and Summit County 
(Akron, 1892). 

AK-SHEHR (anc. Philomelion), a town in Asia Minor, in the 
Konia vilayet, situated at the edge of a fertile plain, on the north 
side of the Sultan Dagh. Philomelion was probably a Perga- 
menian foundation on the great Graeco-Roman highway from 



Ephesus to the east, and to its townsmen the Smyrniotes wrote 
the letter that describes the martyrdom of Polycarp. Cicero, 
on his way to Cilicia, dated some of his extant correspondence 
there; and the place played a considerable part in the frontier 
wars between the Byzantine emperors and the sultanate of 
Rum. It became an important Seljuk town, and late in the I4th 
century passed into Ottoman hands. There Bayezid Yilderim 
is said by Ali of Yezd to have died after his defeat at Angora. 
The place still enjoys much repute among Turks, as the burial- 
place of Nur-ed-din Khoja. The town has a station on the 
Anatolian railway, about 60 m. from Afium-Kara-Hissar and 
100 m. from Konia. 

AKSU (White Water), a town of the Chinese empire, Eastern 
Turkestan, in 41 7' N. and 79 7' E. of Uch-Turfan and 270 m. 
N.E. of Yarkand, near the left bank of the Aksu river, which 
takes its origin in the T'ien-shan (Tian-shan) mountains and 
joins the Tarim. It belongs to the series of oases (Uch-Turfan, 
Bai, Koucha, &c.) situated at the southern foot of the eastern 
T'ien-shan mountains. The town, which is supposed to have 
about 6000 houses, is enclosed by a wall. It is an important 
centre for caravan routes and has a considerable trade. ' There 
are some cotton manufactures; and the place is celebrated for 
its richly ornamented saddlery made from deerskin. A Chinese 
garrison is stationed here, and copper and iron are wrought in 
the neighbourhood by exiled Chinese criminals. Extensive 
cattle-breeding is carried on by the inhabitants. 

AKYAB, a city and district in the Arakan division of Burma. 
The city is situated at the confluence of the three large rivers 
Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu, and is the most flourishing city 
in the Arakan division. Originally it was a mere fishing village, 
but when the British government in 1826 removed the restric- 
tions on trade imposed by the Burmese, Akyab quickly grew 
into an important seat of maritime commerce. After the cession 
of Arakan by the treaty of Yandaboo in that year the old capital 
of Myohaung was abandoned as the seat of government, and 
Akyab on the sea-coast selected instead. During the first forty 
years of British rule it increased from a village to a town of 
15,536 inhabitants, and now it is the third port of Burma, with 
a population in 1901 of 31,687. It contains the usual public 
buildings and several large rice mills. The chief exports are 
rice and oil. 

The district lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay of 
Bengal, with an area of 5136 sq. m. and a population in 
1901 of 481,666. It forms the northernmost district of Lower 
Burma, and consists of the level tract lying between the sea 
and the Arakan Yoma mountains, and of the broken country 
formed by a portion of their western spurs and valleys. The 
forests form a most important feature of Akyab district and 
contain a valuable supply of timber of many kinds. The central 
part of the district consists of three fertile valleys, watered by 
the Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu. These rivers approach each 
other at their mouths, and form a vast network of tidal channels, 
creeks and islands. Their alluvial valleys yield inexhaustible 
supplies of rice, which the abundant water carriage brings down 
to the port of Akyab at a very cheap rate. The four chief towns 
are Khumgchu in the extreme north-east of the district; Kola- 
daing in the centre; Arakan, farther down the rivers; and 
Akyab on the coast, where their mouths converge. This dis- 
trict passed into the hands of the British, together with the 
rest of Arakan division, at the dose of the first Burmese war 
of 1825-1826. 

Akyab was the metropolitan province of the native kingdom 
of Arakan, and the history of that country centres in it. In 
1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed under 
a special administration, with a view to the better government 
of the wild tribes which inhabit them. (J. G. Sc.) 

ALA (from Lat. ala, a wing), a word used technically by 
analogy with its meaning of " wing." In physiology, it means 
any wing-like process, such as one of the lateral cartilages of the 
nose. In botany, one of the side petals of a papilionaceous 
corolla, &c. In architecture, a side apartment or recess of a 
Roman house (the origin of " aisle "). 



ALABAMA 



459 



ALABAMA, a southern state of the American Union, situated 
between 84 51' and 88 31' W. long, and about 30 13' and 35 
N. lat., bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by Florida 
and the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi. Its total area is 
51,998 sq. m., of which 719 are water surface. 

Physical Features. The surface of Alabama in the N. and 
N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified and 
picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently 
undulating plain having a general incline south-westward toward 
the Mississippi and the Gulf. Extending entirely across the 
state of Alabama for about 20 m. S. of its N. boundary, and in 
the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is the Cumberland Plateau, 
or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad table-lands by 
the dissection of rivers. In the N. part of this plateau, W. of 
Jackson county, there are about 1000 sq. m. of level highlands 
from 700 to 800 ft. above the sea. South of these highlands, 
occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee river, 
is a delightful country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in 
levation from 500 to 800 ft. To the N.E. of these highlands 
id lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep 
>w coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations 
ige from 400 to 1800 ft. In the remainder of this region, 
S. portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, 
ttending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, and 
sing precipitously on the N. side 500 ft. above them or 1000 ft. 
ibove the sea. Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the 
J. is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley) 
ion, which is the S. extremity of the great Appalachian 
[ountain system, and occupies an area within the state of about 
sq. m. This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock 
idges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although 
the general direction of the mountains, ridges and valleys is 
T.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of the most prominent 
iracteristics. In the N.E. are several flat-topped mountains, 
which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having 
maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than 
[800 ft. and gradually decreasing in height toward the S.W., 
fhere Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of 
lese the mountains are marked by steep N.W. sides, sharp 
sts and gently sloping S.E. sides. South-east of the Appa- 
lian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the 
ibama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular- 
iped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together 
rith the N. part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal 
artion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation 
about 1000 ft. above the sea. The Piedmont Plateau is a 
swland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then 
iplif ted to form a plateau. The remainder of the state is occupied 
jy the coastal plain. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling 
lines in the central part of the state, where it has a mean 
levation of about 600 ft., becomes lower and more level toward 
ic S.W., and in the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated 
ibove the sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to 
W.N.W. by the Tennessee river and its tributaries; all 
)ther parts of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appa- 
chian Valley region the Coosa is the principal river; and in 
le Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa. In the Coastal Plain 
re the Tombigbee in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa 
id Tallapoosa) in the W. central, and in the E. the Chatta- 
loochee, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. 
~'ie Tombigbee and Alabama unite near the S.W. corner of the 
ite, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile 
and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior is a considerable stream 
which joins the Tombigbee from the E. The valleys in the N. 
and N.E. are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain 
they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces 
above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the 
drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and 
Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such 
sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast. 

The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the 
Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. 



Climate and Soil. The climate of Alabama is temperate and 
fairly uniform. The heat of summer is tempered in the S. by 
the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the N. by the elevation 
above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in 
the S.W. along the coast, and lowest in the N.E. among the 
highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 F., the mean 
for the summer 81, and for the winter 52; and at Valley Head, 
in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59, the mean for the 
summer 75, and for the winter 41. At Montgomery, in the 
central region, the average annual temperature is 66, with a 
winter average of 49, and a summer average of 81. The average 
winter minimum for the entire state is 35, and there is an average 
of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the 
freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer 
has fallen below zero, as was the case in the remarkable cold 
wave of the I2th-i3th of February 1899, when an absolute 
minimum of 17 was registered at Valley Head. The highest 
temperature ever recorded was 109 in Talladega county in 
1902. The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast 
(62 in.) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state 
(about 52 in.). During each winter there is usually one fall of 
snow in the S. and two in the N. ; but the snow quickly dis- 
appears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is 
not covered with snow. Hail-storms occur in the spring and 
summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and 
are confined chiefly to the coast. Thunderstorms occur through- 
out the year, but are most common in the summer. The prevail- 
ing winds are from the S. As regards its soil, Alabama may be 
divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward 
for one hundred and fifty miles is the outer belt of the Coastal 
Plain, also called the " Timber Belt," whose soil is sandy and 
poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the 
inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the " Black Prairie," 
which includes some 13,000 sq. m. and seventeen counties. It 
receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak under- 
lying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of 
sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, 
especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region 
is also called the " Cotton Belt." Between the " Cotton Belt " 
and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the " Old Land " 
area " a region of resistant rocks " whose soils, also derived 
from weathering in situ, are of varied fertility, the best coming 
from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from 
the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region 
is the " Cereal Belt," embracing the Tennessee Valley and the 
counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark 
loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, 
produced by siliceous and sandstone formations. 

Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal occupation in 
Alabama, giving employment to 64'5%-of the population. The 
farm acreage in 1900 was 20,685,427 acres (62% of the entire 
surface of the state), of which 8,654,991 acres (41-8%) were 
improved. Under the system of slave labour which existed 
before 1860, the average size of the plantations tended to increase, 
but since 1860 the reverse has been true, the average plantation 
in 1860 being 346 acres, and in 1900 92-7 acres. The average 
value per acre of farm land was $11-86 in 1860 and $8-67 in 1900. 
As to method of cultivation, 36-3 per cent of the farms were in 1900 
managed by the owners, 33-3% by cash renters, 24-4% by share 
tenants, and the remaining 6% by other methods. The chief 
product is cotton, cultivated extensively in the " Black Belt " 
and less extensively in the other portions of the state. Cotton 
has always been the principal source of wealth, the amount of 
its exports at Mobile increasing from 7000 bales in 1818 to 
25,000 bales in 1821, and the total product of the state in 1840 
being double that of 1830. This was accompanied by an ex- 
tensive employment of slave labour, and from 1820 until 1860 
the rate of increase of the blacks was greater than that of the 
whites. The success of the economic system was such that in 
1860 the cotton crop of Alabama was nearly 1,000,000 bales 
(989,955 bales), being 18-4% of the entire cotton product of the 
United States. The disorganization of labour resulting from the 



460 



ALABAMA 



Civil War and the emancipation of slaves, was the cause of 
a temporary decline in the cotton crop. In 1889 the crop again 
approximated to 1,000,000 bales (915,210 bales, being 12-2% of 
the entire crop of the United States), and in 1899 it exceeded 
that amount, Alabama being fourth among the states of the 
entire country. The total value of the farm products of Alabama 
in 1899 was $91,387,409; in 1889, $66,240,190; and in 1879, 
$56,872,994. The average yield per acre has also increased under 
the system of free labour. In recent years there has been a 
tendency to diversify crops, Indian corn, wheat and oats being 
raised extensively in the " Cereal Belt." In 1906, according to 
the "Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture, the following 
were the acreages, yields and values of Alabama's more import- 
ant crops (excepting cotton): Indian corn, 2,990,387 acres, 
47,849,392 bushels, $30,623,611; wheat, 98,639 acres, 1,085,029 
bushels, $1,019,927; oats, 184,179 acres, 3,167,879 bushels, 
$1,615,618; hay, 56,350 acres, 109,882 tons, $1,461,431. 

Minerals. The chief feature of Alabama's industrial life since 
1880 has been the exploitation of her iron and coal resources. 
The iron ore (found chiefly in the region of which Birmingham is 
the centre) is primarily red haematite and (much less important) 
brown haematite; though as regards the latter Alabama ranked 
first among the states of the Union in 1905 (with 781,561 tons). 
The total production of all classes of iron ores was 3,782,831 tons 
in 1905, Alabama ranking third in the Union in this respect. 
The production of bituminous coal has also increased very 
rapidly. Coal was first discovered in the state in 1834, and in 
1840 the total production was 946 tons; in 1870 it was 13,200 
short tons. The real development of the mines began in 1881 
and 1882, and the product increased from 420,000 tons in 1881 
to 1,568,000 in 1883. By 1800 it had increased to 4,090,409 tons, 
by 1900 to 8,394,275 tons, and by 1905 to 11,866,069 tons, 
valued at $14,387,721, making Alabama sixth of the coal- 
producing states. Nearly 85 % of the coal is produced in three 
counties (Jefferson, Walker and Bibb), though the coal-bearing 
formations cover about 40 % of the northern half of the state. 
Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and bauxite have also been 
discovered, but the greater richness of the iron and coal deposits 
has prevented their development. 

Manufactures. The growth of manufactures in Alabama has 
been as remarkable as the revelation of mineral wealth. In 1880 
the capital invested in manufactures was $9,668,008, little more 
than that ($9,098,181) in 1860; by 1890 it had increased to 
$46, 1 22, 571, or 377- 1 %;andin 1900 it amounted to $70,3 70,081, 
or 52-6 % more than in iSoo. 1 On account of the proximity of 
coal, iron and limestone, the manufactures of iron and steel are 
the most extensive. In 1895 it was demonstrated that Alabama 
pig-iron could be sent to Liverpool and sold cheaper than the 
English product, and Birmingham (Alabama) came consequently 
to rank next to Middlesborough and Glasgow among the world 
centres of the pig-iron trade. The pig-iron produced in the state 
in 1860 was valued at $64,590, in 1870 at $210,258, in 1880 at 
S^oS.SSti, in 1900 at $13,487,769, and in 1905 at $16,614,577. 
In the production of foundry pig-iron Alabama held first rank 
both in 1900 and in 1905. The manufacture of steel, though in 
its infancy, gave promise of equalling that of iron, and the coke 
industry is also of growing importance, the product of Alabama 
during the five years from 1 896 to 1 901 showing a greater increase, 
relatively, than that of the other states. In 1900 the state ranked 
sixth and in 1905 fifth among the states of the United States in 
the manufactures of iron and steel. In 1005 the value of the 
product was 2-7 % of the value of the total iron and steel product 
of the country, and 22-6 % of the value of all the state's factory 
products. In 1000 and in 1905 Alabama ranked second among 

1 The special census of manufactures taken in 1905 was confined 
to manufacturing establishments conducted under the so-called 
" factory system." According to this census the capital invested 
was $105,382,859, and the value of products was $109,169,922. 
The corresponding figures for 1900, if the same standard be taken 
for purposes of comparison, would be $60,165,904 and $72,109,929. 
During the five years, therefore, the capital invested in establish- 
ments under the factory system increased 75-2 %, and the value of 
products 51-4 %. 



the states of the Union in the production of coke, its product 
being more than one-tenth of that for the whole country, and 
more than one-twentieth (5-2 % in 1000; 5-7 % in 1905) of all the 
factory products of the state. The demand for coke is due to the 
rapidly growing iron and steel industry. Great possibilities were 
also shown for the production of lumber and naval stores. Ap- 
proximately three-fourths of the total area of the state is wood- 
land. In the " Timber Belt " the forests of long leaf pine have an 
estimated stand of 21,192 million ft; and in 1905 the product of 
sawed lumber was valued at $13,563,815. Of this, yellow pine 
represented $11,320,909, oak $886,746, and poplar $627,686. 
In the decade 1800-1900 the number of turpentine factories 
increased from 7 to 152, and their product in 1900 and in 1905 
ranked Alabama third among the states in that industry. The 
value of the turpentine and rosin products in 1 905 was $2,434,365. 

The manufacture of cotton goods has also developed rapidly. 
As late as 1890 there were only 13 cotton mills in Alabama, one 
more than the number in 1850; in 1900 there were 31, represent- 
ing a capital of $11,638,757 and an annual product valued at 
$8,153,136, an increase of 272-2 % over the product ($2,190,771) 
of 1890; in 1905 there were 46 establishments, representing a 
capital of $24,758,049 (an increase of 112-7 % over that of 1000), 
and having a product (for the year) of $16,760,332, an increase 
of 105-6 % over that for 1900. To encourage the establishment 
of cotton mills the legislature of 1896-1897 exempted from taxa- 
tion during the succeeding ten years all capital that should be 
invested in the manufacture of cotton, provided that $50,000 or 
more be invested in buildings and machinery. Other industries 
of less importance are flour, fertilizers and tanned leather. 

Communications. The navigable mileage of the Alabama 
rivers is 2000 m., but obstructions often prevent the formation 
of a continuous route, notably the " Muscle Shoals " of the Ten- 
nessee, extending from a point 10 m. below Decatur to Florence, 
a distance of 38 m. To remove or circumvent these impediments, 
and to improve the Mobile harbour, the United States govern- 
ment spent, between 1870 and 1004, approximately $12,000,000. 
As the streams in the mineral region are not navigable, the rail- 
ways are the carriers of its products. 2 Here all the large systems 
of the southern states find an entrance, the Mobile & Ohio, the 
Southern (Queen & Crescent Route), the Louisville & Nashville, 
and the 'Frisco system affording communication with the Missis- 
sippi and the west, and the Southern, Seaboard Air Line, At- 
lantic Coast Line, and the Central of Georgia forming connexions 
with northern and Atlantic states. Mobile, the only seaport of 
the state, has a channel 30 ft. deep, on which the national govern- 
ment spends large sums of money; yet an increasing amount 
of Alabama cotton is sent to New Orleans for shipment, and 
Pensacola, Florida, receives much of the lumber. 

Population. In 1880 the inhabitants of Alabama numbered 
1,262,505; in 1890, 1,513,017, an increase of 17%; in 1900, 
1,828,697, a further increase of 20 %. This population is notable 
for its large proportion of negroes (45 -23%), its insignificant 
foreign element (-08%), and the small percentage of urban in- 
habitants (10 %). As regards church membership, the Baptists 
are much the most numerous, followed by the Methodists, the 
Roman Catholics and the Presbyterians. In 1900 there were 
201 incorporated cities, towns and villages in the state, but of 
these only nine had a population in excess of 5000, and only three a 
population in excess of 25,000. These three were Mobile (38,469), 
Birmingham (38,415), and Montgomery (30,346), the capital of 
the state. Other important cities, with their populations, were 
Selma (8713), Anniston (9695), Huntsville (8068), Bessemer 
(6358), Tuscaloosa (5094), Talladega (5056), Eufaula (4S3 2 ) an d 
Tuskegee (2170). In 1910 the population was 2,138,093. 

Government. Alabama has been governed under five con- 
stitutions, the original constitution of 1819, the revision of 1865, 
the constitutions of 1868 and 1875, and the present ,constitution, 
which was framed in 1001. The last has a number of notable 
provisions. It lengthened the term of service of executive and 
legislative officials from two to four years, made that of the 

1 The railway mileage of the state on the 3 1st of December 1906 
was 4805-58 m. 



ALABAMA 



GULF OF MEXICO 




Emery Walker sc 



ALABAMA 



461 



judiciary six years, provided for quadrennial sessions of the 
legislature, and introduced the office of lieutenant-governor. 
The passage of local or special bills by the legislature was pro- 
hibited. A provision intended to prevent lobbying is that no 
one except legislators and the representatives of the press may 
be admitted to the floor of the House except by unanimous 
vote. No executive official can succeed himself in office, and 
the governor cannot be elected or appointed to the United States 
Senate, or to any state office during his term as governor, or 
within one year thereafter. Sheriffs whose prisoners suffer mob 
violence may be impeached. The constitution eliminated the 
negro from politics by a suffrage clause which went into effect 
in 1903. This limits the right to vote to those who can read and 
write any article of the constitution of the United States, and 
have worked or been regularly engaged in some lawful employ- 
ment, business or occupation, trade or calling for the greater 
part of the twelve months next preceding the time they offer to 
register, unless prevented from labour or ability to read and 
write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at 
$300 upon which the taxes have been paid; but those who have 
served in the army or navy of the United States or of the Con- 
federate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in every 
degree, and persons of good character " who understand the 
duties and obligations of citizenship under a republican form 
of government," are relieved from the operation of this law 
provided they registered prior to the 2oth of December 1902. 
The second of these exceptions is known as the " Grandfather 
Clause." No man may vote in any election who has not by the 
ist of February next preceding that election paid all poll taxes 
due from him to the state. In 1902 nine-tenths of the negroes 
in the state were disqualified from voting. 1 The constitution of 
1901 (like that of 1867) and special statutes require separate 
schools for white and negro children. A " Jim Crow " law was 
enacted in 1891. Buying, selling or offering to buy or sell a vote 
has for penalty disfranchisement, and since 1891 the Australian 
ballot system has been used. The governor, auditor and 
attorney-general are required to prepare and present to each 
legislature a general revenue bill, and the secretary of state, with 
the last two officers, constitute a board of pardons who make 
recommendations to the governor, who, however, is not bound 
to follow their advice in the exercise of his pardoning power. 
State officials are forbidden to accept railway passes from rail- 
way companies, and individuals are forbidden to receive freight 
rebates. The constitution of 1901 exempted a homestead of 
80 acres of farm land, or of a house and lot not exceeding $2000 
in value, from liability for any debt contracted since the 3oth of 
July 1868 except for a mortage on it to which the wife con- 
sented; personal property to the value of $1000 is exempted. 
Under the civil code of 1897 the earnings of a wife are her 
separate property, and it is provided that " no woman, nor any 
boy under age of twelve years, shall be employed to work or 
labour in or about any mine in this state." By acts of 1903 
child labour under 12 years is forbidden in any factory unless 
for support of " a widowed mother or aged or disabled father," 
or unless the child is an indigent orphan; " no child under the age 
of ten years shall be so employed under any circumstances." 
Certificates of children's ages are necessary before a child is 
employed; false certification is forbidden under penalty of a 
fine of from $5 to $100 or hard labour not exceeding three 
months. No child under 13 may do night work at all. No child 

1 In Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 474, a negro asked that the defendant 
board of registry be required to enrol his name and the names of 
other negroes on the registration lists, and that certain sections of 
the constitution of Alabama be declared void as being contrary to 
the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the federal constitution. 
The Supreme Court dismissed the bill on the grounds that equity 
has no jurisdiction over political matters; that, assuming the 
fraudulent character of the objectionable constitutional provisions, 
the court was in effect asked to assist in administering a fraud; 
* and that relief " must be given by them [the people of the state] or 
by the legislative and political departments of the government of 
the United States." The case attracted much attention; and it is 
often erroneously said that the court upheld the disfranchising 
clauses of the Alabama constitution. 






under 16 may do more than 48 hours a week of night work. No 
child of less than 12 is allowed to work more than 66 hours in 
any one week. An able-bodied parent who does not work when 
he has the opportunity, unless " idle under strike orders, or 
lock-outs," and who hires out his minor children, is declared a 
vagrant and may be fined $500 and imprisoned or sentenced 
to hard labour for not more than six months. 

All amendments to the constitution must be approved by a 
three-fifths vote of each house of the legislature and then ratified 
by the people. The legislature of 1900-1901 established a 
department of archives and history whose aim is to preserve 
documents and historical records. 

Education. Public education for Mobile was authorized by 
the legislature of 1826, but it was not provided until 1852. Two 
years later (1854) a school system for the entire state was in- 
augurated. Its support was derived from public land given by 
the United States to the state of Alabama for educational pur- 
poses in 1819, and special taxes or tuition fixed by each township. 
The Civil War demoralized the nascent system. An important 
step in its revival seemed to be made in the constitution of 1868, 
which forbade any private recompense for instruction in the 
public schools and appropriated one-fifth of the state's revenue 
to common schools. But the attempt to teach whites and blacks 
in the same schools, and the corruption in the administration of 
funds, made the results unsatisfactory. The constitution of 
1875 abolished the one-fifth revenue provision, made the support 
of the schools, except that derived from the laud grant of 1819, 
and poll taxes, depend upon the appropriation of the legislature, 
and established separate schools for whites and blacks. Progress 
has been slow but steady. According to the constitution of 
1901 the legislature is required to levy, in addition to the poll 
tax, an annual tax for education at the rate of 30 to 65 cents 
on the hundred dollars' worth of property, and practically 
every county in the state had made in 1906 an appropriation 
for its schools of a one mill tax on $100. The school fund in 1900 
amounted to $1,000,000, an increase of 37 % over the average 
annual fund of the preceding decade; for the year ending the 
3oth of September 1907 the amount certified for apportionment 
by the state was $1,150,261-40, and the total annual expendi- 
ture was about $1,600,000; in 1906 the school census snowed 
697,465 children of school age. The legislature of 1907 voted 
an increase of $300,000 in the appropriation for the common 
school fund, and granted state-aid for rural school-houses; but 
its most important work probably was the establishment of 
county high schools. The rural schools have an annual term 
of five to seven months only. The percentage of illiterates 
declined from 50-97 % in 1880 to 41 % in 1890, and 34 % in 1900, 
when Alabama ranked third among the states in illiteracy. 

There are also a number of institutions for higher education 
in Alabama. The^mcst important of these are the university 
of Alabama (co-educational opened in 1831), at Tuscaloosa, 
the institution being part of the public school system main- 
tained by the state; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at 
Auburn, a " state college for the benefit of agriculture and the 
mechanic arts," organized in 1872 according to the United 
States land grant act for the promotion of industrial education; 
the Southern University (incorporated 1856 Methodist Epis- 
copal, South), at Greensboro; Howard College (Baptist), at 
East Lake (Birmingham); Spring Hill College (1830 Roman 
Catholic), near Mobile; Talladega College (for negroes), at 
Talladega; the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute 
(for negroes), at Tuskegee; and state normal schools at Florence, 
Jacksonville, Troy and Livingston, and, for negroes, at Mont- 
gomery, Tuskegee and Normal. 

Public Institutions. Alabama supports various philanthropic 
and penal institutions: a home for Confederate veterans, at 
Mountain Creek; an institution for the deaf, an academy for the 
blind, and a school for the negro deaf, dumb and blind, all at 
Talladega; a hospital for the insane, opened in i86c, at Tusca- 
loosa; a penitentiary, established in 1839, at Wetumpka; and 
a state industrial school for white boys, at East Lake (Birming- 
ham) , and a state industrial school for white girls at Montevallo. 



462 



ALABAMA 



These institutions are managed by trustees who are appointed 
by the governor. In addition to the usual method of employing 
convicts in the penitentiary or on state farms, Alabama, like 
other southern states, also hires its convicts to labour for private 
individuals. Reports of abuses under this system caused the 
legislature in 1001 to order a special investigation, the results of 
which led in 1903 to a new system of leasing to contractors, 
whereby the prisoners are kept under the direct supervision of 
state officials. In this same year a system of peonage that had 
grown up in the state attracted wide attention, and a Federal 
grand jury at a single term of court indicted a number of men 
for holding persons as " peons." Many similar cases were found 
later in other southern states, but those in Alabama being the 
first discovered attracted the most attention. The system came 
into existence in isolated communities through the connivance 
of justices of the peace with white farmers. The justices have 
jurisdiction over petty offences, of which negroes are usually 
the guilty parties, and the fines imposed would sometimes be 
paid by a white farmer, who would thus save the accused from 
imprisonment, but at the same time would require him to sign 
a contract to repay by his labour the sum advanced. By various 
devices the labourer would then be kept constantly in debt to 
his employer and be held in involuntary servitude for an in- 
definite time. The " peons " as a rule were negroes, but a few 
white ones were found; and in several instances negroes were 
found holding members of their own race in peonage. A law 
forbidding under severe penalties a labourer from hiring 'himself 
to a second employer without giving notice of a prior contract, 
and an employer from hiring a labourer known by him to be 
bound by such a contract, had aided in the development of the 
system, though it had been enacted for a different purpose. 
The Federal authorities, as soon as the existence of peonage 
became known, took active measures to stamp it out, and were 
supported by the press and by the leading citizens of the state. 
Up to 1907 the state licensed the sale of liquor, and liquor licence 
fees were partly turned over to the public school fund; there was 
a dispensary system in some counties; and in 1907 one-third 
of the counties of the state (22 out of 67) were " dry." Besides, 
saloons had been forbidden within 5 m. of certain churches and 
school-houses, so that liquor was sold scarcely at all except in 
incorporated towns, where in many cases local dispensaries were 
established. In the 1907 state legislature a county local option 
bill was passed in February, and immediately afterward the 
Sherrod anti-shipping bill was enacted forbidding the acceptance 
of liquors for shipment, transportation or delivery to prohibition 
districts, and penalising the soliciting of orders for liquor in 
" dry " districts with a punishment of $500 fine and six months' 
imprisonment with hard labour. In a special session of the 
legislature in November 1907 a law was passed forbidding the 
sale of liquor within the state, this prohibition to come into effect 
on the ist of January 1909. 

Finance. One-half of the income of the state is derived from 
general taxes, the other sources of revenue being licences, a special 
school tax, poll tax and the lease of the convicts. The state 
debt, for which legislative corruption in the years 1868-1872 
was largely responsible, amountejd on the ist of October 1906 
to $9,057,000. Measures for its refunding, but not for its extinc- 
tion, have been taken. The constitution of 1901 prohibits the 
increase of the debt for any other purposes than the suppression 
of insurrection or resistance to invasion, and the assumption of 
corporate debts by cities and towns is also restricted. All banks, 
except national banks, are subject to examination by a public 
official, and their charters expire within twenty years of their 
issue. 

History. The first Europeans to enter the limits of the present 
state of Alabama were Spaniards, who claimed this region as a 
part of Florida. It is possible that a member of Panfilo de 
Narvaez's expedition of 1528 entered what is now southern 
Alabama, but the first fully authenticated visit was that of 
Hernando de Soto, who made an arduous but fruitless journey 
along the Coosa, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers in 1539. The 
English, too, claimed the region north of the Gulf of Mexico, and 



the territory of modern Alabama was included in the province 
of Carolina, granted by Charles II. to certain of his favourites 
by the charters of 1663 and 1665. English traders of Carolina 
were frequenting the valley of the Alabama river as early as 
1687. Disregarding these claims, however, the French in 1703 
settled on the Mobile river and there erected Fort Louis, which 
for the next nine years was the seat of government of Louisiana. 
In 1711 Fort Louis was abandoned to the floods of the river, 
and on higher ground was built Fort Conde, the germ of the 
present city of Mobile, and the first permanent white settlement 
in Alabama. Later, on account of the intrigues of the English 
traders with the Indians, the French as a means of defence 
established the military posts of Fort Toulouse, near the junction 
of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbe on the 
Tombigbee river. The grant of Georgia to Oglethorpe and his 
associates in 1732 included a portion of what is now northern 
Alabama, and in 1739 Oglethorpe himself visited the Creek 
Indians west of the Chattahoochee river and made a treaty with 
them. The peace of Paris, in 1763, terminated the French 
occupation, and England came into undisputed possession of 
the region between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi. The 
portion of Alabama below the 3 ist parallel then became a part 
of West Florida, and the portion north of this line a part of the 
" Illinois country," set apart, by royal proclamation, for the 
use of the Indians. In 1767 the province of West Florida was 
extended northward to 32 28' N. lat, and a few years later, 
during the War for Independence, this region fell into the hands 
of Spain. By the treaty of Versailles, on the 3rd of September 
1783, England ceded West Florida to Spain; but by the treaty of 
Paris, signed the same day, she ceded to the United States all 
of this province north of 31, and thus laid the foundation for a 
long controversy. By the treaty of Madrid, in 1 793, Spain ceded 
to the United States her claims to the lands east of the Mississippi 
between 31 and 32 28' ; and three years later (1798) this dis- 
trict was organized by Congress as the Mississippi Territory. A 
strip of land 12 or 14 m. wide near the present northern bound- 
ary of Alabama and Mississippi was claimed by South Carolina; 
but in 1787 that state ceded this claim to the general government. 
Georgia likewise claimed all the lands between the 3 ist and 35th 
parallels from its present western boundary to the Mississippi 
river, and did not surrender its claim until 1802; two years 
later the boundaries of the Mississippi Territory were extended 
so as to include all of the Georgia cession. In 1812 Congress 
annexed to the Mississippi Territory the Mobile District of 
West Florida, claiming that it was included in the Louisiana 
Purchase; and in the following year General James Wilkinson 
occupied this district with a military force, the Spanish com- 
mandant offering no resistance. The whole area of the present 
state of Alabama then for the first time became subject to the 
jurisdiction of the United States. In 1817 the Mississippi 
Territory was divided; the western portion became the state of 
Mississippi, and the eastern the territory of Alabama, with St 
Stephens, on the Tombigbee river, as the temporary seat of 
government. In 1819 Alabama was regularly admitted to the 
Union as a state. 

One of the first problems of the new commonwealth was that 
of finance. Since the amount of money in circulation was not 
sufficient to meet the demands of the increasing population, 
a system of state banks was instituted. State bonds were issued 
and public lands were sold to secure capital, and the notes of 
the banks, loaned on security, became a medium of exchange. 
Prospects of an income from the banks led the legislature of 1836 
to abolish all taxation for state purposes. This was hardly done, 
however, before the panic of 1837 wiped out a large portion of 
the banks' assets; next came revelations of grossly careless 
and even of corrupt management, and in 1843 the banks were 
placed in liquidation. After disposing of all their available 
assets, the state assumed the remaining liabilities, for which 
it had pledged its faith and credit, and these form a part 
($3,445,000) of its present indebtedness. 

The Indian problem was important. With the encroachment 
of the white settlers upon their hunting-grounds the Creek 



ALABAMA 



4-63 



Indians began to grow restless, and the great Shawnee chief 
Tecumseh, who visited them in 1811, fomented their discontent. 
When the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain in 1812 
gave the Creeks assurance of British aid they rose in arms, 
massacred several hundred settlers who had taken refuge in 
Fort Mims, near the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee 
rivers, and in a short time no white family in the Creek country 
was safe outside a palisade. The Chickasaw and Choctaw 
Indians, however, remained the faithful allies of the whites, and 
volunteers from Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee, and 
later United States troops, marched to the rescue of the 
threatened settlements. In the campaign that followed the 
most distinguished services were rendered by General Andrew 
Jackson, whose vigorous measures broke for ever the power of 
the Creek Confederacy. By the treaty of Fort Jackson (pth 
of August 1814) the Creeks ceded their claims to about one-half 
of the present state; and cessions by the Cherokees, Chickasaws 
and Choctaws in 1816 left only about one-fourth of Alabama 
tc the Indians. In 1832 the national government provided for 
the removal of the Creeks ; but before the terms of the contract 
were effected, the state legislature formed the Indian lands into 

sunties, and settlers flocked in. This caused a disagreement 
between Alabama and the United States authorities; although 
it was amicably settled, it engendered a feeling that the policy 
)f the national government might not be in harmony with the 
interests of the state a feeling which, intensified by the slavery 
agitation, did much to cause secession in 1861. 

The political history of Alabama may be divided into three 
periods, that prior to 1860, the years from 1860 to 1876, and the 

;riod from 1876 onwards. 

The first of these is the only period of altogether healthy 
political life. Until 1832 there was only one party in the state, 
the Democratic, but the question of nullification caused a division 
that year into the (Jackson) Democratic party and the State's 
Rights (Calhoun Democratic) party; about the same time, 
>, there arose, chiefly in those counties where the proportion 
>f slaves to freemen was greater and the freemen were most 
iristocratic, the Whig party. For some time the Whigs were 
nearly as numerous as the Democrats, but they never secured 

mtrol of the state government. The State's Rights men were 
a minority; nevertheless under their active and persistent 

ider, William L. Yancey (1814-1863), they prevailed upon the 
Democrats in 1848 to adopt their most radical views. During 
the agitation over the introduction of slavery into the territory 
acquired from Mexico, Yancey induced the Democratic State 
Convention of 1848 to adopt what is known as the " Alabama 
Platform," which declared in substance that neither Congress 
nor the government of a territory had the right to interfere with 
slavery in a territory, that those who held opposite views were 
not Democrats, and that the Democrats of Alabama would not 
support a candidate for the presidency if he did not agree 
with them on these questions. This platform was endorsed 
by conventions in Florida and Virginia and by the legislatures 
of Georgia and Alabama. Old party lines were broken by the 
Compromise of 1850. The State's Rights party, joined by many 
Democrats, founded the Southern Rights party, which demanded 
the repeal of the Compromise, advocated resistance to future 
encroachments and prepared for secession, while the Whigs, 
joined by the remaining Democrats, formed the party known 
as the " Unionists," which unwillingly accepted the Compromise 
and denied the " constitutional " right of secession. The 
" Unionists " were successful in the elections of 1851 and 1852, 
but the feeling of uncertainty engendered in the south by the 
passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the course of the slavery 
agitation after 1852 led the State Democratic convention of 1856 
to revive the " Alabama Platform "; and when the " Alabama 
Platform " failed to secure the formal approval of the Democratic 
National convention at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860, 

Ihe Alabama delegates, followed by those of the other cotton 
' states," withdrew. Upon the election of Abraham Lincoln, 
jovernor Andrew B. Moore, according to previous instructions 
>f the legislature, called a state convention on the 7th of January 



1861. After long debate this convention adopted on the nth of 
January an ordinance of secession, and Alabama became one 
of the Confederate states of America, whose government was 
organized at Montgomery on the 4th of February 1861. Yet 
secession was opposed by many prominent men, and in North 
Alabama an attempt was made to organize a neutral state to be 
called Nickajack; but with President Lincoln's call to arms 
all opposition to secession ended. 

In the early part of the Civil War Alabama was not the scene 
of military operations, yet the state contributed about 120,000 
men to the Confederate service, practically all her white popula- 
tion capable of bearing arms, and thirty-nine of these attained 
the rank of general. In 1863 the Federal forces secured a foothold 
in northern Alabama in spite of the opposition of General Nathan 
B. Forrest, one of the ablest Confederate cavalry leaders. In 
1864 the defences of Mobile were taken by a Federal fleet, but 
the city held out until April 1865; in the same month Selma 
also fell. 

According to the presidential plan of reorganization, a provi- 
sional governor for Alabama was appointed in June 1865; a 
state convention met in September of the same year, and declared 
the ordinance of secession null and void and slavery abolished; 
a legislature and a governor were elected in November, the 
legislature was at once recognized by the National government, 
and the inauguration of the governor-elect was permitted after 
the legislature had, in December, ratified the thirteenth amend- 
ment. But the passage, by the legislature, of vagrancy and 
apprenticeship laws designed to control the negroes who were 
flocking from the plantations to the cities, and its rejection of 
the fourteenth amendment, so intensified the congressional 
hostility to the presidential plan that the Alabama senators and 
representatives were denied their seats in Congress. In 1867 
the congressional plan of reconstruction was completed and 
Alabama was placed under military government. The negroes 
were now enrolled as voters and large numbers of white citizens 
were disfranchised. 1 A Black Man's Party, composed of negroes, 
and political adventurers known as "carpet-baggers," was formed, 
which co-operated with the Republican party. A constitutional 
convention, controlled by this element, met in November 1867, 
and framed a constitution which conferred suffrage on negroes 
and disfranchised a large class of whites. The Reconstruction 
Acts of Congress required every new constitution to be ratified 
by a majority of the legal voters of the state. The whites of 
Alabama therefore stayed away from the polls, and, after five 
days of voting, the constitution wanted 13,550 to secure a 
majority. Congress then enacted that a majority of the 
votes cast should be sufficient, and thus the constitution went 
into effect, the state was admitted to the Union hi June 1868, 
and a new governor and legislature were elected. 

The next two years are notable for legislative extravagance 
and corruption. The state endorsed railway bonds at the rate 
of $12,000 and$i6,ooo a mile until the state debt had increased 
from eight millions to seventeen millions of dollars, and similar 
corruption characterized local government. The native white 
people united, formed a Conservative party and elected a 
governor and a majority of the lower house of the legislature 
in 1870; but, as the new administration was largely a failure, 
in 1872 there was a reaction in favour of the Radicals, a local 
term applied to the Republican party, and affairs went from 
bad to worse. In 1874, however, the power of the Radicals 
was finally broken, the Conservative Democrats electing all 
state officials. A commission appointed to examine the state 
debt found it to be $25,503,000; by compromise it was reduced 
to $15, 000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which 
omitted the guaranty of the previous constitution that no one 
should be denied suffrage on account of race, colour or previous 
condition of servitude, and forbade the state to engage in internal 
improvements or to give its credit to any private enterprise. 

Since 1874 the Democratic party has had constant control 
of the state administration, the Republicans failing to make 
nominations for office in 1878 and 1880 and endorsing the ticket 
1 The enrolment was 104,518 blacks and 61,295 whites. 



"ALABAMA" ARBITRATION 



of the Greenback party in 1882. The development of mining 
and manufacturing was accompanied by economic distress 
among the farming classes, which found expression in the 
Jeffersonian Democratic party, organized in 1892. The regular 
Democratic ticket was elected and the new party was then 
merged into the Populist party. In 1894 the Republicans 
united with the Populists, elected three congressional repre- 
sentatives, secured control of many of the counties, but failed 
to carry the state, and continued their opposition with less 
success in the next campaigns. Partisanship became intense, 
and charges of corruption of the ignorant negro electorate were 
made. Consequently after division on the subject among the 
Democrats themselves, as well as opposition of Republicans and 
Populists, a new constitution with restrictions on suffrage was 
adopted in 1901. 

The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of 
Alabama: 

Governor of the Territory. 

William Wyatt Bibb . . .1 1817-1819 I 
Governors of the State. 

William Wyatt Bibb 
Thomas Bibb 1 
Israel Pickens 
John Murphy 
Gabriel Moore 
Samuel B. Moore 
John Gayle 
Clement C. Clay 
Hugh M'Vay 8 
Arthur P. Bagby 
Benjamin Fitzpatrick' 
Joshua L. Martin . 
Reuben Chapman 
Henry W. Collier 
John A. Winston 
Andrew B. Moore 
John Gill Shorter 
Thomas H. Watts 
Lewis E. Parsons 

Robert M. Patton 
Wager Swayne 

William H. Smith 
Robert B. Lindsay 
David P. Lewis 
George S. Houston 
Ruf us W. Cobb . 
Edward A. O'Neal 
Thomas Seay 
Thomas G. Jones 
William C. Gates . 
Joseph F. Johnston 
William J. Samford 
William D. Jelks . 
B. B. Comer 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For an elaborate bibliography of Alabama (by 
Thomas M. Owen) see the Annual Report oj the American Historical 
Association for 1897 (Washington, 1898). 

Information regarding the resources, climate, population and 
industries of Alabama may be found in the reports of the United 
States Census, and in the publications of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, the United States Geological Survey, the 
Bulletins of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station (published 
at Auburn, from 1888), the Bulletins and Reports of the Alabama 
Geological Survey (published at Tuscaloosa and Montgomery), and 
in the following works: B. F. Riley's Alabama As It Is (Mont- 
gomery, 1893), and Saffold Berney's Handbook of Alabama (2nd ed., 
Birmingham, 1892). 

Information concerning the history of the state may be obtained 
in William G. Brown's History of Alabama (New York, 1900) ; 
Newton W. Bates's History and Civil Government of Alabama (Flor- 
ence, Ala., 1892) ; Willis Brewer's Alabama: Her History, Resources, 
War Record and Public Men (Montgomery, 1872) ; A. Davis Smith's 
and T. A. Deland's Northern Alabama, Historical and Biographical 

1 William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and Thomas Bibb, then 
president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term of one year 
(1820). 

* In 1837 Governor Clay was elected United States Senator, and 
Hugh M'Vay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired 
term. 

1 Until 1845 the term of state officials was one year; from then 
until 1901 it was two years; since 1901 it has been four years. 



(Birmingham, 1888) ; Albert J. Pickett's History of Alabama 



1819-1820 


Democrat. 


1820-1821 


)f 


1821-1825 


,, 


1825-1829 


H 


1829-1831 


,, 


1831 


,, 


1831-1835 


If 


1835-1837 


H 


1837 


,, 


1837-1841 





1841-1845 


If 


1845-1847 


H 


1847-1849 


H 


1849-1853 


,, 


1853-1857 


It 


1857-1861 


II 


1861-1863 


II 


1863-1865 


._ 


1865 


Provisional 




Governor. 


1865-1867 


Republican. 


1867-1868 


Military 




Governor. 


1868-1870 


Republican. 


1870-1872 


Democrat. 


1872-1874 


Republican. 


1874-1878 


Democrat. 


1878-1882 


ii 


1882-1886 


ii 


1886-1890 


i 


1890-1894 


, 


1894-1896 


, 


1896-1900 


i 


1900-1901 


i 


1901-1907 


, 


1907 


i 



Fleming's 
struction in Alabama (New York, 1905). 

In addition, W. G. Clark's History of Education in Alabama 
(Washington, 1889); W. E. Martin's Internal Improvements i 
Alabama (Baltimore, 1902; Johns Hopkins University Studies, 
series 20, No. 4) ; and W. L. Martin's Code of Alabama (2 vols., 
Atlanta, Ga., 1897) may be consulted. 

Information concerning the aboriginal remains in the state may 
be found in two papers by Clarence B. Moore, " Certain Aboriginal 
Remains of the Tombigbee River " and " Certain Aboriginal Remains 
of the Alabama River," published in the Journal of the Academy of 
Natural Sciences, series 2, vol. ii. (Philadelphia, 1900). 

"ALABAMA" ARBITRATION. This is one of those arbi- 
trations on pecuniary claims, made by one state, on behalf of 
its subjects, against another state, which are referred to in the 
article ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL. The case is important, 
both from a historical and a juridical point of view, and affords 
a conspicuous example of the value of arbitration as a means of 
avertingwar. The facts are as follows: 

In 1 86 1 the Southern States of North America seceded from 
the rest on the slavery question and set up a separate government 
under President Jefferson Davis. Hostilities began with the 
capture of Fort Sumter by the Confederates on the i3th of April 
1861 . On the igth of April President Abraham Lincoln declared 
a blockade of the southern ports. On the i4th of May the British 
government issued a proclamation of neutrality, by which the 
Confederates were recognized as belligerents. This example was 
followed shortly afterwards by France and other nations. The 
blockade of the southern ports was not at first effective, and 
blockade-running soon became an active industry. The Con- 
federates established agencies in England for the purchase of 
arms, which they despatched in ordinary merchant vessels to the 
Bahamas, whence they were transhipped into fast steamers 
especially constructed for the purpose. 

In June 1862 the vessel, the " Alabama," originally known as 
" No. 290," was being built by Messrs. Laird at Birkenhead. 
She was then nearly completed and was obviously intended for 
a man-of-war, On the 23rd of June Mr C. F. Adams forwarded 
to Earl Russell a letter from the United States consul at Liverpool 
giving certain particulars as to her character. This letter was 
laid before the law officers, who advised that, if these particulars 
were correct, the vessel ought to be detained. On the aist of 
July sworn evidence, which was supplemented on the 23rd of 
July, was obtained and laid before the commissioners of customs 
(who were the proper authorities to enforce the provisions of the 
Foreign Enlistment Act of 1819), but they declined to move. 
On the 23rd of July the same evidence was laid before the law 
officers, who advised that there was sufficient ground for deten- 
tion. By some accident, which has never been satisfactorily 
explained, but was probably connected with the severe illness of 
Sir John Harding, the queen's advocate, the papers were not 
returned till the 29th of July. Instructions were then issued to 
seize the vessel, but she had already sailed on the evening of the 
28th. Although she remained for two days off the coast of 
Anglesey, there was no serious attempt at pursuit. She after- 
wards made her way to the Azores, where she received her 
armament, which was brought from Liverpool in two British 
ships. Captain Semmes there took command of her under a 
commission from the Confederate government. After a most 
destructive career she was sunk off Cherbourg by the " Kear- 
sarge " on the igth of June 1864. 

On these facts the United States government alleged against 
Great Britain two grievances, or sets of grievances. The first was 
the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents and a 
general manifestation of unfriendliness in other ways. The 
second was in respect of breaches of neutrality in allowing the 
" Alabama," the " Florida " (originally the " Oreto "), the " Shen- 
andoah " and other Confederate vessels to be built and equipped 
on British territory. Correspondence ensued extending over 
several years. At length in February 1871 a commission was 
appointed to sit at Washington in order, if possible, to arrive 
at some common understanding as to the mode in which the 



ALABAMA RIVER 



465 



questions at issue might be settled. With respect to the"Alabama" 
claims the British commissioners suggested that they should be 
submitted to arbitration. The American commissioners refused 
" unless the principles which should govern the arbitrators in the 
consideration of the facts could be first agreed upon." After 
some discussion the British commissioners consented that the 
three following rules should apply. A neutral government is 
bound (i) to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming 
or equipping within its jurisdiction of any vessel, which it has 
reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry 
on war against a power with which it is at peace, and also to use 
like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of 
any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such 
vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within 
such jurisdiction, to warlike use; (2) not to permit or suffer 
either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base 
of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the 
renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms or the 
recruitment of men; (3) to exercise due diligence in its own ports 
and waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction to prevent 
any violation of the foregoing obligation and duties. The ar- 
rangements made by the commission were embodied in the treaty 
of Washington, which was signed on the 8th of May 1871, and 
approved by the Senate on the 24th of May. Article i, after 
expressing the regret felt by Her Majesty's government for the 
escape, in whatever circumstances, of the "Alabama " and other 
vessels from British ports, and for the depredations committed by 
these vessels, provided that " the claims growing out of the acts 
of the said vessels, and generically known as the ' Alabama ' 
claims " should be referred to a tribunal composed of five arbi- 
trators, one to be named by each of the contracting parties and 
the remaining three by the king of Italy, the president of the 
Swiss Confederation and the emperor of Brazil respectively. By 
Article 2 all questions submitted were to be decided by a majority 
of the arbitrators, and each of the contracting parties was to name 
one person to attend as agent. Article 6 provided that the 
arbitrators should be governed by the three rules quoted above, 
and by such principles of international law not inconsistent 
therewith as the arbitrators should determine to be applicable to 
the case. By the same article the parties agreed to observe these 
rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the 
knowledge of other maritime powers. Article 7 provided that 
the decision should be made within three months from the close 
of the argument, and gave power to the arbitrators to award a 
sum in gross in the event of Great Britain being adjudged to be 
in the wrong. 

The treaty was, on the whole, welcomed in England. The 
United States appointed Mr C. F. Adams as arbitrator and Mr 
J. C. Bancroft Davis as agent. TheBritish government appointed 
Sir Alexander Cockburn as arbitrator and Lord Tenterden as 
agent. The arbitrators appointed by the three neutral powers 
were Count Sclopis (Italy), M. Staempfli (Switzerland), Baron 
d'ltajuba (Brazil). The first meeting of the tribunal took place 
on the isth of December 1871 in the H6tel de Ville, Geneva. As 
soon as the cases had been formally presented, the tribunal 
adjourned till the following June. There followed immediately 
a controversy which threatened the collapse of the arbitration. 
It was found that in the American case damages were claimed not 
only for the property destroyed by the Confederate cruisers, but 
in respect of certain other matters known as " indirect losses," 
viz. the transference of the American marine to the British flag, 
the enhanced payments of insurance, the expenses of pursuit and 
the prolongation of the war. But this was not all. The American 
case revived the charges of " insincere neutrality " and " veiled 
hostility " which had figured in the diplomatic correspondence, 
and had been repudiated by Great Britain. It dwelt at length 
upon such topics as the premature recognition of belligerency, the 
unfriendly utterances of British politicians and the material 
assistance afforded to the Confederates by British traders. The 
inclusion of the indirect losses and the other matters just referred 
to caused great excitement in England. That they were within 
the treaty was disputed, and it was argued that, if they were, the 



treaty should be amended or denounced. In October 1872 Lord 
Granville notified to General Schenck, the United States minister, 
that the British government did not consider that the indirect 
losses were within the submission, and in April the British 
counter-case was filed without prejudice to this contention. On 
the 1 5th of June the tribunal reassembled and the American 
argument was filed. The British agent then applied for an 
adjournment of eight months, ostensibly in order that the two 
governments might conclude a supplemental convention, it 
having been meanwhile privately arranged between the arbi- 
trators that an extra-judicial declaration should be obtained from 
the arbitrators on the subject of the direct claims. On the igth 
of June Count Sclopis intimated on behalf of all his colleagues 
that, without intending to express any opinion upon the inter- 
pretation of the treaty, they had arrived at the conclusion that 
" the indirect claims did not constitute upon the principles of 
international law applicable to such cases a good foundation for 
an award or computation of damages between nations." In 
consequence of this intimation Mr Bancroft Davis informed the 
tribunal on the 2 5th of June that he was instructed not to press 
those claims; and accordingly on the 2 7th of June Lord Tenter- 
den withdrew his application for an adjournment, and the 
arbitration was allowed to proceed. The discussion turned 
mainly on the question of the measure of " due diligence." The 
United States contended that it must be a diligence commen- 
surate with the emergency or with the magnitude of the results 
of negligence. The British government maintained that while 
the measure of care which a government is bound to use in such 
cases must be dependent more or less upon circumstances, it 
would be unreasonable to require that it should exceed that 
which the governments of civilized states were accustomed to 
employ in matters concerning their own security or that of their 
citizens. 

The tribunal adopted the view suggested by the United States. 
It found that Great Britain was legally responsible for all the 
depredations of the " Alabama " and " Florida " and for those 
committed by the " Shenandoah " after she left Melbourne. In 
the case of the " Alabama " the court was unanimous; in the 
case of the " Florida " Sir A. Cockburn alone, in that of the 
" Shenandoah " he and Baron d'ltajuba, dissented from the 
majority. In the cases of the other vessels the judgment was 
in favour of Great Britain. The tribunal decided to award a 
sum in gross, and (Sir A. Cockburn again dissenting) fixed the 
damages at $15,500,000 in gold. On the i4th of September 
the award was formally published, and signed by all the arbi- 
trators except Sir A. Cockburn, who filed a lengthy statement of 
his reasons. 

The stipulation that the three rules should be jointly sub- 
mitted by the two powers to foreign nations has never been 
carried out. For this the British government has been blamed 
by some. But the general view of continental publicists is, 
that the language of the rules was not sufficiently precise to 
admit of their being generally accepted as a canon of neutral 
obligations. (M. H. C.) 

ALABAMA RIVER, a river of Alabama, U.S.A., formed by 
the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about 6 m. above 
Montgomery. It flows W. as far as Selma, then S.W. until, 
about 45 m. from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee to form 
the Mobile and Tensas rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay. 
The course of the Alabama is tortuous; its width varies from 
200 to 300 yds., its depth from 3 to 7 ft.; its length by the 
United States Survey is 312 m., by steamboat measurement, 
420 m. The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber 
districts of the state, and railways connect it with the mineral 
regions of north central Alabama. The principal tributary of 
the Alabama is the Cahaba (about 200 m. long), which enters it 
about 10 m. below Selma. Of the rivers which form the Ala- 
bama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of Alabama, and is 
navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia (where it is 
formed by the junction of the Oostenaula and Etowah rivers), to 
about 117 m. above Wetumpka (about 192 m. below Rome and 
26 m. below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction 



4 66 



ALABASTER 



with the Tallapoosa; the channel of the river has been consider- 
ably improved by the Federal government. The navigation of 
the Tallapoosa river (which has its source in Paulding county, 
Georgia, and is about 250 m. long) is prevented by shoals and a 
6o-ft. fall at Tallassee, a few miles N. of its junction with the 
Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year. In 
1878 the Federal government undertook to make a channel the 
length of the Alabama 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep; an amend- 
ment in 1891 provided for a 6-ft. channel at low water, and in 
June 1907 this work was reported as " 10% completed" at an 
expenditure of $303,659. The Mobile river is navigable for 
vessels of about 14 ft. draft. The Alabama is an important 
carrier of cotton, cotton seed, fertilizer, cereals, lumber, naval 
stores, &c.; and in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the freight tonnage 
was 417,041 tons. 

ALABASTER, or ARBLASTIER, WILLIAM (1567-1640), 
English Latin poet and scholar, was born at Hadleigh, Suffolk, 
in 1567. He was, so Fuller states, a nephew by marriage of 
Dr John Still, bishop of Bath and Wells. His surname, some- 
times written Arblastier, is one of the many variants of arbalester, 
a cross-bowman. Alabaster was educated at Westminster 
school, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1583. He 
became a fellow, and in 1592 was incorporated of the university 
of Oxford. About 1 592 he produced at Trinity College his Latin 
tragedy of Roxana. 1 It is modelled on the tragedies of Seneca, 
and is a stiff and spiritless work. Fuller and Anthony a Wood 
bestowed exaggerated praise on it, while Samuel Johnson regarded 
it as the only Latin verse worthy of notice produced in England 
before Milton's elegies. Roxana is founded on the La Dalida 
(Venice, 1567) of Luigi Groto, known as Cieco di Hadria, and 
Hallam asserts that it is a plagiarism (Literature of Europe, iii. 
54). A surreptitious edition in 1632 was followed by an author- 
ized version a plagiarii unguibus vindicata, aucla et agnita ab 
Authore, Gulielmo Alabastro. One book of an epic poem in Latin 
hexameters, in honour of Queen Elizabeth, is preserved in MS. 
in the library of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. This poem, 
Elisaeis, Apotheosis poetica, Spenser highly esteemed. " Who 
lives that can match that heroick song?" he says in Colin 
Clout's come home againe, and begs " Cynthia " to withdraw the 
poet from his obscurity. In June 1596 Alabaster sailed with 
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, on the expedition to Cadiz in 
the capacity of chaplain, and, while he was in Spain, he became 
a Roman Catholic. An account of his change of faith is given 
in an obscurely worded sonnet contained in a MS. copy of 
Divine Meditations, by Mr Alabaster (see J. P. Collier, Hist, of 
Eng. Dram. Poetry, ii. 341). He defended his conversion in 
a pamphlet, Seven Motives, of which no copy is extant. The 
proof of its publication only remains in two tracts, A Booke of the 
Seuen Planets, or Seuen wandring motives of William Alablaster's 
(sic) wit . . . , by John Racster (1598), and An Answer to 
William Alabaster, his Motives, by Roger Fenton (1599). From 
these it appears that Alabaster was imprisoned for his change 
of faith in the Tower of London during 1598 and 1599. In 1607 
he published at Antwerp Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Christi, 
in which his study of the Kabbalah was turned to account in a 
mystical interpretation of scripture which drew down the censure 
alike of Protestants and Catholics. The book was placed on the 
Index librorum prohibitorum at Rome early in 1610. Alabaster 
says in the preface to his Ecce sponsus venit (1633), a treatise on 
the time of the second advent of Christ, that he went to Rome 
and was there imprisoned by the Inquisition, but succeeded in 
escaping to England and again embraced the Protestant faith. 
He received a prebend in St Paul's cathedral, London, and the 
living of Therfield, Hertfordshire. He died in 1640. Alabaster's 
other cabalistic writings are Commentarius de Bestia Apoca- 
lyptica (1621) and Spiraculum tubarum . . . . (1633), a mystical 
interpretation of the Pentateuch. It was by these theological 
writings that he won the praise of Robert Herrick, who calls him 
" the triumph of the day " and the "one only glory of a million" 

1 For an analysis of the play see an article on the Latin university 
plays in the Jahrbuch der Deutschen Shakespeare Gesellschaft (Weimar, 
1898). 



(" To Doctor Alabaster " in Hesperides, 1648) . He also published 
(1637) Lexicon Pentaglotton, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, 
Talmudico-Rabbiniccn et Arabicum. 

See T. Fuller, Worthies of England (ii. 343) ; J. P. Collier, Bibl. 
and Crit. Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language (vol. i. 
1865) ; Pierre Bayle, Dictionary, Historical and Critical (ed. London, 
1734) ; also the Athenaeum (December 26, 1903), where Mr Bertram 
Dobell describes a MS. in his possessioncontaining forty-three sonnets 
by Alabaster. 

ALABASTER, a name applied to two distinct mineral sub- 
stances, the one a hydrous sulphate of lime and the other a 
carbonate of lime. The former is the alabaster of the present 
day, the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients. The 
two kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their 
relative hardness. The modern alabaster is so soft as to be 
readily scratched even by the finger-nail (hardness=i-s to 2), 
whilst the stone called alabaster by the ancients is too hard to 
be scratched in this way (hardness = 3), though it yields readily 
to a knife. Moreover, the ancient alabaster, being a carbonate, 
effervesces on being touched with hydrochloric acid, whereas the 
modern alabaster when so treated remains practically unaffected. 

Ancient Alabaster. This substance, the " alabaster " of scrip- 
ture, is often termed Oriental alabaster, since the early examples 
came from the East. The Greek name AXa/3a(rrptr7)s is said to 
be derived from the town of Alabastron, in Egypt, where the 
stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name 
to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is obscure, and 
it has been suggested that it may have had an Arabic origin. 
The Oriental alabaster was highly esteemed for making small 
perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabasira; and this 
has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Ala- 
baster was also employed in Egypt for Canopic jars and various 
other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid sarcophagus, 
sculptured in a single block of translucent Oriental alabaster 
from Alabastron, is in the Soane Museum, London. This was 
discovered by Giovanni Belzoni, in 1817, in the tomb of Seti I., 
near Thebes, and was purchased by Sir John Soane, having 
previously been offered to the British Museum for 2000. 

Oriental alabaster is either a stalagmitic deposit, from the 
floor and walls of limestone-caverns, or a kind of travertine, 
deposited from springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in 
successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance which the 
marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as 
onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as onyx 
a term which should, however, be restricted to a siliceous mineral. 
The Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near Suef 
and near Assiut; there are many ancient quarries in the hills 
overlooking the plain of Tell el Amarna. The Algerian onyx- 
marble has been largely quarried in the province of Oran. In 
Mexico there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at 
La Pedrara, in the district of Tecali, near Puebla. Onyx-marble 
occurs also in the district of Tehuacan and at several localities 
in California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Virginia. 

Modern Alabaster. When the term "alabaster" is used 
without any qualification it invariably means, at the present 
day, a finely granular variety of gypsum (q.v.). This mineral, 
or alabaster proper, occurs in England in the Keuper marls of 
the Midlands, especially at Chellaston in Derbyshire, at Fauld 
in Staffordshire and near Newark in Nottinghamshire. At all 
these localities it has been extensively worked. It is also found, 
though in subordinate quantity, at Watchet in Somersetshire, 
near Penarth in Glamorganshire, and elsewhere. In Cumberland 
and Westmorland it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but 
at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottingham- 
shire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or " floors," 
in spheroidal masses known as " balls " or " bowls," and in 
smaller lenticular masses termed " cakes." At Chellaston, 
where the alabaster is known as " Patrick," it has been worked 
into ornaments under the name of " Derbyshire spar " a term 
applied also to fluor-spar. The finer kinds of alabaster are 
largely employed as an ornamental stone, especially for ecclesi- 
astical decoration, and for the walls of staircases and halls. 
Its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms, 












ALACOQUE ALAIN DE LILLE 



467 



Btl 

: 



but its solubility in water renders it inapplicable to outdoor 
work. The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine 
uniform grain, but it is often associated with oxide of iron, which 
produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser 
varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster 
of Paris, whence they are sometimes known as " plaster stone." 

On the continent of Europe the centre of the alabaster trade 
is Florence. The Tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses, 
embedded in limestone, interstratified with marls of Miocene 
and Pliocene age. The mineral is largely worked, by means of 
underground galleries, in the district of Volterra. Several 
varieties are recognized veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform, 
&c. The finest kind, obtained principally from Castellina, is 
sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, whilst the common kinds 
are carved locally, at a very cheap rate, into vases, clock-cases 
and various ornamental objects, in which a large trade is carried 
on, especially in Florence, Pisa and Leghorn. In order to 
diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an 
opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in 
a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling- 
point an operation requiring great care, for if the temperature 
be not carefully regulated, the stone acquires a dead-white 
chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial 
dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely 
resembles true marble, and is known as marmo di Castellina. 
It should be noted that sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also 
by the ancients, and was employed, for instance, in Assyrian 
sculpture, so that some of the ancient alabaster is identical with 

ic modern stone. 

Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after being heated, 

various pigmentary solutions; and in this way a good imita- 
tion of coral has been produced (alabaster coral). 

See M. Carmichael, Report on the Volterra Alabaster Industry, 
Foreign Office, Miscellaneous Series, No. 352 (London, 1895) ; A. T. 
Metcalfe, " The Gypsum Deposits of Nottingham and Derbyshire," 
Transactions of the Federated Institution, vol. xii. (1896), p. 107; 
J. G. Goodchild, " The Natural History of Gypsum," Proceedings of 
the Geologists' Association, vol. x. (1888), p. 425; George P. Merrill, 
" The Onyx Marbles," Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1893, 

539- (F. W. R.*) 

ALACOQUE, or AL COQ, MARGUERITE MARIE (1647-1690), 
French nun and mystic, was born at Lauthecourt, a village in the 
diocese of Autun, on the 22nd of July 1647. She would seem to 
have been from the first of a morbid and unhealthy temperament, 
and before-\he age of thirteen was the subject of a paralytic 
seizure. Having been cured of this, as she believed, by the 

;tercession of the Holy Virgin, she changed her name to Marie 
d vowed to devote her life to her service. In May 1671 she 
entered the Visitation convent at Paray-le-Monial, in the diocese 
of Autun, and took the final vows in November 1672. Though 
her reading was confined to the lives of the saints, she taught in 
the school kept by the nuns for the girls of the neighbourhood, 
to whom she endeared herself by her kindly disposition. The 
appalling austerities, however, to which she was allowed to 
bject herself quickly affected her mental and bodily health. 
!ailucinations, to which she had been always Subject, became 
more and more frequent. She conceived herself to be specially 
.voured by Christ, who appeared to her in the most extravagant 
irms. At last, by dint of fasting and lacerating her flesh, she 
cceeded in reducing herself to such a state of ecstatic suffer- 
g that she believed herself to be Undergoing in her own person 
e Passion of the Lord. Her reward was theXsupreme vision in 
hich Christ revealed to her His heart burning with divine love, 
id even, so she affirmed, exchanged it with hers, at the same 
ie bidding her establish, on the Friday following, the feast of 
'orpus Christi, a festival in honour of His Sacred Heart. It was 
;ot till ten years later, in 1685, that the festival was first cele- 
irated at Paray, and not till after the death of Marguerite, on the 
1 7th of October 1690, that the cult of the Sacred Heart, fostered 
by the Jesuits and the subject of violent controversies within 
ie church, spread throughout France and Christendom. (See 
IACRED HEART.) 
Marguerite Alacoque was beatified by Pius IX. in 1864. Her 



int 
an 



short devotional writing, La Devotion au Sacrt-Cxur de Jesus, 
was published by J. Croiset in 1698, and is now very popular 
among Roman Catholics. 

See Bishop Languet, Vie de la venerable Marguerite-Marie (Paris, 
1724), translated and edited by F. W. Faber (1847) ; Mgr. Bougaud, 
Histoife de la bienheureuse Marguerite- Marie (Paris, 1874); G. 
Tickell, S.J., The Life of Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque, with some 
account of the devotion to the Sacred Heart (London, 1869) ; J. B. H. R. 
Capefigue, Marie Marguerite Al-Coq (Paris, 1866). 

ALAGOAS, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. and W. by 
the state of Pernambuco, S. and W. by the state of Sergipe, and 
E. by the Atlantic. It has an area of 22,584 sq. m. A dry, semi- 
barren plateau, fit for grazing only, extends across the W. part 
of the state, breaking down into long fertile valleys and wooded 
ridges towards the coast, giving the country a mountainous 
character. The coastal plain is filled with lakes (lagoas), in some 
cases formed by the blocking up of river outlets by beach sands. 
The valleys and slopes are highly fertile and produce sugar, 
cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, rice, mandioca and fruits. Hides 
and skins, mangabeira rubber, cabinet woods, castor beans and 
rum are also exported. Cattle-raising was formerly a prominent 
industry, but it has greatly declined. Manufactures have been 
developed to a limited extent only, though protective tariff laws 
have been adopted for their encouragement. The climate is hot 
and humid, and fevers are prevalent in the hot season. The 
capital, Maceio, is the chief commercial city of the state, and its 
port (Jaragua) has a large foreign and coastwise trade. The 
principal towns are Alagoas, formerly the capital, picturesquely 
situated on Lake Manguaba, ism. S.W. of Maceio, and Penedo, 
a small port on the lower Sao Francisco, 26 m. above the river's 
mouth. Before 1817 Alagoas formed part of the capitania of 
Pernambuco, but in that year the district was rewarded with a 
separate government for refusing to join a revolution, and in 
1823 became a province of the empire. The advent of the 
republic in 1889 changed the province into a state. 

ALAIN DE LILLE [Alanus de Insulis] (c. 1128-1202), French 
theologian and poet, was born, probably at Lille, some years 
before 1 1 28. Little is known of his life. He seems to have taught 
in the schools of Paris, and he attended the Lateran Council in 
1179. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes 
called Alanus de Monlepessulano), lived for a time outside the 
walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Citeaux, where he died 
in 1 202 . He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime 
and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be 
called Doctor universalis. Among his very numerous works two 
poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature 
of the middle ages; one of these, the De planclu naturae, is an 
ingenious satire on the vices of humanity; the other, the Anti- 
claudianus, a treatise on morals, the form of which recalls the 
pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and 
relatively pure in its latinity. As a theologian Alain de Lille 
shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the i2th 
century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, how- 
ever, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In 
the Anticlaudianus he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by 
prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical 
order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to 
faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae fidei, 
as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. 
Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, 
and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Creed. 
This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only 
his employment of various terms not generally used in such a 
connexion (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise 
its apparent originality. Alain de Lille has often been con- 
founded with other persons named Alain, in particular with 
Alain, archbishop of Auxerre, Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain 
de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed 
to him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St Bernard 
should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the Commentary upon 
Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury. Neither is the philosopher of 
Lille the author of a Memoriale rerum difficilium, published under 
his name; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Dicta 



468 



ALAIS ALAMEDA 



Alani de lapide philosophico really issued from his pen. On the 
other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de 
Lille was the author of the ATS catholicae fidei and the treatise 
Contra haereticos. 

The works of Alain de Lille have been published by Migne, Patro- 
logia latina, vol. ccx. A critical edition of the Anticlaudianus and 
of the De planctu naturae is given by Th. Wright in vol. ii. of the 
Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets and Epigrammatists of the Twelfth Century 
(London, 1872). See Haureau, Memoire sur la vie et quelques ceuvres 
d' Alain de Lille (Paris, 1885); M. Baumgartner, Die Philosophic 
des Alanus de Insulis (Miinster, 1896). (P. A.) 

ALAIS, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondisse- 
ment in the department of Card, 25 m. N.N.W. of Nimes on the 
Paris-Lyon railway, on which it is an important junction. Pop. 
(1906) 18,987. The town is situated at the foot of the Cevennes, 
on the left bank of the Garden, which half surrounds it. The 
streets are wide and its promenades and fine plane-trees make the 
town attractive; but the public buildings, the chief of which are 
the church of St Jean, a heavy building of the i8th century, and 
the citadel, which serves as barracks and prison, are of small 
interest. Pasteur prosecuted his investigations into the silk- 
worm disease at Alais, and the town has dedicated a bust to his 
memory. There is also a statue of the chemist J. B. Dumas. 
Alais has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of 
trade-arbitrators, a lycee and a school of mines. The town is one 
of the most important markets for raw silk and cocoons in the 
south of France, and the Gardon supplies power to numerous silk- 
mills. It is also the centre of a mineral field, which yields large 
quantities of coal, iron, zinc and lead; its blast-furnaces, 
foundries, glass-works and engineering works afford employment 
to many workmen. 

In the i6th century Alais was an important Huguenot centre. 
In 1629 the town was taken by Louis XIII., and by the peace 
of Alais the Huguenots gave up their right to places de sureti 
(garrison towns) and other privileges. A bishopric was estab- 
lished there in 1694 but suppressed in 1790. 

ALAJUELA, the capital of the province of Alajuela, in Costa 
Rica, Central America, on the transcontinental railway, 15 m. 
W. of San Jose. Pop. (1904) 4860. Alajuela is built at the 
southern base of the volcano of Poas (8895 ft.) and overlooks 
the fertile plateau of San Jose. Its central square, adorned with 
a handsome bronze fountain, contains the municipal buildings, 
and a large but unattractive cathedral. The town covers a 
considerable area; the detached white houses of its suburbs 
are surrounded by trees and flowering shrubs. Alajuela is the 
centre of the Costa Rican sugar trade, and an important market 
for coffee. Its products are exported from Puntarenas, on the 
Pacific Ocean, 32 m. W. The province of Alajuela includes the 
territory of the Guatusos Indians, along the northern frontier; 
the towns of Atenas, Grecia, Naranjo and San Ramon (all with 
less than 5000 inhabitants), and the gold-mines of Aguacate, 
a little north of Atenas. 

ALAMANNI, or ALLEMANM, a German tribe, first mentioned 
by Dio Cassius, under the year 213. They apparently dwelt 
in the basin of the Maine, to the south of the Chatti. According 
to Asinius Quadratus their name indicates that they were a 
conglomeration of various tribes. There can be little doubt, 
however, that the ancient Hermunduri formed the preponder- 
ating element in the nation. Among the other elements may be 
mentioned the Juthungi, Bucinobantes, Lentienses, and perhaps 
the Armalausi. From the 4th century onwards we hear also 
of the Suebi or Suabi. The Hermunduri had apparently be- 
longed to the Suebi, but it is likely enough that reinforcements 
from new Suebic tribes had now moved westward. In later 
times the names Alamanni and Suebi seem to be synonymous. 
The tribe was continually engaged in conflicts with the Romans, 
the most famous encounter being that at Strassburg, in which 
they were defeated by Julian, afterwards emperor, in the year 
357, when their king Chonodomarius was taken prisoner. Early 
in the sth century the Alamanni appear to have crossed the 
Rhine and conquered and settled Alsace and a large part of 
Switzerland. Their kingdom lasted until the year 495, when 
they were conquered by Clovis, from which time they formed 



part of the Prankish dominions. The Alamannic and Swabian 
dialects are now spoken in German Switzerland, the southern 
parts of Baden and Alsace, Wiirttemberg and a small portion 
of Bavaria. 

See Dio Cassius Ixvii. ff. ; Ammianus Marcellinus, passim 
Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book ii. ; C. Zeuss, Die 
Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme (Munich, 1837), pp. 303 ff. ; 
O. Bremer in H. Paul, Crundriss der germanischen Philologie (2nd 
ed., Strassburg, 1900), vol. iii. pp. 930 ff. (F. G. M. B.) 

ALAMANNI, or ALEMANNI, LUIGI (1495-1556), Italian states- 
man and poet, was born at Florence. His father was a devoted 
adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, smarting under a sup- 
posed injustice, joined with others in an unsuccessful conspiracy 
against Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII. He 
was obliged in consequence to take refuge in Venice, and, on 
the accession of Clement, to flee to France. When Florence 
shook off the papal yoke in 1527, Alamanni returned, and took 
a prominent part in the management of the affairs of the republic. 
On the restoration of the Medici in 1530 he had again to take 
refuge in France, where he composed the greater part of his 
works. He was a favourite with Francis I., who sent him as 
ambassador to Charles V. after the peace of Crepy in 1 544. As 
an instance of his tact in this capacity, it is related that, when 
Charles interrupted a complimentary address by quoting from 
a satirical poem of Alamanni's the words 

" 1' aquila grifagna, 

Che per piit devorar, duoi rostri porta " 
(Two crooked bills the ravenous eagle bears, 
The better to devour), 

the latter at once replied that he spoke them as a poet, who was 
permitted to use fictions, but that he spoke now as an ambassador, 
who was obliged to tell the truth. The ready reply pleased 
Charles, who added some complimentary words. After the death 
of Francis, Alamanni enjoyed the confidence of his successor 
Henry II., and in 1551 was sent by him as his ambassador to 
Genoa. He died at Amboise on the i8th of April 1556. He 
wrote a large number of poems, distinguished by the purity 
and excellence of their style. The best is a didactic poem, 
La Coltivazione (Paris, 1546), written in imitation of Virgil's 
Georgics. His Opere Toscane (Lyons, 1532) consists of satirical 
pieces written in blank verse. An unfinished poem, Aiiarchide, 
in imitation of the Iliad, was the work of his old age and has 
little merit. It has been said by some that Alamanni was the 
first to use blank verse in Italian poetry, but the distinction 
belongs rather to his contemporary Giangiorgio Trissino. He 
also wrote a poetical romance, Girone il Cortese (Paris, 1548); 
a tragedy, Antigone; a comedy, Flora; and other poems. His 
works were published, with a biography by P. Raffaelli, as 
Versi e prose di Luigi Alamanni (Florence, 1859). 

See G. Naro, Luigi Alamanni e la coltivazione (Syracuse, 1897), 
and C. Corso, Un decennio di patriottismo di Luigi Alamanni (Palermo, 
1898). 

ALAMBAGH, or ALUMBAGH, the name of a large park or 
walled enclosure, containing a palace, a mosque and other 
buildings, as well as a beautiful garden, situated about 4 m. 
from Lucknow, near the Cawnpore road, in the United Provinces 
of India. It was converted into a fort by the mutineers in 1857, 
and after its capture by the British was of importance in con- 
nexion with the military operations around Lucknow. (See 
INDIAN MUTINY and OUTRAM, SIR JAMES.) 

ALAMEDA, a residential city of Alameda county, California, 
U.S.A., on an artificial island about 5 m. long and i m. wide, 
on the E. side of San Francisco bay, opposite to and about 6 m. 
from San Francisco, and directly S. of Oakland, from which it 
is separated by a drainage canal, spanned by bridges. Included 
within the limits of the city is Bay Farm island, with an area 
of about 3 sq. m. Pop. (1870) 1557; (1880) 5708; (1890) 
11,165; (1900) 16,464, of whom 4175 were foreign-born; (1910, 
census) 23,383. Alameda is served by the Southern Pacific 
railway, and is connected by an electric line with Oakland and 
Berkeley. Its site is low and level and its plan fairly regular. 
Among the city's manufactures are terra-cotta tiles, pottery, rugs, 






ALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS ALARCON 



469 



refrigerators and salt. The city owns and operates the electric- 
lighting plant; the water-works system is privately owned, 
and the water supply is obtained from deep wells at San 
Leandro. A settlement existed here before the end of the 
Mexican period. In 1854 it was incorporated as a town and 
in 1885 was chartered as a city. In 1906 the city adopted a 
freehold charter, centralizing power in the mayor and providing 
for a referendum. The county was organized in 1853. 

ALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS, BALTASAR (1555-1640), 
Spanish scholar, was born at Medina del Campo in 1555. His 
friendship with Antonio Perez caused him to be arrested in 
1590 and imprisoned for nearly thirteen years. His Tdcito 
espanol ilmtrado con aforismos (Madrid, 1614) is the only work 
which bears his name, but he is probably the author of the 

Hscurso del gobierno ascribed to Perez. Through the influence 
of Lerma (to whom the Tdcito is dedicated) and of Olivares, he 

ubsequently attained high official position. 

See L'Art de gouverner, ed. J. M. Guardia (Paris, 1867); P. J. 
Pidal, Historic, de las alteraciones de Aragon en el reinado de Felipe II. 
(Madrid, 1862), vol. iii. pp. 29-30; A. Perez, Relaciones (Geneva, 
1654), pp. 86-88. 

ALAND ISLANDS, an archipelago at, the entrance to the Gulf 
Bothnia, about 25 m. from the coast of Sweden, and 15 from 
.hat of Finland. The group, which forms part of the Finnish 
province of Abo-Bjorneborg, consists of nearly three hundred 
islands, of which about eighty are inhabited, the remainder 
being desolate rocks. These islands form a continuation of a 
dangerous granite reef extending along the south coast of 
Finland. They formerly belonged to Sweden, and in the neigh- 
bourhood the first victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedes 
was gamed by Peter the Great in 1714. They were ceded to 
Russia in 1809. They occupy a total area of 1426 sq. km., and 
heir present population is estimated at about 19,000. The 
najority of these occupy the island of Aland, upon which is 
iituated the town of Mariehamn with a population of 1171. 
be inhabitants are mostly of Swedish descent, and are hardy 
amen and fishermen. The surface of the islands is generally 
ndy, the soil thin and the climate keen ; yet Scotch fir, spruce 
nd birch are grown; and rye, barley, flax and vegetables are 
produced in sufficient quantity for the wants of the people, 
jreat numbers of cattle are reared; and cheese, butter and 
hides, as well as salted meat and fish, are exported. There are 
veral excellent harbours (notably that of Yttemas), which 
ere at one time of great importance to Russia from the fact 
at they are frozen up for a much briefer period than those on 
lie coast of Finland. 
The Aland Islands occupy a position of the greatest strategic 
nportance, commanding as they do both the entrance to the 
Drt of Stockholm and the approaches to the Gulf of Bothnia, 
ough which the greater part of the trade of Sweden is carried 
When, by the 4th article of the treaty of Fredrikshavn 
Friedrichshamn), 5/17 September 1809, the islands were ceded 
i Russia, together with the territories forming the grand-duchy 
Finland on the mainland, the Swedes were unable to secure 
i provision that the islands should not be fortified. The question 
as, however, a vital one not only for Sweden but for Great 
Britain, whose trade in the Baltic was threatened. In 1854, 
ordingly, during the Crimean War, an Anglo-French force 
attacked and destroyed the fortress of Bomersund, against the 
lection of which Palmerston had protested without effect some 
venty years previously. By the " Aland Convention," con- 
Juded between Great Britain, France and Russia on the 3oth 
March 1856, it was stipulated that " the Aland Islands shall 
ot be fortified, and that no military or naval establishments 
ball be maintained or created on them." By the 33rd article 
the treaty of Paris (1856) this convention, annexed to the 
nal act, was given " the same force and validity as if it formed 
art thereof," Palmerston declaring in the House of Commons 
lay 6) that it had " placed a barrier between Russia and the 
orth of Europe." Some attention was attracted to this arrange- 
nent when in 1906 it was asserted that Russia, under pretext 
stopping the smuggling of arms into Finland, was massing 



considerable naval and military forces at the islands. The 
question of the Aland Islands created some discussion in 1907 
and 1908 in connexion with the new North Sea agreements, and 
undoubtedly Russia considered the convention of 1856 as rather 
humiliating. But it was plainly shown by other powers that 
they did not propose to regard it as modified or open to question, 
and the point was not definitely and officially raised. 

See the article by Dr Verner Soderberg in the National Review, 
No. 392, for April 1908. 

ALANI (Gr. 'AXovoi, 'AXaupoi ; Chinese '0-lan-na; since the 
9th century A.D. they have been called As, Russ. Jasy, Georgian 
Ossi), the easternmost division of the Sarmatians (see SCYTHIA), 
Iranian nomads with some Altaic admixture. First met with 
north of the Caspian, and later (c. ist century A.D.) spreading 
into the steppes of Russia, the Alans made incursions into both 
the Danubian and the Caucasian provinces of the Roman empire. 
By the Huns they were cut into two portions, of which the western 
joined the Germanic nations in their invasion of southern Europe, 
and, following the fortunes of the Vandals, disappeared in North 
Africa. Those of the eastern division, though dispersed about the 
steppes until late medieval times, were by fresh invading hordes 
forced into the Caucasus, where they remain as the Ossetes. 
At one time partially Christianized by Byzantine missionaries, 
they had almost relapsed into heathenism, but are now under 
Russian influence returning to Christianity. (E. H. M.) 

ALARCON, HERNANDO DE, Spanish navigator of the i6th 
century, is known only in connexion with the expedition to the 
coast of California, of which he was leader. He set sail on the 
9th of May 1540 with orders from the Spanish court to await 
at a certain point on the coast the arrival of an expedition by 
land under the command of Vasquez de Coronado. The junction 
was not effected, though Alarcon reached the appointed place 
and left letters, which were afterwards found by Diaz, another 
explorer. Alarcon was the first to determine with certainty 
that California was a peninsula and not an island, as had been 
supposed. He made a careful survey of the coast, ascended the 
Rio del Tizon or Rio de Buena Guia (Colorado) for 85 Spanish 
m., and was thus able on his return to New Spain in 1541 to 
construct an excellent map of California. 

See Herrera, Decade VI. book ix. ch. 15; vol. vi. fol. 212 of Madrid 
edition of 1730. 

ALARC6N, JUAN RUIZ DE (1518 7-1639), Spanish dramatist, 
was born about 1581 at Tlacho (Mexico), where his father was 
superintendent of mines. He came to Europe in 1600, studied 
law at Salamanca, and in 1608 went back to Mexico to compete 
for a professorial chair. Returning to Spain in 1611, he entered 
the household of the marquis de Salinas, became a successful 
dramatist, and was nominated a member of the council of the 
Indies in 1623. He died at Madrid on the 4th of August 1639. 
His plays were published in 1628 and 1634; the most famous 
of these is La Verdad sospechosa, which was adapted by Corneille 
as the Menteur. Alarcon had the misfortune to be a hunchback, 
to be embittered by his deformity, and to be constantly engaged 
in personal quarrels with his rivals; but his attitude in these 
polemics is always dignified, and his crushing retort to Lope 
de Vega in Los pechos privilegiados is an unsurpassable example 
of cold, scornful invective. More than any other Spanish 
dramatist, Alarcon is preoccupied with ethical aims, and his 
gift of dramatic presentation is as brilliant as his dialogue is 
natural and vivacious. It has been alleged that his foreign 
origin is noticeable in his plays, and there is some foundation 
for the criticism; but his workmanship is exceptionally con- 
scientious, and in El Tejedor de Segovia he had produced a 
masterpiece of national art, national sentiment and national 
expression. (J. F.-K.) 

ALARC6N, PEDRO ANTONIO DE (1833-1891), Spanish 
writer, was born on the loth of March 1833 at Guadix. He 
graduated at the university of Granada, studied law and theology 
privately, and made his first appearance as a dramatist before 
he was of age. Deciding to follow literature as a profession, he 
joined with Torcuato Tarrago y Mateos in editing a Cadiz news- 
paper entitled El Eco de Occidente. In 1853 he travelled to 



470 



ALARD ALARIC 



Madrid in the hope of finding a publisher for his continuation 
of Espronceda's celebrated poem, El Diablo Mundo. Dis- 
appointed in his object, and finding no opening at the capital, 
he settled at Granada, became a radical journalist in that city, 
and showed so much ability that in 1854 he was appointed 
editor of a republican journal, El Ldtigo, published at Madrid. 
The extreme violence of his polemics led to a duel between him 
and the Byronic poet, Jos6 Heriberto Garcia Quevedo. The 
earliest of his novels, El Final de Norma, was published in 1855, 
and though its construction is feeble it brought the writer into 
notice as a master of elegant prose. A small anthology, called 
Mananas de Abril y Mayo (1856), proves that Alarc6n was re- 
cognized as a leader by young men of promise, for among the 
contributors were Castelar, Manuel del Palacio and Lopez de 
Ayala. A dramatic piece, El Hijo prodigo, was hissed off the 
stage in 1857, and the failure so stung Alarcon that he enlisted 
under O'Donnell's command as a volunteer for the war in 
Morocco. His Diario de un testigo de la guerra de Africa (1859) 
is a brilliant account of the expedition. The first edition, 
amounting to fifty thousand copies, was sold within a fortnight, 
and Alarc6n's name became famous throughout the peninsula. 
The book is not in any sense a formal history; it is a series of 
picturesque impressions rendered with remarkable force. On 
his return from Africa Alarcon did the Liberal party much good 
service as editor of La Politica, but after his marriage in 1866 to 
a devout lady, Paulina Contrera y Reyes, he modified his political 
views considerably. On the overthrow of the monarchy in 
1868, Alarcon advocated the claims of the due de Montpensier, 
was neutral during the period of the republic, and declared 
himself a Conservative upon the restoration of the dynasty in 
December 1874. These political variations alienated Alarc6n's 
old allies and failed to conciliate the royalists. But though his 
political influence was ruined, his success as a writer was greater 
than ever. The publication in the Revista Europea (1874) of a 
short story, El Sombrero de tres picas, a most ingenious resetting 
of an old popular tale, made him almost as well known out of 
Spain as in it. This remarkable triumph in the picturesque vein 
encouraged him to produce other works of the same kind; yet 
though his Cuentos amatorios (1881), his Historietas nacionales 
(1881) and his Narraciones inverosimiles (1882) are pleasing, 
they have not the delightful gaiety and charm of their pre- 
decessor. In a longer novel, El Escdndalo (1875), Alarc6n had 
appeared as a partisan of the neo-Catholic reaction, and this 
change of opinion brought upon him many attacks, mostly 
unjust. His usual bad fortune followed him, for while the 
Radicals denounced him as an apostate, the neo-Catholics 
alleged that El Escdndalo was tainted with Jansenism. Of his 
later volumes, written in failing health and spirits, it is only 
necessary to mention El Capitan Veneno and the Historia de 
mis libros, both issued in 1881. Alarc6n was elected a member 
of the Spanish Academy in 1875. He died at Madrid on the 
aoth of July 1891. His later novels and tales are disfigured by 
their didactic tendency, by feeble drawing of character, and 
even by certain gallicisms of style. But, at his best, Alarc6n 
may be read with great pleasure. The Diario de un testigo is 
still unsurpassed as a picture of campaigning life, while El 
Sombrero de tres picas is a very perfect example of malicious wit 
and minute observation. (J. F.-K.) 

ALARD, JEAN DELPHIN (1815-1888), French violinist and 
teacher, was born at Bayonne on the 8th of May 1815. From 
1827 he was a pupil of F. A. Habeneck at the Paris Conservatoire, 
where he succeeded P. de Sales Baillot as professor in 1843, 
retaining the post till 1875. His playing was full of fire and 
point, and his compositions had a great success in France, while 
his violin school had a wider vogue and 'considerably greater 
value. Mention should also be made of his edition in 40 parts of 
a selection of violin compositions by the most eminent masters 
of the 1 8th century, Les Maitres classiques du violon (Schott). 
Alard died in Paris on the 22nd of February 1888. 

ALARIC (Ala-rtiks, "All-ruler"), (c. 370-410), Gothic con- 
queror, the first Teutonic leader who stood as a conqueror in 
the city of Rome, was probably born about 370 in an island 



named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the Danube. He was of 
noble descent, his father being a scion of the family of the Balthi 
or Bold-men, next in dignity among Gothic warriors to the Amals. 
He was a Goth and belonged to the western branch of that nation 
sometimes called the Visigoths who at the time of his birth 
were quartered in the region now known as Bulgaria, having 
taken refuge on the southern shore of the Danube from the 
pursuit of their enemies the Huns. 

In the year 394 he served as a general of foederati (Gothic 
irregulars) under the emperor Theodosius in the campaign in 
which he crushed the usurper Eugenius. As the battle which 
terminated this campaign, the battle of the Frigidus, was fought 
near the passes of the Julian Alps, Alaric probably learnt at this 
time the weakness of the natural defences of Italy on her north- 
eastern frontier. The employment of barbarians as foederati, 
which became a common practice with the emperors in the 4th 
century, was both a symptom of disease in the body politic of the 
empire and a hastener of its impending ruin. The provincial 
population, crushed under a load of unjust taxation, could no 
longer furnish soldiers in the numbers required for the defence of 
the empire; and on the other hand, the emperors, ever fearful 
that a brilliantly successful general of Roman extraction might 
be proclaimed Augustus by his followers, preferred that high 
military command should be in the hands of a man to whom such 
an accession of dignity was as yet impossible. But there was 
obviously a danger that one day a barbarian leader of barbarian 
troops in the service of the empire might turn his armed force 
and the skill in war, which he had acquired in that service, 
against his trembling masters, and without caring to assume the 
title of Augustus might ravage and ruin the countries which he 
had undertaken to defend. This danger became a reality when 
in the year 395 the able and valiant Theodosius died, leaving the 
empire to be divided between his imbecile sons Arcadius and 
Honorius, the former taking the eastern and the latter the 
western portion, and each under the control of a minister who 
bitterly hated the minister of the other. 

In the shifting of offices which took place at the beginning of 
the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped that he would receive 
one of the great war ministries of the empire, and thus instead of 
being a mere commander of irregulars would have under his 
orders a large part of the imperial legions. This, however, was 
denied him, and he found that he was doomed to remain an officer 
of foederati. His disappointed ambition prompted him to take 
the step for which his countrymen were longing, for they too were 
grumbling at the withdrawal of the " presents," in other words 
the veiled ransom-money, which for many years they had been 
accustomed to receive. They raised him on a shield and ac- 
claimed him as a king; leader and followers both resolving (says 
Jordanes the Gothic historian) " rather to seek new kingdoms by 
their own labour, than to slumber in peaceful subjection to the 
rule of others." 

Alaric struck first at the eastern empire. He marched to the 
neighbourhood of Constantinople, but finding himself unable to 
undertake the siege of that superbly strong city, he retraced his 
steps westward and then marched southward through Thessaly 
and the unguarded pass of Thermopylae into Greece. The 
details of his campaign are not very clearly stated, and the story 
is further complicated by the plots and counterplots of Rufinus, 
chief minister of the eastern, and Stilicho, the virtual regent of 
the western empire, and the murder of the 'former by his re- 
bellious soldiers. With these we have no present concern; it is 
sufficient to say that Alaric's invasion of Greece lasted two years 
(395-396), that he ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which at 
once capitulated to the conqueror, that he penetrated into 
Peloponnesus and captured its most famous cities, Corinth, Argos 
and Sparta, selling many of their inhabitants into slavery. Here, 
however, his victorious career ended. Stilicho, who had come 
a second time to the assistance of Arcadius and who was un- 
doubtedly a skilful general, succeeded in shutting up the Goths 
in the mountains of Pholoe on the borders of Elis and Arcadia. 
From thence Alaric escaped with difficulty, and not without some 
suspicion of connivance on the part of Stilicho. He crossed the 



ALARIC 



47 1 



Corinthian Gulf and marched with the plunder of Greece north- 
wards to Epirus. Next came an astounding transformation. 
For some mysterious reason, probably connected with the 
increasing estrangement between the two sections of the empire, 
the ministers of Arcadius conferred upon Alaric the government 
-of some part it can hardly have been the whole of the im- 
portant prefecture of Illyricum. Here, ruling the Danubian 
provinces, he was on the confines of the two empires, and, in the 
words of the poet Claudian, he " sold his alternate oaths to either 
hrone," and made the imperial arsenals prepare the weapons 
nth which to arm his Gothic followers for the next campaign. 
It was probably in the year 400 (but the dates of these events are 
ather uncertain) that Alaric made his first invasion of Italy, 
o-operating with another Gothic chieftain named Radagaisus. 
Supernatural influences were not wanting to urge him to this 
at enterprise. Some lines of the Roman poet inform us that 
! heard a voice proceeding from a sacred grove, " Break off all 
elays, Alaric. This very year thou shall force the Alpine barrier 
: Italy; thou shall penetrale lo the city." The prophecy was 
not at this time fulfilled. Afler spreading desolalion Ihrough 
forth Italy and striking terror into the citizens of Rome, Alaric 
as met by Stilicho at Pollenlia (a Roman municipality in whal 

> now Piedmonl), and Ihe bailie which Ihen followed on Ihe 6th 
of April 402 (Easter-day) was a victory, though a costly one for 
Rome, and effectually barred the further progress of Ihe bar- 
barians. Alaric was an Arian Christian who Irusled to the 
sanctity of Easter for immunity from atlack, and the enemies of 
Stilicho reproached him for having gained his victory by taking 

i unfair advantage of Ihe greal Christian festival. The wife of 
Jaric is said lo have been taken prisoner afler Ihis battle; and 
here is some reason to suppose that he was hampered in his 
novements by the presence with his forces of large numbers of 

omen and children, having given to his invasion of Italy the 
haracter of a national migration. After another defeat before 
/erona, Alaric quitted Italy, probably in 403. He had nol 
ndeed " penetrated to the city," but his invasion of Italy had 

oduced imporlant results; il had caused Ihe imperial residence 

> be Iransferred from Milan lo Ravenna, it had necessitated Ihe 
vilhdrawal of Ihe Twentieth Legion from Britain, and it had 
probably facililaled Ihe great invasion of Vandals, Suevi and 

Jani into Gaul, by which thai province and Spain were lost to 
tie empire. We nexl hear of Alaric as Ihe friend and ally of his 
ite opponent Stilicho. The estrangemenl between the eastern 
ad western courts had in 407 become so bitler as lo Ihrealen 
1 war, and Stilicho was actually proposing to use the arms of 

aric in order lo enforce Ihe claims of Honorius to the prefecture 
of Illyricum. The death of Arcadius in May 408 caused milder 
ounsels to prevail in the western cabinet, but Alaric, who had 

tually enlered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat Ihrealening 

inner lhat if he were Ihus suddenly bidden lo desisl from war, 
should be paid handsomely for whal in modern language 
rould be called Ihe expenses of mobilization. The sum which he 
amed was a large one, 4000 pounds of gold (aboul 160,000 
terling), but under slrong pressure from Stilicho Ihe Roman 
enale consenled lo promise its payment. 

Three months later Stilicho himself and the chief ministers of 
is party were treacherously slain in pursuance of an order 
slracted from the timid and jealous Honorius; and in Ihe 

sturbances which followed the wives and children of Ihe 
arbarian foederati throughout Italy were slain. The natural 
onsequence was lhal Ihese men lo Ihe number of 30,000 flocked 

> Ihe camp of Alaric, clamouring lo be led againsl their cowardly 
nemies. He accordingly crossed the Julian Alps, and in 

ptember 408 slood before Ihe walls of Rome (now wilh no 
apable general like Stilicho lo defend her) and began a slricl 
blockade. 

No blood was shed Ihis time; hunger was the weapon on which 
Jaric relied. When Ihe ambassadors of Ihe senate in treating 
or peace tried to terrify him wilh Iheir hinis of whal Ihe despair- 
ig citizens might accomplish, he gave wilh a laugh his celebraled 

swer, " The Ihicker Ihe hay, Ihe easier mowed! " Afler much 
irgaining, Ihe famine-slricken citizens agreed lo pay a ransom 



of more than a quarter of a million sterling, besides precious 
garments of silk and leather and three thousand pounds of 
pepper. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome. 

At this time, and indeed throughoul his career, the one 
dominant idea of Alaric was nol to pull down the fabric of Ihe 
empire bul lo secure for himself, by negotiation wilh ils rulers, 
a regular and recognized position within ils borders. His 
demands were certainly large the concession of a block of 
territory 200 m. long by 150 wide between the Danube and 
the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal 
dependence on the empire), and the title of commander-in-chief 
of the imperial army. Yet large as the terms were, the emperor 
would probably have been well advised to grant Ihem; but 
Honorius was one of those timid and feeble folk who are equally 
unable to make war or peace, and refused to look beyond Ihe 
question of his own personal safely, guaranteed as il was by the 
dikes and marshes of Ravenna. As all atlempls lo conducl a 
satisfactory negotiation with this emperor failed before his 
impenetrable slupidily, Alaric, afler insliluling a second siege 
and blockade of Rome in 409, came lo terms wilh Ihe senate, 
and wilh Iheir consenl sel up a rival emperor and invested the 
prefect of the city, a Greek named Allalus, wilh Ihe diadem and 
the purple robe. He, however, proved quite unfil for his high 
position; he rejected Ihe advice of Alaric and losl in consequence 
the province of Africa, the granary of Rome, which was defended 
by the partisans of Honorius. The weapon of famine, formerly in 
Ihe hand of Alaric, was Ihus lurned against him, and loud in con- 
sequence were Ihe murmurs of Ihe Roman populace. Honorius 
was also greally strengthened by the arrival of six legions sent 
from Conslanlinople lo his assislance by his nephew Theodosius 
II. Alaric Iherefore cashiered his puppel emperor Altalus after 
eleven months of ineffeclual rule, and once more Iried lo reopen 
negotiations wilh Honorius. These negotiations would probably 
have succeeded bul for the malign influence of anolher Goth, 
Sarus, the heredilary enemy of Alaric and his house. When 
Alaric found himself once more oulwilled by Ihe machinations 
of such a foe, he marched southward and began in deadly earnest 
his third, his ever-memorable siege of Rome. No defence 
apparently was possible; Ihere are hinls, nol well substantiated, 
of treachery; there is grealer probability of surprise. However 
this may be for our information at this point of Ihe slory is 
miserably meagre on Ihe 24 Ih of August 410 Alaric and his 
Goths burst in by Ihe Salarian gale on the norlh-easl of Ihe cily, 
and she who was of late Ihe mislress of Ihe world lay al Ihe feet 
of the barbarians. The Goths showed Ihemselves nol absolutely' 
ruthless conquerors. The contemporary ecclesiastics recorded 
with wonder many instances of Iheir clemency: Ihe Christian 
churches saved from ravage; protection granted lo vasl 
multiludes bolh of pagans and Christians who look refuge 
Iherein ; vessels of gold and silver which were found in a private 
dwelling, spared because they "belonged to St. Peter"; at 
leasl one case in which a beautiful Roman malron appealed, 
nol in vain, lo the better feelings of the Gothic soldier who 
allempled her dishonour; but even these exceptional inslances 
show lhal Rome was not entirely spared those scenes of horror 
which usually accompany Ihe storming of a besieged cily. We 
do nol, however, hear of any damage wroughl by fire, save in 
the case of Sallust's palace, which was siluated close lo the gate 
by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor is Ihere any 
reason lo allribule any exlensive deslruclion of the buildings 
of the city lo Alaric and his followers. 

His work being done, his faled lask, and Alaric having pene- 
Iraled lo Ihe cily, nothing remained for him bul lo die. He 
marched southwards inlo Calabria. He desired lo invade Africa, 
which on accounl of its corn crops was now the key of the posi- 
tion; but his ships were dashed to pieces by a storm in which 
many of his soldiers perished. He died soon afler, probably 
of fever, and his body was buried under Ihe river-bed of the 
Busento, Ihe slream being temporarily lurned aside from its 
course while Ihe grave was dug wherein Ihe Gothic chief and 
some of his mosl precious spoils were interred. When the work 
was finished the river was turned back into ils usual channel, and 



472 



ALARIC II. ALASKA 



the captives by whose hands the labour had been accomplished 
were put to death that none might learn their secret. He was 
succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother- 
in-law, Ataulphus. 

Our chief authorities for the career of Alaric are the historian 
Orosius and the poet Claudian, both strictly contemporary ; Zosimus, 
a somewhat prejudiced heathen historian, who lived probably about 
half a century after the death of Alaric ; and Jordanes, a Goth who 
wrote the history of his nation in the year 551, basing his work on 
the earlier history of Cassiodorus (now lost), which was written 
about 520. (T. H.) 

ALARIC II. (d. 507), eighth king of the Goths in Spain, 
succeeded his father Euric or Evaric in 485. His dominions 
not only included the whole of Spain except its north-western 
corner, but also Aquitaine and the greater part of Provence. 
In religion Alaric was an Arian, but he greatly mitigated the 
persecuting policy of his father Euric towards the Catholics 
and authorized them to hold in 506 the council of Agde. He 
displayed similar wisdom and liberality in political affairs by 
appointing a commission to prepare an abstract of the Roman 
laws and imperial decrees, which should form the authoritative 
code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the 
Breviarium Alaricianum, or Breviary of Alaric (<?..). Alaric 
was of a peaceful disposition, and endeavoured strictly to main- 
tain the treaty which his father had concluded with the Franks, 
whose king Clovis, however, desiring to obtain the Gothic 
province in Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of 
Alaric. The intervention of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths 
and father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies 
met in 507 at the Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, where the 
Goths were defeated, and their king, who took to flight, was 
overtaken and slain, it is said, by Clovis himself. 

ALA-SHEHR (anc. Philadelphia), a town of Asia Minor, 
in the Aidin vilayet, situated in the valley of the Kuzu Chai 
(Cogamus), at the foot of the Boz Dagh (Mt. Tmolus) 83 m. 
E. of Smyrna (105 by railway). Pop. 22,000 (Moslems, 17,000; 
Christians, 5000). Philadelphia was founded by Attalus II. 
of Pergamum about 150 B.C., became one of the " Seven 
Churches " of Asia, and was called " Little Athens " on account 
of its festivals and temples. It was subject to frequent earth- 
quakes. Philadelphia was an independent neutral city, under 
the influence of the Latin Knights of Rhodes, when taken in 
1390 by Sultan Bayezid I. and an auxiliary Christian force 
under the emperor Manuel II. after a prolonged resistance, 
when all the other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered. Twelve 
years later it was captured by Timur, who built a wall with the 
corpses of his prisoners. A fragment of the ghastly structure 
is in the library of Lincoln cathedral. The town is connected 
by railway with Afium-Kara-Hissar and Smyrna. It is dirty 
and ill-built; but, standing on elevated ground and commanding 
the extensive and fertile plain of the Hermus, presents at a 
distance an imposing appearance. It is the seat of an archbishop 
and has several mosques and Christian churches. There are 
small industries and a fair trade. From one of the mineral 
springs comes a heavily charged water known in commerce 
as " Eau de Vals," and in great request in Smyrna. 

See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches (1904). 

ALASKA, formerly called RUSSIAN AMERICA, a district of 
the United States of America, occupying the extreme north- 
western part of North America and the adjacent islands. The 
name is a corruption of a native word possibly meaning " main- 
land " or " peninsula." The district of Alaska comprises, first, 
all that part of the continent W. of the 14131 meridian of W. 
longitude from Greenwich ; secondly, the eastern Diomede island in 
Bering Strait, and all islands in Bering Sea and the Aleutian chain 
lying E. of a line drawn from the Diomedes to pass midway 
between Copper Island, off Kamchatka, and Attu Island of the 
Aleutians; thirdly, a narrow strip of coast and adjacent islands 
N. of a line drawn from Cape Muzon, in lat. 54 40' N., E. and N. 
up Portland Canal to its head, and thence, as defined in the 
treaty of cession to the United States, quoting a boundary treaty 
of 1825 between Great Britain and Russia, following " the 
summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast " to the 



i4ist meridian, provided that when such line runs more than 
ten marine leagues from the ocean the limit " shall be formed 
by a line parallel to the windings of the coast and which shall 
never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom." 
The international disputes connected with this description are 
referred to below. 

Physical Features. Alaska is bounded on the N. by the Arctic 
Ocean, on the W. by the Arctic Ocean and Bering Strait, on the 
S. and S.W. by the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean, and on 
the E. by Yukon Territory and British Columbia. It consists 
of a compact central mass and two straggling appendages 
running from its S.W. and S.E. corners, and sweeping in a 
vast arc over 16 degrees of latitude and 58 degrees of longitude. 
These three parts will be referred to hereafter respectively, as 
Continental Alaska, Aleutian Alaska and the " Panhandle." 
The range of latitude from Point Barrow in the Arctic Ocean 
to Cape Muzon is almost 17 degrees as great as from New 
Orleans to Duluth; the range of longitude from Attu Island to 
the head of Portland Canal is 58 degrees considerably greater 
than from New York to San Francisco. The total area is about 
586,400 sq. m. The general ocean-coast line is about 4750 m., 
and, including the islands, bays, inlets and rivers to the head of 
tide water, is about 26,000 m. in length (U.S. Coast Survey 
1889). The entire southern coast is very irregular in outline; 
it is precipitous, with only very slight stretches of beach or 
plain. Its elevation gradually decreases as one travels W. 
toward the Aleutians. A great submarine platform extends 
throughout a large part of Bering Sea. The western and northern 
coasts are regular in outline with long straight beaches; and 
shallows are common in the seas that wash them. On the Arctic 
there is a broad coastal plain. Of the islands of Alaska the more 
important are: at the S.E. extremity and lying close inland, 
the Alexander Archipelago, whose principal islands from N.W. 
to S.E. are Chicagof, Baranof, Admiralty, Kupreanof, Kuiu, 
Prince of Wales (the largest of the archipelago and of all the 
islands about Alaska, measuring about 140 m. in length and 
40 m. in width), Etolin and Revillagigedo; S.W. of the mainland, 
two groups (i) Kodiak, whose largest island, of the same name, 
is 40 m. by 100 m., and may be considered a continuation of 
the Kenai Peninsula, and whose W. continuation, S. of Alaska 
Peninsula, consists of the Semidi, Shumagin and Sannak 
clusters; (2) the Aleutian Islands (q.v.) sweeping 1200 m. 
W.S.W. from the end of Alaska Peninsula, W. of the mainland, 
in Bering Sea, the Pribilof Islands, about 5 m. S. of Cape 
Prince of Wales, the small Hall and St Matthew Islands, about 
170 m. S.W. of the same cape, St Lawrence Island (too m. and 
10 to 30 m. wide), which is about half way between the last men- 
tioned pair of islets and Cape Prince of Wales and Nunivak 
Island, near the mainland and due E. of St Matthew; and in 
the middle of Bering Strait the Diomede Islands, which belong 
in part to Russia. 

Very little was known about Alaska previous to 1896, when 
the gold discoveries in the Klondike stimulated public interest 
regarding it. Since 1895, however, the explorations of the 
United States Geological Survey and the Department of War, 
and other departments of the government, have fully established 
the main features of its physiography. It has mountains, 
plateaus and lowlands on a grand scale. " In a broad way, the 
larger features of topography correspond with those of the 
western states. There is a Pacific Mountain system, a Central 
Plateau region, a Rocky Mountain system, and a Great Plains 
region. These four divisions are well marked, and show the 
close geographic relation of this area to the southern part of the 
continent." The orographic features of the Pacific Mountain 
system trend parallel to the coast-line of the Gulf of Alaska, 
changing with this at the great bend beyond the N., and of the 
Panhandle from S.E. and N.W. to N.E. and S.W. and running 
through the Alaska Peninsula. The Pacific Mountain system 
includes four ranges. The Coast Range of the Panhandle 
attains a width of too m., but has no well-defined crest line. 
The range is characterized by the uniformity of summit levels 
between 5000 and 6000 ft. Continuing the Coast Range, with 



Vni ^X-'* A '" ^Ljt!fi^ 

'r^A-/^ \ 

W' : : f i t:-^MS^ 




ALASKA 



473 



which it is closely associated the Chilkat river lies between 
them is the St Elias Range (a term now used to include not 
only the mountains between Cross Sound and Mt. St Elias, but 
the Chugach, Kenai, Skolai and Nutzotin mountains) ; among its 
aksare: Mt. Crillon (15, 900 ft.), Mt. Fairweather (15, 290 ft.), 
It. Vancouver (15,666 ft.), Mt. Wrangell (17,500 ft., an active 
olcano) in the Nutzotin Mountains, Mt. St Elias (18,024 ft.) 
ad, in Canadian territory, Mt. Logan (19,539 ft.). The Aleutian 
age, of whose crest the Aleutian Islands are remnants, fills out 
be system near the coast. The Alaskan Range, connecting with 
be Nutzotin and Skolai branches of the St Elias Range, lies 
little farther inland; it is splendidly marked by many snowy 
including Mt. Foraker (17,000 ft.) and Mt. McKinley. 
he latter, which on the W. rises abruptly out of a marshy 
ountry, offers the obstacles of magnificent, inaccessible granite 
Is and large glaciers to the mountaineer; it is the loftiest 
. in North America (ca. 20,300 ft.). In the Alaskan Range 
ad the Aleutian Range there are more than a dozen live vol- 
aoes, several of them remarkable; the latter range is composed 
.rgely of volcanic material. Evidences of very recent volcanic 
ctivity are abundant about Cook Inlet. The Rocky Mountain 
stem extends from Canada (the Yukon territory) into N.E. 
Jaska, which it crosses near the Arctic coast in a broad belt 
omposed of several ranges about 6000 ft. in altitude. There is 
well-defined crest line; the axis of the system is roughly 
parallel to the Pacific Mountain system, but runs more nearly 
E. and W. in Alaska. Between the Pacific Mountain and the 
ky Mountain systems lies the vast Central Plateau region, 
Yukon plateau. Finally, between the Rocky Mountains and 
tie Arctic Ocean is- the Arctic Slope region, a sloping plain 
orresponding to the interior plains of the United States. 
First Physiographic Region. The Panhandle is remarkably 
licturesque. The maze of islands, hundreds in number, of the 
Jexander Archipelago (area about 13,000 sq. m.) are remnants 
of a submerged mountain system; the islands rise 3000 to 5000 
ft. above the sea, with luxuriantly wooded tops and bald, sheer 
sides scarred with marks of glacial action; the beachless coast 
is only a narrow ledge between the mountains and the sea, and 
like the coast of Norway, to which in outline it is not dissimilar, 
bold, steep and craggy. Through the inner channels, shel- 
ered from the Pacific by the island rampart, runs the " inland 
ssage," the tourist route northward from Seattle, Washington, 
be inter-insular straits are carried up into the shore as fjords 
ading in rivers and glaciers. Thus the Stikine river continues 
b'umner Strait and the Taku continues Cross Sound. The 
5tikine, Taku and Alsek rivers all cross the mountains in deep- 
ut canyons. Everywhere the evidences of glacial action 
ound. Most remarkable are the inlets known as Portland 
3anal and Lynn Canal (continuing Chatham Strait). The first 
very deep, with precipitous shores and bordering mountains 
to 6000 ft. high; the second is a noble fjord 100 m. long 
nd on an average 6 m. wide, with magnificent Alpine scenery. 
It is subject in winter to storms of extraordinary violence, but 
never closed by ice. Both Portland Canal and Lynn Canal 
! of historical importance, as the question of the true location 
the first and the commercial importance to Canada or to the 
Jnited States of the possession of the second, were the crucial 
ontentions in the disputes over the Alaska-Canadian boundary, 
the head of Lynn Canal, the only place on the whole extent 
the south-eastern Alaskan coast where a clear-cut water- 
arting is exhibited between the sea-board and interior drainage, 
ae summits of the highest peaks in the Coast Range are 8000 
9000 ft. above the sea. White Pass (2888 ft.) and Chilkoot 
Pass (3500 ft.), at the head of the Lynn Canal, are the gateway 
i the mining country of the Klondike and Upper Yukon. They 
! the highest points that one meets in travelling from Skagway 
Jong the course of the Yukon to Bering Sea. 

Prior to the opening (in August 1900) of the railway between 
Skagway and White Horse, Canada (no m.), by way of the 
hite Pass, all transportation to the interior was effected by 
en and pack-animals (and for a time by a system of telpherage) 
ver these passes and the Chilkat or Dal ton trail; the building 



of the railway reduced carriage rates to less than a tenth of their 
former value, and the Chilkat and Chilkoot Passes were no longer 
used. The coast region above the Panhandle shows on a smaller 
and diminishing scale the same characteristic features, gradually 
running into those of the Aleutians. Out of the Alaska and 
Nutzotin mountains two great rivers flow southward: the 
Copper, practically unnavigable except for small boats, because 
of its turbulence and the discharge of glaciers into its waters; 
and the Susitna, also practically unnavigable. Both of these 
rivers have their sources in lofty mountain masses, and are swift 
and powerful streams carrying with them much silt; their 
passes over the water-parting N. of the Kenai Peninsula are 
through gorges from 4000 to 10,000 ft. in depth. The Copper, 
the Susitna and its tributary, the Yentna, as well as the 
Skwentna, a tributary of the Yentna from the west, all run 
through picturesque canyons, and their upper courses are 
characterized by glacial and torrential feeders. Their valleys 
are well timbered. 

The glaciers of the Panhandle and throughout the rest of the 
Pacific region are most remarkable extraordinary alike for their 
number and their size. They lie mainly between 56 and 61 N. 
lat., in a belt 1000 m. long, of which the central part, some 350 
or 500 m. long and 80 m. to 100 m. wide, has been described as 
one great confluent n6ve field. Thousands of Alpine glaciers 
from one to fifteen miles long fill the upper valleys and canyons 
of the mountains. More than a hundred almost reach the sea, 
from which they are separated by detrital lowland or terminal 
moraines. Other glaciers are of the Piedmont type. Greatest 
of these and of Alaskan glaciers is the Malaspina, a vast elevated 
plateau of wasting ice, 1500 sq. m. in area (nearly a tenth the 
area of all Switzerland), touching the sea at only one point, 
though fronting it for 50 m. behind a fringing foreland of glacial 
debris. It is fed by Alpine glaciers, among them one of the 
grandest in Alaska, the Seward, which descends from Mt. Logan. 
It is more than 50 m. long, and more than 3 m. broad at its 
narrowest point, and several times in its course flows over 
cascades, falling hundreds of feet. Of tide-water glaciers the 
most remarkable is probably the Muir. It has an area of 350 
sq. m.; the main trunk, which is 30 to 40 m. broad, is fed by 
26 tributaries, 20 of which are each greater than the Mer de Glace, 
and pushes its bergs into the sea from ice cliffs almost 2 m. wide, 
standing 100 to 200 ft. above the water, and extending probably 
700 to looo ft. beneath its surface. It has been calculated that 
the average daily discharge of the Muir in summer is 30,000,000 
cubic ft. Its course, which is only about 13 m., has a slope of 
zoo ft. per mile, and the main current moves 7 ft. daily. The 
character of the Muir was greatly altered by an earthquake in 
1899. There are some 30 tide- water glaciers a considerable 
number of them very noteworthy. The Valdez is 30 m. long 
and 5000 ft. in altitude. Most of the Alaskan glaciers are re- 
ceding, but not all of them; and at times there is a general 
advance. The Muir receded 1-6 m. from 1879-1890, the Childs 
about 600 yards in 17 years; others over 4, 7 or 10 m. in 
20 years. 

The Aleutian Islands (<?..), like the Alexander Archipelago, 
are remnants of a submerged mountain system. Their only 
remarkable features are the volcanoes on the easterly islands, 
already mentioned. 

Continental Alaska. Continental Alaska in the interior is 
essentially a vast plateau. " The traveller between the main 
drainage areas of the interior is struck by the uniform elevation 
of the interfluminal areas. Rounded hills, level meads and 
persistent flat-topped ridges, composed of rocks of varying 
structure, rise to about the same level and give the impression 
that they are the remnants of a former continuous surface. 
Occasional limited areas of rugged mountains rise above this 
level, and innumerable stream valleys have been incised below it; 
but from the northern base of the St Elias and Alaskan ranges 
to the southern foothills of the Rocky Mountain system, and 
throughout their length, the remnants of this ancient level are to 
be seen. In height it varies from about 5000 ft. close to the bases 
of the mountain systems to less than 3000 ft. in the vicinity of the 



474 



ALASKA 



main lines of drainage, and slopes gradually towards the north." 
The Seward Peninsula is particularly rugged. This great plateau 
drains westward through broad, gently flowing streams, the net- 
work of whose tributary waters penetrates every corner of the 
interior and offers easy means of communication. Both the main 
streams and the smaller tributaries often flow through deep 
canyons. The Yukon is one of the great drainage systems of the 
world. The Yukon itself has a length of more than 2000 m. and 
bisects the country from E. to W. Behind the bluffs that form 
in large part its immediate border its basin is a rolling country, at 
times sinking into great dead levels like the Yukon flats between 
Circle City and the Lower Ramparts, some 30,000 sq. m. in area. 
Of the two great affluents of the Yukon, the Tanana is for the 
most part unnavigable, while the Koyukuk is navigable for more 
than 450 m. by river steamers, and for more than 500 m. above 
its mouth shows no appreciable diminution in volume. A low 
water-parting divides the Yukon valley from the Kuskokwim, 
the second river of Alaska in size, navigable by steamers for 
600 m. Torrential near its source, it is already a broad, sluggish 
stream at its confluence with the East Kuskokwim. The tides 
rise 50 ft. near its mouth and the tide-head is 100 m. above the 
mouth. 

Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountain system in Alaska is 
higher and more complex than in Canada. About 100 m. wide 
at the international boundary, where the peaks of the British 
Mountains on the N. and of the Davidson Mountains on the S. are 
7000 to 8000 ft. high, the system runs W.S.W. as the Endicott 
Mountains, two contiguous ranges of about 5000 to 6000 ft., and 
as these ranges separate, the northern becomes the De Long, the 
southern the Baird Mountains, whose elevation rapidly decreases 
toward the coast-line. The system is sharply defined on the 
north and less so on the south. 

Arctic Slope Region. The Arctic Slope region is divided into 
the Anuktuvuk Plateau about 80 m. wide, with a maximum 
altitude to the S. of 2500 ft., and between the plateau and the 
Arctic Ocean the Coastal Plain. Very little is known of either 
part of the region. 

Climate. From the foregoing description of the country it is 
evident that the range of climate must be considerable. That of 
the coast and that of the Yukon plateau are quite distinct. The 
Panhandle, along with the lisiere (foreland), westward to Cook 
Inlet might be called temperate Alaska, its climate being similar 
to that of the N.W. coast of the United States; while to the 
westward and northward the winters become longer and more 
severe. The cause of the mild climate of the Panhandle, formerly 
supposed to be the Japanese current, or Kuro Shiwo, is now held 
to be the general eastward drift of the waters of the North 
Pacific in the direction of the prevalent winds. To the warmth 
and moisture brought by this means the coastal region owes its 
high equable temperature, its heavy rainfall (80-110 in.) and its 
superb vegetation. The mean annual temperature is from 54 to 
60 F. Winter sets in about the ist of December and the snow is 
gone save in the mountains by the ist of May. The thermometer 
rarely registers below zero F. or above 75 F.; the difference 
between the midwinter and midsummer averages is seldom more 
than 25. The summer is relatively dry, the autumn and winter 
wet. The vapour-laden sea air blowing landward against the 
girdle of snow and glaciers on the mountain barriers a few miles 
inland drains its moisture in excessive rain and snow upon the 
lisiere, shrouding it in well-nigh unbroken fog and cloud-bank. 
Only some 60 to 100 days in the year are clear. In passing 
from the Sitkan district westward toward Kodiak and the 
Aleutians (q.v.) the climate becomes even more equable, the 
temperature a little lower and the rainfall somewhat less; 1 
the fogs at first less dense, especially near Cook Inlet, where the 
climate is extremely local, but more and more persistent along 
the Aleutians. The clear days of a year at Unalaska can be 
counted on the fingers; five days in seven it actually rains or 
snows. Bering Sea is covered with almost eternal fog. Along 

1 At Kodiak, the monthly means range from 28 to 55 with a 
total range from -10 to 82 F., as against -3 to 87 F. at Sitka; 
the average temperature is 40-6 F., rainfall 59 in. 



I the coast N. of Alaska Peninsula the rainfall diminishes to 10 in. 
or less within the Arctic circle; the summer temperature is 
quite endurable but the winters are exceedingly rigorous. 1 
East of the mountains in south-eastern Alaska the atmosphere is 
dry and bracing, the temperature ranging from -14 to 92 F. 
In the farther interior, in the valleys of the Yukon, the Tanana, 
the Copper and the Sushitna the summers are much the same 
in character, the winters much more severe. On the Yukon 
at the international boundary the mean of the warmest month 
is higher than that of the warmest month at Sitka, 500 m. 
southward. At some points in the Upper Yukon valley the 
range of extreme temperatures is as great as from -75 to 90 F. 3 
The mean heat of summer in the upper valley is about 60 
to 70 F., and at some points in the middle and lower valley 
even higher. 4 By the middle of September snow flurries have 
announced the imminence of winter, the smaller streams congeal, 
the earth freezes, the miner perforce abandons his diggings, and 
navigation ceases even on the Yukon in October. All winter 
snows fall heavily. The air is dry and quiet, and the cold 
relatively uniform. In midwinter in the upper valley the sun 
rises only a few degrees above the horizon for from four to six 
hours a day, though very often quite obscured. In December, 
January, February and March the thermometer often registers 
lower than -50 F., and the mean temperature is -20. In May 
the rivers open, the cleared land thaws out, and by June the 
miner is again at work. Summer is quickly in full ascendancy. 
In May and June the sun shines from eighteen to twenty hours 
and diffused twilight fills the rest of the day. The rainfall is 
light, from 10 to 25 in. according to the year or the locality. 
Dull weather is unknown. All nature responds in rich and rapid 
growth to the garish light and intense heat of the long, splendid 
days. But the Alaska summer is the uncertain season; at 
times the nights are cold into July, at times snow falls and there 
are frosts in mid-August; sometimes rain is heavy, or again 
there is a veritable drought. In the great river valleys S. of 
the Yukon basin climatic conditions are much less uniform. 

Fauna and Flora. The fauna of Alaska is very rich and sur- 
prisingly varied. The lists of insects, birds and mammals are 
especially noteworthy. 6 Of these three classes, and of other than 
purely zoological interest, are mosquitoes, which swarm in 
summer in the interior in vast numbers; sea fowl, which are 
remarkably abundant near the Aleutians; moose, and especially 
caribou, which in the past were very numerous in the interior and 
of extreme economic importance to the natives. The destruction 
of the wild caribou has threatened to expose the Indians to 
wholesale starvation, hence the effort which the United States 
government has made to stock the country with domestic reindeer 
from Siberia. This effort made under the direction of the Bureau 
of Education has been eminently successful, and in the future the 
reindeer seems certain to contribute very greatly to the food, 
clothing, means of shelter and miscellaneous industries of the 
natives; and not less to the solution of the problems of com- 
munication and transportation throughout the interior. It is, 
however, the fish and the fur-bearing animals of its rivers and 
surrounding seas that are economically most distinctive of and 
important to Alaska. The fishing grounds extend along the 
coast from the extreme south-east past the Aleutians into Bristol 
Bay. Herring are abundant, and cod especially so. There are 
probably more than 100,000 sq. m. of cod-banks from 22 to go 

* At St Michael the mean annual temperature is about 26, the 
monthly means run from about -2 to 54, and the extreme recorded 
temperatures from about -55 to 77 F. ; at Port Clarence the 
annual mean is 22, monthly means -7 to 51 F. ; extreme range of 
temperature, -38 to 77 F. ; at Point Barrow the annual mean is 
7-7 F., monthly means -18-6 to 38-lF., extreme range of tempera- 
ture -55 to 65 F. 

* The mean annual temperature on the Yukon at the international 
line is about 21 F., the monthly means run from -17 to 60 F., 
the range of extreme temperatures from -80 to 90 F. 

4 At Fort Yukon five years' records showed mean seasonal tempera- 
tures of 14, 60, 17, and -23-8 F. for spring, summer, autumn 
and winter respectively; at Holy Cross Mission 20, 59, 36 and 
0-95, at Nulato 29, 60, 36 and -14. 

6 The Harriman expedition collected in two months 1000 species 
of insects, of which 344 species (and 6 genera) were new to science. 



ALASKA 



475 



fathoms deep in Bering Sea and E. of the Alaska Peninsula. 
Salmon are to be found in almost incredible numbers. Of marine 
mammals, whales are hunted far to the N. in Bering Sea and the 
Arctic Ocean, but are much less common than formerly, as are 
also the walrus, the sea otter and the fur seal. All these are 
disappearing before commercial greed. The walrus is now found 
nainly far N. ; the sea otter, once fairly common throughout the 
Jeutian district, is now rarely found even on the remoter islands; 
he fur seal, whose habitat is the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea, 
as been considerably reduced in numbers by pelagic hunting, 
here are half-a-dozen species of hair seals and sea-lions. The 
number of fur-bearing land animals is equally large. Sables, 
rmine, wolverines, minks, land otters, beavers and musk-rats 
ave always been important items in the fur trade. There are 
ack, grizzly and polar bears, and also two exclusively Alaskan 
ecies, the Kodiak and the glacier bear. The grey wolf is 
ommon; it is the basal stock of the Alaskan sledge-dog. The 
ed fox is widely distributed, and the white or Arctic fox is very 
ommon along the eastern coast of Bering Sea; a blue fox, once 
vild, is now domesticated on Kodiak and the Aleutians, and 
on the southern continental coast, and a black fox, very rare, 
ccurs in south-eastern Alaska; the silver fox is very rare. 
The Alaskan flora is less varied than the fauna. The forests 
of the coastal region eastward from Cook Inlet, and particularly 
i south-eastern Alaska, are of fair variety, and of great richness 
ad value. The balsam fir and in the south the red cedar 
occur in scant quantities; more widely distributed, but growing 
only under marked local conditions, is the yellow or Alaska cedar, 
. very hard and durable wood of fine grain and pleasant odour. 
The Oregon alder is fairly common. Far the most abundant are 
st and Alpine hemlocks and the tide-land or Sitka spruce, 
be last is not confined to this part of Alaska, but is the char- 
cteristic and universal tree. It is of primary economic im- 
ortance to the natives, who use it for the most various purposes. 
)n the islands of the Alexander Archipelago and on Prince 
Villiam Sound it grows to gigantic size; even on the Koyukuk 
ad the middle Yukon it attains in places a diameter of 2 ft. 
1902 a forest reservation comprising the largest part of the 
ilexander Archipelago was created by the United States govern- 
nent. The separation of the coast and interior floras is almost 
omplete; only along the mountain passes and river valleys, 
nd rarely there, is there an exchange of species. Timber, how- 
ver, is fairly abundant along the entire course of the Yukon 
above Anvik (about 40x3 m. from the mouth), along the great 
ributaries of the Yukon, and, so far as explorations have re- 
vealed, along every stream in central Alaska; and the woods 
of the interior consist almost entirely of spruce. On the Yukon 
Bats it grows in a vast forest impenetrably dense. 1 The timber 
line, which in the Panhandle and along the southern coast of 
he continental mass runs from 1800 to 2400 ft., frequently 
rises in the interior plateau even to 4000 ft. Next in importance 
iter spruce, in the interior, is birch, and then balsam poplar. 
Thickets of alders and willows in wet places and new-made land, 
spens and large cottonwoods west of the characteristic spruce 
ea (as on Seward Peninsula), are also common. Toward the 
Arctic circle, the timber becomes, of course, sparse, low, gnarled 
nd distorted. The willows in the Arctic drainage basin shrink 
shrubs scarcely knee-high. Bushes are common in western 
Alaska, but undergrowth is very scanty in the forests. Grasses 
TOW luxuriantly in the river bottoms and wherever the tundra 
noss is destroyed to give them footing. Most distinctive is the 
ubiquitous carpeting of mosses, varying in colours from the pure 
white and cream of the reindeer moss to the deep green and brown 
of the peat moss, all conspicuously spangled in the brief summer 
vith bright flowers of the higher orders, heavy blossoms on 
tunted stalks. The thick peat moss or tundra of the undrained 
owlands covers probably at least a quarter of Alaska; the 
* The trees here grow as large as 10 in. in diameter and 40 or 50 ft. 
lign; the branches do not spread, even where there is room, so 
hat the tallest tree has a top only four or five feet broad ; the roots, 
vhich cannot penetrate the shaded and frozen soil, spread over the 
ce or shallowly into the tundra carpeting, and often only by their 
natted network prevent the fall of the trees. 



reindeer moss grows both on the lowlands and the hills. 2 Sedges 
available for forage grow in the tundra. In August berries are 
fairly abundant over the interior; one of them, the salmon or 
cloud berry, preserved in seal oil for the winter, is an important 
food of the natives. The grasses are killed by the frosts in 
September. The western timber limit is on Kodiak Island. 
The Aleutian Islands (q.v.) are almost destitute of trees, but are 
covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage. Climatic differ- 
ences cannot account for the treeless condition of the country 
W. of this point, and the true explanation lies probably in the 
fact that in winter, when the seeds of the coastal forests ripen 
and are released, the prevalent winds W. of Kodiak are damp 
and blow from the S. and S.W., while the spread of the seeds 
requires dry winds blowing from the N. and N.W. Such favour- 
able conditions occur only rarely. 

The Soil of Alaska seems to be in itself rich, and quite capable 
of agricultural development; the great impediment to this is in 
the briefness of the summer. Contrary, however, to the once 
universal belief, the experiments of the department of agri- 
culture of the United States have definitely proved that hardy 
vegetables in great variety can readily be produced in the coastal 
region and at various stations in the Yukon valley; and pre- 
sumably, therefore, all over the interior S. of the Arctic circle, save 
along Bering Sea; also that there is little doubt of the prac- 
ticability of successfully cultivating buckwheat, barley and oats, 
and possibly also rye and wheat; that grasses for grazing grow 
generally and often in abundance; and in general that the 
possibilities of interior Alaska as a live-stock country are very 
considerable. It is calculated that a twentieth of south-eastern 
Alaska is available for agriculture, and that of the entire country 
100,000 sq. m. are pasturable or tillable. 

Industry. The fur and fish resources of Alaska have until 
recently held first place in her industries. Herrings furnish 
oil and guano, and the young fish are packed as "sardines" at 
Juneau. Cod can be taken with comparatively little danger 
or hardship. During the Russian occupation a small amount 
was shipped to California and the Sandwich Islands. The take 
since 1879 has been practically constant. The take of halibut 
is increasing steadily. The salmon industry dates from 1878. 
The total output (in 1901, 100,000,000 ft; in 1906, about 
72,000,000 Ib), which since 1900 has been more than half the 
total salmon product of the United States, is more than ten 
times the product of all other fish. 3 On the Karluk river, 
Kodiak Island, is the greatest salmon fishery in the world. 
More than 3,000,000 salmon have been canned here in one 
season. The second salmon stream is the Nushagak, flowing into 
Bristol Bay; this bay is the richest fishing field of Alaska, 
furnishing in 1901, 35 % of the total production. The recklessly 
wasteful manner in which these fisheries are conducted, and the 
inadequate measures taken by the United States government 
for their protection, threaten the entire industry with destruc- 
tion. From 1867 to 1902 the value of the total fishery product 
was estimated at $60,000,000. The fur-seal industry has been 
better protected but still unavailingly. (See SEAL FISHERIES 
and BERING SEA ARBITRATION.) The value of the fur seals taken 
from 1868 to 1902 was estimated at $35,000,000 and that of 
other furs at $17,000,000. The walrus, hunted for its ivory 
tusks, and the sea otter, rarest and most valuable of Alaskan 
fur animals, are near extermination; the blue fox is now bred 
for its pelt on the Aleutians and the southern continental coast; 
the skins of the black and silver fox are extremely rare, and in 
general the whole fur industry is discouragingly decadent. The 
whale fishery also has greatly fallen off; there is no profit on the 
oil and the whales are sought for the baleen alone; they are 
much less numerous too than they once were, and have to be 
sought farther and farther north. 

Minerals. The timber resources of Alaska are untouched 

2 280 species of mosses proper, of which 46 were new to science, 
and 1 6 varieties of peat moss (Sphagnum) were listed by the 
Harriman expedition ; and 74 species or varieties of ferns. 

8 The value of the totalproduct of Alaska's fish canneries was in 
J95 $7.735.782, or 29-3% of the total for the United States; in 
1900 it was 17-4 % of the country's total. 



47 6 



ALASKA 






and the serious exploitation of her minerals is very recent. As 
early as 1861 gold discoveries were made on the Stikine river; 
repeated discoveries, culminating in the Cassiar district "boom," 
were made in British Columbia from 1857 to 1874; colourings 
along the Yukon were reported in 1866-1867 an d systematic 
prospecting of the upper river began about 1873. Juneau was 
founded in 1880; the same year the opposition of the Indians 
was withdrawn that had prevented the crossing of the mountain 
passes to the interior, and after 1880 repeated and scattered 
discoveries were made on the Lewes, Pelly, Stewart and other 
streams of the Upper Yukon country in Canada. As early as 
1883-1885 there was a considerable mining excitement due to 
these discoveries, and a much greater one in 1887 after the dis- 
covery of coarse gold on Forty Mile Creek in American terri- 
tory; but these were as nothing to the picturesque and feverish 
rush that followed the location of the first Klondike claim in 
Canadian territory in August 1896. (SEE KLONDIKE.) The mines 
in American territory were temporarily deserted for the new 
diggings. Other gold districts are scattered over the whole 
interior of Alaska. Nome (?..) was the scene of a great gold 
mining stampede in 1900. The quartz mines near Juneau are 
among the greatest stamp mills of the world (SEE JUNEAU). 
The product of gold and silver (of the latter some 1.3 % of the 
total) from 1895 to 1901 was more than $32,000,000 from 
Alaska proper (not including that from the Canadian Yukon 
fields) as against a production of $5,000,000 in 1880-1896. The 
gold product of the Canadian Yukon territory from 1896-1903 
was about $96,000,000, as estimated by the Canadian Geological 
Survey. In 1905 the product of gold from Alaska was valued 
at $15,630,000 (mines report); and from 1880 to 1906 the 
production of gold, according to the estimate of A. H. Brooks, 
was more than $100,000,000. The gravest problem of mining 
in the interior country, even graver than that presented by 
the climate, is transportation; in 1900 the Tanana fields, for 
example, were provisioned from Circle City, about 125 m. 
distant, at the rate of a cent per lb mile (i.e. $2000 for moving 
a ton 100 m.). Even higher rates prevailed in the copper country 
in 1902. Various other minerals in addition to gold have been 
discovered, and several of them, notably copper and silver (the 
latter appearing with the gold deposits), may probably be 
profitably exploited. In 1905 the product of copper was valued 
at $759,634, that of silver at $80,165 (mines report). Coal, and 
in much larger quantities lignite, have been found in many 
parts of Alaska. Most important, because of their location, 
are deposits along the Alaska Peninsula and between Circle 
City and Dawson. The latter furnishes fuel to the river steam- 
boats, and it is hoped may eventually supply the surrounding 
mining region. There are valuable deposits of gypsum on 
Chicagof Island, and marble quarries are being developed on 
Prince of Wales Island. 

As against $7,200,000 paid for Alaska in 1867, the revenues 
returned to the United States in the years 1867-1903 totalled 
$9>555>99 (namely, rental for the Fox and Pribilof Islands, 
$999,200; special revenue tax on seal-skins, $7,597,351; 
Alaskan customs, $528,558; public Jands, $28,928; other 
sources $401,872). It has been estimated that in the same 
period the United States drew from Alaska fish, furs and gold 
to the value of about $150,000,000; that up to 1903 the imports 
from the states aggregated $100,000,000; and that $25,000,000 
of United States capital was invested in Alaska. 

Since 1896 communication with the outer world has been 
greatly increased. Alaskan mails leave the states daily, many 
post-offices are maintained, mail is regularly delivered beyond 
the Arctic circle, all the more important towns have telegraphic 
communication with the states, 1 there is one railway in the 
interior through Canadian territory from Skagway, and other 
railways are planned. The total mileage in 1906 was 136 m. 
In that year the Alaskan Central Railroad (from Seward to 
Fairbanks, 463 m.) was chartered; 45 m. of this road were in 

1 Seattle, Sitka and Valdez are connected by cable ; telegraph 
lines run from the Panhandle inland to the Yukon and down its 
valley to Fort St Michael. 



operation in 1905. One long military road as an "All American " 
route from Valdez has long been built. 

Population. The population in 1867 at the time of the cession 
from Russia is estimated at 30,000, of which two-thirds were 
Eskimo and other Indians. Population returned in 1880, 
33,426; in 1890, 32,052; in 1900, 63,592, of whom approximately 
48 % were whites, 46 % natives and 6 % Japanese and Chinese; 
(1910 census) 64,356. The Asiatics are employed in the salmon 
canneries. The natives of Alaska fall under four ethnologic 
races: the Eskimo or Innuit of these the Aleuts are an off- 
shoot; the Haidas or Kaigani, found principally on Prince of 
Wales Island and thereabouts; the Thlinkits, rather widely 
distributed in the " Panhandle "; and the Tinnehs or Atha- 
pascans, the stock race of the great interior country. In 1890 
the pure-blooded natives numbered 23,531, of whom 6000 were 
Haidas, Thlinkits or other natives of the coastal region, 1000 
Aleuts, 3400 Athapascans and 13,100 Eskimo. The natives have 
adopted many customs of white civilization, and on the Aleutians, 
and in coastal Alaska, and in scattered regions in the interior 
acknowledge Christianity under the forms of the Orthodox 
Greek or other churches. The rapid exhaustion in late years 
of the caribou, seals and other animals, once the food or stock- 
in-trade of the Aleuts and other races, threatens more and more 
the swift depletion of the natives. They have also felt the fatal 
influence of the liquor traffic. From 1893 to 1895 the United States 
expended $55,000 to support the natives of the Fur Seal Islands. 
This policy threatens to become a continued necessity throughout 
much of Alaska. There is a small government Indian reservation 
on Afognak Island, near Kodiak. The white population is 
extremely mobile, and few towns have an assured or definite 
future. The prosperity of the mining towns of the interior is 
dependent on the fickle fortune of the gold-fields, for which they 
are the distributing points. Sitka, Juneau (the capital) and 
Douglas, both centres of a rich mining district, Skagway, shipping 
point for freight for the Klondike country (see these titles), 
and St Michael, the ocean port for freighting up the Yukon, 
are the only towns apparently assured of a prosperous future. 
Wrangell (formerly Fort St Dionysius, Fort Stikine and Fort 
Wrangell), founded in 1833, is a dilapidated and torpid little 
village, of some interest in Alaskan history, and of temporary 
importance from 1874 to 1877 as the gateway to the Cassiar mines 
in British Columbia. Its inhabitants are chiefly Thlinkit Indians. 

Government. Alaska, by an act of Congress approved the 7th 
of May 1906, received the power to elect a delegate to Congress. 
Before this act and the elections of August 1906 Alaska 
was a governmental district of the United States without 
a delegate in Congress. Its administration rests in the hands of 
the various executive departments, and is partly exercised by a 
governor and other resident officials appointed by the president. 
It is a military district, a customs district (since 1868), is organ- 
ized into a land district, and constitutes three judicial divisions. 
In 1867-1877 the government was in the hands of the depart- 
ment of war, although the customs were from the beginning 
collected by the department of the treasury, with which the 
effective control rested from 1877 until the passage of the so- 
called Organic Act of I7th May 1884. This act extended over 
Alaska the laws of the state of Oregon so far as they should be 
applicable, created the judicial district and a land district, put in 
force the mining laws of the United States, and in general gave 
the administrative system the organization it retained up to the 
reforms of 1899-1900. The history of government and political 
agitation has centred since then in the demand for general land 
legislation and for an adequate civil and criminal law, in protests 
against the enforcement of a liquor prohibition law, and in 
agitation for an efficiently centralized administration. As the 
general land laws of the United States were not extended to 
Alaska in 1884, there was no means, generally speaking, of gaining 
title to any land other than a mining claim, and so far as any 
method did exist its cost was absolutely prohibitive. After 
partial and inadequate legislation in 1891 and 1898, the regular 
system of land surveys was made applicable to Alaska in 1899, 
and a generous homestead law was provided in 1903. An 



ALASKA 



477 



uo 

E 1 
i 

up 



irr 

t 




adequate code of civil and criminal law and provisions for civil 
government under improved conditions were provided by Con- 
gress in 1899 and 1900. The agitation over prohibition dates 
from 1868; the act of that year organizing a customs district 
forbade the importation and sale of firearms, ammunition and 
distilled spirits; the Organic Act of 1884 extended this prohibi- 
tion to all intoxicating liquors. The coast of Alaska offers 
:ceptional facilities for smuggling, and liquor has always been 
ery plentiful; juries have steadily refused to convict offenders, 
.d treasury officials have regularly collected revenue from 
.loons existing in defiance of law. The prohibition law is still 
upon the statute-books. The chief weaknesses in the colonial 
.ministration of the territory, particularly prior to 1900 but 
inly to a slightly less extent since have been decentralization 
,nd a lax civil service. The concomitants of these have been 
irresponsibility and inefficiency. The governor has represented 
ic president without possessing much power; the department 
war has had ill-defined duties; the department of justice has, 
in theory, had charge of the general law; the department of the 
interior has administered the land law; the agents of the bureau 
if education have superintended the stocking of Alaska with 
ideer; the United States Fish Commission has investigated 
.e condition of marine life without having powers to protect it. 
ie treasury department has charted the coasts, sought to 
enforce the prohibition law, controlled and protected the fur seals 
and fisheries, and incidentally collected the customs. Since the 
creation of the department of commerce and labour (1903), it has 
taken over from other departments some of these scattered 
functions. All in all, the government has proved itself without 
power to protect the most valuable industries of the district, and 
for many years there has been talk of a regular territorial govern- 
.ent. The paucity of permanent residents and the poverty of 
local treasury seem to make such a solution an impossible one. 
History. The region now known as Alaska was first explored 
iy the Russian officers Captain Vitus Bering and Chirikov in 1 741. 
ey visited parts of the coast between Dixon Entrance and Cape 
t Elias, and returned along the line of the Aleutians. Their 
iedition was followed by many private vessels manned by 
,ders and trappers. Kodiak was discovered in 1763 and a 
ttlement effected in 1784. Spanish expeditions in 1774 and 
775 visited the south-eastern coast and laid a foundation for 
ibsequent territorial claims, one incident of which were the 
botka Sound seizures of 1789. Captain James Cook in 1778 
,de surveys from which the first approximately accurate chart 
the coast was published; but it was reserved for Vancouver 
1793-1794 to make the first charts in the modern sense of the 
tricate south-eastern coast, which only in recent years have 
in superseded by new surveys. Owing to excesses committed 
y private traders and companies, who robbed, massacred and 
ideously abused the native Indians, the trade and regulation of 
ie Russian possessions were in 1799 confided to a semi-official 
trporation called the Russian-American Company for a term of 
enty years, afterwards twice renewed for similar periods. A 
onopoly of the American trade had previously been granted 
1788 to another private company, the Sholikof. Alexander 
aranov (1747-1819); chief resident director of the American 
mpanies (1790-1819), one of the early administrators of the 
ew company, became famous through the successes he achieved 
governor. He founded Sitka (q.v.) in 1804 after the massacre 
the natives of the inhabitants of an earlier settlement (1799) 
t an adjacent point. The headquarters of the company 
ere at Kodiak until 1805, and thereafter at Sitka. In 1821 
.ussia attempted by ukase to exclude navigators from Bering 
and the Pacific coast of her possessions, which led to 
mediate protest from the United States and Great Britain. 
!s led to a treaty with the United States in 1824 and one 
ith Great Britain in 1825, by which the excessive demands 
of Russia were relinquished and the boundaries of the 
.ussian possessions were permanently fixed. The last charter of 
ie Russian-American Company expired on the 3ist of December 
861, and Prince Maksutov, an imperial governor, was appointed 
administer the affairs of the territory. In 1864 authority was 



granted to an American company to make explorations for a 
proposed Russo-American company's telegraph line overland 
from the Amur river in Siberia to Bering Strait, and through 
Alaska to British Columbia. Work was begun on this scheme in 
1865 and continued for nearly three years, when the success of the 
Atlantic cable rendered the construction of the line unnecessary 
and it was given up, but not until important explorations had 
been made. In 1854 a Californian company began importing ice 
'from Alaska. Very soon thereafter the first official overtures by 
the United States for the purchase of Russian America were 
made during the presidency of James Buchanan. In 1867, by a 
treaty signed on the 3Oth of March, the purchase was consum- 
mated for the sum of $7,200,000, and on the i8th of October 1867 
the formal transfer of the territory was made at Sitka. 

Since its acquisition by the United States the history of Alaska 
has been mainly that of the evolution of its administrative 
system described above, and the varying fortunes of its fisheries 
and sealing industries. Since the gold discoveries a wonderful 
advance has been made in the exploration of the country. A 
military reservation has been created with Fort Michael as a centre. 
The two events of greatest general interest have been the Fur 
Seal Arbitration of 1893 (see BERING SEA ARBITRATION), and the 
Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute, settled by an international 
tribunal of British and American jurists in London in 1903. 
The boundary dispute involved the interpretation of the words, 
quoted above, in the treaties of 1825 and 1867 defining the 
boundary of the Russian (later American) possessions, and also 
the determining of the location of Portland Canal, and the 
question whether the coastal girdle should cross or pass around 
the heads of the fjords of the coast. -The tribunal was an ad- 
judication board and not an actual court of arbitration, since its 
function was not to decide the boundary but to settle the meaning 
of the Anglo-Russian treaty, which provided for an ideal (and not 
a physical) boundary. This boundary did not fit in with geo- 
graphical facts; hence the adjudication was based upon the 
motive of the treaty and not upon the literal interpretation of 
such elastic terms as " ocean," " shore " and " coast-line." The 
award of the tribunal made in October 1903 was arrived at by 
the favourable vote of the three commissioners of the United 
States and of Lord Alverstone, whose action was bitterly resented 
by the two Canadian commissioners; it sustained in the main the 
claims of the United States. 

AUTHORITIES. W. H. Dall and M. Baker, " List of Charts, Maps, 
and Publications relating to Alaska," in United States Pacific Coast 
Pilot, 1879; Monthly Catalogue United States Public Documents, 
No. 37 (1898), and Bulletin 227, United States Geological Survey 
(1904), for official documents; H. H. Bancroft, Alaska 1730-1885, 
pp. 595-609; and various other bibliographies in titles mentioned 
below, especially in Brooke's The Geography and Geology of Alaska. 

General. United States Monthly Summary of Commerce and 
Finance, July 1903, "Commercial Alaska, 1867-1003. Area, Popula- 
tion, Productions, Commerce . . . "; W. H. Dall, Alaska and its 
Resources (Boston, 1870); C. Sumner, Speech on "Cession of Russian- 
America to the United States," in Works, vol. xi. (Boston, 1875) ; 
C. H. Merriam, editor, Harriman Alaska Expedition (New York, 
1901-1904, 3 vols.). 

Physiography and Climate. United States Department of 
War, Explorations in Alaska, 1869-1900 (Washington, IQOI); 
United States Geological Survey, Annual Reports since 1897 The 
Geography and Geology of Alaska : A Summary of Existing Know- 
ledge," by Alfred H. Brooks (Washington, 1906; Professional Paper, 
No. 45), with various maps (see National Geographic Mag., May 
1904, for a map embodying all knowledge then known) ; " Altitudes 
in Alaska " (Bulletin 169, by H. Gannett) ; " Geographic Dictionary 
of Alaksa " (Bulletin 299, Washington, 1906), by M. Baker; 
United States Post Office, " Map of Alaska " (1901); United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bulletins and maps; Bulletin American 
Geographical Society, February 1902, F. S. Schrader, " Work of the 
United States Geological Survey in Alaska "; Journal of Franklin 
Institute, October and November 1904, W. R. Abercrombie " The 
Copper River Country of Alaska "; I. C. Russell, Glaciers of North 
A merica. 

Industries. United States Census, 1880, Ivan Petroff, Report 
on the Population, Industries and Resources of Alaska; United 
States Census, 1890 and 1900; on reindeer, Fifteenth Annual Report 
on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, by Sheldon Jackson 
(Washington, 1906) ; on agriculture, United States Department of 
Agriculture, Experiment Stations, Bulletin Nos. 48, 62, 82 ... 
(1898-1900); Seal and Salmon Fisheries and General Industries of 



478 



ALASSIO ALAVA 



Alaska, 1868-1895 (Washington, 1898) (United States Treasury, 
also 55 Congress, I Session, House Document 92, vols. vi.-x.), 4 vols. ; 
D. S. Jordan et al., The Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands (or Report 
of the Fur Seal Investigation, 1896-1897 (Washington, 1898), 4 
vols.; also many special reports on the seals published by the 
United States Treasury; for Report of British seal experts, Great 
Britain, Foreign Office Correspondence, United States, No. 3 (1897), 
No. i (1898). 

History and Government. H. H. Bancroft, Alaska, 1730-1885 
(San Francisco, 1886); W. H. Dall, "Alaska as it was and is, 
1865-1895," in Bulletin of the Philadelphia Society of Washington,- 
xiii.; Governor of Alaska, Annual Report to the Secretary of the 
Interior; Fur Seal Arbitration, Proceedings (Washington, 1895, 
16 vols.) ; also Great Britain, Foreign Office Correspondence, United 
States, Nos. 6, 7, 8 (1893), No. I (1895) ; Alaskan Boundary Tribunal, 
Cases, Counter-cases, Arguments, Atlases of United Stales and Great 
Britain (Washington, 1903 seq.); and a rich periodical literature. 

Population, Natives. United States National Museum, Ann. 
Report (1896); W. Hough, " Lamp of the Eskimo " (long, and of 
general interest); F. Knapp and R. L. Childe, The Thlinkeets of 
South-Eastern Alaska (Chicago, 1896). 

ALASSIO, a town of Liguria, Italy, on the N.W. coast of the 
Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 57 m. S.W. of the town 
of the same name by rail. Pop. (1901) 5630. It is mainly 
noticeable as a health resort in winter and a bathing-place in 
summer, and has many hotels. The anchorage is safe, and the 
bay full of fish; the harbour has a certain amount of trade. 
The old town contains one or two interesting churches, and 
commands a fine view. 

ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, the spirit of revenge, which 
prompts the members of a family to commit fresh crimes to 
obtain satisfaction. These crimes necessitate further acts of 
vengeance, and the curse is thus transmitted from generation 
to generation. The word is also used for a man's evil genius, 
which drives him to sin without any provocation; a man so 
driven is sometimes called Alastor. The epithet is applied to 
Zeus and the Erinyes as the deities of revenge and punishment. 

ALA-TAU (" Variegated Mountains ") , the name of six mountain 
ranges in Asiatic Russia. Three of these are in the government 
of Semiryechensk in Central Asia, all belonging' to the Tian- 
shan system: (i) the Terskei Ala-tau, south of and parallel 
to the lake of Issyk-kul; (2) the Kunghei Ala-tau, and (3) the 
Trans- Ili Ala-tau, both N. of and parallel to the same lake; 
and (4) the Dzungarian Ala-tau, lying N. of the Ili depression. 
The first three link together the Tian-shan and the Alexander 
Range. Their mean elevation is 6000-7000 ft. ; their culminating 
point, Talgar, on a transverse ridge between (2) and (3), reaches 
15,000 ft.; the limits of perpetual snow run at 11,000-11,700 ft. 
The Dzungarian Ala-tau reach a maximum altitude of 1 1 ,000 ft. 
and have a mean altitude of 6250 ft. From the middle of the 
Alexander Range another range (5) called Ala-tau, or Talastau, 
strikes west by south. The name Ala-tau also enters into the 
designation of (6), a range between the upper Yenisei and the 
upper Ob, in the government of Tomsk, namely, the Kuznetsk 
Ala-tau, forming an outlier of the Altai Mountains, and reaching 
6000-7000 ft. in altitude. 

ALAUNA, ALAUNUS, the Celtic names of two rivers, &c., in 
Roman Britain. Hence the modern Allan Water, river Alyn, &c. 

ALAVA, DON MIGUEL RICARDO DE (1770-1843), Spanish 

general and statesman, was born at Vittoria in 1770. He served 
first in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when 
he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank. He 
was present as a marine at the battle of Trafalgar on board the 
flagship of his uncle Admiral Alava. In politics he followed 
a very devious course. At the assembly of Bayonne in 1808 
he was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the 
new constitution from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. 
After the national rising against French aggression, and the 
defeat of General Dupont at Bailen in 1808, Alava joined the 
national independent party, who were fighting in alliance with 
the English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary at 
the English headquarters, and the duke of Wellington, who 
regarded him with great favour, made him one of his aides-de- 
camp. Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank 
of brigadier-general. On the restoration of Ferdinand, Alava 
was cast into prison, but the influence of his uncle Ethenard, 



the inquisitor, and of Wellington secured his speedy release. 
He soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, who appointed 
him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague. It was therefore his 
remarkable fortune to be present at the battle of Waterloo with 
Wellington's staff. He is supposed to have been the only man 
who was present at both Waterloo and Trafalgar. Four years 
later he was recalled owing, it is said, to the marked kindness 
he had shown to his banished fellow-countrymen. On the 
breaking out of the revolution of 1820 he was chosen by the 
province of Alava to represent it in the Cortes, where he became 
conspicuous in the party of the Exaltados, and in 1822 was made 
president. In the latter year he fought with the militia under 
Francisco Ballesteros and Pablo Murillo to maintain the authority 
of the Cortes against the rebels. When the French invested 
Cadiz, Alava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with the 
due d'Angoule'me, and the negotiations resulted in the restoration 
of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal policy. No sooner 
had he regained power, however, than he ceased to hold himself 
bound by his promises, and Alava found it necessary to retire 
first to Gibraltar and then to England. On the death of Ferdi- 
nand he returned to Spain, and espousing the cause of Maria 
Christina against Don Carlos was appointed ambassador to 
London in 1834 and to Paris in 1835. After the insurrection 
of La Granja he refused to sign the constitution of 1812, declar- 
ing himself tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently 
obliged to retire to France, where he died at Bareges in 1843. 
Frequent and honourable mention of Alava is made in Napier's 
History of the Peninsular War, and his name is often met both in 
lives of the duke of Wellington and in his correspondence. 

ALAVA, one of the Basque Provinces of northern Spain; 
bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, E. by Navarre, 
S. by Logrono, and W. by Burgos. Pop. (1900) 96,385; area 
1175 sq. m. The countship of Trevino (190 sq. m.) in the 
centre of Alava belongs to the province of Burgos. The surface 
of Alava is very mountainous, especially on the north, where a 
part of the Pyrenees forms its natural boundary. It is separated 
from Logrono by the river Ebro, and its other rivers are the 
Zadorra and the Ayuda. The climate is mild in summer, fitful 
in autumn and spring, and very cold in winter, as even the plains 
are high and shut in on three sides by mountains snow-clad 
during several months. The soil in the valleys is fertile, yielding 
wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp and fruits. Oil and a poor 
kind of wine called chacoli are also produced. Many of the 
mountains are clothed with forests of oak, chestnuts, beeches 
and other trees, and contain iron, copper, lead and marble. 
Salt is also found in large quantities; but mining and quarrying 
are not practised on a large scale; only lead, lignite and asphalt 
being worked. There are mineral waters in many places. 
Other local industries of some importance include smelting, 
and manufactures of beds, furniture, railway carriages, matches, 
paper, sweets and woollen and cotton goods. Bread-stuffs, 
colonial products and machinery are largely imported. Few 
provinces in Spain are inhabited by so laborious, active and 
well-to-do a population. The primary schools are numerously 
attended, and there are very good normal schools for teachers 
of both sexes, and a model agricultural farm. The public roads 
and other works of the province are excellent, and, like those of 
the rest of the Basque provinces, entirely kept up by local 
initiative and taxes. Railways from Madrid to the French 
frontier, and from Saragossa to Bilbao, cross the province. 
The capital is Vitoria (pop. 1900, 30,701), which is the only town 
with more than 3500 inhabitants. 

For a fuller account of the history, people and customs of Alava, 
see BASQUES and BASQUE PROVINCES, with the works there cited. 
A very elaborate bibliography is given in the Cdtalogo de las obras 
referentes d las provinces de Alava y Navarra, by A. A. Salazar 
(Madrid, 1887.) The following books by J. J. Landazuri y Romarate 
contain much material for a provincial history: Historia ecclest- 
astica, &c. (Pamplona, 1797); Historia civil, &c. (Vitoria, 1798); 
Compendios historicos de la ciudad y villas de . . . Alava, &c. 
(Pamplona, 1798); Suplemento d los cuatro libros de la historta de 
. . . Alava (Vitoria, 1799); and Los varones illustres Alavenses 
(Vitoria, 1798). See also M. Risco in vol. 33 of Hispania Sagrada, 
by H. Florez, &c. (Madrid, 1754-1879). 



ALB ALBACETE 



479 



ALB (Lat. alba, from albus, white), a liturgical vestment of the 
Catholic Church. It is a sack-like tunic of white linen, with 
narrow sleeves and a hole for the head to pass through, and when 
gathered up round the waist by the girdle (cingulum) just clears 
the ground. Albs were originally quite plain, but about the 
loth century the custom arose of ornamenting the borders and 
the cuffs of the sleeves with strips of embroidery, and this be- 
came common in the i2th century. These at first encircled the 
whole border; but soon it became customary to substitute for 
them square patches of embroidery or precious fabrics. These 
' parures " " apparels " or " orphreys " (Lat. parurae, grammata, 
aurifrisia, &c.), were usually four in number, one being sewn on 
the back and another on the front of the vestment just above 
the lower hem, and one on each cuff. When, as occasionally 
happened, a fifth was added, this was placed on the breast just 
below the neck opening. These " apparelled albs " (albae 
paratae) continued in general use in the Western Church till the 
1 6th century, when a tendency to dispense with the parures 
began, Rome itself setting the example. 

The growth of the lace industry in the 1 7th century hastened 
the process by leading to the substitution of broad bands of lace 
as decoration; occasionally, as in a magnificent specimen pre- 
served at South Kensington, nearly half the vestment is thus 




Apparelled Alb in the South Kensington Museum. 

From Braun's Liturgische Geivandung. 

composed of lace. At the present time, so far as the Roman 
Catholic Church is concerned, apparelled albs are only in regular 
use at Milan (Ambrosian Rite), and, partially, in certain churches 
in Spain. The decree of the Congregation of Rites (May 18,1819) 
says nothing about apparels, but only lays down that the alb 
must be of white linen or hemp cloth. There is no definite rule 
as to the material or character of the ornamentation, and attempts 
have been made, especially in England, to revive the use of the 
apparelled alb. 

In the Roman Church the alb is now reckoned as one of the 
vestments proper to the sacrifice of the Mass. It is worn by 
bishops, priests, deacons and subdeacons under the other 
eucharistic vestments, either at Mass or at functions connected 
with it. It is sometimes also worn by clerics in minor orders, 
whose proper vestment is, however, the surplice itself a modi- 
fication of the alb (see SURPLICE). The alb is supposed to be 
symbolical of purity, and the priest, when putting it on, prays: 
" Make me white and purify my heart, Lord," &c. In the 
middle ages the parures, which originally had no mystic intention 
whatever, were taken to symbolize the wounds of Christ; whence 
probably is derived the custom surviving at the cathedral of 
Toledo, of the singers of the Passion on Good Friday being vested 
in apparelled albs. 

In England at the Reformation the alb went out of use with 
the other " Mass vestments," and remained out of use in the 
Church of England until the ritual revival of the igth century. 
It is now worn in a considerable number of churches not only 



by the clergy but by acolytes and servers at the Communion. 
Where the ritual, as in most cases, is a revival of pre-Reformation 
uses and not modelled on that of modern Rome, these albs are 
frequently apparelled. For the question of its legality see 
VESTMENTS. 

Both the alb and its name are derived ultimately from the 
tunica alba, the white tunic, which formed part of the ordinary 
dress of Roman citizens under the Empire. As such it was worn 
both in and out of church, the few notices remaining which 
suggest a special tunic for ministers at the Eucharist merely 
implying that it was not fitting to use for so sacred a function 
a garment soiled by everyday wear. The date of its definite 
adoption as a liturgical vestment is uncertain; at Rome where 
until the i3th century it was known as the linea or camisia (cf. 
the modern Italian camice for alb) it seems to have been thus 
used as early as the sth century. But as late as the 9th and loth 
centuries the alba is still an everyday as well as a liturgical 
garrnent, and we find bishops and synods forbidding priests to 
sing mass in the alba worn by them in ordinary life (see Braun, 
p. 62). Throughout the middle ages, moreover, the word alba 
was somewhat loosely used. In the medieval inventories are 
sometimes found albae, described as red, blue or black; which 
has led to the belief that albs were sometimes not only made of 
stuffs other than linen, but were coloured. It is clear, however, 
from the descriptions of these vestments that in some cases they 
were actually tunicles, the confusion of terms arising from the 
similarity of shape (see DALMATIC); in other cases the colour 
applied to the parures, not to the albs as a whole. Silk albs 
appear in the inventories, but only very exceptionally. 

The equivalent of the alb in the ancient Churches of the East 
is the sticharion (anxdptov) of the Orthodox Church (Armenian 
shapik, Syrian Kutina, Coptic stoicharion or tuniah). It is worn 
girdled by bishops and priests in all rites, by subdeacons in the 
Greek and Coptic rites. By deacons and lectors it is worn un- 
girdled in all the rites. The colour of the vestment is usually 
white for bishops and priests (this is the rule in the Coptic 
Church); for the other orders there is no rule, and all colours, 
except black, may be used. Its material may be linen, wool, 
cotton or silk; but silk only is the rule for deacons. In the 
Armenian and Coptic rites the vestment is often elaborately 
embroidered; in the other rites the only ornament is a cross 
high in the middle of the back, save hi the case of bishops of the 
Orthodox Church, whose sticharia are ornamented with two 
vertical red stripes (irora.ij.oi, " rivers "). In the East as in 
the West the vestment is specially associated with the ritual of 
the Eucharist. 

The whole subject is exhaustively treated by Father Joseph Braun 
in Die liturgische Gewandung (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907). See also 
bibliography to the article VESTMENTS. 

ALBA, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, on the 
river Tanaro, in the province of Cuneo. From the town of the 
same name it is 33 m. N.E. direct; it is 42 m. S.S.E. of Turin 
by rail. Pop. (1901) 13,900. It contains a fine cathedral, with 
a Gothic facade, reconstructed in 1486, and is an important 
commercial centre. It occupies the site of the ancient Alba 
Pompeia, probably founded by Pompeius Strabo (consul 89 B.C.) 
when he constructed the road from Aquae Statiellae (Acqui) 
to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin). Probably this was the road 
taken by Decimus Brutus when he succeeded, after the raising 
of the siege of Mutina in 43 B.C., in occupying Pollentia just 
before Mark Antony's cavalry came in sight. Alba was the 
birthplace of the emperor Pertinax. It became an episcopal 
see dependent on Milan in the 4th century. A small museum 
of local antiquities was established in 1897. 

See F. Eusebio in Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze 
Storiche (Rome, 1904), vol. v. p. 485. 

ALBACETE, an inland province of south-eastern Spain, 
formed in 1833 out of the northern half of Murcia, and bounded 
on the N. by Cuenca, E. by Valencia and Alicante, S. by Murcia, 
and W. by Granada and Jaen. Pop. (1900) 237,877; area 
5737 sc l- m - The northern part of Albacete belongs to the high 
plains of New Castile, the southern is generally mountainous, 



480 



ALBACETE ALBA LONGA 






traversed by low ranges or isolated groups of hills, which cul- 
minate in the Sierra de Alcaraz on the borders of Granada, where 
several summits reach 5000 ft. Besides many smaller streams, 
two large rivers water the province, the Segura in the south- 
west, and the Jucar in the north-east; both rising beyond the 
borders of Albacete, and ultimately flowing into the Mediter- 
ranean. The fertile glens of the Alcaraz district are richly 
wooded, and often, from their multitude of fruit trees, resemble 
the huerlas or gardens of Alicante; but broad tracts of land are 
destitute of trees, and suitable only for pasture. These barren 
regions are thinly peopled; and for the whole of Albacete the 
density of population (41-3 per sq. m. in 1900) is lower than in 
any other Spanish province, except Soria. 

The climate is generally mild and healthy, although, among 
the higher mountains, the snow lies for several months. Wheat 
and other cereals are cultivated, with fruits of many kinds, 
olives, and vines which yield a wine of fair quality; while saffron 
is largely produced, and some attention is given to the keeping 
of bees and silkworms. Stock-farming, for which the wide 
plains afford excellent opportunities, employs many of the 
peasantry; the bulls of Albacete are in demand for bull-fighting, 
and the horses for mounting the Spanish cavalry. There is also 
a good breed of mules. Sulphurous and other mineral springs, 
both hot and cold, exist in several districts, and deposits of silver, 
iron, copper, sulphur, coal and other minerals have been dis- 
covered; but the exploitation of these is retarded by lack of 
communications, and, apart from building materials, sulphur 
and salt, the actual output is insignificant. Manufactures are 
almost confined to the spinning of hemp, and the making of 
coarse cloth, porcelain, earthenware and cutlery. Brandy 
distilleries are numerous, and there is some trade in wood; 
but no local industry can rival agriculture and stock-breeding, 
which furnish the bulk of the exports. Albacete (pop. 1900, 
21,512), the capital, and the other important towns of Almansa 
(11,180) and Hellin (12,558), are described under separate 
headings. Alcaraz, which gives its name to the mountain range 
already mentioned, is a picturesque old town with the ruins of 
a Moorish castle, and a fine Roman aqueduct; pop. (1900) 
4501. Caudete (5913), Chinchilla, or Chinchilla de Monte- Aragon 
(6680), La Roda (7066), Tobarra (7787), Villarrobledo (10,125) 
and Yeste (6591) are important markets for the sale of agri- 
cultural produce. The railway from Madrid to Albacete passes 
south-westward to Chinchilla, where it bifurcates, one line 
going to Murcia, and the other to Alicante. A large part of the 
province is only accessible by road, and even the main highways 
maintained by the state are ill kept. Education is very back- 
ward even in the towns; many of the inhabitants carry arms; 
and crimes of violence are not infrequent. 

ALBACETE, the capital of the above province, on the Madrid- 
Alicante railway, and at the confluence of the river Balazote with 
the canal of Maria Christina, which flows into the river Jucar, 
16 m. N. Pop. (1900) 21,512. Albacete comprises the pictur- 
esque old upper town and the new or lower town, with law- 
courts, schools, barracks, hospitals, a council-hall, a bull-ring 
and other modern buildings, mostly erected after the city became 
a provincial capital in 1833. It is surrounded by a fertile plain, 
and has considerable trade in saffron and agricultural produce. 
A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle, is held annually 
in September, and extends over several days. The manufacture 
of matches is aided by the existence of sulphur workings in 
the vicinity; and Albacete formerly had an extensive trade in 
cutlery, from which it was named the Sheffield of Spain. De- 
spite the importation of cutlery from England and Germany, 
Albacete is still famous for its daggers, which are held in high 
repute by Spaniards. They are formidable weapons, of coarse 
manufacture, but with richly ornamented handles; and they 
frequently bear proverbial inscriptions suitable to their murder- 
ous appearance. 

ALBA FUCENS (mod. Albe), an ancient Italian town occupy- 
ing a lofty situation (3347 ft.) at the foot of the Monte Velino, 
4 m. N. of Avezzano. It was originally a town of the Aequi, 
though on the frontier of the Marsi, but was occupied by a 



Roman colony (304 B.C.) owing to its strategic importance. It 
lay on a hill just to the north of the Via Valeria, which was 
probably prolonged beyond Tibur at this very period. In the 
Second Punic war Alba at first remained faithful, but after- 
wards refused to send contingents and was punished. After 
this it became a regular place of detention for important state 
prisoners, such as Syphax of Numidia, Perseus of Macedonia, 
Bituitus, king of the Arverni. It was attacked by the allies in 
the Social War, but remained faithful to Rome; and its strong 
position rendered it a place of some importance in the civil wars. 
Its prosperity, in the imperial period, can only be inferred from 
the number of inscriptions found there. It is chiefly remarkable 
for its finely preserved fortifications. The external walls, which 
have a circuit of about 2 m., are constructed of polygonal 
masonry; the blocks are carefully jointed, and the faces 
smoothed. With our present knowledge of such constructions, 
their date cannot certainly be determined. They are not pre- 
served to any very considerable height; but the arrangement 
of the gates is clearly traceable ; as a rule they come at the 
end of a long, straight stretch of wall, and are placed so as to 
leave the right side of any attacking force exposed. On the 
north there is, for a length of about 150 yds. a triple line of 
defences of later date (possibly added by the Roman colonists), 
inasmuch as both the city wall proper and the double wall thrown 
out in front of it are partly constructed of concrete, and faced 
with finer polygonal masonry (in which horizontal joints seem 
to be purposely avoided). A mile to the north of the city a huge 
mound with a ditch on each side of it (but at a considerable 
distance from it) may be traced for a couple of miles. Within 
the walls there are hardly any buildings of a later date. Ex- 
cavations have only been made casually, though remains of 
buildings and of roads can be traced, and also an extensive 
system of underground passages perhaps connected with the 
defences of the place. The hill at the western extremity was 
occupied by a temple of the Tuscan order, into which was built 
the church of S. Pietro; this contains ancient columns, and 
some remarkably fine specimens of Cosmatesque work. It is 
the only monastic church in the Abruzzi in which the nave is 
separated from the aisles by ancient columns. The collegiate 
church of S. Nicola in the village contains a remarkable stauro- 
theca of the nth (?) century, and a wooden triptych in imitation 
of the Byzantine style with enamels of the I3th century. 

A very good description of the site, with plans, is given by C. 
Promis, L'Antichila di Alba Fucense (Rome, 1836). (T. As.) 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Latium, situated on the 
western edge of the Albanus Lacus, about 12 m. S.E. of Rome. 
It was, according to tradition, founded by Ascanius, and was the 
oldest of all Latin cities the mother indeed of Rome, by which, 
however, it was destroyed, it is said under Tullus Hostilius. By 
this act Rome succeeded to the hegemony of the Latin league. 
It has by many topographers been placed between the Albanus 
Mons and the Albanus Lacus, according to the indication given 
by Dionysius (i. 66), at the monastery of Palazzolo; but the 
position is quite unsuitable for an ancient city, and does not at all 
answer to Livy's description, ab situ porreciae in dorso urbis Alba 
longa appellate.', and it is much more probable that its site is to 
be sought on the western side of the lake, where the modern 
Castel Gandolfo stands, immediately to the north of which the 
most important part of the archaic necropolis was situated. 
Confirmation of this may be found in Cicero's description (Pro 
Milone, 85) of the destruction of the shrines and sacred groves of 
Alba by the construction of Clodius's villa, in the local applica- 
tion of the adjective Albanus, and in the position of Castel 
Gandolfo itself, which exactly suits Livy's description. No 
traces of the ancient city, except of its necropolis, the tombs of 
which are overlaid with a stratum of peperino 3 ft. thick, are 
preserved. The view that the modern Albano occupies the site 
of Alba Longa was commonly held in the i sth and i6th centuries, 
but was disproved by P. Cluver (1624). But it is certain that no 
city took the place of Alba Longa until comparatively late times. 
The name Albanum, from about 150 B.C. till the time of Con- 
stantine, meant a villa in the Alban territory. The emperors 



ALBAN ALBANIA 



481 



' 



formed a single estate out of a considerable part of this district, 
including apparently the whole of the lake, and Domitian was 
especially fond of residing here. The imperial villa occupied the 
site of the present Villa Barberini at Castel Gandolfo, and con- 
siderable remains of it still exist. To the south was a camp for 
the imperial bodyguard, with baths, an amphitheatre, a large 
water reservoir, &c. The first legion known to have been 
quartered there is the II. Parthica, founded by Septimius 
Severus; but it was probably constructed earlier. In some of 
the tombs of these legionaries coins of Maxentius have been 
found, while the Liber Pontificalis records that Constantine gave 
to the church of Albano " omnia scheneca deserta vel domos intra 
urbem Albanensem," which has generally been taken to refer to 
the abandoned camp. It was at this period, then, that the 
civilas Albanensis arose. The lapis Albanus is a green grey 
volcanic stone with black and white grains in it (hence the 
modern name, peperino), much used for building material. 
See T. Ashby in Journal of Philology, xxvii., 1901 , 37. (T. As.) 
ALBAN, SAINT, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain, is 
said to have been born at Verulamium (the modern St Albans in 
Hertfordshire) towards the close of the 3rd century, and to have 
served for seven years in Rome in the army of the emperor 
Diocletian. On his return to Britain he settled at his native place 
and was put to death as a Christian during the persecution of 
Diocletian (c. 286-303). According to tradition, when peace was 
restored, great honours were paid to his tomb. A church was 
built on the spot, c. 793, by King Offa of Mercia. A monastery 
was subsequently added, and around it the present town of St 
Albans gradually grew up. Pope Adrian IV., who was born in 
the neighbourhood, conferred on the abbot of St Alban's the right 
of precedence over his fellow abbots, a right hitherto attached to 
the abbey of Glastonbury. St Alban is commemorated in the 
Roman martyrology on the 22nd of June; but it is impossible to 
determine with certainty whether he ever existed, as no mention 
of him occurs till the middle of the 6th century. 

See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques (1905), i. 95; 
D. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue (1862), I. i. 3-34, ii. 688. 

ALBANI, or ALBANO, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), Italian 
painter, was born at Bologna. His father was a silk merchant, 
and intended to bring up his son to the same occupation; but 
Albani was already, at the age of twelve, filled with so strong an 
inclination for painting, that on the death of his father he devoted 
himself entirely to art. His first master was Denis Calvert, with 
whom Guido Reni was at the same time a pupil. He was soon 
left by Calvert entirely to the care of Guido, and contracted with 
him a close friendship. He followed Guido to the school of the 
Caracci; but after this, owing to mutual rivalry, their friendship 
began gradually to cool. They kept up for a long time a keen 
competition, and their mutual emulation called forth some of 
their best productions. Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still 
spoke of each other with the highest esteem. Albani after having 
greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracci, went to 
Rome, where he opened an academy and resided for many years. 
Here he painted, after the designs of Annibal Caracci, the whole 
of the frescoes in the chapel of San Diego in the church of San 
Giacomo degli Spagnuoli. His best frescoes are those on mytho- 
logical subjects, of which there is a large number in the Verospi, 
now Torlonia Palace. On the death of his wife he returned to 
Bologna, where he married a second time and resided till his 
death. His wife and children were very beautiful and served him 
for models. The learning displayed in the composition of his 
pictures, and their minute elaboration and exquisite finish, gave 
them great celebrity and entitle them to a distinctive place 
among the products of the Bolognese school. A number of his 
works are at Bologna, and others at Florence, the Louvre, 
Dresden and St Petersburg. Among the best of his sacred 
subjects are a " St Sebastian " and an " Assumption of the 
Virgin," both in the church of St Sebastian at Rome. He was 
among the first of the Italian painters to devote himself to the 
painting of cabinet pictures. A rare etching, the " Death of 
Dido," is attributed to him. 

ALBANI, the stage name of MARIE LOUISE EMMA CECILE 

i. 16 



LAJEUNESSE (1847- ), Canadian singer, who was born at 
Chambly, in the province of Quebec, on the 27th of September 
1847. She made her first public appearance in Montreal, at the 
age of seven, and afterwards studied in the United States, Paris 
and Italy. In 1870 she made her first appearanceatMessina, and 
after two successful seasons appeared in London in 1872 with the 
Royal Italian Opera. Later she abandoned opera for oratorio, 
and sang at all the principal festivals. She has made several 
tours of Canada and of the United States, and in 1886 sang at 
the opening of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London the 
ode written by Tennyson for the occasion. She frequently sang 
before Queen Victoria, the German emperor and others of the 
crowned heads of Europe, and received numerous marks of their 
esteem. In 1897 she was awarded the gold Beethoven medal by 
the London Philharmonic Society, " as a mark of appreciation 
of her exceptional genius and musical attainments, and of her 
generous and artistic nature." She married in 1878 Ernest Gye, 
the theatrical manager. Her stage name of Madame Albani was 
taken from that of an extinct Italian family. 

See Morgan, Canadian Men and Women of the Time (1898). 

ALBANIA, the ancient name of a district in the eastern 
Caucasus, consisting, according to Strabo (xi. 4. 1-8), of the valley 
of the Cyrus (Kur) and the land lying between it and the Caucasus 
range from Iberia to the Caspian Sea, i. e. the modern Shirvan. 
In reality the Albani inhabited also the mountain valleys and the 
land to the north towards Sarmatia, the modern Daghestan 
(Pliny vi. 39). Dionysius of Halicarnassus quotes a tradition 
that the name arose from the alleged fact that the people were 
the descendants of emigrants from Alba in Italy, but it would 
seem that the race was of Lesghian (not Georgian) descent. Strabo 
describes them as tall, well made, and in character simple and 
honest; he says that payment was in kind and that the people 
could not count beyond a hundred. They worshipped the sun, 
and more particularly the moon, the latter being perhaps identical 
with the great Nature Goddess of Asia Minor (see GREAT MOTHER 
OF THE GODS), and believed in soothsaying and the virtue of 
human sacrifice. Old age was held in high honour, but it was 
sacrilege to speak, or even to think, of the dead. The race was 
nomadic, and lived on the abundant natural fruits of the land. 
In Strabo's time they appear to have been ruled by a single king, 
though previously there were twenty-six, each one ruling over 
a community distinct only in point of language. The Albani 
became known to the Romans during Pompey's pursuit of 
Mithradates the Great (65 B.C.), against which they are said to 
have opposed a force of 60,000 foot and 20,000 cavalry. Pompey 
exacted from them a nominal submission, but their independence 
was not seriously affected by the Romans. In the reign of 
Hadrian their territory was invaded by the Alani (Th. Mommsen, 
Provinces of the Roman Empire, Eng. trans., 1886), and later they 
fell under the Sassanid rule. They were driven finally into 
Armenia by the Khazars, and ceased to exist as a separate 
people. The district subsequently suffered under t,he successive 
invasions of Huns, Varangians (who captured the chief town 
Barda in the loth century) and Mongols. (See CAUCASIA, 
History; ARMENIA.) 

ALBANIA, a portion of the Turkish empire extending along 
the western littoral of the Balkan Peninsula from the southern 
frontier of Montenegro to the northern confines of Greece. 
Albania is perhaps the least-known region in Europe; and 
though more than a hundred years have passed since Gibbon 
described it as " a country within sight of Italy, which is less 
known than the interior of America," but little progress has 
yet been made towards a scientific knowledge of this interesting 
land and its inhabitants. The wild and inaccessible character 
of the country, the fierce and lawless disposition of the people, 
the difficulties presented by their language and their complex 
social institutions, and the inability of the Turkish authorities 
to afford a safe conduct in the remoter districts, combine to 
render Albania almost unknown to the foreign traveller, and 
many of its geographical problems still remain unsolved. A 
portion of the Mirdite region, the Mat district, the neighbourhood 
of Dibra. Jakova and Ipek and other localities have never been 



482 



ALBANIA 



thoroughly explored. The northern boundary of Albania under- 
went some alteration in consequence of the enlargement of 
Montenegro, sanctioned by the Berlin Treaty (July 13, 1878); 
owing to subsequent arrangements providing for the cession 
of Dulcigno to Montenegro (November 25, 1880) in exchange 
for the districts of Plava and Gusinye, restored to Turkey, the 
frontier-line (finally settled December 1884) now ascends the 
Boyana from its mouth to Lake Sass (Shas), thence passes north- 
ward, and crossing Lake Scutari separates the district of Kutch 
Krama on the N. from the territories of the Gruda, Hot and 
Klement tribes on the S.; leaving Gusinye and Plava to the 
S.E., it turns to the N.W. on reaching the Mokra Planina, and 
then follows the course of the Tara river. On the S., Albanian 
territory was curtailed owing to the acquisition of the Arta 
district by Greece (May 1881), the river Arta now forming the 
frontier. On the E. the chains of Shar, Grammes and Pindus 
constitute a kind of natural boundary, which does not, however, 
coincide with ethnical limits nor with the Turkish administrative 
divisions. North-eastern Albania forms part of the Turkish 
vilayet of Kossovo; the northern highlands are included in the 
vilayet of Shkodra (Scutari), the eastern portion of central 
Albania belongs to the vilayet of Monastir, and the southern 
districts are comprised in the vilayet of lannina. The boundaries 
of the three last-named vilayets meet near Elbassan. The name 
Albania (in the Tosk dialect Arberia, in the Gheg Arbenia), like 
Albania in the Caucasus, Armenia, Albany in Britain, and 
Auvergne (Arvenia) in France, is probably connected with the 
root alb, alp, and signifies " the white or snowy uplands." 

Physical Features. The mountain system is extremely com- 
plex, especially that of the northern region. On the E. the great 
Shar range, extending in a south-westerly direction from the 
neighbourhood of Prishtina to that of Dibra, is continued towards 
the S. by the ranges of Grammos and Pindus; the entire chain, 
a prolongation of the Alpine systems of Bosnia and Dalmatia, 
may be described as the backbone of the peninsula; it forms 
the watershed between the Aegean and the Adriatic, and cul- 
minates in the lofty peak of Liubotrn, near Kalkandele, one 
of the highest summits in south-eastern Europe (8858 ft.). The 
country to the west of this natural barrier may be divided 
geographically into three districts northern, central and 
southern Albania. The river Shkumb separates the northern 
from the central district, the Viossa the central from the southern. 
The highland region of northern Albania is divided into two 
portions by the lower course of the Drin; the mountains of 
the northern portion, the Bieska Malziis, extend in a confused 
and broken series of ridges from Scutari to the valleys of the 
Ibar and White Drin; they comprise the rocky group of the 
Prokletia, or Accursed Mountains, with their numerous ramifica- 
tions, including Mount Velechik, inhabited by the Kastrat and 
Shkrel tribes, Bukovik by the Hot, Golesh by the Klement, 
Skulsen (7533 ft.), Baba Vrkh (about 73036 ft.), Maranay near 
Scutari, and the Bastrik range to the east. South of the Drin 
is another complex mountain system, including the highlands 
inhabited by the Mirdites and the Mat tribe; among the principal 
summits are Deia Mazzuklit, Mal-i Vels, Kraba, Toli and Mnela. 
Central Albania differs from the northern and southern regions 
in the more undulating and less rugged character of its surface; 
it contains considerable lowland tracts, such as the wide and 
fertile plain of Musseki, traversed by the river Simen. The 
principal summit is Tomor (7916 ft.), overhanging the town of 
Berat. Southern Albania, again, is almost wholly mountainous, 
with the exception of the plains of lannina and Arta; the most 
noteworthy feature is the rugged range of the Tchika, or Khimara 
mountains, which skirt the sea-coast from south-west to north- 
east, terminating in the lofty promontory of Glossa (ancient 
Acroceraunia) . Farther inland the Mishkeli range to the north- 
east of Lake lannina and the Nemertzika mountains run in a 
parallel direction. In the extreme south, beyond the basin of 
the Kalamas, the mountains of Suli and Olyzika form a separate 
group. The rivers, as a rule, flow from east to west; owing to 
the rapidity of their descent none are navigable except the 
Boyana and Arta in their lower courses. The principal rivers 



are the Boyana, issuing from Lake Scutari, and consequently 
regarded as a continuation of the Montenegrin Moratcha, the 
Drin, formed by the confluence of the White and Black Drin, 
which, flowing respectively to the south and north through a long 
valley at the foot of the Shar range, take a westerly direction 
after their junction, the Matia, the Arzen, the Shkumb (ancient 
Genusos), the Simen (Apsos), formed by the junction of the Devol 
and Ergene, the Viossa (Adus), which owing to the trend of the 
Khimara range takes a north-westerly direction, the Kalamas 
(Thyamis) and the Arta (Arachthos), flowing south into the 
Ambracian Gulf. A portion of the stream of the Drin has found 
its way into the Boyana channel; the result has been a rise in 
the level of Lake Scutari and the inundation of the adjacent 
lowlands. A proposal to confine the Drin to its former course 
by means of a dyke, and to ease the downflow of the Boyana 
by a canal opening navigation to Lake Scutari, has long been 
considered by the Turkish authorities. The great lakes of 
Scutari (135 sq. m.) and Ochrida (107 sq. m.) are among the 
most beautiful in Europe; the waters of Ochrida, which find 
an outlet in the Black Drin, are of marvellous clearness. Lake 
Malik, south by east of Ochrida, is drained by the Devol. The 
waters of the picturesque Lake lannina (24 sq. m.) find an issue 
by kaiabothra, or underground channels, into the Ambracian 
Gulf. The lake of Butrinto (Buthrotum) is near the sea-coast 
opposite Corfu. 

Climate. The climate is healthy in the uplands, though sub- 
ject to violent changes; in the valleys fever is very prevalent, 
especially in the basins of the Boyana, the lower Drin and the 
Simen. The winter is short, but exceedingly cold; snow 
remains on the Prokletia and other mountains till August, and 
sometimes throughout the year. The summer temperature in 
the plains is that of southern Italy; in the mountain districts 
it is high during the day, but falls almost to freezing-point at 
night. The sea-coast is exposed to the fierce bora, or north wind, 
during the spring. 

Natural Products. The mountains of Albania are said to be 
rich in minerals, but this source of wealth remains practically 
unexplored. Iron and coal are probably abundant, and silver- 
lead, copper and antimony are believed to exist. Gold mines 
were worked in antiquity in the Drin valley, and silver mines in 
the Mirdite region were known to the Venetians in the middle 
ages. At Selinitza, near Avlona, there is a remarkable deposit 
of mineral pitch which was extensively worked in Roman times; 
mining operations are still carried on here, but in a somewhat 
primitive fashion. The splendid forests, of which there are 
70,000 acres in the vilayet of Scutari alone, are undergoing a 
rapid process of destruction, as in other lands under Turkish 
rule. The principal trees are the oak, the valonia oak, the beech, 
ash, elm, plane, celtis, poplar and walnut, which give way in 
the higher regions to the pine and fir. The oak forests near 
Dibra, where charcoal-making is a considerable industry, and 
the beech-woods of the Prishtina district, are especially remark- 
able. The sumach is largely grown in the Mirdite district; its 
leaves are exported to Trieste for use in tanneries and dyeworks. 
In 1898 the export of valonia was estimated at 11,200, of 
sumach at 2400. Of fnuit-trees the white mulberry, cherry 
and wild pear are plentiful; the chestnut and walnut are some- 
times met with, and the olive is grown in the lowland and 
maritime districts. The exportation of olive oil in 1898 was 
valued at 24,000. The greater part of the country is admirably 
suited to viticulture, and wine of tolerable quality is produced. 
Tobacco is grown extensively in southern Albania, especially 
near Berat and in the upper valley of the Viossa, but the quantity 
exported is small. The means of subsistence are mainly provided 
by the cultivation of grain and cattle-rearing. Notwithstanding 
the primitive condition of agriculture, the deficiency of com- 
munications and the damage caused by frequent inundation 
Albania furnishes almost the entire corn supply of the Dalmat 
coast and islands. Maize is the favourite grain for home con- 
sumption, but considerable quantities of this cereal, as well as 
barley, rye and oats are exported. The total export of cereals 
in 1898 was valued at 70,800. Sheep and goats form almost 



ALBANIA 



483 



the only wealth of the mountaineers of northern Albania; 
large cattle are found only on the plains. The slopes of Pindus 
afford excellent pasture for the flocks of the Vlach shepherds. 
The export of raw hides and wool is considerable; in 1898 these 
commodities were valued respectively at 90,400 and 24,000. 
The lakes and rivers of Albania abound in fish. The scoranze 
(Alb. seraga), a kind of sardine, is taken in great quantities in 
Lake Scutari; it is salted and smoked for home consump- 
tion and exportation. Sea-fishing is almost wholly neglected. 
There are salines at Avlona and other places on the coast. 

Commerce and Industries. The exports in 1898 were estimated 
at 480,000, the imports at 1,360,000, the former comprising 
agricultural produce, live stock, hides, wool, cheese, eggs, 
poultry, olive oil, valonia, sumach leaves, timber, skins of wild 
animals, silk, tobacco and salted fish, the latter manufactured 
articles, cloth, hardware, furniture, firearms, gunpowder, sugar, 
coffee, &c. The monopoly of Albanian commerce formerly 
possessed by Venice has descended to Austria-Hungary; the 
trade with other countries, except Italy, is inconsiderable. 
Owing to the poverty of the people, cheap Austrian goods find 
a readier sale than the more expensive and solid British manu- 
factures. The maritime traffic is largely conducted by the 
steamers of the subsidized Austrian-Lloyd company, Trieste 
being the principal commercial centre; the coasting trade is 
carried on by small Greek and Turkish sailing vessels. The 
trade of the northern and western districts has to some extent 
been diverted to Salonica since the opening of the railways from 
that town to Mitrovitza and Monastir. The development of 
commerce is retarded by lack of communications; the country 
possesses no railways and few roads. Several railway lines have 
been projected, but there is no great probability of their con- 
struction under existing political conditions. The Via Egnatia, 
the great Roman highway to the east, is still used; it runs from 
Durazzo (Dyrrhachium) to Elbassan and Ochrida. lannina is 
connected by carriage-roads with Monastir, Agii Saranta and 
Preveza. As a rule, however, bridle-paths supply the only means 
of communication. The native industries are inconsiderable, 
and many of them are in a languishing condition. The manu- 
facture of highly ornate firearms, yataghans and other weapons 
at Scutari, Jakova and Prizren has declined, owing to the im- 
portation of modern rifles and revolvers. Gold and silk em- 
broidery, filigree work, morocco and richly-braided jackets 
are produced for home use and for sale in Bosnia, Macedonia 
and Montenegro. 

Population. The population of Albania may be estimated 
at between 1,600,000 and 1,500,000, of whom 1,200,000 or 
1,100,000 are Albanians. Of the other races the Slavs (Serbs 
and Bulgars) are the most numerous, possibly numbering 250,000. 
Servian settlements exist in various parts of northern Albania; 
there is a strong Bulgarian colony in the neighbourhood of Dibra 
and Ochrida; farther south, Mount Zygos and the Pindus 
range the " Great Walachia " of the middle ages are in- 
habited by Vlachs or Tzintzars, who possibly number 70,000. 
Some Turkish colonies are also found in the south-eastern 
districts. There is a considerable Greek-speaking population 
in Epiros (including many Mahommedan Albanians), which 
must, however, be distinguished from the genuine Greeks of 
lannina, Preveza and the extreme south; these may be esti- 
mated at 100,000. The population of the vilayet of Scutari 
is given as 237,000, that of the vilayet of lannina as 552,000. 
The principal towns are Scutari (Albanian Shkoder, with the 
definite article Shkodr-a), the capital of the vilayet of that name, 
pop. 32,000; Prizren, 30,000; lannina (often incorrectly 
written loannina), capital of the southern vilayet, 22,000; 
Jakova, 12,000; Dibra, 15,000; Prishtina, 11,000; Ipek 
(Slav. Fetch), 15,000; Berat, 15,000; Ochrida, 11,000; Tirana, 
12,000; Argyrokastro, 11,000; Kortcha (Slav. Goritza), 10,000; 
Elbassan (perhaps ancient Albanopolis) , 8000; Metzovo, 7500; 
Preveza, 6500; Avlona, 6000; Durazzo, 5000; Parga, 5000; 
Butrinto, 2000; and Kroi'a, the ancient fortress of Scanderbeg, 
5000. All these, except Elbassan, Metzovo and Kro'ia, are 
described in separate articles. 



oescr 



The Albanians are apparently the most ancient race in south- 
eastern Europe. History and legend afford no record of their 
arrival in the Balkan Peninsula. They are probably the descend- 
ants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were represented in 
historical times by the kindred Illyrians, Macedonians and 
Epirots; the Macedonians and Epirots are believed by Hahn 
to have formed the core of the pre-Hellenic Tyrrheno-Pelasgian 
population which inhabited the southern portion of the penin- 
sula and extended its limits to Thrace and Italy. The Illyrians 
were also " Pelasgian," but in a wider sense. Of these cognate 
races, which are described by the Greek writers as barbarous 
or non-Hellenic, the Illyrians and Epirots, he thinks, were re- 
spectively the progenitors of the Ghegs, or northern, and the 
Tasks, or southern, Albanians. The Via Egnatia, which Strabo 
(vii. fragment 3) describes as forming the boundary between the 
Illyrians and Epirots, practically corresponds with the course 
of the Shkumb, which now separates the Ghegs and the Tosks. 
The same geographer (v. 2. 221) states that the Epirots were also 
called Pelasgians; the Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at Dodona 
(Homer, II. xvi. 234), and the neighbourhood of the sanctuary 
was called Pelasgia (Herodotus ii. 56). The meaning of the 
term " Pelasgian " is, however, too obscure to furnish a basis 
for ethnographical speculation; in the time of Herodotus it 
may have already come to denote a period rather than a race. 
The name Task is possibly identical with Tuscus, Etruscus, 
while the form Tyrrhenus perhaps survives in Tirana. The large 
number of Slavonic local names in Albania, even in districts 
where no trace of a Slavonic population exists, bears witness 
to the extensive Servian and Bulgarian immigrations in the 
early middle ages, but the original inhabitants gradually ousted 
or assimilated the invaders. The determination with which 
this remarkable race has maintained its mountain stronghold 
through a long series of ages has hitherto met with scant ap- 
preciation in the outside world. While the heroism of the 
Montenegrins has been lauded by writers of all countries, the 
Albanians if we except Byron's eulogy of the Suloits still 
remain unsung. Not less noticeable is the tenacity with which 
isolated fragments of the nationhavepreservedtheirpeculiarchar- 
acteristics, language, customs and traditions. The Albanians 
in Greece and Italy, though separated for six centuries from the 
parent stock, have not yet been absorbed by the surrounding 
populations. 

The Albanians, both Ghegs and Tosks, call themselves Shkii- 
petar, and their land Shkupenia or Shkilperia, the former being 
the Gheg, the latter the Tosk form of the word. Shkilpetar has 
been variously interpreted. According to Hahn it is a parti- 
cipial from shkyipoij, " I understand," signifying " he who 
knows " the native language; others interpret it with less 
probability as " the rock-dweller," from shkep, shkip, N. Alb. 
shkamp, "rock." The designations Arber (Gr. 'Ap/SaJ'trr/j, 
Turk. Arnaout), denoting the people, and Arbenia or Arberia, 
the land, are also, though less frequently, used by the Albanians. 
A district near Kroia is locally known as Arbenia; the Tosk 
form Arberia strictly applies only to the mountain region near 
Avlona. The region inhabited by a more or less homogeneous 
Albanian population may be roughly marked out by a line 
drawn from the Montenegrin frontier at Berane to Mitrovitza 
and the Servian frontier near Vranya; thence to Uskiib, Prilep, 
Monastir, Fiorina, Kastoria, lannina and Parga. These limits, 
however, are far from including all the members of a widely 
scattered race. The Albanians in Greece, whose settlements 
extend over Attica, Boeotia, the district of Corinth and the 
Argolid peninsula, as well as southern Euboea and the islands 
of Hydra, Spetzae, Poros and Salamis, descend from Tosk 
immigrants in the i4th century. They played a brilliant part 
in the War of Independence (1821-1829), and to-day supply the 
Greek army with its best soldiers. They were estimated by 
Leake at 200,000. A large number still speak the Albanian 
language; many of the older men, and a considerable proportion 
of the women, even in the neighbourhood of Athens, are ignorant 
of Greek. The Albanian settlements in southern Italy and 
Sicily were founded in 1444, 1464 and 1468; minor immigrations 



ALBANIA 



followed in the three succeeding centuries. In southern Italy 
there are 72 Albanian communes, with 154,674 inhabitants; in 
Sicily 7 communes, with 52,141 inhabitants. The Italian and 
Sicilian Albanians are of Tosk descent, and many of them still 
speak a variation of the Tosk dialect. There are also several 
Albanian settlements in European Turkey and Asia Minor, some 
founded by military colonists who received grants of land from 
successive sultans, others owing their origin to enforced migra- 
tions after insurrections in Albania. The only genuine division 
of the Albanian race is that of Ghegs and Tosks; the Liaps, 
who inhabit the district between the Viossa and the sea, and 
the Tshams or Chams, who occupy the coast-land south of the 
Kalamas, are subdivisions of the Tosk family. The name Gheg 
(Ggg-a) is not adopted by the Ghegs themselves, being regarded 
as a nickname; the designation Tosk (Toskg-a) is restricted by 
the Tosks to the inhabitants of a small region north of the lower 
Viossa (Toskeria). 

National Characteristics. While the other primitive popu- 
lations of the peninsula were either hellenized or latinized, 
or subsequently absorbed by the Slavonic immigration, the 
Albanians to a great extent remained unaffected by foreign 
influences. Retaining their original language and preserving 
the customs and institutions of remote antiquity, they present 
a distinct type, and differ in many essential particulars from the 
other nations of the peninsula. The Ghegs especially, not- 
withstanding their fierce and lawless character, their super- 
stition, ignorance and predatory propensities, possess some 
noteworthy qualities rarely found in eastern Europe: simple, 
brave, faithful, and sometimes capable of devoted attachment, 
these wild mountaineers make excellent soldiers and trustworthy 
retainers; they have long furnished a bodyguard to the sultan 
and, like the Tosks, are much employed as kavasses and attend- 
ants at foreign embassies and consulates in the East. The native 
disposition of the Tosks has been modified by intercourse with 
the Greeks and Vlachs; while the Gheg devotes his attention 
exclusively to fighting, robbery and pastoral pursuits, the Tosk 
occasionally occupies himself with commercial, industrial or 
agricultural employments; the Gheg is stern, morose and 
haughty, the Tosk lively, talkative and affable. The natural 
antipathy between the two sections of the race, though less 
evident than in former times, is far from extinct. In all parts 
of Albania the vendetta (gyak,jak) or blood-feud, the primitive 
lex talionis, is an established usage; the duty of revenge is a 
sacred tradition handed down to successive generations in the 
family, the village and the tribe. A single case of homicide 
often leads to a series of similar crimes or to protracted warfare 
between neighbouring families and communities; the murderer, 
as a rule, takes refuge in the mountains from the avenger of blood, 
or remains for years shut up in his house. It is estimated that 
in consequence of these feuds scarcely 75% of the population 
in certain mountainous districts die a natural death. A truce 
(bessa, literally " faith," " pledge "), either temporary or per- 
manent, is sometimes arranged by mediation, or among the 
Ghegs, by the intervention of the clergy; a general bessa has 
occasionally been proclaimed by special irade of the sultan, the 
restoration of peace being celebrated with elaborate ceremonies. 
So stringent are the obligations of hospitality that a household 
is bound to exact reparation for any injury done to a guest as 
though he were a member of the family. No traveller can 
venture into the mountain districts without the bessa of one 
of the inhabitants; once this has been obtained he will be 
hospitably welcomed. In some districts there is a fixed price of 
blood; at Argyrokastro, for instance, the compensation paid 
by the homicide to the relatives of his victim is 1200 piastres 
(about 10), at Khimara 2000 piastres; once the debt has been 
acquitted amicable relations are restored. Notwithstanding 
their complete subjection, women are treated with a certain 
respect, and are often employed as intermediaries in the settle- 
ment of feuds; a woman may traverse a hostile district without 
fear of injury, and her bessa will protect the traveller or the 
stranger. Women accompany their male relatives to the battle- 
field for the purpose of tending the wounded and carrying away 



the dead. The bride brings no dowry to her husband; she is 
purchased at a stipulated price, and earnest-money is paid at 
the betrothal, which usually takes place while the contracting 
parties are still children. It is customary for young men who 
are attached to each other to swear eternal brotherhood (com- 
pare the Slavonic pobratimstvo); the contract is regarded as 
sacred, and no instance has been known of its violation. The 
costume of the Tosks differs from that of the Ghegs; its dis- 
tinctive feature is the white plaited linen fustanella or petticoat, 
which has been adopted by the Greeks; the Ghegs wear trews 
of white or crimson native cloth adorned with black braid, and 
a short, close-fitting jacket, which in the case of wealthy persons 
is embellished with gold lace. The fez is worn by both races, 
and in the northern highlands yataghans and firearms are almost 
invariably carried. The costume of the Mirdite and Mat tribes 
is peculiar. It consists of a white felt cap, a long white tunic 
bound with a red girdle, white linen trousers and opinki, or 
sandals. 

Tribal System. The tribal organization in northern Albania 
is an interesting survival of the earliest form of social combina- 
tion; it may be compared in many respects with that which 
existed in the Scottish highlands in the time of the Stuart kings. 
The practical autonomy which the Gheg mountaineers enjoy has 
been won by a prolonged and successful resistance to Turkish 
domination; as a rule they pay no taxes, they are exempt from 
the conscription, they know nothing of the Ottoman law, and the 
few Turkish officials established amongst them possess no real 
authority. Their only obligation to the Turkish government is to 
furnish a contingent in time of war; the only law they recognize 
is either traditional custom (a<f<?/) or the unwritten Kanun-i Leks 
Dukajinil, a civil and criminal code, so called from its author, 
Leka Dukajini, who is supposed to have lived in the I3th or I4th 
century. The tribe or mat (" mountain ") is often composed of 
several clans (phis-i, phdrea)oi baryaks (literally " standards ") 
each under a chief or baryaktar (standard-bearer), who is, strictly 
speaking, a military leader; there are in each clan a certain 
number of elders or voi'vodes (Albanian kru-ye, pi. krene-le) who 
form a council and, like the baryaktar, hold their office by 
hereditary right; they preside over the assemblies of the tribes- 
men, which exercise the supreme legislative power. The clan is 
generally subdivided into smaller communities (mahale), each 
administered by a local notable oijobar. The jobars superintend 
the execution of the laws, collect fines and administer capital 
punishment; they are in contact with the buluk-bashi, or resident 
representative of the tribe at Scutari, who forms the only link 
between the mountaineers and the Turkish government. He 
communicates to the tribesmen the orders of the vali, which must 
be framed in accordance with their customs and institutions. 
The tribes of northern Albania, or Ghegeria, may be classified in 
seven groups as follows: (i) The Mirdites, who inhabit the 
alpine region around Orosh to the south-east of Scutari the most 
important of all in respect of numbers (about 1 7,000) and political 
independence. A Roman Catholic tribe, occupying an inaccess- 
ible district, they have hitherto defeated every effort of the 
Turks to encroach on their autonomy. Their hereditary chiefs, 
or capidans, belong to the family known as Der a e Jon Markut 
(the house of John Marco), which has ruled for 200 years and is 
supposed to be descended from Scanderbeg. In 1868 the reign- 
ing chief, Bib Doda, died, and his son and successor Prenk was 
detained as a hostage by the Turks. The Mirdites consequently 
refused to contribute their customary contingent to the Turkish 
army, and eventually Prenk was restored. His ambiguous con- 
duct, however, led to the despatch of two expeditions against 
the Mirdites and the devastation of their territory. In 1880 
Prenk was kidnapped by the Turkish authorities and exiled to 
Anatolia; another member of the ruling family was appointed 
kaimakam, but the Mirdites refused to obey him, and their 
district has ever since been in a state of anarchy. No Moslem is 
allowed to remain in Mirdite territory. (2) The Mi-shkodrak 
(Upper Scutari) group or confederation, also known as the 
Malsia-Madhe (Great Highlands), is composed of the Klement, 
Grud-a, Hot, Kastrat and Shkrel tribes, which occupy the 



ALBANIA 



mountainous district north-east of Scutari. Owing to the proxi- 
mity of the capital this group is comparatively subject to the 
Turkish power, and pays a small annual tribute; the chiefs, who 
assess and collect the tribute, form a kind of administrative 
council; the confederation has also an official representative 
council at Scutari, called the Jibal, under the presidency of a 
Serkarde or Moslem official. (3) The Dukajin, whose territory 
lies between that of the last-named group and the district of 
Jakova, include the Pulati, Shalla, Shoshi and other tribes; they 
are more independent and more savage than the Mi-shko'drak 
and have never paid tribute from time immemorial. (4) The 
Puka group, known as " the Seven Baryaks of Puka," dwell on 
the south side of the river Drin; they are nominally administered 
by a Turkish kaimakam, who is a mere spectator of their pro- 
ceedings. (5) The Malsia Jakovs, a group of two Catholic and 
three Moslem tribes, extend in the direction of Jakova, where they 
maintain an official representative; they are entirely exempt 
from taxation. (6,7) The Malsia-Lezhs, who occupy the Alessio 
highlands, and the Malsia Krues, who inhabit the region north of 
Kroia, live in a state of extreme poverty and pay no tribute; the 
Malsia Krues are much addicted to brigandage. To these seven 
groups, which are included under the general appellation of 
Malissori, or " highlanders," may be added the Malsia of Dibra 
who extend to the west and north of that town, and form a large 
separate group; they are notorious for their fierce lawless 
:haracter, and maintain themselves by plundering the Bulgarian 
peasants in their neighbourhood. In general the attitude of the 
Albanians in the north-eastern districts towards the Slavonic 
peasantry may be compared with that of the Kurds towards the 
Armenians. In the region east of Kroia the Mat tribe which 
iccupies the upper valley of the Matia, presents an entirely 
'ifferent organization; their district is governed by four wealthy 
.mihes, possessing hereditary rank and influence. Towards the 
>uth the tribal organization becomes looser and is gradually 
ipplanted by a kind of feudal system; among the powerful 
istocratic houses may be mentioned the Vh'ores at Avlona who 
;e stated to own over 150 sq. m. of land, and the Toptans at 
The principal landowners, who reside in fortified houses 
.re all Moslems; their estates are cultivated on the metayer 
item. Since the time of All Pasha, who broke the power of the 
chieftains, southern Albania has been subject to the central 
kish power; before that period the mountaineers of Suli and 
umara enjoyed an independence similar to that of the Ghee 
ibes. 

Religions The great majority of the Albanians, probably 
lore than three-fifths, are Moslems. The conversion of the 
hnstian population to Islam appears to have taken place during 
le 1 6th and 1 7 th centuries. Like the Cretan Moslems and the 
lulganan Pomaks, the Albanian Mahommedans retain many 
Christian traditions and customs; it is said that many thousands 
them secretly adhere to their original faith. In the vilayet of 
ptan they form about 55% of the population; central Albania 
almost entirely Moslem; in southern Albania, however there 
a considerable Christian population, whose limits practically 
pmcide with those of the Greek-speaking districts Of the 
stian population (about 600,000), some 1 10,000 are Roman 
tholic Ghegs, some 90,000 are Orthodox Tosks, and some 
400000 are Orthodox Slavs, Greeks and Vlachs. The Roman 
tholic Ghegs appear to have abandoned the Eastern for the 
/estern Church in the middle of the i 3 th century. Their bishops 
nd priests, who wear the moustache in deference to popular 
Tejudice, are typical specimens of the church militant. Some of 
Gheg tribes, such as the Puka, Malsia Jakovs and Malsia 
ies, are partly Roman Catholic, partly Moslem; among fellow- 
imen the difference of religion counts for little. The Mirdites 
exclusively Roman Catholic, the Mat-i exclusively Moslem 
e head of the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the archbishops 
cutan (with three suffragans), Prizren and Durazzo; the 
mitred abbot of St Alexander is the spiritual chief of the Mirdites. 
Orthodox Church has metropolitans at Prizren, Durazzo 
at, lannma and Kortcha; the Bulgarian exarchate maintains 
a bishop at Dibra. Of the Albanians in Sicily the great inajSy 



485 



(44,79i) remain faithful to the Greek Church; in Italy 116482 
follow the Latin ritual, and 38, 192 the Greek. All the Albanians 
m Greece belong to the Orthodox Church. 

Education. Education is almost non-existent, and the vast 
majority of the population, both Christian and Moslem are 
totally lUiterate Instruction in the Albanian language is pro- 
hibited by the Turkish government for political reasons a 
smgle.exception has been made in the case of an American school 
for girls at Kortcha. There are Turkish primary and secondary 
schools in some of the towns; in the village mosques instruction 
m the Koran is given by the imams, but neither reading nor 
writing is taught. The aristocratic Moslem families send their 
sons to be educated in Constantinople or Vienna. At Scutari 
a college and a seminary are maintained by the Jesuits with 
aid of the Austrian government; the Franciscans have 
several primary schools, and three lay schools are supported 
by the Italian government; in all these institutions Italian 
is the language of instruction. Thereare two Servian seminaries 
at Prizren In southern Albania there are Greek schools in the 
towns and a large Greek gymnasium at lannina. The priests 
of the Greek Church, on whom the rural population depend 
for instruction, are often deplorably ignorant. The merchant 
families of lannma are well educated; the dialect spoken in that 
town is the purest specimen of colloquial Greek. 

Language. Albanian is peculiarly interesting as the onlv 
surviving representative of the so-called Thraco-Illyrian group 
of languages which formed the primitive speech of the peninsula 
: has afforded an attractive study to philologists, amongst 
whom may be mentioned Malte-Brun, Leake, Xylander, Hahn 
Miklosich and G. Meyer. The analysis of the language presents 
great difficulties, as, owing to the absence of literary monuments 
no certainty can be arrived at with regard to its earlier forms 
and later development. The groundwork, so far as it can be 
ascertained, and the grammar are Indo-European, but a large 
number of words have been borrowed from the Latin or Italian 
and Greek, and it is not always easy to decide whether the 
mutilated and curtailed forms now in use represent adopted 
words or belong to the original vocabulary. There is also a 
considerable admixture of Turkish and Slavonic words Not- 
withstanding certain points of resemblance in structure and 
phonetics, Albanian is entirely distinct from the neighbouring 
languages; m its relation to early Latin and Greek it may be 
regarded as a co-ordinate member of the Aryan stock It 
possesses seven vowels; among the consonants are the aspirated 
d and t as in Greek, and many other sounds, such as b, d, sh, zh 
trench j), and hard g, which are wanting in Greek, but exist in 
the Slavonic languages. There are three declensions, each with 
a definite and indefinite form; the genitive, dative and ablative 
are usually represented by a single termination; the vocative 
is formed by a final o, as memmo from memme, " mother " 
The neuter gender is absent. There are two conjugations- the 
passive formation, now wanting inmostlndo-European languages 
has been retained, as in Greek; thus kerko-iy, " I seek," forms 

hovhn na ,-,,. ii T _ 1 , * .,.i 






11 ,, , "" .ivxr in/-_y J. SCCK. lOrHlS 

kerko-n-em "I am sought." The infinitive is not found- ; 
in Greek, Rumanian and Bulgarian, it is replaced by the sub- 
junctive with a particle. The two auxiliary verbs are Mm 
I have and y&m, I am." An interesting and characteristic 
feature of the language is the definite article, which is attached 

X?% end Jl the , VfOTd / < e - g - mik (" fri id," amicus), mik-u 
(the friend;' ; kun ("dog"), kien-i; Shkumb, Shkumb-i 
1 he suffix-article likewise appears in Rumanian and Bulgarian 
but in no other Latin or Slavonic language; it is in each case 
iorm of the demonstrative pronoun. Another remarkable 
analogy between the Albanian and the neighbouring languages 
is found m the formation of the future; the Albanian do (<rd 
pers. sing of dova, "I will"), like the Greek W, is prefixed 
without change to all persons of the verb: a similar usage in 
Servian and Bulgarian, as well as in Rumanian (especially the 
Macedonian dialect) , is peculiar to these languages in the Slavonic 
and Latin groups. These and other points of similarity, possibly 
only accidental, have led to the conjecture that the primitive 
Lllynan language may have exerted some kind of influence on 



4 86 



ALBANIA 



the other idioms of the peninsula. In the absence of literary 
culture the Albanian dialects, as might be expected, are widely 
divergent; the limits of the two principal dialects correspond 
with the racial boundaries of the Ghegs and Tosks, who under- 
stand each other with difficulty; the Albanians in Greece and 
Italy have also separate dialects. In writing Albanian the Latin 
character is employed by the Ghegs, the Greek by the Tosks; 
neither alphabet suffices to represent the manifold sounds of the 
language, and various supplementary letters or distinguishing 
signs are necessary. In the use of these no uniform system has 
yet been adopted. An alphabet of fifty-two letters, some pre- 
senting ancient Phoenician and Cretan forms, was found by 
Hahn in partial use at Elbassan and Tirana; its antiquity, 
however, has not been established. The Tosks generally use the 
Greek language for written communications. The native folk- 
lore and poetry of the Albanians can hardly compare with that 
of the neighbouring nations in originality and beauty. The 
earliest printed works in Albanian are those of the Catholic 
missionaries; the first book containing specimens of the language 
was the Dictionarium Latino- Epiroticum of Bianchi, printed in 
1635. The literature of the last two centuries consists mainly 
of translations and religious works written by ecclesiastics, 
some of whom were natives of the Albanian colonies in Italy. 
The most noteworthy Albanian writer was Girolamo di Rada 
(b. 1815), a poet, philologist and collector of national folklore. 
Among his successors may be mentioned Vincenzo Dorsa and 
Demetrio Camarda. 

Antiquities. Albania abounds in ancient remains, which as 
yet have been little explored. Fragments of " Cyclopean " 
structures were discovered by Hahn at Kretzunista, Arinista, 
and other sites in the district of Argyrokastro; the walls, partly 
" Cyclopean," of an ancient city (perhaps Bullis) are visible 
at Gradisti on the Viossa. Masonry of this type, however, 
occurring in Illyria and Dalmatia (e.g. at Spalato and on the 
island of Lesina) has been shown by modern archaeologists 
to belong to the Roman period. In general, the remains of the 
classical epoch attest the influence of Roman rather than of 
Greek civilization. At Pollina, the ancient Apollonia, are the 
remnants of a Doric temple, of which a single column is still 
standing. A little north of Preveza are the considerable ruins 
of Nikopolis, founded by Octavian to commemorate the victory 
of Actium. At Khimara (anc. Chimaera) the remains of an 
old Greek city may still be seen; at Santi Quaranta (anc. 
Onchesmos) the walls and towers of a later town are in good 
preservation. Few traces remain of the once celebrated Dyr- 
rhachium. The ruins of Pandosia, Ephyra, Elatea, Phoenike, 
Buthrotum, Akrolissos and other towns may be identified. 
The most important and interesting remains, however, are those 
of Dodona (q.v.). Of the medieval ruins those of Kroia, the 
stronghold of Scanderbeg, are the most interesting. 

Medieval History. After the division of the Roman empire, 
the lands inhabited by the Albanian race became provinces of the 
Byzantine empire; northern Albania from Scutari to Berat 
formed the thema or province of Dyrrachium (Durazzo, Albanian 
Dourtz), southern Albania and Epirus the thema of Nikopolis. 
The country was overrun by the Goths in the 4th and sth cen- 
turies, but reconquered by Justinian in 535. In 640 northern 
Albania was invaded by the Serbo-Croats; it continued with 
interruptions under Servian rule till 1360. In 861 the Bulgarians 
conquered the southern portion of the country and Epirus as far 
as Khimara; under their powerful tsar Simeon (893-927), who 
defeated the Servians, they established their rule on the Adriatic 
littoral, except at Durazzo, which remained Byzantine, and 
colonized these regions in great numbers. A new Bulgarian 
dynasty, that of Shishman, was founded at Ochrida after 
the death of Simeon. Shishman's son Samuel (976-1014) cap- 
tured Durazzo; he extended his sway over a great part of the 
Balkan Peninsula, but was eventually defeated in 1014 by the 
emperor Basil II., who put out the eyes of 15,000 Bulgarian 
prisoners. Southern Albania and Epirus fell once more under 
Byzantine rule, which, however, was shaken by numerous 
revolts. In 1081 the Normans under Robert Guiscard possessed 



themselves of Durazzo; Guiscard 's son Bohemund defeated the 
Greeks in several battles and again (1107) laid siege to Durazzo, 
which had been surrendered to them by treachery; failing to 
take the city, he retired to Italy in 1 109. Southern Albania and 
Epirus remained under Byzantine domination till 1204, when, 
after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, Michael 
Comnenus, a member of the imperial family, withdrew to Epirus 
and founded an independent sovereignty known as the Despotate 
of Epirus at lannina; his realm included the whole of southern 
Albania, Acarnania and Aetolia. The despotate of Epirus was 
held by the Comnenus family till 1318, and by princes of the 
house of Orsini till 1358. Meanwhile Durazzo, with Berat and 
Central Albania, had passed into the hands of the Sicilian kings 
of the house of Anjou, who ruled these regions, which they styled 
the " Kingdom of Albania," from 1271 to 1368, maintaining a 
constant warfare with the Byzantine emperors. The Servians 
again installed themselves in Upper Albania about 1180, and 
the provinces of Scutari and Prizren were ruled by kings of the 
house of Nemanya till 1360; Stefan Dushan (1331-1358), 
the greatest of these monarchs, included all Albania in his 
extensive but short-lived empire, and took the title of Imperator 
Romaniae Slawniae et Albaniae (emperor of the Greeks, Slavs 
and Albanians). 

Period of Native Rule. After the death of Dushan and the 
break-up of the Servian empire, a new epoch began when Albania 
fell under the rule of chieftains more or less of native origin. A 
portion of Upper Albania was ruled by the Balsha dynasty (1366- 
1421), which, though apparently Servian by descent, assimilated 
itself with its Albanian subjects and embraced the faith of Rome. 
Alessio and a tract of the interior in the direction of Ipek was 
governed by the Dukajin. The northern portion of the " king- 
dom of Albania," including Durazzo and Kroia, was ruled by the 
family of Thopia (1359-^1392) and afterwards by that of Kas- 
triota, to which Scanderbeg belonged; the southern portion with 
Berat, by the Musaki (1368-1476). In the middle of the i4th 
century a great migration of Albanians from the mountainous 
districts of the north took place, under the chiefs Jin Bua Spata 
and Peter Liosha; they advanced southwards as far as Acarnania 
and Aetolia (1358), occupied the greater portion of the despotate 
of Epirus, and took lannina and Arta. In the latter half of the 
century large colonies of Tosks were planted in the Morea by 
the despots of Mistra, and in Attica and Boeotia by Duke Nerio 
of Athens. As the power of the Balshas declined, the Venetians 
towards the close of the i4th century established themselves at 
Scutari, Budua, Antivari and elsewhere in northern Albania. 

Period of Turkish Ride. The advance of the Turks into 
Albania began with the capture of lannina in 1431. For once in 
the history of the country the Albanian chiefs combined against 
the invader under a single leader, the celebrated George Kastriota 
(see SCANDERBEG), who fought thirteen campaigns in the period 
1444-1466. In 1478 Kroia, which the Venetians had occupied 
after Scanderbeg's death, surrendered to Mahontmed II., and in 
1479 Scutari, after a memorable defence by the Venetians and 
their Montenegrin allies, was reduced by blockade. Many of 
its native Christian defenders emigrated to Dalmatia and Italy; 
others took refuge in the mountains with the Roman Catholic 
Ghegs. In 1502 the Turks captured Durazzo, and in 1571 
Antivari and Dulcigno, the last Venetian possessions in Albania. 
Notwithstanding the abandonment of Christianity by a large 
section of the population after the Turkish conquest, the 
authority of the sultans was never effectively established, and 
succeeding centuries present a record of interminable conflicts 
between the tribesmen and the Turks, between the Christians 
and the converts to Islam, or between all combined and the 
traditional Montenegrin enemy. The decline of the Ottoman 
power, which began towards the end of the i7th century, 
was marked by increasing anarchy and lawlessness in the 
outlying portions of the empire. About 1760 a Moslem 
chieftain, Mehemet of Bushat, after obtaining the pashalik of 
Scutari from the Porte, succeeded in establishing an almost 
independent sovereignty in Upper Albania, which remained 
hereditary in his family for some generations. In southern 






ALBANUS LACUS ALBANY 



487 



Albania AH Pasha of Tepelen (b. about 1750), an able, cruel and 
unscrupulous man, subdued the neighbouring pashas and chiefs, 
crushed the Suliotes and Khimarrhotes, and exercised a practi- 
cally independent sovereignty from the Adriatic to the Aegean. 
He introduced comparative civilization at lannina, his capital, 
and maintained direct relations with foreign powers. Eventually 
he renounced his allegiance to the sultan, but was overthrown by 
a Turkish army in 1822. Shortly afterwards the dynasty of 
Scutari came to an end with the surrender of Mustafa Pasha, the 
last of the house of Bushat, to the grand vizier Reshid Pasha, in 
1831. 

The opposition of the Albanians, Christian as well as Moslem, 
to the reforms introduced by the sultan Mahmud II. led to the 
devastation of the country and the expatriation of thousands of 
its inhabitants. During the next half-century several local 
revolts occurred, but no movement of a strictly political character 
took place till after the Berlin Treaty (July 13, 1878), when some 
of the Moslems and Catholics combined to resist the stipulated 
transference of Albanian territory to Austria-Hungary, Servia 
and Montenegro, and the Albanian League was formed by an 
assemblage of chiefs at Prizren. The movement, which was 
instigated by the Porte with the object of evading the provisions 
of the treaty, was so far successful that the restoration of Plava 
and Gusinye to Albania was sanctioned by the powers, Monte- 
negro receiving in exchange the town and district of Dulcigno. 
The Albanian leaders, however, soon displayed a spirit of inde- 
pendence, which proved embarrassing to Turkish diplomacy and 
caused alarm at Constantinople; their forces came into con- 
flict with a Turkish army under Dervish Pasha near Dulcigno 
(November 1880), and eventually the league was suppressed. A 
similar agitation on a smaller scale was organized in southern 
Albania to resist the territorial concessions awarded by the 
powers to Greece. In the spring of 1903 serious disturbances 
took place in north-western Albania, but the Turks succeeded in 
pacifying the revolted tribesmen, partly by force and partly by 
concessions. . These movements were far from displaying a 
genuinely national character. In recent years attempts have 
been made by Albanians resident abroad to propagate the 
national idea among their compatriots at home; committees 
have been formed at Brussels, Bucharest, Athens and elsewhere, 
and books, pamphlets and newspapers are surreptitiously sent 
into the country. Unity of aim and effort, however, seems 
foreign to the Albanians, except in defence of local or tribal 
privileges. The growth of a wider patriotic sentiment must 
depend on the spread of popular education; certainly up to 
1908 no appreciable progress had been made in this direction. 

AUTHORITIES. F. C. H. Pouqueville, Voyage de la Crete (Paris, 
1820); W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece (London, 1835); 
J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), Reise durch die 
Gebiete des Drin und Vardar (Vienna, 1867) ; F. Bopp, Cher das 
Albanesische (Berlin, 1854); J- P- Fallmerayer, Das albanesische 
Element in Griechenland (Munich, 1864); N. Camarda, Saggia di 
grammatologia comparata salla lingua albanese (Leghorn, 1865) ; 
Viscountess Strangford, The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic (London, 
1865) ; H. F. Tozer, Researches in the Highlands of Turkey (London, 
1869); F. Miklosich, Albanes. Forschungen (Vienna, 1870); C. Hopf, 
Chroniques greco-romaines inedites ou peu connues (Berlin, 1873); 
i. Hecquard, Histoire et description de la Haute Albanie ou Guegarie 
(Paris, undated) ; S. Gopchevich, Oberalbanien und seine iga(Leipzig, 
1881); F. Tajani, Le Istoria Albanesi (Salerno, 1886); G. Gelchich, 
La Zedda e la dinastia dei Balshi (Spalato, 1899); S. Larabros, 
]H dvonaroXoyia. rijs 'ArTt/ojs Kal 7} ds TI)V \wpav kicoliaiau T&V 'AX/Savwc, 
in the 'ETrtrripls TOV Uapixuraov (Athens, 1896); Theodore Ippen, 
' Beitrage zur inneren Geschichte der Turkei im 19. Jahrhundert 
speciell Albaniens," in the Osterreichisch- Ungarische Revue, vol. 
xxviii. ; A. Philippson, Thessalia und Epirus (Berlin, 1897). See also 
Murray's Greece, ed. 1900, pp. 720-731 and 760-814, and Blue-book 
Turkey, No. 15, Part ii., 1886. (J. D. B.) 

ALBANUS LACUS (mod. Lago di Albano), a lake about 12 m. 
S.E. of Rome. It is generally considered to have been formed 
by a volcanic explosion at the margin of the great crater of the 
Albanus Mons; it has the shape of a crater, the banks of which 
are over 400 ft. in height from the water-level, while the water is 
as much as 560 ft. deep in the S. portion. It is fed by subter- 
ranean springs. According to the legend, the emissarium (outlet) 
which still drains it was made in 398-397 B.C., the Delphic oracle 




having declared that Veii could only be taken when the waters 
of the lake reached the sea. It is over a mile in length, hewn in 
the rock, and about 6 ft. high and 4 ft. broad ; it has vertical shafts 
at intervals, and a sluice chamber at its egress from the lake. In 
the time of Domitian the whole lake belonged to the imperial 
domain. (See ALBA LONGA.) 

ALBANUS MONS (mod. Monte Cavo, from an early city of the 
name of Cabum? '), the highest point of the volcanic Alban 
hills, about 13 m. S.E. of Rome, 3115 ft. above sea-level. It is 
upon the line of the rim of the inner crater of the great volcano, 
while Tusculum and Algidus Mons mark the edge of the earlier 
outer crater, which was about 7 m. wide. The lakes of Albano 
and Nemi were probably formed by volcanic explosions at the 
margin of the great crater; though a view has also been expressed 
that the basins are the result of subsidence. The name Albanus 
Mons is also used generally of the Alban group of hills in which 
there seem to have been some remains of volcanic activity in 
early Roman times, which covered the early necropolis of Alba 
Longa, and occasionally produced showers of stones, e.g. in the 
time of Tullus Hostilius (Liv. i. 31), and perhaps much later. 
In 193 B.C. it is recorded (ib. xxxv. 9) that such a shower occurred 
at Aricia, Lanuvium and on the Aventine. Upon the Mons 
Albanus stood the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, where the annual 
festival of the Latin League was held. The foundations and 
some of the architectural fragments of the temple were still in 
existence until 1777, when they were used to build the Passionist 
monastery by Cardinal York. The road which ascended to the 
temple from the rim of the lake is still well preserved. 

ALBANY, DUKES OF. The territorial designation of Albany 
was formerly given to those parts of Scotland to the north of 
the firths of Clyde and Forth. The title of duke of Albany 
was first bestowed in 1398 by King Robert III. on his brother, 
Robert Stewart, earl of Fife (see I. below); but in 1425 it 
became extinct. The dukedom was re-created, c. 1458, in favour 
of Alexander Stewart, " lord of Annandale and earl of March " 
(see II. below), whose son and successor (see III. below) left no 
legitimate heir. The title of duke of Albany was next bestowed 
upon Henry Stuart, commonly known as Lord Darnley, by 
Mary, queen of Scots, in 1565. From him the title passed to 
his son, James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. The title 
was by him given, at his birth, to Charles, his second son, after- 
wards King Charles I. By Charles II. it was again bestowed, 
in 1660, on James, duke of York, afterwards King James II. 
On the sth of July 1716 Ernest Augustus, bishop of Osnaburgh 
[Osnabriick] (1715-1728), youngest brother of King George I., 
was created duke of York and Albany, the title becoming extinct 
on his death without heirs in 1728. On the ist of April 1760 
Prince Edward Augustus, younger brother of King George III., 
was created duke of York and Albany; he died without heirs on 
the i7th of September 1767. On the 29th of November 1784 
the title of duke of York and Albany was again created in favour 
of Frederick, second son of George III., who died without heirs 
on the 5th of January 1827. The title of duke of Albany was 
bestowed on the 24th of May 1881 on Prince Leopold, youngest 
son of Queen Victoria (see IV. below). 

I. ROBERT STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1345-1420), regent 
of Scotland, was a son of King Robert II. by his mistress, 
Elizabeth Mure, and was legitimatized when his parents were 
married about 1349. In 1361 he married Margaret, countess of 
Menteith, and after his widowed sister-in-law, Isabel, countess of 
Fife, had recognized him as her heir, he was known as the earl 
of Fife and Menteith. Taking an active part in the government 
of the kingdom, the earl was made high chamberlain of Scotland 
in 1382, and gained military reputation by leading several 
plundering expeditions into England. In 1389 after his elder 
brother John, earl of Carrick, had been incapacitated by an 
accident, and when his father the king was old and infirm, he 
was chosen governor of Scotland by the estates; and he retained 
the control of affairs after his brother John became king as Robert 
III. in 1390. In April 1398 he was created duke of Albany; 

1 See Th. Mommsen in Bulletino dell' Istituto (1861), 206; Corpus 
Inscrip. Lot. (Berlin, 1887), xiv. 2228. 



ALBANY, DUKES OF 



but in the following year his nephew David, duke of Rothesay, 
the heir to the crown, succeeded him as governor, although the 
duke himself was a prominent member of the advising council. 
Uncle and nephew soon differed, and in March 1402 the latter 
died in prison at Falkland. It is not certain that Albany was 
responsible for the imprisonment and death of Rothesay, whom 
the parliament declared to have died from natural causes; but 
the scanty evidence points in the direction of his guilt. Restored 
to the office of governor, the duke was chosen regent of the 
kingdom after the death of Robert III. in 1406, as the new king, 
James I., was a prisoner in London; and he took vigorous steps 
to prosecute the war with England, which had been renewed a 
few years before. He was unable, or as some say unwilling, to 
effect the release of his royal nephew, and was soon faced by a 
formidable revolt led by Donald Macdonald, second lord of the 
Isles, who claimed the earldom of Ross and was in alliance with 
Henry IV. of England; but the defeat of Donald at Harlaw 
near Aberdeen in July 1411 freed him from this danger. Con- 
tinuing alternately to fight and to negotiate with England, the 
duke died at Stirling Castle in September 1420, and was buried 
in Dunfermline Abbey. Albany, who was the ablest prince 
of his house, left by his first wife one son, Murdac (or Murdoch) 
Stewart, who succeeded him as duke of Albany and regent, but 
at whose execution in 1425 the dukedom became extinct. 

See Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, 
edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun, 
Scotichronicon, continued by Walter Bower, edited by T. Hearne 
(Oxford, 1722); and P. F. Tytler, History of Scotland (Edinburgh, 
1850). See also Sir W. Scott's Fair Maid of Perth. 

II. ALEXANDER STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1454-1485), 
was the second son of James II., king of Scotland, by his wife, 
Mary, daughter of Arnold, duke of Gelderland. Created duke 
of Albany before 1458, he also received the lordship of the Isle 
of Man, and was afterwards captured by an English ship when 
journeying to Gelderland in 1468. He was soon released, and 
as he grew to manhood began to take part in the government 
and defence of Scotland, being appointed in quick succession 
high admiral, warden of the marches, governor of Berwick and 
lieutenant of the kingdom. Soon, however, he quarrelled with 
his brother, King James III. Some of his actions on the marches 
aroused suspicion, and in 1479 he was seized and imprisoned in 
Edinburgh Castle; but he soon made his escape, and reaching 
Paris in September 1479 was welcomed by King Louis XI. 
Louis, however, would not assist him to attack his brother 
the king, and crossing to England he made a treaty with King 
Edward IV. at Fotheringhay in June 1482. Like Edward 
Baliol, he promised to hold Scotland under English suzerainty 
in return for Edward's assistance, and with Richard, duke of 
Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III., he marched at the 
head of the English forces to Edinburgh. Meanwhile his sup- 
porters in Scotland had seized James, and professed their 
readiness to recognize Albany, declaring at the same time their 
distrust of Gloucester. A compromise, however, was arranged, 
and the restoration of his lands and offices was promised to 
Albany, who in turn agreed to be faithful to James; but about 
the same time the duke with remarkable duplicity had sworn 
he would keep the treaty with Edward. Again he was appointed 
lieutenant of the kingdom, a truce was made with the English, 
and James, released from custody, restored his brother and 
created him earl of Mar and Garioch. The fraternal peace was 
soon disturbed. Failing to obtain possession of the king's person, 
Albany renewed negotiations with Edward, and in February 
1483 made a new treaty at Westminster on the lines of that 
of Fotheringhay. A fresh reconciliation followed between the 
brothers, but in July 1483, during Albany's absence in England, 
he was sentenced to death for treason. After making a raid on 
Lochmaben he went to France, where in 1485 he was accidentally 
killed. Albany's first wife was Catherine, daughter of William, 
third earl of Orkney and first earl of Caithness, who bore him 
three sons and a daughter. This marriage was dissolved in 
1478, and as its issue was regarded as illegitimate the title of 
duke of Albany descended to John (see below), his only son by 



his second wife, Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne, daughter of 
Bertrand II., count of Auvergne and of Bouillon, whom he 
married in 1480. 

III. JOHN STEWART, duke of Albany (c. 1481-1536), regent 
of Scotland, was born about 1481. He was brought up in 
France, where he owned large estates, and held the office of 
admiral of France. In 1515, at the request of the Scottish 
parliament, and in spite of Henry VIII. 's efforts to prevent him, 
Albany came to Scotland, was inaugurated regent in July, and 
proceeded to organize resistance to the influence of England 
and of Margaret Tudor, the queen dowager, sister of Henry VIII. 
In August he seized the latter and her children at Stirling, and 
subsequently was occupied in suppressing the rebellion of the 
Homes, Angus (the second husband of Margaret), and James 
Hamilton, earl of Arran; Alexander, third Lord Home, being 
beheaded in October 1516. Albany was declared on the i2th 
of November heir to the throne, and on the 6th of June 1517 
he returned to France. In August he concluded the treaty of 
Rouen, by which the alliance between France and Scotland 
was renewed and a daughter of Francis I. was to marry James V., 
and next year he obtained the relaxation of certain dues on 
Scottish imports into France. Meanwhile Margaret had returned 
immediately on Albany's departure, and disorders had broken 
out owing to the rivalry between Angus and Arran. Francis I. 
had secretly engaged himself to Henry VIII. not to allow 
Albany's departure from France, but he returned at the close 
of 1521 and immediately became the object of Henry VIII. 's 
and Wolsey's attacks. He reconciled himself temporarily with 
Margaret, supported her divorce from Angus, and was now 
accused by the English government, in all probability unjustly, 
of having seduced her and of harbouring schemes of marrying 
her himself, together with designs against the life of the young 
king. These accusations were repudiated by the Scots, and 
Henry's demand for the regent's dismissal refused. War broke 
out in 1522, and in September Albany advanced to within four 
miles of Carlisle with a large army. The Scots, however, showed 
unwillingness to fight outside their own frontiers, and Albany 
agreed to a truce and disbanded his troops. On the 25th of 
October he departed hastily to France, leaving the borders 
exposed to the enemy. On the 25th of September 1523 he once 
more landed in Scotland, bringing with him supplies from France 
and a considerable body of troops, and on the 3rd of November, 
after an unsuccessful attack on Wark, retreated hastily, and 
quitted Scotland finally on the zoth of May 1524. On the 
3oth of July his regency was terminated by the declaration, of 
James V. as king. He accompanied Francis I. in his disastrous 
Italian campaign of 1525, being detached to make a diversion in 
Naples against the Spanish. Between 1 530 and 1535 he acted as 
French ambassador in Rome, conducted Catherine de' Medici, his 
wife's niece, to Paris on her marriage to Henry (afterwards 
Henry II.) in 1534, and negotiated the marriage of James V. 

The regent Albany was a singularly unfortunate commander 
in the field, but a successful ruler and administrator, and the 
Scottish court of session owed to him its institution. But he 
regarded himself more the subject of the king of France than of 
the king of Scotland, subordinated the interests of the latter 
state to the former, and disliked his official duties in Scotland, 
where the benefits of his administration were largely diminished 
by his want of perseverance and frequent absence. He appears 
to have been a man of honourable and straightforward conduct, 
whose character must be cleared from the aspersions of Wolsey 
and the English authorities. He married his cousin Anne de 
la Tour d'Auvergne, but left no legal issue, and all his honours 
became extinct at his death. 

IV. LEOPOLD GEORGE DUNCAN ALBERT, duke of Albany, 
eighth child and youngest son of Queen Victoria, was born on the 
7th of April 1853. The delicacy of his health seemed to mark 
him out for a life of retirement, and as he grew older he evinced 
much of the love of knowledge, the capacity for study and the 
interest in philanthropic and ecclesiastical movements which 
had characterized his father, the prince consort. He matricu- 
lated at Christ Church, Oxford, in November 1872, living with 



ALBANY 



489 



his tutor at Wykeham House, St Giles's, and diligently pursued 
his favourite studies of science, art and the modern languages. 
In 1876 he left the university with the honorary degree of D.C.L., 
and resided at Boyton House, Wiltshire, and afterwards at 
Claremont. On coming of age in 1874, he had been made 
a privy councillor and granted an annuity of 15,000. He 
travelled on the continent, and in 1880 visited the United States 
and Canada. He was a trustee of the British Museum, a bencher 
of Lincoln's Inn, and continued to take an active part in the 
promotion of education and knowledge generally. Like his 
father and other members of his family he was an excellent 
public speaker. On the 24th of May 1881 he was created duke 
of Albany, earl of Clarence and Baron Arklow. On the 27th of 
April 1882 he married Helene Frederica Augusta, princess of 
Waldeck-Pyrmont, and his income was raised by parliament to 
25,000. Having gone to the south of France for his health in 
the spring of 1884, he was attacked by a fit, the cause or the 
consequence of a fall in a club-house at Cannes, on the 27th of 
March, and died very unexpectedly on the following morning. 
His death was universally regretted, from the gentleness and 
graciousness of his character, and the desire and ability he had 
shown to promote intellectual interest's of every kind. He left 
a daughter, born in February 1883, and a posthumous son, 
Arthur Charles Edward, born on the ipth of July 1884, who 
succeeded to the dukedom of Albany, and who on the 3oth of 
July 1900 became duke of Saxe-Coburg on the death of his 
uncle. 

ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS 
OF (1752-1824), eldest daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus 
of Stolberg-Gedern, was born at Mons on the 2oth of September 
1752. In her youth she was a canoness of Ste. Wandru at Mons, 
but in her twentieth year she was affianced, at the instigation 
of the duke of Berwick and with the secret connivance of the 
French Court, to Prince Charles Edward Stuart, " the Young 
Pretender," self-styled count of Albany. She was wedded to 
the prince at Macerata, near Ancona, on Good Friday 1774, 
and the married pair for over two years resided in the old 
Stuart palace at Rome. Pretty, intelligent, charming and witty, 
Louise fascinated Roman society, wherein she gained the nick- 
name of " Queen of Hearts." The union, however, which was 
obviously intended to give an heir to the Stuart prince, proved 
childless, and Louise's married life became far from happy. In 
1774 the pair moved to Florence, where in December 1780 Louise, 
terrified at her husband's violence and fearing for the safety of 
her life, fled to a neighbouring convent and threw herself on the 
protection of her brother-in-law, Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, 
who invited her to Rome. Louise had already in Florence 
formed the acquaintance of the great Italian tragic poet, Vittorio 
Alfieri, who had been captivated by her engaging manners, her 
youthful beauty and -her literary powers. The poet now 
followed her to Rome, but the friendship between Alfieri and his 
sister-in-law does not seem to have aroused any suspicion in 
the mind of Cardinal York until 1783, when, after a visit to his 
brother in Florence, he suddenly requested Pope Pius VI. to 
banish Alfieri from papal territory. In 1784, however, a legal 
separation between the count and countess of Albany was 
arranged, and by Charles's death in 1788 Louise found herself 
freed from matrimonial bonds. In company with Alfieri (to 
whom rumour said she had been secretly married) she now 
visited Paris and London, and was cordially received at the 
English court, George III. granting her an annual pension of 
1600 from the privy purse. Returning to Italy, Alfieri and 
the countess settled at Florence, where the poet died on the 
gth of October 1803, and was buried in the church of Santa 
Croce beneath Canova's vast monument erected at Louise's 
expense. The countess continued to reside in the house on the 
Lung' Arno at Florence, patronising men of science and letters 
and holding nightly receptions, at which all visitors were expected 
to treat their hostess with the etiquette due to reigning royalty. 
She died on the 2gth of January 1824 and was buried in Santa 
Croce, where in the south transept a marble monument by 
jiovannozzi and Santarelli commemorates her. By her will 



the countess bequeathed all her property, including many historic 
objects of art and documents, to the companion of her old age, 
the French painter, Francois Xavier Fabre, who ultimately gave 
the greater part of his legacy to the museum of his native town 
of Montpellier. Two excellent portraits of the countess of 
Albany and of Alfieri, painted by this artist, now hang in the 
Uffizi Gallery at Florence. 

See Vernon Lee, The Countess of Albany (1884); Marchesa 
Vitelleschi, A Court in Exile. (H. M. V.) 

ALBANY, a river of Canada, forming part of the boundary 
between the province of Ontario and the district of Keewatin. 
It rises in Lake St Joseph in 91 25' W. and 50 55' N., and 
flows E.N.E. into James Bay, its total length being over 400 m. 
It is navigable for nearly half its length, to Martin's Falls. 
There are four Hudson's Bay Company's posts on its banks, 
including Fort Albany at its mouth. The Ogoki and Kenogami 
rivers are the principal tributaries. 

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Dougherty county, 
Georgia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Kinchafoona Creek, and at 
the head of navigation on the Flint river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of 
Macon, about 200 m. S.W. of Savannah and about 203 m. N.E. 
of Pensacola. Pop. (1890) 4008; (1900) 4606 (2903 of negro 
descent); (1910) 8190. It is served by the Central of Georgia, 
the Georgia Northern, the Seaboard Air Line, the Albany & 
Northern and the Atlantic Coast Line railways, and by steam- 
boats connecting it with Apalachicola at the mouth of the 
Apalachicola river. Its importance is largely due to these 
transportation facilities and to the resources of the surround- 
ing country, which produces timber, lime, cotton, Indian corn, 
sugar-cane, wheat, oats, fruit, melons, hay and vegetables. 
Albany ships much cotton, and has a cotton compress, a cotton 
mill, cotton-seed oil and guano factories, brick yards, lumber 
mills and ice factories. It is a summer and winter resort and 
is the home of the Georgia Chautauqua. The city owns and 
operates the electric-lighting plant and artesian water-works. 
It was settled in 1836, was incorporated in 1838 and received 
its present city charter in 1907. 

ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Albany county, New 
York, U.S.A., and the capital of the state. It is situated on the 
W. bank of the Hudson river, just below the mouth of the 
Mohawk, 145 m. N. of New York City and 165 m. W. of Boston. 
Pop. (1880) 90,758; (1890) 94,9 2 3; (190) 94.I5 1 , f whom 
17,718 were foreign-born (6612 being Irish, 5903 German, 1361 
English and 740 Russian) and 1178 were negroes; (1910) 
100,253. Albany is a terminus of the New York Central 
& Hudson River, the Delaware & Hudson and the West 
Shore railways, and is also served by the Boston & 
Maine railway, by the Erie and Champlain canals (being a 
terminus of each), by steamboat lines on the. Hudson river 
and by several inter-urban electric railways connecting with 
neighbouring cities. 

Albany is attractively situated on a series of hills rising sharply 
from the river. The older portions of the city are reminiscent 
of Dutch colonial days, and some fine specimens of the Dutch 
and later colonial architecture are still standing. Perhaps the 
most famous of these is the Schuyler mansion (now St Francis 
de Sales Orphan Asylum), built in 1760-1761. The Van 
Rensselaer manor-house, built in 1765, was pulled down in 
1893 and was reconstructed on the campus of Williams College, 
Williamstown, Massachusetts, where it is used as a fraternity 
club-house. Among the public buildings, the finest is the 
new State Capitol, one of the largest and most imposing in 
America. It occupies a commanding position in Capitol Square 
(7-84 acres), one of the highest points in the city. It is built of 
white Maine granite, and cost about $25,000,000. Its dimensions 
are 300X400 ft. The corner-stone was laid in 1871, and the build- 
ing was completed, with the exception of the central tower and 
dome, in 1904. The legislature first met in it in 1879. The 
original designs were by Thomas Fuller, who also designed the 
parliamentary buildings at Ottawa; but the plans underwent 
many changes, Isaac Gale Perry, Leopold Eidlitz and H. H. 
Richardson being associated with the work before its completion. 



490 



ALBANY 



The beautiful " western staircase " of red sandstone (from plans 
by Perry) and the senate chamber (designed by Richardson) 
are perhaps the most notable parts of the structure. The build- 
ing houses the various executive departments, the legislature 
and the court of appeals. A large and handsome building of 
white granite was begun in 1908 directly opposite the Capitol 
to accommodate the department of education and the magni- 
ficent state library (about 450,0x30 volumes). Other important 
buildings are the old state hall, a handsome white marble 
building erected in 1842; the city hall, a beautiful French 
Gothic building of pink granite trimmed with red sandstone, 
designed by H. H. Richardson; the Federal Building; the 
State Museum of Natural History; the galleries of the Albany 
Institute and Historical and Art Society, in State Street, opposite 
the Capitol; Harmanus Bleecker Hall, a theatre since 1898; 
and the Ten Eyck and Kenmore hotels. Among the finest 
office buildings are the structures of the Albany City Savings 
Institution, National Commerical Bank, Union Trust Company, 
Albany Trust Company, the National Savings Bank, First 
National Bank, the New York State National Bank (1803, 
probably the oldest building in the United States used con- 
tinuously for banking purposes) and the Albany Savings Bank. 
The Fort Orange Club, the Catholic Union, the Albany Club, 
the University Club, the City Club of Albany, the Country 
Club, the German Hall Association and the Adelphi Club are 
the chief social organizations. The principal church buildings 
are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Roman 
Catholic), a fine specimen of Gothic architecture, built of brown- 
stone, with spires 210 ft. high; the cathedral of All Saints 
(Protestant Episcopal), an English Gothic structure of pink 
sandstone designed by R. W. Gibson and begun in 1883; St 
Peter's Episcopal Church (French Gothic), of Hudson River 
bluestone; Emmanuel Baptist Church, of white granite; the 
Madison Avenue Reformed Church; and St Joseph's (Roman 
Catholic), of bluestone and Caen stone with marble trimmings. 
Among the educational institutions are the Albany Medical 
College (1839) and the Albany Law School (1851), both incor- 
porated since 1873 with the Union University, the Collegiate 
Department of which is at Schenectady; the Albany College 
of Pharmacy (1881), also part of Union University; the Albany 
Academy (1813), in which Joseph Henry, while a member of 
the faculty, perfected in 1826-1832 the electro-magnet and 
began his work on the electric telegraph; the Albany Academy 
for Girls, founded in 1814 as the Albany Female Academy (name 
changed in 1906); and a State Normal College (1890), with a 
Model School. The hospitals and charitable institutions include 
St Vincent's Orphan Asylum, the Lathrop Memorial (for children 
of working mothers), Albany City Hospital, the Homeopathic 
Hospital, St Peter's Hospital, the Albany City Orphan Asylum 
and the House of the Good Shepherd. There are a county 
penitentiary and a State armoury. The city has 95 acres of 
boulevards and avenues under park supervision and several 
fine parks (17, with 307 acres in 1907), notably Washington 
(containing Calverley's bronze statue of Robert Burns, and 
Rhind's "Moses at the Rock of Horeb"), Beaver and Dudley, 
in which is the old Dudley Observatory the present Observatory 
building is in Lake Avenue, south-west of Washington Park, where 
is also the Albany Hospital. In the beautiful rural cemetery, 
north of the city, are the tombs of President Chester A. Arthur 
and General Philip Schuyler. The city owns a fine water-supply 
and a filtration plant covering 20 acres, with a capacity of 
30,000,000 gallons daily and storage reservoirs with a capacity 
of 227,000,000 gallons. 

The first newspaper in Albany was the Gazette, founded in 
1771. The Argus, founded in 1813 by Jesse Buel (1778-1839) 
and edited from 1824 to 1854 by Edwin Croswell (1797-1871), 
was long the organ of the coterie of New York politicians known 
as the " Albany Regency," and was one of the most influential 
Democratic papers in the United States. Previously to their 
holding office, Daniel Manning (1831-1887), secretary of the 
treasury in President Cleveland's cabinet, was president of the 
Argus company, and Daniel Scott Lament (1851-1905), secretary 



of war during President Cleveland's second administration, 
was managing editor of the newspaper. The Evening Journal, 
founded in 1830 as an anti-Masonic organ, and for thirty-five 
years edited by Thurlow Weed, was equally influential as an 
organ of the Whig and later of the Republican party. 

Albany is an important railway and commercial centre, 
particularly as a distributing point for New England markets, 
as a lumber market and though to a much less extent than 
formerly as a depot for transhipment to the south and west. 
Among the city's manufactories are breweries, iron and brass 
foundries, stove factories, knitting mills, cotton mills, clothing 
factories, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, cigar 
and cigarette factories, and manufactories of adhesive pastes, 
court plaster, spring beds, ribbed underwear, aniline dyes, 
chemicals, gas meters, fire-brick, and glazed paper and card- 
board. The value of the total factory product in 1905 was 
$20,208,715, which was 17 % greater than that for 1900. 

History. Albany was probably the second place to be per- 
manently settled within the borders of the original Thirteen 
Colonies. It seems likely that French traders ascended the 
river as far as the site of the present city in the first half of the 
sixteenth century, and according to some writers a temporary 
trading post was established here about 1 540. Albany's authentic 
history, however, may be dated from 1614, when Dutch traders 
built on Castle Island, opposite the city, a post which they named 
Fort Nassau. Three years later the fort was removed to the 
mainland, and near here in 1618 the Dutch made their first 
treaty with the Iroquois. In 1624 arrived eighteen families 
of Dutch Walloons, the first actual permanent settlers, as dis- 
tinguished from traders. In that year, on a hill near the site 
of the present Capitol, Fort Orange was built, and around it, 
as a centre, the new town grew. At first it was known by the 
Dutch simply as the " fuyck " (hoop), from the curve in the 
river at this point, whence was soon derived the name Bever- 
fuyck or Beverwyck. In 1629 the Dutch government granted 
to Killiaen van Rensselaer, an Amsterdam diamond merchant, 
a tract of land (24 sq. m.) centring at Fort Orange. Over this 
tract, the first patroonship granted in the colony, he had the 
usual powers and rights of a patroon. The grant was named 
Rensselaerwyck in his honour, became a " manor " in 1685, 
and remained in the family until 1853. The colonists whom 
he settled upon his grant (1630) were industrious, and " Bever- 
wyck " became increasingly prosperous. From this time the 
town, on account of its favourable commercial and strategic 
position at the gateway of the Iroquois country and at the head 
of navigation on the Hudson river, was for a century and a half 
one of the most important places in the colonies. In 1644, with 
the transfer of New Netherlands to English control, the name 
" Beverwyck " was changed to " Albany " one of the titles 
of the duke of York (afterward James II.). In 1673 the town 
was again for a short time under Dutch control. In 1686 
Governor Dongan granted to Albany a city charter, which pro- 
vided for an elected council. The first mayor appointed by the 
governor was Peter Schuyler (1657-1724). In 1689 was held 
here the first inter-colonial convention in America, when delegates 
from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New 
York met to treat with representatives of the Five Nations 
and to plan a system of colonial defence. During the i8th 
century there was a great influx of English colonists, and in 1714 
the first English church was erected. During the French and 
Indian wars Albany was a starting-point for expeditions against 
Canada and the Lake Ch'amplain country. In June 1754, in 
pursuance of a recommendation of the Lords of Trade, a con- 
vention of representatives of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania and 
Maryland met here for the purpose of confirming and establishing 
a closer league of friendship with the Iroquois and of arranging 
for a permanent union of the colonies. The Indian affairs having 
been satisfactorily adjusted, the convention, after considerable 
debate, in which Benjamin Franklin, Stephen Hopkins and 
Thomas Hutchinson took a leading part, adopted (July n) a 
plan for a union of the colonies, which was in great part similar 



ALBANY ALBAY 



49 



'to one submitted to the convention by Franklin. This plan 
provided for a representative governing body to be known as 
the Grand Council, to which each colony should elect delegates 
(not more than seven or less than two) for a term of three years. 
This body was to have control of Indian affairs, impose taxes, 
nominate all civil officers, authorize the opening of new lands 
to settlement, and in general have charge of colonial defence, 
and of the enlistment, equipment and maintenance of an army. 
An executive or viceroy, to be known as the president-general, 
was to have the veto power over the acts of the Grand Council 
and the right of appointment of military officers. Finally, it 
was provided that the acts of the Grand Council should be valid 
unless vetoed by the crown within a period of three years. 
Neither the British government nor the growing party in the 
colonies which was clamouring for colonial rights received 
the plan with favour the former holding that it gave the 
colonies too much independence, and the latter that it gave them 
too little. The strategic importance of Albany was fully recog- 
nized during the War of Independence, and it was against Albany 
that Burgoyne's expedition was directed. Albany became the 
permanent state capital in 1797. In 1839 it became the centre 
of the " Anti-Rent War," which was precipitated by the death 
of Stephen van Rensselaer (1764-1839), the last of the patroons; 
the attempt of his heirs to collect overdue rents resulting in 
disturbances which necessitated the calling out of the militia, 
spread into several counties where there were Jarge landed 
estates, and were not entirely settled until 1847. 

See William Barnes, The .Settlement and Early History of Albany 
(Albany, 1864) ; J. Munsell, *Khe Annals of Albany (10 vols., Albany, 
1850-1859; 2nd ed., 4 volsY 1869-1871); E. B. O'Callaghan, 
Documentary History of the State of New York, vol. iii. (Albany, 
1850); A. J. Weise, The History of the City of Albany (Albany, 
1884) I G. R. Howell and J. Tenney, Bi-Centennial History of Albany 
(New York, 1886); Amasa J. Parker, Landmarks of Albany County 
(Syracuse, 1897); and Cuyler Reynolds, Albany Chronicles; or 
Albany Mayors and Contemporaneous Chronology (Albany, 1907). 

ALBANY, a municipal town in the county of Plantagenet, West 
Australia, on Princess Royal Harbour, a branch of King George 
Sound, 352 m. by rail and 254 m. directly S.S.E. of Perth. Pop. 
(1901) 3650. It is the chief health resort of the state, and its 
climate is one of the finest in Australia; it has a mean annual 
temperature of 58-6 F., and the summer heat is never excessive. 
One of the features of the town is the Marine Drive, some 5^ m. 
in circuit around the hills overlooking the harbour. Albany has 
several flourishing industries, of which the chief are brewing, 
coach-building, printing and tanning. In addition it has the 
finest harbour in West Australia. A pier extends for 1 700 ft. into 
the sea, giving safe accommodation to the large steamers which 
call at the port. The Great Southern railway has a line to the 
seaward end of the pier, and affords direct communication with 
the interior of the colony. The harbour is protected by forts and 
there is a garrison in the town. King George Sound, of which 
Albany is the township, was first occupied in 1826 and a penal 
ettlement was established. No attempt was made to colonize 
be locality until after this settlement was given up in 1831. 
Albany became a municipality in 1871. 

ALBATEGNIUS (c. 850-929), an Arab prince and astronomer, 
correctly designated Mahommed ben Gebir al Batani, his surname 
being derived from his native town, Batan in Mesopotamia. 
From his observations at Aracte and Damascus, where he died, he 
was able to correct some of Ptolemy's results, previously taken on 

ust. He compiled new tables of the sun and moon, long 
accepted as authoritative, discovered the movement of the sun's 
apogee, and assigned to annual precession the improved value 
of 55". Perhaps independently of Aryabhatta (born at Patali- 
putra on the Ganges 476 A.D.), he introduced the use of sines 
in calculation, and partially that of tangents. His principal 
work, De Motu Stellarum, was published at Nuremberg in 
[ 537 by Melanchthon, in a blundering Latin translation by 
Plato Tiburtinus (fl. 1116), annotated by Regiomontanus. 
reprint appeared at Bologna in 1645. The original MS. 

preserved at the Vatican; and the Escorial library possesses 
MS. a treatise of some value by him on astronomical 



chronology. Albategnius takes the highest rank among Arab 
astronomers. 

See Houzeau, Bibliographie astronomique, \. 467; M. Marie, 
Histoire des sciences, ii. 113; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic, 
p. 67; Delambre, Hist, de I'astr. au moyen age, ch. ii. ; Phil. Trans., 
!693 (913), where E. Halley supplies corrections to some of the 
observations recorded in De Motu Stellarum. 

ALBATROSS (from the Port. Alcatraz, a pelican), the name 
of a genus of aquatic birds (Diomedea), closely allied to the 
petrels, and belonging, like them, to the order Tubinares. In 
the name Diomedea, assigned to them by Linnaeus, there is a 
reference to the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of 
the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds. The beak is large, strong 
and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook; 
the wings are narrow and very long; the feet have no hind toe, 
and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The best 
known is the common or wandering albatross (D. exulans), which 
occurs in all parts of the Southern Ocean. It is the largest and 
strongest of all sea-birds. The length of the body is stated at 
4 ft., and the weight at from 15 to 25 Ib. It sometimes measures 
as much as 17 ft. between 
the tips of the extended 
wings, averaging probably 
from 10 to 12 ft. Its 
strength of wing is very 
great. It often accom- 
panies a ship for days 
not merely following it, but 
wheeling in wide circles 
round it without ever 
being observed to alight on 
the water, and continues its 
flight, apparently untired, in 
tempestuous as well as in 
moderate weather. It has 
even been said to sleep on 
the wing, and Moore alludes 
to this fanciful " cloud- 
rocked slumbering " in his 
Fire Worshippers. It feeds on small fish and on the animal 
refuse that floats on the sea, eating to such excess at times 
that it is unable to fly and rests helplessly on the water. 
The colour of the bird is white, the back being streaked trans- 
versely with black or brown bands, and the wings dark. Sailors 
capture the bird for its long wing-bones, which they manu- 
facture into tobacco-pipe stems. The albatross lays one egg; 
it is white, with a few spots, and is about 4 in. long. In 
breeding-time the bird resorts to solitary island groups, like 
the Crozet Islands and the elevated Tristan da Cunha, where 
it has its nest a natural hollow or a circle of earth roughly 
scraped together on the open ground. The early explorers of 
the great Southern Sea cheered themselves with the companion- 
ship of the albatross in its dreary solitudes; and the evil hap of 
him who shot with his cross-bow the bird of good omen is familiar 
to readers of Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Several 
species of albatross aje known; for the smaller forms see 
MALLEMUCK. 

ALBAY, a city and the capital of the province of Albay, Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, near an inlet on the W. shore of the Gulf of 
Albay, 215 m. by wagon-road S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 
14,049; in October 1907 the towns of Daraga (pop. 1903, 18,695) 
and Legaspi (pop. 1903, 9206) were merged with Albay, making 
its total population, on the basis of the 1903 census, 41,950. 
Albay is one of the most important cities of the Philippine 
Islands. It is built on level ground near the S. base of Mount 
Mayon, a beautiful volcanic peak, 7916 ft. high, from which it is 
sheltered by the Linguin hills. The surrounding country is one 
of the most important hemp-producing districts in the Philip- 
pines; sinamay is woven here, and large quantities of hemp are 
shipped from here to Manila. Cocoa, copra, sugar and sweet 
potatoes are other important products of the district. The 
language is Bicol. The old town, called Cagsaua, which stood a 
short distance E.N.E. of the new, was completely destroyed by 




492 



ALBEDO ALBEMARLE 



an eruption of the volcano in 1814 (about 1200 people being 
killed), and the new town was almost entirely destroyed by the 
insurgents in February 1900, an ancient stone church of much 
beauty (in what was formerly Daraga) being left standing on an 
elevated site commanding a view of the surrounding country. 
The town was rebuilt on a larger scale by Americans. 

ALBEDO (from Lat. albus, white), " whiteness," a word used 
principally in astronomy for the degree of reflected light; the 
light of the sun which is reflected from the moon is called the 
albedo of the moon. 

ALBEMARLE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The name Albe- 
rnarle, which now forms the title of the earldom held by the 
English family of Keppel, is an early variant of the French 
Aumale (Lat. Alba Maria), other forms being Aubemarle and 
Aumerle, and is described in the patent of nobility granted in 
1696-1697 by William III. to Arnold Joost van Keppel as 
" a town and territory in the dukedom of Normandy." 

The fief of Aumale (q. v.) was granted by the archbishop of 
Rouen to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the 
Conqueror, who erected it into a countship. On Odo's death 
his son Stephen succeeded not only to the countship of Aumale, 
but to the lordships of Holderness, of Bytham in Lincolnshire, 
&c., which were subsequently known as the " Fee and Honor 
of Albemarle." Stephen, who as a crusader had fought valiantly 
at Antioch, died about 1127, leaving by his wife Ha wise, daughter 
of Ralph de Mortimer, a son William of Blois, known as " le 
Gros." William, who distinguished himself at the battle of the 
Standard (1138), and shared with King Stephen in the defeat 
of Lincoln (1141), married Cicely, daughter of William Fitz- 
Duncan, grandson of Malcolm, king of Scotland, who as " lady 
of Harewood " brought him vast estates. He founded abbeys 
at Meaux in Holderness and at Thornton, and died in 1179. 
His elder daughter and heiress Hawise married (i) William de 
Mandeville, 3rd earl of Essex (d. 1189), (2) William de Fortibus 
(de Fors, de Fortz or des Forts 1 ), (3) Baldwin de Betun or 
Bethune, all of whom bore the title of earls of Albemarle. 

Soon after the death of Baldwin (October 13, 1213), William 
de Fortibus, Ha wise's son by her second husband, was established 
by King John in the territories of the countship of Albemarle, 
and in 1215 the whole of his mother's estates were formally 
confirmed to him. He is described by Bishop Stubbs as " a 
feudal adventurer of the worst type," and for some time was 
actively engaged in the struggles of the Norman barons against 
John and Henry III. He was one of the twenty-five executors 
of the Great Charter; but in the war that followed sided with 
John, subsequently changing sides as often as it suited his policy. 
His object was to revive the independent power of the feudal 
barons, and he co-operated to this end with Falkes de Breaute 
(q.v.) and other foreign adventurers established in the country 
by John. This brought him into conflict with the great justiciar, 
Hubert de Burgh, and in 1219 he was declared a rebel and ex- 
communicated for attending a forbidden tournament. In 1220 
matters were brought to a crisis by his refusal to surrender 
the two royal castles of Rockingham and Sauvey of which he 
had been made constable in 1216. Heniy III. marched against 
them in person, the garrisons fled, and they fell without a blow. 
In the following year, however, Albemarle, in face of further 
efforts to reduce his power, rose in revolt. He was now again 
excommunicated by the legate Pandulph at a solemn council 
held in St Paul's, and the whole force of the kingdom was set 
in motion against him, a special scutage the " scutagium de 
Bihan " being voted for this purpose by the Great Council. 
The capture of his castle of Bytham broke his power; he sought 
sanctuary and, at Pandulph's intercession, was pardoned on 
condition of going for six years to the Holy Land. He remained 
in England, however, and in 1223 was once more in revolt with 
Falkes de Breaut6, the earl of Chester and other turbulent spirits. 
A reconciliation was once more patched up; but it was not 

1 The name was derived from Fors, a commune in the canton of 
Prahecq in Poitou. It is spelt Forz in a deed of 1233, and the best 
vernacular form is, according to Thomas Stapleton (Preface to the 
Liber de Antiquitate, Camden Soc., 1846, p. xxxiv. note), de Fortz. 



until the fall of Falkes de Breaute that Albemarle finally settled 
down as an English noble. In 1225 he witnessed Henry's third 
re-issue of the Great Charter; in 1227 he went as ambassador 
to Antwerp; and in 1230 he accompanied Henry on his expedi- 
tion to Brittany. In 1241 he set out for the Holy Land, but 
died at sea, on his way there, on the 26th of March 1242. By 
his wife Avelina of Montfichet, William left a son, also named 
William, who married (i) Christina (d. 1246), daughter and 
co-heiress of Alan, lord of Galloway, (2) in 1248 Isabella de 
Redvers (1237-1292-3), daughter of Baldwin de Redvers, earl of 
Devon and lord of the Isle of Wight. He played a conspicuous 
part in the reign of Henry III., notably in the Mad Parliament 
of 1258, and died at Amiens in 1260. His widow, Isabella, on 
the death of her brother Baldwin, 8th earl of Devon, in 1261, 
called herself countess of Devon. She had two children, Thomas, 
who died in 1269 unmarried, and Avelina, who married (1269) 
Edmund Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and died without issue 
in 1274. The " Honor of Albemarle " was claimed, in 1278, by 
John de Eston, or Aston, as heir of Amicia, younger daughter of 
William le Gros; but he released his right to the earldom of 
Albemarle to the crown in exchange for certain lands in Thornton. 

The title of Albemarle, thus extinguished, was several times 
revived before it became attached to the family of its present 
holders. In 1385 Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, 
was summoned to parliament as " duke of Albemarle," but he 
seems never subsequently to have used the title. In any case 
this creation became extinct with the death of his son Humphrey, 
duke of Gloucester, in 1399. In 1411 Thomas Plantagenet, 
second son of Henry IV., was created earl of Albemarle and duke 
of Clarence, but at his. death at the battle of Beauge (March 
22, 1421) these honours became extinct. That of Albemarle 
was, however, soon revived (c. 1423) in favour of Richard de 
Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, whose title of earl of Aumerle, 
however, died with him. 

In 1660 Charles II. bestowed the title of duke of Albemarle 
on General Monk (q.v.). Monk's hereditary claim to this semi- 
royal peerage was a very shadowy one, being based as was also 
his subordinate style of Baron Beauchamp on his descent 
from the youngest of the three co-heiresses of Richard, earl of 
Warwick, and, with yet more remote applicability, on that 
from Arthur Plantagenet, a natural son of Edward IV. The 
title became extinct in 1688, on the death of Christopher, 2nd 
duke of Albemarle. 

Finally, as mentioned above, the title of earl of Albemarle 
was bestowed by William III., without any shadow of hereditary 
claim, on his Dutch favourite Arnold Joost van Keppel (see 
below), by whose descendants it is still held. The motive for 
choosing this title was probably that, apart from its dignified 
traditions, it avoided the difficulty created by the fact that the 
Keppels had as yet no territorial possessions in the British 
Islands. 

ARNOLD JOOST VAN KEPPEL, ist earl of Albemarle, and lord 
of Voorst in Gelderland (c. 1670-1718), son of Oswald van 
Keppel and his wife Anna Geertruid van Lintello, was born in 
Holland about 1670. He became page to William III., accom- 
panied him to England in 1688, and was made groom of the bed- 
chamber and master of the robes in 1695. On the loth oi 
February 1696/7 he was created earl of Albemarle, Viscount 
Bury and Baron Ashford. In 1700 William gave him lands of 
enormous extent in Ireland, but parliament obliged the king to 
cancel this grant, and William then bestowed on him 50,000. 
The same year he was made a knight of the Garter. Meanwhile 
he had served both with the English and Dutch troops, was 
major-general in 1697, colonel of several regiments and governor 
of Bois-le-Duc. Of handsome person and engaging disposition, 
he rivalled Portland, whose jealousy he aroused in the royal 
favour, possessed William's full confidence and accompanied 
him everywhere. In February 1702 he was sent by William, 
then prostrated with his last illness, to Holland to arrange the 
coming campaign, and only returned in time to receive William's 
last commissions on his deathbed. After the death of the latter, 
who bequeathed to him 200,000 guilders and some lands, he 



ALBENGA ALBERT 



493 



returned to Holland, took his seat as a noble in the states-general, 
and was made a general of horse in the Dutch army. He joined 
the forces of the allies in 1703, was present at Ramillies in 1706 
and at Oudenarde in 1708, and distinguished himself at the 
siege of Lille. He commanded at the siege of Aire in 1710, led 
Marlborough's second line in 1711, and was general of the Dutch 
forces in 1712, being defeated at Denain after the withdrawal of 
Ormonde and the English forces and taken prisoner. He died 
on the soth of May 1718, aged 48. He married Geertruid, 
daughter of Adam van der Denijn, by whom, besides a daughter, 
he had a son, William Anne, who succeeded him as 2nd earl of 
Albemarle. 

Of the later earls mention need only be made of the sixth, 
GEORGE THOMAS KEPPEL (1799-1891), British general, second 
son of the fourth earl, born on the i3th of June 1799. Educated 
at Westminster School he entered the army as ensign, i4th Foot, 
in 1815. He joined his regiment in Belgium and took part in the 
Waterloo campaign and the march to Paris, joined the second 
battalion in Corfu, and was transferred to the 22nd Foot, with 
which he served in Mauritius and at the Cape, returning home in 
1819, when he was appointed equerry to the duke of Sussex. 
Promoted to a lieutenancy in the 24th Foot, he was transferred 
to the 2oth Foot, and went to India, where he was aide-de-camp 
to the marquess of Hastings until his resignation in 1823, when 
Keppel returned to England, travelling overland through Persia, 
Moscow and St Petersburg. He published in 1825 an account of 
his travels, entitled Journey from India to England. He was 
aide-de-camp to the Marquess Wellesley, lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, for two years, was promoted captain in the 62nd Foot, 
studied in the senior department of the Royal Military College at 
Sandhurst, and in 1827 obtained a half-pay unattached majority. 
He did not again serve on full pay, but rose to be a general. In 
1829 he visited the seat of the Russo-Turkish war and was with 
the British fleet in Turkish waters. In 1832 he was returned in 
the Whig interest to the first reformed parliament as member for 
East Norfolk and sat until 1835. He was private secretary to 
the premier, Lord John Russell, in 1846, and M.P. for Lymington 
from 1847 to 1849. He succeeded to the title on the death of his 
brother in 1851. He died in 1891 and was buried at Quidenham, 
Norfolk. He wrote an account of a Journey across the Balkans, 
Memoirs of the Marquis of Rockingham, and an autobigraphy 
entitled Fifty Years of My Life. 

See G. E. C(ockayne), Complete Peerage, 8 vols. (London, 1887). 
For the two Williams de Fortibus, see s.v. Prof. T. F. Tout's articles 
in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. 

ALBENGA, a town and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, on the 
N.W. coast of the Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 52 j m. 
S.W. of Genoa by rail. Pop. (1901) 6248. Albenga is the ancient 
Album Ingaunum or Albingaunum, the chief town of the In- 
gauni, one of the most important of the Ligurian tribes, whose 
territory reached as far as Genoa. Under the empire it was a 
municpium; an inscription records the restoration of the walls, 
forum, harbour, &c., by Constantius A.D. 354. A little way out- 
side the town to the E. is a well-preserved Roman bridge nearly 
500 ft. long and n^ ft. wide, with 10 arches, each with a span of 
37 ft. It belonged to the coast road and is now known as Ponte 
Lungo. To the S. of the town is a conspicuous monument, 27 ft. 
high, in the form of a rectangular pillar, resembling a tomb; but 
as there is no trace of a door to a sepulchral chamber it may be a 
shrine. In the town itself there are no Roman remains; but 
there is a good Gothic cathedral in brick, and an interesting 
octagonal baptistery, attributed to the 8th or gth century, the 
arches being supported by ancient columns, and the vaulting 
decorated with mosaics. Some of the medieval palaces of 
Albenga have lofty brick towers. 

See A. d'Andrade in Relazione dell' Ufficio Regionale per la Con- 
senazione dei monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria (Turin, 1899), 
114 seq. 

ALBERONI, GIULIO (1664-1752), Spanish-Italian cardinal 
and statesman, was born near Piacenza, probably at the village 
of Fiorenzuola, on the 3ist of May 1664. His father was a 
gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church 
in the humble position of verger in the cathedral of Piacenza. 



Having gained the favour of Bishop Barni he took priest's orders, 
and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to Rome. 
During the war of the Spanish succession Alberoni laid the 
foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to 
the duke of Vend6me, commander of the French forces in Italy; 
and when these forces were recalled in 1 706 he accompanied the 
duke to Paris, where he was favourably received by Louis XIV. 
In 1711 he followed Vendome into Spain as his secretary. Two 
years later, the duke having died in the interval, Alberoni was 
appointed consular agent for Parma at the court of Philip V. of 
Spain, being raised at the same time to the dignity of count. On 
his arrival at Madrid he found the princesse des Ursins all but 
omnipotent with the king, and for a time he judged it expedient 
to use her influence in carrying out his plans. In concert with 
her he arranged the king's marriage with Elizabeth Farnese of 
Parma. The influence of the new queen being actively exerted on 
Alberoni's behalf, he speedily rose to high position. He was 
made a member of the king's council, bishop of Malaga, and in 
1715 prime minister, and was raised to the dignity of cardinal in 
1717. His internal policy was exceedingly vigorous. The main 
purpose he put before himself was to produce an economic revival 
in Spain by abolishing internal custom-houses, throwing open the 
trade of the Indies and reorganizing the finances. With the 
resources thus gained he undertook to enable King Philip V. to 
carry out an ambitious policy both in Italy and in France. The 
impatience of the king and his wife gave the minister no time to 
mature his plans. By provoking England, France, Holland and 
the Empire at once it brought a flood of disaster on Spain for 
which Alberoni was held responsible. On the sth of December 
1719 he was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having 
taken an active part in procuring the decree of banishment. He 
went to Italy, and there had to take refuge among the Apennines, 
Pope Clement XL, who was his bitter enemy, having given strict 
orders for his arrest. On the death of Clement, Alberoni boldly 
appeared at the Conclave, and took part in the election of 
Innocent XIII. (1721), after which he was for a short time im- 
prisoned by the pontiff on the demand of Spain. At the next 
election (1724) he was himself proposed for the gapal chair, and 
secured ten votes at the Conclave which elected Benedict XIII. 
Benedict's successor, Clement XII. (elected 1730), named him 
legate of Ravenna, in which capacity he incurred the pope's 
displeasure by the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted 
to reduce the little republic of San Marino to subjection to Rome. 
He was consequently replaced by another legate in 1740, and 
soon after he retired to Piacenza. Clement XII. appointed him 
administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro at Piacenza in 1730. 
The hospital was a medieval foundation for the benefit of lepers. 
The disease having disappeared from Italy, Alberoni obtained 
the consent of the pope to the suppression of the hospital, which 
had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it by a college for the 
education of seventy poor boys for the priesthood, under the 
name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears. He died on 
the 1 6th of June 1752, leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow 
the seminary he had founded, and the residue of the immense 
wealth he had acquired in Spain to his nephew. Alberoni left 
a large quantity of manuscripts; but the genuineness of the 
Political Testament, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753, 
has been questioned. 

An Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni up to 1719 was published by 
Jean Rousset de Missy at the Hague in 1719. A laudatory life, 
Storia del Cardinale Giulio Alberoni, was published by Stefano 
Bersani, a priest educated at his college, at Piacenza, in 1861. Giulio 
Alberoni e il suo secolo, by Giovanni Bianchi (1901), is briefer and 
more critical. See also Lettres intimes de J. Alberoni, edited by 
M. E. Bourgeois (1892). 

ALBERT (1522-1557), prince of Bayreuth, surnamed THE 
WARLIKE, and also ALCIBIADES, was a son of Casimir, prince 
of Bayreuth, and a member of the Franconian branch of the 
Hohenzollern family. Born at Ansbach on the 28th of March 
1522, he lost his father in 1527 and came under the guardianship 
of his uncle George, prince of Ansbach, a strong adherent of the 
reformed doctrines. In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share 
of the family lands, and as the chief town of his principality 



494 



ALBERT 



was Kulmbach he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of 
Brandenburg-Kulmbach. His restless and turbulent nature 
marked him out for a military career; and having collected a 
small band of soldiers, he assisted the emperor Charles V. in 
his war with France in 1543. The peace of Crepy in September 
1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a con- 
siderable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack 
the league of Schmalkalden, he took pains to win Albert's 
assistance. Sharing in the attack on the Saxon electorate, 
Albert was taken prisoner at Rochlitz in March 1547 by John 
Frederick, elector of Saxony, but was released as a result of the 
emperor's victory at Miihlberg in the succeeding April. He 
then followed the fortunes of his friend Maurice, the new elector 
of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the league which pro- 
posed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance with Henry II. 
of France. He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when 
the treaty of Passau was signed in August 1552 he separated 
himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in Fran- 
conia. Having extorted a large sum of money from the burghers 
of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his supporter, the French 
king, and offered his services to the emperor. Charles, anxious 
to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's 
demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of 
the lands taken from the bishops of Wiirzburg and Bamberg; 
and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the emperor 
on the retreat from Metz in January 1553. When Charles left 
Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in 
Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was 
formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against 
his former comrade. The rival forces met at Sievershausen on 
the pth of July 1553, and after a combat of unusual ferocity 
Albert was put to flight. Henry II., duke of Brunswick, then 
took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert 
had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he 
was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to fly to France. 
He there entered the service of Henry II., and had undertaken 
a campaign to regain his lands when he died at Pforzheim on 
the 8th of January 1557. 

See J. Voigt, Markgraf Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg- 
Kulmbach (Berlin, 1852). 

ALBERT I. (c. 1100-1170), margrave of Brandenburg, sur- 
named THE BEAR, was the only son of Otto the Rich, count of 
Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of 
Saxony. He inherited the valuable Saxon estates of his father 
in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one- 
half of the lands of the Billungs. About 1 1 23 he received from 
Lothair, duke of Saxony, the margraviate of Lusatia, and, after 
Lothair became German king, accompanied him on the disastrous 
expedition to Bohemia in 1 1 26, when he suffered a short imprison- 
ment. In 1128 his brother-in-law, Henry II., margrave of the 
Saxon north mark, died, and Albert, disappointed at not receiving 
this fief, attacked Udo, the succeeding margrave, and was con- 
sequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothair. In spite of this, he 
went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services 
there were rewarded, in 1134, by the investiture of the north 
, mark, which was again without a ruler. For three years he was 
occupied in campaigns against the Wends, and by an arrange- 
ment made with Pribislaus, duke of Brandenburg, Albert secured 
this district when the duke died in 1150. Taking the title 
margrave of Brandenburg, he pressed the warfare against the 
Wends, extended the area of his mark, did much for the spread 
of Christianity and civilization therein, and so became the founder 
of the margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1137 his cousin, Henry 
the Proud, had been deprived by King Conrad III. of his Saxon 
duchy, which was given to Albert. After meeting with some 
success in his efforts to take possession, he was driven from 
Saxony, and also from his mark by Henry, and compelled to 
take refuge in South Germany, and when peace was made in 
1 142 he renounced the Saxon dukedom and received the counties 
of Weimar and Orlamunde. It was possibly at this time that 
Albert was made arch-chamberlain of the Empire, an office 
which afterwards gave the margraves of Brandenburg the 



rights of an elector. A feud with Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, 
was followed, in 1158, by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and 
in 1162 Albert accompanied the emperor Frederick I. to Italy, 
and distinguished himself at the storming of Milan. In 1164 he 
joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and 
peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among 
his six sons, and died on the i3th of November 1170, and was 
buried at Ballenstadt. His personal qualities won for him the 
surname of " the Bear," and he is also called by later writers 
" the Handsome." 

See L. von Heinemann, Albrecht der Bar (Darmstadt, 1864). 

ALBERT III. (1414-1486), elector of Brandenburg, surnamed 
ACHILLES because of his knightly qualities, was the third son of 
Frederick I. of Hohenzollern, elector of Brandenburg, and was 
born at Tangermiinde on the gth of November 1414. After 
passing some time at the court of the emperor Sigismund, he 
took part in the war against the Hussites, and afterwards dis- 
tinguished himself whilst assisting the German king, Albert II., 
against the Poles. On the division of territory which followed 
his father's death in 1440, Albert received the principality of 
Ansbach; and although his resources were very meagre he soon 
took a leading place among the German princes, and was especially 
prominent in resisting the attempts of the towns to obtain self- 
government. In 1443 he formed a league directed mainly against 
Nuremberg, over which town members of his family had formerly 
exercised the rights of burgrave. It was not until 1448, however, 
that he found a pretext for attack, and the war which lasted 
until 1453 ended in a victory for the Nurembergers, and the 
recognition of their independence. He supported the emperor 
Frederick III. in his struggle with the princes who desired re- 
forms in Germany, and in return for this loyalty received many 
marks of favour from Frederick, including extensive judicial 
rights which aroused considerable irritation among neighbouring 
rulers. In 1457 he arranged a marriage between his eldest son 
John, and Margaret, daughter of William III., landgrave of 
Thuringia, who inherited the claims upon Hungary and Bohemia 
of her mother, a granddaughter of the emperor Sigismund. 
The attempt to secure these thrones for the Hohenzollerns 
through this marriage failed, and a similar fate befell Albert's 
efforts to revive in his own favour the disused title of duke of 
Franconia. The sharp dissensions which existed among the 
princes over the question of reform culminated in open warfare 
in 1460, when Albert was confronted with a league under the 
leadership of the elector palatine, Frederick I., and Louis IX. 
(the Rich) , duke of Bavaria-Landshut. Worsted in this struggle, 
which was concluded in 1462, Albert made an alliance with his 
former enemy, George PodSbrad, king of Bohemia, a step which 
caused Pope Paul II. to place him under the ban. 

In 1470 Albert, who had inherited Bayreuth on the death of 
his brother John in 1464, became elector of Brandenburg owing to 
the abdication of his remaining brother, the elector Frederick II. 
He was soon actively engaged in its administration, and by the 
treaty of Prenzlau in 1472 he brought Pomerania also under 
his supremacy. Having established his right to levy a tonnage 
on wines in the mark, he issued in February 1473 the important 
dispositio Achillea, which decreed that the mark of Brandenburg 
should descend in its entirety to the eldest son, while the younger 
sons should receive the Franconian possessions of the family. 
After treating in vain for a marriage between one of his sons 
and Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, Albert handed over the government of Brandenburg 
to his eldest son John, and returned to his Franconian possessions. 
In 1474 he married his daughter Barbara to Henry XL, duke of 
Glogau, who left his possessions on his death in 1476 to his widow 
with reversion to her family, an arrangement which was resisted 
by Henry's kinsman, John II., duke of Sagan. Aided by Matthias 
Corvinus, king of Hungary, John invaded Brandenburg, and 
the Pomeranians seized the opportunity to revolt. Under these 
circumstances Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, com- 
pelled the Pomeranians to own his supremacy, and after a 
stubborn struggle secured a part of Duke Henry's lands for his 
daughter in 1482. His main attention was afterwards claimed 






ALBERT 



495 



by the business of the Empire, and soon after taking part in the 
election of Maximilian as king of the Romans he died at Frankfort 
on the nth of March 1486. He left a considerable amount of 
treasure. His first wife was Margaret of Baden, by whom he 
had six children; and his second was Anne of Saxony, by whom 
he had thirteen. 

Albert was a man of relentless energy and boundless ambition, 
who by reason of his physical and intellectual qualities was one 
of the most prominent princes of the isth century. 

See Das kaiserliche Buck des Markgrafen Albrecht Achilles, 
Vorkurfurstliche Periode, 1440-14^0, edited by C. Hofler (Bayreuth, 
1850); Kurfurstliche Periode, edited by J. von Minutoli (Berlin, 
1850) ; Quellensammlung zur Geschichte des Hauses Hohenzollern, 
Band I., edited by C. A. H. Burkhardt (Jena, 1857); O. Franklin, 
Albrecht Achilles und die Nuremberger, 1449-1453 (Berlin, 1866); 
Polilische Korrespondenz des Kurfiirsten Albrecht Achilles, 1470- 
1486, edited by F. Priebatsch (Leipzig, 1894-1898); J. G. Droysen, 
Geschichte der preussischen Politik (Berlin, 1855-1886). 

ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EM- 
MANUEL) (1819-1861), prince-consort of England, was born at 
Rosenau on the 26th of August 1819. He was the second son 
of the hereditary duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (belonging to the 
Ernestine or elder branch of the royal .family of Saxony) by his 
first wife, the princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (d. 1831), 
from whom the duke was separated in 1824. His father's sister 
married the duke of Kent, and her daughter, afterwards Queen 

ictoria of England, Prince Albert's wife, was thus his first 

iusin. They were born in the same year. Albert and his elder 
irother, Ernest, were close companions in youth, and were 
educated under the care of Consistorialrath Florschiitz, sub- 
sequently proceeding to the university of Bonn. There Prince 
Albert devoted himself especially to natural science, political 
economy and philosophy, having for teachers such men as Fichte, 
Schlegel and Perthes; he diligently cultivated music and paint- 
ing, and excelled in gymnastic exercises, especially in fencing. 
The idea of a marriage between him and his cousin Victoria had 
always been cherished by their uncle, King Leopold I. of Belgium, 
and in May 1 836 the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and his two sons 
paid a visit to Kensington Palace, where Princess Victoria, as she 
then was, lived, for the purpose of making acquaintance for the 
first time. The visit was by no means to the taste of King 
William IV., who disapproved of the match and favoured Prince 
Alexander of Orange. But Leopold's plan was known to Princess 
Victoria, and William's objections were fruitless. Princess 
Victoria, writing to her uncle Leopold (May 23, 1836), said that 
Albert was " extremely handsome "; and (June 7) thanked him 
for the " prospect of great happiness you have contributed to 
give me in the person of dear Albert. He possesses every quality 
that could be desired to render me perfectly happy." No formal 
engagement was entered into, but the situation was privately 
understood as one which in time would naturally develop. After 
the queen came to the throne, her letters show her interest in 
Albert's being educated for the part he would have to play. In 
the winter of 1838-1839 the prince travelled in Italy, accompanied 
by Baron Stockmar, formerly Leopold's doctor and private 
secretary, and now the queen's confidential adviser. On the loth 
of October 1839 he and Ernest went again to England to visit the 
queen, with the object of finally settling the marriage. Mutual 
inclination and affection at once brought about the desired 
result. They became definitely engaged on the isth of October, 
and on the loth of February 1840 the marriage was celebrated at 
the chapel-royal, St James's. 

The position in which the prince was placed by his marriage, 
while it was one of distinguished honour, was also one of consider- 
able difficulty; and during his lifetime the tactful way in which 
he filled it was very inadequately appreciated. The public life of 
the prince-consort cannot be separated from that of the queen, 
and it is unnecessary here to repeat such details as are given in 
the article on her (see VICTORIA, QUEEN). The prejudice against 
him, on account of what was regarded as undue influence in 
politics, was never fully dissipated till after his death. His 
co-operation with the queen in dealing with the political responsi- 
bilities which devolved upon the sovereign represented an amount 



of conscientious and self-sacrificing labour which cannot easily 
be exaggerated; and his wisdom in council could only be 
realized, outside a very small circle, when in later years the 
materials for the history of that time became accessible. He was 
indeed a man of cultured and liberal ideas, well qualified to take 
the lead in many reforms which the England of that day sorely 
needed. He was specially interested in endeavours to secure the 
more perfect application of science and art to manufacturing 
industry. The Great Exhibition of 1851 originated in a sugges- 
tion he made at a meeting of the Society of Arts, and owed the 
greater part of its success to his intelligent and unwearied efforts. 
He had to work for its realization against an extraordinary out- 
burst of angry expostulations. Every stage in his project was 
combated. In the House of Peers, Lord Brougham denied the 
right of the crown to hold the exhibition in Hyde Park; in the 
Commons, Colonel Sibthorp prophesied that England would be 
overrun with foreign rogues and revolutionists, who would sub- 
vert the morals of the people, filch their trade secrets from them, 
and destroy their faith and loyalty towards their religion and 
their sovereign. Prince Albert was president of the exhibition 
commission, and every post brought him abusive letters, accusing 
him, as 1 a foreigner, of being intent upon the corruption of 
England. He was not the man to be balked by talk of this kind, 
but quietly persevered, looking always to the probability that the 
manufacturing power of Great Britain would be quickened by 
bringing the best manufactured products of foreign countries 
under the eyes of the mechanics and artisans. A sense of the 
artistic was at this time almost wholly wanting among the 
English people. One day the prince had a conversation with a 
great manufacturer of crockery, and sought to convert him to the 
idea of issuing something better than the eternal willow-pattern 
in white with gold, red or blue, which formed the staple of middle 
and lower class domestic china. The manufacturer held out that 
new shapes and designs would not be saleable; but he was 
induced to try, and he did so with such a rapid success that a 
revolution in the china cupboards of England was accomplished 
from that time. The exhibition was opened by the queen on the 
ist of May 1851, and was a colossal success; and the realized 
surplus of 150,000 went to establish and endow the South 
Kensington Museum (afterwards renamed "Victoria and Albert") 
and to purchase land in that neighbourhood. Similar institu- 
tions, on a smaller scale but with a kindred aim, always found in 
him warm advocacy and substantial support. It was chiefly at 
meetings in connexion with these that he found occasion for the 
delivery of addresses characterized by profound thought and 
comprehensiveness of view, a collection of which was published 
in 1857. One of the most favourable specimens of his powers as 
a speaker is the inaugural address which he delivered as president 
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science when 
it met at Aberdeen in 1859. The education of his family and the 
management of his domestic affairs furnished the prince with 
another very important sphere of action, in which he employed 
himself with conscientious devotedness. 

The estates of the duchy of Cornwall, the hereditary appanage 
of the prince of Wales, were so greatly improved under his 
father's management that the rent-roll rose from 11,000 to 
50,000 a year. Prince Albert, indeed, had a peculiar talent for 
the management of landed estates. His model farm at Windsor 
was in every way worthy of the name; and the grounds at 
Balmoral and Osborne were laid out entirely in conformity with 
his designs. 

A character so pure, and a life so useful and well-directed in 
all its aims, could scarcely fail to win respect among those who 
were acquainted with the facts. As the prince became better 
known, public mistrust began to give way. In 1847, but only 
after a significantly keen contest with Earl Powis, he was elected 
chancellor of the university of Cambridge; and he was after- 
wards appointed master of the Trinity House. In June 1857 the 
formal title of prince-consort was conferred upon him by letters 
patent, in order to settle certain difficulties as to precedence that 
had been raised at foreign courts. 

But in the full career of his usefulness he was cut off. During 



49 6 



ALBERT 



the autumn of 1861 he was busy with the arrangements for the 
projected international exhibition, and it was just after returning 
from one of the meetings in connexion with it that he was seized 
with his last illness. Beginning at the end of November with 
what appeared to be influenza, it proved to be an attack of 
typhoid fever, and, congestion of the lungs supervening, he died 
on the 1 4th of December. The grief of the queen was over- 
whelming and the sympathy of the whole nation marked a 
revulsion of feeling about the prince himself which was not devoid 
of compunction for earlier want of appreciation. The magnificent 
mausoleum at Frogmore, in which his remains were finally 
deposited, was erected at the expense of the queen and the royal 
family; and many public monuments to " Albert the Good " 
were erected all over the country, the most notable being the 
Albert Hall (1867) and the Albert Memorial (1876) in London. 
His name was also commemorated in the queen's institution of 
the Albert medal (1866) in reward for gallantry in saving life, and 
of the order of Victoria and Albert (1862). 

By the queen's authority, her secretary, General Grey, compiled 
The Early Days of the Prince Consort, published in 1867; and The 
Life and Letters of the Prince Consort (1st vol., 1874; 2 "d, 1880) 
was similarly edited by Sir Theodore Martin. A volume of the 
Principal Speeches and Addresses of Prince Albert, with an intro- 
duction by Sir Arthur Helps, was published in 1862. See also the 
Letters of Queen Victoria (1907). (H. CH.) 

ALBERT I. (c. 1250-1308), German king, and duke of Austria, 
eldest son of King Rudolph I., the founder of the greatness of the 
house of Habsburg, was invested with the duchies of Austria 
and Styria, together with his brother Rudolph, in 1282. In 1283 
his father entrusted him with their sole government, and he 
appears to have ruled them with conspicuous success. Rudolph 
was unable to secure the succession to the German throne for 
his son, and on his death in 1291, the princes, fearing Albert's 
power, chose Adolph of Nassau as king. A rising among his 
Swabian dependants compelled Albert to recognize the sovereignty 
of his rival, and to confine himself to the government of the 
Habsburg territories. He did not abandon his hopes of the 
throne, and, in 1298, was chosen German king by some of the 
princes, who were dissatisfied with Adolph. The armies of the 
rival kings met at Gollheim near Worms, where Adolph was 
defeated and slain, and Albert submitted to a fresh election. 
Having secured the support of several influential princes by 
extensive promises, he was chosen at Frankfort on the 27th of 
July 1298, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 24th of 
August following. Albert sought to play an important part in 
European affairs. He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel 
with France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of 
Pope Boniface VIII. to recognize his election led him to change 
his policy, and, in 1 299, a treaty was made between Albert and 
Philip IV., king of France, by which Rudolph, the son of the 
German king, was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French 
king. He afterwards became estranged from Philip, and, in 
1303, was recognized as German king and future emperor by 
Boniface, and, in return, admitted the right of the pope alone 
to bestow the imperial crown, and promised that none of his 
sons should be elected German king without the papal consent. 
Albert had failed in his attempt to seize Holland and Zealand, 
as vacant fiefs of the Empire, on the death of Count John I. in 
1299, but in 1306 he secured the crown of Bohemia for his son 
Rudolph on the death of King Wenceslaus III. He also renewed 
the claim which had been made by his predecessor, Adolf, on 
Thuringia, and interfered in a quarrel over the succession to 
the Hungarian throne. His attack on Thuringia ended in his 
defeat at Lucka in 1307, and, in the same year, the death of his 
son Rudolph weakened his position in eastern Europe. His 
action in abolishing all tolls established on the Rhine since 
1 250, led to the formation of a league against him by the Rhenish 
archbishops and the count palatine of the Rhine; but aided 
by the towns, he soon crushed the rising. He was on the way 
to suppress a revolt in Swabia when he was murdered on the 
jst of May 1308, at Windisch on the Reuss, by his nephew John, 
afterwards called " the Parricide," whom he had deprived of his 
inheritance. Albert married Elizabeth, daughter of Meinhard IV., 



count of Gorz and Tirol, who bore him six sons and five 
daughters. Although a hard, stern man, he had a keen sense 
of justice when his selfish interests were not involved, and few 
of the German kings possessed so practical an intelligence. 
He encouraged the cities, and not content with issuing proclama- 
tions against private war, formed alliances with the princes in 
order to enforce his decrees. The serfs, whose wrongs seldom 
attracted notice in an age indifferent to the claims of common 
humanity, found a friend in this severe monarch, and he pro- 
tected even the despised and persecuted Jews. The stories of 
his cruelty and oppression in the Swiss cantons first appear in 
the 1 6th century, and are now regarded as legendary. 

See G. Droysen, Albrechts I. Bemuhungen um die Nachfolge im 
Reich (Leipzig, 1862); J. F. A. Mucke, Albrecht I. von Habsburg 
(Gotha, 1866); A. L. J. Michelsen, Die Landgrafschajt Thiiringen 
unter den Konigen Adolf, Albrecht, und Heinrich VII. (Jena, 1860). 

ALBERT II. (1397-1439), German king, king of Bohemia 
and Hungary, and (as Albert V.) duke of Austria, was born on 
the toth of August 1397, the son of Albert IV. of Habsburg, duke 
of Austria. He succeeded to the duchy of Austria on his father's 
death in 1404. After receiving a good education, he undertook 
the government of Austria in 1411, and succeeded, with the aid 
of his advisers, in ridding the duchy of the evils which had arisen 
during his minority. He assisted the German king, Sigismund, 
in his campaigns against the Hussites, and in 1422 married 
Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sigismund, who designated 
him as his successor. When the German king died in 1 43 7 , Albert 
was crowned king of Hungary on the ist of January 1438, and 
although crowned king of Bohemia six months later, he was 
unable to obtain possession of the country. He was engaged in 
warfare with the Bohemians and their Polish allies, when on the 
i8th of March 1438 he was chosen German king at Frankfort, an 
honour which he does not appear to have sought. Afterwards 
engaged in defending Hungary against the attacks of the Turks, 
he died on the 27th of October 1439 at Langendorf, and was 
buried at Stuhlweissenburg. Albert was an energetic and war- 
like prince, whose short reign gave great promise of usefulness 
tor Germany. 

See W. Altmann, Die Wahl Albrecht II. zum romischen Konige 
(Berlin, 1886). 

ALBERT (1490-1545), elector and archbishop of Mainz, and 
archbishop of Magdeburg, was the younger son of John Cicero, 
elector of Brandenburg, and was born on the 28th of June 1490. 
Having studied at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he 
entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in 1513 became arch- 
bishop of Magdeburg and administrator of the diocese of 
Halberstadt. In 1514 he obtained the electorate of Mainz, 
and in 1518 was made a cardinal. Meanwhile to pay for the 
pallium of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other expenses 
of his elevation, Albert had borrowed a large sum of money from 
the Fuggers, and had obtained permission from Pope Leo X. to 
conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese to obtain funds 
to repay this loan. For this work he procured the services of 
John Tetzel, and so indirectly exercised a potent influence 
on the course of the Reformation. When the imperial election 
of 1519 drew near, the elector's vote was eagerly solicited by 
the partisans of Charles (afterwards the emperor Charles V.) 
and by those of Francis I., king of France, and he appears to 
have received a large amount of money for the vote which 
he cast eventually for Charles. Albert's large and liberal ideas, 
his friendship with Ulrich von Hutten, and his political ambi- 
tions, appear to have raised hopes that he would be won over 
to the reformed faith; but after the Peasants' War of 1525 he 
ranged himself definitely among the supporters of Catholicism, 
and was among the princes who met to concert measures for its 
defence at Dessau in July 1525. His hostility towards the 
reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother 
Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg; and he appears to have 
exerted himself in the interests of peace, although he was 
member of the league of Nuremberg, which was formed in 1538 
as a counterpoise to the league of Schmalkalden. The new 
doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his 
dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty 



ALBERT 



497 







to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins. 
During his latter years indeed he showed more intolerance 
towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the 
Jesuits in his dominions. Albert adorned the Stiftskirche at 
Halle and the cathedral at Mainz in sumptuous fashion, and 
ik as his motto the words Domine, dilexi decorem domus luae. 
generous patron of art and learning, he counted Erasmus 
iong his friends. He died at Aschaffenburg on the 24th of 
iptember 1545. 

See J. H. Hennes, Albrecht von Brandenburg, Erzbischof von Mainz 
' Magdeburg (Mainz, 1858) ; J. May, Der Kurfurst, Kardinal, 
ErzbischoJ Albrecht II. von Mainz und Magdeburg (Munich, 
165-1875); W. Schum, Kardinal Albrecht von Mainz und die 
'.rfurter Kirchenreformation (Halle, 1878); P. Redlich, Kardinal 
Ibrecht von Brandenburg, und das neue Stift zu Halle (Mainz, 1900). 
ALBERT (1490-1568), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, 
id first duke of Prussia, was the third son of Frederick of 
ohenzollern, prince of Ansbach and Bayreuth, and Sophia, 
daughter of Casimir IV., king of Poland. Born at Ansbach on 
ie i6th of May 1490, he was intended for the church, and 
.ssed some time at the court of Hermann, elector of Cologne, 
ho appointed him to a canonry in his cathedral. Turning to 
more active life, he accompanied the, emperor Maximilian I. 
Italy in 1508, and after his return spent some time in Hungary. 
December, Frederick, grand master of the Teutonic Order, 
ied, and Albert, joining the order, was chosen as his successor 
arly in 1511 in the hope that his relationship to Sigismund I., 
king of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes 
over east Prussia, which had been held by the order under Polish 
suzerainty since 1466. The new master, however, showed no 
desire to be conciliatory, and as war appeared inevitable, he 
made strenuous efforts to secure allies, and carried on tedious 
negotiations with the emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling, 
uenced by the ravages of members of the order in Poland, 
minated in a struggle which began in December 1519. During 
e ensuing year Prussia was devastated, and Albert consented 
ly in 1521 to a truce for four years. The dispute was referred 
the emperor Charles V. and other princes, but as no settlement 
reached the master continued his efforts to obtain help in 
view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited 
Nuremberg in 1522, where he made the acquaintance of the 
reformer, Andreas Osiander, by whose influence he was won 
over to the side of the new faith. He then journeyed to Witten- 
berg, where he was advised by Martin Luther to cast aside the 
senseless rules of his order, to marry, and to convert Prussia 
into an hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which 
commended itself to Albert, had already been discussed by 
some of his relatives; but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, 
and he assured Pope Adrian VI. that he was anxious to reform 
the order and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran 
doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, 
but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to 
spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, 
George, prince of Ansbach, laid the scheme before Sigismund 
of Poland. After some delay the king assented to it provided 
that Prussia were held as a Polish fief; and after this arrange- 
ment had been confirmed by a treaty made at Cracow, Albert 
was invested with the duchy by Sigismund for himself and his 
heirs on the loth of February 1525. The estates of the land 
then met at Konigsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the 
new duke, who used his full powers to forward the doctrines 
of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without 
protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert 
refused to appear and was placed under the ban; while the 
order, having deposed the grand master, made a feeble effort to 
recover Prussia. But as the German princes were either too 
busy or too indifferent to attack the duke, the agitation against 
him soon died away. In imperial politics Albert was fairly 
active. Joining the league of Torgau in 1526, he acted in unison 
with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded 
themselves together to overthrow Charles V. after the issue of 
the Interim in May 1548. For various reasons, however, poverty 
id personal inclination among others, he did not take a 




prominent part in the military operations of this period. The 
early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. 
Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands 
and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles 
and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did 
something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools 
in every town and by giving privileges to serfs who adopted a 
scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded 
a university at Konigsberg, where he appointed his friend 
Osiander to a professorship in 1549. This step was the beginning 
of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. 
Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification 
by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with Melanchthon, 
who had adherents in Konigsberg, and these theological disputes 
soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously 
supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. 
There were no longer church lands available with which to 
conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and 
Albert's rule became unpopular. After Osiander's death in 
1552 he favoured a preacher named John Funck, who, with an 
adventurer named Paul Scalich, exercised great influence over 
him and obtained considerable wealth at the public expense. 
The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political 
disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death 
and the necessity in that event for a regency owing to the youth 
of his only son, Albert Frederick. The duke was consequently 
obliged to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, 
and the climax came in 1566 when the estates appealed to 
Sigismund II., king of Poland, who sent a commission to Konigs- 
berg. Scalich saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed; 
the question of the regency was settled; and a form of Lutheran- 
ism was adopted, and declared binding on all teachers and 
preachers. Virtually deprived of power, the duke lived for two 
years longer, and died at Tapiau on the 2oth of March 1568. In 
1526 he had married Dorothea, daughter of Frederick I., king of 
Denmark, and after her death in 1547, Anna Maria, daughter 
of Eric I., duke of Brunswick. Albert was a voluminous letter- 
writer, and corresponded with many of the leading personages 
of the time. In 1891 a statue was erected to his memory at 
Konigsberg. 

See J. Voigt, Briejwechsel der beruhmtesten Gelehrten des Zeitalters 
der Reformation mit Herzog Albrecht von Preussen (Konigsberg, 
1841); E. Joachim, Die Politik des letzten Hochmeisters in Preussen, 
Albrecht von Brandenburg (Leipzig, 1892); K. Lohmeyer, Herzog 
Albrecht von Preussen (Danzig, 1890). 

ALBERT III. (1443-1 500) , duke of Saxony, surnamed ANIMOSUS 
or THE COURAGEOUS, younger son of Frederick II., the Mild, 
elector and duke of Saxony, was born on the 2'7th of January 
1443, and after escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen, 
who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, passed 
some time at the court of the emperor Frederick III. in Vienna. 
In 1464 he married Zedena, or Sidonia, daughter of George 
Podebrad, king of Bohemia, but failed to obtain the Bohemian 
crown on the death of George in 1471. After the death of the 
elector Frederick in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled their lands 
together, but in 1485 a division was made by the treaty of Leipzig, 
and Albert received Meissen, together with some adjoining 
districts, and founded the Albertine branch of the family of 
Wettin. Regarded as a capable soldier by the emperor, Albert, 
in 1475, took a prominent part in the campaign against Charles 
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and in 1487 led an expedition 
against Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, which failed owing 
to lack of support on the part of the emperor. In 1488 he 
marched with the imperial forces to free the Roman king 
Maximilian from his imprisonment at Bruges, and when, in 
1489, the king returned to Germany, Albert was left as his repre- 
sentative to prosecute the war against the rebels. He was 
successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian in Holland, 
Flanders and Brabant, but failed to obtain any repayment of 
the large sums of money which he had spent in these campaigns. 
His services were rewarded in 1498 when Maximilian bestowed 
upon him the title of hereditary governor (potestat) of Friesland, 
but he had to make good his claim by force of arms. He had 



498 



ALBERT 



to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony, 
when he was recalled by news of a fresh rising. Groningen was 
captured, but soon afterwards the duke died at Emden, on the 
1 2th of September 1500. He was buried at Meissen. Albert, 
who was a man of great strength and considerable skill in feats 
of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly exercises. His 
loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in 
this connexion, aroused some irritation among his subjects, but 
his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony. 

See F. A. von Langenn, Herzog Albrecht der Beherzte, Stammvater 
des koniglichen Houses Sachsen (Leipzig, 1838); O. Sperling, Herzog 
Albrecht der Beherzte von Sachsen als Gubernator Frieslands (Leipzig, 
1892). 

ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, king of Saxony (1828- 
1902), was born on the 23rd of April 1828, being the eldest son 
of Prince John, who succeeded to the throne in 1854. His educa- 
tion was, as is usual with German princes, to a great .extent 
military, but he attended lectures at the university of Bonn. 
His first experience of warfare was in 1849, when he served as 
a captain in the campaign of Schleswig-Holstein against the 
Danes. When the war of 1866 broke out, the crown-prince was 
placed in command of the Saxon forces opposing the Prussian 
army of Prince Frederick Charles. No attempt was made to 
defend Saxony; the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected 
a junction with the Austrians. They took a prominent part in 
the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Iser and 
in the battle of Gitchin.' The crown-prince, however, succeeded 
in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive battle 
of Koniggratz (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) he held the extreme 
left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post 
with great tenacity, but were involved in the disastrous defeat 
of their allies. During these operations the crown-prince won 
the reputation of a thorough soldier; after peace was made and 
Saxony had entered the North German confederation, he was 
placed in command of the Saxon army, which had now become 
the XII. army corps of the North German army, and in this 
position carried out the necessary reorganization. He was a 
firm adherent of the Prussian alliance. On the outbreak of war 
in 1870 he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in 
the 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles, his old opponent. 
At the battle of Gravelotte they formed the extreme left of the 
German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the 
attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the battle. 
In the reorganization of the army which accompanied the march 
towards Paris the crown-prince was given a separate command 
over the 4th army (army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons, 
the Prussian Guard corps and the IV. (Prussian Saxony) corps. 
He was succeeded in command of the XII. corps by his brother 
Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia. He 
took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle 
of Sedan, the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army 
wheeled round in pursuit of MacMahon; and the actions of 
Buzancy and Beaumont on the 29th and 3oth of August were 
fought under his direction; in the battle of Sedan itself, with 
the troops under his orders, he carried out the envelopment of 
the French on the east and north. His conduct in these engage- 
ments won for him the complete confidence of the army, and 
during the siege of Paris his troops formed the north-east section 
of the investing force. After the conclusion of the armistice he 
was left in command of the German army of occupation, a 
position which he held till the fall of the Commune. On the 
conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the 
army and field-marshal. On the death of his father on the 29th of 
October 1873 he succeeded to the throne. His reign was un- 
eventful, and he took little public part in politics, devoting 
himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience 
were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but to 
the German army in general. In 1897 he was appointed arbi- 
trator between the claimants for the principality of Lippe. King 
Albert married in 1853 Carola, daughter of Prince Gustavus 
of Vasa, and granddaughter of the last king of Sweden of the 
house of Holstein. He died on the ipth of June 1902. 



ALBERT, surnamed THE DEGENERATE (c. 1240-1314), land- 
grave of Thuringia, was the eldest son of Henry III., the Illus- 
trious, margrave of Meissen. He married Margaret, daughter of 
the emperor Frederick II., in 1254, and in 1265 received from 
his father Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate. His infatuation 
for Kunigunde of Eisenberg caused his wife to leave him, and 
after her death in 1270 he married Kunigunde, who had already 
borne him a son, Apitz or Albert. He wished to make Apitz 
his successor in Thuringia, a plan which was resisted by his two 
elder sons, and a war broke out which lasted until 1307, when 
he abandoned Thuringia, in return for a yearly payment, but 
retained the title of landgrave (see THURINGIA). Albert, who 
had married Elizabeth, daughter of Hermann III., count of 
Orlamiinde, after the death of his second wife in 1286, died on 
the i3th of November 1314. 

See F. X. Wegele, Friedrich der Friedige, Markgraf von Meissen, 
und die Wettiner seiner Zeit (Nordlingen, 1820); F. W. Tittmann, 
Geschichte Heinrich des Erlauchten Markgraven zu Meissen (Leipzig, 
1863). 

ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT), ARCHDUKE 
(1817-1895), Austrian field-marshal, was the eldest son of the 
archduke Charles (Karl Friedrich), and was born on the 3rd of 
August 1817 at Vienna. After being educated under the careful 
superintendence of his father, he entered the Austrian (K.K.) 
army as a colonel of infantry in 1837, and was transferred to 
the cavalry arm in 1839, becoming a major-general in 1840. A 
brief period of leave in this year he spent at the great manoeuvres 
in Italy, to learn the art of troop-leading from the first soldier 
in Europe, Radetzky. He then took over the command of a 
brigade of all arms at Graz. In 1844 he married Princess 
Hildegarde of Bavaria. He had been made a lieutenant field- 
marshal in the previous year, and was now placed in command of 
the forces in Upper and Lower Austria. In this position he did 
much to maintain and improve the efficiency of the troops under 
his command, at a time when nearly all armies in Europe, with 
the exception of Radetzky's in Italy, had sunk to the lowest 
level. The influence of Radetzky over the young archduke was 
indeed remarkable. At this time the Austrian generals and 
staff officers had committed themselves blindly to the strategical 
method of the archduke Charles, the tradition of whose practical 
soldiership survived only in Radetzky and a few others. Albert 
chose to follow the latter, and was thus saved from the pseudo- 
scientific pedantry which brought defeat to the Austrian arms 
in 1859 and in 1866. His first serious service came in March 
1848, when it became his duty, as district commander, to 
maintain order in Vienna by force, and at the outbreak of 
revolution in Vienna during the month of March he was in 
command of the troops who came into collision with the rioters. 
Owing to the collapse of the government it was impossible to 
repress the disturbances, and he was relieved from a post which 
brought much unpopularity and was not suitable to be held by 
a member of the imperial family. He went at once to the seat 
of war in Italy, and fought under Radetzky as a volunteer 
throughout the campaign of 1848, being present at the action of 
Pastrengo and the battles of Santa Lucia and Custozza. In the 
following campaign he applied for and obtained the command 
of a division in the II. corps (FZM. d'Aspre), though his previous 
grade had been that of a general commanding-in-chief. The 
splendid fighting of the corps at Novara was decisive of the war, 
and Radetzky named d'Aspre, Count Thurn, and the archduke 
as the general officers worthy of the greatest rewards. The 
field-marshal indeed recommended, and almost insisted, that 
Albert should receive the much-prized order of Maria Theresa. 
In 1850 he became a general of cavalry, and in 1851 military 
and civil governor of Hungary. In this important and diffi- 
cult position he remained until 1860, when he was relieved at his 
own request. Shortly afterwards he was appointed to succeed 
Radetzky as commander-in-chief in Italy, and in 1863 he was 
promoted field-marshal. In the following year the archduke 
lost his wife, soon after the marriage of their elder daughter to 
Duke Philip of Wurttemberg. In 1859 and 1864 he was sent 
on important military and diplomatic missions to Berlin. When 



ALBERT ALBERTA 



499 



war became imminent in 1866, the archduke took command of 
the field army in Italy. The story of the campaign of 1866 in 
Italy will be found under ITALIAN WARS (1848-1870); the 
operations of the archduke, who disposed of greatly inferior 
forces, were crowned with success in the brilliant victory of 
Custozza (June 23), and his reputation as a general-in-chief 
was firmly established by only eight days of field operations, 
though it is possible that his chief of staff, Lieut. Field-Marshal 
von John, contributed not a little to the success of the Austrian 
arms. The result of Custozza was the retreat and complete 
immobilization of the whole Italian army, so that Albert was 
able to despatch the greater part of his troops to reinforce the 
Bohemian army, when, after being defeated by the Prussians, 
it fell back on Vienna. On the loth of July the archduke was 
summoned to Vienna to take supreme command of the forces 
which were being collected to defend the capital, but peace 
was made before further hostilities took place. From this time, 
under various titles, he acted as inspector-general of the army. 
Like his father, and with better fortune, he was called upon to 
reorganize the military system of his country on an entirely 
new plan, learned, as before, by defeat. The principle of universal 
short service, and the theory of the armed nation, were necessarily 
the groundwork of the reforms, and the consequent preparation 
of all the national resources for their task in war, by the super- 
intendence of peace administration, by the skilful conduct of 
manoeuvres, was thenceforward the task of his lifetime. In 
1870 he conducted the military negotiations preparatory to an 
alliance with France, which, however, was not concluded. The 
tragic death of his daughter, Princess Mathilde, in 1867, and 
the death of his brother, Archduke Karl Ferdinand, in 1874, 
narrowed still further his family circle, and impelled him to 
even greater activity in his military duties, and to effective par- 
ticipation in the work of many military charities. He retained 
personal control of the army until his last illness, which he 
contracted at the funeral of his nephew Francis, ex-king of 
Naples. His only remaining brother, the archduke Wilhelm, 
had died a few months before, as the result of an accident. 
He himself died on the i8th of February 1895. His only son 
died in childhood, and his nephew Archduke Frederick (born 
1856) inherited his great possessions, including the Albertina, 
a famous collection of books, manuscripts, engravings and maps, 
founded by Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen. 

Amongst the military works of the Archduke Albert may be 
named liber die Verantwortlichkeil im Kriege (a work which 
created a great sensation, and was translated into English and 
French), Gedanken Uber dem Militargeist, Uber die hohere Leitung 
im Kriege, and Kritische Betrachtungen iiber den Feldzug 1866 in 
Italien. He also was the principal editor of the military works 
of his father. 

See Duncker, F. M. Erzkerzog Albrecht (Vienna and Prague, 
1897) ; Mathes v. Bilabriick, " Gedenkrede auf Weiland Sr. K. u. K. 
H. Erzh. Albrecht," Mil.-Wissenschaftl. Verein, 1895; Teuber, 
F. M. Erzh. Albrecht, ein Lebensbild (Vienna, 1895). 

ALBERT, MADAME (c. 1805-1846), French actress, whose 
maiden name was Therese Vernet, was born of a family of players. 
She first appeared in children's and ingenue parts, and in comic 
opera, and it was not until 1827, two years after her Paris dbut, 
that her great talents were seen and appreciated. In Caleb 
Valentine, Henry V., Madame Dubarry, Catherine II., Leontine, 
Un duel sous le cardinal de Richelieu, and many other plays, her 
grace, beauty and distinction of manner made her the idol of 
Paris, and her circle of admirers was widened by long tours of 
the provinces and abroad. Ill-health compelled her to retire in 
1846. She was twice married, about 1825 to Albert Rodrigues, 
an actor who played under his Christian name, and in 1846 to 
Eugene Bignon (1812-1858), the actor and playwright. 

ALBERT OF AIX (fl. c. A.D. noo), historian of the first 

j crusade, was born during the later part of the nth century, 

. and afterwards became canon and custos of the church of Aix-la- 

Chapelle. Nothing else is known of his life except that he was 

the author of a Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis, or Chroni- 

' con Hierosolymitanum de hello sacro, a work in twelve books, 



written between 1125 and 1150. This history begins at the time 
of the council of Clermont, deals with the fortunes of the first 
crusade and the earlier history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 
and ends somewhat abruptly in 1121. It was well known during 
the middle ages, and was largely used by William, archbishop of 
Tyre, for the first six books of his Belli sacri historia. In modern 
times its historical value has been seriously impugned, but the 
verdict of the best scholarship seems to be that in general it forms 
a true record of the events of the first crusade, although contain- 
ing some legendary matter. Albert never visited the Holy Land, 
but he appears to have had a considerable amount of intercourse 
with returned crusaders, and to have had access to valuable 
correspondence. The first edition of the history was published 
at Helmstadt in 1584, and a good edition is in the Recueil des 
historiens des croisades, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887). 

See F. Krebs, Zur Kritik Alberts von Aachen (Miinster, 1881); 
B. Kugler, Albert von Aachen (Stuttgart, 1885); M. Pigeonneau, 
Le Cycle de la croisade et de lafamille de Bouillon (Paris, 1877) ; H. von 
Sybel, Ceschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881) ; F. Vercruysse, 
Essai critique sur la chronique d' Albert d'Aix (Liege, 1889). 

ALBERTA, a province of western Canada, established in 
1905. Area 260,000 sq. m. It is bounded S. by the United 
States boundary line, 49 N.; E. by no" W., which divides 
it from the province of Saskatchewan; N. by 60 N., which 
separates it from the North-West Territories; and W. by the 
line of peaks of the Rocky Mountains range, which runs north- 
westerly, and divides it from British Columbia. A fertile 
province, in the eastern and southern portions its surface con- 
sists chiefly of plains almost entirely treeless. As the slopes of 
the Rocky Mountains to the west are reached more trees are 
found, until in the foot-hills of the mountains bodies of forest 
timber occur. Trees become more numerous also northward 
in the province, until in the region north of the North Saskat- 
chewan river forests are again met with. From the southern 
boundary line for two and a half degrees north the prairie is 
dry, but of good soil, which grows excellent crops when irrigated. 
North of this region the surface of the province is of most fertile 
soil, the ordinary rainfall sufficing for agriculture. The appear- 
ance of the prairie section of the province is that of undulating 
meadows, with rounded sloping ridges covered with shorter 
grasses, which serve for the support of great herds of cattle and 
horses. The wooded portions of the terrain are dotted with 
clumps and belts of trees of moderate size, giving them a park- 
like appearance. In winter the snowfall is very light, and even 
this is frequently removed by warm winds from the west. 
Within a hundred miles of the mountains there is constantly 
in view, in clear weather, the beautiful line of snowy peaks 
along the western horizon. This continues for hundreds of 
miles north-westward. The Rocky Mountains, which give its 
charm to Alberta, are ascended by a gradual approach from the 
east, but are exceedingly abrupt on their transalpine slope in 
British Columbia. The peaks of these mountains are majestic, 
many of them reaching a height of more than two miles above 
the sea. Among the more notable of these are Robson peak, 
13,700 ft.; Athabasca, 13,700; Assiniboine, 11,830; Lyell, 
12,000; Mummery, 12,000; Temple, 11,658; and Geikie, 11,000. 
Mt. Brown reaches 9050. 

Through these Rocky Mountains the explorers and fur- 
traders, by ascending the streams running down the eastern 
declivities of the mountains, and crossing by short portages to 
the streams of the western slope, have succeeded in discovering 
passes by which the mountain chain can be crossed, the range 
rarely exceeding 60 m. in breadth. The most noted of the 
Alberta passes are (i) the Crow's Nest Pass, near the southern 
boundary line, through which a branch of the Canadian Pacific 
railway runs; (2) the Kicking Horse Pass, through which the 
main line of the Canadian Pacific railway is built; 40 m. from 
the eastern end of this pass is the Rocky Mountains Park, with 
the famous watering-place of Banff as its centre; (3) the Yellow 
Head Pass, running west from the northern branch of the 
Saskatchewan river; this pass was discovered by Capt. Palliser 
(1858), was crossed by Lord Milton and Dr W. B. Cheadle (1861), 
and by Sandford Fleming (1871-1872) in the Ocean to Ocean 



5 



ALBERTA 



expedition; (4) Peace River Pass. By this pass Alexander 
Mackenzie made his celebrated voyage. There are other minor 
passes, and no doubt more to be discovered. 

With the exception of the southern section, the province of 
Alberta may be said to be well watered. Rising from numerous 
valleys on the Alberta declivity of the Rocky Mountains between 
the international boundary line and 52 N. are streams which 
unite to form the Belly river, and farther north the Bow river. 
Running eastward these two rivers unite about 112 W., and 




Scale, i :8. ooo.ooo 

English Miles 
o 90 100 



Rail~aii ......... _ 

Onutd Trunk facific l 



Canal* ..... 



flow on under the name of the South Saskatchewan river. 
North of 52 N. many small streams unite to form the Red Deer 
river, which flowing south-eastward joins the South Saskat- 
chewan near 110 W. Between 52 and 53 N. rises the great 
river, the North Saskatchewan. It receives a southern tributary, 
the Battle river, which joins it about 108 W. Pursuing their 
courses eastward the North and South Saskatchewan rivers 
unite in the Saskatchewan (Cree, rapid-flowing river), which 
finds its way to Lake Winnipeg, and thence by way of Nelson 
river to Hudson Bay. It is one of the mightiest rivers of the 
continent. 

Between 53 and 54 N. begins the height of land running 
north-easterly, north of which all the waters of Alberta flow 
toward the Arctic Sea. In northern Alberta, on the northern 



slope, gathering its tributaries from rills in the Rocky Mountains, 
the river Athabasca runs north and empties into Lake Athabasca 
near 58 N. North of 56 N. flows through and from the Rocky 
Mountains the Peace river. After descending north-eastward 
to within a few miles of Lake Athabasca, it is met by a stream 
emerging from that lake. The united river carrying down the 
waters of the Athabasca slope is called the Slave river, which, 
passing through Great Slave Lake, emerges as the great 
Mackenzie river, which falls into the Arctic Sea. Alberta thus 
gives rise to the two great rivers Saskatchewan and Mackenzie. 
While a number of fresh-water, or in some cases brackish, lakes 
each less than 100 sq. m. in extent are situated in Alberta, two 
of more considerable size are found. These are Lake Athabasca. 
3085 sq. m. in extent, of which a part is in the province of 
Saskatchewan, and the other Lesser Slave Lake some 600 sq. m. 
in area. 

Climate. As Alberta extends for 750 m. from north to 
south as great a distance as from Land's End in England to 
the north of the Shetland Isles it is natural that the climate 
should vary considerably between parallels of 49 and 60 N., 
and also between 110 and 120 W. It is also further influenced 
by the different altitudes above the sea of the several parts of 
the province. Dividing the province into three equal parts of 
250 m. each from north to south, these may be called (A) 
the south, (B) the centre, (C) the north. The following data 
may be considered: 

CLIMATIC TABLE 






Climate. 


Places. 


Above the 
Sea. 


Mean 
Winter 
Temp. 


(A) Moderate and 
changeable 


Medicine Hat, lat. 
50 N. 
Calgary, lat. 1 
Banff, lat. 5lJ 


2171 ft. 

3421 
4515 - 


14.3 F. 

'K , 
15-9 


(B) Steady . 


Edmonton, lat. 535 


2210 ,, 


10-3 


(C) Severe 


Fort Chipewyan, lat. 
59 N. 


6OO 


7-2 ., 



Climate (A) allows, in what is a great ranching district, 
cattle and horses to run at large through the whole winter. 
Through the mountain passes come at times dry winds from 
the Pacific coast, which lick up the snow in a few hours. These 
winds are known as Chinook winds. While elevating the tem- 
perature they bring more moisture into the air and produce 
a change not entirely desirable. 

Climate (B) is the steady winter climate of Edmonton district. 
This while averaging a lower temperature than (A) is not so 
subject to change; it retains the snow for sleighing, which is a 
boon to the farmer. This climate is much less influenced by 
the Pacific winds than (A). 

Climate (C), that of Fort Chipewyan, having a mean winter 
temperature of 22-6 lower than Calgary, is a decidedly sub-arctic 
climate. It is the region in winter of constant ice and snow, but 
its lower altitude gives it a summer climate with a mean tem- 
perature of only 1-6 less than Calgary, and 1-8 less than Ed- 
monton. It will thus be seen that the agricultural capabilities 
of the Athabasca and Peace river districts, not yet fully known, 
are full of promise. 

Fauna, The three climatic regions of Alberta have naturallj 
a varying fauna. The south and central region was the land of 
the bison, its grasses affording a great pasture ground for tens of 
thousands of " buffaloes." They were destroyed by whites and 
Indians in 1879-1882 on the approach of the Canadian Pacific 
railway. Grizzly, black and cinnamon bears are found in the 
mountains and wooded districts. The coyote or small wolf, here 
and there the grey wolf, the fox and the mountain lion (panther) 
occur. The moose and red deer are found in the wooded regions, 
and the jumping deer and antelope on the prairies. Wild sheep 
and goats live in the Rocky Mountains. The lynx, wolverine, 
porcupine, skunk, hare, squirrel and mouse are met. The gopher 
is a resident of the dry plains. District (C) is the fur-trader's 



ALBERTA 



paradise. The buffalo is replaced by the mountain buffaloes, of 
which a few survive. The musk-ox comes in thousands every 
year to the great northern lakes, while the mink, marten, beaver, 
otter, ermine and musk-rat are sought by the fur-trader. Fort 
Chipewyan was long known in Hudson's Bay Company history 
as the great depot of the Mackenzie river district. Northern 
Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting-ground of the 
migratory birds. Here vast numbers of ducks, geese, swans and 
pelicans resort every year. Cranes, partridges and varieties of 
singing birds abound. The eagle, hawk, owl and crow are plenti- 
ful. Mosquitoes and flies are everywhere, and the wasp and wild 
bee also. In the rivers and lakes pike, pickerel, white fish and 
sturgeon supply food for the natives, and the brook trout is found 
in the small mountain streams. The turtle and frog also appear. 

Flora. In central and northern Alberta the opening spring 
brings in the prairie anemone, the avens and other early flowers. 
The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the sunflower 
family, until in August the plains are one blaze of yellow and 
purple. The southern part of Alberta is covered by a short grass, 
very nutritive, but drying up in the middle of summer until the 
whole prairie is brown and unattractive. The trees in the wooded 
sections of the province are seen in clumps and belts on the hill- 
sides. These are largely deciduous. On the north side of the 
Saskatchewan river forests prevail for scores and even hundreds 
of miles. They contain the poplar or aspen (Populus tremuloides) , 
balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) , and paper or canoe birch 
(Betula papyri/era). The Coniferae are found northward and in 
the mountain valleys. Some of these are: Jack pine (Finns 
Banksiana), Rocky Mountain pine (Pinus flexilis), black pine 
(Pinus Murrayana), white spruce (Picea alba), black spruce 
(Picea nigra), Engelman's spruce (Picea Engelmanni) , mountain 
balsam (Abies subalpina), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), 
mountain larch (Larix Lyallis). 

Population. By the census of 1906 the population of Alberta 
was found to be 185,412. It has grown from 73,022 in 1901 (the 
area of Alberta being then slightly different). The basis of the 
population is Canadian, and the immigration has been chiefly 
from (i) the British Isles, (2) United States, (3) continent of 
Europe (chiefly Austria, Hungary and Russia). Of the popula- 
tion in 1901, 17,245 had immigrated thither from the three 
mentioned sources. The following table shows the percentages 
of origins: 



I 





1901. 


Canadian and native born 
The British Isles .... 
United States 
Continent of Europe 


54 % 
6-8 % 
1 6-6 % 
24-4 % 



Of the Indian and Indian half-breed population there were in 
1901, 14,669 of the former and 11,635 of the latter. The Indians 
of central Alberta are chiefly plain Crees, a tribe of Algonquin 
stock. In southern Alberta are several thousands of Indians on 
reserves south and west of Calgary, consisting of the Blackfoots 
of Algonquin stock, Sarcees, Piegans and a few Assiniboins. 

The chief cities and towns of Alberta are Edmonton (11,167), 
Calgary (11,967), Medicine Hat (3020), Lethbridge (2948) and 
Strathcona(2927). 

Industries. The chief industries of the people are farming and 
ranching. Cattle, horses and sheep are largely reared in the 
southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. In this 
region irrigation is widely used. Red winter wheat is now pro- 
duced to a considerable degree. In the town of Raymond is a 
large beet sugar manufactory, and in the vicinity great quantities 
of beets are grown by irrigation. In central Alberta coarse 
grains oats and barley and some wheat are grown, in conjunc- 
tion with mixed farming. While washing out the sands of the 
North Saskatchewan for gold is still somewhat resorted to, the 
only real mining in Albe.rta is that for coal. Vast beds of coal are 
found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the 
surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds, 
and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures is of excellent 
quality. In the valley of the Bow river, alongside the Canadian 



Ki 



Pacific railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal are worked, and 
the coal. is carried by railway as far east as Winnipeg. The usual 
coal deposits of Alberta are of bituminous or semi-bituminous 
coal. These are largely worked at Lethbridge in southern 
Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the province. Many other 
parts of the province have pits for private use. The Athabasca 
river region, as well as localities far north on the Mackenzie river, 
has decided indications of petroleum, though it is not yet de- 
veloped. Natural gas has been found at several points. The 
most notable gas discovery is that at Medicine Hat, which has 
wells with unlimited quantities. The gas is excellent, is used for 
lighting the town, supplies light and fuel for the people, and a 
number of industries are using the gas for manufacturing. 

Communications. For transportation the North Saskatchewan 
is to some extent depended on for carrying freight by steamboats, 
but railways are widespread in the province. The Canadian 
Pacific railway has its main line running from east to west chiefly 
between 50 and 51 N. Over this line passes an enormous trade 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean the railway with its 
"Empress" steamers on the Pacific and also on the Atlantic 
Ocean claiming to have as its termini Liverpool and Yokohama. 
A branch line of the Canadian Pacific railway runs from Medicine 
Hat between 49 and 50 N., passing through the Crow's Nest 
Pass of the Rocky Mountains and carrying on trade with British 
Columbia. Another branch from Calgary runs southward to 
Macleod, and to Lethbridge there comes from the south a branch 
cf the Great Northern railway of the United States, connecting 
with the state of Montana. From Calgary to Edmonton north- 
ward runs a line under the control of the Canadian Pacific railway. 
From this railway also run, eastward from Lacombe and 
Wetaskiwin, branch lines to complete the system. In 1906 the 
new line of the Canadian Northern railway was opened, 
connecting Winnipeg, 1000 m. to the east, along the North 
Saskatchewan river, with Edmonton. The Grand Trunk Pacific 
railway, backed by the Canadian government, forms a new 
transcontinental line; the prairie section from Winnipeg to 
Edmonton was in 1908 under contract. 

Administration, &c. The local government of Alberta is carried 
on by a provincial organization resembling that of the other 
Canadian provinces. The capital of the province is Edmonton, 
and here reside the lieutenant-governor and cabinet. The 
legislature consists of one house the Legislative Assembly of 
twenty-five members. Responsible government after the British 
model is followed, and the revenue is chiefly derived from grants 
from the Dominion government. Alberta has a system of muni- 
cipal government similar to that of the other provinces. 

Education is given by a public-school system, which, while 
nominally providing for separate schools for Catholics and Pro- 
testants, makes it practically impossible at most points to carry 
on such schools. A normal school is situated at Calgary. There 
is a college for secondary education in Calgary and another in 
Edmonton. 

The following are the leading denominations in Alberta: 



Roman Catholics 
Presbyterians 
Methodists 
Church of England 
Lutherans . 
Greek Church 
Mormons 
Baptists 



1901. 

12,957 
10,655 
9,623 
8,888 
5,810 
4,618 
3-212 
2,722 



The Mormons of Alberta are in the most southerly part of the 
province, and are a colony from the Mormon settlements in 
Utah, U.S. On coming to Canada they were given lands by the 
Dominion of Canada. The organization adopted in Utah among 
the Mormons is found also in Alberta, but the Canadian Mormons 
profess to have received a later revelation condemning polygamy. 

History. The present province of Alberta as far north as the 
height of land (53 N.) was from the time of the incorporation 
of the Hudson's Bay Company (1670) a part of Rupert's Land. 
After the discovery of the north-west by the French in 1731 
and succeeding years the prairies of the west were occupied by 



5 02 



ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA ALBERTINELLI 



them, and Fort La Jonquiere was established near the present 
city of Calgary (1752). The North-West Company of Montreal 
occupied the northern part of Alberta district before the Hudson's 
Bay Company succeeded in coming from Hudson Bay to take 
possession of it. The first hold of the Athabasca region was 
gained by Peter Pond, who, on behalf of the North-West Company 
of Montreal, built Fort Athabasca on river La Biche in 1778. 
Roderick Mackenzie, cousin of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, built 
Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca in 1788. By way of the 
North Saskatchewan river Alexander Mackenzie crossed the 
height of land, and proceeding northward discovered the river 
which bears his name, and also the Arctic Sea. Afterward 
going westward from Lake Athabasca and through the Peace 
river, he reached the Pacific Ocean, being the first white man 
to cross the North American continent, north of Mexico. 

As part of the North-West Territories the district of Alberta 
was organized in 1875. Additional privileges and a local legis- 
lature were added from time to time. At length in 1905 the 
district of Alberta was enlarged and the present province formed 
by the Dominion parliament. (G. BR.) 

ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA, a lake of Central Africa, the 
southern of the two western reservoirs of the Nile. It lies in 
the Albertine rift-valley between o 8' and o 40' S. and 29 28' 
and 29 52' E., at an elevation of 3004 ft. above the sea. 
It is roughly oval in shape and has no deep indentations. On 
its N.E. side it is connected by a winding channel, 25 m. long 
and from a quarter of a mile to a mile wide, flowing between 
high banks, with a smaller sheet of water, Lake Dweru, which 
extends north of the equator. Albert Edward Nyanza has a 
length of 44 m. and a breadth of 32 m. (maximum measurement). 
Dweru is about 20 m. long and 10 across at its widest part. 
The area of the two lakes is approximately 820 sq. m., or about 
the size of Leicestershire, England. A swampy plain, traversed 
by the Ruchuru and other rivers, extends south of the Nyanza 
and was once covered by its waters. The plain contains several 
salt-pans, and at the S.E. corner are numerous geysers. Along 
the eastern shore the low land extends to Kamarangu, a point 
about midway between the south and north ends of the lake, a 
considerable stretch of ground intervening between the wall of 
the rift-valley and the water, two terraces being clearly defined. 
The euphorbia trees and other vegetation on the lower terrace 
are of small size and apparently of recent origin. At some 
distance from the lake runs a belt of forest. North of Kamarangu 
the wall of the valley approaches the water in a series of bluffs 
some 300 to 350 ft. high. At the N.E. end the hills again recede 
and the plain widens to include Dweru. On the west side of 
the Nyanza the wall of the rift-valley runs close to the lake 
shore and at the N.W. corner the mountains close in on the water. 
North of the lake a high alluvial plain stretches to the southern 
slopes of the Ruwenzori mountains. From Ruwenzori a sub- 
sidiary range, known as the Kipura mountains, runs due south 
to the lake shore, where it ends in a low rounded hill. In general, 
the plain rises above the lake in a series of bold bluffs, a wide 
margin of swamp separating them from the water. The Semliki, 
the only outlet of the lake, issues from its N.W. end. Round the 
north-eastern shore of the lake are numerous crater lakes, many 
salt, the most remarkable being that of Katwe. This lake lies 
west of the Dweru channel and is separated from Albert Edward 
Nyanza by a ridge of land, not more than 160 ft. in breadth. 
The sides of this ridge run down steeply to the water on either 
side. The waters of the Katwe lake have a beautiful rose colour 
which becomes crimson in the shadows. The salt is highly prized 
and is exported to great distances. 

The main feeder of Albert Edward Nyanza, and western 
head-stream of the Nile, the Ruchuru, rises on the north side of 
the volcanoes north of Lake Kivu (see MFUMBIRO). On reaching 
the level plain ism. from the lake its waters become brackish, 
and the vegetation on its banks is scanty. The reedy marshes 
near its mouth form a retreat for a primitive race of fishermen. 
Lake Dweru, the shores of which are generally high, is fed by 
the streams from the eastern slopes of the Ruwenzori range. 
One of these, the Mpango, is a larger river than the Ruchuru. 



The outlet of the Nyanza, the Semliki, and the part played 
by the lake in the Nile system are described under ALBERT 
NYANZA. 

A feature of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza is the thick haze 
which overhangs the water during the dry season, blotting out 
from view the mountains. In the rains, when the sky is clear, 
the magnificent panorama of hills encircling the lake on the west 
and north-west is revealed. The lake water is clear of a light 
green colour, and distinctly brackish. Fish abound, as do 
waterfowl, crocodiles and, in the southern swamps, hippo- 
potami. In the rainy season the lake is subject to violent 
storms. 

The entire area of Albert Edward Nyanza was found, by the 
work of the Anglo-German Boundary Commission of 1902-1904, 
to lie within the limits of the sphere of influence of the Congo 
Free State as defined in the agreement of the I2th of May 1894 
between that state and Great Britain. Dweru was discovered 
in 1875 by H. M. Stanley, then travelling westward from Uganda, 
and by him was named Beatrice Gulf in the belief that it was 
part of Albert Nyanza. In 1888-1889 Stanley, approaching 
the Nile region from the west, traced the Semliki to its source 
in Albert Edward Nyanza, which lake he discovered, naming it 
after Albert Edward, prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII. 
Stanley also discovered the connecting channel between the 
larger lake and Dweru. The accurate mapping of the lake was 
mainly the work of British officials and travellers, such as Scott 
Elliott, Sir F. D. Lugard, Ewart Grogan, J. E. Moore and Sir H. 
Johnston; while Emin Pasha and Franz Stuhlmann, deputy- 
governor (1891) of German East Africa, explored its southern 
shores. (See ALBERT NYANZA and NILE; and the authorities 
there quoted.) (W. E. G.; F. R. C.) 

ALBERTI, DOMENICO (c. 1710-1740), Italian musician, is 
known in musical history as the writer of dozens of sonatas in 
which the melody is supported from beginning to end by an 
extremely familiar formula of arpeggio accompaniment, conse- 
quently known as the Alberti bass. He thus shows how advanced 
was the decay of polyphonic sensibility (as a negative preparation 
for the advent of the sonata -style) already during the lifetime of 
Bach. His works have no other special qualities, though it is 
probable that Mozart's first violin sonatas, written at the age 
of seven, were modelled on Alberti in spite of their superior 
cleverness. 

ALBERTI, LEONE BATTISTA (1404-1472), Italian painter, 
poet, philosopher, musician and architect, was born in Venice 
on the i8th of February 1404. He was so skilled in Latin verse 
that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled Philo- 
doxius, deceived the younger Aldus, who edited and published 
it as the genuine work of Lepidus. In music he was reputed 
one of the first organists of the age. He held the appointment 
of canon in the metropolitan church of Florence, and thus had 
leisure to devote himself to his favourite art. He is generally 
regarded as one of the restorers of the ancient style of archi- 
tecture. At Rome he was employed by Pope Nicholas V. in 
the restoration of the papal palace and of the foundation of 
Acqua Vergine, and in the ornamentation of the magnificent 
fountain of Trevi. At Mantua he designed the church of Sant' 
Andrea and at Rimini the celebrated church of San Francesco, 
which is generally esteemed his finest work. On a commission 
from Rucellai he designed the principal fagade of the church 
of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, as well as the family palace 
in the Via della Scala, now known as, the Palazzo Strozzi. Albert! 
wrote works on sculpture, Della Stalua, and on painting, De 
Pictura, which are highly esteemed; but his most celebrated 
treatise is that on architecture, De Re Aedificatoria, which has 
been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English. 
Alberti died at Rome in the April of 1472. 

See Passerini, Cli Alberti di Firenze (1869, 1870); Mancini, V 
di Alberti (Firenze, 1882); V. Hoffmann, Studien zu Leon Battista 
Alberti's zehn Biichern: De Re Aedificatorid (Frankenberg, 1883). 

ALBERTINELLI, MARIOTTO (1474-1515), Italian painter, 
was born in Florence, and was a fellow-pupil and partner of 
Fra Bartolommeo, with whom he painted many works. His 



ALBERTITE ALBERT NYANZA 



chief paintings are in Florence, notably his masterpiece, the 
" Visitation of the Virgin " (1503) at the Uffizi. 

ALBERTITE, a variety of asphalt found in Albert county, 
New Brunswick. It is of jet-black colour and brilliant pitch-like 
lustre. Its percentage chemical composition is: 



503 



c. 


H. 


O. 


N. 


S. 


Ash. 


86-04 


8-96 


1-97 


2-93 


trace 


O-IO 



It softens slightly in boiling water, but only fuses imperfectly 
when further heated, and it is less soluble than ordinary asphalt 
in oil of turpentine. 

ALBERT LEA, a city and the county-seat of Freeborn county, 
Minnesota, U.S.A., about 97 m. S. of St Paul. Pop. (1890) 
3305; (1900) 4506; (1905, state census) 5657, 1206 being for- 
eign-born (461 Norwegians, 411 Danes, 98 Swedes); (1910, U. S. 
census) 6192. It is served by two branches of the Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St Paul, by the main line and one branch of 
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, by the Illinois Central, 
by the Iowa Central, and by the Minneapolis & St Louis 
railways. It is attractively situated between Fountain Lake 
and Albert Lea Lake, and is a summer resort. It has a public 
library and the Freeborn County Court House, and is the seat 
of Albert Lea College (Presbyterian, for women), founded in 
1 884, and of Luther Academy (Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran) , 
founded in 1888. Albert Lea is a railway and manufacturing 
centre of considerable importance, has grain elevators and 
foundries and machine shops, and manufactures bricks, tiles, 
carriages, wagons, flour, corsets, refrigerators and woollen 
goods. The city is also the centre of large dairy interests, and 
there are many creameries in the county. Numerous artesian 
wells furnish the city with an ample supply of water of unusual 
excellence. Albert Lea was settled in 1855 and received a city 
charter in 1878. The city and the lake were named in honour of 
Lieutenant Albert Miller Lea (1808-1891), a West Point graduate 
(1831) who, on behalf of the United States government, first 
surveyed the region and described it in a report published in 
1836. He was a lieutenant-colonel of engineers in the Con- 
federate army during the Civil War. 
ALBERT NYANZA, a lake of Central Africa, the northern 

1 of the two western reservoirs of the Nile, lying in the western 
(Albertine) rift-valley, near its north end. The southern reser- 
voir is Albert Edward Nyanza (q.v.). Lake Albert lies between 
i 9' and 2 17' N. and 30 30' and 31 35' E., at an elevation 
of about 2000 ft. above the sea. Its greatest length is about 
100 m., its greatest width 22 m., its area being approximately 
1640 sq. m., about the size of Lancashire, England. South of 
the lake is a wide plain, traversed by the Semliki river, which 
enters the Nyanza through a swamp of tall weeds, chiefly ambach 
and papyrus. Both east and west the walls of the rift-valley are 
close to the lake, the water in many places washing the base of the 
cliffs. Elsewhere the narrow foreshore is thickly wooded. The 

! ascent to the plateaus is generally by three tiers of hills rising 
one behind the other. On the west side the mountains present 
many pointed and conical summits; on the east the cliffs rise 
abruptly 1000 to 2000 ft. On either coast wild gorges and 
ravines, densely wooded, break the outline of the mountains. 
Through these gorges dash magnificent cascades, others leaping 
the escarpments of the plateaus in waterfalls of great volume 
and depth. Towards the north the hills recede from the coast 
and on both sides flats extend for distances varying from 
S to 15 m. On the eastern side, 92 m. from the southern end 
of the Nyanza, the Victoria Nile enters the lake, here not 
more than 6 m. across, through a wilderness of woods, the 
delta of the Nile extending over 4 m. The mouth of the 
main stream is obstructed by a bar of its own formation; the 

, current is sluggish ; there are many side channels, and the appear- 
ance of the lake gives no hint that a great river has joined its 
waters. For 5 or 6 m. north of the junction of the Victoria 
Nile the lake suffers no material diminution in width. Then, 
however, the eastern and western shores approach each other, 
a current is perceptible flowing north. The lake has become 






the Bahr-el-Jebel, or Mountain river, as this section of the Nile 
is called. Throughout its extent Albert Nyanza is shallow; 
at its southern end the water for a considerable distance is not 
more than 3 ft. deep. The deepest soundings give only 50 to 
55 ft., the average depth being 30 to 40 ft. 

The Albertine Basin of the Nile. Albert Nyanza receives the 
whole of the drainage of Albert Edward Nyanza and the Semliki 
river, and with them and its own basin forms the "Albertine " 
Nile system. Its waters, as stated above, mingle with those 
of the Victoria Nile, their united volume flowing north towards 
the Mediterranean. A study of the changes going on in the rift- 
valley in which the lakes lie leads, however, \o the belief that 
the Albert Edward and Albert Nyanzas are drying up, a process 
which the nature of the drainage areas is helping to bring about. 
That the Albert Edward Nyanza once covered a much larger 
area than it does at present is certain. At that time, recent 
from a geological standpoint, the valley to the north, through 
which now flows the Semliki river, was blocked. The removal of 
the block led to the shrinkage of the lake and the formation of 
the Semliki, which found its way to the more northern lake 
Albert Nyanza. Gradually the Semliki eroded its bed, and 
consequently the level of Albert Edward Nyanza continued to 
fall. The process continues but is checked by the existence of 
the rock barrier which stretches across the Semliki. This stream 
leaves Albert Edward Nyanza at its N.W. end in o 8' 30* S., 
and after a course of about 160 m. enters Albert Nyanza in 
i 9' N. In its upper and in its lower course the river flows 
either through high alluvial plains, in which it has scored a 
deep channel, or across swamp land. In the middle section, which 
has a length of some 75m., the river runs in a deep narrow valley 
covered with the densest forest. On the west this valley is 
bounded by the Congo mountains, which form the wall of the 
rift-valley, on the east by the mighty range of Ruwenzori, whose 
heights tower over 16,000 ft. above sea -level. In this length 
of 75 m. the river falls in cataracts and rapids over 800 ft. This 
rocky barrier acts as a regulator for the water received from 
Albert Edward Nyanza and, by checking the erosion of the 
river bed, tends to maintain the level of the lake. When this 
bar wears away Albert Edward Nyanza will, in all probability, 
disappear as a lake and will become a river, a continuation of 
its present most southern affluent, the Ruchuru. 

Albert Nyanza, on the other hand, is threatened in the distant 
future with destruction from another cause the filling of its bed 
by the alluvium poured into it by the Semliki, the Victoria Nile 
and, in a lesser degree, by other streams. The Semliki receives 
directly or indirectly the whole of the drainage of Ruwenzori, and 
also that of the eastern face of the Congo mountains as well as 
the drainage basin of Albert Edward Nyanza. The amount of 
alluvial matter carried is enormous; from Ruwenzori alone the 
detritus is very great. Charged with all this matter, the Semliki, 
as it emerges from the region of forest and cataracts (in which, 
often closely confined by its mountain barriers, the stream is deep 
and rapid), becomes sluggish, its slope flattens out, and its waters, 
unable to carry their burden, deposit much of it upon the land. 
This process, continually going on, has formed a large plain at the 
south end of Albert Nyanza, which has seriously encroached upon 
the lake. At the northern end of the lake the sediment brought 
down by the Victoria Nile is producing a similar effect. Albert 
Nyanza has indeed shrunk in its dimensions during the com- 
paratively few years it has been known to Europeans. Thus at 
the S.W. end, Nyamsasi, which was an island in 1889, has become 
a peninsula. Islands which in 1876 were on the east coast no 
longer exist; they now form part of the foreshore. On the other 
hand, the shrinkage of the lake level caused the appearance in 
1885 of an island where in 1879 there had been an expanse of 
shallow water. It seems probable that, in a period geologically 
not very remote, the " Albertine " system will consist of one 
great river, extending from the northern slopes of the Kivu range, 
where the Ruchuru has its rise, to the existing junction of the 
Victoria Nile with Albert Nyanza. 

The combined drainage area, including the water surface of 
Albert Edward Nyanza, the Semliki and Albert Nyanza, is some 



504 



ALBERTUS MAGNUS ALBERY 



16,600 sq. m. Throughout this area the rainfall is heavy (40 to 
60 in. or more per annum), the volume of water entering 
Albert Nyanza by the Semliki when in flood being not less than 
700 cubic metres per second. Of the water received by Albert 
Nyanza annually (omitting the Victoria Nile from the calculation) 
between 50 and 60% is lost by evaporation, whilst 24,265,000,000 
cubic metres are annually withdrawn by the Bahr-el-Jebel. The 
" Albertine " system plays a comparatively insignificant part in 
the annual flood rise of the White Nile, but to its waters are due 
the maintenance of a constant supply to this river throughout 
the year. 

Discovery and Exploration. Albert Nyanza was first reached 
by Sir Samuel Baker on the I4th of March 1864 near Vacovia, a 
small village of fishermen and salt-makers on the east coast. 
From a granitic cliff 1 500 ft. above the water he looked out over 
a boundless horizon on the south and south-west, and towards the 
west descried at a distance of 50 or 60 m. mountains about 7000 
ft. high. Albert Nyanza was consequently entered on his map as 
a vast lake extending about 380 m. But the circumnavigation 
of the lake by Gessi Pasha (1876), and by Emin Pasha in 1884, 
showed that Baker had been deceived as to the size of the lake. 
By the end of the igth century the topography of the lake region 
was known with fair accuracy. The lake forms part of the 
(British) Uganda Protectorate, but the north-west shores were 
leased in 1894 to the Congo Free State during the sovereignty 
of king Leopold II. of Belgium. Of this leased area a strip 
15 m. wide, giving the Congo State a passage way to the 
lake, was to remain in its possession after the determination of 
the lease. 

See Nile; Sir W. Garstin's Report upon the Basin of the Upper 
Nile (Egypt, No. 2, 1904) ; Capt. H. G. Lyons' The Physiography 
of the River Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906), and the authorities 
quoted in those works. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.) 

ALBERTUS MAGNUS (ALBERT OF COLOGNE, ? 1206-1 280), 
count of Bollstadt, scholastic philosopher, was born of the noble 
family of Bollstadt at Lauingen in Suabia. The date of his birth, 
generally given as 1 193, is more probably 1 206. He was educated 
principally at Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's 
writings. In 1 2 23 (or 1 2 2 1 ) he became a member of the Domini- 
can order, and studied theology under its rules at Bologna and 
elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, 
where the order had a house, he taught for several years there, at 
Regensburg, Freiburg, Strassburg and Hildesheim. In 1245 he 
went to Paris, received his doctorate and taught for some time, 
in accordance with the regulations, with great success. In 1 254 
he was made provincial of his order, and fulfilled the arduous 
duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During the time 
he held this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against 
the university of Paris, commented on St John, and answered the 
errors of the Arabian philosopher, Averroes. In 1260 the pope 
made him bishop of Regensburg, which office he resigned after 
three years. The remainder of his life he spent partly in preach- 
ing throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in 
retirement in the various houses of his order; in 1270 he preached 
the eighth Crusade in Austria; almost the last of his labours 
was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas 
Aquinas. He died in 1 280, aged seventy-four. He was beatified 
in 1622, and he is commemorated on the i6th of November. 
Albert's works (published in twenty-one folios by the Dominican 
Pierre Jammy in 1651, and reproduced by the Abbe Borgnet, 
Paris, 1890, 36 vols.) sufficiently attest his great activity. He 
was the most widely read and most learned man of his time. The 
whole of Aristotle's works, presented in the Latin translations 
and notes of the Arabian commentators, were by him digested, 
interpreted and systematized in accordance with church doctrine. 
Albert's activity, however, was rather philosophical than theo- 
logical (see SCHOLASTICISM). The philosophical works, occupying 
the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally 
divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, 
and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's 
relative works, with supplementary discussions depending on the 
questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the 



opinions of the master. His principal theological works are a 
commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of 
Peter Lombard (Magister Sententiarum) , and the Summa Theo- 
logiae in two volumes. This last is in substance a repetition of 
the first in a more didactic form. Albert's knowledge of physical 
science was considerable and for the age accurate. His industry 
in every department was great, and though we find in his system 
many of those gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philo- 
sophy, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great 
power of systematic thought and exposition, and the results of 
that study, as left to us, by no means warrant the contemptuous 
title sometimes given him the "Ape of Aristotle." They rather 
lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his contempo- 
raries to bestow on him the honourable surnames " The Great " 
and " Doctor Universalis." It must, however; be admitted that 
much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he 
regarded Plato and Speusippus as Stoics. Albertus is frequently 
mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free-will the basis 
of his ethical system. Dante places him with his pupil Aquinas 
among the great lovers of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven 
of the Sun. 

See Paget Toynbee, " Some Obligations of Dante to Albertus 
Magnus " in Romania, xxiv. 400-412, and the Dante Dictionary by 
the same author. For Albert's life see J. Sighart, Albertus Magnus, 
sein Leben und seine Wissenschaft (Regensburg, 1857; Eng. trans., 
Dixon, London, 1876); H. Finke, Ungedruckte Dominikanerbriefe 
des 13. Jahrh. (Paderborn, 1891). For his philosophy A. Stpckl, 
Geschichte d. scholastischen Philosophie ; J. E. Erdmann, Crundriss d. 
Ges. d. Phil. vol. i. 8. The histories of Haureau, Ritter, PrantI and 
Windelband may also be consulted. See also W. Feiler, Die Moral 
d. A. M. (Leipzig, 1891); M. Weiss, Ueber mariologische Schriften 
des A. M. (Paris, 1898); Jos. Bach, Des A. M. Verhaltniss zu d. 
Erkenntnisslehre d. Griechen, Romer, Araber u. Juden (Vienna, 
1881); Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. (1897); Vacant, Diet. Theol. 
Cathol. (s.v.) ; Ch. Jourdain in Diet. d. sciences philos. (s.v.) ; M. Joel, 
Das Verhaltniss A. d. G. zu Moses Maimonides (Breslau, 1863). 

ALBERUS, ERASMUS (c. 1500-1553), German humanist, 
reformer and poet, was a native of the village of Sprendlingen 
near Frankfort-on-Main, where he was born about the year 1 500. 
Although his father was a schoolmaster, his early education was 
neglected. Ultimately in 1 518 he found his way to the university 
of Wittenberg, where he studied theology. He had here the 
good fortune to attract the attention of Luther and Melanchthon, 
and subsequently became one of Luther's most active helpers 
in the Reformation. Not merely did he fight for the Protestant 
cause as a preacher and theologian, but he was almost the only 
member of Luther's party who was able to confront the Roman 
Catholics with the weapon of literary satire. In 1542 he pub- 
lished a prose satire to which Luther wrote the preface, Der 
Barfiisser Monche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran, an adaptation of 
the Liber conformitatum of the Franciscan Bartolommeo Albizzi 
of Pisa (Pisanus, d. 1401), in which the Franciscan order is held up 
to ridicule. Of higher literary value is the didactic and satirical 
Buck lion der Tugend und Weisheit (1550), a collection of forty- 
nine fables in which Alberus embodies his views on the relations 
of Church and State. His satire is incisive, but in a scholarly 
and humanistic way; it does not appeal to popular passions 
with the fierce directness which enabled the master of Catholic 
satire, Thomas Murner, to inflict such telling blows. Several of 
Alberus's hymns, all of which show the influence of his master 
Luther, have been retained in the German Protestant hymnal. 
After Luther's death, Alberus was for a time Diakonus in Witten- 
berg; he became involved, however, in the political conflicts of 
the time, and was in Magdeburg in 1550-1551, while that town 
was besieged by Maurice of Saxony. In 1552 he was appointed 
Generalsuperintendent at Neubrandenburg in Mecklenburg, where 
he died on the 5th of May 1553. 

Das Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit has been edited by W. 
Braune (1892); the sixteen Geistliche Lieder by C. W. Stromberger 
(1857). Alberus's prose writings have not been reprinted in recent 
times. See F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Erasmus Alberus (1894). 

ALBERY, JAMES (1838-1889), English dramatist, was born 
in London on the 4th of May 1838. On leaving school he entered 
an architect's office, and started to write plays. After many 
failures he at last succeeded in getting an adaptation Dr Davj, 



ALBI ALBIGENSES 



505 



produced at the Lyceum (1866). His most successful piece, 
Two Roses, a comedy, was produced at the Vaudeville in 1870, 
in which Sir Henry Irving made one of his earliest London 
successes as Digby Grant. He was the author of a large number 
of other plays and adaptations, including Jingle (a version of 
Pickwick), produced at the Lyceum in 1878, and Pink Dominoes, 
the latter being one of a series of adaptations from the French 
which he made for the Criterion theatre. At that house his 
wife, the well-known actress, Miss Mary Moore, played the 
leading parts. He died on the i5th of August 1889. 

ALBI, a city of south-western France, capital of the depart- 
ment of Tarn, 48 m. N. E. of Toulouse, on a branch line of the 
Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 14,956. Albi occupies a com- 
manding position on the left bank of the Tarn; it is united to 
its suburb of La Madeleine on the right bank by a medieval 
and a modern bridge. The old town forms a nucleus of narrow, 
winding streets surrounded by boulevards, beyond which lie 
modern quarters with regular thoroughfares and public gardens. 
The cathedral of Sainte Cecile, a fine fortress-church in the 
Gothic style, begun in 1277, finished in 1512, rises high above 
the rest of the town. The exterior, flanked at the western end 
by a lofty tower and pierced by high, narrow windows, is devoid 
of ornament. Its general plainness contrasts with the elaborate 
carving of the stone canopy which shelters the southern portal. 
In the interior, which is without transepts or aisles, the rood- 
screen and the choir-enclosure, which date from about 1500, 
are masterpieces of delicate sculpture; the vaulting and the 
walls are covered with paintings of the isth and i6th centuries. 
The archbishop's palace to the north-east of the cathedral is 
a fortified building of the i4th century. St Salvi, the chief of 
the other churches of Albi, belongs to the i3th and 1 5th centuries. 
A statue of the sailor La Perouse (1741-1788) stands in the 
square named after him. 

Albi is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect and a court of 
assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a 
board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a lycee 
and training colleges. The industrial establishments of the town 
include dye-works, distilleries, tanneries, glass-works and 
important flour-mills. It is also a centre for hat-making, and 
produces cloth-fabrics, lace, umbrellas, casks, chairs, wooden 
shoes, candles and pastries. Trade is in wine and anise. 

Albi (Albiga) was, in the Gallo-Roman period, capital of the 
Albigenses, and later of the viscounty of Albigeois, which was a 
fief of the counts of Toulouse. From the i2th century onwards, 
its bishops, the first of whom appears to have lived about the 
3rd century, began to encroach on the authority of the viscounts; 
the latter, after the Albigensian war, lost their estates, which 
passed to Simon de Montfort and then to the crown of France. 
By a convention concluded in 1264 the chief temporal power 
in the city was granted to the bishops. The archbishopric dates 
from 1678. 

ALBIAN (Fr. Albien, from Alba = Aube in France), in 
geology the term proposed in 1842 by A. d'Orbigny for that 
stage of the Cretaceous System which comes above the Aptian 
and below the Cenomanian (Pa/. France. Cret. ii.). The precise 
limits of this stage are placed somewhat differently by English 
and continental geologists. In England it is usual to regard 
the Albian stage as equivalent to the Upper Greensand plus 
Gault, that is, to the " Selbornian " of Jukes-Browne. But 
A. de Lapparent would place most of the Upper Greensand in 
the Cenomanian. The English practice is to commence the 
upper Cretaceous with the Albian; on the other hand, this 
stage closes the lower Cretaceous according to continental usage. 
It is necessary therefore, when using the term Albian, to bear 
these differences in mind, and to ascertain the exact position 
of the strata by reference to the zonal fossils. These are, in 
descending order, Pecten asper and Cardiaster fossarius, Schloen- 
bachia rostrata, Hoplites lautus and H. interruptus, Doumlleiceras 
mammillatum. In addition to the formations mentioned above, 
the following representatives of the Albian stage are worthy of 
notice: the gaize and phosphatic beds of Argonne and Bray in 
France; the Flammenmergel of North Germany; the lignites of 



Utrillas in Spain; the Upper Sandstones of Nubia, and the 
Fredericksburg beds of North America. 
See GAULT, GREENSAND, and CRETACEOUS. (]. A. H.) 

ALBIGENSES, the usual designation of the heretics and 
more especially the Catharist heretics of the south of France 
in the i2th and i3th centuries. This name appears to have 
been given to them at the end of the i2th century, and was used 
in 1181 by the chronicler Geoffrey de Vigeois. The designation 
is hardly exact, for the heretical centre was at Toulouse and in 
the neighbouring districts rather than at Albi (the ancient 
Albiga}. The heresy, which had penetrated into these regions 
probably by trade routes, came originally from eastern Europe. 
The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was often applied to the 
Albigenses, and they always kept up intercourse with the Bogomil 
sectaries of Thrace. Their dualist doctrines, as described by 
controversialists, present numerous resemblances to those of the 
Bogomils, and still more to those of the Paulicians, with whom 
they are sometimes connected. It is exceedingly difficult, how- 
ever, to form any very precise idea of the Albigensian doctrines, 
as our knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and 
the very rare texts emanating from the Albigenses which have 
come down to us (e.g. the Riluel cathare de Lyon and the Nouveau 
Testament en provenc.al) contain very inadequate information 
concerning their metaphysical principles and moral practice. 
What is certain is that, above all, they formed an anti-sacerdotal 
party in permanent opposition to the Roman church, and raised 
a continued protest against the corruption of the clergy of their 
time. The Albigensian theologians and ascetics, the Cathari or 
perfecti, known in the south of France as bans hommes or bans 
chrttiens, were few in number; the mass of believers (credentes) 
were perhaps not initiated into the Catharist doctrine; at all 
events, they were free from all moral prohibition and all religious 
obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called 
cowoenenza to become " hereticized " by receiving the consola- 
mentum, the baptism of the Spirit, before their death or even 
in extremis. 

The first Catharist heretics appeared in Limousin between 
1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at 
Toulouse in 1022; and the synod of Charroux (dep. of Vienne) in 
1028, and that of Toulouse in 1056, condemned the growing sect. 
The preachers Raoul Ardent in not and Robert of Arbrissel in 
1114 were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the 
Toulousain to combat the heretical propaganda. But, protected 
by William IX., duke of Aquitaine, and soon by a great part of 
the southern nobility, the heretics gained ground in the south, 
and in 1119 the council of Toulouse in vain ordered the secular 
powers to assist the ecclesiastical authority in quelling the 
heresy. The people were attached to the bans hommes, whose 
asceticism imposed upon the masses, and the anti-sacerdotal 
preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Perigord, 
Languedoc and Provence, only facilitated the progress of 
Catharism in those regions. In 1147 Pope Eugenius III. sent 
the legate Alberic of Ostia and St Bernard to the affected 
district. The few isolated successes of the abbot of Clairvaux 
could not obscure the real results of this mission, and the meeting 
at Lombers in 1165 of a synod, where Catholic priests had to 
submit to a discussion with Catharist doctors, well shows the 
power of the sect in the south of France at that period. Moreover, 
two years afterwards a Catharist synod, in which heretics from 
Languedoc, Bulgaria and Italy took part, was held at St Felix 
de Caraman, near Toulouse, and their deliberations were un- 
disturbed. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St Chrysogonus) , 
formerly bishop of Meaux, to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 
1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano (formerly abbot of 
Clairvaux), in 1180-1181, obtained merely momentary successes. 
Henry of Albano attempted an armed expedition against the 
stronghold of heretics at Lavaur and against Raymond Roger, 
viscount of Beziers, their acknowledged protector. The taking 
of Lavaur and the submission of Raymond Roger in no way 
arrested the progress of the heresy. The persistent decisions 
of the councils against the heretics at this period in particular, 
those of the council of Tours (1163) and of the oecumenical 



506 



ALBINO 



Lateran council (1179) had scarcely more effect. But on 
ascending the papal throne, Innocent III. resolved to suppres 
the Albigenses. At first he tried pacific conversion, and in 
1198 and 1 1 99 sent into the affected regions two Cistercian 
monks, Regnier and Guy, and in 1 203 two monks of Fontfroide 
Peter of Castelnau and Raoul (Ralph), with whom in 1204 h( 
even associated the Cistercian abbot, Arnaud (Arnold). The> 
had to contend not only with the heretics, the nobles who 
protected them, and the people who listened to them am 
venerated them, but also with the bishops of the district, who 
rejected the extraordinary authority which the pope had con 
ferred upon his legates, the monks. In 1204 Innocent III 
suspended the authority of the bishops of the south of France 
Peter of Castelnau retaliated by excommunicating Raymond VI. 
count of Toulouse, as an abettor of heresy (1207), and kindlec 
in the nobles of the south that animosity of which he was the 
first victim (1209). As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter 
of Castelnau, the pope ordered the Cistercians to preach the 
crusade against the Albigenses. This implacable war, which 
threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against 
that of the south, and destroyed the brilliant Provencal civiliza- 
tion, ended, politically, in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which 
the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the 
greater part of its fiefs, and that of Beziers of the whole of its 
fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an 
end, but, so far as the heresy was concerned, Albigensianism 
was not extinguished, in spite of the wholesale massacres of 
heretics during the war. Raymond VII. of Toulouse and the 
count of Foix gave asylum to the " faidits " (proscribed), and 
the people were averse from handing over the bans hommes. 
The Inquisition, however, operating unremittingly in the south 
at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the 
whole of the I3th century and a great part of the I4th, succeeded 
in crushing the heresy. There were indeed some outbursts of 
rebellion, some fomented by the nobles of Languedoc (1240- 
1242), and others emanating from the people of the towns, who 
were embittered by confiscations and religious persecutions 
(e.g. at Narbonne in 1 234 and Toulouse in 1 23 5) , but the repress- 
ive measures were terrible. In 1245 the royal officers assisting 
the Inquisition seized the heretical citadel of Montsegur, and 
200 Cathari were burned in one day. Moreover, the church 
decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of 
sympathy with the heretics (council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull 
Ad extirpanda, 1252). 

Hunted down by the Inquisition and quickly abandoned by 
the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more 
scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting 
surreptitiously. There were some recrudescences of heresy, 
such as that produced by the preaching (1298-1309) of the 
Catharist minister, Pierre Authier; the people, too, made some 
attempts to throw off the yoke of the Inquisition and the French, 1 
and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of 
Foix, Aimery of Narbonne, and, especially, Bernard Delicieux 
at the beginning of the I4th century. But at this point vast 
inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which terrorized 
the district. Precise indications of these are found in the 
registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, 
Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The sect, moreover, was exhausted 
and could find no more adepts in a district which, by fair means 
or foul, had arrived at a state of peace and political and religious 
unity. After 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain but 
few proceedings against Catharists. (See also under CATHARS.) 
AUTHORITIES. See C. Schmidt's Histoire de la secte des Cathares 
ou Albigeois (Pans, 1849), which is still the most important work 
on the subject. The following will be found useful: D. Vaissete, 
Hwoire de Languedoc, vols. lii. iv. vii. viii. (new edition); Ch. 
Molmier, L Inquisition dans le Midi de la France (Paris, 1880), and 
the other works by the same author ; L. Tanon, Histoire des tribunaux 
del Inquisition en France (Paris, 1893). Les Albigeois, lews origines 
i? n u' I878 '' bv D uais, should be read with caution. Of the sources, 
which are very numerous, may be mentioned : the Liber Sententiarum 

1 These they often confounded, and a heretic is described as 
saying: " Clergy and French, they are one and the same thing." 



of the Inquisition of Carcassonne, published by Ph. van Limborch 
at the end of his Historia Inquisitionis (Amsterdam, 1692) other 
registers of the Inquisition analysed at length by Ch. Molinier 
op. cit., some published in vol. ii. of the Documents pour I'histoir'e 
de I Inquisition (Paris, 1900), by C. Douais; numerous texts con- 
cerning the last days of Albigensianism, collected by M. Vidal " Les 
derniers ministres albigeois, ' in Rev. de quest, histor. ( 1 906) . See also 
the Rituel cathare, ed. by Cunitz (Jena, 1852) ; the Nouveau Testa- 
ment en Provencal, ed. by Cledat (Paris, 1887) ; and the very curious 
Deoat d Yzarn et de Sicart de Figueiras, ed. by P. Meyer (1880) 
On the ethics of the Catharists, see Jean Guiraud, Questions d'kistoire 
et d archeologie chretienne (Paris, 1906); and P. Alphandery Les 
taees morales chez les heterodoxes latins au debut du XII I e siecle 
(Paris, 1903). ( P A ) 

ALBINO, a biological term (Lat. albus, white), in the usual 
acceptation, for a pigmentless individual of a normally pigmented 
race. Among some flowering plants, however, the character 
has become one of specific rank, and among animals we have 
in the polar bear and the Greenland hare instances where partial 
albinism for in them the eyes are black and other parts may be 
pigmented has also become a specific character. 

A true or complete albino is altogether devoid of pigment. 
One result of this among the Vertebrata is that the eyeball is 
pink in colour, since the cornea, iris and retina being transparent, 
the red blood contained in the capillaries is unmasked by the 
absence of pigmentary material. In man, and doubtless also 
in lower forms, the absence of this pigment produces the well- 
marked albinotic facies. This is a condition in which the eyelids 
are brought into a nearly closed position accompanied by blinking 
movements and a general wrinkling of the skin around the 
immediate neighbourhood of the eyes. It is the result of the 
too great intensity of the light incident upon the retina, and 
which in normal eyeballs is adequately diminished by the 
absorptive power of the pigmentary material. 

In a complete albino not only is all pigment absent in the skin, 
but also that which is normally present in deeper organs, such 
as the sympathetic nervous system and in the substantia nigra 
of the brain. There is some reason to believe that a peculiar 
condition found in the majority of human albinoes, and known 
as nystagmus, is correlated with the absence of pigment in the 
central nervous system. This condition is one marked by un- 
steadinessa sort of flickering rolling of the eyeballs, and it 
becomes more marked as they endeavour to adjust their ac- 
commodation to near objects. It is thought to depend upon 
some connexion, not yet anatomically demonstrated, between 
the third cranial nerve and its nucleus in the floor of the Her 
and the substantia nigra. 

In addition to complete albinism, there exist, however, various 
albinotic conditions in which more or less pigment may be 
present. Familiar instances of this partial albinism is seen in the 
domestic breed of Himalayan rabbits. In these animals the 
eyeball and the fur of the body are unpigmented, but the tips 
of the ear pinnae and extremities of the fore and hind limbs, 
together with the tail, are marked by more or less well defined 
colour. One remarkable feature of these animals is that for 
few months after birth they are complete albinoes. Occasion- 
ally, however, some are born with a grey colour and a few may 
>e quite black, but ultimately they attain their characteristic 
coat. There is some reason to believe, as we shall see later, 
hat in spite of the presence of a little pigment and of occasional 
wholly pigmented young ones, Himalayans must be regarded 
as true albinoes. Other individual rabbits, but belonging to 
no particular breed, are similarly marked, but in addition the 
yeballs are black. Some domesticated mice are entirely white 
with the exception that they have black eyeballs; and in- 
lividuals of this type are known in which there is a reduction 
of pigment in the eyeballs, and since the colour of the blood is 
hen partially visible these appear of a reddish-black colour. 
Such cases are interesting as representing the last step in the 
graded series through which the condition of complete pigmenta- 
ion passes into that of complete albinism. 

There is evidence, as shown by G. M. Allen, that partial 
Ibinism is a condition in which pigment is reduced around 
efinite body centres, so that unpigmented areas occur between 






ALBINO 



507 



the pigment patches or at their borders. In the mouse, ten such 
centres may be distinguished, arranged symmetrically five on 
either side of the median plane a cheek patch, neck patch, 
shoulder patch, side patch and rump patch. Various degrees 
in the reduction of the pigment patches up to that of complete 
elimination may be traced. 

Some animals are wholly pigmented during the summer and 
autumn, but through the winter and spring they are in the 
condition of extreme partial albinism and become almost com- 
plete albinoes. Such instances are found in the Scotch blue hare 
(Lepus timidus), in the Norway hare, in the North American 
hare (L. americanus) , in the arctic fox (Canis lagopus), in the 
stoat and ermine, and among birds, in the ptarmigan, and some 
other species of Lagopus. How the change from the autumnal 
to the winter condition takes place appears not to be definitely 
settled in all cases, and accurate observations are much to be 
desired. In the case of the Norway hare, it has been stated that 
a general moult, including all the hairs and under fur, takes place 
and new white hairs are substituted. The process of moulting 
is said to begin in the middle of autumn, and is completed before 
the end of December, by which time the fur is in its winter 
condition, and is closer, fuller and longer than in summer 
(Naturalists' Library, vol. vii.). On the other hand, it has been 
stated that during the whole of the transformation in the fur 
no hairs fall from the animal, and it is attributed to an actual 
change in the colour of the hair (Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 
vol. xi. p. IQI). In the case of the American hare, however, 
some very careful observations have been made by F. H. Welch. 
In this animal the long hairs (which form the pile) become white 
at their extremities, and in some of them this whiteness extends 
through their whole length. At the same time, new hairs begin 
to develop and to grow rapidly, and soon outstrip the hairs of 
the autumn pile. From their first appearance these new hairs 
are white and stiff, and they are confined to the sides and back 
of the body. It is not clear from Welch's account what is the 
cause of the whiteness of the tips of the hairs of the autumn 
coat, but his figures suggest that it is due to the development 
of gas in the interspaces between the keratin bridges and 
trabeculae of the hairs. There is nothing to show whether the 
pigment persists or is absorbed. Probably it persists. In this 
event, the whiteness of the tips will be due to the scattering or 
irregular reflexion of the incident rays of light from the surface 
of the numerous gas bubbles. In the case of the ptarmigan the 
evidence is clear that the existing autumnal feathers do change, 
more or less completely, to white. But the evidence is not 
conclusive as to whether any part of the winter condition is 
additionally produced by moulting. 

The condition of albinism thus assumed as a seasonal variation 
is never complete, for the eyes at least retain their pigmented 
state. The reason of this is readily understood when it is borne 
in mind how disadvantageous to the function of sight is the 
unpigmented condition of an albino's eyeball; a disadvantage 
which would be probably much accentuated, in the cases now 
under consideration, by the bright glare from the surface of the 
snow, which forms the natural environment of these animals 
at the particular period of the year when the winter change 
occurs. In some cases, as in all the varying hares, in addition 
to the eyes retaining their normal pigmentation, areas similar 
in extent and situation to those on the Himalayan rabbits also 
retain their pigmentation; and in the ptarmigan there is a 
black band on each side of the head stretching forwards and 
backwards from the eyeball, and the outer tail feathers are 
black. 

Albinism is restricted to no particular class of the animal 
kingdom; for partial albinism at least is known to occur in 
Coelentera, worms, Crustacea, Myriapoda, Coleoptera,Arachnida 
and fishes. The individuals in which this diminished pigmenta- 
tion is found are for the most part those living in caves, 
and it is probable that their condition is not truly albinotic, 
but only temporary and due to the absence of the stimulus of 
light. This may be also true of some of those instances that 
have occurred among frogs, in Proteus, and with an axolotl 



once possessed by the present writer. This latter animal was 
quite white, with the exception of the black eyeballs. At the 
end of four weeks after it was first purchased the dorsal cr upper 
surface of its external gills developed a small amount of dark 
pigment. Within the nest few weeks this increased in quantity 
and the dorsal surface of the head and of the front end of the 
trunk began to be pigmented. The animal died at the end of 
the eighth week, but it is possible that had it lived it would 
have become wholly pigmented. But, apart from these instances, 
albinism is known, according to W. E. Castle, who cites it on 
the authority of Hugh M. Smith, to occur among a breed of albino 
trout, which breed true and are reared in the State fish-hatcheries 
of America. With birds and mammals, however, there is no 
doubt that complete alBino individuals do occur; and among 
species which, like the jackdaw, certain deer and rabbits, are 
normally deeply pigmented. 

. Albinism occurs in all races of mankind, among mountainous 
as well as lowland dwellers. And, with man, as with other 
animals, it may be complete or partial. Instances of the latter 
condition are very common among the negroes of the United 
States and of South America, and in them assumes a piebald 
character, irregular white patches being scattered over the 
general black surface of the body. Occasionally the piebald 
patches tend to be symmetrically arranged, and sometimes the 
eyeballs are pigmentless (pink) and sometimes pigmented (black). 

According to A. R. Gunn, of Edinburgh University, who has 
recently been investigating the subject of albinism in man, there 
is reason to believe that a condition of piebald albinism occurs 
also in Europeans (Scotsmen). He has examined subjects in 
which the whole of the hair of the body is white, but the eyeballs 
are pigmented, often deeply; and, conversely, he has seen cases 
in which the eyes are pink but the hair is pigmented. The hair 
and the eyes may be regarded as skin patches, in which some- 
times the one and sometimes the other is pigmentless. He 
believes that, were it not for the generally very pale colour of 
white-skinned races, this piebald condition would be as manifest 
in them as in negroes, over the whole surface of the body. 

In complete human albinoes, albinism is correlated, in addition 
to nystagmus, with a peculiar roughness of the skin, making it 
harsh to the touch. The skin is also milky- white in appearance. 

According to C. J. Seligmann, there exists among the Papuans 
an albinotic race whose skin varies in colour from a pink-white to 
that of cafe au lait; the eyes are generally greenish, hazel or 
brown, and the hair is tow-coloured. The skin where unexposed 
is pinker than that of a normal North European. Like complete 
albinoes, this race suffers from photophobia, and is characterized 
by the albinotic facies. 

Before we can inquire into the cause and meaning of albinism 
it will be necessary first to consider the nature of pigmentation. 
It has recently been ascertained that the coloration of certain 
sponges is due to the interaction of an oxydizing ferment, 
tyrosinase, upon certain colourless chromogenic substances. In 
1901, Otto v. Furth and Hugo Schneider showed that a tyrosinase 
could be obtained from the blood of certain insects, and, acting 
upon a chromogen present in the blood, converted it into a pig- 
mentary substance of melanin-like nature. Hans Przibram also 
extracted a tyrosinase from the ink-sac of Sepia, and, causing it 
to act upon a watery solution of tyrosin, obtained a black pig- 
ment. From the blood of Bombyx mori, V. von Ducceshi has 
also obtained a tyrosinase. 

Subsequently (1903) L. Cuenot, in order to explain certain 
features in the hereditary transmission of coat colour in mice, 
postulated the hypothesis that the grey colour of the wild mouse 
(which is known to be a compound of black, chocolate and yellow 
pigments) may be due either to the interaction of a single ferment 
and three chromogens, or vice versa, to one chromogenic substance 
and three ferments. 

Since then (1904) Miss Florence Durham has shown that if 
the skins of young or embryonic mammals (rats, rabbits and 
guinea-pigs) be ground up and extracted in water, and the ex- 
pressed juice be then incubated with solid tyrosin for twenty- 
four hours, with the addition of a very small amount of ferrous 



5o8 



ALBINO 



sulphate to act as an activator, a pigmentary substance is thrown 
down. The colour of this substance is that of the pigment in the 
skin or hairs of the animal used. Miss Durham interprets her 
results as indicating that the skin of these pigmented animals 
normally secretes one or more tyrosinases. The same result was 
obtained from the skins of some unhatched chickens. The skins 
of albinoes gave no results. 

Not only have such results been obtained w'ltn sponges, insects, 
cephalopods, birds and mammals, but Em. Bourquelot and 
G. Bertrand have shown that certain fungi, the tissues of which, 
when exposed^to the air by injury, become immediately coloured, 
do so owing to the action of tyrosinase upon one or more chromo- 
genous substances present in the plant. We may conceive, then, 
that a pigmented animal owes its colour to the power that certain 
tissues of its body possess to secrete both tyrosinases and chromo- 
genic substances. And the period at which this process is most 
active is at birth, or preceding it or immediately succeeding it. 
In spite of the inquiry being only in its initial stages, there is 
already good evidence to believe that Cuenot's theory is correct, 
and that an albino is an individual whose skin lacks the power to 
secrete either the ferment or the chromogen. It forms one but 
not both of these substances. 

A moment's consideration, however, will show that, while an 
albino may be an individual in which one or more of the com- 
plementary bodies of pigmentation are absent, a pigmented 
animal is something more than an individual which carries all the 
factors necessary for the development of colour. For it must be 
borne in mind that animals are not only coloured but the colour 
is arranged in a more or less definite pattern. The wild mouse, 
rat and rabbit are self-coloured, but the domesticated forms 
include various piebald patterns, such as spotted forms among 
mice, and the familiar black and white hooded and dorsal-striped 
pattern of some tame rats. 

Colour, therefore, must be correlated with some determinant 
(determining factor) for pattern, and it cannot, therefore, exist 
alone in an animal's coat. And we must conceive that each 
kind of pattern the self, the spotted, the striped, the hooded 
and all others has its own special determinant. Given the 
presence of all the necessary determinants for the development of 
pigment in a mammal's coat, some or all of the hairs may bear 
this pigment according to the pattern determinants, or absence of 
pattern determinants, which the cells of the hair papillae carry. 
And this brings us to the question as to whether in a piebald 
animal the pigmented hairs are in any way different from the 
pigmentless or white hairs. No adequate investigation of this 
subject has yet been made, but some observations made by the 
author of this article, on the piebald black and white rat, show 
that differences connected with the microscopic structure exist. 

There is thus evidence that colour is correlated with other 
factors which determine pattern. And this leads to the inquiry 
as to whether albinoes ever exhibit evidence that they carry the 
pattern determinants in the absence of those for pigmentation. 
For it is to be expected a priori that, since albinoes were derived 
from pigmented progenitors and may at any time appear, side by 
side with pigmented brothers, in a litter from pigmented parents, 
they would be carrying the pattern determinants of some one or 
other of their pigmented ancestors. Now we know, from the 
numerous experiments in heredity which have resulted since the 
rediscovery of Mendel's principles, that an individual may carry 
a character in one of two conditions. It may be carried as a 
somatic character, when it will be visible in the body tissues, or 
it may be carried as a gametic character, and its presence can 
only then be detected in subsequent generations, by adequately 
devised breeding tests. 

With regard to pattern, the evidence is now clear that albinoes 
may carry the determinants in both these ways. So far as they 
are carried gametically, i.e. by the sex-cells, it has been shown by 
Cu6not and G. M. Allen for mice, by C. C. Hurst for rabbits, and 
by L. Doncaster and G. P. Mudge for rats, that in a cross between 
a coloured individual of known gametic purity and an albino, 
the individuals of the progeny in either the first or second, or 
both generations, may differ, and that the difference in some 



cases wholly depends upon the albino used. It has been shown 
that the individuals in such an offspring may bear patterns which 
never occurred in the ancestry of the coloured parent, but did in 
that of the albino; and, moreover, if the same coloured parent 
be mated with another individual, either albino or coloured, that 
their offspring may never contain members bearing such patterns. 
The particular pattern will only appear when the coloured parent 
is mated with the particular albino. And yet the albino itself 
shows no somatic pattern or pigment. So clear is the evidence 
on this point that any one adequately acquainted at first hand 
with the phenomena, by employing an albino of known gametic 
structure and mating it with a coloured individual, also of known 
gametic constitution, could predict the result. 

With respect to albinoes carrying pattern as a visible somati'c 
character, i.e. in the body cells, no definite evidence has as yet 
been published. But W. Haacke has described a single albino rat, 
in which he states that the hairs of the shoulder and mid-dorsal 
regions were of a different texture from those of the rest of the 
body. And it is possible that this albino, had it developed colour, 
would have been of the piebald pattern. But the author of this 
article has quite recently reared some albinoes in which the 
familiar shoulder hood and dorsal stripe of the piebald rat is 
perfectly obvious, in spite of the absence of the slightest pig- 
mentation. The hairs which occupy the region which in the 
pigmented individual is black, are longer, thinner and more 
widely separated than those in the regions which are white. As 
a result of this, the pink skin is quite visible where these hairs 
occur, but elsewhere it is invisible. Thus these albinoes exhibit 
a pattern of pink skin similar in form with the black pattern of 
the piebald rat. Moreover, some of the albinoes possess these 
particular " pattern " hairs all over the body and obviously such 
individuals are carrying the self pattern. There are other details 
into which we cannot here enter, but which support the inter- 
pretation put upon these facts, i.e. that these particular albinoes 
are carrying in the soma the pattern determinants simultaneously 
with the absence of some of the factors for pigmentation. 

Not only do albinoes thus carry the determinants for pattern, 
but it has been known for some time that they also carry gametic- 
ally, but never visible somatically, the determinants for either 
the ferment or the chromogen for one or more colours. L. Cuenot 
was the first to show this for albino mice. He was able by 
appropriate experiments to demonstrate that when an albino is 
derived (extracted) from a coloured ancestry, and is then crossed 
with a coloured individual, both the colour of the pigmented 
parent and of the pigmented ancestry of the albino may appear 
among the individuals of the offspring. 

Immediately subsequent to Cuenot, G. M. Allen in Amenta 
demonstrated the same fact upon the same species of rodents. 
C. C. Hurst, more recently, has shown that albino rabbits, 
whether pure bred for eight generations at least, or extracted 
from pigmented parents, may carry the determinants for black 
or for black and grey. In this latter case the determinants for 
black are carried by separate gametes from those carrying grey, 
and the two kinds of sex-cells exist in approximately equal 
numbers. This is likewise true of albino mice when they carry 
the determinants for more than one colour. 

Since Hurst's work, L. Doncaster and G. P. Mudge have both 
shown that albino rats also carry in a latent condition the 
determinants for black or grey. The experiments of the latter 
author show that, if a gametically pure black rat be crossed with 
an albino"derived from a piebald black and white ancestry, all 
the offspring in successive litters will be black; but if the 
same black parent be crossed with albinoes extracted from 
parents of which one or both are grey, then both grey and 
black members will appear in the successive litters. 

The proportions in which the various coloured individuals 
appear are approximately those demanded by the Mendelian 
principle of gametic purity and segregation. Cuenot and Hurst 
have also shown that when albinoes of one colour extraction are 
crossed with albinoes of another colour extraction the segrega- 
tion of the colour determinants in the gametogenesis of the 
albinoes takes place in precisely the same way that it does in the 



ALBINO 



509 



gametogenesis of a pigmented individual; that is, in Mendelian 
fashion. Or, to express it otherwise, an albino extracted from 
yellow parents, bred with an albino extracted from black parents, 
will give an albino offspring whose gametes in equal numbers 
are bearers of the black and yellow determinants. And when 
one of these albinoes is bred with a pure coloured individual, a 
mixed offspring will appear in the first generation. Some of the 
individuals will be one or other of the two colours, the deter- 
minants of which were borne by the albino, and others the colour 
of the pigmented parent. But in such albino crosses the colour 
characters are latent because albinoes do not carry the whole of 
the complements for colour production. They carry only some 
determinant or determinants which are capable of developing 
colour when they interact with some other determinant or 
determinants carried alone by pigmented individuals. Whether 
albinoes carry the tyrosinase or other ferment, or whether they 
carry the chromogen or chromogens, is not yet settled. Miss 
Durham's work suggests that they carry the latter. But that 
they never bear both is proved by the. fact that, when albinoes 
are crossed with each other, none but albinoes ever result in the 
offspring. One apparent exception to this rule only is known, 
and this almost certainly was due to error. 

It is not only among albino animals that colour factors are 
carried in a latent condition, but also in white flowers. W. 
Bateson has shown this to be the case for the sweet-pea (Lathyrus 
odoralus), var. Emily Henderson, and for certain white and 
cream stocks (Maithiola). When white Emily Henderson (the 
race having round pollen grains) is crossed with a blue-flowered 
pea, purple offspring result. Similarly, when white Emily 
Henderson (long pollen grains) is crossed with white Emily 
Henderson (round pollen grains), the offspring wholly consists 
of the reversionary purple type, and sometimes wholly of a red 
bicolor form known as " Painted Lady." These two types never 
appear in the same family. With the stocks, when a white- 
flowered and hairless form is crossed with a cream-flowered 
and hairless one, all the offspring are purple and hairy. Bateson 
considers that the purple colour is due to the simultaneous 
existence in the plant of two colour factors which may be desig- 
nated by C and R. If either one oj these two is absent the plant 
is colourless. Cream-coloured flowers are regarded as white 
because cream is due to yellow plastids and not to sap colour. 
Thus the cream plant may carry C and the white one R. When 
they are crossed the two factors for colour production are brought 
together. Obviously, we may regard C as a tyrosinase and R 
as a chromogen, or vice versa; and in the case of the white sweet- 
pea crossed with a blue-flowered one, and producing purple 
offspring, we may imagine that the white flower brought in an 
additional tyrosinase or a chromogen not present in the blue 
flower, which, when combined or mixed with the chromogen or 
tyrosinase for blue, gave purple. A similar explanation may 
apply to C. Correns's experiment, in which he crossed white 
Mirabilis jalapa with a yellow form, and always obtained red- 
flowered offspring. 

In heredity, complete albinism among animals is always 
recessive; and partial albinism (piebald) is always recessive 
to complete pigmentation (self-coloured). When an albino 
mouse, rat, guinea-pig or rabbit is crossed with either a pure 
self or pure pied-coloured form, the offspring are similar to, 
though not always exactly like, the coloured parent; provided, 
of course, that the albino is pure and is not carrying some 
colour or pattern determinant which is dominant to that of the 
coloured parent used. No albinoes, in such a case, will appear 
among the first generation, but if the individuals of this (F.i) 
generation are crossed inter se or back crossed with the albino 
parent, then albino individuals reappear among the offspring. 
In the former case they would form one-quarter of the individuals 
of this second (F.2) generation, and in the latter, one-half. 

The recessive nature of albinism and its distribution in 
Mendelian fashion is almost certainly as true for man as for 
lower forms. This has been shown by W. C. Farabee for negroes 
in Coahoma county, Mississippi. The facts are as follows. An 
albino negro married a normal negress. They had three children, 



all males. All three sons married, and two of them had only 
normal children, judged of course by somatic characters. But 
the third son married twice; and by the first wife had five normal 
and one albino children, and by the second, six normal and three 
albino children. If we assume that the two negresses which the 
third son married were themselves carrying albinism recessive 
an exceedingly probable condition considering that albino 
negroes are not uncommon the result is accurately in accord- 
ance, as W. E. Castle has shown, with Mendelian expectation. 
For there is expected in the offspring of this third son coloured 
individuals and albinoes in the proportion of 3:1. There is 
actually 11:4, which is the nearest possible approximation 
with the number 15. 

The operation of Mendelian processes in human heredity is 
further shown by the close relationship that exists between 
the appearance of albinoes and cousin marriages. An albino 
is a homozygote; that is, all its gametes are carrying the char- 
acter of albinism and none of them bear the alternative character 
the allelomorph of pigmentation. By pigmentation is here 
meant all those factors which go to its production. Now such a 
gametic (egg or sperm) constitution can only result when two 
individuals, all or some of whose gametes are pure with regard 
to the character albinism, meet in fertilization. Hence it is 
readily seen that it is among cousin marriages that the greater 
probabilities exist that two individuals bearing identical char- 
acters will meet, than in the population at large. This can be 
illustrated in the following scheme. Let A stand for a pure 
albino and (A)N for a normal person, who nevertheless carries 
the character albinism (A) recessive. Then, in the scheme 
below, if A b and (A)N b are two brothers who both marry normal 
wives N, their children N(A) in the first case will be all normal 
in appearance but will be carrying albinism recessive; and in 
the second case some will be pure normal individuals N, and 
some will be like the children of the first brother, i.e. N(A). 
Now, if one of these latter children of the second brother marries 
a cousin a child of the first brother, their offspring, if large 
enough, will consist of some pure normals N, impure normals 
N(A), and of albinoes A. 



N(A) 




N(A) + N 



N + 2N(A)+A 

No other rational explanation of the close relationship between 
albinism and cousin marriages is at present forthcoming. And, 
when the whole facts are borne in mind, there can be no reason- 
able doubt that the Mendelian principles offer an intelligible 
solution of the problem. 

A popular conception exists that albinoes are less constitu- 
tionally strong than the pigmented individuals of the same 
species. In support of this belief there is more or less scientifically 
ascertained evidence. Conversely, there is, however, conclusive 
evidence that in some instances and in respect of certain qualities 
the opposite belief is true. 

To deal with the former belief first, we have the remarkable 
case cited by Charles Darwin on the authority of Professor 
I. J. Wyman. In Virginia the paint-root plant (Lachnanthes 
tinctoria) occurs abundantly, and Professor Wyman noticed 
that all the pigs in this district were black. Upon inquiry of 
the farmers he found that all the white pigs born in a litter were 
destroyed, because they could not be reared to maturity. The 
root of this plant, when eaten by white pigs, caused their bones 
to turn to a pink colour and their hoofs to fall off, but the 
black pigs could eat the same plant with impunity. Partial 
albinism in this case was undoubtedly correlated with some 
inherent constitutional defect, in virtue of which the individuals 
characterized by it were injuriously affected by the juices of a 
plant quite innocuous to their pigmented brethren. Heusinger 
has shown that white sheep and pigs are injured by the ingestion 






ALBINONI 



of certain plants, while the pigmented individuals may eat 
them without harm. In Devonshire and in parts of Kent the 
farmers entertain a marked prejudice against white pigs, because 
"the sun blisters their skin." More remarkable is the case of 
certain cattle, whose skin is piebald, marked by a general ground 
colour over which are scattered patches of unpigmented coat. 
In these animals, in certain inflammatory skin eruptions, caused 
by the ingestion of harmful plants, the albinotic areas are alone 
affected. And with certain cutaneous diseases accompanied by 
constitutional disturbances which afflict cattle, the affection in 
the skin appears on the patches bearing white hairs, the other 
parts remaining apparently healthy. Such cases suggest that 
we should be more correct in regarding, not albinism as correlated 
with constitutional defects, but rather pigmentation as correlated 
with powers of immunity or increased resistance against certain 
injurious processes. In the West Indies "the only horned cattle 
fit for work are those which have a good deal of black in them; 
the white are terribly tormented by the insects and they are 
weak and sluggish in proportion to the black." 

Coming to man, it is known that some albino negroes are 
peculiarly sensitive to the bites of insects; and with Europeans 
it is a generally observed fact that the fairer individuals are 
more seriously affected by the bites of fleas and bugs than are 
darker ones. Dr Twining, in the British Association Reports 
for 184;, p. 79, cites some instances described by Humboldt, 
who says that the copper-coloured natives of the high plain 
of Bogoto, and at a lower level on the Magdalena river, were 
generally free from goitre. Professor Poffig, also cited by Dr 
Twining, states that on the east side of the Andes in Chile, in 
some of the races which live there, he did not see a single case of 
goitre, and yet in the white inhabitants, who live exactly as 
the natives, it prevails in a great degree. 

Turning now to instances of the opposite kind, it is known 
that silkworms which spin colourless cocoons are more resistant 
to the attacks of a certain deadly fungus than are those which 
spin the yellow ones. In some parts of North America it is found 
that the white peaches are much less liable to the attack of a 
disease known as the "yellows" than are the yellow-fleshed 
ones. In the region of the Mississippi, Farabee has observed 
that the albino negroes are taller and broader than the black- 
skinned individuals. We may assume that increased stature 
and breadth imply some sort of inherent physical superiority, 
and if such an assumption is valid we have in man evidence 
that albinism is correlated not with constitutional defeetiveness 
but with greater perfectness. 

But the question as to whether albinoes are more or less 
constitutionally vigorous than pigmented individuals of the 
same species may be tested by exact measurement. In 1893 
W. D. Halliburton and T. G. Brodie, in ascertaining the physio- 
logical properties of nucleo-proteids, found that when they 
were intravascularly injected into pigmented rabbits, coagulation 
of the blood resulted, but of the eight albinoes which they used, 
none clotted. At a subsequent period (1897) Halliburton and 
J. W. Pickering showed that the three synthesized colloids of 
Grimaux in the same way produced coagulation in pigmented 
animals, but failed to do so in albinoes. Pickering, still later, 
showed, in the case of four Norway hares, two of which were 
injected while in their pigmented or summer coat, and two while 
in their albino or winter coat, that coagulation occurred in the 
former cases but not in the latter. 

Quite recently, however, the author of this article has made 
a more detailed examination of the question, operating upon 
several hundreds of rabbits. And he found that all albinoes 
do not fail to clot when intravascularly injected with nucleo- 
proteids. Only about 9% of them thus failed absolutely to 
manifest any trace of coagulation. But about 7 % showed an 
exceedingly limited coagulation, in which the clot was colourless 
and flocculent, and confined to the heart. The rest gave a typical 
and more or less wide-spread coagulation. Moreover, it was 
found that all the failures of coagulation occurred when the 
nucleo-proteid used was obtained from pigmented animals. 
When it was derived from albinoes no failures occurred. All 



pigmented animals clotted when the nucleo-proteid was derived 
from either source. The Himalayan rabbits reacted like complete 
albinoes, and 1 2 % of them failed to clot when injected with 
nucleo-proteid extracted from pigmented animals. 

The interesting fact was thus ascertained that all albinoes are 
not alike. To students of heredity this is precisely what would 
have been expected. For, as the facts above described show, 
albinoes, though apparently identical externally, are yet the 
carriers of different hereditary characters. Among albino rats, 
for instance, the author of this article has reason to believe, upon 
theoretical grounds resting on an experimental basis, that prob- 
ably no less than thirteen types exist. With rabbits and mice 
there must be a still larger number. 

In the intravascular coagulation experiments above described, 
all the rabbits were carefully weighed, and the amount of nucleo- 
proteid injected until coagulation occurred was measured. This 
would give for albinoes and pigmented individuals the amount 
per kilogramme of body-weight required to kill in each case, 
and would afford a measurement of the relative resistance of 
the two races. It was found that the resistance of albinoes 
towards the coagulative effects of injected nucleo-proteids was 
to that of pigmented individuals as 1-5 to i-o. In this case, the 
greater constitutional vigour of the albino is thus accurately 
demonstrated. But it does not necessarily follow that with 
other materials and with other constitutional qualities the state 
of things would not be reversed. 

One other feature remains to be mentioned. Albinism appears, 
in the processes of heredity, to be sometimes indissolubly corre- 
lated with certain peculiar traits. It is well known that the 
long-haired albino rabbit, called Angora, when at rest, has the 
habit of swaying its head sideways in a peculiar fashion. C. C. 
Hurst has shown that the long-haired and albino characters 
are always accompanied in heredity with the swaying habit. 
The Angora character never occurs without it. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. M. Allen, "Heredity of Coat Colour in Mice," 
Proc. Amer. A cad. Arts and Sci. vol. xl. No. 2; W. Bateson, Mendel's 
Principles of Heredity, a Defence (Cambridge, 1902) ; W. Bateson 
and E. R. Saunders, " Experimental Studies in the Physiology of 
Heredity, " Reports to the Evolution Committee of the Royal Society, 
Report I. (London, 1901); W. Bateson, E. R. Saunders, R. C. 
Punnett and C. C. Hurst, Reports to the Evolution Committee of the 
Royal Society, Report II. (London, 1905); W. Bateson, E. R. 
Saunders and R. C. Punnett, " Further Experiments on Inheritance 
in Sweet-Peas and Stocks, " Proc. Roy. Soc. B. vol. Ixxvii. ; W. E. 
Castle, " Note on Mr Farabee's Observations, " Science, N.S. vol. 
xvii. (New York); " Mendel's Law of Heredity," Science, N.S. vol. 
xviii. (New York); W. E. Castle and G. M. Allen, " Mendel's Law 
and the Heredity of Albinism," Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 
vol. xxxviii. ; L. Cuenot, " L'heredite de la pigmentation chez les 
souris," Arch. d. Zool. Exper. et Gen. Notes et Revue, ser. 3, torn. 10, 
and ser. 4, torn. I and 2; Charles Darwin, Variation of Animals and 
Plants under Domestication, vols. i. and ii., 2nd ed. (London, 1899); 
L. Doncaster, " Inheritance of Coat Colour in Rats," Proc. Camb. 
Phil. Soc. vol. xiii. (Camb., 1906) ; V. von Ducceschi, Rendiconti 
della R. Accad. dei Lincei, vol. ii. ; Arckivio di Fisiologia, vol. i. ; 
Florence M. Durham, " Tyrosinases in the Skins of Pigmented 
Vertebrates," Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. Ixxiv.; W. C. Farabee, "Notes 
on Negro Albinism," Science, N.S. vol. xvii. (New York); Furth v. 
Schneider, Beitr. z. Chem. Phys. u. Path. Bd. i ; W. Haacke, 
" Ueber Wesen, Ursachen und Vererbung von Albinismus und 
Scheckung, &c.," Biol. Centralbl. Bd. 15; Halliburton and Brodie, 
Journ. Phys. Camb. and Land. vols. xiy., xvi., xvii., xviii. ; Halliburton 
and Pickering, Journ. Phys. vol. xviii.; C. C. Hurst, " Experimental 
Studies on Heredity in Rabbits," Journ. Lin. Soc. Zool. vol. xxix.; 
Geo. P. Mudge, " Intravascular Coagulation and Albinism, Pre- 
liminary Note," Proc. Phys. Soc., 1905; Packard, Memoirs of 
National Academy of Sciences (1888) ; Pickering, Journ. Phys. vols. 
xviii. and xx. ; E. B. Poulton, Colour of Animals (Lond., 1890); 
Twining, Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1845; H. M. Vernon, Variation in 
Animals and Plants (London, 1903) ; F. H. Welch, " Winter Coat in 
Lepus americanus, " Proc. Zool. Soc., 1869. (G. P. M.) 

ALBINONI, TOMASSO (c. 1674-*:. 1745), Italian musician, 
was born at Venice. He was a prolific composer of operas 
attracting contemporary attention for their originality, but is 
more remarkable as a composer of instrumental music, which 
greatly attracted the attention of Bach, who wrote at least two 
fugues on Albinoni's themes and constantly used his basses for 
harmony exercises for his pupils. 



ALBINOVANUS PEDO ALBITE 



ALBINOVANUS PEDO, Roman poet, flourished during the 
Augustan age. He wrote a Theseis, referred to in a letter from 
his intimate friend Ovid (Ex Ponto, iv. 10), epigrams which are 
commended by Martial (ii. 77, v. 5) and an epic poem on the 
exploits of Germanicus. He had the reputation of being an 
excellent raconteur, and Quintilian (x. i. 90) awards him qualified 
praise as a writer of epics. All that remains of his works is a 
beautiful fragment, preserved in the Suasoriae (i. 15) of the 
rhetorician Seneca.from a description of the voyage of Germanicus 
(A.D. 16) through the river Ems to the Northern Ocean, when he 
was overtaken by the storm described by Tacitus (Ann. ii. 23). 
The cavalry commander spoken of by the historian is probably 
identical with the poet. Three elegies were formerly attributed 
to Pedo by Scaliger; two on the death of Maecenas (In Obilum 
Mnecenatis and De Verbis Maecenatis moribundi), and one 
addressed to Livia to console her for the death of her son Drusus 
(Consolatio ad Liviam de Morte Drusi or Epicedion Drusi, usually 
printed with Ovid's works) ; but it is now generally agreed 
that they are not by Pedo. The Consolatio has been put down 
as late as the i5th century as the work of an Italian imitator, 
there being no MSS. and no trace of the poem before the publica- 
tion of the editio princeps of Ovid in 1471. There is an English 
verse translation of the elegies by Plumptre (1907). 

See Bahrens, Poetae Latini Minores (1879) and Fragmenta Ppetarum 
Latinorum (1886); Haupt, Opuscula, i. (1875); Haube, Beitrag zur 
Kenntnis des Albinovanus Pedo (1880). 

ALBINUS (originally WEISS), BERNHARD SIEGFRIED 

(1697-1770), German anatomist, was born on the 24th of Feb- 
ruary 1697, at Frankfort-on-Oder, where his father, Bernhard 
Albinus (1653-1721), was professor of the practice of medicine. 
In 1702 the latter was transferred to the chair of medicine at 
Leiden, and it was there that Bernhard Siegfried began his 
studies, having for his teachers such men as H. Boerhaave and 
Nikolaus Bidloo. Having finished his studies at Leiden, he 
went to Paris, where, under the instruction of Sebastien Vaillant 
(1669-1722), J. B. Winslow (1669-1760) and others, he devoted 
himself especially to anatomy and botany.- After a year's 
absence he was, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, recalled 
in 1719 to Leiden to be a lecturer on anatomy and surgery. 
Two years later he succeeded his father in the professorship of 
these subjects, and speedily became one of the most famous 
teachers of anatomy in Europe, his class-room being resorted 
to not only by students but by many practising physicians. 
In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor of the practice of 
medicine, being succeeded in the anatomical chair by his brother 
Frederick Bernhard (1715-1778), who, as well as another brother, 
Christian Bernhard (1700-1752), attained considerable distinc- 
tion. Bernhard Siegfried, who was twice rector of his university, 
died on the gth of September 1770 at Leiden. 

ALBION (in Ptolemy 'A\ovLuv; Lat. Albion, Pliny 4-i6[3o], 102), 
the most ancient name of the British Islands, though generally 
restricted to England. The name is perhaps of Celtic origin, 
but the Romans took it as connected with albus, white, in refer- 
ence to the chalk-cliffs of Dover, and A. Holder (Alt-Keltischer 
Sprachschatz, 1 896) unhesitatingly translates it Weissland, " white- 
land." The early writer (6th cent. B.C.) whose periplus is 
translated by Avienus (end of 4th cent. A.D.) does not use 
the name Britannia; he speaks of vijaos 'Itpvcov KO.L 'AX/Stopoji' 
(" island of the lerni and the Albiones ") . So Pytheas of Massilia 
(4th cent. B.C.) speaks of "AX/Sicv and 'lepinj. From the fact 
that there was a tribe called the Albiones on the north coast 
of Spain in Asturia, some scholars have placed Albion in that 
neighbourhood (see G. F. Unger, Rhein. Mus. xxxviii., 1883, 
pp. 156-196). The name Albion was taken by medieval writers 
from Pliny and Ptolemy. 

ALBION, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the 
Kalamazoo river, 21 m. W. of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 3763; 
(1900) 4519, of whom 622 were foreign-born; (1904) 4943; (1910) 
5833. Albion is served by the Michigan Central and the Jackson 
division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern railways, 
and by an inter-urban electric line. The city has a public park 
and a public library. The W. part of the city has most of the 



factories; the principal manufactures are flour, agricultural 
implements, windmills, gasolene engines, harness and proprietary 
medicines. On a commanding site in the E. part of the city is 
Albion College (MethodistEpiscopaljco-educational), embracing 
a College of Liberal Arts, a preparatory department, a con- 
servatory of music, a school of art, a school of oratory, a 
normal course, and a commercial department. The college was 
incorporated in 1835 as Spring Arbor Seminary, and in 1839 
by an amended charter was located at Albion, where it was 
first opened in 1843 under the name of the Wesleyan Seminary 
of Albion; in 1849 it became the Wesleyan Seminary and Female 
Collegiate Institute, with power to grant degrees to women only; 
but in 1 86 1 the present name was adopted and the college was 
permitted to grant degrees to men and women. In 1906 it had a 
library of 16,500 volumes, a faculty of 19, and an enrolment of 
483 (211 being women). The municipality owns and operates 
the water-works, the water-supply being obtained from artesian 
wells. Albion was settled in 1831, was incorporated as a village 
in 1866 and was chartered as a city in 1885. 

ALBION, a village and the county-seat of Orleans county, 
New York, U.S.A., about 30 m. W.N.W. of Rochester. Pop. 
(1890) 4586; (1900) 4477, (984 being foreign-born and 43 
negroes) ; (1905, state census) 5174 ; (1910) 5016. The village is 
served by the New York Central & Hudson River railway, 
by the Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester electric railway, and by 
the Erie Canal. In Albion are the Western House of Refuge for 
Women (a state institution established in 1890), a public park, 
the Swan Library, and the county buildings, including the court 
house, the jail and the surrogate's office; and about 2 m. to the 
S.E. is the beautiful Mount Albion Cemetery. Albion is the 
centre of the Medina sandstone industry, and lies in the midst 
of a good farming region, of which it is the principal shipping 
point, especially for apples, cabbages and beans. The village 
manufactures agricultural implements, vinegar, evaporated 
fruit, and canned fruit and vegetables, and has two large cold- 
storage houses. Albion was settled in 1812, was incorporated 
in 1823 and became the county-seat in 1825. 

ALBITE, a mineral of the felspar group, belonging to the 
division of the plagiodases (q.v.). It is a sodium and aluminium 
silicate, NaAlSisOg, and crystallizes in the anorthic system. 
Like all the felspars it possesses two cleavages, one perfect and 
the other less so, which are here inclined at an angle of 86 24'. 
On the more perfect cleavage, which is parallel to the basal plane 
(P), is a system of fine striations, parallel to the second cleavage 
(M), due to twinning according to the '" albite law " (figs, i 
and 2) . The hard- 
ness is 6, and the 
specific gravity 
2.63. The colour 
is usually pure 
white, hence the 
name (from the 
Lat. albus) for the 
species. 

Albite forms 
an essential con- 
stituent of many 
acidic igneous and 
crystalline rocks; 





FIG. 2. 



FIG. i. 

Twinned crystals of Albite. 
in granites, diorites, andesites, &c., it occurs as a primary mineral, 
whilst in crystalline schists, phyllites and crystalline limestones 
it is of secondary (metamorphic)origin. The beautifully developed 
crystals so abundant in crystal-lined crevices of Alpine granites 
and gneisses have been deposited, with other minerals, from 
solution; the crystals lining veins in the slates of Tintagel in 
Cornwall have the same origin. 

Several varieties of albite are distinguished, of which the 
following may be here specially mentioned. Pericline (from 
the Gr. irepucXiwfc, " sloping ") is the name given to large 
opaque white crystals from the chlorite-schists of the Alps; 
they are tabular parallel to the direction of perfect cleavage 
and are twinned according to the " pericline law." Perislerile 



512 



'ALBO ALBRET 



(from the Gr. Trtpurrfpii, a dove) is characterized by a 
beautiful bluish sheen, somewhat resembling that seen on the 
neck of a pigeon; it is found mainly in Ontario. Aventurine 
and moonstone varieties occur, though these special appearances 
are more usually displayed by the oligoclase and orthoclase 
felspars respectively. (L. J. S.) 

'ALBO, JOSEPH, a Spanish Jewish theologian of the I5th cen- 
tury. He was author of a very popular book on the philosophy 
of Judaism, entitled 'Iqqarim or Fundamentals. Maimonides in 
the 1 2th century had formulated the principles of Judaism in 
thirteen articles; Albo reduced them to three: (i) The Existence 
of God, (ii) Revelation and (iii) Divine Retribution. Albo set 
the example of minimizing Messianism in the formulation of 
Jewish beliefs. Though he fully maintained the Mosaic author- 
ship of the Law and the binding force of tradition, he dis- 
criminated between the essential and the non-essential in the 
practices and beliefs of Judaism. An English translation of the 
'Iqqarim appeared in the Hebrew Review, vols. i.-iii. 

ALBOIN (d. 572 or 573), king of the Lombards, and conqueror 
of Italy, succeeded his father Audoin about 565. The Lombards 
were at that time dwelling in Noricum and Pannonia (archduchy 
of Austria, Styria and Hungary, west of the Danube). In 
alliance with the Avars, and Asiatic people who had invaded 
central Europe, Alboin defeated the Gepidae, a powerful nation 
on his eastern frontier, slew their king Cunimund, whose skull 
he fashioned into a drinking-cup, and whose daughter Rosamund 
he carried off and made his wife. Three years later (in 568), on 
the alleged invitation of Narses (q.v.), who was irritated by the 
treatment he had received from the emperor Justin II., Alboin 
invaded Italy, probably marching over the pass of the Predil. 
He overran Venetia and the wide district which we now call 
Lombardy, meeting with but feeble resistance till he came to the 
city of Ticinum (Pavia), which for three years (569-572) kept the 
Lombards at bay. While this siege was in progress Alboin was 
also engaged in other parts of Italy, and at its close he was 
probably master of Lombardy, Piedmont and Tuscany, as 
well as of the regions which afterwards went by the name 
of the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. In 572 or 573, how- 
ever, he was assassinated by his chamberlain Peredeo at the 
instigation of Queen Rosamund, whom Alboin had grievously 
insulted by forcing her to drink wine out of her father's skull. 
After his death and the short reign of his successor Cleph 
the Lombards remained for more than ten years in a state of 
anarchy. 

The authorities for the history of Alboin are Procopius, Paulus 
Diaconus and Agnellus (in his history of the church of Ravenna). 

ALBONI, MARIETTA (1823-1894), Italian opera-singer, was 
born at Cesena, Romagna, and was trained in music at Bologna, 
where she became a pupil of Rossini. She had a magnificent 
contralto voice, and in 1843 made her first appearance at La 
Scala, Milan, being recognized at once as a public favourite. In 
England her reputation was established by her appearance at 
Covent Garden in 1847, and she had brilliant success all over 
Europe in the leading operatic roles; in 1853 she repeated these 
triumphs in the United States. Indeed, with the exception of 
Malibran,she had no c&mpeer among the contraltos of thecentury, 
the old Italian school of singing finding in her a really great 
representative. She married first Count A. Pepoli, who died 
in 1866, and secondly (1877) a French officer, M. Zieger; she 
lived in Paris after her first marriage, and died at Ville d'Avray 
in 1894. 

ALBORNOZ, GIL ALVAREZ DE, Spanish cardinal, was born 
at Cuenca early in the i4th century. He was the son of Gil 
Alvarez de Albornoz and of Dona Teresa de Luna, sister of 
Kimeno de Luna, archbishop of Toledo. He was educated at 
Saragosa, while his uncle was bishop of that see, and studied law 
at Toulouse. The powerful influence of his family opened him a 
public career early in life. He was made archdeacon of Calatrava, 
and became a member of the king's council while young. In 1337 
he was chosen archbishop of Toledo in succession to his uncle by 
the favour of the king, Alphonso XI. At the battle of Tarifa he 
fought against a great invasion from Africa in 1340, and at the 



taking of Algeciras in 1344 he led the armed levy of his arch- 
bishopric. In 1343 he had been sent to Pope Clement VI. at 
Avignon to negotiate a grant of a tax on the revenues of the 
Church for the Crusade. His military and diplomatic ability 
became known to the pope, who made him a cardinal in 1350. 
Albornoz left Spain on the death of the king Alphonso XL in that 
year, and never returned. It has been said, but not on contem- 
porary evidence, that he fled from fear of Peter the Cruel. In 
1353 Innocent VI. sent him as a legate into Italy, with a view to 
the restoration of the papal authority in the states of the Church. 
He was recalled in 1357, but was sent again to Italy after a brief 
interval, and in 1362 had paved the way for the return of 
Urban V. to Rome. As legate, Albornoz showed himself to be 
an astute manager of men and effective fighter. He began by 
making use of Rienzi, whose release from prison at Avignon he 
secured. After the murder of the tribune in 1354 Albornoz 
pursued his task of restoring the pope's authority by intrigue and 
force with remarkable success. As a mark of gratitude the pope 
appointed him legate at Bologna in 1367, but he died at Viterbo 
the same year. According to his own desire his remains were 
carried to Toledo, where Henry of Castile caused them to be 
entombed with almost royal honours. A work by Albornoz on 
the constitution of the Church of Rome, first printed at Jesi 
in 1473, is now very rare. The college of St Clement at Bologna 
was founded by Albornoz for the benefit of Spanish students. 

See " De Vita et Rebus Gestis Aegidii Albornotii," in Sepulveda's 
Opera Omnia, vol. iv. (1780) ; Cardenal Albornoz der zweiie Begriinder 
des Kirchenstaates, by Dr H. J. Wurm (1892). 

ALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN GEORG (1736-1809), 
Austrian musician, was born at Kloster-Neuburg, near Vienna, 
on the 3rd of February 1736. He studied musical composition 
under the court organist, Mann, and became one of the most 
learned and skilful contrapuntists of his age. After being 
employed as organist at Raab and Maria-Taferl, he was appointed 
in 1772 organist to the court of Vienna, and in 1792 Kapellmeister 
of St Stephen's cathedral. His fame as a theorist attracted to 
him in the Austrian capital a large number of pupils, some of 
whom afterwards became eminent musicians. Among these were 
Beethoven, Hummel, Moscheles and Josef Weigl (1766-1846). 
Albrechtsberger died in Vienna on the 7th of March 1809. His 
published compositions consist of preludes, fugues and sonatas 
for the piano and organ, string quartets, &c.; but the greater 
proportion of his works, vocal and instrumental, exists only in 
manuscript. They are in the library of the Vienna Gesellschaft 
der Musikfreunde. Probably the most valuable service he 
rendered to music was in his theoretical works. In 1790 he 
published at Leipzig a treatise on composition, of which a third 
edition appeared in 1821. A collection of his writings on har- 
mony, in three volumes, was published under the care of his pupil 
Ignaz von Seyfried (1776-1841) in 1826. There is an English 
version of this published by Novello in 1855. Beethoven knew 
his own needs when he put himself under Albrechtsberger on 
finding that Haydn was not thoroughly disposed for the trouble 
of training him; and though Albrechtsberger could see nothing 
in him, and warned his other pupils against " that young man 
who would never turn out anything in good style," he justified 
Beethoven's confidence. 

ALBRET. The lordship (seigneurie) of Albret (Labrit, 
Lebret), situated in the Landes, gave its name to one of the 
most powerful feudal families of France in the middle ages. 
Its members distinguished themselves in the local wars of that 
epoch; and during the i4th century they espoused the English 
cause for some time, afterwards transferring their support to 
the side of France. Arnaud Amanieu, lord of Albret, helped 
to take Guienne from the English. His son Charles became 
constable of France, and was killed at the battle of Agincourt 
in 1415. Alain the Great, lord of Albret (d. 1522), wished to 
marry Anne of Brittany, and to that end fought against Charles 
VIII. ; but his hopes being defeated by the betrothal of Anne 
to Maximilian of Austria, he surrendered Nantes to the French 
in 1486. At that time the house of Albret had attained consider- 
able territorial importance, due in great part to the liberal grants 



ALBRIGHT ALBUMIN 



which it had obtained from successive kings of France. John 
of Albret, son of Alain, became king of Navarre by his marriage 
with Catherine of Foix. Their son Henry, king of Navarre, 
was created duke of Albret and peer of France in 1550. By his 
wife Margaret, sister of the French king, Francis I., he had a 
daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, who married 
Anthony de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, and became the mother 
of Henry IV., king of France. The dukedom of Albret, united 
to the crown of France by the accession of this prince, was 
granted to the family of La Tour d'Auvergne in 1651, in exchange 
for Sedan and Raucourt. 

To a younger branch of this house belonged Jean d'Albret, 
seigneur of Orval, count of Dreux and of Rethel, governor of 
Champagne (d. 1524), who was employed by Francis I. in many 
diplomatic negotiations, more particularly in his intrigues to 
get himself elected emperor in 1519. (M. P.*) 

ALBRIGHT, JACOB (1759-1808), American clergyman, was 
born near Pottstown, Pennsylvania, on the ist of May 1759. 
He was of " Pennsylvania- German " parentage, his name being 
originally Albrecht, and was educated in the Lutheran faith. 
At an early age he became a tile-burner. In 1790 he was con- 
verted to Methodism, and in 1 796 determined to devote himself 
to preaching that faith among the Pennsylvania Germans. His 
efforts met with great success, and in 1800 he founded what 
was virtually a new and independent church organization 
on the Methodist system, of which he became the presiding 
elder, and eventually (1807) bishop. This church is officially the 
Evangelical Association, but its adherents have been vari- 
ously known as " New Methodists." " Albrights," and " Albright 
Brethren." Albright died on the i8th of May 1808, atMuhlbach, 
Pennsylvania. 

ALBUERA, or ALBUHERA, LA, a small village of Spain, in 
the province of Badajoz, 13 m. S.E. of the town of that name. 
Pop. (1900) 820. Albuera is celebrated on account of the victory 
gained there on the i6th of May 1811 by the British, Portuguese 
and Spaniards, under Marshal Beresford, over the French army 
commanded by Marshal Soult. (See PENINSULAR WAR.) 

ALBUFERA DE VALENCIA, a lagoon, 7 m. S. of Valencia 
in Spain, about 12 m. in length and 4 in breadth, 12 ft. being its 
greatest depth. It communicates with the sea by a narrow 
outlet, which can be opened or closed at pleasure. The lake 
is crown property, and is of great value from the fish and wild- 
fowl with which it abounds. Rice is grown in large quantities 
by the inhabitants of the adjoining villages. In 1812 Marshal 
Suchet was created duke of Albufera by Napoleon for his con- 
quest of Valencia, and invested with the domain; but the battle 
of Vittoria in 1813 deprived him of his possession, though he still 
retained the title. Subsequently the revenues of Albufera were 
conferred upon the duke of Wellington in token of the gratitude 
of the Spanish nation. (See PENINSULAR WAR.) 

ALBULAE AQUAE, a group of springs, 4 m. W. of Tibur, the 
water of which is bluish, strongly impregnated with sulphur 
and carbonate of lime, and rises at a temperature of about 
75 F. Remains of a Roman thermal establishment exist near 
the principal spring, the so-called Lago della Regina (which is 
continually diminishing in size owing to the deposit left by the 
water) , and dedicatory inscriptions in honour of the waters have 
been found. The baths are still frequented by the Romans, 
though the modern establishment is about i m. S. on the high 
road. 

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 117. 

ALBULA PASS, now the principal route from the N. to the 
Upper Engadine in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. It was 
already frequented in the I3th century, while a carriage road 
(highest point, 7595 ft.) was constructed across it in 1865, but for 
a long time it was not as much used as the easier and more direct 
Julier Pass (7504 ft.), until the opening of the railway in 1903, 
which has vastly increased its practical importance. Starting from 
Coire the Rhine valley is followed to Reichenau (6J m.), and then 
that of the Hinter Rhine to Thusis (105 m.). The line then runs 
through the grand Schyn gorge (cut by the Albula torrent) to 
Tiefenkastell (75 m.), where it leaves the Julier road on the right 



(S.) and continues to follow the course of the Albula past Filisur 
and Bergiin (125 m.) to the mouth (5879 ft.) of the great tunnel 
(3! m. in length; highest point, 5987 ft.) which has been pierced 
below the pass. The descent lies through the Bevers glen to 
Bevers (25 m.), where the Upper Engadine is reached, about 
S m. below St. Moritz, which is 56 m. from Coire by this 
route. (W. A. B. C.) 

ALBUM (Lat. albus, white) , in ancient Rome, a board chalked 
or painted white, on which decrees, edicts and other public 
notices were inscribed in black. The Annales Maximi of the 
Pontifex Maximus, the annual edicts of the praetor, the lists 
of Roman and municipal senators (decuriones) and jurors 
(album indicuni) were exhibited in this manner. In medieval 
and modern times album denotes a book of blank pages in which 
verses, autographs, sketches, photographs and the like are 
collected. It is also applied to the official list of matriculated 
students in a university, and to the roll in which a bishop 
inscribes the names of his clergy. In law, the word is the 
equivalent of mailles blanches, for rent paid in silver (" white ") 
money. 

ALBUMAZAR, more properly ABU-MAASCHAR (805-885), 
Arab astronomer, was born at Balkh, flourished at Bagdad, and 
died at Wasid in Central Asia. His principal works are: De 
Magnis Conjunclionibus (Augsburg, 1489); Introductorium in 
Astronomiam (Venice, 1506); and Flares Astrologici (Augsburg, 
. He maintained in the first that the world, created when 



the seven planets were in conjunction in the first degree of 
Aries, will come to an end at a like conjunction in the last degree 
of Pisces. 

See Biog. Universelle (Jourdain); Lalande, Bibliographic Astrono- 
mique; Poggendorff, Biog. lilerarisches Handworterbuch; Houzeau, 
Bibl. Astronomigue. 

ALBUMIN, or ALBUMEN (Lat. albus, white), an organic sub- 
stance typical of a group of bodies (albumins or albuminates) 
of very complicated chemical composition. They are sometimes 
called the histogenetic bodies or proteids, because they are 
essential to the building up of the animal organism. The 
vegetable kingdom is the original source of albuminous sub- 
stances, the albumins being found in greatest quantity in the 
seed. They also occur in the fluids of the living organism. 
The chemistry of the albumins is one of the most complicated 
and difficult in the whole domain of organic chemistry. It has 
attracted the attention of many workers, and has formed the 
subject of a huge literature. In this field Bechamp, Cohnheim, 
Albrecht Kossel, and, especially, Emil Fischer and his pupils 
have been extremely active. The general trend of these 
researches lies in the study of the decomposition or " breaking 
down" products of the albumin molecules; once these are 
accurately determined, the synthesis of an albumin is but a 
matter of time. Already we have proceeded far in our know- 
ledge of the decomposition products, and certain simple proteids 
have been synthesized. 

The albumins contain in all cases the elements carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen; their composition, 
however, varies within certain limits: C = 50-55 %, 
H=6-9-7-3%,N=i 5 -i9%,S=o-3-2- 4 %,0 = i9-24%, 
crystallized albumin is C = si-48 %, H = 6-76 %, N= acters. 
18-14%, 8 = 0-96%, = 22-66%, which points to the 
formula CrajHim^isSsC^s, corresponding to the molecular 
weight 16,954. A high molecular weight characterizes these 
substances, but so far no definite value has been determined by 
either physical or chemical means; A. P. Sabanezhev obtained 
the value 15,000 by Raoult's method for purified egg albumin. 
All albumins are laevo-rotatory; and on incineration a small 
amount of inorganic ash is invariably left. They are usually 
insoluble in water, alcohol and ether; and their presence as 
solutes in vegetable and animal fluids is not yet perfectly under- 
stood, but it is probably to be connected with the presence of 
salts or other substances. A remarkable change occurs when 
many albumins are boiled with water, or treated with certain 
acids, their solubility and general characters being entirely 
altered, and the fluid becoming coagulated. This change is seen 






I. 17 



5*4 



ALBUMIN 



in the transformation of the " white " of an egg on boiling. 
Albumins are generally detected by taking advantage of this 
property, or of certain colour changes. The reagents in common 
use are: Millon's reagent, a solution of mercuric nitrate contain- 
ing nitrous acid, this gives a violet-red coloration; nitric acid, 
which gives a yellow colour, turning to gold when treated with 
ammonia (xanthoproteic reaction); fuming sulphuric acid, 
which gives violet solutions; and caustic potash and copper 
sulphate, which, on warming, gives a red to violet coloration 
(biuret reaction). 

Boiling with dilute mineral acids, or baryta water, decomposes 
albumins into carbon dioxide, ammonia and fatty amino- and 

other acids. These decomposition products include: 

glycocoll or aminoacetic acid, NH 2 CH 2 COOH, alanine 
products, or aminopropionicacid,CH 3 - CH(NH 2 ) COOH,a-amino- 

butyric acid, a-aminovalerianic acid, leucin or isobutyl- 
a-aminoacetic acid, (CH 3 ) 2 CH-CH 2 -CH(NH 2 )-COOH, isoleucin, 
probably /3-aminocaproic acid, serin or a-amino-/3-hydroxy- 
propionic acid, HO-CH 2 -CH(NH 2 )-COOH, aspartic acid or 
aminosuccinic acid, HOOC-CH 2 -CH(NH 2 )-COOH, glutaminic 
acid or o-amino-w-glutaric acid,HOOC-(CH 2 ) 2 -CH(NH 2 )- COOH, 
diaminoacetic acid, a-/3-diaminopropionic acid, lysin. or 
a-e-diamino-n-caproic acid, NH 2 (CH 2 ) 4 -CH(NH 2 ) -COOH, arginin 
or guanidine-a-amino-w-valerianic acid, (NH)(NH 2 )C-NH- 
(CH 2 ) 3 -CH(NH 2 )-COOH, ornithin or a5-diamino valerianic acid, 
NH 2 -(CH 2 ) 3 -CH(NH 2 )-COOH, histidin or q-amino-)3-imidazol- 

I I 

propionic acid, HOOC-CH(NH 2 )-CH 2 -C : CH-N:CH'NH, proline 

i I 

or a-pyrrolidin carboxylic acid, HOOC-CH-NH-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 , 
hydroxyproline, phenyl alanine or phenyl-a-aminopropionic 
acid, C 6 H 5 - CH 2 ' CH(NH 2 ) COOH,tyrosine or p-hydroxyphenyl-a- 
aminopropionic acid, phenyl ethylamine, p-hydroxyphenyl 
ethylamine, tryptophane or indol aminopropionic acid, A. 
cystin (protein-cystin) or a-amino-/3-thioglyceric acid " disul- 
phide," (S-CH 2 -CH(NH 2 )-COOH) 2 , B. cystin (stone-cystin), or 
a-thio-/3-aminoglyceric acid " disulphide," (NH 2 -CH 2 -CH : S- 
COOH) 2 . This list is not exhaustive; other products are 
given in Gustav Mann, Chemistry of the Proteids (1906), to which 
reference should be made for a complete account of this class of 
compounds. 

The complexity of composition militates in a great measure 
against a rational classification of albumins by purely chemical 

considerations. Such classifications have been at- 
^'atloa'ot tem P ted bv A - Kossel and by W. Kuhne and E. P. Pick ; 
albumins. but * n tne present state of our knowledge, however, 

the older classification of E. Dreschel and F. Hoppe- 
Seyler, based primarily on solubilities and distribution, may be 
conveniently retained. This classification is with certain modi- 
fications as follows: 

I. Albumins proper: characterized by having colloidal 
solutions. 

(1) Albumins: serum-albumin, egg-albumin, lact- 

albumin. 

(2) Globulins: serum-globulin, egg-globulin, lacto- 

globulin, cell-globulins. 

(3) Plant-globulins and plant-vitellines. 

(4) Fibrinogen. 

(5) Myosin. 

(6) Phosphorus containing albumins (nucleo-albumins), 

caseins, vitellines, nucleo-albumins of the cell- 
protoplasm, mucoid nucleo-albumins. 

(7) Histones. 

(8) Protamines. 

II. Transformation products of the albumins proper. 

(1) Acid-albumins, alkali albuminates. 

(2) Albumoses, peptones and peptides. 

(3) Halogen-albumins, oxyprotein, oxyprotsulphonic 

acid, &c. 
III. Proteids. 

(1) Nucleo-proteids. 

(2) Haemoglobin and allied substances. 

(3) Glyco-proteids, mucins, mucoids, helico-proteid. 



IV. Albuminoids. 

(1) Collagen. 

(2) Keratin. 

(3) Elastin. 

(4) Fibroin. * 

(5) Spongin, &c. 

(6) Amyloid. 

(7) Albumoid. 

(8) Colouring matters derived from albumin. 
Albumins proper. Albumins (as classified above) are 

soluble in water, dilute acids and alkalies, and in saturated 
neutral salt solutions; they are coagulated by heat. " Serum- 
albumin," or "blood-albumin," possibly C45oH 720 N U 6S 6 Ono, 
occurs in blood-serum, lymph, chyle, milk, &c.; its coagulation 
temperature is about 67. It differs from egg-albumin in its 
specific rotation (-57 10-64), and in being slowly coagulated 
by alcohol and ether. Egg-albumin is the chief constituent of 
the white of egg; this fluid also contains a globulin and a 
mucoid. It coagulates at about 56, and its specific rotation is 
-30-70. " Lact-albumin " occurs in all kinds of milk. The 
globulins are insoluble in water and in dilute acids, but soluble 
in alkalies and in neutral salt solutions; these solutions are 
coagulated on boiling. " Serum-globulin," also termed globulin 
or fibrino-plastic globulin, paraglobulin and paraglobin, occurs 
in blood serum; " cell-globulins " occur in many organs liver, 
kidneys, pancreas and the thyroid gland, also in muscle-plasma; 
" crystalline," a globulin occurring in two forms a and /3, is 
found in the lens of the eye; " egg-globulin " and " lacto- ' 
globulin " occur respectively in the white of egg and in milk. 
Plant albumins or phyto-albumins have been chiefly investigated 
in the case of those occurring in seeds; most are globulins, 
insoluble in pure water, but soluble in salt solutions; " edestin," 
a globulin of this class, is very widely distributed. Other 
varieties or classes of these compounds are: plant caseins, 
phyto-vitellines, legumins and conglutins. Fibrinogen occurs 
in the blood plasma, and is changed by a ferment into fibrin, 
to which the clotting of blood is due. Fibrinogen is insoluble in 
water, but soluble in salt solutions; it has three different coagu- 
lation temperatures, 56, 67, 75. Fibrin, produced from 
fibrinogen by a ferment, is a jelly-like substance, coagulable by 
heat, alcohol, &c. The muscle-albumins include " myosin " or 
paramyosinogen, a globulin, which by coagulation induces rigor 
mortis, and the closely related " myosinogen " or myogen; 
myoglobulin and myoalbumin are also found in muscles. The 
nucleo-albumins or phospho-globulins are insoluble in water 
and acids, but soluble in alkalies, and have an acid reaction. 
" Caseinogen " (after W. D. Halliburton) is the chief albumin 
of milk; its composition varies with the animal. It is insoluble 
in water, while its salts are readily soluble. " Eucasein " is 
the ammonium salt; " nutrose " and " plasmon " are sodium 
salts. By the rennet ferment caseinogen is converted into 
casein, a substance resembling caseinogen in being soluble in 
water, but differing in having an insoluble calcium salt. The 
formation of casein involves the curdling of milk. Other 
phosphoglobulins are vitelline, found in the yolk of hens' 
eggs, and ichthulin, found in the eggs of fish. Histones are a 
class of albumins soluble in water and acids, but essentially 
basic in character; hence they are precipitated by alkalies. 
It is remarkable that many histones are soluble in an excess of 
alkali. They do not exist in a free state, but in combination 
with a " prosthetic group " (after A. Kossel) they give rise to 
important cell constituents haemoglobin, nucleo-proteids, &c. 

Thymus histone " occurs in the thymus gland; globin occurs 
in combination as haemoglobin; other histones have been 
extracted from the red blood corpuscles of the goose and the 
testes of fishes and other animals. The protamines are a well- 
characterized class of albumins found in the ripe spermatozoa of 
fishes. 

Albumoses and Peptones. The primary products of the dis- 
sociation of albumins are the albumoses, characterized by not 
being coagulable by heat, more soluble than the albumins, having 
a far less complex composition, and capable of being " salted 



ALBUMINURIA 



out " by certain salts, and the peptones, similar to albumoses but 
not capable of being " salted out "; moreover, peptones are less 
complex than albumoses. By further decomposition peptones 
yield peptides, a certain number of which have been synthesized 
by Emil Fischer and his collaborators. Albumoses and peptones 
are white powders, readily soluble in water, with the exception 
of the hetero-albumoses a subdivision of primary albumoses. 
They give the biuret and xanthoproteic reactions, and form salts 
with both acids and bases. Albumoses and peptones are 
obtained by peptic digestion, the latter being termed peptic- 
peptones; tryptic digestion also produces peptones. Acids and 
moist heat induce similar changes. 

Proteids. These substances are combinations of one or more 
albumins with a radical of an essentially different nature, termed 
by Kossel a " prosthetic group." It is convenient to classify 
proteids by those groups. " Nucleo-proteids," constituents of 
the cell-nucleus, are combinations of albumins and nucleic acid; 
they always contain iron. They are loose, white, non-hygroscopic 
powders, soluble in water and salt solutions, and have an acid 
reaction; they give the colour reactions of albumins. Nucleic 
acid is at present of unknown constitution; decomposition 
products are: phosphoric acid, uracil or 2.6-dioxy-pyrimidin, 1 
cytosin or 2-oxy-6-amino-pyrimidin, thymin (nucleosin) or 
2.6-dioxy-s-methyl pyrimidin hypoxanthin 1 or 6-oxypurin, 
xanthin or 2.6-dioxypurin, adenine or 6 amino-purin, guanine or 
2-amino-6-oxypurin, pentoses (1-xylose), laevulinic acid, am- 
monia, etc. The nucleic acids vary with the source of the pro- 
teids, there being considerable differences in chemical composi- 
tion. In general they are white, loose powders, slightly soluble 
in cold water, more soluble in hot water; they are precipitated 
by mineral acids, but dissolve in an excess. They are dextro- 
rotatory, and the specific rotation is numerically greater than 
that of albumin; hence the proteids are, in general, dextro- 
rotatory. 

An important nucleo-proteid is haemoglobulin or haemoglobin, 
the colouring matter of the red blood corpuscles of vertebrates; 
a related substan.ce, haemocyanin, in which the iron of haemo- 
globin is replaced by copper, occurs in the blood of cephalopods 
and crayfish. Haemoglobin is composed of a basic albumin and 
an acid substance haematin; it combines readily with oxygen, 
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide to form loose compounds 
(see NUTRITION). It coagulates at 64. By a dilute acid 
haemoglobin is decomposed into globin, and " haematin," a 
ferri-pyrrol derivative of the probable formula C^HM^FeOs ; 
under certain conditions the iron-free " haematoporphyrin " is 
obtained. This last substance may be reduced to mesopor- 
phyrin, C^H^C^N,!, which by further reduction gives haemo- 
pyrrol, C 8 Hi 3 N, possibly methyl-propyl-pyrrol or butyl-pyrrol. 
Other derivatives are haemin, haemochromogen and the 
haematinic acids. 

" Glyco-proteids " differ from nucleo-proteids in containing 
a carbohydrate radical, which is liberated only by boiling with 
mineral acids or alkalies. The mucins and mucoids belong to 
this group; they are acid and contain no phosphorus; they 
give the albumin colour reactions but are not coagulated by heat. 
Mucins occur in most of the slimy fluids of the body; they vary 
in composition with their source. Mucoids resemble mucins in 
their composition and reactions, but differ, in general, in their 
physical properties. They occur in tendons, bones and cartilage. 
The " phospho-glyco-proteids " resemble the mucins and mucoids 
in containing a carbohydrate residue, but differ in containing 

C'losphorus. Ichthulin (see above) maybe placed in this group; 
helico-proteid," found in the serous gland of Helix pomatia, the 
neyard snail, also belongs .here. 
Albuminoids is the anatomical name given to albuminous 
bstances forming the connective tissues. Chemically they 
resemble the albumins, being split up by acids or ferments into 
Ibumoses, peptones and amino-acids, forming salts, and giving 

/N = C\ 

1 The pyrimidin ring is numbered 2C/ j>Cs. Forthepurin 

ing, see PURIN. \vN-C ^ 



the same colour reactions. They are quite insoluble in water 
and in salt solutions, and difficultly soluble in dilute acids and 
alkalies. Typical albuminoids are gelatin, keratin, elastin, 
fibroin, spongin and conchiolin. 

" Collagen " (Gr. KoXXa, glue, and root yev- of ytwatLV, to 
produce, "fi'yvf<r6cu., to become), the ground-substance of bones 
and tissues, is decomposed by boiling water or on warming with 
acids into substances named gelatin, glutin or glue. Gelatin 
forms a white amorphous powder; the commercial product, 
however, generally forms glassy plates. The decomposition 
products are generally the same as with the general albumin; it 
gives the biuret reaction; forms salts with acids and alkalies, but 
is essentially acid in nature. Immersed in cold water gelatin 
does not dissolve but swells up; it dissolves readily in hot water, 
forming, according to the quantity present, a thick jelly which 
solidifies to a hard mass on cooling (the " glue " of the wood- 
worker), or a thin jelly (used in cookery). Gelatin occurs also 
in the cornea and the sclerotic coat of the eye; and in fish 
scales, the latter containing 80% of collagen, and 20% of 
ichthylepidin, a substance differing from gelatin in giving a well- 
marked Millon's reaction. Keratin (Gr. (cepas, a horn), the 
chief constituent of horny material, occurs in hair, nails, hoofs 
and feathers. It is quite insoluble in water, dilute acids and 
alkalies. Related to this substance are "neuro-keratin," found 
in the medullary sheath of nerves, and " gorgonin," the matrix of 
the axial skeleton of the coral Gorgonia Cavolinii. Elastin occurs 
either as thick strands or as membranes; it constitutes the 
" elastic tissue " of the anatomist. Its insolubility is much the 
same as keratin. " Fibroin " and silk-glue or sericin occur in 
natural silk fibres. Fibroin is insoluble in water, acids and 
alkalies; silk-glue resembles gelatin in its solubility, but it is 
less readily gelatinized. " Spongin," the matrix of bath-sponge, 
is insoluble in water and dilute acids, but soluble in concentrated 
mineral acids. " Conchiolin," the matrix of shells of the mol- 
lusca, is only slightly soluble in acids. " Cornein " forms the 
framework of corals. " Amyloid " occurs as a pathological 
product, and also in the healthy aorta and in old cartilage. It 
is an albumin, and not a carbohydrate as was formerly held; and 
gives most of the colour reactions of albumins. It forms shiny, 
homogeneous masses, quite insoluble in cold water and in salt 
solutions, but soluble in alkalies. The albumoids include, accord- 
ing to Cohnheim, substances which possess certain properties in 
common, but differ from the preceding groups. In general they 
resemble coagulated albumin, and also the gelatin-yielding tissues, 
but they themselves do not yield gelatin. 

Colouring matters derived from albumins include the 
" melanins " (Gr. /neXas, black), substances which differ very 
considerably in composition, the sulphur and iron content being 
by no means constant; they do not give the reactions of albumins. 
The black colouring matter of hair, the skin of negroes, and of the 
ink bag of Sepia have been examined. Melanins obtained from 
tumours form black, shiny masses; they are insoluble in water, 
neutral salt solutions, dilute acids and in the common organic 
solvents. 

ALBUMINURIA (Physiological or Functional), a term in- 
dicating the presence of albumin in the urine. This may depend 
on a number of morbid conditions, of which kidney troubles, 
acute illnesses and venous congestion are some of the commoner. 
But after exclusion of all known pathological causes, there still 
remains a large class of cases among subjects who appear to be 
in perfect health. This form has been called functional or 
physiological albuminuria, intermittent albuminuria, &c. Its 
recognition is of extreme importance, as it must be distinguished 
from the albuminuria due to Bright's disease and other troubles. 
The following are the main forms that have been described: 
(i) Dietetic Albuminuria. This form affects some people after 
partaking of a meal consisting largely of albuminous foods, such 
as eggs. In others any extra indulgence in the pleasures of the 
table may give rise to it. (2) Cyclic Albuminuria. This name 
was first used by the physiologist Pavy, but other observers 
have called the same condition " postural albuminuria." It 
occurs in people enjoying perfect health, and is characterized by 



S i6 



ALBUQUERQUE ALBURNUM 



the presence of albumin in the urine at certain times of the day. 
It has been shown to depend entirely on the assumption of the 
erect position, and it disappears as a result of the recumbent 
position at night. (3) Albuminuria from exercise. This form 
affects some people after any unusual muscular exertion. (4) 
Prolonged mental strain or worry may give rise to a transient 
form of albuminuria. (5) Adolescent albuminuria is met with 
in some subjects, especially boys. The question of the real 
significance of " physiological " albuminuria is one about which 
there is much difference of opinion. But its importance and 
recognition especially in questions of life insurance admits of 
no question. 

ALBUQUERQUE, ALPHONSO D' (in Old Port. AFFONSO 
D'ALBOQUERQUE) (1453-1515), surnamed THE GREAT, and 
THE PORTUGUESE MARS, was born in 1453 at Alexandria, near 
Lisbon. Through his father, Gonzalvo, who held an important 
position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent with 
the royal family of Portugal. He was educated at the court of 
Alphonso V., and after the death of that monarch seems to have 
served for some time in Africa. On his return he was appointed 
estribeiro-mor (chief equerry) to John II. In 1503 he set out on 
his first expedition to the East, which was to be the scene of 
his future triumphs. In company with his kinsman Francisco 
he sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and succeeded 
in establishing the king of Cochin securely on his throne, obtaining 
in return for this service permission to build a Portuguese fort 
at Cochin, and thus laying the foundation of his country's empire 
in the East. He returned home in July 1504, and was well 
received by King Emmanuel, who entrusted him with the com- 
mand of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which 
sailed for India in 1506 under Tristan da Cunha. After a series 
of successful attacks on the Arab cities on the east coast of 
Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da Cunha, and sailed with 
his squadron against the island of Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf, 
which was then one of the chief centres of commerce in the East. 
He arrived on the 25th of September 1507, and soon obtained 
possession of the island, though he was unable long to maintain 
his position. With his squadron increased by three vessels, 
he reached the Malabar coast at the close of the year 1 508, and 
immediately made known the commission he had received from 
the king empowering him to supersede the governor Francisco 
de Almeida. The latter, however, refused to recognize Albu- 
querque's credentials and cast him into prison, from which he 
was only released, after three months' confinement, on the 
arrival of the grand-marshal of Portugal with a large fleet. 
Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque speedily showed 
the energy and determination of his character. An unsuccessful 
attack upon Calicut in January 1510, in which the commander- 
in-chief received a severe wound, was immediately followed by 
the investment and capture of Goa. Albuquerque, finding 
himself unable to hold the town on his first occupation, 
abandoned it in August, to return with the reinforcements in 
November, when he obtained undisputed possession. He next 
directed his forces against Malacca, which he subdued after a 
severe struggle. He remained in the town nearly a year in order 
to strengthen the position of the Portuguese power. In 1512 
he sailed for the coast of Malabar. On the voyage a violent 
storm arose, Albuquerque's vessel, the " Flor de la Mar," which 
carried the treasure he had amassed in his conquests, was wrecked, 
and he himself barely escaped with his life. In September of 
the same year he arrived at Goa, where he quickly suppressed 
a serious revolt headed by Idalcan, and took such measures 
for the security and peace of the town that it became the most 
flourishing of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque 
had been for some time under orders from the home government 
to undertake an expedition to the Red Sea, in order to secure 
that channel of communication exclusively to Portugal. He 
accordingly laid siege to Aden in 1513, but was repulsed; and 
a voyage into the Red Sea, the first ever made by a European 
fleet, led to no substantial results. In order to destroy the 
power of Egypt, he is said to have entertained the idea of divert- 
ing the course of the Nile and so rendering the whole country 



barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack upon 
Ormuz in 1515. The island yielded to him without resistance, 
and it remained in the possession of the Portuguese until 1622. 
Albuquerque's great career had a painful and ignominious close. 
He had several enemies at the Portuguese court who lost no 
opportunity of stirring up the jealousy of the king against him, 
and his own injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several occasions 
served their end only too well. On his return from Ormuz, 
at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, he met a vessel from 
Europe bearing despatches announcing that he was superseded 
by his personal enemy Soarez. The blow was too much for him 
and he died at sea on the i6th of December 1515. Before his 
death he wrote a letter to the king in dignified and affecting 
terms, vindicating his conduct and claiming for his son the 
honours and rewards that were justly due to himself. His body 
was buried at Goa in the Church of our Lady, and it is perhaps 
the most convincing proof possible of the justice of his administra- 
tion that, many years after, Mussulmans and Hindus used to 
go to his tomb to invoke protection against the injustice of 
his successors. The king of Portugal was convinced too late 
of his fidelity, and endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude 
with which he had treated him by heaping honours upon his 
natural son Affonso. The latter published a selection from his 
father's papers under the title Commentaries do Grande Afonso 
a" Alboquerque. 

See the Cartas de Albuquerque, published by the Lisbon Academy 
(vol. i., 1884); also Morse Stephens' Life of Albuquerque', an article 
in the Bolitim of the Lisbon Geographical Society (January to June 
1902) on " O antigo Imperialismo portuguez, &c.," has especial 
reference to Albuquerque. 

ALBUQUERQUE, a city and the county-seat of Bernalillo 
county, New Mexico, U. S. A., situated in the central part of the 
territory, about 325 m. S. by W. of Denver, on the E. bank of 
the Rio Grande, at an altitude of 4950 ft. Pop. (1890) 3785; 
(1900) 6238(956 foreign-born and 226 negroes); (1910 census) 
11,020. In 1900 Albuquerque was the largest city in the 
territory. It is the connecting point of two main lines of the 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway system. A short distance 
E. of the city is the university of New Mexico, under territorial 
control, founded in 1889 and opened in 1892; in 1908 it had a 
college of letters and science, a school of engineering, a school 
of education, a preparatory school and a commercial school. 
Albuquerque is also the seat of the Harwood Industrial School 
(Methodist) for Mexican girls, of the Menaul Mission School 
(Presbyterian) for Mexican boys, and of a government Indian 
training school (1881) for boys and girls. The city has a public 
library. The excellent climate has given Albuquerque and the 
surrounding country a reputation as a health resort. The city is 
an important railway centre, has extensive railway repair shops 
and stock-yards, and exports large quantities of live-stock, 
hides and wool. The largest industrial establishment is the 
American Lumber Company's plant, including a saw-mill, a sash, 
door and blind factory and a box factory. The timber used, 
chiefly white pine, is obtained from the Zufii mountains. The 
city has also flour and woollen mills, breweries and ice factories. 
The old Spanish town of Albuquerque (pop. in 1900 about 1200) 
lies about i m. W. of the present city; it was founded in 
1706, and was named in honour of the duke of Albuquerque, 
viceroy of New Spain from 1702 to 1710. During the Civil War 
it was occupied, late in February 1862, by Confederate troops 
under General Henry Hopkins Sibley (1816-1886), who soon 
afterwards advanced with his main body into northern New 
Mexico. In his retreat back into Texas he made a stand on 
the 8th of April 1862 at Albuquerque, where during the whole 
day there was a fight at long range and with few casualties 
against a detachment of Union soldiers commanded by Colonel 
Edward R. S. Canby (1810-1873). The modern city dates its 
origin from the completion of the first railway to Albuquerque 
in 1880. 

ALBURNUM (sapwood), the outermost and youngest part of 
the wood of a tree, through which the sap rises. It is distin- 
guished from the harder inner and older wood, the duramen or 
heart- wood. 






ALBURY ALCAMENES 



ALBURY, a town in Goulburn county, New South Wales, 
Australia, 386 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5821. 
It stands near the border of Victoria, on the right bank of the 
Murray river, here crossed by two bridges, one built of wood 
carrying a road, the other of iron bearing the railway. The 
Murray is navigable for small steamers from this town to its 
mouth, a distance of 1800 miles. Albury is the centre of a sheep- 
rearing and agricultural district; grapes, cereals and tobacco are 
largely grown, and the wine produced here is held in high repute 
throughout Australia. The tree under which the first explorers 
encamped here in November 1824 is still standing in an enclosed 
space. Albury became a municipality in 1859. 

ALCAEUS (ALKAIOS), Greek lyric poet, an older contemporary 
of Sappho, was a native of Mytilene in Lesbos and flourished 
about 600 B.C. His life was greatly mixed up with the political 
disputes and internal feuds of his native city. He belonged to 
one of the noble families, and sided with his class against the 
" tyrants " who at that time set themselves up in Mytilene. He 
was in consequence obliged to leave his native country, and spent 
a considerable time in exile. He is said to have become reconciled 
to Pittacus, the ruler set up by the popular party, and to have 
returned to Lesbos. The date of his death is unknown. The 
subjects of his poems, which were composed in the Aeolic dialect, 
were of various kinds: some were hymns to the gods; others 
were of a martial or political character; others breathed an 
ardent love of liberty and hatred of tyrants; lastly, some were 
love-songs. Alcaeus was allotted the second place among the nine 
lyric poets in the Alexandrian canon. The considerable number 
of fragments extant, and the well-known imitations of Horace, 
who regarded Alcaeus as his great model, enable us to form a 
fair idea of the character of his poems. A new fragment has 
recently been discovered, together with some fragments of Sappho 
(Classical Review, May 1902). 

See Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1882) ; also The Songs of Alcaeus, 
by J. Easby-Smith (Washington, 1901); Plehn, Lesbiacorum Liber 
(1826) ; Flach, Geschichte der griechischen Lyrik (1883-1884) ; Farnell, 
Creek Lyric Poets (1891). 

ALCAICS, in ancient poetry, a name given to several kinds of 
verse, from Alcaeus, their reputed inventor. The first kind 
consists of five feet, viz. a spondee or iambic, an iambic, a long 
syllable and two dactyles; the second of two dactyles and two 
trochees. Besides these, which are called dactylic Alcaics, there 
is another, simply styled Alcaic, consisting of an epitrite, two 
choriambi and a bacchius; thus 

Cur timet fla|vum Tiberim | tangere, cur | olivum? 

The Alcaic ode is composed of several strophes, each consisting 
of four verses, the first two of which are always eleven-syllable 
alcaics of the first kind; the third verse is an iambic dimeter 
hypercatalectic consisting of nine syllables; and the fourth verse 
is a ten-syllable alcaic of the second kind. The following strophe 
is of this species, which Horace calls Alcaei minaces camenae 

Non possidentem multa vocaveris 

Recte beatum ; rectius occupat 
Nomen beati, qui deorum 
Muneribus sapienter uti. 

There is also a decasyllabic variety of the Alcaic metre. 

The Alcaic measure was one of the most splendid inventions of 
Greek metrical art. In its best examples it gives an impression 
of wonderful vigour and spontaneity. Tennyson has attempted 
to reproduce it in English in his 

O mighty-mouthed inventor of harmonies, 

O skilled to sing of time or eternity, 
God-gifted organ-voice of England, 
Milton, a name to resound for ages, 
jerman is, however, the only modern literature in which 
lies have been written with much success. They were intro- 
duced by Klopstock, and used by Holderlin, by Voss in his 
translations of Horace, by A. Kopisch and other modern German 
poets. 

ALCALA (Moorish al Kola, the " Fortress " or " Castle "), the 
name of thirteen Spanish towns, all founded or named by the 
Moors. Alcala de Henares (pop. (1900) 11,206) is separately 



described on account of its historical importance. Alcala la Real 
( 1 5,973\ a picturesque town with a fine abbey, is situated in 
mountainous country in the extreme south-west of Ja6n. Its 
distinctive name la Real, " the Royal," was conferred in memory 
of its capture by Alphonso XI. of Leon in 1340. In 1810 the 
French under Count Sebastiani here defeated the Spaniards. 
Alcala de los Gazules (8877), on the river Barbate, in the province 
of Cadiz, has a thriving trade in cork and agricultural produce. 
Alcala de Guadaira (8198), on the river Guadaira, near Seville, is 
popularly called Alcala de los Panadores, or " AlcalS. of the 
Bakers," because it supplies Seville with large quantities of bread. 
Alcala de Chisbert (6293) is situated on the coast of Castellon de 
la Plana; Alcala del Rio (3006), on the Guadalquivir, 6 m. N. of 
Seville; Alcala del Jucar (2968), on the Jucar, in Albacete; 
Alcala de la Selva (1490), on the southern slopes of the Sierra del 
Gudar, in Teruel; Alcala de la Vega (712), on the river Gabriel, 
in Cuenca; Alcala de Gurrea (632), on the river Seton, in Huesca; 
Alcala del Obispo (432), in the same province; Alcald de Ebro 
(388) and Alcala de Moncayo (367), both in Saragossa. 

ALCALA DE HENARES, a town of Spain, in the province 
of Madrid, 17 m. E.N.E. of Madrid, on the river Henares, and 
the Madrid-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1900) 11,206. Alcala de 
Henares contains a military academy and various public institu- 
tions, but its commercial importance is slight and its main 
interest is historical. The town has been identified with the 
Roman Complutum, which was destroyed about the year 1000, 
and was rebuilt by the Moors in 1083. In later times it was 
renowned for its richly endowed university, founded by Cardinal 
Jimenes de Cisneros in 1510, which at the height of its prosperity 
numbered 12,000 students, and was second only to that of 
Salamanca. Here the famous edition of the Bible known as 
the Complutensian Polyglot was prepared from 1514 to 1517. 
The college of San Ildefonso, completed in 1583, was the chief 
university building. Its modernized Gothic church, the Colegiata, 
contains the i6th century marble monument of Jimenes (d. 1517) 
and a fine reredos. The greatest of Spanish writers, Cervantes, 
was born at Alcala de Henares, and baptized in the otherwise 
insignificant church of S. Maria on the gth of October 1547. A 
tablet, set up in 1840, marks the house in which he is said to 
have been born. Other illustrious natives of the town were the 
emperor Ferdinand I. (1503-1564) and the Spanish dramatist 
and historian Antonio de Solis (1610-1686). After the removal 
of the university to Madrid in 1836 the town rapidly declined, 
and the government turned most of the principal buildings 
erected by Cardinal Jimenes in the i6th century into a depot 
for the archives of various state departments. Here are kept 
very complete and curious documents of the Inquisition, showing 
all its workings from the isth to the igth century. One of the 
principal libraries is the former palace of the archbishops of 
Toledo. 

For a fuller description of Alcala see the Guia del viajero 
en Alcala de Henares, by L. A. de la Torre (Alcala, 1882). The 
following works are mainly of historical interest: M. de Ayala 
and F. Sastrc, Alcala de Henares (Madrid, 1890); J. C. Garcia, 
Ensayo de Una Tipografia Complutense (Madrid, 1889) ; M. Portilla y 
Esquivel, Historia de la ciudad de Compluto (Alcala, 17251728); 
and the " Annales Complutenses " and " Chronicon Complutense " in 
Espana Sagrada, by H. Florez and others (Madrid, 1754-1879). 

ALCALDE (from the Arab, d-quadi, the " Cadi " or " judge "), 
the title in Spanish for officials of somewhat varied functions, 
in which, however, there is always a judicial element. Alcalde 
de corte was a judge of the palace court, having jurisdiction in 
and about the residence of the king. But the mayor of a town 
or village who discharged the functions of a justice of the peace 
was also an alcalde. It is in this sense that the title is now 
exclusively used. He is subject to yearly election and the post 
has often been an undesirable one in Spain. The title of alcalde 
must be carefully distinguished from alcaide, which is derived 
from the Arabic al-quald, a general, and means the governor 
of a fortress. 

ALCAMENES, a Greek sculptor of Lemnos and Athens. He 
was a younger contemporary of Pheidias and noted for the 
delicacy and finish of his works, among which a Hephaestus 






5 i8 



ALCAMO ALCESTER 



and an Aphrodite " of the Gardens " were conspicuous. 
Pausanias says (v. 10. 8) that he was the author of one of the 
pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia (see GREEK ART), 
but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. At 
Pergamum there was discovered in 1903 a copy of the head of 
the Hermes " Propylaeus " of Alcamenes (Athenische Mittheil- 
ungen, 1904, p. 180). As, however, the deity is represented 
in an archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot 
be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual style 
of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original 
artist. It is safer to judge him by the sculptural decoration of 
the Parthenon, in which he must almost certainly have taken 
a share under the direction of Pheidias. 

ALCAMO, a town of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, 24 m. 
W.S.W. of Palermo direct (515 m. by rail). Pop. (1881) 37,497; 
(1901) 51,809. It was founded in A.D. 828 by the Saracenic 
chief Al-Kamuk, who erected the castle (which still stands, 
though considerably altered), but was christianized by the 
emperor Frederick II. in 1233, who removed the site lower 
down. It possesses some medieval buildings of interest. The 
surrounding district is very fertile and the trade in agricultural 
products is considerable. 

ALCANTARA, a small seaport of Brazil, in the state of 
Maranhao, on the W. shore of the bay of Sao Marcos, 16 m. from 
the city of Maranhao by water. It has a fairly good harbour, 
and excellent cotton and rice are grown in the vicinity and 
shipped thence. 

ALCANTARA, a town of western Spain, in the province of 
Caceres, situated on a rocky height on the left bank of the river 
Tagus, 7 m. from the Portuguese frontier. Pop. (1900) 3248. 
Alcantara (in Arab, "the bridge") owes its name to the magnificent 
Roman bridge which spans the Tagus on the north-west. This 
was originally built about A.D. 105, in honour of the Roman 
emperor Trajan and at the cost of eleven Lusitanian communities. 
It is entirely constructed of granite blocks, without cement, 
and consists of six arches of various sizes, with a total length 
of 616 feet and a height of about 190 ft. in the middle piers, 
which are surmounted by a fortified gateway. One of the arches 
was broken down in 1213 and rebuilt in 1553; another was 
blown up by the British troops in 1809, and, though temporarily 
reconstructed, was again destroyed in 1836, to prevent the 
passage of the Carlist forces. But in 1860 the whole was restored. 
A small Roman temple, dedicated to Trajan and other deified 
emperors, stood on the left bank, adjoining the bridge. It is 
doubtful, however, if Alcantara marks the site of any Roman 
town, though archaeologists have sometimes identified it either 
with Norba Caesarea or with Interamnium. It first became 
famous about 1215 as the stronghold of the knightly Order of 
Alcantara. Many of the grand masters of this order lie buried 
in the 13th-century Gothic church. The town possesses another 
interesting church built in 1506. 

See Antiguedades y santos de la muy noble villa de Alcantara, by 
J. Arias de Quintanaduenas (Madrid, 1661); and Retrato politico de 
Alcdntara, by L. Santibanez (Madrid, 1779). 

ALCAVALA (Spanish, from Arab, al-quabalah, " tax," quabala, 
" to receive "; cf. Fr. gabelle), a duty formerly charged in Spain 
and its colonies on all transfers of property, whether public or 
private. Originally imposed in 1341 by Alphonso XI. to secure 
freedom from the Moors, it was an ad valorem tax of 10, increased 
afterwards to 14%, on the selling price of all commodities, 
whether raw or manufactured, chargeable as often as they were 
sold or exchanged. It subjected every farmer, manufacturer, 
merchant and shopkeeper to the continual visits and examination 
of the tax-gatherers, whose number was necessarily very great. 
This monstrous impost was permitted to ruin the industry and 
commerce of the greater part of the kingdom up to the time of 
the invasion of Napoleon. Catalonia and Aragon purchased 
from Philip V. an exemption from the alcavala, and, though 
still burdened with other heavy taxes, were in consequence in 
a comparatively flourishing state. 

ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN, or ALCAZAR, a town of Spain, in 
the province of Ciudad Real, in the plain of La Mancha, at 



the junction of the Madrid-Manzanares and Madrid-Albacete 
railways. Pop. (1900) 11,499. Owing to its position on two 
important railways, Alcizar has a flourishing transit-trade in 
the wines of Estremadura and Andalusia; the soda and alkali 
of La Mancha are used in the manufacture of soap; and gun- 
powder, chocolate and inlaid daggers are also made here. 
Alcazar is sometimes identified with the Roman Alee, captured 
by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus in 180 B.C. It derives its 
existing name from its medieval Moorish castle (al-kasr), which 
was afterwards garrisoned by the knights of St John. The 
townsfolk contend that the great Cervantes was a native of 
Alcazar; and, although this claim must be disallowed, much 
of the action of his masterpiece, Don Quixote, takes place in the 
neighbourhood. El Toboso, for instance, a village 12 m. E.N.E. 
[pop. (1900) 1895], was the home of the Lady Dulcinea del Toboso; 
Argamasilla de Alba (3505), 22 m. S.E., is declared by tradition 
to be the birthplace of Don Quixote himself. Local antiquaries 
even identify the knight with Don Rodrigo de Pacheco, whose 
portrait adorns the parish church; and the same authorities 
hold that part of the romance was written while Cervantes was 
a prisoner in their town. An edition of Don Quixote was 
published at Argamasilla in 1864. 

ALCESTER, FREDERICK BEAUCHAMP PAGET SEYMOUR, 
BARON (1821-1895), British admiral, son of Colonel Sir Horace 
Beauchamp Seymour and cousin of Francis George Hugh 
Seymour, 5th marquess of Hertford, was born on the i2th of 
April 1821. Entering the navy in 1834, he served in the Medi- 
terranean and the Pacific, was for three years flag-lieutenant 
to his uncle Sir George Seymour, and was promoted to be 
commander in 1847. He served in Burma as a volunteer in 
1852, was made a captain in 1854, took the "Meteor" iron- 
clad battery out to the Black Sea and home again in 1856, was 
captain of the " Pelorus " on the Australian station from 1857 
to 1863, and commanded the naval brigade in New Zealand 
during the Maori War, 1860-61, for which he was made a C.B. 
He became a rear-admiral in 1870; in 1871-1872 he commanded 
the flying squadron, was a lord of the admiralty in 1872-1874, 
and commanded the Channel fleet, 1874-1876. On the 3ist of 
December 1876 he was made a vice-admiral, a K.C.B. on the 
2nd of June 1877. In 1880-1883 he was commander-in-chief 
of the fleet in the Mediterranean, and in 1880 had also the chief 
command of the European squadron sent to the coast of Albania 
as a demonstration to compel the Porte to cede Dulcigno to 
Montenegro. On the 24th of May 1881 he was made a G.C.B., 
and on the 6th of May 1882 was promoted to the rank of admiral. 
In July 1882 he commanded at the bombardment of Alexandria 
and in the subsequent operations on the coast of Egypt, for 
which service he was raised to the peerage as Baron Alcester 
of Alcester in the county of Warwick, received a parliamentary 
grant of 25,000, the freedom of the city of London and a 
sword of honour. On his return from the Mediterranean he 
was for a couple of years again at the admiralty, and in 1886 
he was placed on the retired list. For the next nine years he 
lived chiefly in London, but latterly his health was much broken, 
and he died on the 3oth of March 1895. He was unmarried and 
the peerage became extinct. 

ALCESTER [pronounced Ausler], a market- town in the 
Stratford-on-Avon parliamentary division of Warwickshire, 
England, 16 m. W.S.W. from Warwick by the Great Western 
railway, served also by the Birmingham-Evesham branch of 
the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 2303. It is pleasantly 
situated among low wooded hills at the junction of the small 
stream Alne with the Arrow, a northern tributary of the Avon. 
The church of St Nicholas, with the exception of the Decorated 
tower, is a reconstruction of 1734; among several monuments 
is a fine example of Chantrey's work, to the 2nd marquess of 
Hertford (d. 1822). There are a picturesque town hall (1641), 
raised on stone columns, and a free grammar school. The 
manufacture of needles is less important than formerly, having 
been absorbed into the centre of the industry at Redditch in 
the neighbouring county of Worcestershire. There are imple- 
ment works and cycle works, and brewing is prosecuted. 






ALCESTIS ALCHEMY 



The name (Alnecestre, Alyncester) signifies " the camp on the 
Alne." A small Romano-British town or village was situated here, 
on the road which runs from Derby and Wall, near Lichfield, to 
join the Fosse Way near Cirencester. Its name is not known. A 
relief figure in stone, some pavements, potsherds, coins and burials 
have been found, but nothing to indicate an important station. 
No written document relating to Alcester exists before the reign of 
Henry I. No mention occurs in Domesday, but it is given in a list 
of serjeanties of the reign of Henry III. as having been a royal 
borough in the time of Henry I., and in 1177 it rendered four marks' 
aid with the other boroughs of the county. However, there is no 
evidence of the grant of a royal charter, and the title of borough 
soon lapsed. In the reign of Henry III. a moiety of the manor was 
purchased by Sir Walter Beauchamp, who granted a charter to the 
inhabitants of the town establishing a Tuesday market for corn, 
cattle, and all kinds of merchandise, and also obtained grants of 
fairs at the feasts of St Giles (afterwards transferred to the feast 
of St Faith) and St Barnabas. In 1444 Sir John Beauchamp pur- 
chased the remaining moiety of the manor, and was granted an 
additional fair at the feast of St Dunstan. From this date the 
Beauchamps were lords of the whole manor until it passed by female 
descent to the Grevilles in the reign of Henry VIII. In 1140 a 
Benedictine monastery was founded here by Ralph Boteler of 
Oversley, and received the name of the Church of Our Lady of the 
Isle, owing to its insulation by a moat meeting the river Arrow. 
The monastery was suppressed among the smaller houses in 1536. 
Traces of the moat and the foundations are still to be seen in Priory 
Close. The ancient fairs survived to the end of the igth century. 
In 1830 the needle-manufacture employed nearly a thousand 
hands. 

ALCESTIS (ALKESTIS), in Greek legend the daughter of Pelias 
and Anaxibia, and wife of Admetus, king of Pherae in Thessaly. 
She consented to die in place of her husband, and was afterwards 
rescued by Heracles. This beautiful story of conjugal devotion 
forms the subject of the Alcestis of Euripides, which furnished 
the basis of Robert Browning's Balaustion's Adventure. Sophocles 
also wrote an Alcestis, of which only fragments remain. 

See Dissel, Der Mythos von Admetus und Alkestis, 1882. 

ALCHEMY. In the narrow sense of the word, alchemy is 
the pretended art of making gold and silver, or transmuting 
the base metals into the noble ones. The idea of such trans- 
mutation probably arose among the Alexandrian Greeks in the 
early centuries of the Christian era; thence it passed to the 
Arabs, by whom it was transmitted to western Europe, and its 
realization was a leading aim of chemical workers down to the 
time of Paracelsus and even later. But "alchemy" was some- 
thing more than a particularly vain and deluded manifestation 
of the thirst for gold, as it is sometimes represented; in its 
wider and truer significance it stands for the chemistry of the 
middle ages. The idea of transmutation, in the country of its 
origin, had a philosophical basis, and was linked up with the 
Greek theories of matter there current; thus, by supplying a 
central philosophical principle, it to some extent unified and 
focussed chemical effort, which previously, so far as it existed at 
all, had been expended on acquiring empirical acquaintance 
with a mass of disconnected technical processes. Alchemy in 
this sense is merely an early phase of the development of syste- 
matic chemistry; in Liebig's words, it was " never at any time 
anything different from chemistry." 

Regarding the derivation of the word, there are two main 
views which agree in holding that it has an Arabic descent, 
the prefix al being the Arabic article. But according to one, 
the second part of the word comes from the Greek xvfj.tla, 
pouring, infusion, used in connexion with the study of the 
juices of plants, and thence extended to chemical manipulations 
in general; this derivation accounts for the old-fashioned 
spellings " chymist " and " chymistry." The other view traces 
it to khem or khame, hieroglyph khmi, which denotes black earth 
as opposed to barren sand, and occurs in Plutarch as x y M e ' a j 
on this derivation alchemy is explained as meaning the " Egyptian 
art." The first occurrence of the word is said to be in a treatise 
of Julius Firmicus, an astrological writer of the 4th century, 
but the prefix al there must be the addition of a later copyist. 
Among the Alexandrian writers alchemy- was designated as 
i? rrjs \pwov rf tad apyvpov Troii^reott rex 1 "? 0*' La Kt " ' 6 P<* r 
17 frirKTTijjUTj iepd. In English, Piers Plowman (1362) con- 
tains the phrase " experiments of alconomye," with variants 



"alkenemye" and "alknamye." The prefix al begins to be 
dropped about the middle of the i6th century. 

Origins of Alchemy. Numerous legends cluster round the 
origin of alchemy. According to one story, it was founded by 
the Egyptian god Hermes (Thoth), the reputed inventor of the 
arts and sciences, to whom, under the appellation Hermes 
Trismegistus, Tertullian refers as the master of those who occupy 
themselves with nature; after him later alchemists called their 
work the " hermetic art," and the seal of Hermes, which they 
placed upon their vessels, is the origin of the common phrase 
" hermetically sealed." Another legend, given 'by Zosimus of 
Panopolis, an alchemistical writer said to date from the 3rd 
century, asserts that the fallen angels taught the arts to the 
women they married (cf. Genesis vi. 2), their instruction being 
recorded in a book called Chema. A similar story appears in the 
Book of Enoch, and Tertullian has much to say about the wicked 
angels who revealed to men the knowledge of gold and silver, of 
lustrous stones, and of the power of herbs, and who introduced 
the arts of astrology and magic upon the earth. Again, the 
Arabic Kitab-al-Fihrist, written by al-Nadim towards the end of 
the Loth century, says that the " people who practise alchemy, 
that is, who fabricate gold and silver from strange metals, state 
that the first to speak of the science of the work was Hermes the 
Wise, who was originally of Babylon, but who established him- 
self in Egypt after the dispersion of the peoples from Babel." 
Another legend, also to be found in Arabic sources, asserts that 
alchemy was revealed by God to Moses and Aaron. But there is 
some evidence that, in accordance with the strong and constant 
tradition among the alchemists, the idea of transmutation did 
originate in Egypt with the Greeks of Alexandria. In the Leiden 
museum there are a number of papyri which were found in a tomb 
at Thebes, written probably in the 3rd century A.D., though their 
matter is older. Some are in Greek and demotic, and one, of 
peculiar interest from the chemical point of view, gives a number 
of receipts, in Greek, for the manipulation of base metals to form 
alloys which simulate gold and are intended to be used in the 
manufacture of imitation jewellery. Possibly this is one of the 
books about gold and silver of which Diocletian decreed the de- 
struction about A.D. 290 an act which Gibbon styles the first 
authentic event in the history of alchemy (Decline and Fall, 
chap, xiii.) . The author of these receipts is not under any delusion 
that he is transmuting metals; the MS. is merely a workshop 
manual in which are described processes in daily use for preparing 
metals for false jewellery, but it argues considerable knowledge 
of methods of making alloys and colouring metals. It has been 
suggested by M. P. E. Berthelot that the workers in these pro- 
cesses, which were a monopoly of the priestly caste and were kept 
strictly secret, though fully aware that their products were not 
truly gold, were in time led by their success in deceiving the 
public to deceive themselves also, and to come to believe that 
they actually had the power of making gold from substances 
which were not gold. Philosophical sanction and explanation of 
this belief was then found by bringing it into relation with the 
theory of the prima materia, which was identical in all bodies but 
received its actual form by the adjunction of qualities expressed 
by the Aristotelian elements earth, air, fire and water. Some 
support for this view is gained from study of the alchemistical 
writings of the period. Thus, in the treatise known as Physica 
et Mystica and falsely ascribed to Democritus (such false attribu- 
tions are a constant feature of the literature of alchemy), various 
receipts are given for colouring and gilding metals, but the con- 
ception of transmutation does not occur. This treatise was 
probably composed at a date not very different from that of the 
Leiden papyrus. Later, however, as in the Commentary on this 
work written by Synesius to Dioscorus, priest of Serapis at 
Alexandria, which probably dates from the end of the 4th century, 
a changed attitude becomes apparent; the more practical parts 
of the receipts are obscured or omitted, and the processes for 
preparing alloys and colouring metals, described in the older 
treatise, are by a mystical interpretation represented as resulting 
in real transmutation. 

But while there are thus some grounds for supposing that the 






520 



ALCHEMY 



idea of transmutation grew out of the practical receipts of 
Alexandrian Egypt, the alchemy which embraced it as a lead- 
ing principle was also strongly affected by Eastern influences 
such as magic and astrology. The earliest Greek alchemistical 
writings abound with references to Oriental authorities and 
traditions. Thus the pseudo-Democritus, who was reputed the 
author of the Physica el Mystica, which itself concludes each of 
its receipts with a magical formula, was believed to have travelled 
in Chaldaea, and to have had as his master Ostanes 1 the Mede, 
a name mentioned several times in the Leiden papyrus, and often 
by early Christian writers such as Tertullian, St Cyprian and 
St Augustine. The practices of the Persian adepts also are 
appealed to in the writings of the pseudo-Democritus, Zosimus 
and Synesius. The philosopher's egg, as a symbol of creation, is 
both Egyptian and Babylonian. In the Greek alchemists it 
appears as the symbol at once of the art and of the universe, 
enclosing within itself the four elements; and there is sometimes 
a play of words between rt> 6v and rt> qbv. The conception of 
man, the microcosm, containing in himself all the parts of the 
universe or macrocosm, is also Babylonian, as again probably is 
the famous identification of the metals with the planets. Even 
in the Leiden papyrus the astronomical symbols for the sun and 
moon are used to denote gold and silver, and in the Meteorologica 
of Olympiodorus lead is attributed to Saturn, iron to Mars, copper 
to Venus, tin to Hermes (Mercury) and electrum to Jupiter. 
Similar systems of symbols, but elaborated to include compounds, 
appear in Greek MSS. of the loth century, preserved in the 
library of St Mark's at Venice. Subsequently electrum (an alloy 
of gold and silver) disappeared as a specific metal, and tin was 
ascribed to Jupiter instead, the sign of mercury becoming common 
to the metal and the planet. Thus we read in Chaucer (Chanouns 
Yemannes Tale): 

The bodies sevene eek, lo! hem heer anoon: 
Sol gold is, and Luna silver we threpe, 
Mars yren, Mercuric quik-silver we clepe, 
Saturnus leed and Jupiter is tin, 
And Venus coper, by my fader kin! 

Literature of Alchemy. A considerable body of Greek chemical 
writings is contained in MSS. belonging to the various great 
libraries of Europe, the oldest being that at St Mark's, just 
mentioned. The contents of these MSS. are all of similar com- 
position, and in Berthelot's opinion represent a collection of 
treatises made at Constantinople in the 8th or gth century. The 
treatises are nearly all anterior to the 7th century, and most 
appear to belong to the jrd and 4th centuries; some are the work 
of authentic authors like Zosimus and Synesius, while of others, 
such as profess to be written by Moses, Democritus, Ostanes, &c., 
the authorship is clearly fictitious. Some of the same names and 
the same works can be identified in the lists of the Kitdb-al- 
Fihrist. But the Arabs did not acquire their knowledge of this 
literature at first hand. The earliest Hellenic culture in the East 
was Syrian, and the Arabs made their first acquaintance with 
Greek chemistry, as with Greek philosophy, mathematics, 
medicine, &c., by the intermediary of Syriac translations. (See 
ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY and SYRIAC LITERATURE.) Examples of 
such translations are preserved in MSS. at the British Museum, 
partly written in Syriac, partly in Arabic with Syriac characters. 
In Berthelot's opinion, the Syriac portions represent a compila- 
tion of receipts and processes undertaken in the Syrian school 
of medicine at Bagdad under the Abbasids in the gth or loth 
century, and to a large extent constituted by the earlier transla- 
tions made by Sergius of Resaena in the 6th century. They 
contain, under the title Doctrine of Democritus, a fairly methodical 
treatise in ten books comprising the Argyropoeia and Chrysopoeia 
of the pseudo-Democritus, with many receipts for colouring 
metals, making artificial precious stones, effecting the diplosis or 
doubling of metals, &c. They give illustrations of the apparatus 
employed, and their close relationship to the Greek is attested by 
the frequent occurrence of Greek words and the fact that the 

1 An alchemistical work bearing the name of Ostanes speaks of a 
divine water which cures all maladies an early appearance of the 
universal panacea or elixir of life. 



signs and symbols of the Greek alchemists appear almost un- 
changed. The other portion seems of somewhat later date. 
Another Syriac MS., in the library of Cambridge University, 
contains a translation of a work by Zosimus which is so far 
unknown in the original Greek. Berthelot gives reproductions 
of the British Museum MSS. in vol. ii. of La Chimie au moyen age. 

Several alchemistical treatises, written in Arabic, exist in 
manuscript in the National Library at Paris and in the library 
of the university of Leiden, and have been reproduced by 
Berthelot, with translations, in vol. iii. olLa Chimie au moyen dge. 
They fall into two groups: those in one are largely composed of 
compilations from Greek sources, while those in the other have 
rather the character of original compositions. Of the first group 
the most interesting and possibly the oldest is the Book of 
Crates; it is remarkable for containing some of the signs used 
for the metals by the Greek alchemists, and for giving figures of 
four pieces of apparatus which closely resemble those depicted 
in Greek MSS., the former being never, and the latter rarely, 
found in other Arabic MSS. Its concluding words suggest that 
its production was due to Khalid ben Yezid (died in 708), who 
was a pupil of the Syrian monk Marianus, and according to the 
Kitdb-al-Fihrist was the first Mussulman writer on alchemy. 
The second group consists of a number of treatises professing 
to be written by Jaber, celebrated in Latin alchemy as Geber 
(q.v.). Internal evidence suggests that they are not all from the 
same hand or of the same date, but probably they are not earlier 
than the gth nor later than the i2th century. The Arabic 
chroniclers record the names of many other writers on alchemy, 
among the most famous being Rhazes and Avicenna. 

But the further development of alchemy took place in the 
West rather than in the East. With the spread of their empire 
to Spain the Arabs took with them their knowledge of Greek 
medicine and science, including alchemy, and thence it passed, 
strengthened by the infusion of a certain Jewish element, to 
the nations of western Europe, through the medium of Latin 
translations. The making of these began about the 1 1 th century, 
one of the earliest of the translators, Constantinus Africanus, 
wrote about 1075, and another, Gerard of Cremona, lived from 
1114 to 1187. The Liber de compositione alchemiae, which 
professes to be by Morienus perhaps the same as the Marianus 
who was the teacher of Khalid was translated by Robertus 
Castrensis, who states that he finished the work in 1182, and 
speaks as if he were making a revelation " Quid sit alchemia 
nondum cognovit vestra Latinitas." The earlier translations, 
such as the Turba Philosophorum and other works printed in 
collections like the Artis auriferae jquam chemiam vacant (1572), 
Theatrum chemicum (1602), and J. J. Mangel's Bibliotheca 
chemica curiosa (1702), are confused productions, written in an 
allegorical style, but full of phrases and even pages taken literally 
from the Greek alchemists, and citing by name various authorities 
of Greek alchemy. They were followed by treatises of a different 
character, clearer in matter, more systematic in arrangement, 
and reflecting the methods of the scholastic logic; these are 
farther from the Greek tradition, for although they contain 
sufficient traces of their ultimate Greek ancestry, their authors 
do not know the Greeks as masters and cite no Greek names. 
So far as they are Latin versions of Arabico- Greek treatises, 
they must have been much remodelled in the course of transla- 
tion; but there is reason to suppose that many of them, even 
when pretending to be translations, are really original composi- 
tions. It is curious that although we possess a certain number 
of works on alchemy written in Arabic, and also many Latin 
treatises that profess to be translated from Arabic, yet in no case 
is the existence known of both the Arabic and the Latin version. 
The Arabic works of Jaber, as contained in MSS. at Paris and 
Leiden, are quite dissimilar from the Latin works attributed to 
Geber, and show few if any traces of the positive chemical 
knowledge, as of nitric acid (aqua dissolutiva or fortis) or of the 
mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids known as aqua regis or 
regia, that appears in the latter. The treatises attributed to 
Geber, in fact, appear to be original works composed not earlier 
than the i3th century and fathered on Jaber in order to enhance 



ALCHEMY 



their authority. If this view be accepted, an entirely new light 
is thrown on the achievements of the Arabs in the history of 
chemistry. Gibbon asserts that the Greeks were inattentive 
either to the use or to the abuse of chemistry (Decline and Fall, 
chap, xiii.), and gives the Arabs the credit of the origin and 
improvement of the science (chap. Hi.). 1 But the chemical 
knowledge attributed to the Arabs has been so attributed 
largely on the basis of the contents of the Latin Geber, regarded 
as a translation from the Arabic Jaber. If, then, those contents 
do not represent the knowledge of Jaber, and if the contents of 
other Latin translations which there is reason to believe are 
really made from the Arabic, show little, if any, advance on 
the knowledge of the Alexandrian Greeks, evidently the part 
played by the Arabs must be less, and that of the Westerns 
greater, than Gibbon is prepared to admit. 

The descent of alchemistical doctrine can thus be traced with 
fair continuity for a thousand years, from the Greeks of Alex- 
andria down to the time when Latin alchemy was firmly estab- 
lished in the West, and began to be written of by historical 
authors like Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon and Arnoldus 
Villanovanus in the I3th century. But side by side with this 
literary transmission Berthelot insists that there was another 
mode of transmission, by means of the knowledge of practical 
receipts and processes traditional among jewellers, painters, 
workers in glass and pottery, and other handicraftsmen. The 
chemical knowledge of Egyptian metallurgists and jewellers, 
he holds, was early transmitted to the artisans of Rome, and was 
preserved throughout the dark ages in the workshops of Italy 
and France until about the i3th century, when it was mingled 
with the theories of the Greek alchemists which reached the 
West by way of the Arabs. Receipts given in the Leiden 
papyrus reappear in the Compositiones ad Tingenda and the 
Mappae Clavicula, both workshop receipt books, one known in 
an Sth-century MS. at Lucca, and the other in a loth-century MS. 
in the library of Schlettstadt; and again in such works as the 
De Artibus Romanorum of Eraclius and the Schedula Diver sarum 
Artium of Theophilus, belonging to the nth or I2th century. 

Theory of Transmutation. The fundamental theory of the 
transmutation of metals is to be found in the Greek alchemists, 
although in details it was modified and elaborated by the 
Arabs and the Latin alchemists. Regarding all substances as 
being composed of one primitive matter the prima tnateria, 
and as owing their specific differences to the presence of different 
qualities imposed upon it, the alchemist hoped, by taking away 
these qualities, to obtain the prima materia itself, and then to 
get from it the particular substance he desired by the addition 
of the appropriate qualities. The prima materia was early 
identified with mercury, not ordinary mercury, but the " mercury 
of the philosophers," which was the essence or soul of mercury, 
freed from the four Aristotelian elements earth, air, fire and 
water or rather from the qualities which they represent. 
Thus the operator had to remove from ordinary mercury, earth 
or an earthy principle or quality, and water or a liquid principle, 
and to fix it by taking away air or a volatile principle. The 
prima materia thus obtained had to be treated with sulphur 
(or with sulphur and arsenic) to confer upon it the desired 
qualities that were missing. This sulphur again was not ordinary 
sulphur, but some principle derived from it, which constituted 
the philosopher's stone or elixir white for silver and yellow or 
" Some traditionary knowledge might be secreted in the temples 

a monasteries of Egypt: much useful experience might have 
been acquired in the practice of arts and manufactures, but the 
science of chemistry owes its origin and improvement to the industry 

the Saracens. They first invented and named the alembic for 

the purposes of distillation, analyzed the substances of the three 

ngdoms of nature, tried the distinction and affinities of alkalis 

and acids, and converted the poisonous minerals into soft and 

itary remedies. But the most eager search of Arabian chemistry 

> the transmutation of metals, and the elixir of immortal health- 

reason and the fortunes of thousands were evaporated in the 

lies of alchemy, and the consummation of the great work was 

romoted by the worthy aid of mystery, fable and superstition." 

it may be noted that the word " alembic " is derived from the Greek 

,. cup, with the Arabic article prefixed, and that the instru- 
ment is figured in the MSS. of some of the Greek alchemists 



red for gold. This is briefly the doctrine that the metals are 
composed of mercury and sulphur, which persisted in one form 
or another down to the i7th century. Of course there were 
numerous variations and refinements. Thus in the Speculum 
Naturale of Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1250) it is said that there 
are four spirits mercury, sulphur, arsenic and sal ammoniac 
and six bodies gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and iron. 2 Of 
these bodies the two first are pure, the four last impure. Pure 
white mercury, fixed by the virtue of white non-corrosive 
sulphur, engenders in mines a matter which fusion changes into 
silver, and united to pure clear red sulphur it forms gold, while 
with various kinds of impure mercury and sulphur the other 
bodies are produced. Vincent attributes to Rhazes the state- 
ment that copper is potentially silver, and any one who can 
eliminate the red colour will bring it to the state of silver, for it 
is copper in outward appearance, but in its inmost nature silver. 
This statement represents a doctrine widely held in the I3th 
century, and also to be found in the Greek alchemists, that 
everything endowed with a particular apparent quality possesses 
a hidden opposite quality, which can be rendered apparent by 
fire. Later, as in the works attributed to Basil Valentine, 
sulphur, mercury and salt are held to be the constituents of 
the metals. 

It must be noted that the processes described by the alchemists 
of the I3th century are not put forward as being miraculous 
or supernatural; they rather represent the methods employed 
by nature, which it is the end of the alchemist's art to reproduce 
artificially in the laboratory. But even among the late Arabian 
alchemists it was doubted whether the resources of the art were 
adequate to the task; and in the West, Vincent of Beauvais 
remarks that success had not been achieved in making artificial 
metals identical with the natural ones. Thus he says that the 
silver which has been changed into gold by the projection of the 
red elixir is not rendered resistant to the agents which affect 
silver but not gold, and Albertus Magnus in his De Mineralibus 
the De Alchemia attributed to him is spurious states that 
alchemy cannot change species but merely imitates them for 
instance, colours a metal white to make it resemble silver or 
yellow to give it the appearance of gold. He has, he adds, tested 
gold made by alchemists, and found that it will not withstand 
six or seven exposures to fire. But scepticism of this kind was 
not universal. Roger Bacon or more probably some one who 
usurped his name declared that with a certain amount of 
the philosopher's stone he could transmute a million times as 
much base metal into gold, and on Raimon Lull was fathered the 
boast, " Mare tingerem si mercurius esset." Numerous less dis- 
tinguished adepts also practised the art, and sometimes were 
so successful in their deceptions that they gained the ear of 
kings, whose desire to profit by the achievements of science was 
in several instances rewarded by an abundant crop of counter- 
feit coins. 

Later History of Alchemy. In the earlier part of the i6th 
century Paracelsus gave a new direction to alchemy by declaring 
that its true object was not the making of gold but the prepara- 
tion of medicines, and this union of chemistry with medicine 
was one characteristic of the iatrochemical school of which he 
was the precursor. Increasing attention was paid to the in- 
vestigation of the properties of substances and of their effects 
on the human body, and chemistry profited by the fact that it 
passed into the hands of men who possessed the highest scientific 
culture of the time, Still, belief in the possibility of transmuta- 
tion long remained orthodox, even among the most distinguished 
men of science. Thus it was accepted, at least academically, 
by Andreas Libavius (d. 1616); by F. de la Boe Sylvius (1614- 
1672), though not by his pupil Otto Tachenius, and by J. R. 
Glauber (1603-1668); by Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and, for 
a time at least, by Sir Isaac Newton and his rival and 

* Cf. Chaucer, Chanouns Yemannes Tale, where, however, mercury 
figures both as a spirit and a body : 

The firste spirit quik-silver called is, 
The second orpiment, the thridde ywis 
Sal armoniak, and the fertne brimstoon." 



522 



ALCIATI ALCIBIADES 






contemporary, G. W. Leibnitz (1646-1716); and by G. E. Stahl 
(1660-1734) and Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738). Though 
an alchemist, Boyle, in his Sceptical Chemist (1661), cast doubts 
on the " experiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists are wont to 
endeavour to evince their salt, sulphur and mercury to be the 
true principles of things," and advanced towards the conception 
of chemical elements as those constituents of matter which 
cannot be further decomposed. With J. J. Becher (1635-1682) 
and G. E. Stahl, however, there was a reversion to earlier ideas. 
The former substituted for the salt, sulphur and mercury of 
Basil Valentine and Paracelsus three earths the mercurial, 
the vitreous and the combustible and he explained combustion 
as depending on the escape of this last combustible element; 
while Stahl's conception of phlogiston not fire itself, but the 
principle of fire by virtue of which combustible bodies burned, 
was a near relative of the mercury of the philosophers, the soul 
or essence of ordinary mercury. 

Perhaps J. B. van Helmont (1577-1644) was the last dis- 
tinguished investigator who professed actually to have changed 
mercury into gold, though impostors and mystics of various 
kinds continued to claim knowledge of the art long after his 
time. So late as 1782, James Price, an English physician, 
showed experiments with white and red powders, by the aid of 
which he was supposed to be able to transform fifty and sixty 
times as much mercury into silver and gold. The metals he 
produced are said to have proved genuine on assay; when, 
however, in the following year he was challenged to repeat the 
experiments he was unable to do so and committed suicide. 
In the course of the ipth century the idea that the different 
elements are constituted by different groupings or condensations 
of one primal matter a speculation which, if proved to be well 
grounded, would imply the possibility of changing one element 
into another found favour with more than one responsible 
chemist; but experimental research failed to yield any evidence 
that was generally regarded as offering any support to this 
hypothesis. About the beginning of the aoth century, however, 
the view was promulgated that the spontaneous production 
of helium from radium may be an instance of the transforma- 
tion of one element into another. (See RADIOACTIVITY; also 
ELEMENT and MATTER.) 

See M. P. E. Berthelot, Les Origines de Valchimie (1885) ; Collection 
des anciens akhimistes grecs (text and translation, 3 vols., 1887- 
1888) ; Introduction & I'etude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen dge 
(1889) ; La Chimie au moyen dge (text and translation of Synac and 
Arabic treatises on alchemy, 3 vols., 1893). Much bibliographical 
and other information about the later writers on alchemy is contained 
in Bibliotheca Chemica (2 vols., Glasgow, 1906), a catalogue by John 
Ferguson of the books in the collection of James Young of Kelly 
(printed for private distribution). (H. M. R.) 

ALCIATI, ANDREA (1492-1550), Italian jurist, was born at 
Alzano, near Milan, on the I2th of January 1492. He displayed 
great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of 
the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and 
literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for 
the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many 
legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus. His Emblems, 
a collection of moral sayings in Latin verse, has been greatly 
admired, and translated into French, Italian and Spanish. 
Alciati's history of Milan, under the title Rerum Patriae, sett 
Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV., was published posthumously 
at Milan in 1625. He died at Pavia in 1550. 

ALCIBIADES (c. 450-404 B.C.), Athenian general and politician, 
was born at Athens. He was the son of Cleinias and Deinomache, 
who belonged to the family of the Alcmaeonidae. He was 
a near relative of Pericles, who, after the death of Cleinias at 
the battle of Coroneia (447), became his guardian. Thus early 
deprived of his father's control, possessed of great personal beauty 
and the heir to great wealth, which was increased by his marriage, 
he showed himself self-willed, capricious and passionate, and 
indulged in the wildest freaks and most insolent behaviour. Nor 
did the instructors of his early manhood supply the corrective 
which his boyhood lacked. From Protagoras, Prodicus and 
others he learnt to laugh at the common ideas of justice, 



temperance, holiness and patriotism. The laborious thought, the 
ascetic life of his master Socrates, he was able to admire, but not 
to imitate or practise. On the contrary, his ostentatious vanity, 
his amours, his debaucheries and his impious revels became 
notorious. But great as were his vices, his abilities were even 
greater. 

He took part in the battle of Potidaea (432), where his life was 
saved by Socrates, a service which he repaid at the battle of 
Delium (424). As the reward of his bravery, the wealthy Hip- 
ponicus bestowed upon him the hand of his daughter. From this 
time he took a prominent part in Athenian politics during the 
Peloponnesian war. Originally friendly to Sparta, he subse- 
quently became the .leader of the war party in opposition to 
Nicias, and after the peace of 421 he succeeded by an unscrupu- 
lous trick in duping the Spartan ambassadors, and persuading 
the Athenians to conclude an alliance (420) with Argos, Elis and 
Mantineia (Thuc. v. 56, 76). On the failure of Nicias in Thrace 
(418-417) he became the chief advocate of the Sicilian expedition, 
seeing an opportunity for the realization of his ambitious projects, 
which included the conquest of Sicily, to be followed by that of 
Peloponnesus and possibly of Carthage (though this seems to 
have been an afterthought). The expedition was decided upon 
with great enthusiasm, and Alcibiades, Nicias and Lamachus 
were appointed joint commanders. But, on the day before the 
expedition sailed, there occurred the mysterious multilation of the 
Hermae, and Alcibiades was accused not only of being the ori- 
ginator of the crime, but also of having profaned the Eleusinian 
mysteries. His request for an immediate investigation being 
refused, he was obliged to set sail with the charge still hanging 
over him. Almost as soon as he reached Sicily he was recalled 
to stand his trial, but he escaped on the journey home and made 
his way to Sparta. Learning that he had been condemned to 
death in his absence and his property confiscated, he openly 
joined the Spartans, and persuaded them to send Gylippus to 
assist the Syracusans and to fortify Decelea in Attica. He then 
passed over to Asia Minor, prevailed upon many of the Ionic 
allies of Athens to revolt, and concluded an alliance with the 
Persian satrap Tissaphernes. But in a few months he had lost 
the confidence of the Spartans, and at the instigation of Agis II., 
whose personal hostility he had excited, an order was sent for 
his execution. Receiving timely information of this order he 
crossed over to Tissaphernes (412), and persuaded him to adopt 
the negative policy of leaving Athens and Sparta to wear them- 
selves out by their mutual struggles. Alcibiades was now bent 
on returning to Athens, and he used his supposed influence with 
Tissaphernes to effect his purpose. He entered into negotiations 
with the oligarch Peisander, but when these led to no result he 
attached himself to the fleet at Samos which remained loyal to 
the democracy, and was subsequently recalled by Thrasybulus, 
although he did not at once return to Athens. Being appointed 
commander in the neighbourhood of the Hellespont, he defeated 
the Spartan fleet at Abydos (411) and Cyzicus (410), and re- 
covered Chalcedon and Byzantium. On his return to Athens 
after these successes he was welcomed with unexpected enthu- 
siasm (407); all the proceedings against him were cancelled, 
and he was appointed general with full powers. His ill success, 
however, at Andros, and the defeat at Notium (407) of his 
lieutenant Antiochus, led the Athenians to dismiss him from his 
command. He thereupon retired to the Thracian Chersonesus. 
After the battle of Aegospotami, and the final defeat of Athens, 
he crossed the Hellespont and took refuge with Pharnabazus in 
Phrygia, with the object of securing the aid of Artaxerxes against 
Sparta. But the Spartans induced Pharnabazus to put him out 
of the way; as he was about to set out for the Persian court his 
residence was set on fire, and on rushing out on his assassin 
dagger in hand, he was killed by a shower of arrows (404) . Ther 
can be no doubt that his advice to Sparta in connexion wit 
Syracuse and the fortification of Decelea was the real cause of 
country's downfall, though it is only fair to him to add that had 
he been allowed to continue in command of the Sicilian expedi- 
tion he would undoubtedly have overruled the fatal policy of 
Nicias and prevented the catastrophe of 413. His belated 



ALCIDAMAS ALCMAEON 



523 



attempt to repair his fatal treachery only exposed the essential 
selfishness of his character. Though he must have known that 
his influence over the Persian satraps was slender in the extreme, 
he used it with the most flagrant dishonesty as a bait first to 
Sparta, then to the Athenian oligarchs, and finally to the de- 
mocracy. Superficial and opportunist to the last, he owed the 
successes of his meteoric career purely to personal magnetism 
and an almost incredible capacity for deception. 

There are lives of Alcibiades by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos, 
and monographs by Hertzberg, A. der Staatsmann und Feldherr 
(1853), and Houssaye, Histoire d'Alcibiade (1873) ; but the best 
accounts will be found in the histories of Greece by G. Grote (also 
notes in abridged ed., 1907), Ed. Meyer, and works quoted under 
GREECE, Ancient History, sect. " Authorities " ; also PELOPONNESIAN 
WAR. 

ALCIDAMAS, of Elaea, in Aeolis, Greek sophist and rhetori- 
cian, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He was the pupil and 
successor of Gorgias and taught at Athens at the same time as 
Isocrates, whose rival and opponent he was. We possess two 
declamations under his name: Hepi SCK^IOTCOJ', directed against 
Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore over 
written speeches (a recently discovered fragment of another 
speech against Isocrates is probably of later date) ; 'Odvao-tvs, in 
which Odysseus accuses Palamedes of treachery during the siege 
of Troy (this is generally considered spurious). According to 
Alcidamas, the highest aim of the orator was the power of speak- 
ing extempore on every conceivable subject. Aristotle (Rhet. 
iii. 3) criticizes his writings as characterized by pomposity of 
style and an extravagant use of poetical epithets and compounds 
and far-fetched metaphors. Of other works only fragments and 
the titles have survived: MecrafjnaKos, advocating the freedom 
of the Messenians and containing the sentiment that " all are by 
nature free "; a Eulogy of Death, in consideration of the wide 
extent of human sufferings; a Tex 1 ''? or instruction-book in the 
art of rhetoric; and a "JwriKos \6voj. Lastly, his MoucreToj' (a 
word of doubtful meaning) contained the narrative of the contest 
between Homer and Hesiod, two fragments of which are found in 
the 'A-ywii 'Qpripov KO.L "Hcri65ou, the work of a grammarian in 
the time of Hadrian. A 3rd-century papyrus (Flinders Petrie, 
Papyri, ed. Mahaffy, 1891, pi. xxv.) probably contains the actual 
remains of a description by Alcidamas. 

See the edition by Blass, 1881 ; fragments in Miiller, Oratores 
Attici, ii. (1858); Vahlen, Der Rhetor Alkidamas (1864); Blass, Die 
attische Beredsamkeit. 

ALCINOUS (ALKINOOS), in ancient Greek legend, king of the 
fabulous Phaeacians, in the island of Scheria, was the son of 
Nausithous and grandson of Poseidon. His reception and enter- 
tainment of Odysseus, who when cast by a storm on the shore of 
the island was relieved by the king's daughter, Nausicaa, is 
described in the Odyssey (vi.-xiii.). The gardens and palace of 
Alcinous and the wonderful ships of the Phaeacian mariners were 
famous in antiquity. Scheria was identified in very early times 
with Corcyra, where Alcinous was reverenced as a hero. In the 
Argonautic legend, his abode was the island of Drepane (Apoll. 
Rhodius iv. 990). 

ALCINOUS, the Platonic philosopher, lived probably in the 
time of the Caesars. He was the author of an 'ETTITO/WJ TUV 
nXaron'os 8oy/j.a.Tuv, an analysis of Plato's philosophy accord- 
ing to later writers. It is rather in the manner of Aristotle, 
and freely attributes to Plato any ideas of other philosophers 
which appeared to contribute to the system. He produced in 
the end a synthesis of Plato and Aristotle with an admixture of 
Pythagorean or Oriental mysticism, and is closely allied to the 
Alexandrian school of thought. He recognized a God who is 
unknowable, and a series of beings (8o.ifj.ovts) who hold inter- 
course with men. He recognized also Ideas and Matter, and 
borrowed largely from Aristotle and the Stoics. 

The 'EnTo/j.fi has been translated by Pierre Balbi (Rome, 1469) 
and by Marsilio Ficino; into French by J. I. Combes- Dounous 
(Paris, 1800), and into English by Thomas Stanley in his History 
of Philosophy. Editions: Heinsius (Leiden, 1630); Fischer 
(Leipzig, 1783); in Aldine Edition of Apuleius (Venice, 1521 ; Paris, 
1532); Fell (Oxford, 1667). See Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophic, 
iv. 249. 



ALCIONIO, PIETRO, or PETRUS ALCYONIUS (c. 1487-1527), 
Italian classical scholar, was born at Venice. After having 
studied Greek under Marcus Musurus of Candia, he was employed 
for some time by Aldus Manutius as a corrector of the press, 
and in 1522 was appointed professor of Greek at Florence 
through the influence of Giulio de' Medici. When his patron 
became pope in 1523 under the title of Clement VII., Alcionio 
followed him to Rome and remained there until his death. 
Alcionio published at Venice, in 1521, a Latin translation of 
several of the works of Aristotle, which was shown by the 
Spanish scholar Sepulveda to be very incorrect. He wrote a 
dialogue entitled Medices Legatus, sive de Exilio (1522), in 
connexion with which he was charged with plagiarism by his 
personal enemy, Paulus Manutius. The accusation, which 
Tiraboschi has shown to be groundless, was that he had taken 
the finest passages in the work from Cicero's lost treatise De 
Gloria, and had then destroyed the only existing copy of the 
original in order to escape detection. His contemporaries speak 
very unfavourably of Alcionio, and accuse him of haughtiness, 
uncouth manners, vanity and licentiousness. 

ALCIPHRON, Greek rhetorician, was probably a contemporary 
of Lucian (2nd century A.D.). He was the author of a collection 
of fictitious letters, of which 124 (n 8 complete and 6 fragments) 
have been published; they are written in the purest Attic dialect 
and are considered models of style. The scene is throughout at 
Athens; the imaginary writers are country people, fishermen, 
parasites and courtesans, who express their sentiments and 
opinions on familiar subjects in elegant language. The 
" courtesan " letters are especially valuable, the information 
contained in them being chiefly derived from the writers of the 
New Comedy, especially Menander. 

EDITIONS. Editio princeps (44 letters), 1499; Bergler (1715); 
Seller (1856) ; Hercher (1873) ; Scnepers (1905). English translation 
by Monro and Beloe (1791). 

ALCIRA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; 
on the left bank of the river Jucar, and on the Valencia- 
Alicante railway. Pop. (1900) 20,572. Alcira is a walled 
town, surrounded by palm, orange and mulberry groves, 
and by low-lying rice-swamps, which render its neighbour- 
hood somewhat unhealthy. Silk, fruit and rice are its chief 
products. It is sometimes identified with the Roman 
Saetabicula. In the middle ages it was a prosperous Moorish 
trading-station. 

ALCMAEON, of Argos, in Greek legend, was the son of 
Amphiaraus and Eriphyle. When his father set out with the 
expedition of the Seven against Thebes, which he knew would 
be fatal to him, he enjoined upon his sons to avenge his death 
by slaying Eriphyle and undertaking a second expedition against 
Thebes. After the destruction of Thebes by the Epigoni, 
Alcmaeon carried out his father's injunctions by killing his 
mother, as a punishment for which he was driven mad and 
pursued by the Erinyes from place to place. On his arrival at 
Psophis in Arcadia, he was purified by its king Phegeus, whose 
daughter Arsinoe (or Alphesiboea) he married, making her a 
present of the fatal necklace and the peplus of Harmonia. But 
the land was cursed with barrenness, and the oracle declared 
that Alcmaeon would never find rest until he reached a spot on 
which the sun had never shone at the time he slew his mother. 
Such a spot he found at the mouth of the river Achelous, where 
an island had recently been formed by the alluvial deposit; here 
he settled and, forgetting his wife Arsinoe, married Callirrhoe, 
the daughter of the river-god. His new wife longed for the 
necklace and peplus, and Alcmaeon, returning to Psophis, 
obtained possession of them, on the pretence that he desired to 
dedicate them at Delphi. When the truth became known he 
was pursued and slain by Phegeus and his sons. After his 
death Alcmaeon was worshipped at Thebes; his tomb was at 
Psophis in a grove of cypresses. His story was the subject of 
an old epic and of several tragedies, but none of these has been 
preserved. 

Homer, Odyssey xy. 248; Apollodorus iii. 7; Thucydides ii. 
68, 102; Pausanias viii. 24, x. 10; Ovid, Metam. ix. 400 et seq. 



524 



ALCMAEONIDAE ALCOCK 



ALCMAEONIDAE, a noble Athenian family, claiming descent 
from Alcmaeon, the great-grandson of Nestor, who emigrated 
from Pylos to Athens at the time of the Dorian invasion 
of Peloponnesus. During the archonship of an Alcmaeonid 
Megacles (? 632 B.C.), Cylon, who had unsuccessfully attempted 
to make himself "tyrant," was treacherously murdered with his 
followers. The curse or pollution thus incurred was frequently 
in later years raked up for political reasons; the Spartans even 
demanded that Pericles should be expelled as accursed at the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian war. All the members of the 
family went into banishment, and having returned in the time 
of Solon (594) were again expelled (538) by Peisistratus (q.v.). 
Their great wealth enabled them during their exile to enhance 
their reputation and secure the favour of the Delphian Apollo 
by rebuilding the temple after its destruction by fire in 548. 
Their importance is shown by the fact that Cleisthenes, tyrant of 
Sicyon, gave his daughter Agariste in marriage to the Alcmaeonid 
Megacles in preference to all the assembled suitors after the 
undignified behaviour of Hippocleides. Under the statesman 
Cleisthenes (q.v.), the issue of this union, the Alcmaeonids 
became supreme in Athens about 510 B.C. To them was generally 
attributed (though Herodotus disbelieves the story see GREECE, 
Ancient History, sect. " Authorities," II.) the treacherous raising 
of the shield as a signal to the Persians at Marathon, but, 
whatever the truth of this may be, there can be little doubt 
that they were not the only one of the great Athenian families 
to make treasonable overtures to Persia. Pericles and Alcibiades 
were both connected with the Alcmaeonidae. Nothing is heard 
of them after the Peloponnesian war. 

See Herodotus vi. 121-131. 

ALCMAN, or ALCMAEON (the former being the Doric form of 
the name), the founder of Doric lyric poetry, to whom was 
assigned the first place among the nine lyric poets of Greece in 
the Alexandrian canon, flourished in the latter half of the 7th 
century B.C. He was a Lydian of Sardis, who came as a slave 
to Sparta, where he lived in the family of Agesidas, by whom 
he was emancipated. His mastery of Greek shows that he must 
have come very early to Sparta, where, after the close of the 
Messenian wars, the people were able to bestow their attention 
upon the arts of peace. Alcman composed various kinds of 
poems in various metres; Parthenia (maidens' songs), hymns, 
paeans, prosodia (processionals), and love-songs, of which he 
was considered the inventor. He was evidently fond of good 
living, and traces of Asiatic sensuousness seem out of place 
amidst Spartan simplicity. The fragments are scanty, the most 
considerable being part of a Parthenion found in 1855 on an 
Egyptian papyrus; some recently discovered hexameters are 
attributed to Alcman or Erinna (Oxyrhynchus papyri, i. 1898). 

For general authorities see ALCAEUS. 

ALCHENE, in ancient Greek mythology, the daughter of 
Electryon, king of Mycenae, and wife of Amphitryon. She was 
the mother of Heracles by Zeus, who assumed the likeness of 
her husband during his absence, and of Iphicles by Amphitryon. 
She was regarded as the ancestress of the Heracleidae, and 
worshipped at Thebes and Athens. 

See Winter, Alkmene und Amphitryon (1876). 

ALCOBAC.A, a town of Portugal, in the district of Leiria, 
formerly included in the province of Estremadura, on the 
Alcoa and Baca rivers, from which it derives its name. Pop. 
(1900) 2309. Alcobaga is chiefly interesting for its Cistercian 
convent, now partly converted into schools and barracks. The 
monastic buildings, which form a square 725 ft. in diameter, 
with a huge conical chimney rising above them, were founded 
in 1148 and completed in 1222. During the middle ages it 
rivalled the greatest European abbeys in size and wealth. It 
was supplied with water by an affluent of the Alcoa, which still 
flows through the kitchen; its abbot ranked with the highest 
Portuguese nobles, and, according to tradition, 999 monks 
continued the celebration of mass without intermission through- 
out the year. The convent was partly burned by the French 
in 1810, secularized in 1834 and afterwards gradually restored. 
Portions of the library, which comprised over 100,000 volumes, 



including many precious MSS., were saved in 1810, and are 
preserved in the public libraries of Lisbon and Braga. The 
monastic church (1222) is a good example of early Gothic, some- 
what defaced by Moorish and other additions. It contains a 
fine cloister and the tombs of Peter I. (1357-1367) and his wife, 
Inez de Castro. 

ALCOCK, JOHN (c. 1430-1500), English divine, was born at 
Beverley in Yorkshire and educated at Cambridge. In 1461 
he was made dean of Westminster, and henceforward his pro- 
motion was rapid in church and state. In the following year 
he was made master of the rolls, and in 1470 was sent as 
ambassador to the court of Castile. He was consecrated bishop 
of Rochester in 1472 and was successively translated to the sees 
of Worcester (1476) and Ely (1486). He twice held the office 
of lord chancellor, and exhibited great ability in the negotia- 
tions with James III. of Scotland. He died at Wisbech Castle 
on the ist of October 1500. Alcock was one of the most 
eminent pre-Reformation divines; he was a man of deep 
learning and also of great proficiency as an architect. Besides 
founding a charity at Beverley and a grammar school at 
Kingston-upon-Hull, he restored many churches and colleges; 
but his greatest enterprise was the erection of Jesus College, 
Cambridge, which he established on the site of the former 
convent of St Radigund. 

Alcock's published writings, most of which are extremely rare, 
are: Mons Perfectionis, or the Hill of Perfection (London, 1497); 
Gallicontus Johannis Alcock episcopi Eliensis ad f rates suos curatos 
in sinodo apud Barnwell (1498), a good specimen of early English 
printing and quaint illustrations; The Castle of Labour, translated 
from the French (1536), and various other tracts and homilies. 
See J. Bass Mullinger's Hist, of the University of Cambridge, vol. i. 

ALCOCK, SIR RUTHERFORD (1809-1897), British consul 
and diplomatist, was the son of Dr Thomas Alcock, v/ho practised 
at Baling, near London, and himself followed the medical pro- 
fession. In 1836 he became a surgeon in the marine brigade 
which took part in the Carlist war, and gaining distinction by his 
services was made deputy inspector-general of hospitals. He 
retired from this service in 1837, and seven years later was 
appointed consul at Fuchowin China, where, after a short official 
stay at Amoy, he performed the functions, as he himself expressed 
it, "of everything from a lord chancellor to a sheriff's officer." 
Fuchow was one of the ports opened to trade by the treaty of 
1842, and Mr Alcock, as he then was, had to maintain an entirely 
new position with the Chinese authorities. In so doing he was 
eminently successful, and earned for himself promotion to the 
consulate at Shanghai. Thither he went in 1846 and made it 
an especial part of his duties to superintend the establishment 
and laying out of the British settlement, which has developed 
into such an important feature of British commercial life in 
China. In 1858 he was appointed consul-general in the newly 
opaned empire of Japan, and in the following year was promoted 
to be minister plenipotentiary. In those days residence in Japan 
was surrounded with many dangers, and the people were intensely 
hostile to foreigners. In 1860 Mr Alcock's native interpreter 
was murdered at the gate of the legation, and in the following 
year the legation was stormed by a body of Ronins, whose 
attack was repulsed by Mr Alcock and his staff. Shortly after 
this event he returned to England on leave. Already he had 
been made a C.B. (1860); in 1862 he was made a K.C.B., and 
in 1863 hon. D.C.L. Oxon. In 1864 he returned to Japan, and 
after a year's further residence he was transferred to Pekin, 
where he represented the British government until 1871, when 
he retired. But though no longer in official life his leisure was 
fully occupied. He was for some years president of the Royal 
Geographical Society, and he served on many commissions. 
He was twice married, first in May 1841 to Henrietta Mary, 
daughter of Charles Bacon, who died in 1853, and secondly 
(July 8, 1862) to the widow of the Rev. John Lowder, who died 
on the i3th of March 1899. He was the author of several works, 
and was one of the first to awaken in England an interest in 
Japanese art; his best-known book is The Capital of the Tycoon, 
which appeared in 1863. He died in London on the 2nd of 
November 1897. (R. K. D.) 



ALCOFORADO ALCOHOL 



525 



ALCOFORADO, MARIANNA (1640-1723), Portuguese author- 
ess, writer of the Letters of a Portuguese Nun, was the daughter 
of a landed proprietor in Alemtejo. Beja, her birthplace, 
was the chief garrison town of that province, itself the prin- 
cipal theatre of the twenty-eight years' war with Spain that 
followed the Portuguese revolution of 1640, and her widowed 
father, occupied with administrative and military commissions, 
placed Marianna in her childhood in the wealthy convent of the 
Conception for security and education. She made her profession 
as a Franciscan nun at sixteen or earlier, without any real 
vocation, and lived a routine life in that somewhat relaxed 
house until her twenty-fifth year, when she met Noel Bouton. 
This man, afterwards marquis de Chamilly, and marshal of 
France, was one of the French officers who came to Portugal to 
serve under the great captain, Frederick, Count Schomberg, the 
re-organizer of the Portuguese army. During the years 1665- 
1667 Chamilly spent much of his time in and about Beja, and 
probably became acquainted with the Alcoforado family through 
Marianna's brother, who was a soldier. Custom then permitted 
religious to receive and entertain visitors, and Chamilly, aided 
by his military prestige and some flattery, found small diffi- 
culty in betraying the trustful nun. Before long their intrigue 
became known and caused a scandal, and to avoid the conse- 
quences Chamilly deserted Marianna and withdrew clandes- 
tinely to France. The letters to her lover which have earned 
her renown in literature were written between December 1667 
and June 1668, and they described the successive stages of faith, 
doubt and despair through which she passed. As a piece of 
unconscious psychological self-analysis, they are unsurpassed; 
as a product of the Peninsular heart they are unrivalled. These 
five short letters written by Marianna to " expostulate her 
desertion " form one of the few documents of extreme human 
experience, and reveal a passion which in the course of two 
centuries has lost nothing of its heat. Perhaps their dominant 
note is reality, and, sad reading as they are from the moral 
standpoint, their absolute candour, exquisite tenderness and 
entire self-abandonment have excited the wonder and admiration 
of great men and women in every age, from Madame de Sevigne 
to W. E. Gladstone. There are signs in the fifth letter that 
Marianna had begun to conquer her passion, and after a life of 
rigid penance, accompanied by much suffering, she died at the 
age of eighty-three. The letters came into the possession of 
the comte de Guilleragues, director of the Gazette de France, 
who turned them into French, and they were published anony- 
mously in Paris in January 1669. A Cologne edition of the 
same year stated that Chamilly was their addressee, which is 
confirmed by St Simon and Duclos, but the name of their 
authoress remained undivulged. In 1810, however, Boissonade 
discovered Marianna's name written in a copy of the first edition 
by a contemporary hand, and the veracity of this ascription 
has been placed beyond doubt by the recent investigations of 
Luciano Cordeiro, who found a tradition in Beja connecting 
the French captain and the Portuguese nun. The letters 
created a sensation on their first appearance, running through 
five editions in a year, and, to exploit their popularity, second 
parts, replies and new replies were issued from the press in 
quick succession. Notwithstanding that the Portuguese original 
of the five letters is lost, their genuineness is as patent as the 
spuriousness of their followers, and though Rousseau was ready 
to wager they were written by a man, the principal critics of 
Portugal and France have decided against him. It is now 
generally recognized that the letters are a verbatim translation 
from the Portuguese. 

The foreign bibliography of the Letters, containing almost one 
hundred numbers, will be found in Cordeiro's admirable study, 
Soror Marianna, A Friera Portuguem, 2nd ed. (Lisbon, 1891). 
Besides the French editions, versions exist in Dutch, Danish, Italian 
and German; and the English bibliography is given by Edgar 
Prestage in his translation The Letters of a Portuguese Nun (Marianna 
Alcoforado), yd ed. (London, 1903). The French text of the editio 
pnnceps was printed in the first edition (1893) f this book. Edmund 
Gosse in the Fortnightly Review, vol. xlix. (old series) p. 506, shows 
the considerable influence exercised by the Letters on the sentimental 
literature of France and England. (E. PR.) 



ALCOHOL, in commerce, the name generally given to " spirits 
of wine "; in systematic organic chemistry it has a wider mean- 
ing, being the generic name of a class of compounds (hydroxy 
hydrocarbons) of which ordinary alcohol (specifically ethyl 
alcohol) is a typical member (see ALCOHOLS). 

The word " alcohol " is of Arabic origin, being derived from 
the particle al and the word kohl, an impalpable powder used 
in the East for painting the eyebrows. For many 
centuries the word was used to designate any fine 
powder; its present-day application to the product 
of the distillation of wine is of comparatively recent date. 
Thus Paracelsus and Libavius both used the term to denote 
a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived 
from antimony. At the same time Paracelsus uses the word 
for a volatile liquid; alcool or alcool iiini occurs often in 
his writings, and once he adds " id est vino ardenle." Other 
names have been in use among the earlier chemists for this 
same liquid. Eau de vie (" elixir of life ") was in use during 
the I3th and i4th centuries; Arnoldus Villanovanus applied 
it to the product of distilled wine, though not as a specific 
name. 

Ordinary alcohol, which we shall frequently refer to by its 
specific name, ethyl alcohol, seldom occurs in the vegetable 
kingdom; the unripe seeds of Heracleum giganteum 
and H. Sphondylium contain it mixed with ethyl alcohol. 
butyrate. In the animal kingdom it occurs in the urine 
of diabetic patients and of persons addicted to alcohol. Its 
important source lies in its formation by the " spirituous " or 
" alcoholic fermentation " of saccharine juices. The mechanism 
of alcoholic fermentation is discussed in the article FERMENTA- 
TION, and the manufacture of alcohol from fermented liquors in 
the article SPIRITS. 

The qualitative composition of ethyl alcohol was ascertained 
by A. L. Lavoisier, and the quantitative by N. T. de Saussure 
in 1808. Sir Edward Frankland showed how it could be derived 
from, and converted into, ethane; and thus determined it to be 
ethane in which one hydrogen atom was replaced by a hydroxyl 
group. Its constitutional formula is therefore CH 3 -CH 2 -OH. 
It may be synthetically prepared by any of the general methods 
described in the article ALCOHOLS. 

Pure ethyl alcohol is a colourless, mobile liquid of an agreeable 
odour. It boils at 78-3 C. (760 mm.) ; at -90 C. it is a thick 
liquid, and at -130 it solidifies to a white mass. Its high 
coefficient of thermal expansion, coupled with its low freezing 
point, renders it a valuable thermometric fluid, especially when 
the temperatures to be measured are below -39 C., for which 
the mercury thermometer cannot be used. It readily inflames, 
burning with a blue smokeless flame, and producing water and 
carbon dioxide, with the evolution of great heat; hence it 
receives considerable application as a fuel. It mixes with 
water in all proportions, the mixing being attended by a con- 
traction in volume and a rise in temperature; the maximum 
contraction corresponds to a mixture of 3 molecules of alcohol 
and i of water. Commercial alcohol or " spirits of wine " 
contains about 90% of pure ethyl alcohol, the remainder being 
water. This water cannot be entirely removed by fractional 
distillation, and to prepare anhydrous or " absolute " alcohol 
the commercial product must be allowed to stand over some 
dehydrating agent, such as caustic lime, baryta, anhydrous 
copper sulphate, &c., and then distilled. Calcium chloride 
must not be used, since it forms a crystalline compound with 
alcohol. The quantity of alcohol present in an aqueous solu- 
tion is determined by a comparison of its specific gravity with 
standard tables, or directly by the use of an alcoholometer, 
which is a hydrometer graduated so as to read per cents by 
weight (degrees according to Richter) or volume per cents 
(degrees according to Tralles). Other methods consist in deter- 
mining the vapour tension by means of the vaporimeter of 
Geissler, or the boiling point by the ebullioscope. In the United 
Kingdom " proof spirit " is defined as having a specific gravity 
at 51 of 12/13 ('92308) compared with water at the same tempera- 
ture. The " quantity at proof " is given by the formula: 



526 



ALCOHOL 



Reactions. 



quantity of sample X (degrees over or under proof + 100) 
divided by 100. 

The presence of water in alcohol may be detected in several 
ways. Aqueous alcohol becomes turbid when mixed with 
benzene, carbon disulphide or paraffin oil; when added to a 
solution of barium oxide in absolute alcohol, a white precipitate 
of barium hydroxide is formed. A more delicate method consists 
in adding a very little anthraquinone and sodium amalgam; 
absolute alcohol gives a green coloration, but in the presence of 
minute traces of water a red coloration appears. Traces of 
ethyl alcohol in solutions are detected and estimated by oxidation 
to acetaldehyde, or by conversion into iodoform by warming 
with iodine and potassium hydroxide. An alternative method 
consists in converting it into ethyl benzoate by shaking with 
benzoyl chloride and caustic soda. 

Alcohol is extensively employed as a solvent; in fact, this 
constitutes one of its most important industrial applications. It 
dissolves most organic compounds, resins, hydrocarbons, fatty 
acids and many metallic salts, sometimes forming, in the latter 
case, crystalline compounds in which the ethyl alcohol plays a 
role similar to that of water of crystallization. This fact was first 
noticed by T. Graham, and, although it was at first contradicted, 
its truth was subsequently confirmed. In general, gases dissolve 
in it more readily than in water; 100 volumes of alcohol dissolve 
7 volumes of hydrogen, 25 volumes of oxygen and 16 volumes of 
nitrogen. 

Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in ethyl alcohol with 
the production of alcoholates of the formula C 2 H 5 OK(Na). 

These are voluminous white powders. Sulphuric acid 

converts it into ethyl sulphuric acid (see ETHER), 
and sulphur trioxide gives carbyl sulphate. The phos- 
phorous haloids give the corresponding ethyl haloid. Ethyl 
chloride (from the phosphorus chlorides and alcohol) is an 
ethereal liquid boiling at 12-5 C., soluble in alcohol, but spar- 
ingly so in water. Oxidation of ethyl alcohol gives acetaldehyde 
and acetic acid. Chlorine oxidizes it to acetaldehyde, and under 
certain conditions chloral (q.v.) is formed. 

In almost all countries heavy taxes are levied on manufactured 
alcohol mainly as a source of revenue. In the United Kingdom 

the excise duty is eleven shillings per proof gallon of 
'alcohol* alcohol, while the customs duty is eleven shillings and 

fivepence; the magnitude of these imposts may be 
more readily understood when one remembers that the proof 
gallon costs only about sevenpence to manufacture. The great 
importance of alcohol in the arts has necessitated the intro- 
duction of a duty-free product which is suitable for most in- 
dustrial purposes, and at the same time is perfectly unfit for 
beverages or internal application. 

In the United Kingdom this " denaturized " alcohol is known 
as methylated spirit as a distinction from pure alcohol or " spirits 

of wine." It was first enacted in 1855 that methylated 
irit a specific mixture of pure alcohol and wood- 

naphtha, should be duty-free; the present law is to 
be found in the Customs and Inland Revenue Act of 1890, 
and the Finance Act (sect. 8) of 1002. From 1858 to 1861 
methylated spirit was duty-free when it was required for manu- 
facturing processes, and the methylation or " denaturizing " was 
carried out in accordance with a prescribed process. During the 
next three decades (1861-1891) the law was extended, and 
methylated spirit was duty-free for all purposes except for use 
as beverages and internal medicinal applications. This spirit 
(" unmineralized methylated spirit ") consisted of 90 parts of 
alcohol of 60-66 over-proof (91-95 % of pure alcohol) and 
10 parts of wood-naphtha. It was found, however, that 
certain classes were addicted to drinking this mixture, and 
since 1891 the sale of such spirit has been confined to manu- 
facturers who must purchase it in bulk from the " methylators." 
For retail purposes the " ordinary " methylated spirit is mixed 
with -357 % of mineral naphtha, which has the effect of rendering 
it quite undrinkable. The Finance Act of 1902 allows a manu- 
facturer to obtain a license which permits the use of duty-free 
alcohol, if he can show that such alcohol is absolutely essential 



' 



for the success of his business, and that methylated spirit is 
unsuitable. Notwithstanding this permission there have been 
many agitations on the part of chemical manufacturers to obtain 
a less restricted use of absolute alcohol, and in 1905 an Industrial 
Alcohol Committee was appointed to receive evidence and report 
as to whether any modification of the present law was advisable. 
In the United States the same question was considered in 1896 
by a Joint Select Committee on the use of alcohol in the manu- 
factures and arts. Reference should be made to the reports 
of these committees for a full account of the use, manufacture 
and statistics of " denaturized " spirits in various European 
countries. 

In Germany, the use of duty-free spirit is only allowed to state 
and municipal hospitals, and state scientific institutions, and for 
the manufacture of fulminates, fuzes and smokeless powders. 
The duty-free " denaturized " spirits may be divided into two 
groups " completely denaturized " and " incompletely denatur- 
ized." In the first category there are two varieties: (i) A 
mixture of 100 litres of spirit and 25 litres of a mixture of 4 parts 
of wood-naphtha and i of pyridine bases; this spirit, the use of 
which is practically limited to heating and lighting purposes, may 
be mixed with 50 grs. of lavender or rosemary, in order to destroy 
the noxious odour of the pyridine bases. (2) A mixture of 100 
litres of spirit, ij litres of the naphtha-pyridine mixture described 
above, | litre of methyl violet solution, and from 2 to 20 litres 
of benzol; this fluid is limited to combustion in motors and 
agricultural engines. The second category, or " incompletely 
denaturized " spirits, include numerous mixtures. The " general " 
mixture consists of 100 litres of spirit, and 5 litres of wood spirit 
or \ litre of pyridine. Of the " particular " varieties, we can 
only notice those used in the colour industry. These consist 
of 100 litres of spirit mixed with either 10 litres of sulphuric 
ether, or i litre of benzol, or f litre of turpentine, or -025 litre of 
animal oil. 

The German regulations are apparently based on a keen 
appreciation of the fact that while one particular denaturizing 
agent may have little or no effect on one industry, yet it would be 
quite fatal to the success of another; there is consequently a 
great choice of denaturizing agents, and in certain cases it is 
sufficient to mix the alcohol with a reagent necessary for the 
purpose in hand, or even with a certain amount of the final 
product, it being only necessary to satisfy the state that the 
spirit is not available as a beverage. 

In France, the general denaturizing agent is wood-spirit of at 
least 58 over-proof, and containing 25 % of acetone and 2-5 % of 
"impurMs pyrogentes"; 10 litres of this spirit denaturizes 100 
litres of alcohol. This mixture is supplied to manufacturers and 
corresponds to the British unmineralized methylated spirit; but 
the regulations are more stringent. When sold for lighting and 
heating purposes, it is further admixed with 0-5 % of heavy 
benzene boiling at isp-2oo C. Provisions are also made for 
special denaturizing processes as in Germany. 

In America the internal revenue tax on denaturized alcohol 
(formerly duty-free only to scientific institutions) was removed 
by Congress in 1906 (act of June 7th). 

Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics of Alcohol. 
Alcohol is of great medicinal value as a solvent, being used to 
form solutions of alkaloids, resins, volatile oils, iodoform, &c. 
In strength of about 10 % and upwards it is an antiseptic. If 
applied to the skin it rapidly evaporates, thereby cooling the skin 
and diminishing the amount of sweat excreted. This refrigerant 
and anhidrotic action is employed to soothe many forms of 
headache by bathing the forehead with eau de Cologne. If, on 
the other hand, the alcohol be rubbed into the skin, or if its 
evaporation be prevented as by a watch-glass it absorbs water 
from the tissues and thus hardens them. 

Thoroughly rubbed into the skin alcohol dilates the blood- 
vessels and produces a mild counter-irritant effect. Many 
alcoholic liniments are therefore employed for the relief of pain, 
especially muscular pains, as in lumbago and other forms of 
so-called " muscular rheumatism." Given internally in small 
quantities and in sufficient dilution, alcohol causes dilatation of 



ALCOHOLS 



527 



the gastric blood-vessels, increased secretion of gastric juice, and 
greater activity in the movements of the muscular layers in the 
wall of the stomach. It also tends to lessen the sensibility of 
the stomach and so may relieve gastric pain. In a 50 % 
solution or stronger as when neat whisky is taken alcohol 
precipitates the pepsin which is an essential of gastric digestion, 
and thereby arrests this process. The desirable effects produced 
by alcohol on the stomach are worth obtaining only in cases of 
acute diseases. In chronic disease and in health the use of alcohol 
as an aid to digestion is without the support of clinical or labora- 
tory experience, the beneficial action being at least neutralized by 
undesirable effects produced elsewhere. The continued use of 
large doses of alcohol produces chronic gastritis, in which the 
continued irritation has led to overgrowth of connective tissue, 
atrophy of the gastric glands and permanent cessation of the 
gastric functions. 

A single dose of concentrated alcohol (e.g. brandy) produces 
very valuable reflex effects, the heart beating more rapidly and 
forcibly, and the blood-pressure rising. Hence the immediately 
beneficial effect produced in the cases ,of " fainting " or syncope. 
After absorption, which is very rapid, alcohol exerts a marked 
action upon the blood. The oxygen contained in that fluid, and 
destined for consumption by the tissues, is retained by the 
influence of alcohol in its combination with the haemoglobin 
or colouring matter' of the red blood corpuscles. Hence the 
diminished oxidation of the tissues, which leads to the accumula- 
tion of unused fat and so to the obesity which is so often seen 
in those who habitually take much alcohol. The drug exerts 
a noteworthy action upon the body-temperature. As it dilates 
the blood-vessels of the skin it increases the subjective sensation 
of warmth. The actual consequence, however, is that more heat 
than before is necessarily lost from the surface of the body. 
Alcohol also diminishes the oxidation which is the main source 
of the body-heat. It follows that the drug is an antipyretic, 
and it is hence largely used in fevers as a means of reducing the 
temperature. This reduction of the temperature, carried to an 
undesirable extreme, is the reason why the man who has copiously 
consumed spirits " to keep out the cold " is often visited with 
pneumonia. The largest amount of alcohol that can be burnt 
up within the healthy body in twenty-four hours is ij oz., 
but it must be consumed in great dilution and divided into 
small doses taken every four hours. Otherwise the alcohol will 
for the most part leave the body unused in the urine and the 
expired air. In fever the case is different. The raised tempera- 
ture appears to facilitate the oxidation of the substance, so that 
quantities may be taken and completely utilized which would 
completely intoxicate the individual had his temperature been 
normal. It follows that alcohol is a food in fever, and its value 
in this regard is greatly increased by the fact that it requires 
no primary digestion, but passes without changes, and without 
needing change, to the tissues which are to use it. According 
to Sir Thomas Fraser nothing else can compete with alcohol 
as a food in desperate febrile cases, and to this use must be added 
its antipyretic power already explained and its action as a 
soporific. During its administration in febrile cases the drug 
must be most carefully watched, as its action may prove 
deleterious to the nervous system and the circulation in certain 
classes of patient. The state of the pulse is the best criterion of 
the action of alcohol in any given case of fever. The toxicology of 
alcohol is treated in other articles. It includes acute alcoholism 
(i.e. intoxication), chronic alcoholism, delirium tremens, and all 
the countless pathological changes extending to every tissue 
but the bones, and especially marked in the nervous system 
which alcohol produces. (See DRUNKENNESS: DELIRIUM). 

After death the presence of alcohol can be detected in all the 
body fluids. Its especial affinity for the nervous system is in- 
dicated by the fact that, when all traces of it have disappeared 
elsewhere, it can still be detected with ease in the cerebro-spinal 
fluid. 

ALCOHOLS, in organic chemistry, a class of compounds which 
may be considered as derived from hydrocarbons by the replace- 
ment of one or more hydrogen atoms by hydroxyl groups. It is 



convenient to restrict the term to compounds in which the 
hydroxyl group is attached to an aliphatic residue; this excludes 
such compounds as the hydroxy-benzenes, naphthalenes, &c., 
which exhibit many differences from the compounds derived 
from the aliphatic alkyls. 

Alcohols are classified on two distinct principles, one depend- 
ing upon the number of hydroxyl groups present, the other on 
the nature of the remaining groups attached to the carbon atom 
which carries the hydroxyl group. Monatomic or monohydric 
alcohols contain only one hydroxyl group; diatomic, two, 
known as glycols (q.v.); triatomic, three, known as glycerols 
(q.v.) ; and so on. 

The second principle leads to alcohols of three distinct types, 
known as primary, secondary and tertiary. The genesis and 
formulation of these types may be readily understood by con- 
sidering the relation which exists between the alcohols and the 
parent hydrocarbon. In methane, CH 4 , the hydrogen atoms 
are of equal value, and hence only one alcohol, viz. CH 3 OH, can 
be derived from it. This compound, methyl alcohol, is the 
simplest primary alcohol, and it is characterized by the grouping 
CH 2 OH. Ethane, C 2 H 6 , in a similar manner, can only give rise 
to one alcohol, namely ethyl alcohol, CH 3 CH 2 OH, which is also 
primary. Propane, CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 , can give rise to two alcohols 
a primary alcohol, CHsCHoCH^OH (normal propyl alcohol), 
formed by replacing a hydrogen atom attached to a terminal 
carbon atom, and a secondary alcohol, CH 3 -CH(OH)-CH 3 (iso- 
propyl alcohol), when the substitution is effected on the middle 
carbon atom. The grouping CH-OH characterizes the secondary 
alcohols; isopropyl alcohol is the simplest member of this class. 
Butane, C 4 Hi , exists in the two isomeric forms normal butane, 
CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 , and iso-butane, CH(CH 3 ) 3 . Each of these 
hydro-carbons gives rise to two alcohols: w-butane gives a 
primary and a secondary; and iso-butane a primary, when the 
substitution takes place in one of the methyl groups, and a 
tertiary, when the hydrogen atom of the : CH group is substituted. 
Tertiary alcohols are thus seen to be characterized by the group 
:C-OH, in which the residual valencies of the carbon atom are 
attached to alkyl groups. 

In 1860 Hermann Kolbe predicted the existence of secondary 
and tertiary alcohols from theoretical considerations. Regarding 
methyl alcohol, for which he proposed the name carbinol, as the 
simplest alcohol, he showed that by replacing one hydrogen atom 
of the methyl group by an alkyl residue, compounds of the general 
formula R-CHs-OH would result. These are the primary alcohols. 
By replacing two of the hydrogen atoms, either by the same or 
different alkyls, compounds of the formula (R-Ri)CH-OH (i.e. 
secondary alcohols) would result; while the replacement of the 
three hydrogen atoms would generate alcohols of the general 
formula (R-RrR 2 )C-OH, i.e. tertiary alcohols. Furthermore, he 
exhibited a comparison between these three types of alcohols 
and the amines. Thus: 

R-NH 2 (RjR 2 )NH (R^RaJN 

R-CH 2 OH (R^CH-OH (R,R 2 R 3 )C-OH 

Primary. Secondary. Tertiary. 

To distinguish Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols. 
Many reactions serve to distinguish these three types of alcohols. 
Of chief importance is their behaviour on oxidation. The 
primary alcohols are first oxidized to aldehydes (q.v.), which, 
on further oxidation, yield acids containing the same number 
of carbon atoms as in the original alcohol. Secondary alcohols 
yield ketones (q.f.), which are subsequently oxidized to a mixture 
of two acids. Tertiary alcohols yield neither aldehydes nor 
ketones, but a mixture of two or more acids. Another method 
is based upon the different behaviour of the corresponding 
nitro-alkyl with nitrous acid. The alcohol is first acted upon 
with phosphorus and iodine, and the resulting alkyl iodide is 
treated with silver nitrite, which gives the corresponding nitro- 
alkyl. The nitro-alkyl is then treated with potassium nitrite 
dissolved in concentrated potash, and sulphuric acid is added. 
By this treatment a primary nitro-alkyl yields a nitrolic acid, 
the potassium salt of which forms an intense red solution; a 
secondary nitro-alkyl forms a pseudo nitrol, which gives an 



52 8 



ALCOTT 



intense blue solution, while the tertiary compound does not act 
with nitrous acid. The reactions outlined above may be thus 
represented: 

R-CH 2 OH ->R-CHI ->R-CH 2 -NO, ->R-C^^ H 
Primary alcohol. Nitrolic acid. 



Secondary alcohol. Pseudo nitrol. 

(R 1 R S R3)C-OH^(R I R 2 R,)C-I->(R,R 2 R3)C-NO 2 . 
Tertiary alcohol. 

By heating to the boiling point of naphthalene (218) tertiary 
alcohols are decomposed, while heating to the boiling point of 
anthracene (360) suffices to decompose secondary alcohols, the 
primary remaining unaffected. These changes can be followed 
out by determinations of the vapour density, and so provide 
a method for characterizing alcohols (see Compt. Rend. 1904, 138, 
p. 984). 

Alcohols may be readily prepared from the corresponding 

alkyl haloid by the action of moist silver oxide (which behaves 

as silver hydroxide); by the saponification of their 

esters; or by the reduction of polyhydric alcohols 

with hydriodic acid, and the subsequent conversion 

of the resulting alkyl iodide into the alcohol by moist silver 

oxide. Primary alcohols are obtained by decomposing their 

sulphuric acid esters (from sulphuric acid and the olefines) 

with boiling water; by the action of nitrous acid on primary 

amines; or by the reduction of aldehydes, acid chlorides or 

acid anhydrides. Secondary alcohols result from the reduction 

of ketones; and from the reaction of zinc alkyls on aldehydes or 

formic acid esters. 



CHaCHO 
Acetaldehyde. 

HC/0 
L \OC 2 H 6 



r- a 
X OC 2 H S 



Methyl ethyl carbinol. 
/OZnCHa /OH 

(-CH, 
X CH, 



_\ v^ria 
X CHa 
Formic ester. Isopropyl alcohol. 

Tertiary alcohols may be synthesized by a method devised by 
A. Butlerow in 1864, who thus discovered the tertiary alcohols. 
By reacting with a zinc alkyl (methyl or ethyl) on an acid chloride, 
an addition compound is first formed, which decomposes with 
water to give a ketone. If, however, a second molecule of a zinc 
alkyl be allowed to react, a compound is formed which gives a 
tertiary alcohol when decomposed with water. 

/CHa /CHa /CH, 



CH, CH 3 

Acid chloride. Tertiary alcohol. 

It is interesting to note that, whereas zinc methyl and ethyl 
give tertiary alcohols, zinc propyl only gives secondary alcohols. 
During recent years (1900 onwards) many brilliant syntheses 
have been effected by the aid of magnesium-alkyl-haloids. 

The alcohols are neutral in reaction, and the lower members 
possess the property of entering into combination with salts, 
in which the alcohol plays the role of water of crystal- 
pertiea lization. Sodium or potassium dissolves in them 
with the formation of alcoholates, the hydrogen of 
the hydroxyl group being replaced by the metal. With strong 
acids water is split off and esters are formed. The haloid 
esters of the paraffin alcohols formed by heating the alcohols 
with the halogen acids are the monohaloid derivatives of the 
paraffins, and are more conveniently prepared by the action of 
the phosphorous haloid on the alcohol. Energetic dehydration 
gives the olefine hydrocarbons, but under certain conditions 
ethers (see ETHER) are obtained. 

The physical properties of the alcohols exhibit a gradation 
with the increase of molecular weight. The lower members are 
colourless mobile liquids, readily soluble in water and exhibiting 
a characteristic odour and taste. The solubility decreases as 
the carbon content rises. The normal alcohols containing i to 
16 carbon atoms are liquids at the ordinary temperatures ; 
the higher members are crystalline, odourless and tasteless 
solids, closely resembling the fats in appearance. The boiling 



points of the normal alcohols increase regularly about 10 for 
each CH 2 increment; this is characteristic of all homologous 
series of organic compounds. Of the primary, secondary and 
tertiary alcohols having the same empirical formula, the primary 
have the highest, and the tertiary the lowest boiling point; 
this is in accordance with the fairly general rule that a gain in 
symmetry is attended by a fall in the boiling point. 

The following monatomic alcohols receive special treatment under 
their own headings: ALCOHOL (ETHYL), ALLYL ALCOHOL, AMYL 
ALCOHOLS, BENZYL ALCOHOL, BUTYLALCOHOLS, METHYL ALCOHOL, 
and PROPYL ALCOHOLS. 

ALCOTT, AMOS BRONSON (1799-1888), American education- 
alist and writer, born on Spindle Hill, in the town of Wolcott, 
New Haven county, Connecticut, on the 2gih of November 1 799. 
His father, Joseph Chatfield Alcox, was a farmer and mechanic 
whose ancestors, then bearing the name of Alcocke, had settled 
in eastern Massachusetts in colonial days. The son adopted the 
spelling "Alcott" in his early youth. Self-educated and early 
thrown upon his own resources, he began in 1814 to earn his 
living by working in a clock factory in Plymouth, Conn., and 
for many years after 1815 he peddled books and merchandise, 
chiefly in the southern states. He began teaching in Bristol, 
Conn., in 1823, and subsequently conducted schools in Cheshire, 
Conn., in 1825-1827, again in Bristol in 1827-1828, in Boston in. 
1828-1830, in Germantown, now part of Philadelphia, in 1831 
1833, and in Philadelphia in 1833. In 1830 he had married Abby 
May, the sister of Samuel J. May (1797-1871), the reformer and 
abolitionist. In 1834 he opened in Boston a school which became 
famous because of his original methods; his plan being to develop 
self-instruction on the basis of self-analysis, with an ever-present 
desire on his own part to stimulate the child's personality. The 
feature of his school which attracted most attention, perhaps, 
was his scheme for the teacher's receiving punishment, in certain 
circumstances, at the hands of an offending pupil, whereby the 
sense of shame might be quickened in the mind of the errant 
child. The school was denounced in the press, was not pecuniarily 
successful, and in 1839 was given up, although Alcott had won 
the affection of his pupils, and his educational experiments had 
challenged the attention of students of pedagogy. The school 
is perhaps best described in Miss E. P. Peabody's A Record of 
Mr Alcotl's School (1835). In 1840 Alcott removed to Concord, 
Massachusetts. After a visit to England, in 1842, he started 
with two English associates, Charles Lane and Henry C. Wright, 
at " Fruitlands," in the town of Harvard, Massachusetts, a 
communistic experiment at farm-living and nature-meditation 
as tending to develop the best powers of body and soul. This 
speedily came to naught, and Alcott returned (1844) to his home 
near that of Emerson in Concord, removing to Boston four years, 
later, and again living in Concord after 1857. He spoke, as 
opportunity offered, before the " lyceums " then common in 
various parts of the United States, or addressed groups of hearers 
as they invited him. These " conversations," as he called them, 
were more or less informal talks on a great range of topics, 
spiritual, aesthetic and practical, in which he emphasized the 
ideas of the school of American Transcendentalists led by 
Emerson, who was always his supporter and discreet admirer. 
He dwelt upon the illumination of the mind and soul by direct 
communion with the Creative Spirit; upon the spiritual and 
poetic monitions of external nature; and upon the benefit to 
man of a serene mood and a simple way of life. As regards the 
trend and results of Alcott's philosophic teaching, it must be 
said that, like Emerson, he was sometimes inconsistent, hazy 
or abrupt. But though he formulated no system of philosophy, 
and seemed to show the influence now of Plato, now of Kant, or 
of German thought as filtered through the brain of Coleridge, 
he was, like his American master, associate and friend, steadily 
optimistic, idealistic, individualistic. The teachings of William 
Ellery Channing a little before, as to the sacred inviolability of 
the human conscience anticipating the later conclusions of 
Martineau really lay at the basis of the work of most of the 
Concord transcendentalists and contributors to The Dial, of 
whom Alcott was one. In his last years, living in a serene and 






ALCOTT ALCUIN 



529 



beautiful old age in his Concord home, the Orchard House.where 
every comfort was provided by his daughter Louisa (q.v.), Alcott 
was gratified at being able to become the nominal, and at times 
the actual, head of a Concord " Summer School of Philosophy 
and Literature," which had its first session in 1879, and in which 
in a rudely fashioned building next his house thoughtful 
listeners were addressed during a part of several successive 
summer seasons on many themes in philosophy, religion and 
letters. Of Alcott's published works the most important is 
Tablets (1868); next in order of merit is Concord Days (1872). 
His Sonnets and Canzonets (1882) are chiefly interesting as an 
old man's experiments in verse. He left a large collection of 
personal jottings and memorabilia, most of which remain un- 
published. He died in Boston on the 4th of March 1888. Alcott 
was a Garrisonian abolitionist. 

See A. Branson Alcott, His Life and Philosophy (2 vols., Boston, 
1893). by F- B. Sanborn and William T. Harris; New Connecticut: 
an Autobiographical Poem (Boston, 1887), edited by F. B. Sanborn; 
and Lowell's criticism in his Fable for Critics. (C. F. R.) 

ALCOTT, LOUISA MAY (1832-1888), American author, was 
the daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott, and though of New 
England parentage and residence, was born in Germantown, 
now part of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the zgth of November 
1832. She began work at an early age as an occasional teacher 
and as a writer her first book was Flower Fables (1854), tales 
originally written for Ellen, daughter of R. W. Emerson. In 
1860 she began writing for the Atlantic Monthly, and he was 
nurse in the Union Hospital at Georgetown, D.C., for six weeks 
in 1862-1863. Her home letters, revised and published in the 
Commonwealth and collected as Hospital Sketches (1863, re- 
published with additions in 1869), displayed some power of 
observation and record; and Moods, a novel (1864), despite its 
uncertainty of method and of touch, gave considerable promise. 
She soon turned, however, to the rapid production of stories 
for girls, and, with the exception of the cheery tale entitled 
Work (1873), and the anonymous novelette A Modern Mephis- 
topheles (1877), which attracted little notice, she did not return 
to the more ambitious fields of the novelist. Her success dated 
from the appearance of the first series of Little Women: or 
Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy (1868), in which, with unfailing humour, 
freshness and lifelikeness, she put into story form many of the 
sayings and doings of herself and sisters. Little Men (1871) 
similarly treated the character and ways of her nephews in 
the Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts, in which Miss 
Alcott's industry had now established her parents and other 
members of the Alcott family; but most of her later volumes, 
An Old-Fashioned Girl (1870), Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag (6 vols., 
1871-1879), Rose in Bloom (1876), &c., followed in the line 
of Little Women, of which the author's large and loyal public 
never wearied. Her natural love of labour, her wide-reaching 
generosity, her quick perception and her fondness for sharing 
with her many readers that cheery humour which radiated from 
her personality and her books, led her to produce stories of a 
diminishing value, and at last she succumbed to overwork, 
dying in Boston on the 6th of March 1888, two days after the 
death of her father in the same city. Miss Alcott's early educa- 
tion had partly been given by the naturalist Thoreau, but had 
chiefly been in the hands of her father; and in her girlhood and 
irly womanhood she had fully shared the trials and poverty 
ncident to the life of a peripatetic idealist. In a newspaper 
ketch entitled " Transcendental Wild Oats," afterwards re- 
printed in the volume Silver Pitchers (1876), she narrated, with 
i delicate humour, which showed what her literary powers might 
ive been if freed from drudgery, the experiences of her family 
during an experiment towards communistic " plain living and 
liigh thinking " at " Fruitlands," in the town of Harvard, 
lassachusetts, in 1843. 

The story of her career has been fully and frankly told in Mrs 
idnah D. Cheney's Louisa May Alcott: Her Life, Letters and 
Journals (Boston, 1889). (C. F. R.) 

ALCOVE (through the Span, alcova, from the Arab, al-, 
tie, and quobbah, a vault), an architectural term for a recess 
a room usually screened off by pillars, balustrade or drapery. 



ALCOY, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of 
Alicante, on the small river Serpis, and at the terminus of a 
branch railway connected with the Barcelona- Valencia-Alicante 
line. Pop. (1900) 32,053. Alcoy is built on high ground at 
the entrance to a gorge in the Moncabrer range (4547 ft.). It 
is a thriving industrial town, devoid of any great antiquarian 
or architectural interest, though founded by the Moors. It 
owes its prosperity to its manufacture of linen, woolen goods 
and paper, especially cigarette paper. Many of the factories 
derive their motive power from the falls of a mountain torrent 
known as the Salto de las Aguas. Labour disturbances are 
frequent, for, like Barcelona, Alcoy has become one of the 
centres of socialistic and revolutionary agitation, while preserv- 
ing many old-fashioned customs and traditions, such as the 
curious festival held annually in April in honour of St George, 
the patron saint of the town. 

COCENTAINA (pop. 1900, 7093) is a picturesque and ancient 
town, 4 m. N.E. by rail. It is surrounded by Roman walls, 
which were partly rebuilt by the Moors, and it contains an 
interesting fortified palace, owned by the dukes of Medinaceli. 

For an account of the festival of St George of Alcoy, see Apuntes 
historicos acerca de las fiestas que celebra coda ano la ciudad de Alcoy 
a su patron San Jorge, by J. A. Llobet y Vallosera (Alcoy, 1853). 

ALCUIN (ALCHUINE), a celebrated ecclesiastic and man of 
learning in the 8th century, who liked to be called by the Latin 
name of ALBINUS, and at the Academy of the palace took the 
surname of FLACCUS, was born at Eboracum (York) in 735. 
He was related to Willibrord, the first bishop of Utrecht, 
whose biography he afterwards wrote. He was educated at the 
cathedral school of York, under the celebrated master Albert, 
with whom he also went to Rome in search of manuscripts. 
When Albert was appointed archbishop of York in 766, Alcuin 
succeeded him in the headship of the episcopal school. He 
again went to Rome in 780, to fetch the pallium for Archbishop 
Eanbald, and at Parma met Charlemagne, who persuaded him 
to come to his court, and gave him the possession of the great 
abbeys of Ferrieres and of Saint-Loup at Troyes. The king 
counted on him to accomplish the great work which was his 
dream, namely, to make the Franks familiar with the rules of 
the Latin language, to create schools and to revive learning. 
From 781 to 790 Alcuin was his sovereign's principal helper in 
this enterprise. He had as pupils the king of the Franks, the 
members of his family and the young clerics attached to the 
palace chapel; he was the life and soul of the Academy of the 
palace, and we have still, in the Dialogue of Pepin (son of Charle- 
magne) and Alcuin, a sample of the intellectual exercises in 
which they indulged. It was under his inspiration that Charles 
wrote his famous letter de litteris colendis (Boretius, Capitularia, 
i. p. 78), and it was he who founded a fine library in the palace. 
In 790 Alcuin returned to his own country, to which he had 
always been greatly attached, and stayed there some time; 
but Charlemagne needed him to combat the Adoptianist heresy, 
which was at that time making great progress in the marches of 
Spain. At the council of Frankfort in 794 Alcuin upheld the 
orthodox doctrine, and obtained the condemnation of the 
heresiarch Felix of Urgel. After this victory he again returned 
to his own land, but on account of the disturbances which broke 
out there, and which led to the death of King ^Ethelred (796), he 
bade farewell to it for ever. Charlemagne had just given him 
the great abbey of St Martin at Tours, and there, far from the 
disturbed life of the court, he passed his last years. He made 
the abbey school into a model of excellence, and many students 
flocked to it; he had numerous manuscripts copied, the calli- 
graphy of which is of extraordinary beauty (v. Leopold Delisle 
in the Memoires de I'Academie des Inscriptions, vol. xxxii., ist 
part, 1 88 5) . He wrote numerous letters to his friends in England , 
to Arno, bishop of Salzburg, and above all to Charlemagne. 
These letters, of which 311 are extant, are filled chiefly with 
pious meditations, but they further form a mine of information 
as to the literary and social conditions of the time, and are the 
most reliable authority for the history of humanism in the 
Carolingian age. He also trained the numerous monks of the 



530 



ALCYONE ALDBOROUGH 



abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of- these pursuits that he 
was struck down by death on the igth of May 804. 

Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the Carolingian Re- 
naissance, in which have been distinguished three main periods: 
in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, 
the Italians occupy the chief place; in the second, Alcuin and 
the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third, which begins in 
804, the influence of the Goth Theodulf is preponderant. Alcuin 
transmitted to the ignorant Franks the knowledge of Latin 
culture which had existed in England since the time of Bede. 
We still have a number of his works. His letters have already 
been mentioned; his poetry is equally interesting. Besides 
some graceful epistles in the style of Fortunatus, he wrote some 
long poems, and notably a whole history in verse of the church 
at York: Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis 
ecclesiae. We owe to him, too, some manuals used in his educa- 
tional work; a grammar and works on rhetoric and dialectics. 
They are written in the form of dialogues, and in the two last 
the interlocutors are King Charles and Alcuin. He wrote, 
finally, several theological treatises: a treatise de Fide Trinitatis, 
commentaries on the Bible, &c. The complete works of Alcuin 
have been edited by Froben: Alcuini opera, i vol. in 4 parts 
(Regensburg, 1777); this edition is reproduced in Migne's 
Patrolog. lot. vols. c. and ci. The letters have been published 
by Jaffe and Diimmler in Jaffe's Bibliotheca rerum germanicarum, 
vol. vi. pp. 132-897 (1873). E. Diimmler has also published an 
authoritative edition, Epistolae aevi Carolini, vol. ii. pp. 1-481, 
in the Monumenta Germaniae, and has edited the poems in the 
same collection: Poetae latini aevi Carolini, vol. i. pp. 169-341. 

AUTHORITIES. Monnier, Alcuin et Charlemagne (Paris, 1863); 
K. Werner, Alkuin und sein Jahrhundert (Paderborn, 1876); J. Bass 
Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great and the Restoration of 
Education in the gth Century (London, 1877); Aug. Molinier, Les 
Sources de I'histoire de France, vol. i. p. 191; G. Monod, Etudes 
critiques sur les sources de I'histoire carolingienne, part i. (Paris, 
1898); C. J. B. Gaskoin, Alcuin: His Life and his Work (London, 
1903). See further U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources, &c., bio- 
bibliographie, s.v. Alcuin; Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts- 
quellen (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1904), i. p. 186. (C. PF.) 

ALCYONE, or HALCYONE, in Greek mythology, daughter of 
Aeolus and wife of Ceyx. For their presumption in calling 
themselves Zeus and Hera they were changed into birds 
Alcyone into a diver, Ceyx into a kingfisher. According to 
another story, Ceyx was drowned and his body cast on the shore. 
His wife found the body, and the gods, out of compassion, 
changed both her and her husband into kingfishers. By com- 
mand of Zeus (or Aeolus) the winds ceased to blow during their 
brooding-time, for seven days before and after the shortest day, 
that their eggs might not be carried away by the sea. Hence 
the expression " halcyon days," used in ancient and modern 
times to denote a period of calm and tranquillity. 

Apollonius Rhodius i. 1087; Ovid, Metam. xi. 410 et seq.; 
Hyginus, Fabulae, 65. 

ALDABRA, the collective name of a group of islands in the 
Indian Ocean, forming part of the British colony of Seychelles. 
They lie in 9 30' S., 46 E., are 265 m. N.W. of the northern 
point of Madagascar and 690 m. S.W. of Mahe, the principal 
island of the Seychelles archipelago. The Comoro Islands lie 
220 m. S. by W. of Aldabra. The Aldabra Islands constitute an 
atoll consisting of an oval ring of land, some 40 m. in circum- 
ference and about ij m. broad, enclosing a shallow lagoon. 
Channels divide the ring into four islands. Grande Terre or South 
Island forms three-fifths of the circumference. The other islands 
are West Island or lie Picard, Polymnie and Middle Island. 
There are in addition several islets in the lagoon, the most im- 
portant being He Michel. The total land area is estimated at 
about 60 sq. m., the lagoon, 16 m. long and 4 m. wide, covering a 
somewhat larger area. Pop. (1906) 127. The islands rise from 
20 to 80 ft. above the sea, and consist of rugged coral rock and 
limestone, there being very little soil. The sea-face is generally 
overhanging cliff, but in a few places are sandy beaches and low 
sandhills. Dense scrub covers most of the land, but the inner 
(lagoon) shore is everywhere bounded by mangrove swamps. 



The flora and fauna of the islands present features of unusual 
interest. They are chiefly noted as the habitat of the gigantic 
land tortoise (Testudo elephantina), now carefully preserved, and 
of several rare and peculiar birds, including a rail (Dryolimnas 
aldabranus), an ibis (Ibis abboltii) and a dove (Alectroenas sgan- 
zini). Crustacea are abundant. They include oysters, crabs of 
great size, and a small mussel, found in enormous numbers. The 
flora includes mangroves, Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae and other forms 
requiring more than pure coralline material for their growth. 
Writing of the fauna and flora generally, Mr R. Dupont, curator 
of the Botanic station at Mahe, who visited Aldabra in 1906, 
says: " The specimens represented, besides being partly peculiar, 
mostly belong to the Mascarenes, Madagascar and Comoros 
species. Many species are also common to East Africa and to 
India. . . . The predominant species are Madagascar plants and 
birds, which are carried by the currents and the winds. . . . 
There are comparatively few (10) species of plants which are 
endemic as far as the flora has been investigated, and it is probable 
that most of them are also existing in the Comoros, where the 
flora is not well known. . . . Endemic inferior animals and 
mammals are practically non-existent, except two bats and one 
scorpion, which are allied to Madagascar species or introduced. 
The reptiles (tortoises) are also nearly allied to the Mascarenes 
and Madagascar species which once existed. With regard to 
birds and land shells the relation is much closer to the Comoros 
species, and the latter, of which I have collected seven species 
besides Rachis aldabrae, may serve to point out more than the 
birds the land connexion of Aldabra with the neighbouring 
countries." Aldabra, however, although situated in that region 
of the Indian Ocean which forms part of the site of the Indo- 
Madagascar continent of the Secondary period, is not a peak of 
the submerged land. It has been built up from the sunken 
remains of the old continent by a deposit, in the opinion of Pro- 
fessor A. Voeltzkow, of foraminiferal remains (mostly coccoliths 
and rhabdoliths). In any case, however Aldabra was formed, 
there can be no suggestion of its ever having been joined to any 
other land (Stanley Gardiner). Dupont states that at Aldabra 
the coral foundation is totally above water. The coral limestone 
of the atoll has a peculiar vitrified appearance and gives out a 
ringing sound when struck or simply walked on. The coral is 
generally reddish, but the colouring ranges from light yellow to 
chocolate-brown. 

Aldabra was visited by Portuguese navigators in 1511. The 
islands were already known to the Arabs, from whom they get 
their name. They became in the middle of the i8th century 
dependencies of the French establishments at Bourbon (Reunion), 
whence expeditions were made for the capture of the giant 
tortoises. In 1810 with Mauritius, Bourbon, the Seychelles and 
other islands, Aldabra passed into the possession of Great Britain. 
The inhabitants are emigrants from the Seychelles. Goats are 
bred and coco-nuts cultivated, but fishing is the chief industry. 
With other outlying islands Aldabra is held under lease from 
the Seychelles government, the lessees having exclusive trading 
privileges. 

See R. Dupont, Report on a Visit of Investigation to ... the 
Aldabra Group of the Seychelles Islands (Seychelles, 1907); Dr 
Abbott in Proceedings, United States National Museum (Washington, 
1894) ! A. Voeltzkow in Abh. der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden 
Ges. vol. xxvi. part iv. (1901) ; J. S. Gardiner, " The Indian 
Ocean," Geo. Journ. Oct. 1906. 

ALDBOROUGH, a village in the Ripon parliamentary division 
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16 m. W.N.W. of 
York, and i m. E. of the market town of Boroughbridge, which 
has a station on a. branch of the North-Eastern railway. Aid- 
borough formerly returned two members to parliament, but was 
disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The place is remarkable 
from its numerous ancient remains. It was the Isurium Brigan- 
tum of the Romans, originally perhaps a capital of the Brigantes 
tribe, and afterwards a Romano-British town of considerable 
size. Inscriptions, beautiful mosaics and other traces of com- 
fortable houses have been found, with many potsherds, coins and 
bronze, iron and other objects; and a large part of the town 
walls, several mosaics and parts of buildings, can be seen. A 






ALDEBURGH ALDEHYDES 



fine collection is kept in the Museum Isurianum in the grounds of 
the manor-house. 

ALDEBURGH [ALDBOROUGH], a market town and municipal 
borough in the Eye parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 
the terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway, 995 m. 
N.E. by E. from London. Area, 1629 acres. Pop. (1901) 2405. 
The surrounding district is open and somewhat bleak, but a fine 
stretch of sand fringes the shallow inlet of the North Sea known 
as Aldeburgh Bay. To the W. the river Aide broadens as if into 
an estuary, but its outflow is here prevented by the sand, and it 
runs south for nearly 10 m. parallel with the shore. The sand- 
banks have arrested the encroachments of the sea, which sub- 
merged a former site of Aldeburgh. The church of St Peter and 
St Paul is Perpendicular, largely restored, and contains a 
monument to the poet George Crabbe, born here on the 24th of 
December 1754. A small picturesque Moot Hall of the i6th 
century is used for corporation meetings. Slaughden Quay on 
the Aide admits small vessels, and fishing is carried on. Alde- 
burgh is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. 

Aldeburgh (Aldburc) takes its name' from the river Aide on 
which it stands. It is not mentioned in pre-Conquest records, 
but at the Domesday survey most of the land was held by Robert 
Malet, a Norman. In 1155 the manor was granted to the abbey 
of St John of Colchester, later to Cardinal Wolsey, and on his 
disgrace, to Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, to whom Elizabeth 
in 1567 granted a market on Saturday. In the i6th century 
Aldeburgh was a place of considerable commercial importance, 
due, no doubt, to its position on the sea-coast. Aldeburgh claims 
to be a borough by prescription: the earliest charter is that 
granted by Henry VIII. in 1529. Edward VI. in 1548 raised it 
to the rank of a free borough, granting a charter of incorporation 
and a market on Wednesday. Later charters were granted by 
Philip and Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth in 1558 and 1567, by 
James I. (who granted two annual fairs) in 1606, and by Charles I. 
in 1631 and 1637. The corporation included 2 bailiffs, 10 
capital and 24 inferior burgesses, until the Municipal 
Corporations Act 1883. The fairs and markets became so 
unimportant that they were discontinued about the middle of the 
igth century. The town returned two members to Elizabeth's 
parliament of 1572, and continued to be so represented till the 
Reform Bill of 1832 disfranchised it. Frequent disastrous incur- 
sions of the sea in the i8th century reduced Aldeburgh to a mere 
fishing village. In recent years it has grown as a seaside resort, 
with excellent golf-links. 

See John Kirby, The Suffolk Traveller (2nd ed., 1764); N. F. Hele, 
Notes about Aldeburgh (1870); Victoria County History Suffolk. 

ALDEGREVER, or ALDEGRAF, HEINRICH (1502-1558), 
German painter and engraver, was born at Paderborn, from 
which he removed in early life to Soest, where he died. From 
the close resemblance of his style to that of Albrecht Diirer he 
has sometimes been called the Albert of Westphalia. His 
numerous engravings, chiefly from his own designs, are delicate 
and minute, though somewhat hard in style, and entitle him to 
a place in the front rank of the so-called " Little Masters." 
There is a good collection in the British Museum. Specimens 
of his painting are exceedingly rare. Five pictures are in 
continental galleries, but the genuineness of the works in the 
Vienna and Munich collections attributed to him is at least 
doubtful, the only unchallenged example being a portrait of 
Engelbert Therlaen (1551) in the Berlin Museum. 

ALDEHYDES, a class of chemical compounds of the general 
formula R-CHO (R = an alkyloran aryl group). The name is 
derived from alcohol dehydrogenatum in allusion to the fact that 
they may be prepared by the oxidation of alcohols. The lower 
members of the scries are neutral liquids possessing a character- 
istic smell; they are soluble in water and are readily volatile 
(formaldehyde, however, is a gas at ordinary temperatures). 
As the carbon content of the molecule increases, they become 
less soluble in water, and their smell becomes less marked with 
the increase in boiling point, the highest members of the series 
being odourless solids, which can only be distilled without 
decomposition in vacua. 



The aldehydes may be prepared by the careful oxidation 
of primary alcohols with a mixture of potassium dichromate 
and sulphuric acid, 3R-CH 2 OH-|-K 2 Cr;,O7-|-4H 2 SO4 = K 2 SO4-|- 
Cr 2 (SO 4 ) 3 -f-7H 2 0+3R-CHO; by distilling the calcium salts of 
the fatty acids with calcium formate; and by hydrolysis of 
theacetals. L. Bouveault (Bull. soc. chim., 1904 [3], 31, p. 1306) 
prepares aldehydes by the gradual addition of disubstituted 
formamides (dissolved in anhydrous ether) to magnesium alkyl 
haloids, the best yields being obtained by the use of diethyl 
formamide. Secondary reactions take place at the same time, 
yielding more particularly hydrocarbons of the paraffin series. 
G. Darzens (Complex Rendus, 1904, 139, p. 1214) prepares esters 
of disubstituted glycidic acids, by condensing the corresponding 
ketone with monochloracetic ester, in the presence of sodium 
ethylate. These esters on hydrolysis yield the free acids, which 
readily decompose, with loss of carbon dioxide and formation 
of an aldehyde, 

R /CRR 1 /CRR 1 

OC< +Cl-CH 2 -COOC 2 H 6 - O< | -> 0< I 

Kl \CH-COOC 2 H 6 \CH-COOH 

-> CO 2 +CHRR'-CHO. 

In the German Patent 157573 (1904) it is shown that by the 
action of at least two molecular proportions of an alkyl formate 
on two molecular proportions of a magnesium alkyl or aryl 
haloid, a complex addition compound is formed, which readily 
decomposes into a basic magnesium salt and an aldehyde, 
CeHsMgBr+HCOOR-^RO-CH-CeHs-OMgBr^MgBr-OR-t- 

CH 6 CHO. 

The aldehydes are characterized by their great chemical re- 
activity. They act as reducing agents, silver nitrate in the 
presence of ammonia being rapidly reduced to the condition of 
metallic silver. They are easily oxidized to the corresponding 
fatty acid, in many cases simply by exposure to air. Nascent 
hydrogen reduces them to primary alcohols, and phosphorus 
pentachloride replaces the carbonyl oxygen by chlorine. They 
form many addition compounds, combining with ammonia to 
form aldehyde ammonias of the type R-CH(OH)-NH 2 . These 
are colourless crystalline compounds, which are most readily 
prepared by passing ammonia gas into an ethereal solution of 
the aldehyde. With sodium bisulphite they form the so-called 
bisulphite compounds R-CH(OH)-SO 3 Na, which are readily 
resolved into their components by distillation with Dilute 
acids, and are frequently used for the preparation of the pure 
aldehyde. 

With hydrocyanic acid aldehydes form the cyanhydrins 
R-CH(OH)-CN. They react with hydroxylamine and 
phenylhydrazine, with the formation of aldoximes and hydra- 
zones. (For the isomerism of the aldoximes see OXIMES). 
The hydrazones are crystalline substances which are of value 
in the characterization of the aldehydes. Both oximes and 
hydrazones, on boiling with dilute acid, regenerate the parent 
aldehyde. The hydrazones are best prepared by mixing the 
aldehyde with phenylhydrazine in dilute acetic acid solution, 
in the absence of any free mineral acid. Semioxamazid, 
NH 2 -CO-CO'NH-NH 2 , has also been employed for the 
identification of aldehydes (W. Kerp and K. Unger, Berichte, 
1897, 30. p. 585). Aldehydes are converted into resins by 
the action of caustic alkalies. On heating with alcohols to 
100 C. they form acetals, and they also form condensation 
products with para-amido-di-methyl-aniline (A. Calm, Berichte, 
1884, 17, p. 2939). They react with the zinc alkyls to form 
addition products, which are decomposed by water with for- 
mation of secondary alcohols (K. Thurnlach, Annalen, 1882, 213, 
p. 369) thus: 

Zn(C 2 H6) 2 f, H 2 O _ 

CH,CHO ^ C 



ZnO+CsH,. 

The reaction is a general one for all aldehydes with zinc methyl 
and zinc ethyl, but not with the higher zinc alkyls. V. Grignard 
(Comptes Rendus, 1900 et seq.) showed that aldehydes combine 
with magnesium alkyl iodides (in absolute ether solution) to 
form addition products, which are decomposed by water with the 



532 



ALDEHYDES 






formation of secondary alcohols, thus from acetaldehyde and 
magnesium methyl iodide, isopropyl alcohol is obtained. 



/CH, 



H|O 



CH,-CHO+CH,MgI-CH 8 -CH<5 M ' g pKCH,) 2 CH-OH+MgI-OH. 

The lower members of the aliphatic series are characterized 
by their power of polymerization (see FORMALIN, and the 
account of Acetaldehyde below), and also by the so-called 
" aldol " condensation, acetaldehyde in this way forming 
aldol, CHj-CHOH-CHrCHO. These aldols generally lose the 
elements of water readily and pass into unsaturated com- 
pounds; aldol itself on distillation at ordinary atmospheric 
pressure gives crotonaldehyde, CHs-CH : CH-CHO. 

Aldehydes are characterized by the reddish-violet colour 
which they give with a solution of fuchsine that has been de- 
colorized by sulphurous acid (H. Schiff, Ann., 1866, 140, p. 131). 
With diazobenzene sulphonic acid in the presence of alkali and 
a trace of sodium amalgam, a reddish-violet coloration is 
formed on standing (E. Fischer, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 657). A. Angeli 
(Gaza. chim. Ital., 1896, 22, ii. 17) has shown that aldehydes in 
the presence of nitrohydroxylaminic acid form hydroxamic 
acid. The aldehydes condense readily with acetoacetic ester in 
the presence of ammonia, to pyridines (see PYRIDINE), whilst 
O. Doebner and W. v. Miller (Ber., 1892, 25, p. 2864; 1896, 29, 
p. 59) have shown that in the presence of aniline and sulphuric 
acid they give substituted quinolines. (See also C. Beyer, Ber., 
1887, 20, p. 1908). The chief aldehydes are shown in the following 
table: 



Name. 


Formula. 


Boiling 
Point. 


Melting 
Point. 


Formaldehyde 
Acetaldehyde 
Propyl aldehyde 
n-Butyl 
iso- ,, 
n-Valeryl 
iso- 
Oenanthyl 
Capric 
Laurie 
Myristic 
Palmitic 
Stearic 


H-CHO 
CH.-CHO 
CH,-CH,-CHO 
CH,-(CH,),-CHO 
(CH,),CH-CHO 
CH,-(CH,)-CHO 
C 4 H,-CHO 
CH,-(CH,).-CHO 

CH,-(CH,)8 <:HO 

CH,-(CH,), -CHO 

CH.-CCH.WCHO 

CH,-(CH,)u-CHO 
CH,-(CH,),,'CHO 


-21 
20-8 

49 
75 
61 
103 

^: 

I55 l 

121 


44-5 
52-5 
58-5 
63-5 


Acrolein, 
allyl aldehyde 
Crotonic .. 
Tiglic 
(guaiacol) 


CH, : CH-CHO 
CH.-CH : CH-CHO 

CH,-CH:C-CH,-CHO 


5*: 
104 

116 




Propargylic A. 


CH :C-CHO 


59 




Benzaldehyde 
ro 
Toluicaldehyde^ m 

L P 
Cumic ,, 
Cinnamic ,, 


C,H-CHO 
CH 4 -CH,-CHO 

C,H4-C,H,-CHO 
C.H.-CH : CH-CHO 


i7 ^: 

200 

199 
204 

235 o 
247 





For formaldehyde see FORMALIN. Acelaldehyde, CH 3 -CHO, 
was first noticed by C. Scheele in 1774 and isolated and investi- 
gated by J. v. Liebig (Annalen, 1835, 14, p. 133). It is prepared 
by oxidizing ethyl alcohol with dilutesulphuricacidand potassium 
bichromate, and is a colourless liquid of boiling point 20-8 C., 
possessing a peculiar characteristic smell. Its specific gravity is 
0-8009 (o C.). It is miscible in all proportions with alcohol, ether 
and water. It is readily polymerized, small quantities of hydro- 
chloric acid, zinc chloride, carbonyl chloride, &c. converting it, 
at ordinary temperatures, into paraldehyde, (C2H 4 O)j, a liquid 
boiling at 1 24 C. and of specific gravity 0-998 ( 1 5 C.) . Paralde- 
hyde is moderately soluble in water, and when distilled with 
sulphuric acid is reconverted into the ordinary form. Metalde- 
hyde, (Cjl^O),, is produced in a similar way to paraldehyde, but 
at lower temperatures (e.g. in presence of a freezing mixture). 
It is a crystalline solid, which sublimes at ii2-iis C. It is 
insoluble in water, and is only slightly soluble in alcohol and 
ether. When heated in a sealed tube at 1 20 C. it is completely 



converted into the ordinary form. Paraldehyde is oxidized by 
dilute nitric acid, with formation of much glyoxal, (CHO) S . (For 
trichloracetaldehyde see CHLORAL.) 

By the action of acetaldehyde on alcohol at 100 C., aceta 
CH 3 -CH(OC2H 6 ) 2 , is produced. It may also be prepared 
oxidizing ethyl alcohol with manganese dioxide and sulphur 
acid (A. Wurtz). It is a colourless liquid of specific gravit 
0-8314 (20/4) (J. W. Briihl) and boiling point 104 C. Dilut 
acids readily transform it into alcohol and aldehyde, and chromii 
acid oxidizes it to acetic acid. Chlor- and brom-acetals hav 
been described. 

Thioaldehydes are also known, and are obtained by leading 
sulphuretted hydrogen into an aqueous solution of acetaldehyde. 
By this means a mixture is obtained which by distillation or the 
action of hydrochloric acid yields trithioaldehyde, (CjHiS^. 
For the constitution of these substances see E. Baumann and 
E. Fromm (Berichte, 1891, 24, p. 1426). Aldehyde ammonia, 
CH 3 -CH(OH)-NH 2 , is formed when dry ammonia gas is passed 
into an ethereal solution of acetaldehyde. It crystallizes in 
glistening rhombohedra, melting at 7O-8o C., and boiling at 
100 C. It is completely resolved into its components when 
warmed with dilute acids. 

The higher aldehydes of the series resemble acetaldehyde in 
their general behaviour. Unsaturated aldehydes are also known, 
corresponding to the olefine alcohols; they show the character- 
istic properties of the saturated aldehydes and can form additive 
compounds in virtue of their unsaturated nature. The simplest 
member of the series is acrolein, CjH 4 OorCH 2 : CH-CHO, which 
can be prepared by the oxidation of allyl alcohol, or by the 
abstraction of the elements of water from glycerin by heating it 
with anhydrous potassium bisulphate. It is also produced by the 
action of sodium on a mixture of epichlorhydrin and methyl 
iodide, C 3 HiOCl+CH 3 I-r-2Na=C 3 H,O-f NaI+NaCl+CH 4 . It 
is a colourless liquid, with a very pungent smell, and attacks the 
mucous membrane very rapidly. It boils at 52-4 C. and is 
soluble in water. It oxidizes readily: exposure to air giving 
acrylic acid, nitric acid giving oxalic acid, bichromate of potash 
and sulphuric acid giving carbon dioxide and formic acid. It 
combines with bromine to form a dibromide, from which 
E. Fischer, by the action of baryta water, obtained the synthetic 
sugars a- and /J-acrose (Berichte, 1889, 22, p. 360). Metacrolein, 
(CsH 4 O) s , is a polymer of acrolein. By passing acrolein vapour 
into ammonia, acrolein ammonia, CjHsNO, is obtained. It is a 
reddish amorphous mass, insoluble in alcohol, and when distilled 
yields picoline (methyl pyridine) (A. Baeyer, Ann., 1870, 155, 
p. 283). Citronellal, rhodinal and geranial are also unsaturated 
aldehydes (see TERPENES). 

The aromatic aldehydes resemble the aliphatic aldehydes in 
most respects, but in certain reactions they exhibit an entirely 
different behaviour. They do not polymerize, and in the presence 
of caustic alkalies do not resinify, but oxidize to alcohols and 
acids (see BENZALDEHYDE for Cannizzaro's reaction). When 
heated with alcoholic potassium cyanide they are converted into 
benzoins (q.v.). Vanillin does not give the Cannizzaro reaction, 
butwitlialcoholicpotashformsvanillicacid,HOOC(i)-C 6 H3-OCH3 
(3)-OH(4), and vanilloin. With ammonia, benraldehyde does 
not form an aldehyde ammonia, but condenses to hydrobenz- 
amide, (CsHsCHJaNj, with elimination of water. Cumic aldehyde 
(cuminol),(CH s ) 2 CH(i)C 8 H 4 -CHO(4),isfoundinRoman caraway 
oil and in oil of the water hemlock. It is a liquid, boiling at 
235 C., and has a specific gravity of 0-973. On distillation with 
zinc dust it forms cymene (1-4 methyl isopropyl benzene). 

Salicylic aldehyde (ortho-hydroxybenzaldehyde) , H0(i)- 
CH(-CHO(2), an aromatic oxyaldehyde, is a colourless 
liquid of boiling point 196 C. and specific gravity 1-172 (15). 
It is found in the volatile oils of Spiraea, and can be obtained by 
the oxidation of the glucoside salicin, (CuHisO?), which is found 
in willow bark. It is usually prepared by the so-called " Reimer " 
reaction (Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1268), in which chloroform acts on phenol 

in the presence of a caustic alkali, 

C,H,OH+CHC1,+4KHO = 3KC1+3H 2 O+KO-C,H4-CHO, 

some para-oxybenaldehyde being formed at the same time. It 



ALDEN ALDERNEY 



533 



is volatile (para-oxybenzaldehyde is not) and gives a violet 
coloration with ferric chloride. For dioxybenzaldehydes and 
their derivatives see PIPERONAL and VANILLIN. 

Cinnamic aldehyde (/3-phenyl acrolein), C 6 H 6 -CH:CH-CHO, 
an unsaturated aromatic aldehyde, is the chief constituent of 
cinnamon oil. It is prepared by oxidizing cinnamyl alcohol, or 
by the action of sodium ethylate on a mixture of benzaldehyde 
and acetaldehyde. It is a colourless aromatic-smelling oily 
liquid, which boils at 247 C. and readily oxidizes on exposure. 

By condensation of aldehydes with pyruvic acid and naph- 
thylamines, the a-alkyl-naphthoquinoline-'y-carboxylic acids are 
produced; the same reaction takes place with the aromatic 
amines generally (O. Doebner, Ann. 1894, 281, p. i), 

COOH 



a 



COOH 
+ | 
NH 2 CO-CH 3 




NAK 



+2H 2 O + 2H. 



ALDEN, JOHN (1599 ?-i687), one of the " Pilgrims" who in 
1620 emigrated to America on the " Mayflower " and founded 
the Plymouth Colony. According to William Bradford's History 
of the Plimoth Plantation, ,he was hired as a cooper at Southampton, 
" where the ship victuled," just before the voyage, "and being 
a hopfull yong man, was much desired." He was one of the first 
settlers of Duxbury, Massachusetts, where he lived during the 
greater part of his life, and from 1633 until 1675 he was an 
" Assistant "to the governor of the colony, frequently serving 
as acting governor. At the time of his death, at Duxbury, on 
the 1 2th of September 1687, he was the last male survivor of 
the signers of the " Mayflower Compact " of 1620, and with the 
exception of Mary Allerton was the last survivor of the " May- 
flower " company. He is remembered chiefly because of a 
popular legend, put into verse as The Courtship of Miles Standish 
by Henry W. Longfellow, concerning his courtship of Priscilla 
Mullins, whom he married in 1623, after having wooed her first 
on behalf of his friend, Miles Standish. 

ALDER, a genus of plants (Alnus) belonging to the order 
Betulaceae, the best-known of which is the common alder 
(A. glutinosa). The genus comprises a few species of shrubs or 
trees, seldom reaching- a large size, distributed through the 
North Temperate zone, and in the New World passing along the 
Andes southwards to Chile. The British species A. glutinosa 
is confined to the Old World. This tree thrives best in moist 
soils, has a shrubby appearance, and grows under favourable 
circumstances to a height of 40 or 50 ft. It is characterized 
by its short-stalked roundish leaves, becoming wedge-shaped 
at the base and with a slightly toothed margin. When young 
they are somewhat glutinous, whence the specific name, becoming 
later a dark olive green. As with other plants growing near 
water it keeps its leaves longer than do trees in drier situations, 
and the glossy green foliage lasting after other trees have put on 
the red or brown of autumn renders it valuable for landscape 
effect. The stout cylindrical male catkins are pendulous, red- 
dish in colour and 2 to 4 in. long; the female are smaller, less 
than an inch in length and reddish-brown in colour, suggesting 
young fir-cones. When the small winged fruits have been 
scattered the ripe, woody, blackish cones remain, often lasting 
through the winter. The alder is readily propagated by seeds, 
but throws up root-suckers abundantly. It is important as 
coppice-wood on marshy ground. The wood is soft, white when 
first cut and turning to pale red; the knots are beautifully 
mottled. Under water the wood is very durable, and it is there- 
fore used for piles. The supports of the Rialto at Venice, and 
many buildings at Amsterdam, are of alder-wood. Furniture 
is sometimes made from the wood, and it supplies excellent 
charcoal for gunpowder. The bark is astringent; it is used 
for tanning and dyeing 

ALDER-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the 
family Sialidae, related to the ant-lions, with long filamentous 
antennae and four large wings, of which the anterior pair is 
rather longer than the posterior. The females lay a vast number 
of eggs upon grass steris near water. The larvae are aquatic, 



active, armed with strong sharp mandibles, and breathe by means 
of seven pairs of abdominal branchial filaments. When full- 
sized they leave the water and spend a quiescent pupal stage 
on the land before metamorphosis into the sexually mature 
insect. Sialis lularia is a well-known British example. In 
America there are two genera, Corydalis and Chauliodes, which 
are remarkable for their relatively gigantic size and for the 
immense length and sabre-like shape of the mandibles. 

ALDERMAN (from A.-S. ealdorman, compounded of the com- 
parative degree of the adjective eald, old, and man), a term 
implying the possession of an office of rank or dignity, and, in 
modern times, applied to an office-bearer in the municipal 
corporations and county councilsof England and Wales, and in the 
municipal corporations of Ireland and the United States. Among 
the Anglo-Saxons, earls, governors of provinces and other persons 
of distinction received this title. Thus we read of the alder- 
mannus totius Angliae,-'who seems to have corresponded to the 
officer afterwards styled capitalis justiciarius Angliae, or chief- 
justice of England; the aldermannus regis, probably an occasional 
magistrate, answering to the modern justice of assize, or perhaps 
an officer whose duty it was to prosecute for the crown; and 
aldermannus comitatus, a magistrate with a middle rank between 
what was afterwards called the earl and the sheriff, who sat at 
the trial of causes with the bishop and declared the common 
law, while the bishop proceeded according to ecclesiastical law. 
Besides these, we meet with the titles of aldermannus civitatis, 
burgi, castelli, hundredi sive wapentachii, &c. In England, before 
the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act, their functions 
varied according to the charters of the different boroughs. By 
the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and other acts, consoli- 
dated by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, the aldermen 
are elected by the councillors for six years, one-half going out 
every three years. The number of councillors in each borough 
varies according to its magnitude. One-fourth of the municipal 
council consists of aldermen and three-fourths of councillors. 
In the counties, too, the number of aldermen is one-third of the 
number of councillors, except in London, where it is one-sixth. 
In the municipal corporations of Scotland there is no such title 
as alderman, the office-bearers of corresponding rank there being 
termed bailies. The corporation of the city of London was not 
included in the Borough Reform Act, and the antiquated system 
remains there in full force. The court of aldermen consists of 
twenty-six, twenty-five of whom are elected for life by the free- 
men of the respective wards, who return two persons, one of 
whom the court of aldermen elect to supply the vacancy. The 
city is divided into twenty-six wards; twenty-four of these send 
up one alderman each, the other two combine to choose a twenty- 
fifth. The twenty-sixth alderman serves for the independent 
borough of Southwark (q.v.) and is appointed by the other 
aldermen, who generally select the senior from among themselves 
when a vacancy occurs. The lord mayor is elected from such 
of the aldermen as have served the office of sheriff; of these the 
Common Hall, which consists of the freemen of the different 
wards, select two, and the aldermen elect one of these to the 
mayoralty. The court of aldermen has the power of appoint- 
ment to certain offices, exercises judicial functions in regard to 
licensing and in disputes connected with the ward election, has 
some power of disposal over the city cash and possesses magis- 
terial control over the city, each alderman being a judge and 
magistrate for the whole city, and by virtue of his office exercising 
the functions of a justice of the peace. The aldermen are members 
of the court of common council, the legislative body of the 
corporation, which consists in all of 232 members, the remainder 
being elected annually by the freemen. In the United States 
aldermen form as a rule a legislative rather than a judicial body, 
although in some cities they hold courts and possess very con- 
siderable magisterial powers. 

ALDERNEY (Fr. Aurigny), one of the Channel Islands, the 
northernmost of the principal members of the group, belong- 
ing to England. It lies in 49 43' N. and 2 12' W., 9 m. W. 
of Cape La Hague on the coast of Normandy. The harbour, 
on the north coast in the bay of Braye, is 25 m. from St Peter 



534 



ALDERSHOT 



Port, Guernsey, by way of which outer communications are 
principally carried on, and 55 m. S. by E. of Portland Bill, the 
nearest point of England. The length of the island from N. E. 
to S. W. is 35 m., its average breadth i m., its area 1962 acres, 
and its population (1901) 2062. 

The strait between the island and Cape La Hague, called 
the Race of Alderney (French Raz Blanchard), confined by 
numerous rocks and reefs off either coast, is rendered very 
dangerous in stormy weather by conflicting currents. Through 
this difficult channel the scattered remnant of the French fleet 
under Tourville escaped after the defeat of La Hogue in 1692. 
To the west is the narrower and also dangerous channel of the 
Swinge (Singe), between Alderney and the uninhabited islets of 
Burhou, Ortach and others. West of these again are the 
Casquets, a group of rocks to which attaches a long record of 
shipwreck. Rocks and reefs fringe all the coasts of Alderney. 
The island itself is a level open tableland, which on the south- 
west and south falls abruptly to the sea in a majestic series of 
cliffs. The greatest elevation of the land is about 300 ft. Towards 
the north-west, north and east the less rocky coast is indented 
by several bays, with open sandy shores, of which those of 
Crabby, Braye, Corblets and Longy are the most noteworthy. 
South-west of Longy Bay, where the coast rises boldly, there 
is a remarkable projecting block of sandstone, called La Roche 
Pendante (Hanging Rock) overhanging the cliff. Sandstone 
(mainly along the north-east coast), granite and porphyry are 
the chief geological formations. There are a few streams, but 
water is obtained mainly from wells. Trees are scarce. The 
town of St Anne stands almost in the centre of the island over- 
looking and extending towards the harbour. Here are the court- 
house, a gateway commemorating Albert, prince-consort, the 
clock tower, which belonged to the ancient parish church, and 
the modern church (1850), in Early English style, an excellent 
example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The church is a 
memorial to the family of Le Mesurier, in which the hereditary 
governorship of the island was vested until the abolition of the 
office in 1825. There is a chain of forts round the north coast 
from Clanque Foirt on the west to Fort Essex on the east; the 
largest is Fort Albert, above Braye Bay. In 1847 work was 
begun on a great breakwater west of the harbour, the intention 
being to provide a harbour of refuge, but although a sum exceed- 
ing one and a half million sterling was spent the scheme was 
unsuccessful. The soil of Alderney is light, fertile and well 
cultivated; grain and vegetables are grown and early potatoes 
are exported. A large part of the island is under grass, affording 
pasture for cattle. The well-known term " Alderney cattle," 
however, has lest in great measure its former signification of 
a 1 distinctive breed. Alderney is included in the bailiwick of 
Guernsey. It has a court consisting of a judge and six jurats, 
attorney-general, prfvot, greffiero and sergent; but as a judicial 
court it is subordinate to that of Guernsey, and its administrative 
powers are limited to such matters as the upkeep of roads. 

For its relations to the constitution of the bailiwick, and for the 
history of the island, see CHANNEL ISLANDS. 

ALDERSHOT, an urban district in the Basingstoke parlia- 
mentary division of Hampshire, England, 34 m. S.W. by W. of 
London, on the London & South-Western and the South- 
Eastern & Chatham railways. It was a mere village till 1855, 
when Aldershot camp was established. Pop. (1891) 25,595; 
(1901) 30,974. Its germ is to be found in the temporary camp 
on Chobham Ridges, formed in 1853 by Lord Hardinge, the 
commander-in-chief, the success of which convinced him of the 
necessity of giving troops practical instruction in the field and 
affording the generals opportunities of manoeuvring large bodies 
of the three arms. He therefore advised the purchase of a tract 
of waste land whereon a permanent camp might be established. 
His choice fell on Aldershot, a spot also recommended by strategic 
reasons, being situated on the flank of any army advancing 
upon London from the south. Nothing came of Lord Hardinge's 
proposal till the experience of the Crimean campaign fully 
endorsed his opinion. The lands at Aldershot, an extensive 
open heath country, sparsely dotted by fir-woods and intersected 



by the Basingstoke canal, were then acquired by the crown. 
Wooden huts were erected in 1855, and permanent buildings 
to replace them were begun in 1881. Under the Barracks Act 
1890, and the Military Works Act of 1897 and 1899, large sums 
were provided for completing the work. The former division 
of North and South camps and permanent barracks no longer 
obtains. North camp is now named Marlborough Lines, with a 
field artillery barrack and five infantry barracks called after 
Marlborough's victories. South camp is now named Stanhope 
Lines, after Mr Stanhope, who was secretary of state for war 
when the Barracks Act 1890 was passed and the reconstruction 
commenced in earnest. They contain barracks for the Royal 
Engineers and Army Service Corps, the general parade, which 
stretches east and west, and five infantry barracks called after 
battles (other than those of Wellington), of the wars with France, 
1 793-181 5. There are also barracks for the Royal Army Medical 
Corps. The old permanent barracks (which were built for the 
most part about 1857) have been renamed Wellington Lines, 
with cavalry and artillery barracks; and three infantry barracks 
called after Wellington's victories in the Peninsula. For the 
sick there are the Connaught Hospital in the Marlborough Lines, 
the Cambridge Hospital in Stanhope Lines, and the Union 
Hospital in Wellington Lines, besides the Louise Margaret 
Hospital for women and children and the isolated infection 
hospital. 

The drainage of the station is all modern, and the sewage is 
disposed of on a sewage farm under the direction of the war 
department. The water supply is partly from the Aldershot 
Water Company, and partly from springs and reservoirs collecting 
water from a reserved area of war department property. 

Most of the barracks can accommodate not only the units 
they are constructed for, but also detachments going through 
courses of instruction. The total of men, women and children 
for whom quarters are provided is at times as high as 24,000. 

Besides the regimental buildings there are a large number of 
buildings for garrison purposes, such as quarters and offices for 
general, staff and departmental officers, with the warrant and 
non-commissioned officers employed under them; the supply 
depot with abattoir and bakery; the ordnance stores; barrack 
stores for furniture and bedding, shops and stores for R. E. 
services; the balloon establishment; the detention barracks; 
fire brigade stations; five churches; recreation grounds for 
officers and men; schools; and especially the military technical 
schools of army cooking, gymnastics, signalling, ballooning and 
of mounted infantry, Army Service Corps, Royal Army Medical 
Corps and veterinary duties. The work of these schools is, 
however, only a small part of the military training afforded at 
Aldershot; of greater importance is the field and musketry 
training, for the carrying out of which a considerable extent of 
land is essential. The land required for these purposes extends 
at present over an area about 91 m. in extreme length by 7! m. 
in extreme width. In addition to this there is the land at 
Sandhurst and the Staff College (Camberley) about 65 m. 
distant, and at Woolmer Forest, 12 m. distant. The musketry 
practice of the troops at Aldershot is carried out at the Ash 
ranges, 2 m. east of the barracks, while the Pirbright ranges, 
alongside those of the National Rifle Association at Bisley, are 
utilized by the Household Cavalry and Guards, who are en- 
camped there in succession. Suitable grounds in the vicinity 
of the barracks, of which Caesar's Camp, the Long Valley and 
Laffan's Plain are best known, are utilized for company, bat- 
talion and brigade training of infantry, while the mounted 
branches work over a wider area, and the engineers carry out 
their practices where most convenient. For the field-days of the 
combined arms, the whole of the war department property is 
available. Aldershot is the headquarters of the " Aldershot 
Army Corps," which is the largest organized force maintained 
in the United Kingdom. 

Besides the troops in barracks, during the drill season there 
is often a considerable force in camp, both regular troops 
from other stations and militia and volunteer unit's, so that, 
including the regular garrison, sometimes as many as 40,000 



ALDHELM 



535 



troops have been concentrated at the station for training and 
manoeuvres. 

ALDHELM (c. 640-709), bishop of Sherborne, English scholar, 
was born before the middle of the 7th century. He is said to 
have been the son of Kenten, who was of the royal house of 
Wessex, but who was certainly not, as Aldhelm's early biographer 
Faritius asserts, the brother of King Inc. He received his first 
education in the school of an Irish scholar and monk, Maildulf, 
Maeldubh or Meldun (d. c. 675), who had settled in the British 
stronghold of Bladon or Bladow on the site of the town called 
Mailduberi, Maldubesburg, Meldunesburg, &c., and finally 
Malmesbury, 1 after him. In 668 Pope Vitalian sent Theodore 
of Tarsus to be archbishop of Canterbury, and about the same 
time came the African scholar Hadrian, who became abbot of 
St Augustine's at Canterbury. Aldhelm was one of his disciples, 
for he addresses him as the " venerable preceptor of my rude 
childhood." He must, nevertheless, have been thirty years of 
age when he began to study with Hadrian. His studies included 
Roman law, astronomy, astrology, the art of reckoning and the 
difficulties of the calendar. He learned, according to the doubtful 
statements of the early lives, both Greek and Hebrew. He 
certainly introduces many Latinized Greek words into his works. 
Ill-health compelled him to leave Canterbury, and he returned 
to Malmesbury, where he was a monk under Maildulf for fourteen 
years, dating probably from 66 1, and including the period of 
his studies with Hadrian. When Maildulf died, Aldhelm was 
appointed in 675, according to a charter of doubtful authenticity 
cited by William of Malmesbury, by Leutherius, bishop of 
Dorchester from 671 to 676, to succeed to the direction of the 
monastery, of which he became the first abbot. He introduced 
the Benedictine rule, and secured the right of the election of 
the abbot to the monks themselves. The community at Malmes- 
bury increased, and Aldhelm was able to found two other 
monasteries to be centres of learning at Frome and at Bradford 
on Avon. The little church of St Lawrence at Bradford dates 
back to his time and may safely be regarded as his. At Malmes- 
bury he built a new church to replace Maildulf's modest building, 
and obtained considerable grants of land for the monastery. 
His fame as a scholar rapidly spread into other countries. Artwil, 
the son of an Irish king, submitted his writings for Aldhelm's 
approval, and Cellanus, an Irish monk from Peronne, was one 
of his correspondents. Aldhelm was the first Englishman, so 
far as we know, to write in Latin verse, and his letter to Acircius 
(Aldfrith or Eadfrith, king of Northumbria) is a treatise on 
Latin prosody for the use of his countrymen. In this work he 
included his most famous productions, 101 riddles in Latin 
hexameters. Each of them is a complete picture, and one of 
them runs to 83 lines. That his merits as a scholar were early 
recognized in his own country is shown by the encomium of Bede 
(Ecd. Hist. v. 1 8), who speaks of him as a wonder of erudition. 
His fame reached Italy, and at the request of Pope Sergius I. 
(687-701) he paid a visit to Rome, of which, however, there is 
no notice in his extant writings. On his return, bringing with 
him privileges for his monastery and a magnificent altar, he 
received a popular ovation. He was deputed by a synod of the 
church in Wessex to remonstrate with the Britons of Domnonia 
(Devon and Cornwall) on their differences from the Roman 
practice in the shape of the tonsure and the date of Easter. 
This he did in a long and rather acrimonious letter to their king 
Geraint (Geruntius), and their ultimate agreement with Rome 
is referred by William of Malmesbury to his efforts. In 705, or 
perhaps earlier, Haeddi, bishop of Winchester, died, and the 
diocese was divided into two parts. Sherborne was the new see, 
of which Aldhelm reluctantly became the first bishop. He 
wished to resign the abbey of Malmesbury which he had governed 
for thirty years, but yielding to the remonstrances of the monks 
he continued to direct it until his death. He was now an old man, 
but he showed great activity in his new functions. The cathedral 
church which he built at Sherborne, though replaced later by a 

1 For the disputed etymology of Malmesbury, which some connect 
with Aldhelm's name, see Bishop Browne, St Aldhelm: his Life and 
Times, p. 73. 



Norman church, is described by William of Malmesbury. He 
was on his rounds in his diocese when he died in the church of 
Doulting on the 25th of May 709. The body was taken to 
Malmesbury, and crosses were set up by the pious care of his 
friend, Bishop Ecgwine of Worcester, at the various halting- 
places. He was buried in the church of St Michael. His 
biographers relate miracles due to his sanctity worked during 
his lifetime and at his shrine. 

Aldhelm wrote poetry in Anglo-Saxon also, and set his own 
compositions to music, but' none of his songs, which were still 
popular in the time of Alfred, have come down to us. Finding 
his people slow to come to church, he is said to have stood at the 
end of a bridge singing songs in the vernacular, thus collecting 
a crowd to listen to exhortations on sacred subjects. Aldhelm 
wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent Latin, which soon came 
to be regarded as barbarous. Much admired as he was by his 
contemporaries, his fame as a scholar therefore soon declined, 
but his reputation as a pioneer in Latin scholarship in England 
and as a teacher remains. 

Aldhelm's works were collected in J. A. Giles's Patreseccl. Angl. 
(Oxford, 1844), and reprinted by J. P. Migne in his Patrologiae 
Cursus, vol. 89 (1850). The letter to Geraint, king of Domnonia, 
was supposed to have been destroyed by the Britons (W. of 
Malmesbury, Gesta Pontificum, p. 361), but was discovered with 
others of Aldhelm's in the correspondence of St Boniface, arch- 
bishop of Mainz. A long letter to Eahf rid, a scholar just returned 
from Ireland (first printed in Usserii Veterum Epistt. Hiber. 
Sylloge, 1632), is of interest as casting light on the relations 
between English and Irish scholars. Next to the riddles, 
Aldhelm's best-known work is De Laude Virginitatis sive de 
Virginitate Sanctorum, a Latin treatise addressed about 705 
to the nuns of Barking, 2 in which he commemorates a great 
number of saints. This was afterwards turned by Aldhelm into 
Latin verse (printed by Delrio, Mainz, 1601). The chief source 
of his Epistola ad Acircium sive liber de septenario, et de melris, 
aenigmatibus ac pedum regulis (ed. A. Mai, Class. Auct. vol. v.) 
is Priscian. For the riddles included in it, his model was the 
collection known as Symposii aenigmata. The acrostic intro- 
duction gives the sentence, " Aldhelmus cecinit millenis versibus 
odas," whether read from the initial or final letters of the lines. 
His Latin poems include one on the dedication of a basilica built 
by Bugge (or Eadburga), a royal lady of the house of Wessex. 

AUTHORITIES. Faritius (d. 1 1 1 7) , an Italian monk of Malmesbury, 
afterwards abbot of Abingdon, wrote aFito 5. Aldhelmi (MS. Cotton, 
Faustina, B. 4), printed by Giles and Migne, also in Original Lives of 
Anglo-Saxons (Caxton Soc., 1854) '< but the best authority is William 
of Malmesbury, who in the fifth book, devoted to St Aldhelm, of the 
Gesta Pontificum proposes to fill up the outline of Faritius, using the 
church records, the traditions of Aldhelm's miracles preserved by 
the monks of Malmesbury, and the lost " Handboc " or commonplace 
book of King Alfred. His narrative is divided into four parts : the 
birth and attainments of Aldhejm, the religious houses he had 
established and endowed, the miracles recorded of him, and the 
history of the abbey down to the writer's own time (see De Gestis 
Pontificum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, 1870, for the Rolls Series, 
PP- 33-443)- The life by John Capgrave in his Legenda Nova (1516) 
is chiefly an abridgment of Malmesbury's narrative. Consult also 
L. Bonhoff, Aldhelm von Malmesbury (Dresden, 1894) ; T. D. Hardy, 
Descriptive Catalogue (1862), vol. i. pp. 389-396; T. Wright, Biog. 
Brit. Lit. (A.-S. Period, 1842) ; G. F. Browne, bishop of Bristol, St 
Aldhelm; his Life and Times (1903); and W. B. Wildman, Life of 
S. Ealdhelm, first Bishop of Sherborne (1905), containing many 
interesting local details. For some poems attributed to Aldhelm, 
and printed in Diimmler's edition of the letters of St Boniface and 
Lul in Monumenta Germaniae Hislorica (epistt. torn, iii.), see H. 
Bradley in Eng. Hist. Review, xv. p. 291 (IQOO), where they are 
attributed to Aldhelm's disciple .<thilwald. The very varied sources 
and the chronology of Aldhelm's work are discussed in " Zu Aldhelm 
und Baeda," by Max Manitius, in Sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen 
Akad. der Wissenschajten (Vienna, 1886). 

An excellent account of his ecclesiastical importance is given by 
W. Bright in Chapters on Early English Church History (Oxford, 
1878). For his position as a writer of Latin verse consult A. Ebert, 
Allgemeine Geschichte d. Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande, 

1 Cuthburga, sister of King Ine of Wessex, and therefore related 
to Aldhelm, left her husband Aldfrith, king of Northumbria, to 
enter the nunnery at Barking. She afterwards founded the nunnery 
of Wimborne, of which she became abbess. 



ALDINE PRESS ALDRICH 



vol. i. new edition (1889); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich- 
lateinischen Poesie &c. (Stuttgart, 1891), pp. 487-496; also 
H. Hahn, Bonifaz und Lul ihre angelsachsischen Korrespondenten, 
chap. i. (Leipzig, 1883). The two last-named works contain many 
further bibliographical references. 

ALDINE PRESS, the printing office started by Aldus Manutius 
at the end of the isth century in Venice, from which were issued 
the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics of that time. 
(See MANUTITJS.) The Aldine Press is famous in the history of 
typography (<?..), among other things, for the introduction of 
italics. 

ALDINI, GIOVANNI (1762-1834), Italian physicist, born at 
Bologna on the loth of April 1762, was a brother of the statesman 
Count Antonio Aldini (1756-1826) and nephew of L. Galvani, 
whose treatise on muscular electricity he edited with notes in 
1791. He became professor of physics at Bologna in 1798, in 
succession to his teacher Sebastiano Canterzani (1734-1819). 
His scientific work was chiefly concerned with galvanism and 
its medical applications, with the construction and illumination 
of lighthouses, and with experiments for preserving human life 
and material objects from destruction by fire. He wrote in 
French and English in addition to his native Italian. In recogni- 
tion of his merits, the emperor of Austria made him a knight of 
the Iron Crown and a councillor of state at Milan, where he died 
on the 1 7th of January 1834. He left by will a considerable 
sum to found a school of natural science for artisans at Bologna. 

ALDRED, or EALDRED (d. 1069), English ecclesiastic, became 
abbot of Tavistock about 1027, in 1044 was made bishop of 
Worcester, and in 1060 archbishop of York. He had considerable 
influence over King Edward the Confessor, and as his interests 
were secular rather than religious he took a prominent part in 
affairs of state, and in 1046 led an unsuccessful expedition 
against the Welsh. In 1050 he was largely instrumental in 
restoring Sweyn, the son of Earl Godwin, to his earldom, and 
about the same time went to Rome " on the king's errand." In 
1054 he was sent to the emperor Henry III. to obtain that mon- 
arch's influence in securing the return to England of Edward, son 
of Edmund Ironside, who was in Hungary with King Andrew I. 
In this mission he was successful and obtained some insight into 
the working of the German church during a stay of a year with 
Hermann II. , archbishop of Cologne. After his return to England 
he took charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury, although 
not appointed to these bishoprics; and in 1058 made a pilgrimage 
to Jerusalem, being the first English bishop to take this journey. 
Having previously given up Hereford and Ramsbury, Aldred 
was elected archbishop of York in 1060, and in 1061 he proceeded 
to Rome to receive the pallium. On his arrival there, however, 
various charges were brought against him by a synod, and Pope 
Nicholas II. not only refused his request but degraded him 
from the episcopate. The sentence was, however, subsequently 
reversed, and Aldred received the pallium and was restored to 
his former station. It is stated by Florence of Worcester that 
Aldred crowned King Harold II. in 1066, although the Norman 
authorities mention Stigand as the officiating prelate. After 
the battle of Hastings Aldred joined the party who sought to 
bestow the throne upon Edgar the jEtheling, but when these 
efforts appeared hopeless he was among those who submitted to 
William the Conqueror at Berkhampstead. Selected to crown 
the new king he performed the ceremony on Christmas Day 
1066, and in 1068 performed the same office at the coronation of 
Matilda, the Conqueror's wife. But though often at court, he 
seems to have been no sympathiser with Norman oppression, 
and is even said to have bearded the king himself. He died at 
York on the nth of September 1069 and was buried in his own 
cathedral. Aldred did much for the restoration of discipline 
in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was 
liberal in his gifts for ecclesiastical purposes. He built the 
monastic church of St Peter at Gloucester, and rebuilt a large 
part of that of St John at Beverley. At his instigation, Folcard, 
a monk of Canterbury, wrote the Life of St John of Beverley. 

See The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 
1892-1899); Florence of Worcester, Chronicon ex Chronicis, edited 
by B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849); William of Malmesbury, De 



Gestis Pontificum Anglorum, edited by N. E. S. A. Hamilton (London, 
1870); W. H. Dixon, Fasti Eboracenses, vol. i., edited by J. Raine 
(London, 1863); T. Stubbs, Chronica Pontificum Ecclesiae Ebora- 
censis, edited by J. Raine (London, 1879-1894); E. A. Freeman, 
History of the Norman Conquest, vols. ii., hi., iv. (Oxford, 1867-1879). 

ALDRICH, HENRY (1647-1710), English theologian and 
philosopher, was born in 1647 at Westminster, and was educated 
at the collegiate school there, under Dr Busby. In 1662 he 
entered Christ Church, Oxford, and in 1689 was made dean in 
succession to the Roman Catholic, John Massey, who had fled 
to the continent. In 1692 he was vice-chancellor of the Uni- 
versity. In 1702 he was appointed rector of Wem in Shropshire, 
but continued to reside at Oxford, where he died on the i4th of 
December 1710. He was buried in the cathedral without any 
memorial at his own desire. Aldrich was a man of unusually 
varied gifts. A classical scholar of fair merits, he is best known 
as the author of a little book on logic (Compendium Artis Logicae), 
a work of little value in itself, but used at Oxford (in Mansel's 
revised edition) till long past the middle of the igth century. 
Aldrich also composed a number of anthems and church services 
of high merit, and adapted much of the music of Palestrina and 
Carissimi to English words with great skill and judgment. To 
him we owe the well-known catch, " Hark, the bonny Christ 
Church bells." Evidence of his skill as an architect may be 
seen in the church and campanile of All Saints, Oxford, and in 
three sides of the so-called Peckwater Quadrangle of Christ 
Church, which were erected after his designs. He bore a great 
reputation for conviviality, and wrote a humorous Latin version 
of the popular ballad 

A soldier and a sailor, 
A tinker and a tailor, &c. 

Another specimen of his wit is furnished by the following epigram 

of the five reasons for drinking: 

Si bene quid memini, causae sunt quinque bibendi; 
Hospitis adventus, praesens sitis atque futura, 
Aut vini bonitas, aut quaelibet altera causa. 

The translation runs: 

If on my theme I rightly think, 
There are five reasons why men drink: 
Good wine; a friend; because I'm dry; 
Or lest I should be by and by ; 
Or any other reason why. 

ALDRICH, NELSON WILMARTH (1841- ), American 
politician, was born at Foster, Rhode Island, on the 6th of 
November 1841. His first political service was as a member 
(1869-1875) and president (1871-1872) of the Providence 
common council. He was a member of the lower house of the 
Rhode Island legislature in 1875 and 1876, and speaker in the 
latter year. By this time he had become a power in Republican 
state politics, and in 1878 and 1880 was elected to Congress. 
Early in his second term he was chosen United States senator, 
and was re-elected in 1886, 1892, 1898 and 1905. In the Senate 
he was looked upon as the special representative of the high 
protective industries and moneyed interests, and he took a 
prominent part in all legislation dealing with the tariff, banking 
and the merchant marine. 

ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1907), American author, 
was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the nth of 
November 1836. When he was but a child his father moved to 
New Orleans, but after ten years the boy was sent back to 
Portsmouth the " Rivermouth " of several of his stories to 
prepare for college. This period of his life is partly described in 
his Story of a Bad Boy (1870), of which " Tom Bailey " is the 
juvenile hero. 1 His father's death in 1852 compelled Aldrich 
to abandon the idea of college and enter a business office in New 
York. Here he soon became a constant contributor to the news- 
papers and magazines, and the intimate friend of the young poets, 
artists and wits of the metropolitan Bohemia of the early 'sixties, 
among whom were E. C. Stedman, R. H. Stoddard, Bayard 
Taylor and Walt Whitman. From 1856 to 1859 he was on the 
staff of the Home Journal, then edited by N. P. Willis, while 

1 This book has been translated into French as Education et 
recreation, and into German as a specimen of American humour. 



ALDRINGER ALE 



537 



during the Civil War he was himself editor of the New York 
Illustrated News. In 1865 he moved to Boston and was editor 
for ten years for Ticknor and Fields then at the height of their 
prestige of the eclectic weekly Every Saturday, discontinued in 
1875. From 1881 to 1890 he was editor of the Atlantic Monthly. 
Meanwhile Aldrich had written much, both in prose and verse. 
His genius was many-sided, and it is surprising that so busy an 
editor and so prolific a writer should have attained the perfection 
of form for which he was remarkable. His successive volumes of 
verse, chiefly The Ballad of Babie Bell (1856), Pampinea, and 
Other Poems (1861), ClothofGold (187 4), Flower and Thorn(i&i6), 
Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book (1881), Mercedes and Later Lyrics 
(i8&3),Wyndham Towers (1889), and the collected editions of 1865, 
1882, 1897 and 1900, showed him to be a poet of lyrical skill, 
dainty touch and felicitous conceit, the influence of Herrick 
being constantly apparent. He repeatedly essayed the long 
narrative or dramatic poem, but seldom with success, save in 
such earlier work as Garnaut Hall. But no American poet has 
shown more skill in describing some single picture, mood, conceit 
or episode. His best things are such, lyrics as " Hesperides," 
" When the Sultan goes to Ispahan," " Before the Rain," "Name- 
less Pain," " The Tragedy," " Seadrift," " Tiger Lilies," " The 
One White Rose," " Palabras Carinosas," " Destiny," or the 
eight-line poem " Identity," which did more to spread Aldrich's 
reputation than any of his writing after Babie Bell. Begin- 
ning with the collection of stories entitled Marjorie Daw and 
Other People (1873), Aldrich applied to his later prose work that 
minute care in composition which had previously characterized 
his verse taking a near, new or salient situation, and setting it 
before the reader in a pretty combination of kindly realism and 
reticent humour. In the novels, Prudence Paljrey (1874), The 
Queen of Sheba (1877), and The Stillwater Tragedy (1880), there 
is more rapid action; but the Portsmouth pictures in, the first 
are elaborated with the affectionate touch shown in the shorter 
humourous tale, A Rivermouth Romance (1877). In An Old Town 
by the Sea (1893) the author's birthplace was once more com- 
memorated, while travel and description are the theme of From 
Ponkapog to Pesth (1883). Aldrich died at Boston on the igth of 
March 1907. 

His Life was written by Ferris Greenslet (1908). 

ALDRINGER (ALTRINGER, ALDRINGEN), JOHANN, COUNT 
VON (1588-1634), Austrian soldier, was born at Diedenhofen 
(Thionville) in Lorraine. After travelling as page to a nobleman 
in France, Italy and the Netherlands, he went to the university 
of Paris. In 1606 he entered the service of Spain, in which he 
remained until 1618, when he joined the imperial army. Here he 
distinguished himself in the field and in the cabinet. Made a 
colonel in 1622, two years later he was employed on the council 
of war and on diplomatic missions. At the bridge of Dessau in 
1626 he performed very distinguished service against Ernst von 
Mansfeld. He and his constant comrade Matthias Gallas (q.v.) 
were ennobled on the same day, and in the course of the Italian 
campaign of 1630 the two officers married the two daughters of 
Count d'Arco. Aldringer served as Count Rambold Collalto's 
major-general in this campaign and was present at the taking of 
Mantua. The plunder of the duke of Mantua's treasures made 
Gallas and Aldringer wealthy men. Back in Germany in 1631, 
he served after Breitenfeld as Tilly's artillery commander, and, 
elevated to the dignity of count of the Empire, he was present 
at the battle of the Lech, where he was wounded. When Tilly 
died of his wounds Aldringer succeeded to the command. Made 
field-marshal after the assault of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, 
at which he had been second in command under Wallenstein,' 
duke of Friedland (with whom he was a great favourite), he was 
next placed at the head of the corps formed by Maximilian I. 
of Bavaria to support Wallenstein. In this post his tact and 
diplomatic ability were put to a severe test in the preservation 
of harmony between the two dukes. Finally Count Aldringer 
was won over by the court party which sought to displace the 
too successful duke of Friedland. After Wallenstein's death 
Aldringer commanded against the Swedes on the Danube, and 
at the defence of Landshut he fell (July 22, 1634). His great 



possessions descended to his sister, and thence to the family of 
Clary and Aldringen. 

See Brohm, Johann von Aldringen (Halle, 1882), and Hermann 
Hallwich, Johann von Aldringen (Leipzig, 1885); also Allgemeine 
Deutsche Biographie, s.v. Gallas, correcting earlier biography of 
Aldringer in the same work. 

ALDROVANDI, ULISSI (1522-1605), Italian naturalist, was 
born of noble parentage at Bologna on the nth of September 
1522. He was apprenticed to a merchant in Brescia, but a 
commercial career being distasteful to him, he turned his atten- 
tion to law and medicine, studying first in his native town and 
afterwards at Padua. In 1550 he was accused of heresy, but 
succeeded in clearing himself before the Inquisition. In 1553 he 
took his doctor's degree in medicine at Bologna, and in the 
following year was appointed professor of philosophy and also 
lecturer on botany at the university. In 1560 he was transferred 
to the chair of natural history. At his instance the senate of 
Bologna established in 1568 a botanical garden, of which he was 
appointed the first director. About the same time he became 
inspector of drugs, and in that capacity published in 1 574 a work 
entitled Antidolarii Bononiensis Epitome, which formed the 
model for many subsequent pharmacopoeias. He was also 
instrumental in founding the public museum of Bologna, which 
contains, especially in the natural history department, a large 
number of specimens collected by him. The results of his various 
researches were embodied in a magnum opus, which was designed 
to include everything that was known about natural history. 
The first three volumes, comprising his ornithology, were pub- 
lished in 1599, and a fourth, treating of insects, appeared in 1602. 
After his death a number of other volumes were compiled from 
his manuscript materials, under the editorship of several of his 
pupils, to whom the task was entrusted by the senate of Bologna. 
The work was enriched by a large number of illustrations pre- 
pared at great expense, the author having, it is said, employed 
several celebrated artists for thirty years. Among these were 
Lorenzo Benini of Florence and Christopher Coriolanus of 
Nuremberg. It has been said, indeed, that the cost of the under- 
taking was so great as to exhaust its author's means, and that he 
died penniless and blind in the public hospital of Bologna. This, 
however, is probably incorrect, at least as regards the allegation 
of poverty. Published records of the senate of Bologna show that 
it liberally supported Aldrovandi in his undertaking, doubling his 
salary soon after his appointment as professor, and bestowing on 
him from time to time sums amounting in all to 40,000 crowns. 
If, therefore, he died in the public hospital, he probably went 
there for the better treatment of his disease. His death occurred 
on the toth of May 1 605 . Aldrovandi was chiefly remarkable for 
laborious and patient research. He seems to have been totally 
destitute of the critical faculty, and hardly any attempt is made 
in his great work to classify facts or to distinguish between the 
true and the fabulous, the important and the trivial. Much is 
thus included that is of no scientific vafue, but it also contains 
much information of very great interest to the naturalist. 

ALE, an old word for a fermented liquor obtained chiefly 
from malt. In England " ale " is nowadays practically synony- 
mous with " beer." Before the introduction of hops into 
England from Flanders in the i6th century ale was the name 
exclusively applied to malt liquor, the term beer being gradually 
introduced to describe liquor brewed with an infusion of hops. 
This distinction does not apply at the present time, except in 
so far as the term ale is not applied to black beers (stout and 
porter) nor to lager beer. In the United States, however, it is 
customary to confine the designation beer to the article obtained 
by the bottom fermentation process. In former times the Welsh 
and Scots had two distinct kinds of ale, called common and 
spiced ales, the relative values of which were appraised by law 
in the following terms: " If a farmer have no mead, he shall pay 
two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale, for one cask 
of mead." There are numerous varieties of English ales, such as 
mild ale, which is a full, sweetish beer, of a dark colour and with 
relatively little hop; pale ale, which is relatively dry, of light 
colour and of a more pronounced hop flavour than the mild ale; 



538 



ALEANDRO ALECSANDRI 



and bitter and stock ales, the latter term being generally reserved 
for superior beers, such as are used for bottling. The terms 
pale, bitter, stock, light, &c., are to be regarded as trade distinc- 
tions and not as exact definitions of quality or type. (See BEER 
and BREWING.) 

Parish Ales. In old England an " ale " was synonymous 
with a parish festival or merry-making at which ale was the 
chief drink. The word was generally used in composition. 
Thus there were leet-ales (that held on leet or manorial court 
day); lamb-ales (that held at lamb-shearing); Whitsun-ales, 
clerk-ales, church-ales and so on. The word bridal is really 
bride-ale, the wedding feast. Bid-ales, once very common 
throughout England, were " benefit " feasts to which a general 
invitation was given, and all the neighbours attending were 
expected to make some contribution to help the object of the 
"benefit." (See " Bidding- Weddings " under BRIDE.) These 
parish festivals were of much ecclesiastical and social importance 
in medieval England. The chief purpose of church-ales and 
clerk-ales, at least, was to facilitate the collection of parish-dues, 
or to make an actual profit for the church from the sale of the 
liquor by the church wardens. These profits kept the parish 
church in repair, or were distributed as alms to the poor. At 
Sygate, Norfolk, on the gallery of the church is inscribed 

God speed the plough 

And give us good ale enow . . . 

Be merry and glade, 

With good ale was this work made. 

On the beam of a screen in the church of Thorpe-le-Soken, 
Essex, is the following inscription in raised Gothic letters, on a 
scroll held by two angels " This cost is the bachelers made by 
ales thesn be ther med." The date is about 1480. The feast 
was usually held in a barn near the church or in the churchyard. 
In Tudor times church-ales were held on Sundays. Gradually 
the parish-ales were limited to the Whitsun season, and these 
still have local survivals. The colleges of the universities used 
formerly to brew their own ales and hold festivals known as 
college-ales. Some of these ales are still brewed and famous, 
like " chancellor " at Queen's College, and " archdeacon " at 
Merton College, Oxford, and " audit ale " at Trinity, Cambridge. 
See Brand's Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (Wm. Carew 
Hazlitt's edition, 1905) . 

ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO (HIERONYMUS ALEANDER) (1480- 
1542), Italian cardinal, was born at Motta, near Venice, on the 
I3th of February 1480. He studied at Venice, where he became 
acquainted with Erasmus and Aldus Manutius, and at an early 
age was reputed one of the most learned men of the time. In 
1508 he went to Paris on the invitation of Louis XII. as pro- 
fessor of belles leltres, and held for a time the position of rector 
in the university. Entering the service of Eberhard, prince- 
bishop of Liege, he was sent by that prelate on a mission to Rome, 
where Pope Leo X. retained him, giving him (1519) the office of 
librarian of the Vatican. In the following year he went to 
Germany to be present as papal nuncio at the coronation of 
Charles V., and was also present at the diet of Worms, where he 
headed the opposition to Luther, advocating the most extreme 
measures to repress the doctrines of the reformer. His conduct 
evoked the fiercest denunciations of Luther, but it also displeased 
more moderate men and especially Erasmus. The edict against 
the reformer, which was finally adopted by the emperor and the 
diet, was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro. After the close 
of the diet the papal nuncio went to the Netherlands, where he 
kindled the flames of persecution, two monks of Antwerp, the 
first martyrs of the Reformation, being burnt in Brussels at 
his instigation. In 1523 Clement VII., having appointed him 
archbishop of Brindisi and Oria, sent him as nuncio to the court 
of Francis I. He was taken prisoner along with that monarch 
at the battle of Pa via (1525), and was released only on payment 
of a heavy ransom. He was subsequently employed on various 
papal missions, especially to Germany, but was unsuccessful in 
preventing the German princes from making a truce with the 
reformers, or in checking to any extent the progress of the new 
doctrines. He was created cardinal in 1 536 by Paul III. (at the 



same time as Reginald Pole) and died at Rome on the ist of 
February 1542. 

Aleandro compiled a Lexicon Graeco-Lqtinum (Paris, 1512), and 
wrote Latin verse of considerable merit inserted in M. Tuscanus's 
Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italiorum. The Vatican library 
contains a volume of manuscript letters and other documents 
written by him in connexion with his various missions against 
Luther. They were utilized by Pallavicino in his Istoria del Concilia 
Tridentino (i. 23-28), who gives a very partial account of the Worms 
conference. 

Aleandro, who is sometimes called "the elder," must be distin- 
guished from his grand-nephew, also called Girolamp Aleandro 
(1574-1629). The younger Aleandro was a very distinguished 
scholar, and wrote Psalmi poenitentiales versibus elegiacis expressi 
(Treves, 1593), Gaii, veteris juris consulti Institutionum fragmenta, 
cum commentario (Venice, 1600), Explicatio veteris tabulae marmorcae 
solis effigie symbolisque exculptae (Rome, 1616). 

ALEARDI, ALEARDO, COUNT (1812-1878), Italian poet, 
was born at Verona on the 4th of November 1812, and thus soon 
after his birth became an Austrian subject. Inspired from his 
cradle with a hatred of the foreigner, he found himself disqualified 
for the position in the public service to which his rank would 
have entitled him, and unable to publish his patriotic verses. 
Arnaldo da Rocca, a narrative poem, nevertheless appeared in 
1842, and the revolutionary year 1848 made an opening for his 
Lettere a Maria. He took an active part in the popular uprising, 
and was for some time imprisoned. In 1856 he produced the 
finest of his pieces, an ode to the maritime cities of Italy, and in 
1858 a poem on his own misfortunes. After the expulsion of 
the Austrians from Lombardy he returned to Verona, published 
his poems in a collected edition (1862), became professor at the 
Academy of Fine Art, member of the Italian parliament and 
eventually senator. Hediedon the I7thof July 1878. Aleardi's 
warmth of patriotic feeling hardly finds adequate expression in 
his poetry; it is his merit to excel in description, but his fault to 
substitute description for action. 

ALE-CONNER, an officer appointed yearly at the court-leet of 
ancient English manors for the assize of ale and ale-measures. 
The gustalores cervisiae called in different localities by the 
different names " ale-tasters," " ale-founders," and " ale- 
conners "were sworn to examine beer and ale, to take care that 
they were good and wholesome and were sold at proper prices. 
In London four ale-conners, whose duty it is to examine the 
measures used by beer and liquor sellers to guard against 
fraud, are still chosen annually by the liverymen in common 
hall assembled on Midsummer Day. Since ale and beer have 
become excisable commodities the custom of appointing 
ale-tasters has in most places fallen into disuse. (See also 
ADULTERATION.) 

ALECSANDRI, or ALEXANDRI, VASILE (1821-1890), Rumanian 
lyric poet, was born at Bacau in Moldavia on the 2ist of July 
1821. His father was the Spatar Alecsandri, of Jewish and 
Italian origin, who had settled in Moldavia in the i8th century. 
Vasile was educated first in Jassy and afterwards (1834-1839) 
in Paris. In 1839 he started on a long journey through the 
Carpathian Mountains, and was the first to collect Rumanian 
popular songs, no doubt influenced by Western examples. He 
first published his collection in 1844. His Doine $i Lacrimioare, 
lyrical poems, appeared at Paris in 1852, and in 1852-1853 he 
produced at Jassy a fuller collection of popular ballads and songs. 
He then adapted some French plays for the newly founded 
Rumanian theatre, and wrote some original pieces. His con- 
nexion with the revolutionary movement of 1848 compelled him 
to seek shelter in the west of Europe, and he visited England, 
where a beautifully illuminated edition of his poems was printed 
in the original Rumanian language. In 1867 he published some 
fugitive pieces, written in a lighter vein, and entitled Pastcle; 
these were followed in 1871 by the Legende of similar character. 
More serious are his dramatic writings which began with Despot 
Voda and culminated in Ovid. In later life Alecsandri took an 
active part in politics; he became minister for foreign affairs 
from 1859 to 1860, and in 1885 was appointed Rumanian minister 
in Paris. He died on the 26th of August 1890 at his country 
seat, Mirceti. His best title to fame consists in the fact that he 



ALEMAN ALEMBERT 



539 



gave the first impetus to the collection of Rumanian popular 
songs and first drew attention to their inimitable charm. 

See L. Sainsanu, Autorii Romdni moderni (1891), pp. 90 and 318. 
A complete edition of Alecsandri's writings in nine volumes was 
published at Bucharest in 1875 seq. (M. G.) 

ALEMAN, LOUIS (c. 1390-1450), French cardinal, was born of 
a noble family at the castle of Arbent near Bugey about the year 
1390. He was successively bishop of Maguelonne (1418), arch- 
bishop of Aries (1423) and cardinal priest of St Cecilia (1426). He 
was a prominent member of the council of Basel, and, together 
with Cardinal Julian, led the party which maintained the 
supremacy of general councils over the pope's authority. In 
1440 Aleman obtained the support of the emperor Sigismund 
and of the duke of Milan to his views, and proclaiming the 
deposition of Pope Eugenius IV., placed the tiara upon the head 
of Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy (henceforward known as 
antipope Felix V.). Eugenius retorted by excommunicating 
the antipope and depriving Aleman of all his ecclesiastical 
dignities. In order to make an end of the schism, Felix V. finally 
abdicated on Aleman's advice, and Nicholas V. , who had succeeded 
in 1447, restored the cardinal to all his honours and employed 
him as legate to Germany in 1449. On his return he retired to 
his diocese of Aries, where he devoted himself zealously to the 
instruction of his people. He died on the i6th of September 1450, 
and was beatified by Pope Clement VII. in 1527. 

See U. Chevalier, Repert. des sources hist. (Paris, 1905), p. 130. 

ALEMAN, MATED (1547-1609?), Spanish novelist and man 
of letters, was born at Seville in 1547. He graduated at Seville 
University in 1564, studied later at Salamanca and Alcala, and 
from 1571 to 1588 held a post in the treasury; in 1594 he was 
arrested on suspicion of malversation, but was speedily released. 
In 1599 he published the first part of Guzman de Alfarache, a 
celebrated picaresque novel which passed through not less than 
sixteen editions in five years; a spurious sequel was issued in 
1602, but the authentic continuation did not appear till 1604. 
In 1608 Aleman emigrated to America, and is said to have carried 
on business as a printer in Mexico; his Ortografia castellana 
(1609), published in that city, contains ingenious and practical 
proposals for the reform of Spanish spelling. Nothing is recorded 
of Aleman after 1609, but it is sometimes asserted that he was 
still living in 1617. He married, unhappily, Catalina de Es- 
pinosa in 1571, and was constantly in money difficulties, being 
imprisoned for debt at Seville at the end of 1602. He is the 
author of a life (1604) of St Antony of Padua, and versions of 
two odes of Horace bear witness to his taste and metrical accom- 
plishment. His chief title to remembrance, however, is 
Guzmdn de Alfarache, which was translated into French in 
1600, into English in 1623 and into Latin in 1623. 

See J. Hazanas y la Rua, Discursos leidos en la Real Academia 
Sevillana de Buenas letras el 25 de marzo de 1892 (Sevilla, 1892); J. 
Gestoso y Perez, Nuevos datos para^ilustrar las biografias del Maestro 
Juan de Malara y de Mateo Aleman (Sevilla, 1896). (J. F.-K.) 

ALEMBERT, JEAN LE BOND D* (1717-1783), French mathe- 
matician and philosopher, was born at Paris in November 1717. 
He was a foundling, having been exposed near the church of 
St Jean le Rond, Paris, where he was discovered on the i7th of 
November. It afterwards became known that he was the 
illegitimate son of the chevalier Destouches and Madame de 
Tencin. The infant was entrusted to the wife of a glazier named 
Rousseau who lived close by. He was called Jean le Rond from 
the church near which he was found; the surname Alembert 
was added by himself at a later period. His father, without 
disclosing himself, having settled an annuity on him, he was 
sent at four years of age to a boarding-school. In 1 730 he entered 
the Mazarin College under the Jansenists, who soon perceived 
his exceptional talent, and, prompted perhaps by a commentary 
on the Epistle to the Romans which he produced in the first year 
of his philosophical course, sought to direct it to theology. His 
knowledge of the higher mathematics was acquired by his own 
unaided efforts after he had left the college. This fact naturally 
led to his crediting himself with many discoveries which he after- 
wards found had been already established, often by more direct 
and elegant processes than his own. 



On leaving college he returned to the house of his foster-mother, 
where he continued to live for thirty years. Having studied 
law, he was admitted as an advocate in 1738, but did not enter 
upon practice. He next devoted himself to medicine, but his 
natural inclination proved too strong for him, and within a year 
he resolved to give his whole time to mathematics. In 1741 he 
received his first public distinction in being admitted a member 
of the Academy of Sciences, to which he had previously presented 
several papers, including a Memoire sur le calcul integral (1739). 
In his Memoire sur le refraction des corps solides (1741) he was 
the first to give a theoretical explanation of the phenomenon 
which is witnessed when a body passes from one fluid to another 
more dense in a direction not perpendicular to the surface which 
separates the two fluids. In 1743 he published his Traile de 
dynamique, a work famous as developing the mechanical principle, 
known as "Alembert's Principle," first enunciated in 1742 (see 
MECHANICS). In 1744 Alembert applied this principle to the 
theory of the equilibrium and the motion of fluids ( Traitt de 
I'equilibre et du mouvement desfluides), and all the problems before 
solved by geometricians became in some measure its corollaries. 
This discovery was followed by that of the calculus of partial 
differences, the first trials of which were published in his Reflexion 
sur la cause generale des vents (1747). This work was crowned 
by the Academy of Berlin, and was dedicated to Frederick the 
Great, who made several unsuccessful attempts to induce him 
to settle in Berlin. In 1763 he visited Berlin, and on that occasion 
finally refused the office of president of the Academy of Berlin, 
which had been already offered to him more than once. In 1747 
he applied his new calculus to the problem of vibrating chords, 
the solution of which, as well as the theory of the oscillation of 
the air and the propagation of sound, had been given but in- 
completely by the geometricians who preceded him. In 1749 he 
furnished a method of applying his principles to the motion of 
any body of a given figure; and in 1754 he solved the problem 
of the precession of the equinoxes, determined its quantity and 
explained the phenomenon of the nutation of the earth's axis. 
In 1752 he published an Essai d'une nouvelle theorie sur la re- 
sistance des fluides, which contains a large number of original ideas 
and new observations. In 1746 and 1748 he published in the 
Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin " Recherches sur le calcul 
integral," a branch of mathematical science which is greatly in- 
debted to him. In his Recherches sur differents points importants 
du systeme du monde (1754-1756) he perfected the solution of 
the problem of the perturbations of the planets, which he had 
presented to the academy some years before. 

Alembert's association with Diderot in the preparation 
of the Diclionnaire Encyclopedique led him to take a somewhat 
wider range than that to which he had previously confined 
himself. He wrote for that work the Discours preliminaire on 
the rise, progress and affinities of the various sciences, which he 
read to the French Academy on the day of his admission as a 
member, the i8th of December 1754. He also wrote several 
literary articles for the first two volumes of the Encyclopaedia, 
and to the remaining volumes he contributed mathematical 
articles chiefly. One of the few exceptions was the article on 
" Geneva," which involved him in a somewhat keen controversy 
in regard to Calvinism and the suppression of theatrical perform- 
ances within the town. During the time he was engaged on the 
Encyclopaedia he wrote a number of literary and philosophical 
works which extended his reputation and also exposed him to 
criticism and controversy, as in the case of his Melanges de 
Philosophie, d'Histoire, et de Literature. His Essai sur la societe 
des gens de lettres msec les grands was a worthy vindication of the 
independence of literary men, and a thorough exposure of the 
evils of the system of patronage. He broke new ground and 
showed great skill as a translator in his Traduction de quelques 
morceaux choisis de Tacite. One of his most important works 
was the Elements de Philosophie published in 1759, in which 
he discussed the principles and methods of the different sciences. 
He maintained that the laws of motion were necessary, not 
contingent. A treatise, Sur la destruction des Jesuites (1765), 
involved him in a fresh controversy, his own share in which was 



540 



ALEMBIC ALENCON 



rendered very easy by the violence and extravagance of his 
adversaries. The list of his more noteworthy literary works is 
completed by the mention of the Histoire des membres de 
I' Academic franc,aise, containing biographical notices of all the 
members of the Academy who died between 1700 and 1772, the 
year in which he himself became secretary. Alembert was 
much interested in music both as a science and as an art, anc 
wrote Elements de musique theorique et pratique (1779), which 
was based upon the system of J. P. Rameau with important 
modifications and differences. 

Alembert 's fame spread rapidly throughout Europe and 
procured for him more than one opportunity of quitting the 
comparative retirement in which he lived in Paris for more 
lucrative and prominent positions. The offer of Frederick the 
Great has already been mentioned. In 1762 he was invited by 
Catherine of Russia to become tutor to her son at a yearly salary 
of 100,000 francs. On his refusal the offer was repeated with 
the additional inducement of accommodation for as many of his 
friends as he chose to bring with him to the Russian capital. 
Alembert persisted in his refusal, and the letter of Catherine 
was ordered to be engrossed in the minutes of the French 
Academy. In 1755, on the recommendation of Pope Benedict 
XIV., he was admitted a member of the Institute of Bologna. 
A legacy of 200 from David Hume showed the esteem in which 
he was held by that philosopher. 

Alembert continued to the end to lead the quiet and frugal 
life dictated by his limited means as well as his simple tastes. 
His later years were saddened by circumstances connected with 
a romantic attachment he had formed for Mademoiselle de 
Lespinasse, whose acquaintance he made at the house of Madame 
du Deffand, a noted resort of literary men and savants. She 
nursed him assiduously during an illness he had in 1765, and 
from that period till her death in 1776 they lived in the same 
house without any scandal. On her part there seems to have 
been from first to last nothing more than warm friendship, but 
his feelings towards her were of a stronger kind and her death 
deeply affected him. He never recovered his elasticity of spirits, 
though he continued to occupy himself with his favourite pursuits, 
and to frequent the society of his brother philosophers. After 
the death of Voltaire (1778), whose friend and correspondent 
he had been for more than thirty years, he was regarded as the 
leader of the philosophical party in the Academy. He died at 
Paris on the 2gth of October 1783. 

The chief features of Alembert's character were benevolence, 
simplicity and independence. Though his income was never 
large, and during the greater part of his life was very meagre, 
he contrived to find means to support his foster-mother in her 
old age, to educate the children of his first teacher, and to help 
various deserving students during their college career. His 
cheerful conversation, his smart and lively sallies, a singular 
mixture of malice of speech with goodness of heart, and of 
delicacy of wit with simplicity of manners, rendered him a 
pleasing and interesting companion; and if his manner was 
sometimes plain almost to the extent of rudeness, it probably 
set all the better an example of a much-needed reform to the 
class to which he belonged. The controversy as to the nature 
of his religious opinions, arising as it did chiefly out of his con- 
nexion with the Encyclopaedia, has no longer any living interest 
now that the Encyclopaedists generally have ceased to be 
regarded with unqualified suspicion by those who count them- 
selves orthodox. It is to be observed, moreover, thai as 
Alembert confined himself chiefly to mathematical articles, 
his work laid him less open to charges of heresy and infidelity 
than that of some of his associates. The fullest revelation of 
his religious convictions is given in his correspondence with 
Voltaire, which was published along with that with Frederick 
the Great in Bossange's edition of his works. 

The scientific works of Alembert have never been published in 
a collected form. The most important of them have been mentioned 
above, with the exception of the Opuscules mathemaliques (1761- 
1780), 8 vols. 410. His literary and philosophical works were 
collected and edited by Bastien (Paris, 1805, 18 vols. 8vo). A better 
edition by Bossange was published at Paris in 1821 (5 vols. 8vo). 



The best account of the life and writings of Alembert is contained 
in Condorcet's Eloge, presented to the Academy and published in 
1784. 

ALEMBIC (Arab, al, definite article, anbiq, a still; cognate to 
the Gr. a;u/3i, a cup), an apparatus for distillation, used chiefly 
by the alchemists, and now superseded by the retort and the 
worm-still. It varied considerably in form and construction, but 
consisted essentially of three parts a vessel containing the 
material to be distilled and called, from its gourd-like shape, the 
cucurbit or mattrass; a vessel to receive and condense the 
vapour, called the head or capital; and a receiver for the spirit, 
connected by a pipe with the capital. The entire apparatus was 
sometimes constructed of glass, but it was more usual to make the 
cucurbit of copper or earthenware, and the capital alone of glass. 

ALEMTEJO (i.e. " Beyond the Tagus "), an ancient province 
of central and southern Portugal; bounded on the N. by Beira, 
E. by Spanish Estremadura and Andalusia, S. .by Algarve and 
W. by the Atlantic Ocean and Portuguese Estremadura. Pop. 
(1900) 416,105; area 9219 sq. m. Alemtejo is traversed by 
several mountain ranges, whose height does not generally rise 
much above 2000 ft. The low and sandy coast has a length of 
less than 25 m. and includes no harbour, except at the unim- 
portant town of Villa Nova de Milfontes (pop. 1900, 825), which 
overlooks the Mira estuary. The principal rivers are the Tagus, 
which divides Alemtejo from Beira; its tributary the Zatas, or 
Sorraia, fed by a whole system of lesser affluents; the Guadiana, 
which, crossing the Spanish frontier, flows southwards through 
the province; the Sado, which rises in the Serra de Monchique, 
and flows to the north; and the Mira, which waters the valley 
between the Caldeirao and Monchique ranges. There are several 
extensive plains, notably those of Alemtejo, lying south-west of 
the Serra de Portalegre; of Beja, between the Sado and Guadiana; 
and of Ourique, farther south between the same rivers. Some 
portions of these plains are fruitful, others marshy, while large 
tracts are mere desolate wastes. 

The climate in the lower parts of the country is exceedingly hot 
and is rendered unhealthy in summer by the stagnant marshes. 
Towards the Spanish frontier the soil is fertile, and in the south 
the country is covered by extensive forests of oak, pine, chestnut, 
cork and ilex, especially on the sides of the Mezquita and 
Caldeirao ranges. In the more fertile parts, grapes, figs, citrons, 
pomegranates and other fruits are produced. Wheat, maize 
and rice are grown, and some attention is given to the rearing of 
mules, asses, goats, cattle and sheep; while the Alter breed of 
iorses, named after the villages of Alter do Chao and Alter 
Pedroso (3971), near Portalegre, is often accounted the best in 
the kingdom. Agriculture, however, is in a backward state, the 
sparse population being mostly concentrated in the towns, leaving 
extensive districts uncultivated and almost uninhabited. Droves 
of swine are fed on the waste lands, growing to a great size and 
affording excellent hams. The mineral wealth of Alemtejo is 
ittle exploited, although there are copper and iron mines and 
marble quarries. Medicinal springs exist at Aljustrel (3790), 
Castello de Vide (5192), Mertola (3873), Portalegre, Vimieiro 
(1838) and elsewhere. Chief among the local industries are the 
jreparation of exceptionally fine olive oil, and the manufacture 
of cloth, pottery and leather. Alemtejo is traversed by three 
very important main lines of railway, the Madrid-Caceres-Lisbon, 
Vladrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Lisbon-Faro; while the two last 
are connected by a branch line from Casa Branca to Evora and 
Slvas. For administrative purposes the province is divided into 
he districts of Portalegre in the north, Evora in the central 
region and Beja in the south; but the titles of these new 
districts have not superseded the ancient name of Alemtejo in 
ordinary usage. The chief towns Beja (8885), Elvas (13,981), 
Estremoz (7920), Evora (16,020) and Portalegre (11,820) are 
described in separate articles. 

ALEN$ON, COUNTS AND DUKES OF. The first line of the 

counts of Alencon was founded by Yves, lord of Bellesme, who in 

he middle of the loth century possessed and fortified the town 

>f Alencon. His successors, involved in all the wars of the 

tings of England in Normandy, were alternately deprived and 



ALENgON ALEPPO 



repossessed of their domains, according to the fluctuations of 
fortune between the rival parties. Mabille, countess of Alencon 
and heiress of this family (d. 1082), married Roger of Montgomery, 
and from them descended a second house of Alencon which 
became extinct in the person of Robert IV. ; the county of Alencon 
was then joined to the royal domain. It was successively granted 
as an appanage to Peter, son of St Louis (1268), and to Charles, 
count of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair (1293). The third 
house of Alencon sprang from Charles, second son of the count 
of Valois, who was killed at the battle of Cr6cy in 1346. 
The countship of Alencon was raised to a peerage in 1367 
and into a dukedom in 1414. John, ist duke of Alencon, was 
killed at Agincourt on the 25th of October 1415, after having 
with his own hand slain the duke of York. His son, also named 
John, was dispossessed of his duchy by the king of England, but. 
reconquered it in 1449. In 1524 the dukedom of Alengon 
reverted to the crown, in consequence of the death of the duke 
Charles IV. without issue of his marriage with Margaret, sister 
of Francis I. It was given as a jointure to Catherine de'Medici in 
1559, and as an appanage to her son Francis in 1566. It was 
pawned by Henry IV. to the duke of Wurttemberg, and sub- 
sequently it passed to Gaston, duke of Orleans, by grant of 
Louis XIII.; to Elizabeth of Orleans, duchess of Guise; to 
Charles, duke of Berry, grandson of Louis XIV. (1710); and to 
Monsieur (Louis XVIII.), brother of Louis XVI. 

The title of due d'Alencon was given to Ferdinand of 
Orleans, son of the due de Nemours, and grandson of Louis- 
Philippe. (M. P.*) 

ALENQON, a town of north-western France, capital of the 
department of Orne, 36 m. N. of Le Mans on a branch line of 
the Western railway. Pop (1906) 14,378. Alencon, a clean, 
regularly built town with broad handsome streets, is situated in 
a wide and fertile plain, on the Sarthe at its confluence with the 
Briante. The only remains of the ancient castle of Alengon are 
two towers of the i$th century, which serve as a prison, and a 
third of the i4th century known as the Tour Couronnee, to which 
they are united. Notre-Dame, the chief church, dates from the 
iSth century. It is remarkable for a porch ornamented in the 
richest Gothic style, and for its stained windows of the i6th 
century. Alencon has a large circular corn-market and a cloth- 
market. The manufacture of the point d' Alenqon lace has greatly 
diminished. The weaving and bleaching of cloth, which is of less 
importance than formerly, the manufacture of vehicles, and 
tanning are carried on; there is a large trade in the horses of the 
district, and granite is worked in the neighbourhood. Alencon 
is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes. It has tribunals 
of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, 
a lycee, training-colleges and a chamber of arts and manu- 
factures. 

ALENIO, GIULIO (1582-1649), Italian Jesuit missionary, 
was born at Brescia. He entered the Society of Jesus and was 
sent to the East. He landed at Macao in 1610, and while 
waiting a favourable opportunity to penetrate into China 
busied himself for three years in teaching mathematics. His 
thirty years' residence in China was marked by unceasing zeal 
and considerable success. He adopted the dress and manners 
of the country, was the first Christian missionary in Kiang-si, 
and built several churches in Fo-Kien. He wrote in Chinese a 
Life of Christ (Pekin, 1635-1637, 8 vols.; often reprinted, e.g. 
in 1887 in 3 vols., and used even by Protestant missionaries) 
and a cosmography (Iche fang wai ki Hang-chow, 1623, 6 vols.), 
which was translated into Manchu under the title The True 
Origin of 10,000 Things, a copy of which was sent from Pekin 
to Paris in 1789. Alenio died at Fu-chow in 1649. 

For bibliography see de Backer and Sommervogel, Bibl. de la Cie. 
de Jesus, i. 158-160. 

ALEPPO (native Haleb). (i) A vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, 
comprising N. Syria and N.W.Mesopotamia, with an extension 
N. of Taurus to the neighbourhood of Gorun. It comprises 
three sanjaks, Aleppo, Marash and Urfa. About half is moun- 
tain, but there are fertile plains of great extent N. of Antakia, 
S. of Marash and around the city of Aleppo (see below). The 



only seaport of importance is Alexandretta (<?..). The exports 
are, on the average, over one million sterling, and imports about 
double in value. The settled population is barely a million; 
but there is a considerable unsettled element in the S.E. which 
cannot well be estimated. The Christians, mainly Jacobite 
Syrian, but including also Armenians of several denominations 
(e.g. those of Marash and Zeitun), Maronites and Greeks, form 
about one-fifth. There are some 20,000 Jews, resident chiefly 
in the provincial capital; and of the Moslem majority the bulk 
is Arab, Turkoman and Ansarieh. In the N.W. and N. is a 
considerable Kurdish population. 

(2) The provincial capital (anc. Khalep; Gr. Chalybon- 
Beroea) , situated on a plateau in the valley of the Kuwaik (anc. 
Chalus) about 10 m. above its dissipation in the great salt-marsh 
of Matkh. Pop. about 130,000, three-quarters Moslem. Aleppo 
is about midway between the sea and the Euphrates, a little 
nearer the latter. 

The modern city stands on both banks of the Kuwaik, and 
the older portions are contained within a Saracenic wall, 3^ 
m. in circuit with seven gates. The European residents and 
Christians live outside in the Kitab and new Azizieh quarters, 
and the Jews in that of Bahsita. A modern citadel occupies 
the N.W., the medieval castle on its mound (partly artificial 
and not a strong position, according to Istakhri) being almost 
deserted but still forbidden to visitors. There are two mosques 
of special interest the Umawi (or Zakaria) on the site of a 
church ascribed to the empress Helena and containing a tomb 
reputed to be that of the Baptist's father, and the Kakun. 
Many minor ones serve the needs of a population traditionally 
fanatical. Gardens extend for miles along the river, and the 
bazaars and khans are unusually large. The climate is cold, 
dry and healthy, despite the prevalence of the famous " Aleppo 
button," a swelling which appears either on the face or on the 
hands, and breaks into an ulcer which lasts a year and leaves a 
permanent scar. It has been ascribed to a fly, to the water and 
to other causes; but it is not peculiar to Aleppo, being rife also 
at Aintab, Bagdad, &c. 

The attempt made by the British Euphrates expedition in 
1841 to connect Aleppo with the sea by steamer through the 
nearest point on the Euphrates, Meskine, failed owing to the 
obstructed state of the stream and the insecurity of the riparian 
districts. The latter drawback has been minimized by the 
continued success of the Aleppo administration in inducing the 
Anazeh Bedouins to become fellahin; but river traffic has not 
been resumed. A railway, however, connects southward with the 
Beirut-Damascus line at Rayak. Aleppo is an important consular 
station for all European powers, the residence of the Greek 
and Armenian Patriarchs of Antioch, and of Jacobite and 
Maronite bishops, and a station of Roman Catholic and Protestant 
missions. It is the emporium of N. Syria, and manufactures 
textiles in silk, cotton and wool, carpets and leather commodities, 
besides being the centre of a large district growing cereals, 
pistachios and fruit. The Turks regard it as one of the strong- 
holds of their dominion and faith, and a future capital of their 
empire should they be forced into Asia. As a centre from 
which good natural roads lead N.,N.E.,W. and S., Aleppo would 
make a good capital. 

History and Remains. The site lies high (1400 ft.) on eight 
hillocks in a fertile oasis plain, beyond which stretch on the S. 
and S.E. grassy steppes merging ere long into desert, and on 
the other quarters rather sterile downs. It has superseded 
Antioch as the economic centre of N. Syria, and Palmyra as the 
great road-station for eastern caravans. But it is rather a 
revived than a new capital; Khalep was a very ancient Syrian 
and probably "Hittite" city of importance, known from 
Babylonian, Assyrian and Egyptian records. Seleucus Nicator 
gave it a Macedonian name, Beroea; but Chalcis, some distance 
S., was the capital of the province, Chalcidice (later, Kinnasrin), 
in which it lay, and the centre of that hellenized region, now a 
vast field of ruins, which stretches W. to the Orontes. Khalep- 
Beroea, we may infer, remained a native town and a focus of 
Aramaic influence, a fact which will explain the speedy oblivion 



542 



ALES 



of its Macedonian name and the permanent revival of its ancient 
title, even by Greeks. 

As Beroea we hear of the place in Seleucid wars and dissensions. 
There Menelaus, the fomenter of war with the Asmoneans, was 
put to death by Lysias in 164 B. c., " as the manner is in that 
place " (Mace. ii. 13. 4), being thrown into a lofty tower full of 
cinders. There Heracleon, the court favourite and murderer of 
Antiochus Grypus, was born and made himself a principality 
(96 B.C.); and there the son of the latter king besieged his 
brother Philip in the last struggle for the heritage of Seleucus. 
As Chalybon, the town is called by Ptolemy head of a district, 
Chalybonitis; but we continue to hear of it as Beroea up to the 
Arab conquest, e.g. in the history of Julian's eastward march 
in A.D. 363, and in that of the Persian raid of 540. It was 
occupied in 611 by Chosroes II. Overwhelmed by the Saracen 
flood in A.D. 638, Beroea disappears, and as Moslem society 
settles down Halep emerges again as the great gathering-place 
of caravans passing from Asia Minor and Syria to Mesopotamia, 
Bagdad and the Persian and Indian kingdoms. Like Antioch it 
suffered from earthquakes, and late in the i2th century, after a 
terrible shock, had to be rebuilt by Nur ed-Din. But neither 
earthquakes nor the plague, to which it was also peculiarly 
liable, could divert trade and prosperity from it. It belonged 
to the Eastern Caliphate (the Hamdanids) until temporarily 
reoccupied by John Zimisces, emperor of Byzantium and a 
native of neighbouring Hierapolis (<?.?'.) , A.D. 974, after an 
abortive attempt by Nicephorus thirteen years earlier. Thirteen 
years later it recognized and received the Fatimites, and passed 
under various Moslem dynasties, forming part of the Seljuk 
dominion from 1090 to 1117. The crusading princes of Antioch 
never held the place, though they attacked it in 1124; and 
Saladin, who took it in 1183, made it a stronghold against them 
and the northern capital of himself and his successors until the 
Tatar invasion of 1260. Thereafter the Mamelukes took and 
kept possession, despite the renewed Tatar inroad of 1401, until 
the final conquest by the Ottomans in 1517. Under the strong 
hand of the latter the trade of Aleppo with the East revived. 
One of the first provincial factories and consulates of the British 
Turkey (Levant) Company was established there in the reign of 
James I.; and a British agent had been in residence there even 
in Elizabeth's time. As the eastern outpost of the company's 
operations, it was connected with the western outpost of the 
East India Company in Bagdad by a private postal service, 
and its name became very familiar in England from the part 
that its merchants (largely Jewish) bore in the transmission of 
Eastern products to Europe (cf., e.g. Shakespeare, Macb. i. 3. 7; 
Oth. v. 2. 352). Through it passed the silks of Bambyce, called 
bombazines, the light textiles of Mosul (mosulines muslins) 
and many other commodities for the wealthy and luxurious. 
The first blow was struck at this trade by the discovery of the 
Cape route to India; the second by the opening of a land route 
through Egypt to the Red Sea; the third and final one by the 
making of the Suez Canal. Long ere this last event, however, 
Aleppo had been declining from internal causes. In the latter 
part of the i8th century and the first years of the iQth it was 
constantly the scene of bloody dissensions between two rival 
parties, one led by the local janissaries, the other by the sherifs 
(religious); and the Ottoman governors took the side, now of 
one, now of the other, in order to plunder a distracted city, too 
far removed from the centre to be controlled by the sultans, and 
too near the rebellious pashalik of Acre and the unsettled district 
of Lebanon not to be affected by the disorders natural to a 
frontier province. This state of things led to the suspension 
of the British consulate by the Turkey Company in 1791; and 
it was not revived till 1800, after which date till 1825 it was 
maintained jointly by the East India Company. In 1803 Jezzar 
of Acre advanced as near as Hamah; but his death occurred 
in the following year; and after a sanguinary rising in 1805, 
Aleppo settled down, but was not at peace, even after a local 
janissary massacre in 1814, till Mahmud II. had dealt finally 
with the corps at headquarters (1826). Meanwhile there had 
been a frightful earthquake in 1822, and a visitation of cholera 



in the following year. More cholera in 1827 and 1832 and 
another earthquake in 1830 had left the place a wreck, with 
only half its former population, when Mehemet Ali of Cairo 
invaded and took Syria. Aleppo shared, and to some extent 
headed, the Syrian discontent with Egyptian rule, and was 
strongly held by troops whose huge barracks are still one of the 
sights of the city. Ready to rise behind Ibrahim Pasha in 1839, 
it was only prevented by the news of Nezib. Tumults and 
massacres of Christians occurred in 1850 and 1862, accompanied 
by great destruction of property; but on the whole, since the 
consolidation of Ottoman rule over Syria by Abdul Mejid's 
ministers, Aleppo has been reviving, although its trade is more 
local than of old. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. F.R. Chesney ,The Euphrates Expedition(i8so) ; 
H. Guys, Stalistique du Pachalikd'Alep (1853), and Esquisse de I'etat 
de la Syrie (1862); E. B. B. Barker, Syria and Egypt (1876); W. F. 
Ainsworth, Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition (1888); 
E. R. Bevan, House of Seleucus (1902); G. le Strange, Palestine 
under the Moslems (1890). (D. G. H.) 

ALES (ALESIUS), ALEXANDER (1500-1565), Scottish divine 
of the school of Augsburg, whose family name was ALANE, was 
born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of April 1500. He studied at 
St Andrews in the newly-founded college of St Leonard's, where 
he graduated in 1515. Some time afterwards he was appointed 
a canon of the collegiate church, and at first contended vigor- 
ously for the scholastic theology as against the doctrines of the 
Reformers. His views were entirely changed, however, on the 
execution of Patrick Hamilton, abbot of Fern, in 1528. He had 
been chosen to meet Hamilton in controversy, with a view to 
convincing him of his errors, but the arguments of the Scottish 
proto-martyr, and above all the spectacle of his heroism at the 
stake, impressed Alesius so powerfully that he was entirely won 
over to the cause of the Reformers. A sermon which he preached 
before the Synod at St Andrews against the dissoluteness of the 
clergy gave great offence to the provost, who cast him into 
prison, and might have carried his resentment to the extremest 
limit had not Alesius contrived to escape to Germany in 1532. 
After travelling in various countries of northern Europe, he 
settled down at Wittenberg, where he made the acquaintance of 
Luther and Melanchthon, and signed the Augsburg confession. 
Meanwhile he was tried in Scotland for heresy and condemned 
without a hearing. In 1533 a decree of the Scottish clergy, 
prohibiting the reading of the New Testament by the laity, drew 
from Alesius a defence of the right of the people, in the form of 
a letter to James V. A reply to this by John Cochlaeus, also 
addressed to the Scottish king, occasioned a second letter from 
Alesius, in which he not only amplifies his argument with great 
force, but enters into more general questions connected with the 
Reformation. In August 1 534 he and a few others were excom- 
municated at Holyrood by the deputy of the archbishop of St 
Andrews. When Henry VIII. broke with the church of Rome 
Alesius was induced to go to England, where he was very cordially 
received (August 1535) by the king and his advisers Cranmer and 
Thomas Cromwell. After a short residence at Lambeth he was 
appointed, through the influence of Cromwell, then chancellor of 
the university, to lecture on theology at Cambridge; but when 
he had delivered a few expositions of the Hebrew psalms, he 
was compelled by the opposition of the papal party to desist. 
Returning to London he supported himself for some time by 
practising as a physician. In 1537 he attended a convocation of 
the clergy, and at the request of Cromwell conducted a con- 
troversy with Stokesley, bishop of London, on the nature of the 
sacraments. His argument was afterwards published under the 
title Of the Auctorite of the Word of God concerning the number oj 
the Sacraments. In 1539 Alesius was compelled to flee for the 
second time to Germany, in consequence of the enactment of 
the statute of the Six Articles. He was appointed to a theological 
chair in the university of Frankfort-on-Oder, where he was the 
first professor who taught the reformed doctrines. In 1543 he 
quitted Frankfort for a similar position at Leipzig, his conten- 
tion that it was the duty of the civil magistrate to punish fornica- 
tion, and his sudden departure, having given offence to the 
authorities of the former university. He was in England again 






ALESIA ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 



543 



for a short time during Edward VI. 's reign, and was commissioned 
by Cranmer to make a Latin version of the First Prayer-Book 
(1549) for the information of Bucer, whose opinion was desired. 
He died at Leipzig on the i7th of March 1565. 

Alesius was the author of a large number of exegetical, dog- 
matic and polemical works, of which over twenty are mentioned 
by Bale in his List of English Writers. (See also the British 
Museum catalogue.) In his controversial works he upholds the 
synergistic views of the Scottish theologian John Major. He 
displayed his interest in his native land by the publication of a 
Cohortatio ad Concordiam Pielatis, missa in Patriam suam (1544), 
which had the express approval of Luther, and a Cohortatio ad 
Pielatis Concordiam ineundam (1559). 

The best early account of Alesius is the Oratio de Alexandra Alesio 
of Jacob Thomasius (April 1661), printed in the latter's Orationes 
(No. XIV., Leipzig, 1683) : the best modern account is by Dr A. W. 
Ward in the Dictionary of National Biography. See also A. F. 
Mitchell's introduction to Gau's Richt Vay (Scottish Text Society, 
1888). 

ALESIA, the ancient name for a hill in central France, 
now Alise-Ste-Reine (department Cote d'Or), where in 52 B.C. 
Caesar besieged the Gaulish national leader Vercingetorix within 
enormous entrenchments, forced him to surrender, and thus 
practically ended his conquest of Gaul. The siege-works have 
been excavated by Napoleon III. and others, down to the present 
day. The site seems to have been inhabited also during the 
Roman empire, but its importance is limited to Caesar's siege. 

ALESSANDRI, ALESSANDRO (ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO) 
(1461-1523), Italian jurist, was born at Naples about the year 
1461. He studied law at Naples and Rome, and afterwards 
practised for a time as advocate in both cities. He is said to have 
been royal proto-notary at Naples in 1490. Dissatisfied, accord- 
ing to his own account, with the corrupt administration of 
justice, he at length quitted the bar and devoted himself entirely 
to literary pursuits, especially to the study of philology and 
antiquities. A sinecure appointment, which he owed to the 
favour of the pope, enabled him to lead a life of learned leisure at 
Rome, where he died on the 2nd of October 1523. His work 
entitled Dies Geniales appeared at Rome in 1522, and was con- 
structed after the model of the Nodes Atticae of Aulus Gellius, 
and the Saturnalia of Macrobius. It consists of a confused mass 
of heterogeneous materials relating to philology, antiquities, law, 
dreams, spectres, &c., and is characterized by considerable 
credulity. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, 
capital of a province which bears its name, situated on the river 
Tanaro, 57 m. E. by S. of Turin by rail. Pop. (1901) 71,298, of 
which about half reside in the actual town: the rest are dis- 
tributed over the suburbs. Alessandria was founded in 1168 by 
the inhabitants of the district in order to defend themselves 
against the marquis of Monferrato and the town of Pavia, at 
whose request it was besieged in 1174 by Frederick Barbarossa 
for six months, but without success. The Lombard League now 
included it among the allied cities and named it Alessandria, 
after Pope Alexander III. The traditional account of its founda- 
tion by the Lombard League has been disproved by F. Graf, Die 
Griindung Alessandrias: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte dcs Lom- 
bardenbundes (1888). After falling into various hands, it was 
ceded to Savoy by the peace of Utrecht in 1713, and its citadel 
was begun in 1 728. During the French occupation (1800-1814), 
which began after the battle of Marengo, it was still more strongly 
fortified; the works were entirely destroyed by the Austrians in 
1815, but were afterwards reconstructed, and Alessandria is still 
an important fortress and the headquarters of the second army 
corps. The citadel is on the left bank of the Tanaro, the town 
being on the right bank. It is regularly built and contains few 
buildings of architectural interest, but is a flourishing and 
important commercial town, not merely owing to its own manu- 
factures (which are miscellaneous) but for the products of the 
district, and one of the greatest railway centres in Italy. Lines 
diverge from it to Turin via Asti, to Valenza (and thence to 
Vercelli, Mortara for Novara or Milan and Pa via), toTortona, 
to Novi, to Acqui and to Bra. 



ALESSI, 6ALEAZZO (1512-1572), Italian architect, was born 
at Perugia, and was probably a pupil of Caporali. He was an 
enthusiastic student of ancient architecture, and his style 
gained for him a European reputation. Genoa is indebted to 
him for a number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens 
of his skill may be seen in the churches of San Paolo and Santa 
Vittoria at Milan, in certain parts of the Escurial, and in numerous 
churches and palaces throughout Sicily, Flanders and Germany. 

See Rossi, Di Galeazzo Alessi memorie (Perugia, 1873). 

ALETHIOLOGY (from the Gr. dXi70a, truth), an uncommon 
expression for the doctrine of truth, used by Sir William Hamilton 
in his philosophic writings when treating of the rules for the 
discrimination of truth and error. 

ALETRIUM (mod. Alatri), a town of the Hernici, about 6 m. 
due N. of Frusino, Italy, mentioned in 306 B.C. for its fidelity 
to Rome. In Cicero's time it was a municipium, and continued 
in this position throughout the imperial period. It is chiefly 
remarkable for its finely preserved fortifications constructed 
of tetrahedral and polygonal blocks of local limestone well 
jointed, with maximum dimensions of about 3 by i| ft.; the 
outer circuit of the city wall measures about -i\ m. It is almost 
entirely an embanking wall, as is the rule in the cities of this part 
of Italy, with a maximum height, probably, of about 30 ft. 
Two of the gates (of which there were perhaps five) are still to 
some extent preserved, and three posterns are to be found. In 
the centre of the city rises a hill (1647 ft.) which was adopted 
as the citadel. Remains of the fortifications of three successive 
periods can be traced, of which the last, perhaps a little more 
recent than that of the city wall, is the best preserved. In the 
first two periods the construction is rough, while in the third 
the blocks are very well and finely jointed, and the faces 
smoothed; they are mostly polygonal in form and are much 
larger (the maximum about 10 by 6 ft.) than those of the city 
wall. A flat surface was formed partly by smoothing off the 
rock and partly by the erection of huge terrace walls which rise 
to a height of over 50 ft., enclosing a roughly rectangular area 
of 235 by 115 yds. Two approaches to the citadel were con- 
structed, both passing through the wall; the openings of both 
are rectangular. The architrave of the larger, known as Porta 
di Civita, measures about 1 7 ft. in length, 5 ft. in height, 6 ft. in 
thickness; while that of the smaller is decorated with three 
phalli in relief. Later, though probably in ancient times, a 
ramp was added on the northern side. In the centre of the arx 
was a building on the site of the present cathedral, of which 
only a small portion is preserved. Remains of a high-pressure 
aqueduct, which supplied the town with water and was con- 
structed with other public buildings (Corp. Inscr. Lot. x., Berlin, 
1883, p. 5807) by L. Betilienus Varus, may still be traced. A 
temple was excavated in 1889 about m. to the north of the town, 
and many fragments of the painted terra-cottas with which it 
was decorated were found. A reconstruction of it has been 
erected in the Museo di Villa Giulia at Rome. The present town 
(pop. in 1901, 15,322) has a picturesque aspect, and contains 
many buildings in the Gothic style. 

See R. Bassel, Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung, 1881, 121, p. 134; 
H. Winnefeld, Romische Mitteilungen, 1889, 126; G. Fiorelli in 
Notizie degli Scavi, 1882, 417. (T. As.) 

ALEURITES (Gr. <xXi>pir?7S, pertaining to oXeupoi', ground 
meal, from dXeTc, to grind), a genus of trees belonging to the 
natural order Euphorbiaceae. Aleurites moluccana, or triloba, 
is widely cultivated throughout the tropical and sub-tropical 
parts of the world for its fruit, which is about the size of a 
walnut, and contains several seeds which are rich in oil. The oil 
is extracted and used for food and light; it is known in India 
as kekuna, and the tree as the " candle-nut." In the Sandwich 
Islands the nuts are strung upon strips of wood and used as 
torches. The oil is exported to Europe for candle-making. 
A. cordata flourishes in China, where it is known as the varnish- 
tree, on account of the lac contained in its seeds. 

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS (possibly from Chukchi aliat, " island "), 
a chain of small islands situated in the Northern Pacific Ocean, 
and extending about 1200 m. westward from the extremity of 



544 



ALEXANDER 



the Alaskan peninsula toward the peninsula of Kamchatka; 
they constitute part of the District of Alaska, U.S.A. The 
islands, of which an alternative collective name is the Catherine 
Archipelago, comprise four groups the Fox, Andreanof, Rat 
and Near Islands. They are all included between 52 and 55 
N. lat. and 172 E. and 163 W. long. 

The axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has 
a S.W. trend, but near the i2gth meridian its direction changes 
to the N.W. This change of direction corresponds to a curve 
in the line of volcanic fissures which have contributed their 
products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains 
are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the Kurile Islands, 
the Japanese chain, the Philippines, &c. The general elevation 
is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The 
island chain is really a western continuation of the Aleutian 
Range on the mainland. 

The great majority of the islands bear evident marks of 
volcanic origin, and there are numerous volcanic cones on the 
north side of the chain, some of them active; many of the 
islands, however, are not wholly volcanic, but contain crystalline 
or sedimentary rocks, and also amber and beds of lignite. The 
coasts are rocky and surf-worn and the approaches are exceed- 
ingly dangerous, the land rising immediately from the coasts to 
steep, bold mountains. 

The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly 
uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall. Fogs are almost 
constant. The summers are much cooler than on the mainland 
at Sitka (q.v.), but the winter temperature of the islands and of 
south-eastern Alaska is very nearly the same. The mean annual 
temperature for Unalaska, the most important island of the 
group, is about 38 F. ; being about 30 for January and about 
52 for August. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded 
on the islands are 78 and 5. The average annual amount of 
rainfall is about 80 in., and Unalaska, with about 250 rainy days 
per year, is said to be the rainiest place within the territory of 
the United States. The growing season lasts about 135 days, 
from early in May till late in September, but agriculture is 
limited to the raising of a few vegetables. With the exception 
of some stunted willows the islands are practically destitute of 
trees, but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage, 
including grasses, sedges and many flowering plants. On the 
less mountainous islands the raising of sheep and reindeer is 
believed to be practicable. The principal occupations of the 
natives have always been fishing and hunting, and the women 
weave basketry of exquisite fineness. From the end of the 
1 8th century the Russian fur traders had settlements here 
for the capture of the seal and the sea otter and the blue and 
the Arctic fox. Under the American regime seal fishing off the 
Aleutians save by the natives has never been legal, but the deple- 
tion of the Pribilof herd, the almost complete extinction of the 
sea otter, and the rapid decrease of the foxes and other fur 
animals, have threatened the Aleuts (as the natives are commonly 
called) with starvation. In recent years enterprising traders 
have raised foxes by culture and by especially protecting certain 
small islands, and this has furnished employment to whole com- 
munities of natives. Fish and sea-fowl are extremely abundant. 

The natives are rather low in stature, but plump and well 
shaped, with short necks, swarthy faces, black eyes and long 
black hair. They are a branch of the Esquimauan family, but 
differ greatly from the Eskimo of the mainland in. language, 
habits, disposition and mental ability. They were good fighters 
until they were cowed by the treatment of the Russians, who 
practically reduced them to slavery. Sporadic efforts to Chris- 
tianize the Aleuts were made in the latter half of the i8th 
century, but little impression was made before the arrival in 
1824 of Father Ivan Venyaminov, who in 1840 became the first 
Greek bishop of Alaska. While the missionaries of the Greek 
Church have nominally converted the natives to Christianity, 
white adventurers have more effectually converted them to 
various bad habits. In dress and mode of life they have adopted 
outwardly civilized customs. From the position of the Aleutian 
islands, stretching like a broken bridge from Asia to America, 



some ethnologists have supposed that by means of them America 
was first peopled. Raised shore-lines, occasional earthquakes, 
and slow measurable elevation of the land about active volcanoes, 
indicate that elevation is now in progress, but the geological 
evidence shows no sign of former submergence of a connecting 
isthmus. There is granite at the core of the Shaler range of 
mountains in southern Unalaska. 

It is stated that before the advent of the Russians there were 
25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago, but that the barbarities of the 
traders eventually reduced the population to one-tenth of this 
number. The number of Aleuts in 1890 was reported as 968; 
the total population of the archipelago in 1900 was 2000. 

The principal settlements are on the Unalaska Island. Of 
these Iliuliuk (also called Unalaska), the oldest, settled in 1760- 
1775, has a custom house, a Russian-Greek Church, and a 
Methodist Mission and orphanage, and is the headquarters for a 
considerable fleet of United States revenue cutters which patrol 
the sealing grounds of the Pribilofs; adjacent is Dutch Harbor 
(so named, it is said, because a Dutch vessel was the first to 
enter it), which is an important port for Bering Sea commerce. 
The volcano Makushin (5691 ft.) is visible from Iliuliuk, and the 
volcanic islets Bogoslof and Grewingk, which rose from the sea 
in 1796 and 1883 respectively, lie about 30 m. W. of the bay. 
The latter is still active; in 1906 a new cone rose between the 
two earlier islets, and in 1907 still another: these were nearly 
demolished by an explosive eruption on the ist of September 
1907. The population of Unalaska Island in 1900 was 575 
Aleuts and 66 whites. The Commander Islands group near the 
Asiatic coast is geographically, but since the acquisition of the 
Russian possessions in America not politically, a part of the 
Aleutian system. 

In 1741 the Russian government sent out Vitus Bering, a 
Dane, and Alexei Chirikov, a Russian, in the ships " Saint 
Peter " and " Saint Paul " on a voyage of discovery in the 
Northern Pacific. After the ships were separated by a storm, 
Chirikov discovered several eastern islands of the Aleutian 
group, and Bering discovered several of the western islands, 
finally being wrecked and losing his life on the island of the 
Commander group that now bears his name. The survivors 
of Bering's party reached Kamchatka in a boat constructed 
from the wreckage of their ship, and reported that the islands 
were rich in fur-bearing animals. Siberian fur hunters at once 
flocked to the Commander Islands and gradually moved eastward 
across the Aleutian Islands to the mainland. In this manner 
Russia gained a foothold on the north-western coast of North 
America. The Aleutian Islands consequently belonged to Russia, 
until that country in 1867 transferred to the United States all 
its possessions in America. During his third and last voyage, 
in 1778, Captain James Cook surveyed the eastern portion of the 
Aleutian archipelago, accurately determined the position of 
some of the more important islands and corrected many errors 
of former navigators. Some preliminary surveys have been 
made by the United States government with a view to establish- 
ing a naval station on the island Kiska, in the western part of 
the Aleutian Chain. 

ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893), 
first prince of Bulgaria, was the second son of Prince Alexander 
of Hesse and the Rhine by his morganatic marriage with Julia, 
countess von Hauke. The title of princess of Battenberg, derived 
from an old residence of the grand-dukes of Hesse, was con- 
ferred, with the prefix Durchlaucht or " Serene Highness," on the 
countess and her descendants in 1858. Prince Alexander, who 
was born on the sth of April 1857, was nephew of the tsar 
Alexander II., who had married a sister of Prince Alexander 
of Hesse; his mother, a daughter of Count Moritz von Hauke, 
had been lady-in-waiting to the tsaritsa. In his boyhood and 
early youth he was frequently at St Petersburg, and he accom- 
panied his uncle, who was much attached to him, during the 
Bulgarian campaign of 1877. When Bulgaria under the Berlin 
Treaty was constituted an autonomous principality under the 
suzerainty of Turkey, the tsar recommended his nephew to the 
Bulgarians as a candidate for the newly created throne, and 



ALEXANDER I. ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



545 



Prince Alexander was elected prince of Bulgaria by unanimous 
vote of the Grand Sobranye (April 29, 1879). He was at that 
time serving as a lieutenant in the Prussian life-guards at 
Potsdam. Before proceeding to Bulgaria, Prince Alexander 
paid visits to the tsar at Livadia, to the courts of the great 
powers and to the sultan; he was then conveyed on a Russian 
warship to Varna, and after taking the oath to the new con- 
stitution at Tirnova (July 8, 1879) he repaired to Sofia, being 
everywhere greeted with immense enthusiasm by the people. 
(For the political history of Prince Alexander's reign, see BUL- 
GARIA.) Without any previous training in the art of government, 
the young prince from the outset found himself confronted with 
difficulties which would have tried the sagacity of an experienced 
ruler. On the one hand he was exposed to numberless humilia- 
tions on the part of the representatives of official Russia, who 
made it clear to him that he was expected to play the part of a 
roi faineant; on the other he was compelled to make terms 
with the Bulgarian politicians, who, intoxicated with newly 
won liberty, prosecuted their quarrels with a crude violence 
which threatened to subvert his authority and to plunge the 
nation in anarchy. After attempting to govern under these 
conditions for nearly two years, the prince, with the consent 
of the tsar Alexander III., assumed absolute power (May 9, 
1881), and a suspension of the ultra-democratic constitution 
for a period of seven years was voted by a specially convened 
assembly (July 13). The experiment, however, proved un- 
successful; the Bulgarian Liberal and Radical politicians were 
infuriated, and the real power fell into the hands of two Russian 
generals, Sobolev and Kaulbars, who had been specially 
despatched from St Petersburg. The prince, after vainly 
endeavouring to obtain the recall of the generals, restored the 
constitution with the concurrence of all the Bulgarian political 
parties (September 18, 1883). A serious breach with Russia 
followed, which was widened by the part which the prince 
subsequently played in encouraging the national aspirations of 
the Bulgarians. The revolution of Philippopolis (September 18, 
1885), which brought about the union of Eastern Rumelia with 
Bulgaria, was carried out with his consent, and he at once 
assumed the government of the revolted province. In the 
anxious year which followed, the prince gave evidence of con- 
siderable military and diplomatic ability. He rallied the 
Bulgarian army, now deprived of its Russian officers, to resist 
the Servian invasion, and after a brilliant victory at Slivnitza 
(November 19) pursued King Milan into Servian territory as 
far as Pirot, which he captured (November 27). Although 
Servia was protected from the consequences of defeat by the 
intervention of Austria, Prince Alexander's success sealed the 
union with Eastern Rumelia, and after long negotiations he was 
nominated governor-general of that province for five years by 
the sultan (April 5, 1886). This arrangement, however, cost 
him much of his popularity in Bulgaria, while discontent pre- 
vailed among a certain number of his officers, who considered 
themselves slighted in the distribution of rewards at the close 
of the campaign. A military conspiracy was formed, and on 
the night of the 2oth of August the prince was seized in the 
palace at Sofia, and compelled to sign his abdication; he was 
then hurried to the Danube at Rakhovo, transported on his 
yacht to Reni, and handed over to Russian authorities, by 
whom he was allowed to proceed to Lemberg. He soon, how- 
ever, returned to Bulgaria, owing to the success of the counter- 
revolution led by Stamboloff, which overthrew the provisional 
government set up by the Russian party at Sofia. But his 
position had become untenable, partly owing to an ill-considered 
telegram which he addressed to the tsar on his return; partly in 
consequence of the attitude of Prince Bismarck, who, in con- 
junction with the Russian and Austrian governments, forbade 
him to punish the leaders of the military conspiracy. He 
therefore issued a manifesto resigning the throne, and left 
Bulgaria on the 8th of September 1886. He now retired into 
private life. A few years later he married Fraulein Loisinger, 
an actress, and assumed the style of Count Hartenau (Feb- 
ruary 6, 1889). The last years of his life were spent principally 






I. 18 



at Gratz, where he held a local command in the Austrian army. 
Here, after a short illness, he died on the 23rd of October 1893. 
His remains were brought to Sofia, where they received a public 
funeral, and were eventually deposited in a mausoleum erected 
in his memory. Prince Alexander possessed much charm and 
amiability of manner; he was tall, dignified and strikingly 
handsome. His capabilities as a soldier have been generally 
recognized by competent authorities. As a ruler he committed 
some errors, but his youth and inexperience and the extreme 
difficulty of his position must be taken into consideration. He 
was not without aptitude for diplomacy, and his intuitive insight 
and perception of character sometimes enabled him to outwit 
the crafty politicians by whom he was surrounded. His principal 
fault was a want of tenacity and resolution; his tendency to 
unguarded language undoubtedly increased the number of his 
enemies. 

See Drandar, Le Prince Alexandre de Battenberg en Bulgarie 
(Paris, 1884); Koch, Fiirst Alexander von Bulgarian (Darmstadt, 
1887) ; Matveyev, Bulgarien nach dem Berliner Congress (Petersburg, 
1887); Bourchier, " Prince Alexander of Battenberg," in Fortnightly 
Review, January 1894. (J. D. B.) 

ALEXANDER I., king of Epirus about 342 B.C., brother of 
Olympias the mother of Alexander the Great, and son-in-law 
of Philip of Macedon, whose daughter Cleopatra he married 
(336). In 332 he crossed over to Italy to assist the Tarentines 
against the Lucanians, Bruttians and Samnites. He gained 
considerable successes and made an arrangement with the 
Romans for a joint attack upon the Samnites ; but the Taren- 
tines, suspecting him of the design of founding an independent 
kingdom, turned against him. Although the advantage at first 
rested with Alexander, he gradually lost it, and his supporters 
dwindled away. In 330 (or earlier) he was defeated at Pandosia 
and slain by a Lucanian emigrant. 

See Justin viii. 6, ix. 6, xii. 2; Livy viii. 3, 17, 24; Aulus Gellius 
xvii. 21 ; and article MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

ALEXANDER II., king of Epirus, succeeded his father 
Pyrrhus, 272 B.C. He attacked Antigonus Gonatas and con- 
quered the greater part of Macedonia, but was in turn driven 
out of both Epirus and Macedonia by Demetrius the son of 
Antigonus. He subsequently recovered his kingdom by the aid 
of the Acarnanians and Aetolians.' He died about 260 (Polybius 
ii. 45, ix. 34; Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 9; Justin xviii. I, xxvi. 2, 
xxviii. i). 

See Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. viii. ; Droysea, Hellenismus ; 
B. Niese, Gesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten; J. Beloch, Griech. 
Gesch. vol. iii. 

ALEXANDER III., known as THE GREAT 1 (356-323 B.C.), 
king of Macedon, was the son of Philip II. of Macedon, and 
Olympias, an Epirote princess. His father was pre-eminent for 
practical genius, his mother a woman of half-wild blood, weird, 
visionary and terrible; and Alexander himself is singular among 
men of action for the imaginative splendours which guided him, 
and among romantic dreamers for the things he achieved. He was 
born in 356 B.C., probably about October (Hogarth, pp. 284 ff.). 
The court at which he grew up was the focus of great 
activities, for Philip, by war and diplomacy, was raising 
Macedon to the headship of the Greek states, and the air was 
charged with great ideas. To unite the Greek race in a war 
against the Persian empire was set up as the ultimate mark for 
ambition, the theme of idealists. The great literary achievements 
of the Greeks in the sth century lay already far enough behind 
to have become invested with a classical dignity; the meaning 
of Hellenic civilization had been made concrete in a way which 
might sustain enthusiasm for a body of ideal values, authori- 
tative by tradition. And upon Alexander in his fourteenth year 
this sum of tradition was brought to bear through the person of 
the man who beyond all others had gathered it up into an organic 
whole: in 343-342 Aristotle (q.i>.) came to Pella at Philip's bidding 
to direct the education of his son. We do not know what faculty 
the master-thinker may have had for captivating this ardent 
spirit; at any rate Alexander carried with him through life a 

1 The use of the surname'Js proved as far back as the ist century 
B.C. (Nepos, De Reg. 2). 

5 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



[BIOGRAPHY 



passion for Homer, however he may have been disposed to greyer 
philosophic theory. But his education was not all from books. 
The coming and going of envoys from many states, Greek and 
Oriental, taught him something of the actual conditions of the 
world. He was early schooled in war. At the age of sixteen he 
commanded in Macedonia during Philip's absence and quelled a 
rising of the hill-tribes on the northern border; in the following 
year (338) he headed the charge which broke the Sacred Band at 
Chaeronea. Then came family dissensions such as usually vex 
the polygamous courts of the East. In 337 Philip repudiated 
Olympias for another wife, Cleopatra, Alexander went with his 
mother to her home in Epirus, and, though he soon returned and 
an outward reconciliation between father and son was contrived, 
their hearts were estranged. The king's new wife was with child ; 
her kinsmen were in the ascendant; the succession of Alexander 
was imperilled. Some negotiations which Pixodarus, the satrap 
of Caria, opened with the Macedonian court with a view to 
effecting a marriage alliance between his house and Philip's, 
brought Alexander into fresh broils. In 336 Philip was suddenly 
assassinated whilst celebrating at Aegae the marriage of his 
daughter to Alexander I. of Epirus in the presence of a great 
concourse from all the Greek world. It is certain that the hand 
of the assassin was prompted by some one in the background; 
suspicion could not fail to fall upon Alexander among others. 
But guilt of that sort would hardly be consistent with his 
character as it appears in those early days. 

Alexander was not the only claimant to the vacant throne, but, 
recognized by the army, he soon swept all rivals from his path. 
Accession Tfle new ty born son of Philip by Cleopatra, and 
Alexander's cousin Amyntas, were put to death, and 
Alexander took up the interrupted work of his father. That 
work was on the point of opening its most brilliant chapter 
by an invasion of the great king's dominions; the army was 
concentrated and certain forces had already been sent on to 
occupy the opposite shore of the Hellespont. The assassination 
of Philip delayed the blow, for it immediately made the base, 
Macedonia, insecure, and in such an enterprise, plunging into the 
vast territories of the Persian empire, a secure base was every- 
thing. Philip's removal had made all the hill-peoples of the 
north and west raise their heads and set the Greek states free 
from their fears. A demonstration in Greece, led by the new 
king of Macedonia, momentarily checked the agitation, and at 
the diet at Corinth Alexander was recognized as captain-general 
o&TO/cp&Twp) of the Hellenes against the barbarians, 
in the place of his father Philip. In the spring of 335 
ne went out from Macedonia northwards, struck across 
Hellene*, the Balkans, probably by the Shipka Pass, frustrating 
the mountain warfare of its tribes by a precision of 
discipline which, probably, no other army of the time could have 
approached, and traversed the land of the Triballians (Rumelia) 
to the Danube. To gratify his own imagination or strike the 
imagination of the world he took his army over the Danube and 
burnt a settlement of the Getae upon the other side. Meanwhile 
the Illyrians had seized Pelion (Pliassa), which commanded the 
passes on the west of Macedonia, and from the Danube Alexander 
marched straight thither over the hills. He had hardly restored 
Macedonian prestige in this quarter when he heard that Greece 
was aflame. Thebes had taken up arms. By a forced march he 
took the Thebans completely by surprise, and in a few days the 
city, which a generation before had won the headship of Greece, 
was taken. There were to be no half -measures now; the city was 
wiped out of existence with the exception of its temples and the 
house which had been Pindar's. Greece might now be trusted to 
lie quiet for some time to come. The Panhellenic alliance (from 
which Sparta still stood aloof) against the barbarians was renewed. 
Athens, although known to be hostile at heart to the cities of 
Macedonian power, Alexander treated all through with eager 
courtesy. 

In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed with an army of 
between 30,000 and 40,000 men, Macedonians, Illyrians, 
Thracians and the contingents of the Greek states, into Asia. 
The place of concentration was Arisbe on the Hellespont. 



Minor. 



Alexander himself first visited the site of Troy and there went 
through those dramatic acts of sacrifice to the Ilian Athena, 
assumption of the shield believed to be that of Achilles 
and offerings to the great Homeric dead, which are 
significant of the poetic glamour shed, in the young 
king's mind, over the whole enterprise, and which men 
will estimate differently according to the part they assign to 
imagination in human affairs. To meet the invader the great 
king had in Asia Minor an army slightly larger, it would seem, 
than Alexander's, gathered under the satraps of the western 
provinces at Zeleia. He had also, what was more serious, 
command of the Aegean. Alexander could communicate with 
his base only by the narrow line of the Hellespont, and ran the 
risk, if he went far from it, of being cut off altogether. To draw 
him after them, while avoiding a conflict, was sound strategy 
for the Persian generals. It was urged upon them by their 
colleague the Rhodian Memnon. But strategic considerations 
were cancelled by the Persian barons' code of chivalry, and 
Alexander found them waiting for him on the banks of the 
Granicus. It was a cavalry melee, in which the Battle t 
common code of honour caused Macedonian and a raa fag. 
Persian chieftains to engage hand to hand, and at the 
end of the day the relics of the Persian army were in flight, leaving 
the high-roads' of Asia Minor dear for the invader. Alexander 
could now accomplish the first part of the task belonging to him 
as captain-general to the Hellenes, that liberation of the Greek 
cities of Asia Minor, for which Panhellenic enthusiasts had cried 
out so long. He first went to take possession of the old Lydian 
capital Sardis, the headquarters of the Persian government on 
this side of the Taurus, and the strong city surrendered without 
a blow. And now in all the Greek cities of Aeolis and Ionia the 
oligarchies or tyrants friendly to Persia fell, and democracies were 
established under the eye of Alexander's officers. Only where the 
cities were held by garrisons in the Persian service, garrisons 
composed mainly of Greek mercenaries, was the liberator likely 
to meet with any resistance. From Ephesus indeed the garrison 
fled upon the news of Granicus, but Miletus required a siege. The 
Persian fleet in vain endeavoured to relieve it, and Miletus 
did not long hold out against Alexander's attack. It was at 
Halicarnassus that Alexander first encountered stubborn resist- 
ance, at Halicarnassus where Memnon and the satraps of Caria 
had rallied what land-forces yet belonged to Persia in the west. 
When winter fell, Alexander had captured indeed the city itself, 
but the two citadels still held out against his blockade. 

Meanwhile Alexander was making it plain that he had come not 
merely as captain-general for a war of reprisals, but to take the 
Persian's place 'as king of the land. The conquered provinces 
were organized under Macedonian governors and in Caria a 
dethroned princess of the native dynasty, Ada, was restored 
to power. In the winter, whilst Parmenio advanced upon the 
central plateau to make the occupation of Phrygia effective, 
Alexander himself passed along the coast to receive the sub- 
mission of the Lycians and the adherence of the Greek cities of 
the Pamphylian sea-board. The hills inland were the domain of 
fighting tribes which the Persian government had never been able 
to subdue. To conquer them, indeed, Alexander had no time, but 
he stormed some of their fortresses to hold them in check, and 
marched through their territory when he turned north from 
Pamphylia into the interior. The point of concentration for next 
year's campaign had been fixed at Gordium, a meeting-place of 
roads in Northern Phrygia. The story of Alexander's cutting the 
fatal " Gordian knot " on the chariot of the ancient Phrygian 
king Gordius is connected with his stay in this place. 

Whilst Alexander had been grounding his power in Asia Minor, 
he had run a narrow risk of losing his base in Europe. He had 
after the siege of Miletus disbanded the Graeco- Extension 
Macedonian fleet, surrendering for the time all attempts of Alex- 
to challenge the command of the Aegean. Memnon * a *^* 
the Rhodian, now in supreme command of the Persian 
fleet, saw the European coasts exposed and set out to raise 
Greece, where discontent always smouldered in Alexander's rear 
But Memnon died at the critical moment whilst laying siege to 






BIOGRAPHY] 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



547 



Mytilene and the great plan collapsed. A Persian fleet still held 
the sea, but it effected little, and presently fresh Graeco-Mace- 
donian squadrons began to hold it in check. It was, however, 
the need to ensure command of the sea and free all lines of com- 
munication behind him that determined Alexander's plan for the 
next campaign. If he mastered the whole coast-line of the 
Levant, the enemy's fleet would find itself left in the air. The 
Syrian coast was accordingly his immediate objective when he 
broke up from Gordium for the campaign of 333. He was through 
the CicUian Gates before the Persian king, Darius III., had sent 
up a force adequate to hold them. His passage through Cilicia 
was marked by a violent fever that arrested him for a while in 
Tarsus, and meantime a great Persian army was waiting for him 
in northern Syria under the command of Darius himself. In the 
knot of mountains which close in about the head of the Gulf of 
Alexandretta, Alexander, following hard by the coast, marched 
past the Persian army encamped on the plains to the east. To 
cut Alexander's communications with the rear, Darius now com- 
mitted the error of entangling his large force in the mountain 
denies. Alexander turned, and near the town of 
Issus fought his second pitched battle, sending Darius 
and the relic of his army in wild flight back to the 
east. 1 It was an incident which did not modify Alexander's 
plan. He did not press the pursuit far, although the great king's 
camp with his harem fell into his hands. The chivalrous courtesy 
which he showed to the captive princesses was a favourite theme 
for later rhetoricians. He went on his way to occupy Syria and 
Phoenicia. It is now that we get definite evidence as to the 
reach of Alexander's designs; for Darius opened negotiations in 
which he ultimately went so far as to offer a partition of the 
empire, all west of the Euphrates, to be Alexander's. Alexander 
refused the bargain and definitely claimed the whole. 2 The 
conquest of the Phoenician coast was not to be altogether easy, 
for Tyre shut its gates and for seven months Alexander had to sit 
before it one of those obstinate sieges which mark the history of 
the Semitic races. When it fell, Alexander had the old Tyrian 
people scattered to the winds, 30,000 sold as slaves. Gaza offered 
a resistance equally heroic, lasting two months, and here too the 
old population was dispersed. The occupation of the rest of 
Syria and Palestine proceeded smoothly, and after the fall of 
Gaza Alexander's way lay open into Egypt. 3 Egypt was the last 
of the Mediterranean provinces to be won, and here no defence 
was made. To the native Egyptians Alexander appeared as a 
deliverer from the Persian tyranny, and he sacrificed piously to 
the gods of Memphis. The winter (332-331) which Alexander 
spent in Egypt saw two memorable actions on his part. One was 
the expedition (problematic in its motive and details) to the oracle 
of Zeus Ammon (Oasis of Siwa), where Alexander was hailed by 
the priest as son of the god, a belief which the circle of Alexander, 
and perhaps Alexander himself, seem hereafter to have liked to 
play with in that sort of semi-serious vein which still allowed him 
in the moments of every-day commonplace to be the son of 
Philip. The other action was the foundation of Alexandria at 
the Canopic mouth of the Nile, the place destined to be a new 
commercial centre for the eastern Mediterranean world which 
Alexander had now taken in possession, to rise to an importance 
which the founder, although obviously acting with intention, can 
hardly have foreseen (E. Keller, Alex. d. Grosse nach der Schlacht 
bei Issus, 1904). 

In the spring of 33 1 Alexander could at last leave the Mediter- 
ranean to strike into the heart of the Persian empire, for by 
^' S occu P at i n f tri e coasts the Persian command of 
the sea had inevitably collapsed. Returning through 
Syria, and stopping at Tyre to make final arrangements 
for the conquered provinces, he traversed Mesopotamia and 

1 See Bauero"DieSchlacht beilssus" in Jahreshefte d.osterr. archdol. 
Instil, ii. pp. 105 f. ; A. Janke. Auf Alex. d. grossen Pfaden; Gruhn, 
Das Schlachtfeld von Issus; Lammert in Berl. Philol. Wochenschr. 
(1905), col. 1596 f. 

8 Pridik, De Alex. Mag. epist. commercio (Dorpat, 1893) ; Schwartz, 
art. " Curtius " in Pauly-Wissowa, col. 1884. 

* The story of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem rests on no better 
authority than a later Jewish romance. 






struck the Tigris some four marches above the site of Nineveh. 
It was near Nineveh that Darius was waiting with the immense 
host which a supreme effort could muster from all parts of the 
empire. The happy coincidence of a lunar eclipse gives us the 
2oth of September 331 as the exact day upon which the Mace- 
donian army crossed the Tigris. Alexander came within sight 
of the Persian host without having met with any opposition since 
he quitted Tyre. He had now to settle the most serious problem 
which had yet faced him, for in the plains the Persian army was 
formidable by sheer bulk. But the day showed the 
Macedonian army equal to the task. The last army 
gathered by an Achaemenian king was shattered in 
the battle called popularly after the city of Arbeia some 60 m. 
distant, or more precisely after the village of Gaugamela hard by. 
Darius fled eastwards into Media and again Alexander waited till 
he had secured the provinces to the south. He followed the 
Tigris into Babylonia, the central seat of the empire and its 
richest region, and from Babylon went on to seize the fabulous 
riches which the Persian kings had amassed in their spring 
residence, Susa. Thence he at last ascended upon the Iranian 
plateau. The mountain tribes on the road (the Oxii, Pers, 
Huzha), accustomed to exact blackmail even from the king's 
train, learnt by a bitter lesson that a stronger hand had come to 
wield the empire. Alexander entered Persis, the cradle of the 
Achaemenian house, and came upon fresh masses of treasure in 
the royal city, Persepolis. He destroyed the royal palace by 
fire, an act which has been variously estimated by historians. 
Ostensibly a solemn revenge for the burning of Greek temples 
by Xerxes, it has been justified as a symbolical act calculated 
to impress usefully the imagination of the East, and condemned 
as a senseless and vainglorious work of destruction. 

With the spring of 330 Alexander was prepared for further 
pursuit. Darius fled northwards from Ecbatana upon his ap- 
proach. At Ecbatana new masses of treasure were seized, but 
when once the necessary measures which its disposal and the 
occupation of the Median capital entailed were taken, Alexander 
continued the pursuit. It was an exciting chase of king by king, 
in which each covered the ground by incredible exertions, shed- 
ding their slower-going followers as they went, past Rhagae (Rai) 
and the Caspian gates, till early one morning Alexander came in 
sight of the broken train which still clung to the fallen king. He 
had become a puppet in the hands of his cousin Bessus and the 
Persian magnates with him (see DARIUS III.), and at this 
extremity they stabbed him and allowed Alexander to become 
master only of his corpse (summer 330). 

The pursuit had brought Alexander into that region of moun- 
tains to the south of the Caspian which connects western Iran 
with the provinces to the east of the great central desert. To 
conquer this remaining portion of the empire, Alexander now went 
on through the mountain belt, teaching the power of his arms to 
the hillsmen, Tapyri and Mardi, till he came, passing through 
Zadracarta (Asterabad), to Parthia and thence to Aria. In these 
further provinces of Iran the Macedonian invader had for the 
first time to encounter a serious national opposition, for in the 
west the Iranian rule had been merely the supremacy of an alien 
power over native populations indifferent or hostile. Here the 
ruling race was at home. In Asia Alexander learnt that Bessus 
had taken the diadem as Darius' successor in Bactria, but so soon 
as he marched against him Aria rose in his rear, and Alexander 
had to return in all haste to bring the revolt under. Nor did he, 
when this was accomplished, again strike directly at Bactria, 
but made a wide turning movement through Seistan over 
Kandahar into the Kabul valley. It was on the way, in Seistan 
at Prophthasia (mod. Farrah ?), that the alienation between 
Alexander and his Macedonian followers, which becomes sensible 
in the latter part of his career, first showed itself in an ugly form. 
Alexander had come to merge the characters of Macedonian king 
and Hellenic captain-general, with which he had set out, in that 
of Oriental despot (Spieker. Hof u. Hofordnung Al. d. Gr., 1904). 
He wore on occasions of state the Persian dress. (According to 
pseudo-Plutarch, de fort. Al. i. 8, it was the simpler Persian 
dress, not the Median.) A discontent began to work among the 



548 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



[BIOGRAPHY 



Macedonians, and at Prophthasia the commander of the Mace- 
donian cavalry Philotas, the son of Parmenio, and certain others 
were arraigned before the army on the charge of conspiring 
against the king's life. They were condemned and put to death. 
Not satisfied with procuring this, Alexander had Parmenio him- 
self, who had been left in command in Media, put to death by 
secret orders. It is perhaps the worst crime, because the most 
cold-blooded and ungenerous, which can be laid to his charge. 
By the winter of 329-328 Alexander had reached the Kabul 
valley at the foot of the Paropamisadae (Hindu Kush). 

The ordinarily received chronology makes Alexander reach the 
Kabul valley in the winter of 330-329. That to fit the actions 
and distances covered by Alexander into such a scheme, assuming 
that he went by Seistan and Kandahar, would involve physical 
impossibilities has been pointed out by Count Yorck v. Warten- 
burg and Mr D. G. Hogarth. Kaerst and Beloch continue to 
give the ordinary chronology untroubled. 

In the spring of 328 Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush into 
Bactria and followed the retreat of Bessus across the Oxus and 
invasion * nto Sogdiana (Bokhara). Here Bessus was at last 
of caught and treated with the barbaric cruelty which 

Northern the rule of the old Persian monarchy prescribed for 
rebels. Till the spring of 327 Alexander was moving 
to and fro in Bactria and Sogdiana, beating down the recurrent 
rebellions and planting Greek cities. Just as in 335 he had 
crossed the Danube, so he now made one raid across the frontier 
river, the Jaxartes (Sir Daria), to teach the fear of his name 
to the outlying peoples of the steppe (summer 328). And mean- 
while the rift between Alexander and his European followers 
continued to show itself in dark incidents the murder of Clitus 
at Maracanda (Samarkand) , when Alexander struck down an old 
friend, both being hot with wine; the claim that Alexander 
should be approached with prostration (proskynesis), urged in 
the spring of 327, and opposed boldly by the philosopher Calli- 
sthenes, Aristotle's nephew, who had come in the king's train; 
the conspiracy of the pages at Bactria, which was made an 
occasion for putting Calh'sthenes to death. It was now that 
Alexander completed the conquest of the provinces north 
of the Hindu Kush by the reduction of the last mountain 
strongholds of the native princes. In one of them he captured 
Roxana, the daughter of Oxyartes, whom he made his wife. 
Before the summer of 327 he had once more crossed the 
Hindu Kush on his way to India (for the campaigns in the 
N.E. see F. von Schwarz, Alex. d. Grossen Feldzuge in Turke- 
stan, 1893, v.). 

Whilst the heavier troops moved down the Kabul valley 
to Pencelaotis (Charsadda) under Perdiccas and Hephaestion, 
Alexander with a body of lighter-armed troops and cavalry 
pushed up the valleys which join the Kabul from the north 
through the regions now known as Bajour, Swat and Buner, 
inhabited by Indian hill peoples, as fierce then against the 
western intruder as their Pathan successors are against the 
British columns. The books give a number of their " cities " 
reduced by Alexander walled mountain villages which can in 
some cases be identified more or less certainly with places where 
the clans are established to-day. The crowning exploit was the 
reduction of Aornus, 1 a stronghold perched on a precipitous 
summit above the Indus, which it was said that Heracles had 
failed to take. How much of the story of Alexander's discovery 
of the sacred mountain of the Nysa and the traces of Dionysus 
is due to the invention of Aristobulus and Clitarchus (Arrian 
did not find it in Ptolemy) we cannot say. Meantime Perdiccas 
and Hephaestion had built a bridge over the Indus, and by this 
in the spring of 326 Alexander passed into the Punjab (at Ohind, 
16 m. above Attock, according to Foucher, Notes sur la giogr. 
one. du Gandhara, 1902). The country into which he came was 
dominated by three principalities, that of Ambhi (Gr. Omphis, 
Curt. viii. 1 2. 6) between the Indus and the Hydaspes (Jhelum, 

1 The best opinion now confirms Abbott's identification of Aornus 
with Mahaban Deane, Journ. R. Asiat. Soc. (Oct. 1896), p. 673; 
Stein, Report of an Archaeological Tour with the Buner Field Force 
(Lahore, 1898), pp. 45-48. 



Jehlam), centred in the great city of Takkasila (Gr. Taxila), 
that of the Paurara rajah (Gr. Porus) between the Hydaspes 
and Acesines (Chenab), and that of Abhisara (Gr. Abisares) 
between the same two rivers higher up, on the confines of 
Kashmir (Stein, Rajatarangini, transl. bk. i. 180, v. 217). 
The kings of Taxila and Porus were at enmity, and for this cause 
the invader could reckon upon Omphis as a firm ally. Porus 
was prepared to contest the passage of the Hydaspes with all 
his strength. Abisares preferred to play a double game and 
wait upon events. Alexander reached the Hydaspes just as the 
rains broke, when the river was already swollen. Porus held 
the opposite bank with a powerful army, including 200 elephants. 
Alexander succeeded in taking a part of his forces across the 
river higher up during a night of torrential rain, and then 
he fought the fourth and last of his pitched battles in Asia, the 
one which put to proof more shrewdly than any of the others the 
quality of the Macedonian army as an instrument of war, and 
yet again emerged victorious. Porus fell sorely wounded into 
his hands. 2 Porus had saved his honour, and now Alexander 
tried, and not in vain, to gain him as a friend. When he con- 
tinued his progress eastwards across the Acesines, Porus was 
an active ally. Alexander moved along close under the hills. 
After crossing the Hydraotes (Ravi) he once more came into 
contact with hostile tribes, and the work of storming petty 
towns began again. Then the Hyphasis (Beas) was reached, 
and here the Macedonian army refused to go any farther. It 
was a bitter mortification to Alexander, before whose imagina- 
tion new vistas had just opened out eastwards, where there 
beckoned the unknown world of the Ganges and its splendid 
kings. For three days the will of king and people were locked in 
antagonism; then Alexander gave way; the long eastward 
movement was ended; the return began. 

Alexander left the conquered portion of India east of the Indus 
to be governed under Porus, Omphis of Taxila, and Abisares, 
the country west of the Indus under Macedonian 
governors, and set out to explore the great river return. 
to its mouth (for the organization of the Indian 
provinces, see especially Niese, vol. i. pp. 500 f.). The fleet 
prepared on the Hydaspes sailed in October, while a land army 
moved along the bank. The confluence of the Hydaspes and 
Acesines passed, the Macedonians were once more in a region of 
hostile tribes with towns to be stormed. It was at one of 
these, a town of the Malli, that a memorable incident occurred, 
such as characterized the personality of Alexander for all suc- 
ceeding time. He leapt from the wall with only three companions 
into the hostile town, and, before the army behind him could 
effect an entrance, lay wounded almost to death. 3 He recovered 
and beat down the resistance of the tribes, leaving them annexed 
to the Macedonian satrapy west of the Indus. Below the con- 
fluence of the Punjab rivers into the single stream of the Indus 
the territory of loose tribes was succeeded by another group of 
regular principalities, under the rajahs called by the Greeks 
Musicanus, Oxycanus and Sambus. These opposed a national 
resistance to the Macedonians, the fires of which were fanned 
by the Brahmins, but still the strong arm of the western people 
prevailed. The rajah of Patala at the apex of the Indus delta 
abandoned his country and fled. It was the high summer of 
325 when Alexander reached Patala. From here he explored 
both arms of the delta to the ocean, now seen by the Macedonians 
for the first time. He had determined that the Indus fleet 
should be used to explore this new world and try to find a water- 
way between the Indus and the Persian Gulf. A great part of 
the land-forces had been already sent off under Craterus in the 
earlier summer to return west by Kandahar and Seistan; tl 
fleet was to sail under the Greek Nearchus from the Indus 
mouth with the winter monsoon; Alexander himself witl 
the rest of the land-forces set out in October to go by the 

1 Beside V. Smith (cited below) see Schubert, " Die Porusschlacht," 
in Rhein. Mus. Ivi., 1901, p. 543. 

8 There seems nothing to fix the exact spot of this town ; 
common identification with Multan is, according to Raverty and 
V. Smith, certainly wrong. 



BIOGRAPHY] 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



549 



coast of Baluchistan, through the appalling sand-wastes of the 
Mekran. 1 

He would seem to have kept down to the coast until the 
headland of Ras Malan was reached, scattering before him the 
bands of Arabitae and Oritae who were the inhabitants of this 
well-provisioned tract. For the 150 miles between Ras Malan 
and Pasni Alexander was compelled by the natural barriers to 
march inland, and it was here that his troops sank under the 
horrors of heat and thirst and sand. The coast once regained, 
the way was easy; no such desert had to be traversed, when 
Alexander again struck inland for the chief city of the Gedrosians 
(Pura) , and thence made his way into Carmania. Here the spent 
troops rested; here the army of Craterus joined them, and 
Nearchus came to announce his safe arrival at the entrance of 
the Persian Gulf. 2 

The machine of empire had not functioned altogether smoothly 
while the king had been absent, and on Alexander's re-appearance 
many incapables and rogues in high office had to be replaced by 
better men. In Carmania, in Persis, complaints from the pro- 
vinces continued to reach him, as well as the news of disorders in 
Macedonia and Greece. New orders and appointments served to 
bring the empire into hand again, and at Susa in the spring of 
324 Alexander rested, the task of conquering and compassing 
the Achaemenian realm achieved. The task of its internal re- 
organization now began to occupy him changes, for instance, 
in the military system which tended to assimilate Macedonians 
and Orientals. The same policy of fusion was furthered by the 
great marriage festival at Susa, when Alexander took two more 
wives from the Persian royal house, married a number of his 
generals to Oriental princesses, and even induced as many as he 
could of the rank-and-file to take Asiatic wives. This policy did 
not allay the discontent of the Macedonian army, and when 
Alexander in the summer of 324 moved to the cooler region of 
Media, an actual mutiny of the Macedonians broke out on the 
way at Opis on the Tigris. It was occasioned by the discharge 
of the Macedonian veterans, and only the personal magnetism 
of Alexander and his threat to entrust himself altogether to the 
Orientals availed to quell it. At Ecbatana the death of Hephaes- 
tion for a time plunged Alexander into a passion of mourning. 
But by the winter (3 24-3 23) he was again active, bringing the hill- 
tribes on the S.W. border of Media, the Cossaei, into subjection. 
In the spring of 323 he moved down to Babylon, receiving on 
the way embassies from lands as far as the confines of the known 
world, for the eyes of all nations were now turned with fear or 
wonder to the figure which had appeared with so superhuman 
an effect upon the world's stage. The embassy from Rome, 
however, is almost certainly a later, and an inevitable, invention. 
The exploration of the waterways round about the empire was 
Alexander's immediate concern, the discovery of the presumed 
connexion of the Caspian with the Northern Ocean, the opening 
of a maritime route from Babylon to Egypt round Arabia. The 
latter enterprise Alexander designed to conduct in person; 
under his supervision was prepared in Babylon an immense fleet, 
a great basin dug out to contain 1000 ships, and the water- 
communications of Babylonia taken in hand. Innovations were 
carried out in the tactical system of the army which were to 
modify considerably the methods of future battle-fields. At 
last all was ready; the 2oth of the month Daesius (? June 5) 
was fixed for the king's setting forth. On the I5th and i6th 
Alexander caroused deep into the night at the house 
of the favourite Medius. On the iyth he developed 
death. fever; for a time he treated it as a momentary impedi- 
ment to the expedition; but on the zyth his speech 
was gone, and the Macedonian army were suffered to pass man 

1 For the Indian campaigns of Alexander see especially McCrindle, 
Invasion of India by Alexander the Great (1896) ; Vincent A. Smith, 
Early History of India (1904), and the references there given to the 
researches of Sir T. H. Holdich, Raverty and Foucher; A. Anspach, 
De Alex. Magni exped. ind. (1903). 

2 Tomaschek, " Topographische Erlauterung der Kustenfahrt 
Nearchs " in the Sitzungsberichte der kaiserl. Akad. d. Wissensch. 
of Vienna (Philosoph.-histor. Klasse, vol. cxxi.); Major P. M. Sykes, 
Ten Thousand Miles in Persia (1902), pp. 166 f. 






by man through his chamber to bid him farewell. On the 28th 
(? June 13) Alexander died. 3 

His son by Roxana, the so-called ALEXANDER " AEGUS," was 
born a few months later. He and his uncle Philip, as joint kings, 
were placed under the guardianship of Perdiccas, Peithon and 
Antipater in succession. After the death of Antipater (319) 
Roxana fled with him to Epirus, and was afterwards taken back 
to Macedonia, together with Olympias, by Polyperchon. All 
three fell into the hands of Cassander; Alexander and his 
mother were in 310-309 put to death by order of Cassander 
(Justin xiv. 6, xv. 2). The meaningless surname of Aegus, 
still given in some books to this Alexander, is derived simply 
from a modern misreading of the text of the Astronomical Canon, 
AirOT for AAAOT. 

Alexander the Great is one of the instances of the vanity 
of appealing from contemporary disputes to " the verdict of 
posterity "; his character and his policy are estimated 
to-day as variously as ever. Certain features the 
high physical courage, the impulsive energy, the policy. 
fervid imagination stand out clear; beyond that 
disagreement begins. That he was a great master of war is 
admitted by most of those who judge his character unfavourably, 
but even this has been seriously questioned (e.g. by Beloch, 
Griech. Gesch. iii. (i.), p. 66). There is a dispute as to his real 
designs. That he aimed at conquering the whole world and 
demanded to be worshipped as a god is the traditional view. 
Droysen denies the former, and Niese maintains that his ambition 
was limited by the bounds of the Persian empire and that the 
claim to divine honours is fabulous (Historische Zeitschr. Ixxix., 
1897, i f.). It is true that our best authority, Arrian, fails to 
substantiate the traditional view satisfactorily; on the other 
hand those who maintain it urge that Arrian's interests were 
mainly military, and that the other authorities, if inferior in 
trustworthiness, are completer in range of vision. Of those, 
again, who maintain the traditional view, some, like Niebuhr 
and Grote, regard it as convicting Alexander of mad ambition 
and vainglory, whilst to Kaerst Alexander only incorporates 
ideas which were the timely fruit of a long historical development. 
The policy of fusing Greeks and Orientals again is diversely 
judged. To Droysen and Kaerst it accords with the historical 
conditions; to Grote and to Beloch it is a betrayal of the pre- 
rogative of Hellenism. 

Some notion of the personal appearance of Alexander may be 
got from the literature and the surviving monuments. He is 
described as of an athletic frame, though not taller than the 
common, and a white and ruddy complexion. The expression of 
his eyes had something "liquid and melting" (TUV ofifiaruv 
rriv diaxvcriv Kal vyporijTo), and the hair which stood up over his 
forehead gave the suggestion of a lion. He had a way of carrying 
his head somewhat aslant. (See especially Plut. Alex. 4; de 
Alex. fort. ii. 2.) The greatest masters of the time executed 
portraits of him, Lysippus in sculpture, Apelles in painting 
and Pyrgoteles in graven gems. Among surviving monuments, 
we have no completely certified portraits except the Tivoli 
herm (now in the Louvre) and the coins struck by his successors. 
The herm is a dry work and the head upon the coins shows 
various degrees of idealization. There are, however, a considerable 
number of works which can make out a better or worse claim 
either to be portraits of Alexander or to reproduce his type, 
and a large field of discussion is therefore open as to their values 
and 'classification (F. Kopp, Vber das Bildnis Alexanders d. 
Grossen (1892); K. J. Ujfalvy, Le Type physique d'Alexandre le 
Grand (1902); T. Schreiber, Sludien iiber das Bildnis Alexanders 
d. Grossen (1903); J. J. Bernoulli, Die erhaltenen Darstellungen 
Alexanders d. Grossen (1905). Alexander shaved clean, and set 
the fashion in this respect for the Graeco-Roman world for the 
next 500 years. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The campaigns and life of Alexander did not 
lack contemporary historians, some of them eye-witnesses and even 
associates. They included the philosopher Callisthenes, put to 

3 For Alexander's funeral, see F. Jacoby in Rhein. Mus. (1903), 
pp. 461 f. 



550 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



[ROMANCE 



death by Alexander in 327, whose history went up to the death of 
Darius, Alexander's general Ptolemy, afterwards king in Egypt, 
Nearchus who commanded the fleet that sailed from the Indus to 
the Persian Gulf, Onesicritus who served as pilot in the same fleet, 
Aristobulus who was with Alexander in India, Clitarchus, a con- 
temporary, if not an eye-witness, important from the fact that his 
highly coloured version of the life of Alexander became the popular 
authority for the succeeding centuries. Besides the historical 
narrative, there were works mainly geographical or topographical 
left by persons like Baeton and Diognetus, whom Alexander had 
employed (as prinaTHrrai) to survey the roads over which he passed. 
All such original sources have now perished. The fragments are 
collected in the Didot edition of Arrian by Karl Muller. Not reckon- 
ing scattered notices, we depend principally upon five later com- 
positions, Diodorus, book xvii. (c. 20 B.C.), the work of Quintus 
Curtius (c. A.D. 42), Plutarch's (c. 45-125 A.D.) Life of Alexander, 
Arrian's Anabasis and Indica (c. A.D. 150), and the relevant books 
of Justin's abridgment (2nd cent. A.D.) of the history of Trogus 
(c. 10 B.C.?). To these we may add the Latin Itinerarium Alex- 
andri, a skeleton outline of Alexander's campaigns dedicated to the 
emperor Constantius (A.D. 324-361), printed at the end of the Didot 
edition of Arrian, and the Epitome Rerum Gestarum Alexandri magni, 
an abridgment made in the 4th or 5th century of a lost Latin work 
of uncertain date, combining history with elements taken from the 
Romance (edited by O. Wagner, Leipzig, 1900). The relation of 
these works to the various original sources constitutes the critical 
problem before the modern historian in reference to the history of 
Alexander. See Droysen vol. i. appendix i. ; A. Schoene, De rerum 
Alexandri Magni scnptorum imprimis Arriani & Plutarchi fontibus 
(1870); Fraenkel, Die Geschichtschreiber Alex. d. Grossen (1883); 
O. Maas, Kleitarch und Diodor (Petersburg, 1894); Kaerst, For- 
schungen zur Gesch. Alex. d. Grossen (1887), and Gesch. d. hellenist. 
Zeitalters (vol.i., 1901 ) , pp. 421 f . ; F. L. Schoenle, Diodorstudien (i 891 ) ; 
E. Schwartz, articles A Aristobulos (14)," "Arrianus," "Quintus 
Curtius," " Diodorus " in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopadie. 

For modern views of Alexander see Thirl wall, History of Greece; 
Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient History (Eng. trans, rev. by author, 
1852); Grote, History of Greece; Droysen, Histoire de I'Hcllenisme 
(translation by Bouche-Leclerq) ; Ad. Holm, History of Greece 
(Eng. trans., 1898); B. Niese, Gesch. der griech. u. maked. Staaten 
(vol. i.); Kaerst, Gesch. des hellenist. Zeitalters (1901); J. Beloch, 
Griechische Gesch. (vol. iii., 1904);]. B. Bury, History of Greece (1902) ; 
A. von Gutschmid, Geschichte Irons (1888). Among the mass of 
monographs and special articles, reference may be made to Freeman, 
Historical Essays, 2nd series, pp. 182 f. ; Dodge, Alexander (in a series 
called Great Captains) 1890; Mahaffy, Problems in Greek History 
'1892), ch. viii.; D. G. Hogarth, Philip and Alexander of Macedon 
1897), a striking effort of historical imagination to reconstruct 
Alexander as a man of the real world; Benjamin _I. Wheeler, 
Alexander the Great (1900) in the " Heroes of the Nations Series." 
The purely military aspect of Alexander's campaigns is treated in 
general histories of warfare (Rustow-Kochly, Bauer, Delbruck, 
Verdy du Vernois), and in special monographs by Hogarth, Journ. 
of Philol. vol. xvii., 1888, pp. i foil.; H. Droysen, Untersuchungen 
liber A. des Gr. Heerwesen (1885), and Graf Yorck von Wartenburg, 
Kurze (jbersichl der Feldziige A.deGr.(\ 897) . For further references 
to the literature on Alexander, see Kaerst's article in Pauly-Wissowa's 
Realencydopadie (1894). (E. R. B.) 

The Romance of Alexander. 

The figure of Alexander naturally impressed itself upon the 
imagination of the world which his career had shaken. Even 
in India we are told that he was held in honour by the native 
kings who took his farthest provinces in possession. But 
Eastern tradition, so tenacious of the old myths of primitive 
man, has a short memory for actual history, and five centuries 
later Alexander was only remembered in Iran as the accursed 
destroyer of the sacred books, whose wisdom he had at the same 
time pilfered by causing translations to be made into " Roman." 
That the East to-day has so much to tell about Alexander is only 
due to the fact that old mythical stories of gods or heroes who 
go travelling through lands of monsters and darkness, of magical 
fountains and unearthly oceans, became attached to his name 
in the popular literature of the Roman empire, and this mythical 
Alexander was reintroduced in the 7th century A.D. into the 
farther East, where the historical Alexander was almost forgotten. 
The romance of Alexander is found written in the languages oi 
nearly all peoples from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, but 
all these versions are derived, mediately or immediately, from 
the Greek original which circulated under the false name ol 
Callisthenes. The Greek pseudo-Callisthenes (otherwise Aisopos 
we possess in three recensions, based all upon a book producec 
in Egypt in the 2nd century A.D. But this book itself was a 



<_i 



'arrago of heterogeneous elements pieces of genuine history, 
ancient stories once told in Babylon of Gilgamesh or Etanna, 
iterary forgeries of the days soon after Alexander, like the oldest 
part of the " Testament of Alexander," variations due to 
Egyptian patriotic sentiment, like that which made Alexander 
the son of the last Pharaoh, Nectanebus. As the story was 
reproduced, variations were freely introduced according to the 
jent of different times and peoples; in the Persian version 
Alexander (Iskander) became a son of Darius; among the 
Mahommedans he turned into a prophet, hot against idols; the 
pen of Christian monks made him an ascetic saint. 

The Alexander romance found its way into Europe through 
the medium of Latin, but originated mainly from the versions 
of the pseudo-Callisthenes, not from the more sober narrative 
of Quintus Curtius. The pseudo-Callisthenes, in a recension 
which has not been preserved, was translated into Latin by 
Julius Valerius about the end of the 3rd century, and an epitome 
of this translation, also in Latin, was made some time before the 
gth century, and is introduced by Vincent de Beauvais into his 
Speculum historiale. Much of the legend is a running travesty 
of the true history of the conqueror. The first book deals with 
his birth and early exploits. The trace of Alexandrian influence 
is to be found in the pretence that his actual father was 
Nectanebus, a fugitive king of Egypt. The latter was a great 
magician, able, by operating upon waxen figures of the armies 
and ships of his enemies, to obtain complete power over their 
real actions. Obliged, however, to flee to Pella in Macedonia, 
he established himself as an astrologer, and as such was consulted 
by the childless Olympias. Having promised that Zeus Ammon 
would visit her in the form of a dragon, he himself assumed the 
disguise. In due course Alexander was born, and Philip's 
suspicions were overcome by a second appearance of the dragon, 
which was held to prove the divine fatherhood. The child was 
small and somewhat deformed, but of great courage and in- 
telligence. When he was twelve years old he was instructed 
in starcraft by Nectanebus, who was killed by a fall into a pit, 
into which he had been playfully pushed by Alexander. The 
first book also relates his conquests in Italy, Africa, Syria and 
Asia Minor; his return to Macedonia and the submission of 
Greece. The second book continues the history of his conquests, 
and the third contains the victory over Porus, the relations with 
the Brahmins, the letter to Aristotle, on the wonders of India, 
the histories of Candace and the Amazons, the letter to Olympias 
on the marvels of Farther Asia, and lastly the account of 
Alexander's death in Babylon. 

The most wide-spread Latin version of the story, however, 
was the Historia de proeliis, 1 printed at Strassburg in 1486, which 
began to supersede the Epitome of Julius Valerius, in general 
favour about the end of the I3th century. It is said to have 
been written by the Neapolitan arch-presbyter Leo, who was sent 
by Johannes and Marinus, dukes of Campania (941-965) to 
Constantinople, where he found his Greek original. Auxiliary 
sources for the medieval romance- writers were: the opuscule 
(4th century) known as Alexandri magni itcr ad Paradisum, a 
fable of Eastern origin directed against ambition; the Itinerarium 
Alexandri (340), based partly on Julius Valerius and dedicated 
to Constans, son of the emperor Constantine; the letter of 
Alexander to Aristotle (Episl. de situ et mirabilibus Indiae), and 
the correspondence between Alexander and the king of 1 
Brahmins, Dindimus, both of which are often contained in MSS 
of the Epitome; and the treatise (based on a lost history of 
Alexander by Onesicritus), De genlibus Indiae et Bragmanibus, 
ascribed without certainty to Palladius (d. c. 430), successively 
bishop of Helenopolis and Aspona. 

The Ethiopic versions are of great interest as a striking example 
of literary " accommodation. " Not only is the whole atmosphere 
Christian in colouring, but we actually find the Greek gods ii 
the guise of Enoch, Elijah, &c., while Philip is a Christian martyr, 
and Alexander himself a great apostle, even a saint; quotations 
from the Bible are frequent. Syriac and Armenian versions 
were made in the sth century. Persians and Arabs told the 
1 Nativitas et victoriae Alexandri magni regis was the original title. 



ROMANCE] 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



deeds of Iskander; and Firdousi made use of the story in the 
Skdhndma. Another early Persian poet, Nizami, made the story 
specially his own. The crusaders brought back fresh develop- 
ments; Gog and Magog (partly Arab and partly Greek) and 
some Jewish stories were then added. In the nth century 
Simeon Seth, prolovestiarius at the Byzantine court, translated 
the fabulous history from the Persian back into Greek. 

The Alexander legend was the theme of poetry in all European 
languages; six or seven German poets dealt with the subject, 
and it may be read in French, English, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, 
Icelandic, Flemish and Bohemian. 

French. The earliest known French romance of Alexander, 
by Alberic of Besancon (or more properly Briancon), was, until 
the discovery of a fragment of 100 lines at Florence in 1852, 
known only through the German adaptation by Lamprecht the 
preacher, who wrote towards the end of the I2th century, and 
by the version made by a Poitevin poet named Simon in deca- 
syllabic lines. Alberic followed the epitome of Julius Valerius. 
He had some knowledge of authentic history, and rejected the 
more marvellous elements of the story. The French feudal 
romance, Li Romans d'Alexandre, was written in the i2th century 
by Lambert li Tors of Chateaudun, Alexandre de Bernai, sur- 
named de Paris, and others. It contained 20,000 lines, and was 
written in twelve-syllabled lines, whence the term " alexandrine " 
verse. The authors endowed Alexander with the fashionable 
virtues of the chivalric hero, making him especially the type 
of lavish generosity. They used as their sources Valerius, the 
letter to Aristotle and the Her ad Paradisum, adding much of 
their own. Pierre de Saint Cloud, the writer of the fourth section 
of the romance, was evidently acquainted with the Historia de 
proeliis. The incident of the Fuerre de Cadres (Foray of Gaza), 
interpolated in the second section, is assigned to a certain 
Eustache. The redaction of the whole work is due to Alexandre 
de Bernai, who replaced the original assonance by rhyme. 
According to all the traditions of romance it was necessary to 
avenge the death of Alexander. At the end of the I2th century 
Gui de Cambrai and Jean le Nevelon (or Nevelaux or Venelais), 
each wrote a Vengeance d'Alexandre. Jean le Nevelon relates 
how Alior, the son of Alexander and Candace, avenged his 
father's death on Antipater and others. Between 1310 and 1315 
Jacques de Longuyon (or Langhion) introduced into the account 
of the Indian war Les Vceux du paon, a romanesque and fantastic 
episode very loosely connected with Alexander. It is interesting 
for its connexion with the 15th-century romance of Perceforest, 
since in it Alexander visits Britain, where he bestows Scotland 
onGadiferand England on Betis (otherwise Perceforest). Les 
Vteux du paon enjoyed great popularity, and had two sequels, 
Le Restor du paon, written before 1338 by Jean Brisebarre de 
Douai, and Le Parfait du />ao,written in 1340 by Jean de la Mote. 
Florimont, a 12th-century poem by Aimon de Varenne, relates 
to a fictitious personage said to have been the grandfather of 
Alexander. This poem gave rise to two prose romances La 
Conquests de Grece faicte par Philippe de Madien, by Perrinet du 
Pin, first printed in 1527, and Hisloire du roi Florimond (1528). 
Quintus Curtius was largely used for the Alexandras (c. 1180) 
of Gaultier de Lille or de Chatillon (Galtherus ab Insulis or de 
Castellione). It is a Latin poem in ten books of hexameters, 
and contains a curious admixture of Biblical history. It was 
translated at the end of the next century into Flemish by J. van 
Maerlant and into German by Ulrich von Eschenbach. 

Of the French prose versions of the Historia de proeliis may be 
noticed the late romance, L'Histoire du noble et vaillant roy 
Alixandre le Grant (1506). After an account of the ancient 
history of Macedonia and of the intrigue of Nectanebus we are 
told how Philip dies, and how Alexander subdues Rome and 
receives tribute from all European nations. He then makes his 
Persian expedition; the Indian campaign gives occasion for 
descriptions of all kinds of wonders. The conqueror visits a 
cannibal kingdom and finds many marvels in the palace of 
Porus, among them a vine with golden branches, emerald 
leaves and fruit of other precious stones. In one country he 
meets with women who, after the burial in the winter, become 



alive again in the spring full of youth and beauty. Having 
reached the ends of the earth and conquered all nations, he 
aspires to the dominion of the air. He obtains a magic glass 
cage, yoked with eight griffins, flies through the clouds, and, 
thanks to enchanters who know the language of birds, gets 
information as to their manners and customs, and ultimately 
receives their submission. The excessive heat of the upper 
regions compels him to descend, and he next visits the bottom 
of the sea in a kind of diving-bell. The fish crowd round him 
and pay homage. Alexander returns to Babylon, fs crowned 
with much pomp and mass is celebrated. He dies by poison 
soon afterwards. 

English Versions. The Alexander cycle was no less popular 
in Great Britain. The letter from Alexander to Aristotle and 
his correspondence with Dindimus are found in Early English 
versions dating from the nth century. These are printed by 
O. Cockayne in his Narratiunculae Anglice conscriplae (1861). 
The Monk (De Cas. ill. vir.) in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales 
prefaces his account of Alexander with the statement that his 
story is so common 

That every wight that hath discrecioun 
Hath herd somewhat or all of his fortune. 

There are two considerable fragments of an English alliterative 
romance on the subject written in the west midland dialect, and 
dating from the second half of the i4th century. The first, The 
Gestes of the Worthy King and Emperor Alisaunder of Macedoine 
(ed. W. W. Skeat, E.E.T.S., 1877, with William of Palerme) 
contains an account of the wars of Philip, of Nectanebus and of 
the education of Alexander. A second fragment (ed. Skeat, 
E.E.T.S., 1878) contains Alexander's visit to the Gymnosophists 
and his correspondence with Dindimus. Another alliterative 
poem in the northern dialect, of isth-century origin, is based on 
the Historia de proeliis, and was edited by Skeat for the E.E.T.S. 
(1886) as The Wars of Alexander. Earlier than any of these 
is the rhyming Lyfe of Alisaunder (c. 1330) which is printed in 
H. Weber's Metrical Romances (vol. i., 1810). It is written in 
unusually picturesque and vigorous language, and is based on 
the Roman de toute chevalerie, a French compilation made about 
1250 by a certain Eustace or Thomas of Kent. Fragments of 
another rhyming poem (pr. c. 1550) are preserved in the British 
Museum. The Scots Buik of the most noble and vailyzeand 
Conqueror Alexander the Great, printed by Alexander Arbuthnot 
(d. 1585) about 1580, reprinted in 1831 for the Bannatyne Club, 
is not really a life. It contains three episodes of the cycle, the 
" Forray of Gadderis " (not taken from the Fuerre de Cadres 
but from the Assaut de Tyr in the Romans d 1 Alixandre) , " The 
Avowes of Alexander," and ." The Great Battel of Effesoun," 
taken from the Vaux du paon. Many passages in John Barbour's 
Bruce are almost identical with this book, and it is suggested 
by G. Neilson (John Barbour, Poet and Translator, London, 
1900) that Barbour was the author, although the colophon 
states that it was written in 1438. Bruce at Bannockburn 
makes the same oration as Alexander at " Effesoun." A Buke 
of the Conqueror Alexander the Great by Sir Gilbert Hay (fl. 1456) 
is in MS. at Taymouth Castle. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best sketch of the Alexander romance 
literature is by Paul Meyer, Alexandre le grand dans la litterature 
fran$aise aw moyen age (2 vols., Paris, 1886). The first volume 
contains some French texts, and the second a detailed discussion 
of the various versions from the pseudo-Callisthenes downwards. 
See also J. Zacher, Pseudo-Callisthenes, Forschungen zur . . . . 
Alexandersage (Halle, 1867), and for Oriental versions, T. Noldeke, 
" Beitrage zur Geschichte des Alexanderromans " (Denkschriften der 
ksl. A kad. d. Wissenschaften, Phtt.-hist. Klasse, vol. 38 : Vienna, 1890) . 
For early printed versions see Brunet, Manuel du libraire, s.v. 
" Alexandre." 

The text of the pseudo-Callisthenes was edited by C. W. Muller 
from three MSS. in the Bibl. Nat. and printed in the Arrian of the 
Coll. Didot (Paris, 1846), and by H. Meusel (Leipzig, 1871) from a 
Leiden MS. A. Mai edited Julius Valerius (Milan, 1817) and the 
Itinerarium Alexandri (Class. Auct. vol. vii.; Milan, 1835); J. 
Zacher, the Epitome ( Halle, 1867) and Alex, iter ad Paradisum 
(Regensburg, 1859); the Oxford MS. of the Epitome was edited 
by G. Cillf (Strassburg, 1905); G. Landgraf, Die " Vita Alex- 
andri " ... des Archpresbyter Leo (Historia de proeliis), (Erlangen, 









552 



ALEXANDER 



[POPES 



1885); Alexander's letter to Aristotle and his correspondence with 
Dindimus are included in the Teubner edition of Julius Valerius 
(ed. B. Kubler, Leipzig, 1888). A newly discovered anonymous 
Epitome was edited by O. Wagner (Leipzig, 1900). 

The fragment by Alberic was edited by P. Heyse (Berlin, 1856); 
Lamprecht's German text by H. Weismann (Frankfort, 1850) and 
by C. Kinzel (Halle, 1884) ; the Alexandras of Gaultier de Lille, 
by F. A. W. Muldener (Leipzig, 1863); an Icelandic prose version 
(c. 1250) of the same, Alexanders Saga, by C. R. Unger (Christiania, 
1848); Li Romans d'Alixandre, by H. Michelant (Stuttgart, 1846); 
the Ethiopic version by E. A. T. Wallis Budge (1896, 2 vols., with 
English translation) ; the Syriac text of pseudo-Callisthenes by 
Budge (Cambridge, 1889) ; cp. K. F. Weymann, Die dthiopische 
und arabische Ubersetzungen des Pseudo-Kallisthenes (Kircnhain, 
1901). 

Besides the English editions quoted in the text, the alliterative 
English poems were partially edited by I. Stevenson for the Rox- 
burghe Club (1849). There is a great deal of information on the 
various texts in H. L. Wood's Catalogue of Romances in the British 
Museum (1883, vol. i. pp. 94 et seq.). See also A. Hermann, Unter- 
suchungen iiber das Scottische Alexanderbuch (1893); and Unters. 
iiber das med. Gedicht, The Wars of Alexander (Berlin, 1889). Among 
other works see E. Rohde, Der griechische Roman (2nd ed. Leipzig, 
1900); B. Meissner, Alexander u. Gilgamos (Leipzig, 1894); ? 
Kampers, " Alex. d. Grosse und die Idee des Weltimperiums in 
Prophetie und Sage " (in H. Granert's Studien, &c., Freiburg, 1901) ; 
Adolf Ausfeld, Der griechische Alexanderroman (Leipzig, 1907), 
edited after the author's death by W. Kroll; Wilhelm Hertz, 
" Aristoteles in den Alex. Dichtungen d. Mittelalters " (Kgl. Acad. 
d. Wissenschaften, Munich, 1891); H. Becker, Die Brahmanen in 
d. Alex. Sage (Konigsberg, 1889). (M. BR.) 

ALEXANDER, tagus or despot of Pherae in Thessaly, ruled 
from 369 to 358 B.C. His tyranny caused the Aleuadae of 
Larissa to invoke the aid of Alexander II. of Macedon, whose 
intervention was successful, but after his withdrawal Alexander 
treated his subjects as cruelly as before. The Thessalians now 
applied to Thebes; Pelopidas, who was sent to their assistance, 
was treacherously seized and thrown into prison (368), and it 
was necessary to send Epaminondas with a large army to secure 
his release. Alexander's conduct caused renewed intervention; 
in 364 he was defeated at Cynoscephalae by the Thebans, although 
the victory was dearly bought by the loss of Pelopidas, who fell 
in the battle. Alexander was at last crushed by the Thebans, 
compelled to acknowledge the freedom of the Thessalian cities 
and to limit his rule to Pherae, and forced to join the Boeotian 
league. He was murdered by his wife's brother at her instiga- 
tion. Ancient accounts agree in describing Alexander as a 
typically cruel and suspicious tyrant. 

ALEXANDER (1461-1506), king of Poland and grand- 
duke of Lithuania, fourth son of Casimir IV., king of Poland, 
was elected grand-duke of Lithuania on the death of his father 
in 1492, and king of Poland on the death of his brother John 
Albert in 1501. His extreme impecuniosity made him from 
the first subservient to the Polish senate and nobles (sdachta), 
who deprived him of the control of the mint then one of the 
most lucrative sources of revenue of the Polish kings curtailed 
his prerogative, and generally endeavoured to reduce him to a 
subordinate position. This ill-timed parsimony reacted injuri- 
ously upon Polish politics. Thus, for want of funds, Alexander 
was unable to assist the Grand Master of the Order of the Sword 
against Muscovite aggression, or prevent Tsar Ivan III. from 
ravaging Lithuania with the Tatars. The utmost the king 
could do was to garrison Smolensk and other fortresses and 
employ his wife Helena, the tsar's daughter, to mediate a truce 
between his father-in-law and himself. During his reign Poland 
suffered much humiliation from the attempts of her subject 
principalities, Prussia and Moldavia, to throw off her yoke. 
Only the death of Stephen, the great hospodar of Moldavia, 
enabled Poland still to hold her own on the Danube; while the 
liberality of Pope Julius II., who issued no fewer than 29 bulls 
in favour of Poland and granted Alexander Peter's Pence and 
other financial help, enabled the Polish king to restrain somewhat 
the arrogance of the Teutonic Order. In Alexander the char- 
acteristic virtues of the Jagiellos, patience and generosity, 
degenerated into slothfulness and extravagance. Frequently 
he was too poor to pay the expenses of his own table. But he 
never felt at home in Poland, and bestowed his favour principally 



upon his fellow-countrymen, the most notable of whom was the 
wealthy Lithuanian magnate Michael Glinsky, who justified his 
master's confidence by his great victory over the Tatars at 
Kleck (August 5, 1506), the news of which was brought to 
Alexander on his deathbed. 

See V. Czerny, The Reigns of John Albert and Alexander Jagietta 
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1882). 

ALEXANDER, the name of eight popes: 

ALEXANDER I. was bishop of Rome fromabout 106 to 115. He 
has been identified, without any foundation, with Alexander, a 
martyr of the Via Nomentana, whose day is the 3rd of May. 

ALEXANDER II. (Anselmo Baggio), pope from 1061 to 1073, was 
a native of Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic 
coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, 
and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy. His election, which 
Hildebrand had arranged in conformity with the decree of 
1059 (see NICHOLAS II.), was not sanctioned by the imperial 
court of Germany. This court, faithful to the practice observed 
by it in the preceding elections, nominated another candidate, 
Cadalus, bishop of Parma, who was proclaimed at the council of 
Basel under the name of Honorius II., marched to Rome, and 
for a long time jeopardized his rival's position. At length, 
however, he was abandoned by the Germanic court and deposed 
by a council held at Mantua; and Alexander's position re- 
mained unchallenged. Alexander was succeeded by his associate 
Hildebrand, who took the title of Gregory VII. (L. D.*) 

ALEXANDER III. (Orlando Bandinelli), pope from 1159 to 
1181, was a Siennese, and as a teacher of canon law in Bologna 
composed the Stroma or the Summa Magistri Rolandi, one of 
the earliest commentaries on the Decretum Gratiani. In 
October 1150 Eugenius III. created him cardinal deacon SS. 
Cosmae and Damiani; later he became cardinal priest of St 
Mark's. Probably about this time he composed his Sentences, 
based on the Introductio ad theologiam of Abelard. In 1153 he 
became papal chancellor, and was the leader of the cardinals 
opposed to Frederick Barbarossa. On the 7th of September 
1159 he was chosen the successor of Adrian IV., a minority of 
the cardinals, however, electing the cardinal priest Octavian, 
who assumed the name of Victor IV. This antipope, and his 
successors Paschal III. (1164-1168) and Calixtus III. (1168- 
1 1 78), had th? imperial support; but after the defeat of Legnano, 
Barbarossa finally (in the peace of Venice, 1177) recognized 
Alexander as pope. On the I2th of March 1178 Alexander 
returned to Rome, which he had been compelled to leave twice, 
namely, from 1162 until the 23rd of November 1165, and again 
in 1167. The first period he spent in France, the latter chiefly 
in Gaeta, Benevento, Anagni and Venice. In March 1179 
Alexander held the third Lateran synod, a brilliant assemblage, 
reckoned by the Roman church as the eleventh oecumenical 
council; its acts embody several of the pope's proposals for the 
betterment of the condition of the church, among them the 
present law requiring that no one may be elected pope without 
the votes of two-thirds of the cardinals. This synod marks the 
summit of Alexander's power. Besides checkmating Barbarossa, 
he had humbled Henry II. of England in the affair of Thomas 
Becket, he had confirmed the right of Alphonso I. of Portugal 
to the crown, and even as a fugitive had enjoyed the favour and 
protection of Louis VII. of France. Nevertheless, soon after the 
close of the synod the Roman republic forced Alexander to 
leave the city, which he never re-entered; and on the 29th of 
September 1179 some nobles set up the antipope Innocent III, 
By the judicious use of money, however, Alexander got him 
into his power, so that he was deposed in January 1180. 
1181 Alexander excommunicated William the Lion of Scotland 
and put the kingdom under the interdict. The great pope died 
at Civita Castellana on the 3Oth of August 1181. 

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., i. 34'344: 
Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., 1481. The most elabo 
rate biography is H. Reuter, Geschichte Alexanders III. und der Kira 
seiner Zeit (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1860). (W. W. R. ) 

ALEXANDER IV. (Rinaldo), pope from 1254 to 1261, was, like 
Innocent III. and Gregory IX., a member of the family of the 



POPES] 



ALEXANDER 



553 




counts of Segni. His uncle Gregory IX. made him cardinal 
deacon in 1227 and cardinal bishop of Ostia in 1231. On the 
death of Innocent IV. he was elected pope at Naples on the I2th 
of December 1254. He is described as a stout man, kindly, 
cheerful,'but of no great brilliancy. He succeeded Innocent IV. 
as guardian of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, promising 
him his benevolent protection; but in less than a fortnight he 
conspired against him and bitterly opposed Conradin's uncle 
Manfred. Alexander fulminated with excommunication and 

terdict against the party of Manfred, but in vain; nor could 
enlist the kings of England and Norway in a crusade against 

e Hohenstaufen. Rome itself became too Ghibelline for the 

ipe, who withdrew to Viterbo, where he died on the 25th of 
May 1261. His pontificate was signalized by efforts to unite 
the Greek and Latin churches, by the establishment of the 
Inquisition in France, by favours shown to the mendicant orders, 
and by an attempt to organize a crusade against the Tatars. 

The registers of Alexander IV. are published by Bourel de la 
Ronciere and others in the Bibliotheque des ficoles fran$aises d'Athbnes 
et de Rome, Paris, 1895 if. (W. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDER V. (Peter Philarges), pope 1409-1410, was born 
in Crete of unknown parents and entered the order of St Francis, 
for which, as for the other mendicant orders, he later manifested 
his affection in a striking manner. He was a member in turn 
of the universities of Oxford and Paris, and finally settled in 
Lombardy, where, thanks to the favour of Gian Galeazzo 
Visconti, he became bishop, first of Piacenza, then of Vincenza, 
then of Novara, and afterwards archbishop of Milan. On being 
created cardinal by Innocent VII. he devoted all his energies 
from 1408 onwards to the realization of the union of the church, 
in spite of the two rival popes. He was one of the promoters 
of the council of Pisa, and after that assembly had declared 
Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, the cardinals 
assembled in conclave thought they could not do better than 
crown with the tiara this cosmopolitan prelate, who had an 
equal mastery of the Latin and Greek languages, and was re- 
nowned not only for his learning in theology but for his affability 
(June 26, 1409). As a matter of fact, the only effect of this 
election was to aggravate the schism by adding a third to the 
number of rival pontiffs. During his short reign of ten months 
Alexander V.'s aim was to extend his obedience with the assist- 
ance of France, and, notably, of the duke Louis II. of Anjou, 
upon whom he conferred the investiture of the kingdom of 
Sicily, together with the title of gonfalonier of the church. He 
proclaimed and promised rather than effected a certain number 
of reforms: the abandonment of the rights of " spoils " and 
" procurations," the re-establishment of the system of canonical 
election in the cathedral churches and principal monasteries, &c. 
But death came upon him almost without warning at Bologna, 
in the night of the 3rd-4th May 1410. A rumour went about 
that he had been poisoned by the cardinal Baldassare Cossa, 
impatient to be his successor, who succeeded him in fact under 
the name of John XXIII. The crime has, however, never 
been proved, though a Milanese physician, who performed the 
task of dissecting the corpse of Peter Philarges, seems to have 
thought that he found traces of poison. (N. V.) 

ALEXANDER VI. (Rodrigo Borgia) (1431-1503), pope from 
1492 to his death, is the most memorable of the corrupt and 
secular popes of the Renaissance. He was born (January i , 1 43 1 ) 
at Xativa, near Valencia in Spain, and his father's surname was 
Lanzol or Llancol; that of his mother's family, Borgia or Borja, 
was assumed by him on the elevation of his maternal uncle to 
the papacy as Calixtus III. (April 8, 1455). He studied law at 
Bologna, and after his uncle's election he was created successively 
bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the church, an act of 
nepotism characteristic of the age. He served in the Curia under 
five popes and acquired much administrative experience, in- 
fluence and wealth, although no great power; he was economical 
in his habits; on occasion he displayed great splendour and lived 
in a fine palace. His manners were agreeable and his appearance 
fascinating, but, like many other prelates of the day, his morals 
were far from blameless, his two dominant passions being greed 



were i 



of gold and love of women, and he was devotedly fond of the 
children whom his mistresses bore him. Although ecclesiastical 
corruption was then at its height, his riotous mode of life called 
down upon him a very severe reprimand from Pope Pius II., who 
succeeded Calixtus III. in 1458. Of his many mistresses the one 
"or whom his passion lasted longest was a certain Vannozza 
^Giovanna) dei Cattani, born in 1442, and wife of three successive 
busbands. The connexion began in 1470, and she bore him many 
children whom be openly acknowledged as his own: Giovanni, 
afterwards duke of Gandia (born 1474), Cesare (born 1476), 
Lucrezia (born 1480), and Goffredo or Giuffre (born 1481 or 1482). 
His other children Girolamo, Isabella and Pier Luigi were of 
uncertain parentage. Before.his elevation to the papacy Cardinal 
Borgia's passion for Vannozza somewhat diminished, and she 
subsequently led a very retired life. Her place in his affections 
was filled by the beautiful Giulia Farnese (Giulia Bella), wife of 
an Orsini, but his love for his children by Vannozza remained as 
trong as ever and proved, indeed, the determining factor of his 
whole career. He lavished vast sums on them and loaded them 
with every honour. A characteristic instance of the corruption 
of the papal court is the fact that Borgia's daughter Lucrezia (see 
BORGIA, LUCREZIA) lived with his mistress Giulia, who bore him 
a daughter Laura in 1492. 

On the death of Pope Innocent VIII. the three likely can- 
didates for the Holy See were Cardinals Borgia, Ascanio Sforza 
and Giuliano della Rovere; at no previous or subsequent election 
were such immense sums of money spent on bribery, and Borgia 
by his great wealth succeeded in buying the largest number of 
votes, including that of Sforza, and to his intense joy he was 
elected on the loth of August 1492, assuming the name of 
Alexander VI. Borgia's elevation did not at the time excite 
much alarm, except in some of the cardinals who knew him, and 
at first his reign was marked by a strict administration of justice 
and an orderly method of government in satisfactory contrast 
with the anarchy of the previous pontificate, as well as by great 
outward splendour. But it was not long before his unbridled 
passion for endowing his relatives at the expense of the church 
and of his neighbours became manifest. For this object he was 
ready to commit any crime and to plunge all Italy into war. 
Cesare, then a youth of sixteen and a student at Pisa, was made 
archbishop of Valencia, his nephew Giovanni received a cardinal's 
hat, and for the duke of Gandia and Giuffre the pope proposed to 
carve fiefs out of the papal states and the kingdom of Naples. 
Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandia were Cervetri 
and Anguillara, lately acquired by Virginio Orsini, head of that 
powerful and turbulent house, with the pecuniary help of 
Ferdinand of Aragon, king of Naples (Don Ferrante). This 
brought the latter into conflict with Alexander, who determined 
to revenge himself by making an alliance with the king's enemies, 
especially the Sforza family, lords of Milan. In this he was 
opposed by Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for the 
papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere, feeling 
that Rome was a dangerous place for him, fortified himself in his 
bishopric of Ostia at the Tiber's mouth, while Ferdinand allied 
himself with Florence, Milan, Venice, and the pope formed a 
league against Naples (April 25, 1493) and prepared for war. 
Ferdinand appealed to Spain for help; but Spain was anxious 
to be on good terms with the pope to obtain a title over the newly 
discovered continent of America and could not afford to quarrel 
with him. 

Alexander meditated great marriages for his children. 
Lucrezia had been married to the Spaniard Don Gasparo de 
Procida, but on her father's elevation to the papacy the union 
was annulled, and in 1493 she was married to Giovanni Sforza, 
lord of Pesaro, the ceremony being celebrated at the Vatican 
with unparalleled magnificence. But in spite of the splendours 
of the court, the condition of Rome became every day more 
deplorable. The city swarmed with Spanish adventurers, 
assassins, prostitutes and informers; murder and robbery were 
committed with impunity, heretics and Jews were admitted to 
the city on payment of bribes, and the pope himself shamelessly 
cast aside all show of decorum, living a purely secular and 



554 



ALEXANDER 



[POPES 



immoral life, and indulging in the chase, dancing, stage plays and 
indecent orgies. One of his boon companions was Jem, the 
brother of the sultan Bayezid, detained as a hostage. 

The general political outlook in Italy was of the gloomiest, and 
the country was on the eve of the catastrophe of foreign invasion. 
At Milan Lodovico Sforza (il Moro) ruled, nominally as regent for 
the youthful duke Gian Galeazzo, but really with a view to making 
himself master of the state. He made many alliances to secure 
his position, but fearing himself isolated he sought help from 
Charles VIII. of France, and as the king of Naples threatened to 
come to the aid of Gian Galeazzo, who had married his grand- 
daughter, he encouraged the French king in his schemes for the 
conquest of Naples. Alexander carried on a double policy, 
always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family. 
But through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador he made 
peace with Naples in July 1493 and also with the Orsini; the 
peace was cemented by a marriage between the pope's son 
Giuffre and Dona Sancha, Ferdinand's grand-daughter. In order 
to dominate the Sacred College more completely he created twelve 
new cardinals, among them his own son Cesare, then only eighteen 
years old, and Alessandro Farnese, the brother of Giulia Bella, 
one of the pope's mistresses, creations which caused much scandal. 
On the 25th of January 1494 Ferdinand died and was succeeded 
by his son Alphonso II. Charles of France now advanced formal 
claims on the kingdom, and Alexander drew him to his side and 
authorized him to pass through Rome ostensibly on a crusade 
against the Turks, without mentioning Naples. But when the 
French invasion became a reality he was alarmed, recognized 
Alphonso as king, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange 
for various fiefs to his sons (July 1494) . Preparations for defence 
were made; a Neapolitan army was to advance through the 
Romagna and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize Genoa ; 
but both expeditions were badly conducted and failed, and on the 
8th of September Charles crossed the Alps and joined Lodovico il 
Moro at Milan. The papal states were in a turmoil, and the 
powerful Colonna faction seized Ostia in the name of France. 
Charles rapidly advanced southward, and after a short stay 
in Florence set out for Rome (November 1494). Alexander 
appealed to Ascanio Sforza for help, and even to the sultan. He 
tried to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but 
his position was most insecure, and the Orsini offered to admit 
the French to their castles. This defection decided the pope to 
come to terms, and on the 3ist of December Charles entered 
Rome with his troops and the cardinals of the French faction. 
Alexander now feared that the king might depose him for simony 
and summon a council, but he won over the bishop of St Malo, 
who had much influence over the king, with a cardinal's hat, and 
agreed to send Cesare, as legate, to Naples with the French army, 
to deliver Jem to Charles and to give him Civitavecchia (January 
16, 1495). On the 28th Charles departed for Naples with Jem 
and Cesare, but the latter escaped to Spoleto. Neapolitan resist- 
ance collapsed; Alphonso fled and abdicated in favour of his 
son Ferdinand II., who also had to fly abandoned by all, and the 
kingdom was conquered with surprising ease. But a reaction 
against Charles soon set in, for all the powers were alarmed at his 
success, and on the 3ist of March a league between the pope, the 
emperor, Venice, Lodovico il Moro and Ferdinand of Spain 
was formed, ostensibly against the Turks, but in reality to expel 
the French from Italy. Charles had himself crowned king of 
Naples on the I2th of May, but a few days later began his retreat 
northward. He encountered the allies at Fornovo, and after a 
drawn battle cut his way through them and was back in France 
by November; Ferdinand II. with Spanish help was reinstated 
at Naples soon afterwards. The expedition, if it produced no 
material results, laid bare the weakness of the Italian political 
system and the country's incapacity for resistance. 

Alexander availed himself of the defeat of the French to break 
the power of the Orsini, following the general tendency of all 
the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories and establish 
a centralized despotism. Virginio Orsini, who had been captured 
by the Spaniards, died a prisoner at Naples, and the pope con- 
fiscated his property. But the rest of the clan still held out, 



and the papal troops sent against them under Guidobaldo duke 
of Urbino and the duke of Gandia were defeated at Soriano 
(January 1497). Peace was made through Venetian mediation, 
the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their confiscated 
lands; the duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was left 
by the pope to pay his own ransom. The Orsini still remained 
very powerful, and Alexander could count on none but his 3000 
Spaniards. His only success had been the capture of Ostia and 
the submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and Savelli. 
Now occurred the first of those ugly domestic tragedies for 
which the house of Borgia remained famous. On the i4th of 
June the duke of Gandia, lately created duke of Benevento, 
disappeared; the next day his corpse was found in the Tiber. 
Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castle 
St Angelo, and then declared that the reform of the church would 
be the sole object of his life henceforth a resolution which he 
did not keep. Every effort was made to discover the assassin, 
and suspicion fell on various highly placed personages. Suddenly 
the rumour spread about that Cesare, the pope's second son, was 
the author of the deed, and although the inquiries then ceased 
and no conclusive evidence has yet come to light, there is every 
probability that the charge was well founded. No doubt Cesare, 
who contemplated quitting the church, was inspired by jealousy 
of Gandia's influence with the pope. Violent and revengeful, 
he now became the most powerful man in Rome, and even his 
father quailed before him. As he needed funds to carry out his 
various schemes, the pope began a series of confiscations, of 
which one of the victims was his own secretary, in order to enrich 
him. The process was a simple one: any cardinal, nobleman 
or official who was known to be rich would be accused of some 
offence; imprisonment and perhaps murder followed at once, 
and then the confiscation of his property. The disorganization 
of the Curia was appalling, the sale of offices became a veritable 
scandal, the least opposition to the Borgia was punished with 
death, and even in that corrupt age the state of things shocked 
public opinion. The story of Alexander's relations with Savona- 
rola is narrated under the latter heading; it is sufficient to say 
here that the pope's hostility was due to the friar's outspoken 
invectives against papafr corruption and to his appeals for a 
General Council. Alexander, although he could not get Savona- 
rola into his own hands, browbeat the Florentine government 
into condemning the reformer to death (May 23, 1498). The 
pope was unable to maintain order in his own dominions; the 
houses of Colonna and Orsini were at open war with each other, 
but after much fighting they made peace on a basis of alliance 
against the pope. Thus further weakened, he felt more than ever 
that he had only his own kin to rely upon, and his thoughts 
were ever turned on family aggrandizement. He had annulled 
Lucrezia's marriage with Sforza in 1497, and, unable to arrange 
a union between Cesare and the daughter of Frederick, king of 
Naples (who had succeeded Ferdinand II. the previous year), 
he induced the latter by threats to agree to a marriage between 
the duke of Bisceglie, a natural son of Alphonso II., and Lucrezia. 
Cesare, who renounced his cardinalate, was sent on a mission 
to France at the end of the year, bearing a bull of divorce for 
the new king Louis XII., in exchange for which he obtained the 
duchy of Valentinois (hence his title of Duca Valentino) and a 
promise of material assistance in his schemes to subjugate the 
feudal princelings of Romagna; he married a princess of Navarre. 
Alexander hoped that Louis's help would be more profitable to 
his house than that of Charles had been and, in spite of the 
remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself with 
France in January 1499 and was joined by Venice. By the 
autumn Louis was in Italy and expelled Lodovico Sforza from 
the Milanese. In order to consolidate his possessions still further, 
now that French success seemed assured, the pope determined 
to deal drastically with Romagna, which although nominally 
under papal rule was divided up into a number of practically 
independent lordships on which Venice, Milan and Florence 
cast hungry eyes. Cesare, nominated gonfaloniere of the Church, 
and strong in French favour, proceeded to attack the turbulent 
cities one by one (for detail see BOEXJIA, CESARE). But the 



POPES] 



ALEXANDER 



555 



expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico 
Sforza interrupted his conquests, and he returned to Rome 
early in 1 500. This year was a jubilee year, and crowds of pilgrims 
flocked to the city from all parts of the world bringing money 
for the purchase of indulgences, so that Alexander was able to 
furnish Cesare with funds for his enterprise. In the north the 
pendulum swung back once more and the French reoccupied 
Milan in April, causing the downfall of the Sforzas, much to 
Alexander's gratification. But there was no end to the Vatican 
tragedies, and in July the duke of Bisceglie, whose existence 
was no longer advantageous, was murdered by Cesare's orders; 
this left Lucrezia free to contract another marriage. The pope, 
ever in need of money, now created twelve new cardinals, from 
whom he received 1 20,000 ducats, and fresh conquests for Cesare 
were considered. But while a crusade was talked of, the real 
object was central Italy, and in the autumn Cesare, favoured 
by France and Venice, set forth with 10,000 men to complete 
his interrupted enterprise. The local despots of Romagna were 
dispossessed and an administration was set up, which, if tyrannical 
and cruel, was at least orderly and strong, and aroused the 
admiration of Machiavelli (q.v.). On his return to Rome (June 
1501) he was created duke of Romagna. Louis XII., having 
succeeded in the north, determined to conquer southern Italy 
as well, and concluded a treaty with Spain for the division of 
the Neapolitan kingdom, which was ratified by the pope on 
the 2 5th of June, Frederick being formally deposed. The French 
army proceeded to invade Naples, and Alexander took the 
opportunity, with the help of the Orsini, to reduce the Colonna 
to obedience. In his absence he left Lucrezia as regent, offering 
the astounding spectacle of a pope's natural daughter in charge 
of the Holy See. Shortly afterwards he induced Alphonso d'Este, 
son of the duke of Ferrara, to marry her, thus establishing her 
as heiress to one of the most important principalities in Italy 
(January 1502). About this time a Borgia of doubtful parentage 
was born, Giovanni, described in some papal documents as 
Alexander's son and in others as Cesare's. 

As France and Spain were quarrelling over the division of 
Naples and the Campagna barons were quiet, Cesare set out 
once more in search of conquests. In June he seized Camerino 
and Urbino, the news of which capture filled the pope with 
childish joy. But his military force was uncertain, for the 
condottieri were not to be trusted. His attempt to draw Florence 
into an alliance failed, but in July Louis of France again invaded 
Italy and was at once bombarded with complaints from the 
Borgia's enemies. Alexander's diplomacy, however, turned the 
tide, and Cesare, in exchange for promising to assist the French 
in the south, was given a free hand in central Italy. A new 
danger now arose in the shape of a conspiracy against him on 
the part of the deposed despots, the Orsini and some of his own 
condottieri. At first the papal troops were defeated and things 
looked black for the house of Borgia. But a promise of French 
help at once forced the confederates to come to terms, and Cesare 
by an act of treachery seized the ringleaders at Senigallia, and 
put Oliverotto da Fermo and Vitellozzo Vitelli to death (Dec. 31, 
1 502) . As soon as Alexander heard the news he decoyed Cardinal 
Orsini to the Vatican and cast him into a dungeon, where he 
died. His goods were confiscated, his aged mother turned into 
the street and numbers of other members of the clan in Rome 
were arrested, while Giuffre Borgia led an expedition into the 
Campagna and seized their castles. Thus the two great houses 
of Orsini and Colonna, who had long fought for predominance 
in Rome and often flouted the pope's authority, were subjugated, 
and a great step achieved towards consolidating the Borgia's 
power. Cesare then returned to Rome, where his father wished 
him to assist Giuffre in reducing the last Orsini strongholds; 
this for some reason he was unwilling to do, much to Alexander's 
annoyance, but he eventually marched out, captured Ceri and 
made peace with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano. 
Three more high personages fell victims to the Borgia's greed 
this year, viz. Cardinal Michiel, who was poisoned in April, 
J. da Santa Croce, who had helped to seize Cardinal Orsini, 
and Troches or Troccio, one of the family's most faithful assassins ; 



all these murders brought immense sums to the pope. About 
Cardinal Ferrari's death there is more doubt; he probably died 
of fever, but the pope immediately confiscated his goods. 

The war between France and Spain for the possession of 
Naples dragged on, and Alexander was ever intriguing, ready 
to ally himself with whichever power promised at the moment 
most advantageous terms. He offered to help Louis on condition 
that Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help Spain in 
exchange for Siena, Pisa and Bologna. Cesare was preparing 
for another expedition into central Italy in July 1503, when, in 
the midst of all these projects and negotiations, both he and 
his father were taken ill with fever. The occurrence was of 
course attributed to poison, although quite without foundation, 
being merely due to malaria, at that time very prevalent in 
Rome. On- the i8th of August Alexander died at the age of 72. 
His death was followed by scenes of wild disorder, and Cesare, 
being himself ill, could not attend to business, but sent Don 
Michelotto, his chief bravo, to seize the pope's treasures before 
the demise was publicly announced. When the body was 
exhibited to the people the next day it was in a shocking state 
of decomposition, which of course strengthened the suspicion 
of poison. At the funeral a brawl occurred between the soldiers 
and the priests, and the coffin having been made too short the 
body without the mitre was driven into it by main force and 
covdred with an oil-cloth. Alexander's successor on the chair 
of St Peter was Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini, who assumed 
the name of Pius III. 

Alexander VI. has become almost a mythical character, and 
countless legends and traditions are attached to his name. As 
a matter of fact he cannot be regarded in any sense as a great 
man. His career shows no great political ideas, and none of his 
actions indicate genius. His one thought was family aggrandize- 
ment, and while it is unlikely that he meditated making the 
papacy hereditary in the house of Borgia, he certainly gave away 
its temporal estates to his children as though they belonged to 
him. The secularization of the church was carried to a pitch 
never before dreamed of, and it was clear to all Italy that he 
regarded the papacy as an instrument of worldly schemes with 
no thought of its religious aspect. During his pontificate the 
church was brought to its lowest level of degradation. The 
condition of his subjects was deplorable, and if Cesare's rule in 
Romagna was an improvement on that of the local tyrants, the 
people of Rome have seldom been more oppressed than under 
the Borgia. Alexander was not the only person responsible for 
the general unrest in Italy and the foreign invasions, but he 
was ever ready to profit by them. Even if we do not accept all 
the stories of his murders and poisonings and immoralities as 
true, there is no doubt that his greed for money and his essentially 
vicious nature led him to commit a great number of crimes. 
For many of his misdeeds his terrible son Cesare was responsible, 
but of others the pope cannot be acquitted. The one pleas- 
ing aspect of his life is his patronage of the arts, and in his 
days a new architectural era was initiated in Rome with the 
coming of Bramante. Raphael, Michelangelo and Pinturicchio 
all worked for him, and a curious contrast, characteristic of the 
age, is afforded by the fact that a family so steeped in vice and 
crime could take pleasure in the most exquisite works of art. 

_BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief contemporary authorities for this 
reign are : the diary of Alexander's master of ceremonies, Johannes 
Burchardus, edited by L. Thuasne (Paris, 1883-1884), which is 
characterized by accuracy and extraordinary candour often amount- 
ing to gross indecency; the despatches of Giustiniani, the Venetian 
ambassador, edited by P. Villari (Florence, 1876), which show great 
insight and are based on the most accurate information ; and Paolo 
Cappelli's " Diarii " in E. Albert's Relazioni, series ii., iii. Among 
modern works the most important are : F. Gregorovius's Geschichte 
der Stadt Rom (3rd ed., Stuttgart, 1881), a work of immense research 
and admirable synthesis, giving a very unfavourable view of the 
Borgia; A. von Reumont's Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1867- 
1870), also a valuable book; M. Creighton's History of the Papacy 
(London, 1897) is very learned and accurate, but the author is 
more lenient towards Alexander; F. Gregorovius's Lucrezia Borgia 
(Stuttgart, 1874) contains a great deal of information on the Borgia 
family; P. Villari's Machiavelli (English translation, new ed., 1892) 
deals with the subject at some length. Of the Catholic writers 






556 



ALEXANDER I. 



[TSAR OF RUSSIA 



L. Pastor, Geschichte der Papste (Freiburg i. B, 1886) should be con- 
suited, for although the author tries to extenuate the pope to some 
extent, on the whole he is fair. (L. V.*) 

ALEXANDER VII. (Fabio Chigi), pope from 1655 to 1667, was 
born at Siena on the i3th of February 1 599. He was successively 
inquisitor at Malta, vice-legate at Ferrara and nuncio in Cologne 
(1639-1651). Though expected to take part in the negotiations 
which led in 1648 to the peace of Westphalia, he refused to 
deliberate with heretics, and protested against the treaties 
when completed. Innocent X. subsequently made him cardinal 
secretary of state. When Innocent died, Chigi, the candidate 
favoured by Spain, was elected pope on the 7th of April 1655. 
The conclave believed he was strongly opposed to the nepotism 
then prevalent. In the first year of- his reign Alexander VII. 
forbade his relations even to visit Rome; but in 1656 he gave 
them the best-paid civil and ecclesiastical offices, also palaces 
and princely estates. Alexander disliked business of state, 
preferring literature and philosophy; a collection of his Latin 
poems appeared at Paris in 1656 under the title Philomathi 
Labores Juveniles. He also encouraged architecture, and in 
particular constructed the beautiful colonnade in the piazza 
of St Peter's. He favoured the Jesuits, especially in their 
conflict with the Jansenists, forbade in 1661 the translation 
of the Roman Missal into French, and in 1665 canonized 
Francis of Sales. His pontificate was marked by protracted 
controversies with France and Portugal. He died on the 22nd 
of May 1667. (W. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDER VIII. (Pietro Ottoboni), pope from 1689 to 1691, 
was born in 1610 of a noble Venetian family, was created cardinal, 
and then successively bishop of Brescia and datary. The 
ambassador of Louis XIV. succeeded in procuring his election 
on the 6th of October 1689 as successor to Innocent XI.; never- 
theless, after months of negotiation Alexander finally condemned 
the declaration made in 1682 by the French clergy concerning 
the liberties of the Gallican church. Charities on a large scale 
and unbounded nepotism exhausted the papal treasury. He 
bought the books and manuscripts of Queen Christina of Sweden 
for the Vatican library. Alexander condemned in 1690 the 
doctrines of so-called philosophic sin, taught in the Jesuit 
schools. He died on the ist of February 1691. (W. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDER I. (ALEKSANDER PAVLOVICH) (1777-1825), 
emperor of Russia, son of the grand-duke Paul Petrovich, after- 
wards Paul I., and Maria Fedorovna, daughter of Frederick 
Eugene of Wiirttemberg, was born on the 28th of December 1777. 
The strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one 
of the most interesting as he is one of the most important figures 
in the history of the igth century. Autocrat and "Jacobin," 
man of the world and mystic, he was to his contemporaries a 
riddle which each read according to his own temperament. 
Napoleon thought him a "shifty Byzantine," and called him the 
Talma of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part. To 
Metternich he was a madman to be humoured. Castlereagh, 
writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gives him credit for " grand 
qualities," but adds that he is " suspicious and undecided." His 
complex nature was, in truth, the outcome of the complex 
character of his early environment and education. Reared in 
the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine II. he 
had imbibed from his Swiss tutor, Fr6d6ric Cesar de Laharpe, 
the principles of Rousseau's gospel of humanity; from his 
military governor, General Soltikov, the traditions of Russian 
autocracy; while his father had inspired him with his own 
passion of military parade, and taught him to combine a theo- 
retical love of mankind with a practical contempt for men. 
These contradictory tendencies remained with him through life, 
revealed in the fluctuations of his policy and influencing 
through him the fate of the world. Another element in his 
character discovered itself when in 1801 he mounted the throne 
over the body of his murdered father: a mystic melancholy liable 
at any moment to issue in extravagant action. At first, indeed, 
this exercised but little influence on the emperor's life. Young, 
emotional, impressionable, well-meaning and egotistic, Alexander 
displayed from the first an intention of playing a great part on 



the world's stage, and plunged with all the ardour of youth ihto 
the task of realizing his political ideals. While retaining for a 
time the old ministers who had served and overthrown the 
emperor Paul, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint a 
secret committee, called ironically the " Co mite du salut public," 
consisting of young and enthusiastic friends of his own Victor 
Gavovich Kochubey, Nikolai Nikolaevich Novosiltsov, Paul 
Alexandrovich Strogonov and Adam Czartoryski -to draw up a 
scheme of internal reform. Their aims, inspired by their admira- 
tion for English institutions, were far in advance of the possi- 
bilities of the time, and even after they had been raised to regular 
ministerial positions but little of their programme could be 
realized. For Russia was not ripe for liberty; and Alexander, 
the disciple of the revolutionist Laharpe, was as he himself 
said but "a happy accident" on the throne of the tsars. 
He spoke, indeed, bitterly of " the state of barbarism in 
which the country had been left by the traffic in men." 
" Under Paul," he said, " three thousand peasants had been 
given away like a bag of diamonds. If civilization were 
more advanced, I would abolish this slavery, if it cost me 
my head." 1 But the universal corruption, he complained, 
had left him no men; and the filling up of the government 
offices with Germans and other foreigners merely accentuated 
the sullen resistance of the " old Russians " to his reforms. 
That Alexander's reign, which began with so large a promise 
of amelioration, ended by riveting still tighter the chains 
of the Russian people was, however, due less to the corruption 
and backwardness of Russian life than to the defects of the 
tsar himself. His love of liberty, though sincere, was in fact 
unreal. It flattered his vanity to pose before the world as the 
dispenser of benefits; but his theoretical liberalism was mated 
with an autocratic will which brooked no contradiction. " You 
always want to instruct me!" he exlaimed to Derzhavin, the 
minister of justice, " but I am the autocratic emperor, and I will 
this, and nothing else!" " He would gladly have agreed," 
wrote Adam Czartoryski, " that every one should be free, if every 
one had freely done only what he wished." Moreover, with this 
masterful temper was joined an infirmity of purpose which ever 
let " I dare not wait upon I would," and which seized upon any 
excuse for postponing measures the principles of which he had 
publicly approved. The codification of the laws initiated in 
1801 was never carried out during his reign; nothing was done 
to improve the intolerable status of the Russian peasantry; the 
constitution drawn up by Speranski, and passed by the emperor, 
remained unsigned. Alexander, in fact, who, without being 
consciously tyrannical, possessed in full measure the tyrant's 
characteristic distrust of men of ability and independent judg- 
ment, lacked also the first requisite for a reforming sovereign: 
confidence in his people; and it was this want that vitiated 
such reforms as were actually realized. He experimented in the 
outlying provinces of his empire; and the Russians noted with 
open murmurs that, not content with governing through foreign 
instruments, he was conferring on Poland, Finland and the 
Baltic provinces benefits denied to themselves. In Russia, too, 
certain reforms were carried out; but they could not survive the 
suspicious interference of the autocrat and his officials. The 
newly created council of ministers, and the senate, endowed for 
the first time with certain theoretical powers, became in the end 
but the slavish instruments of the tsar and his favourites of the 
moment. The elaborate system of education, culminating in the 
reconstituted, or new-founded, universities of Dorpat, Vilna, 
Kazan and Kharkov, was strangled in the supposed interests 
of " order " and of orthodox piety; while the military colonies 
which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both soldiers and 
state were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army with 
pitiless cruelty. Even the Bible Society, through which the 
emperor in his later mood of evangelical zeal proposed to bless 
his people, was conducted on the same ruthless lines. The Roman 
archbishop and the Orthodox metropolitans were forced to serve 
on its committee side by side with Protestant pastors; and 
village popes, trained to regard any tampering with the letter of 
1 Savary to Napoleon, Nov. 4, 1807. Tatischeff, p. 226. 



TSAR OF RUSSIA] 



ALEXANDER I. 



557 









the traditional documents of the church as mortal sin, became 
the unwilling instruments for the propagation of what they 
regarded as works of the devil. 

Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly 
attracted by the great questions of European politics than by 
attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded his 
pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute power. 
On the morrow of his accession he had reversed the policy of 
Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made peace with 
England (April 1801), at the same time opening negotiations 
with Austria. Soon afterwards at Memel he entered into a close 
alliance with Prussia, not as he boasted from motives of policy, 
but in the spirit of true chivalry, out of friendship for the young 
king Frederick William and his beautiful wife. The develop- 
ment of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of 
October 1801 ; and for a while it seemed as though France and 
Russia might come to an understanding. Carried away by the 
enthusiasm of Laharpe, who had returned to Russia from Paris, 
Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French 
institutions and for the person of Bonaparte. Soon, however, 
came a change. Laharpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to 
the tsar his Reflexions on the True Nature of the Consulship for 
Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes, and 
revealed Bonaparte " as not a true patriot," but only as " the 
most famous tyrant the world has produced." His disillusion- 
ment was completed by the murder of the due d'Enghien. The 
Russian court went into mourning for the last of the Condes, and 
diplomatic relations with Paris were broken off. 

The events of the war that followed belong to the general 
history of Europe; but the tsar's attitude throughout is personal 
to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous for the 
world. In opposing Napoleon, " the oppressor of Europe and 
the disturber of the world's peace," Alexander in fact already 
believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instruc- 
tions to Novosiltsov, his special envoy in London, the tsar 
elaborated the motives of his policy in language which appealed 
as little to the common sense of Pitt as did later the treaty of 
the Holy Alliance to that of Castlereagh. Yet the document is 
of great interest, as in it we find formulated for the first time in 
an official despatch those exalted ideals of international policy 
which were to play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the 
world at the close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the 
end of the ipth century in the Rescript of Nicholas II. 1 and the 
conference of the Hague. The outcome of the war, Alexander 
argued, was not to be only the liberation of France, but the uni- 
versal triumph of " the sacred rights of humanity." To attain 
this it would be necessary " after having attached the nations to 
their government by making these incapable of acting save in 
the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the 
states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is 
to their interest to respect." A general treaty was to become 
the basis of the relations of the states forming " the European 
Confederation "; and this, though " it was no question of realiz- 
ing the dream of universal peace, would attain some of its results 
if, at the conclusion of the general war, it were possible to 
establish on clear principles the prescriptions of the rights of 
nations." " Why could not one submit to it," the tsar continued, 
" the positive rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality, 
insert the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources 
which the mediation of a third party could offer have been 
exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective 
grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles 
as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, and give 
birth to a league of which the stipulations would form, so to 
speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, sanctioned by the 
greater part of the nations of Europe, would without difficulty 
become the immutable rule of the cabinets, while those who 
should try to infringe it would risk bringing upon themselves 
the forces of the new union." 2 

1 Circular of Count Muraviev, Aug. 24, 1898. 

2 Instructions to M. Novosiltsov, Sept. n, 1804. Tatischeff, 
p. 82. 



Meanwhile Napoleon, little deterred by the Russian autocrat's 
youthful idealogy, never gave up hope of detaching him from the 
coalition. He had no sooner entered Vienna in triumph than he 
opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after Austerlitz. 
Russia and France, he urged, were " geographical allies "; there 
was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests; 
together they might rule the world. But Alexander was still 
determined " to persist in the system of disinterestedness in 
respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed," 
and he again allied himself with Prussia. The campaign of Jena 
and the battle of Eylau followed; and Napoleon, though still 
intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up Poles, Turks and 
Persians to break the obstinacy of the tsar. A party too in 
Russia itself, headed by the tsar's brother the grand-duke 
Constantine, was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a 
vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian 
nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the 
orthodox faith. The outcome was the rout of Friedland (June 
13 and 14, 1807). Napoleon saw his chance and seized it. 
Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened 
autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory. 

The two emperors met at Tilsit on the 25th of June. Alex- 
ander, dazzled by Napoleon's genius and overwhelmed by his 
apparent generosity, was completely won. Napoleon knew well 
how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found 
friend. He would divide with Alexander the empire of the 
world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the 
Danubian principalities and give him a free hand to deal with 
Finland; and, afterwards, the emperors of the East and West, 
when the time should be ripe, would drive the Turks from 
Europe and march across Asia to the conquest of India. A 
programme so stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable 
mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger. 
The interests of Europe were forgotten. "What is Europe?" 
he exclaimed to the French ambassador. " Where is it, if it is 
not you and we?" 3 

The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind 
Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused to 
retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a 
further dismemberment of Prussia. " We have made loyal 
war," he said, " we must make a loyal peace." It was not long 
before the first enthusiasm of Tilsit began to wane. Napoleon 
was prodigal of promises, but niggard of their fulfilment. The 
French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube; and 
each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however, 
the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the 
most cordial character; and it was hoped that a fresh meeting 
might adjust all differences between them. The meeting took 
place at Erfurt in October 1808, and resulted in a treaty which 
defined the common policy of the two emperors. But Alexander's 
relations with Napoleon none the less suffered a change. He 
realized that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of 
reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his pro- 
posed " grand enterprise " seriously, and had only used it to 
preoccupy the mind of the tsar while he consolidated his own 
power in central Europe. From this moment the French alliance 
was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the 
world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it, in the first 
instance, to remove " the geographical enemy " from the gates 
of St Petersburg by wresting Finland from the Swedes (1809); 
and he hoped by means of it to make the Danube the southern 
frontier of Russia. Events were in fact rapidly tending to the 
rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. Alexander, indeed, 
assisted Napoleon in the war of 1809, but he declared plainly 
that he would not allow Austria to be crushed out of existence; 
and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian 
troops during the campaign. The tsar in his turn protested 
against Napoleon's encouragement of the Poles. In the matter 
of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated 
in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest 
of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. " I don't 
8 Savary to Napoleon, Nov. 18, 1807. Tatischeff, p. 232. 



558 



ALEXANDER I. 



[TSAR OF RUSSI 



want anything for myself," he said to the French ambassador, 
" therefore the world is not large enough to come to an under- 
standing on the affairs of Poland, if it is a question of its restora- 
tion." 1 The treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the 
grand-duchy of Warsaw, he complained had " ill requited him 
for his loyalty," and he was only mollified for the time by 
Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of 
restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on the 4th of 
January 1810 but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and 
orders of chivalry. 

But if Alexander suspected Napoleon, Napoleon was no less 
suspicious of Alexander; and, partly to test his sincerity, he 
sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the grand- 
duchess Anne, the tsar's youngest sister. After some little delay 
Alexander returned a polite refusal, on the plea of the princess's 
tender age and the objection of the dowager empress to the 
marriage. Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify the conven- 
tion of the 4th of January, and to announce his engagement to 
the archduchess Marie Louise in such a way as to lead Alexander 
to suppose that the two marriage treaties had been negotiated 
simultaneously. From this time the relation between the two 
emperors gradually became more and more strained. The 
annexation of Oldenburg, of which the duke was the tsar's 
uncle, to France in December 1810, added another to the personal 
grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while the ruinous 
reaction of " the continental system " on Russian trade made it 
impossible for the tsar to maintain a policy which was Napoleon's 
chief motive for the alliance. An acid correspondence followed, 
and ill-concealed armaments, which culminated in the summer of 
1812 in Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Yet, even after the 
French had passed the frontier, Alexander still protested that 
his personal sentiments towards the emperor were unaltered; 
" but," he added, " God Himself cannot undo the past." It was 
the occupation of Moscow and the desecration of the Kremlin, 
the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed his sentiment 
for Napoleon into passionate hatred. In vain the French 
emperor, within eight days of his entry into Moscow, wrote 
to the tsar a letter, which was one long cry of distress, reveal- 
ing the desperate straits of the Grand Army, and appealed to 
" any remnant of his former sentiments." Alexander returned 
no answer to these " fanfaronnades." " No more peace with 
Napoleon!" he cried, "He or I, I or He: we cannot longer 
reign together!" 2 

The campaign of 1812 was the turning-point of Alexander's 
life; and its horrors, for which his sensitive nature felt much of 
the responsibility, overset still more a mind never too well 
balanced. At the burning of Moscow, he declared afterwards, 
his own soul had found illumination, and he had realized once 
for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the peace- 
maker of Europe. He tried to calm the unrest of his conscience 
by correspondence with the leaders of the evangelical revival on 
the continent, and sought for omens and supernatural guidance 
in texts and passages of scripture. It was not, however, accord- 
ing to his own account, till he met the Baroness de Krudener a 
religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her 
special mission at Basel, in the autumn of 1813, that his soul 
found peace. From this time a mystic pietism became the 
avowed force of his political, as of his private actions. Madame 
de Krudener, and her colleague, the evangelist Empaytaz, 
became the confidants of the emperor's most secret thoughts; 
and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of Paris 
the imperial prayer-meetings were the oracle on whose revelations 
hung the fate of the world. 

Such was Alexander's mood when the downfall of Napoleon 
left him the most powerful sovereign in Europe. With the 
memory of Tilsit still fresh in men's minds, it was not unnatural 
that to cynical men of the world like Metternich he merely 
seemed to be disguising " under the language of evangelical 
abnegation " vast and perilous schemes of ambition. The 

1 Coulaincourt to Napoleon, 4th report, Aug. 3, 1809. Tatischcff, 
p. 496. 

* Alexander speaking to Colonel Michaud. Tatischeff, p. 612. 



puzzled powers were, in fact, the more inclined to be suspicioi 
in view of other, and seemingly inconsistent, tendencies 
the emperor, which yet seemed all to point to a like disquietir 
conclusion . For Madame de Krudener was not the only influenc 
behind the throne; and, though Alexander had declared wa 
against the Revolution, Laharpe was once more at his elbow, 
and the catchwords of the gospel of humanity were still on his 
lips. The very proclamations which denounced Napoleon 
" the genius of evil," denounced him in the name of " liberty," 
and of "enlightenment." A monstrous intrigue was suspecte 
for the alliance of the eastern autocrat with the Jacobinism 
all Europe, which would have issued in the substitution of 
all-powerful Russia for an all-powerful France. At the cong 
of Vienna Alexander's attitude accentuated this distr 
Castlereagh, whose single-minded aim was the restoration of 
"a just equilibrium" in Europe, reproached the tsar to his fac 
for a "conscience" which suffered him to imperil the concer 
of the powers by keeping his hold on Poland in violation of 
treaty obligation.* 

Yet Alexander was sincere. Even the Holy Alliance, the ; 
offspring of his pietism, does n6"t deserve the sinister reputation 
it has since obtained. To the other powers it seemed, at best 
" verbiage " and " exalted nonsense," at worst an effort of th 
tsar to establish the hegemony of Russia on the goodwill of th 
smaller signatory powers. To the Liberals, then and afterwards 
it was clearly a hypocritical conspiracy against freedom. Yet I 
Alexander himself it seemed the only means of placing th 
"confederation of Europe" on a firm basis of principle 4 and 
so far from its being directed against liberty he declared roundly 
to all the signatory powers that " free constitutions were th 
logical outcome of its doctrines." Europe, in fact, owed muc 
at this time to Alexander's exalted temper. During the perio 
when his influence was supreme, the fateful years, that is, betwee 
the Moscow campaign and the close of the congress of Aix-li 
Chapelle, it had been used largely in the interests of moderation 
and liberty. To him mainly it was due that France was save 
from dismemberment, and received a constitution which, to 
use his own words, "united crown and representatives of th 
people in a sense of common interests." 6 By his wise inter- 
vention Switzerland was saved from violent reaction, and suffere 
to preserve the essential gains of the Revolution. To his pn 
tection it was due that the weak beginnings of constitution 
freedom in Germany were able for a while to defy the hatred c 
Austria. Lastly, whatever its ultimate outcome, the constitution 
of Poland was, in its inception, a genuine effort to respond 
the appeal of the Poles for a national existence. 

From the end of the year 1818 Alexander's views began to 
change. A revolutionary conspiracy among the officers of th 
guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the congress 
of Aix-la-Chapelle (?..), are said to have shaken the foundation 
of his Liberalism. At Aix he came for the first time into intimat 
contact with Metternich, and the astute Austrian was swift to 
take advantage of the psychological moment. From this time 
dates the ascendancy of Metternich over the mind of the Russian 
emperor and in the councils of Europe. It was, however, no 
case of sudden conversion. Though alarmed by the revolutionary 
agitation in Germany, which culminated in the murder of his 
agent, the dramatist Kotzebue (?..), Alexander approved of 
Castlereagh's protest against Metternich's policy of " the govern- 
ments contracting an alliance against the peoples," as formulated 
in the Carlsbad decrees, 1819, and deprecated any intervention 
of Europe to support " a league of which the sole object is the 
absurd pretensions of absolute power." 6 He still declared his 
belief in " free institutions, though not in such as are forced from 
feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular leaders from their 

' Castlereagh to Liverpool, Oct. 2, 1814. F.O. Papers. Vienna 

4 Martens IV. part i. p. 49. 

6 tat des negotiations actuelles, &c., mem. prepared by order of 
the Tsar, July 16, 1815, enclosed in Castlereagh to Liverpool, F.O. 
Cont. papers. Congress Paris, Castlereagh, 22. 

Despatch of Lieven, Nov. 30 (Dec. 12), 1819, and Russ. 
Circular of Jan. 27, 1820. Martens IV. part i. p. 270. 



TSAR OF RUSSIA] 



ALEXANDER II. 



559 



1 



sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in difficult circumstances 
to tide over a crisis. " Liberty," he maintained, " should be 
confined within just limits. And the limits of liberty are the 
principles of order." 1 

It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder 
in the revolutions of Naples and Piedmont, combined with 
increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France, 
Germany and among his own people, that completed Alexander's 
conversion. In the seclusion of the little town of Troppau, where 
in October of 1820 the powers met in conference, Metternich 
found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander 
which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues 
of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly 
chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed 
his mistake. " You have nothing to regret," he said sadly to 
the exultant chancellor, "but I have!" 2 The issue was 
momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal 
of a free confederation of the European states, symbolized by 
the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the 
great powers, symbolized by the Quadruple Treaty; he had 
still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere 
in the internal concerns of th'e sovereign states. On the igth of 
November he signed the Troppau Protocol, which consecrated 
the principle of intervention and wrecked the harmony of the 
concert. (See TROPPAU, CONGRESS or.) 

At Laibach, whither in the spring of 1821 the congress had 
been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the revolt of the Greeks. 
From this time until his death his mind was torn between his 
anxiety to realize his dream of a confederation of Europe and his 
traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against 
the Turks. At first, under the careful nursing of Metternich, 
the former motive prevailed. He struck the name of Alexander 
Ypsilanti from the Russian army list, and directed his foreign 
minister, Count Capo d'Istria, himself a Greek, to disavow all 
sympathy of Russia with his enterprise; and, next year, a 
deputation of the Greeks of the Morea on its way to the congress 
of Verona was turned back by his orders on the road. He made, 
indeed, some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his 
mind. He offered to surrender the claim, successfully asserted 
when the sultan had been excluded from the Holy Alliance and 
the affairs of the Ottoman empire from the deliberations of 
Vienna, that the affairs of the East were the "domestic concerns 
of Russia," and to march into Turkey, as Austria had marched 
into Naples, "as the mandatory of Europe." 3 Metternich's 
opposition to this, illogical, but natural from the Austrian point 
of view, first opened his eyes to the true character of Austria's 
attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the 
fascination of Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit 
of his people drew him back into itself; and when, in the autumn 
of 1825, he took his dying empress for change of air to the south 
of Russia, in order as all Europe supposed to place himself 
at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman 
frontiers, his language was no longer that of " the peace-maker 
of Europe," but of the Orthodox tsar determined to take the 
interests of his people and of his religion "into his own hands." 
Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, Alexander 
died at Taganrog on the ist of December (November 18, O.S.) 
1825, "crushed," to use his own words, "beneath the terrible 
burden of a crown " which he had more than once declared his 
intention of resigning. A report, current at the time and often 
revived, affirmed that he did not in fact die. By some it is sup- 
posed that a mysterious hermit named Fomich, who lived at 
Tomsk until 1870 and was treated with peculiar deference by 
successive tsars, was none other than Alexander. 4 

Modern history knows no more tragic figure than that of 
Alexander. The brilliant promise of his early years; the 
haunting memory of the crime by which he had obtained 
the power to realize his ideals; and, in the end, the terrible 

1 Aperc,u des idees de I'Empereur, Martens IV. part i. p. 269. 

2 Metternich Mem. 3 Martens IV. part i. pp. 307, &c. 
4 See W. Gasiorowski, Tragic Russia, translated by Viscount de 

Busancy (London, 1908). 



legacy he left to Russia: a principle of government which, 
under lofty pretensions, veiled a tyranny supported by spies 
and secret police; an uncertain succession; an army permeated 
by organized disaffection; an armed Poland, whose hunger for 
liberty the tsar had whetted but not satisfied; the quarrel with 
Turkey, with its alternative of war or humiliation for Russia; 
an educational system rotten with official hypocrisy; a Church 
in which conduct counted for nothing, orthodoxy and ceremonial 
observance for everything; economical and financial conditions 
scarce recovering from the verge of ruin; and lastly, that curse 
of Russia, serfdom. 

In private life Alexander displayed many lovable qualities. 
All authorities combine in praising his handsome presence and 
the affability and charm of his address, together with a certain 
simplicity of personal tastes, which led him in his intercourse 
with his friends or with the representatives of friendly powers 
to dispense with ceremonial and etiquette. His personal friend- 
ship, too, once bestowed, was never lightly withdrawn. By 
nature he was sociable and pleasure-loving, he proved himself 
a notable patron of the arts and he took a conspicuous part 
in all the gaieties of the congress of Vienna. In his later years, 
however, he fell into a mood of settled melancholy; and, though 
still accessible to all who chose to approach him with complaints 
or petitions, he withdrew from all but the most essential social 
functions, and lived a life of strenuous work and of Spartan 
simplicity. His gloom had been increased by domestic mis- 
fortune. He had been married, in 1793, without his wishes being 
consulted, to the beautiful and amiable Princess Maria Louisa 
of Baden (Elizabeth Feodorovna), a political match which, as 
he regretfully confessed to his friend Frederick William of Prussia, 
had proved the misfortune of both; and he consoled himself 
in the traditional manner. The only child of the marriage, a 
little grand-duchess, died on the i2th of May 1808; and their 
common sorrow drew husband and wife closer together. Towards 
the close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the wise 
charity of the empress in sympathizing deeply with him over 
the death of his beloved daughter by Madame Narishkine. 

See also EUROPE ; RUSSIA ; FRANCE ; TURKEY ; VIENNA, CONGRESS 
OF; NAPOLEON; METTERNICH; CAPO D'ISTRIA. 

AUTHORITIES. F. de Martens, Recueil des traites conclus par la 
Russie, &c. (St Petersb., 1874, & c -); Wellington Despatches; Castle- 
reagh Correspondence', Prince Adam Czartoryski, Memoires et 
correspondance avec I'empereur Alexandre I. (Paris, 1887, 2 vols.). 
P. Bailieu (ed). Briefwechsel Konig Friedrich Wilhelm's III. und der 
Kiinigin Luise mit Kaiser Alexander I. (Leipzig, 1900); Laharpe, 
Le Gouverneur d'un Prince (F. C. de Laharpe et Alexandre I. de Russie) 
1902; Serge Tatischeff, Alexandre I. et Napoleon d'apres lew 
correspondance inedite (Paris, 1901); Joseph de Maistre, Memoires 
kistoriques et correspondance diplomatique, ed. A. Blanc (2nd ed., 
1859); Comtesse de Choiseul-Goumer, Memoires historiques sur 
I'empereur Alexandre (1829), and Reminiscences sur I'empereur 
Alexandre I., &c. (Paris, 1862); Rulemann Friedrich Eylert, Cha- 
rakterzilge und historische Fragmente aus dem Leben Konig Friedrich 
Wilhelms III. (1846); H. L. Empaytaz, Notice sur Alexandre 
Empereur de Russie (2nd ed., Paris, 1840); Comte A. de la Garde- 
Chambonas, Souvenirs du Congres de Vienne; publ. avec introd. et 
notes par le Cte. Fleury (1901). 

LIVES. The principal life of Alexander I. is that, in Russian, 
by Nikolai Karlovich Schilder, Imperator Aleksander, &c. (4 vols., 
St Petersb., 1897, 1898). See also Bogdanovich, History of the 
Government of the Emperor Alexander I. (St Petersburg, 1869-1871, 
6 vols.); Theodor Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser 
Nikolaus I. Band i. Kaiser Alexander I. und die Ergebnisse seiner 
Lebensarbeit (Berl., 1904), a valuable study based upon much new 
material from the state archives of St Petersburg, Paris, Berlin and 
Vienna; A. Vandal, Napoleon et Alexandre I.'. I 'alliance Russe sous 
le premier empire (3 vols., Paris, 1891-1896); A. N. Pypin, Political 
and Literary Movements under Alexander I. (Russian, 2nd ed. St Peters- 
burg, 1885; German, Berlin, 1894). Among the numerous less 
authoritative biographies may be mentioned Ivan Golovin, Histoire 
d' Alexandre I. (Leipzig, 1859), and C. Joyneville, Life and Times 
of Alexander I. (3 vols., 1875). This last contains much valuable 
information, but the references in footnotes are often wanting in 
precision, and it has no index. (W. A. P.) 

ALEXANDER II. (1818-1881), emperor of Russia, eldest son 
of Nicholas I., was born on the 29th of April 1818. His early 
life gave little indication of his subsequent activity, and up to 
the moment of his accession in 1855 no one ever imagined that 
he would be known to posterity as a great reformer. In so far 



560 



ALEXANDER II. 



[TSAR OF RUSSIA 



as he had any decided political convictions, he seemed to be 
animated with that reactionary spirit which was predominant 
in Europe at the time of his birth, and continued in Russia to 
the end of his father's reign. In the period of thirty years during 
which he was heir-apparent, the moral atmosphere of St Peters- 
burg was very unfavourable to the development of any originality 
of thought or character. It was a time of government on 
martinet principles, under which all freedom of thought and all 
private initiative were as far as possible suppressed vigorously by 
the administration. Political topics were studiously avoided in 
general conversation, and books or newspapers in which the 
most keen-scented press-censor could detect the least odour 
of political or religious free-thinking were strictly prohibited. 
Criticism of existing authorities was regarded as a serious offence. 
The common policeman, the insignificant . scribe in a public 
office, and even the actors in the " imperial " theatres, were 
protected against public censure as effectually as the government 
itself; for the whole administration was considered as one and 
indivisible, and an attack on the humblest representative of the 
imperial authority was looked on as an indirect attack on the 
fountain from which that authority flowed. Such was the moral 
atmosphere in which young Alexander Nicolaevich grew up to 
manhood. He received the education commonly given to young 
Russians of good family at that time a smattering of a great 
many subjects, and a good practical acquaintance with the chief 
modern European languages. Like so many of his countryman 
he displayed great linguistic ability, and his quick ear caught up 
even peculiarities of dialect. His ordinary life was that of an 
officer of the Guards, modified by the ceremonial duties incum- 
bent on him as heir to the throne. Nominally he held the post 
of director of the military schools, but he took little personal 
interest in military affairs. To the disappointment of his father, 
in whom the military instinct was ever predominant, he showed 
no love of soldiering, and gave evidence of a kindliness of dis- 
position and a tender-heartedness which were considered out of 
place in one destined to become a military autocrat. These 
tendencies had been fostered by his tutor Zhukovsky, the 
amiable humanitarian poet, who had made the Russian public 
acquainted with the literature of the German romantic school, 
and they remained with him all through life, though they did 
not prevent him from being severe in his official position when 
he believed severity to be necessary. In 1841 he married the 
daughter of the grand-duke Louis II. of Hesse, Maximilienne 
Wilhelmine Marie, thenceforward known as Maria Alexandrovna, 
who bore him six sons and two daughters. He did not travel 
much abroad, for his father, in his desire to exclude from Holy 
Russia the subversive ideas current in Western Europe, dis- 
approved foreign tours, and could not consistently encourage 
in his own family what he tried to prevent among the rest of his 
subjects. He visited England, however, in 1839, and in the 
years immediately preceding his accession he was entrusted 
with several missions to the courts of Berlin and Vienna. On 
the 2nd of March 1855, during the Crimean War, he succeeded 
to the throne on the death of his father. 

The first year of the new reign was devoted to the prosecution 
of the war, and after the fall of Sevastopol, to negotiations for 
peace. Then began a period of radical reforms, recommended 
by public opinion and carried out by the autocratic power. The 
rule of Nicholas, which had sacrificed all other interests to that 
of making Russia an irresistibly strong military power, had been 
tried by the Crimean War and found wanting. A new system 
must, therefore, be adopted. All who had any pretensions to 
enlightenment declared loudly that the country had been 
exhausted and humiliated by the war, and that the only way of 
restoring it to its proper position in Europe was to develop 
its natural resources and to reform thoroughly all branches of 
the administration. The government found, therefore, in the 
educated classes a new-born public spirit, anxious to assist it 
in any work of reform that it might think fit to undertake. 
Fortunately for Russia the autocratic power was now in the 
hands of a man who was impressionable enough t be deeply 
influenced by the spirit of the time, and who had sufficient 



prudence and practical common-sense to prevent his being 
carried away by the prevailing excitement into the dangerous 
region of Utopian dreaming. Unlike some of his predecessor 
he had no grand, original schemes of his own to impose by fore 
on unwilling subjects, and no pet crotchets to lead his judgment 
astray; and he instinctively looked with a suspicious, critic 
eye on the panaceas which more imaginative and less cautiou 
people recommended. These traits of character, together with 
the peculiar circumstances in which he was placed, determine 
the part which he was to play. He moderated, guided and 
great measure realized the reform aspirations of the educated 
classes. Though he carefully guarded his autocratic rights and 
privileges, and obstinately resisted all efforts to push him 
farther than he felt inclined to go he acted for several years 
somewhat like a constitutional sovereign of the continental 
type. At first he moved so slowly that many of the impatient, 
would-be reformers began to murmur at the unnecessary delay. 
In reality not much time was lost. Soon after the conclusion of 
peace important changes were made in the legislation concerning 
industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus accorded 
produced a large number of limited liability companies. At 
the same time plans were formed for constructing a great net- 
work of railways, partly for the purpose of developing the 
natural resources of the country, and partly for the purpose of 
increasing its powers of defence and attack. Then it was found 
that further progress was blocked by a great obstacle, the 
existence of serfage; and Alexander II. showed that, 
unlike his father, he meant to grapple boldly with the p t " a ' O t 
difficult and dangerous problem. Taking advantage the serfs. 
of a petition presented by the Polish landed proprietors 
of the Lithuanian provinces, praying that their relations with 
the serfs might be regulated in a more satisfactory way meaning 
in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors he authorized 
the formation of committees " for ameliorating the condition 
of the peasants," and laid down the principles on which the 
amelioration was to be effected. This was a decided step and it 
was followed by one still more significant. Without consultin 
his ordinary advisers, his majesty ordered the minister of th 
interior to send a circular to the provincial governors of European 
Russia, containing a copy of the instructions forwarded to the 
governor-general of Lithuania, praising the supposed generous, 
patriotic intentions of the Lithuanian landed proprietors, and 
suggesting that perhaps the landed proprietors of other provinces 
might express a similar desire. The hint was taken, of course, 
and in all provinces where serfage existed emancipation com- 
mittees were formed. The deliberations at once raised a host 
of important, thorny questions. The emancipation was not 
merely a humanitarian question capable of being solved instan- 
taneously by imperial ukaz. It contained very complicated 
problems affecting deeply the economic, social and political 
future of the nation. Alexander II. had little of the special 
knowledge required for dealing successfully with such problems, 
and he had to restrict himself to choosing between the different 
measures recommended to him. The main point at issue was 
whether the serfs should become agricultural labourers dependent 
economically and administratively on the landlords, or should 
be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors. 
The emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the 
Russian peasantry accordingly acquired rights and privileges 
such as are enjoyed by no other peasantry in Europe. In the 
numerous other questions submitted to him be began by con- 
sulting carefully the conflicting authorities, and while leaning as 
a rule rather to the side of those who were known as " Liberals," 
he never went so far as they desired, and always sought some 
middle course by which conflicting interests might be reconciled. 
On the 3rd of March 1861, the sixth anniversary of his accession, 
the emancipation law was signed and published. Other reforms 
followed in quick succession during the next five or six years: 
army and navy organization, a new judicial administration on 
the French model, a new penal code and a greatly simplified 
system of civil and criminal procedure, an elaborate scheme 
of local self-government for the rural districts and the large 



TSAR OF RUSSIA] 



ALEXANDER III. 



561 



towns, with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of 
taxation, and a new rural and municipal police under the direc- 
tion of the minister of the interior. These new institutions were 
incomparably better than the old ones which they replaced, but 
they did not work such miracles as inexperienced enthusiasts 
expected. Comparisons were made, not with the past, but 
with an ideal state of things which never existed in Russia or 
elsewhere. Hence arose a general feeling of disappointment, 
which acted on different natures in different ways. Some of 
the enthusiasts sank into a sceptical, reactionary frame of mind; 
while others, with deeper convictions or capable of more lasting 
excitement, attributed the failure to the fact that only half- 
measures and compromises had been adopted by the government. 
Thus appeared in the educated classes two extreme groups: 
on the one hand, the discontented Conservatives, who recom- 
mended a return to a more severe disciplinarian regime; and 
on the other, the discontented Radicals, who would have been 
satisfied with nothing less than the adoption of a throughgoing 
socialistic programme. Between the two extremes stood the 
discontented Moderates, who indulged freely in grumbling 
without knowing how the unsatisfactory state of things was to 
be remedied. For some years the emperor, with his sound 
common-sense and dislike of exaggeration, held the balance 
fairly between the two extremes; but long years of uninterrupted 
labour, anxiety and disappointment weakened his zeal for 
reform, and when radicalism assumed more and more the form 
of secret societies and revolutionary agitation, he felt constrained 
to adopt severe repressive measures. 

The revolutionary agitation was of a very peculiar kind. It 
was confined to a section of the educated classes, and emanated 
Nihilism. f rom tne universities and higher technical schools. 

At the beginning of the reform period there had been 
much enthusiasm for scientific as opposed to classical education. 
Russia required, it was said, not classical scholars, but practical, 
scientific men, capable of developing her natural resources. The 
government, in accordance with this view, had encouraged 
scientific studies until it discovered to its astonishment that there 
was some mysterious connexion between natural science and 
revolutionary tendencies. Many of the young men and women, 
who were supposed to be qualifying as specialists in the various 
spheres of industrial and commercial enterprise, were in reality 
devoting their time to considering how human society in general, 
and Russian society in particular, could be reconstructed in 
accordance with the latest physiological, biological and socio- 
logical principles. Some of these young people wished to put their 
crude notions immediately into practice, and as their desire to 
make gigantic socialist experiments naturally alarmed the govern- 
ment, their activity was opposed by the police. Many of them 
were arrested and imprisoned or exiled to distant provinces, but 
the revolutionary work was continued with unabated zeal. Thus 
arose a struggle between the youthful, hot-headed partisans of 
revolutionary physical science and the zealous official guardians 
of political order a struggle which has made the strange term 
Nihilism (q.ii.) a familiar word not only in Russia but also in west- 
ern Europe. The movement gradually assumed the form of ter- 
rorism, and aimed at the assassination of prominent officials, 
and even of the emperor himself, and the natural result was that 
the reactionary tendencies of the government were strengthened. 
In foreign policy Alexander II. showed the same qualities of 
character as in internal affairs, ever trying prudently to steer a 
Porel middle course. When he came to the throne a ^>eace 
policy." policy was imposed on him by circumstances. The 

Crimean War was still going on, but as there was no 
doubt as to the final issue, and the country was showing symptoms 
of exhaustion, he concluded peace with the allies as soon as he 
thought the national honour had been satisfied. Prince Gor- 
chakov could then declare to Europe, " La Russie ne boude pas; 
die se recueille "; and for fifteen years he avoided foreign com- 
plications, so that the internal strength of the country might be 
developed, while the national pride and ambition received a 
certain satisfaction by the expansion of Russian influence and 
domination in Asia. Twice, indeed, during that period the 



chancellor ran the risk of provoking war. The first occasion was 
in 1863, when the Western powers seemed inclined to interfere 
in the Polish question, and the Russian chancery declared cate- 
gorically that no interference would be tolerated. The second 
occasion was during the Franco-German War of 1870-71, when 
the cabinet of St Petersburg boldly declared that it considered 
itself no longer bound by the Black Sea clause of the treaty of 
Paris. On both these occasions hostilities were averted. Not so 
on the next occasion, when Russia abandoned her attitude of 
recueillement. When the Eastern question was raised in 1875 by 
the insurrection of Herzegovina, Alexander II. had no intention 
or wish to provoke a great European war. No doubt he was 
waiting for an opportunity of recovering the portion of Bessarabia 
which had been ceded by the treaty of Paris, and he perceived 
in the disturbed state of Eastern Europe a possibility of obtaining 
the desired rectification of frontier, but he hoped to effect his 
purpose by diplomatic means in conjunction with Austria. At 
the same time he was anxious to obtain for the Christians of 
Turkey some amelioration of their condition, and to give thereby 
some satisfaction to his own subjects. As autocratic ruler of the 
nation which had long considered itself the defender of the 
Eastern Orthodox faith and the protector of the Slav nationalities, 
he could not remain inactive at such a crisis, and he gradually 
allowed himself to drift into a position from which he could not 
retreat without obtaining some tangible result. Supposing that 
the Porte would yield to diplomatic pressure and menace so far 
as to make some reasonable concessions, he delivered his famous 
Moscow speech, in which he declared that if Europe would not 
secure a better position for the oppressed Slavs he would act 
alone. The diplomatic pressure failed and war became inevit- 
able. During the campaign he displayed the same perseverance 
and the same moderation that he had shown in the emancipation 
of the serfs. To those who began to despair of success, and 
advised him to conclude peace on almost any terms so as to avoid 
greater disasters, he turned a deaf ear, and brought the campaign 
to a successful conclusion; but when his more headstrong 
advisers urged him to insist on terms which would probably have 
produced a conflict with Great Britain and Austria, he resolved, 
after some hesitation, to make the requisite concessions. In this 
resolution he was influenced by the discovery that he could not 
rely on the expected support of Germany, and the discovery 
made him waver in his devotion to the German alliance, which 
had been the main pivot of his foreign policy; but his personal 
attachment to the emperor William prevented him from adopting 
a hostile attitude towards the empire he had helped to create. 

The patriotic excitement produced by the war did not weaken 
the revolutionary agitation. The struggle between the Terrorists 
and the police authorities became more and more intense, and 
attempts at assassination became more and more frequent. 
Alexander II. succumbed by degrees to the mental depression 
produced originally by the disappointments which he experienced 
in his home and foreign policy; and in 1880, when he had reigned 
twenty-five years, he entrusted to Count Loris-Melikov a large 
share of the executive power. In that year the empress died, and 
a few weeks afterwards he married secretly a Princess Dolgoruki, 
with whom he had already entertained intimate relations for 
some years. Early in 1 88 1 , on the advice of Count Loris-Melikov, 
he determined to try the effect of some moderate liberal reforms 
on the revolutionary agitation, and for this purpose he caused a 
ukaz to be prepared creating special commissions, composed of 
high officials and private personages who should prepare reforms 
in various branches of the administration. On the very day on 
which this ukaz was signed i3th of March 1881 he fell a 
victim to a Nihilist plot. When driving in one of the central 
streets of St Petersburg, near the Winter Palace, he was mortally 
wounded by the explosion of some small bombs and died a few 
hours afterwards. (D. M. W.) 

ALEXANDER III. (1845-1894), emperor of Russia, second son 
of Alexander II., was born on the loth of March 1845. In natural 
disposition he bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal- 
minded father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, senti- 
mental, chivalrous, yet cunning grand-uncle Alexander I., who 



562 



ALEXANDER III. 



[TSAR OF RUSSIA 



coveted the title of " the first gentleman of Europe." With high 
culture, exquisite refinement and studied elegance he had no 
sympathy and never affected to have any. Indeed, he rather 
gloried in the idea of being of the same rough texture as the great 
majority of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner 
savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned 
method of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough- 
hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. 
His education was not fitted to soften these peculiarities. During 
the first twenty years of his life he had no prospect of succeeding 
to the throne, because he had an elder brother, Nicholas, who 
seemed of a fairly robust constitution. Even when this elder 
brother showed symptoms of delicate health it was believed that 
his life might be indefinitely prolonged by proper care and atten- 
tion, and precautions had been taken for the succession by his 
betrothal with Princess Dagmar of Denmark. Under these 
circumstances the greatest solicitude was devoted to the educa- 
tion of Nicholas as cesarevich, whereas Alexander received only 
the perfunctory and inadequate training of an ordinary grand- 
duke of that period, which did not go much beyond primary 
and secondary instruction, practical acquaintance with French, 
English and German, and a certain amount of drill. When he 
became heir-apparent by the death of his elder brother in 1865, 
he began to study the principles of law and administration under 
Professor Pobedonostsef, who did not succeed in awakening in 
his pupil a love of abstract studies or prolonged intellectual 
exertion, but who influenced the character of his reign by instil- 
ling into his mind the belief that zeal for Eastern Orthodoxy 
ought, as an essential factor of Russian patriotism, to be specially 
cultivated by every right-minded tsar. His elder brother when 
on his deathbed had expressed a wish that his affianced bride, 
Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor, and this 
wish was realized on the gth of November 1 866. The union proved 
a most happy one and remained unclouded to the end. During 
those years when he was heir-apparent 1865 to 1881 he did 
not play a prominent part in public affairs, but he allowed it to 
become known that he had certain ideas of his own which did not 
coincide with the principles of the existing government. He 
deprecated what he considered undue foreign influence in general, 
and German influence in particular, and he longed to see the 
adoption of genuine national principles in all spheres of official 
activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a homogeneous 
Russia homogeneous in language, administration and religion. 
With such ideas and aspirations he could hardly remain per- 
manently in cordial agreement with his father, who, though a 
good patriot according to his lights, had strong German sym- 
pathies, often used the German language in his private relations, 
occasionally ridiculed the exaggerations and eccentricities of the 
Slavophils and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance. 
The antagonism first appeared publicly during the Franco- 
German War, when the tsar supported the cabinet of Berlin and 
the cesarevich did not conceal his sympathies with the French. 
It reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 1875- 
1879, when the Eastern question produced so much excitement 
in all ranks of Russian society. At first the cesarevich was more 
Slavophil than the government, but his phlegmatic nature pre- 
served him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by others, 
and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may have imbibed 
were soon dispelled by personal observation in Bulgaria, where 
he commanded the left wing of the invading army. The Bul- 
garians had been represented in St Petersburg and Moscow 
not only as martyrs but also as saints, and a very little personal 
experience sufficed to correct the error. Like most of his brother 
officers he could not feel any very great affection for the " little 
brothers," as the Bulgarians were then commonly called, and he 
was constrained to admit that the Turks were by no means so 
black as they had been painted. He did not, however, scandalize 
the believers by any public expression of his opinions, and did 
not indeed make himself conspicuous in any way during the 
campaign. Never consulted on political questions, he confined 
himself to his military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious 
and unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappoint- 



ments, the army reached Constantinople and the treaty of San 
Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by that 
important document had to be sacrificed at the congress of 
Berlin. Prince Bismarck failed to do what was confidently 
expected of him. In return for the Russian support, which had 
enabled him to create the German empire, it was thought that he 
would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance 
with her own interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the 
cabinet of St Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of 
" honest broker " at the congress, and shortly afterwards he 
ostentatiously contracted an alliance with Austria for the express 
purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe. 
The cesarevich could point to these results as confirming the 
views he had expressed during the Franco-German War, and he 
drew from them the practical conclusion that for Russia the best 
thing to do was to recover as quickly as possible from her tem- 
porary exhaustion and to prepare for future contingencies by a 
radical scheme of military and naval reorganization. In accord- 
ance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms 
should be introduced. During the campaign in Bulgaria he had 
found by painful experience that grave disorders and gross 
corruption existed in the military administration, and after his 
return to St Petersburg he had discovered that similar abuses 
existed in the naval department. For these abuses, several 
high-placed personages among others two of the grand-dukes 
were believed to be responsible, and he called his father's attention 
to the subject. His representations were not favourably received. 
Alexander II. had lost much of the reforming zeal which distin- 
guished the first decade of his reign, and had no longer the energy 
required to undertake the task suggested to him. The con- 
sequence was that the relations between father and son became 
more-strained. The latter must have felt that there would be no 
important reforms until he himself succeeded to the direction of 
affairs. That change was much nearer at hand than was com- 
monly supposed. On the I3th of March 1881 Alexander II. 
assassinated by a band of Nihilists, and the autocratic pov 
passed to the hands of his son. 

In the last years of his 'reign, Alexander II. had been much 
exercised by the spread of Nihilist doctrines and the increasing 
number of anarchist conspiracies, and for some time he had 
hesitated between strengthening the hands of the executive and 
making concessions to the widespread political aspirations of 
the educated classes. Finally he decided in favour of the latter 
course, and on the very day of his death he signed a ukaz, 
creating a number of consultative commissions which might 
have been easily transformed into an assembly of notables. 
Alexander III. determined to adopt the opposite policy. He 
at once cancelled the ukaz before it was published, and in the 
manifesto announcing his accession to the throne he let it be 
very clearly understood that he had no intention of limiting or 
weakening the autocratic power which he had inherited from 
his ancestors. Nor did he afterwards show any inclination to 
change his mind. All the internal reforms which he initiated 
were intended to correct what he considered as the too liberal 
tendencies of the previous reign, so that he left behind him the 
reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde type. In his opinion 
Russia was to be saved from anarchical disorders and revolu- 
tionary agitation, not by the parliamentary institutions and 
so-called liberalism of western Europe, but by the three prin- 
ciples which the elder generation of the Slavophils systematically 
recommended nationality, Eastern Orthodoxy and autocracy. 
His political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality, 
one language, one religion and one form of administration; 
and h did his utmost to prepare for the realization of this 
ideal by imposing the Russian language and Russian schools on 
his German, Polish and Finnish subjects, by fostering Eastern 
Orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions, by persecuting 
the Jews and by destroying the remnants of German, Polish 
and Swedish institutions in the outlying provinces. In the 
other provinces he sought to counteract what he considered 
the excessive liberalism of his father's reign. For this purpose 
he clipped the feeble wings of the zemstvo, an elective local 



KINGS OF SCOTLAND; SERVIA] 



ALEXANDER 



563 



administration resembling the county and parish councils in 
England, and placed the autonomous administration of the 
peasant communes under the supervision of landed proprietors 
appointed by the government. At the same time he sought to 
strengthen and centralize the imperial administration, and to 
bring it more under his personal control. In foreign affairs he 
was emphatically a man of peace, but not at all a partisan of 
the doctrine of peace at any price, and he followed the principle 
that the best means of averting war is to be well prepared for it. 
Though indignant at the conduct of Prince Bismarck towards 
Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany, and even 
revived for a time the Three Emperors' Alliance. It was only 
in the last years of his reign, when M. Katkov had acquired a 
certain influence over him, that he adopted towards the cabinet 
of Berlin a more hostile attitude, and even then he confined 
himself to keeping a large quantity of troops near the German 
frontier, and establishing cordial relations with France. With 
regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts 
of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stamboloff to destroy 
Russian influence in the principality excited his indignation, 
but he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of 
arms. In Central Asian affairs he followed the traditional 
policy of gradually extending Russian domination without 
provoking a conflict with Great Britain, and he never allowed 
the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand. 
As a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the eventful 
periods of Russian history; but it must be admitted that 
under his hard unsympathetic rule the country made consider- 
able progress. He died at Livadia on the ist of November 1894, 
and was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II. (D. M. W.) 

ALEXANDER I. (c. 1078-1124), king of Scotland, was the 
fourth son of Malcolm Canmore by his wife (St) Margaret, 
grand-niece of Edward the Confessor. On the death of his 
brother Edgar in 1107 he succeeded to the Scottish crown; 
but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, he inherited only 
a part of its possessions. By a partition, the motive of which 
is not quite certain, the districts south of the Forth and Clyde 
were erected into an earldom for Alexander's younger brother, 
David. Alexander, dissatisfied, sought to obtain the whole, 
but without success. A curious combination of the fierce 
warrior and the pious churchman, he manifested the one aspect 
of his character in his ruthless suppression of an insurrection 
in his northern dominion (thus gaining for himself the title of 
" the Fierce "), the other in his munificent foundation of 
bishoprics and abbeys. Among the latter were those of Scone 
and Inchcolm. His strong championship of the independence 
of the Scottish church involved him in struggles with both the 
English metropolitan sees. He died on the 27 th of April 1124, 
and was succeeded by his brother, David I. 

ALEXANDER II. (i 198-1 249), king of Scotland, son of William 
the Lion and Ermengarde of Beaumont, was born at Haddington 
in 1198, and succeeded to the kingdom on the death of his father 
in 1214. The year after his accession the clans Mac William 
and MacHeth, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke 
into revolt; but the insurrection was speedily quelled. In the 
same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle 
against John, and led an army into England in support of their 
cause; but on the conclusion of peace after John's death between 
his youthful son Henry III. and the French prince Louis, the 
Scottish king was included in the pacification. The reconcilia- 
tion thus effected was further strengthened by the marriage of 
Alexander to Henry's sister Joanna in 1221. The next year was 
marked by the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent 
district of Argyll. A revolt in Galloway in 1235 was crushed 
without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon after- 
wards by its exiled leaders meet with any better fortune. Soon 
afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of England drew 
forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English 
counties. The dispute, however, was settled by a compromise 
in 1237. A threat of invasion by Henry in 1243 for a time 
interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; 
but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, 



and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled 
him to make peace next year at Newcastle. Alexander now 
turned his attention to securing the Western Isles, which still 
owned a nominal dependence on Norway. Negotiations and 
purchase were successively tried but without success. Alexander 
next attempted to seduce Ewen, the son of Duncan, lord of 
Argyll, from his allegiance to the Norwegian king. Ewen 
refused his overtures, and Alexander sailed forth to compel 
him. But on the way he was seized with fever at Kerrera, and 
died there on the 8th of July 1249. 

ALEXANDER III. (1241-1285), king of Scotland, son of 
Alexander II. by his second wife Mary de Coucy, was born in 
1241. At the age of eight' years the death of his father called 
him to the throne. The years of his minority were marked by 
an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two 
rival parties, the one led by Walter Comyn, earl of Menteith, 
the other by Alan Durward, the justiciar. The former was in 
the ascendant during the early years of the reign. At the 
marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in 1 2 5 1 , Henry III. 
seized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage 
for the Scottish kingdom, but the claim was refused. In 1255 
an interview between the English and Scottish kings at Kelso 
resulted in the deposition of Menteith and his party in favour 
of their opponents. But though disgraced, they still retained 
great influence; and two years later, seizing the person of the 
king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of 
a regency -representative of both parties. On attaining his 
majority in 1262, Alexander declared his intention of resuming 
the projects on the Western Isles which had been cut short by 
the death of his father thirteen years before. A formal claim 
was laid before the Norwegian king Haakon. Not only was this 
unsuccessful, but next year Haakon replied by a formidable 
invasion. Sailing round the west coast of Scotland he halted 
off Arran, where negotiations were opened. These were artfully 
prolonged by Alexander until the autumn storms should begin. 
At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter 
a terrific storm which greatly damaged his ships. The battle of 
Largs, fought next day, was indecisive. But even so Haakon's 
position was hopeless. Baffled he turned homewards, but 
died on the way. The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in 
1266 Haakon's successor concluded a treaty by which the Isle 
of Man and the Western Isles were ceded to Scotland in return 
for a money payment, Orkney and Shetland alone being retained. 
Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all his three 
children within a few years made the question of the succession 
one of pressing importance. In 1 284 he induced the Estates to 
recognize as his heir-presumptive his grand-daughter Margaret, 
the " Maid of Norway "; and next year the desire for a male 
heir led him to contract a second marriage. But all such hopes 
were defeated by the sudden death of the king, who was killed 
by a fall from his horse in the dark while riding to visit the queen 
at Kinghorn on the i6th of March 1285. 

ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OBRENOVICH) (1876-1903), king 
of Servia, was born on the I4th of August 1876. On the 6th of 
March 1889 his father, King Milan, abdicated and proclaimed 
him king of Servia under a regency until he should attain his 
majority at eighteen years of age. King Alexander, on the I3th 
of April 1893, being then in his seventeenth year, made his 
notable first coup d'etat, proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed 
the regents and their government, and took the royal authority 
into his own hands. His action was popular, and was rendered 
still more so by his appointment of a radical ministry. In 
May 1894 King Alexander, by another coup d'etat, abolished 
the liberal constitution of 1889 and restored the conservative 
one of 1869. His attitude during the Turco-Greek war of 1897 
was one of strict neutrality. In 1898 he appointed his father 
commander-in-chief of the Servian army, and from that time, 
or rather from his return to Servia in 1894 until 1900, ex-king 
Milan was regarded as the de faeto ruler of the country. But 
while, during the summer of 1900, Milan was away from Servia 
taking waters in Carlsbad, and making arrangements to secure 
the hand of a German princess for his son, and while the 



ALEXANDER 



premier, Dr Vladan Dyorevich, was visiting the Paris Universal 
Exhibition, King Alexander suddenly announced to the people of 
Servia his engagement to Mme Draga Mashin, a widow, formerly 
a lady-in-waiting to Queen Natalie. The projected union aroused 
great opposition at first. Ex-King Milan resigned his post; so 
did the government; and King Alexander had great difficulty 
in forming a new -cabinet. But the opposition subsided some- 
what on the publication of Tsar Nicholas's congratulations to 
the king on his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the 
principal witness at the wedding. The marriage was then duly 
celebrated on the 5th of August 1900. Still this union was 
unpopular and weakened the position of King Alexander in the 
army and the country. He tried to reconcile political parties 
by granting, from his own initiative a liberal constitution 
(April 6, 1901), introducing for the first time in the constitutional 
history of Servia the system of two chambers (skupshtina 
and senate). This did in a certain measure reconcile the 
political parties, but did not reconcile the army, which, 
already dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more 
so at the rumours that one of the two unpopular brothers of 
Queen Draga, Lieutenant Nicodiye, was to be proclaimed heir- 
apparent to the throne. Meanwhile the independence of .the 
senate and of the council of state caused growing irritation to 
King Alexander, which led him to another coup d'etat. He 
suspended (March 1903) the constitution for half an hour, time 
enough to publish the decrees by which the old senators and 
councillors of state were dismissed and replaced by new ones. 
This arbitrary act naturally increased the dissatisfaction in the 
country. The general impression was that inasmuch as the 
senate was packed with men devoted to the royal couple, and 
inasmuch as the government obtained a large majority at the 
general elections, King Alexander would not hesitate any longer 
to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the heir to the throne. 
Apparently to prevent this, but in reality to replace Alexander 
Obrenovich by Peter Karageorgevich, a military conspiracy was 
organized. The conspirators penetrated into the palace and 
savagely murdered King Alexander and Queen Draga in the 
early morning of the nth of June 1003. (C. Mi.) 

ALEXANDER, son of Numenius, Greek rhetorician, flourished 
in the first half of the second century A.D. In addition to general 
treatises on rhetoric, he wrote a special work Ilep! T>V TTJS 
dLavolas KO.I rrjs Xeecos o'X'^drcoi', of which only an abridgment 
is extant; later epitomes were made in Latin by Aquila Romanus 
and Julius Rufinianus under the title De Figuris Sentenliarum 
et Eloculionis. Another epitome was made in the fourth century 
by a Christian for use in Christian schools, containing additional 
examples from Gregory of Nazianzus. 

Text in Spengel, Rhelores Graeci (1856). 

ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772-1851), American Presby- 
terian divine, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in that part 
of Augusta county which is now Rockbridge county, Virginia, 
on the 1 7th of April 1772. After completing his preliminary 
education in the little school at Lexington, Virginia, which later 
developed into Washington and Lee University, he came under 
the influence of the religious movement known as the " great 
revival" (1789-1790) and devoted himself to the study of 
theology. Licensed to preach in 1791, he was engaged forseveral 
years as an itinerant Presbyterian preacher in his native state, 
and acquired during this period the facility in extemporaneous 
speaking for which he was remarkable. He was president of 
Hampden-Sidney College from 1796 to 1807, with a short inter- 
mission (in 1801-1802), and in 1807 became pastor of Pine Street 
Church, Philadelphia. In 1812 he became first professor in the 
newly established Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Prince- 
ton, New Jersey, where he remained until his death at Princeton 
on the 22nd of October 1851, filling successively the chairs of 
didactic and polemic theology (1812-1840), and pastoral and 
polemic theology (1840-1851). He married, in 1802, Janetta 
Waddel, the daughter of the- celebrated blind preacher, James 
Waddel (1739-1805), whose eloquence was described in William 
Wirt's Letters of a British Spy (1803). Dr Alexander wrote a 
considerable number of theological works, which had a large 



circulation. Among these may be mentioned his Brief Outline 
of the Evidences of the Christian Religion (1825), which passed 
through several editions, and iwas translated into various 
languages; The Canon of the Old and New Testament Ascertained; 
or the Bible Complete without the Apocrypha and Unwritten Tradi- 
tions (1826); A History of the Israelitish Nation (1852), and 
Outlines of Moral Science (1852), the last two being published 
posthumously. 

See the biography (New York, 1854) by his son James W. 
Alexander. 

ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800-1881), American portrait- 
painter, was born in Windham county, Connecticut, in February 
1800. Brought up on a farm, he taught himself the use of 
colours, and in 1820 went to New York City and studied painting 
with Alexander Robertson. He spent the winters of 1831 and 
1832 in Rome, and then for nearly a decade he lived in Boston, 
Massachusetts, where he had considerable vogue, and where in 
1842 he painted a portrait of Charles Dickens. One of his best 
portraits is that of,Mrs Fletcher Webster in the Boston Museum 
of Fine Arts. He died in 1881 in Florence. 

ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858- ), English actor, whose 
family name was Samson, was born in Reading on the igth of 
June 1858, the son of a Scottish manufacturer. He went into 
business in London after leaving school, but having acted as an 
amateur he determined to make the stage his profession. His 
first appearance was at Nottingham in 1879, and after some 
seasons of provincial experience he made his first London 
appearance as Caleb Deecie in Two Roses in 1881 with Irving 
at the Lyceum. He was selected by W. S. Gilbert to support 
Mary Anderson in Comedy and Tragedy, returned for a time to 
the Lyceum, where he was Irving's principal associate, especially 
as Faust (1886) and Macduff (1888); and, after starting success- 
fully under his own management at the Avenue Theatre in 
1890 with Dr Bill, in 1891 became manager of the St James's 
Theatre. There he produced a number of successful plays, 
notably Oscar Wilde's Lady Windermere's Fan and The Im- 
portance of being Earnest, Pinero's Second Mrs Tanqueray, The 
Princess andthe Butterfly, HisHouseinOrdera.nd The Thunderbolt; 
C. Haddon Chambers's The Idler; H. A. Jones's Masqueroders; 
Alfred Sutro's John Glayde's Honour and The Builder of Bridges', 
Carton's Liberty Hall and The Tree of Knowledge; Anthony Hope's 
Prisoner of Zenda and Rupert of Hentzau; and Stephen Phillips's 
Paolo and Francesco, himself playing the leading parts with great 
distinction. In 1907 he was elected a member of the London 
County Council as a municipal reformer, but continued to act 
regularly at the St James's. 

ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803-1885), British 
soldier and traveller, was born on the i6th of October 1803. 
He joined the East India Company's army in 1820, transferring 
into the British army in 1825. As aide-de-camp to the British 
envoy to Persia, he was an eye-witness of the fighting in the war 
between Persia and Russia (1826), and in 1829 was present in 
the Balkans during the Russo-Turkish war. In 1832-1834 he 
was in Portugal during the Miguelete war, and in 1835 served in 
the Kaffir war in South Africa as aide-de-camp to Sir Benjamin 
D'Urban. Subsequently he conducted an exploring expedition 
into Namaqualand and Damaraland, and was knighted for his 
services (1838). From 1841 to 1855 he served in Canada, proceed- 
ing thence to the Crimea, and in 1862 held an important command 
in New Zealand during the Maori war. He retired from the 
service in 1877, and in 1881 was given the honorary rank of 
general. He was largely responsible for the preservation and 
transfer to England of Cleopatra's Needle in 1877. His varied 
experiences provided material for a large number of books, 
among which were Travels from India to England (1827); Trans- 
atlantic Sketches (1833); An Expedition of Discovery into the 
Interior of Africa (1838) ; Passages in the Life of a Soldier (1857) ; 
Incidents of the Maori War (1863). He was also the author of a 
Life of Field-Marshal the Duke of Wellington (1840). He died on 
the 2nd of April 1885. 

ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- ), American painter, 
was born in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of October 



ALEXANDER ALEXANDER BALAS 



565 



1856. He was left an orphan when very young, became an 
illustrator for Harper's Magazine, studied in Europe, became a 
pupil of the Royal Academy at Munich, and also worked in 
Venice, in Holland and in Paris, where he attracted much atten- 
tion by his exhibition at the Salon of two female portraits 
entitled " Gris " and " Noir." He became a member of the 
Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts (Paris), of the National 
Academy of Design (New York), of the International Society 
(London), and of the Vienna and Munich Societies of Painters. 
In 1901 he was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. 
He executed decorative panels for the Congressional Library, 
Washington, D.C., and a large decoration for the Carnegie 
Institute, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; and his works include 
numerous portraits and subject pictures. 

ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (1800-1860), American 
biblical scholar, the third son of Archibald Alexander, was 
born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of April 1809. 
He graduated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton 
University) in 1826, having devoted himself especially to the 
study of Hebrew and other oriental .languages, and from 1830 
to 1833 was adjunct professor of ancient languages and literature 
there. In 1834 he became an assistant to Dr Charles Hodge, 
professor of oriental and biblical literature in the Princeton 
Theological Seminary, and in 1838 became associate professor 
of oriental and biblical literature there, succeeding Dr Hodge 
in that chair in 1840 and being transferred in 1851 to the chair 
of biblical and ecclesiastical history, and in 1859 to that of 
Hellenistic and New Testament literature, which he occupied 
until his death at Princeton on the 28th of January 1860. 
Alexander was a remarkable linquist and exegete. He had been 
ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1839, and was well 
known for his pulpit eloquence. He was the author of The 
Earlier Prophecies of Isaiah (1846), The Later Prophecies of 
Isaiah (1847), and an abbreviation of these two volumes, Isaiah 
Illustrated and Explained (2 vols., 1851), The Psalms Translated 
and Explained (3 vols., 1850), commentaries on Acts (2 vols., 
1857), Mark (1858) and Matthew (1860), and two volumes of 
Sermons (1860). 

See The Life of Joseph A. Alexander (2 vols., 2nd ed., New York, 
J 875) by his nephew, Henry C. Alexander. 

His brother, JAMES WADDEL ALEXANDER (1804-1859), born 
in Louisa county, Virginia, on the i3th of March 1804, was a 
famous Presbyterian preacher. He graduated at the College of 
New Jersey in 1820, studied theology in the Princeton Seminary, 
and was pastor of a Presbyterian church in Charlotte county, 
Virginia, from 1826 to 1828, and of the First Presbyterian 
church in Trenton, New Jersey, in 1829-1832. From 1833 to 
1844 he was professor of belles-lettres and Latin language and 
literature in the College of New Jersey, from 1844 to 1849 
was pastor of the Duane Street Presbyterian church in New 
York City, from 1849 to 1851 was professor of ecclesiastical 
history, church government and sacred rhetoric in the 
Princeton Theological Seminary, and from 1851 until his death, 
at Red Sweet Springs, Virginia, on the 3ist of July 1859, was 
pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church in New York 
City. He wrote numerous magazine articles and published a 
number of books, including The American Mechanic and Working- 
man (2 vols., 1847, a collection of papers to mechanics first 
printed under the pseudonym of " Charles Quill "), Thoughts 
on Family Worship (1847), Sacramental Addresses (1854), The 
Revival and its Lessons (1859), Thoughts on Preaching (1861), 
Faith (1862), and many juvenile books for Sunday-school 
libraries. 

See Forty Years' Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander (2 vols., 
New York, 1860), edited by Dr John Hall (1806-1894) of Trenton, 
N. J. 

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824- ), Protestant archbishop 
of Armagh and primate of all Ireland, was born at Londonderry 
on the i3th of April 1824 and educated at Tonbridge Grammar 
School and Brasenose College, Oxford. After holding several 
livings in the north of Ireland he was made bishop of Derry and 
Raphoe in 1867, and was elevated to the primacy in 1896. He 



was Bampton lecturer in 1876. An eloquent preacher and the 
author of numerous theological works, he is best known to 
literature as a master of dignified and animated verse. His 
poems were collected in 1887 under the title of St Augustine's 
Holiday, and other Poems. His -wife, Cecil Francis Humphreys 
(1818-1895), wrote some tracts in connexion with the Oxford 
movement, but is famous as the author of " Jesus calls us o'er 
the tumult," " There is a green hill far away " and other well- 
known hymns (nearly four hundred in all). A collection of her 
verse was published in 1896. 

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808-1884), Scottish 
divine, was born at Leith on the 24th of August 1808. He was 
educated at the universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, where 
he gained a lasting reputation for classical scholarship. He 
entered Glasgow Theological Academy under Ralph Wardlaw in 
September 1827, but in December of the same year he left to 
become classical tutor at the Blackburn Theological Academy 
(afterwards the Lancashire Independent College) . At Blackburn 
he stayed till 1831, lecturing on biblical literature, . metaphysics, 
Greek and Latin. After short visits to Germany and London he 
was invited in November 1834 to become minister of North 
College Street church (afterwards Argyle Square), Edinburgh, an 
independent church which had arisen out of the evangelical 
movement associated with the Haldanes. He deliberately put 
aside the ambition to become a pulpit orator in favour of the 
practice of biblical exposition, which he invested with a singular 
charm and impressiveness. In 1836 he became one of the editors 
of the Congregational Magazine, to which he contributed articles 
on biblical literature and theology and on the " voluntary " 
controversy. In 1840 he delivered the Congregational Lecture 
in London on the " Connexion and Harmony of the Old and New 
Testaments." 

Alexander took an active part in the " voluntary " controversy 
which ended in the Disruption, but he also maintained broad and 
catholic views of the spiritual relations between different sections 
of the Christian church. In 1845 ne visited Switzerland with the 
special object of inquiring into the religious life of the churches 
there. He published an account of his journey in a book, 
Switzerland and the Swiss Churches, which led to an inter- 
change of correspondence between the Swiss and Scottish 
churches. In 1845 he received the degree of D.D. from the 
university of St Andrews. In 1861 he- undertook the editorship 
of the third edition of Kitto's Biblical Encyclopaedia with the 
understanding that the whole work should be thoroughly revised 
and brought up to date. In January 1870 he became one of 
the committee of Old Testament revisers, and by his thorough 
biblical scholarship rendered exceptional service to the board; 
he enjoyed the work and devoted much time to it for the next 
fourteen years. In 1877 he became principal of the Edinburgh 
Theological Hall, a position which he held, in spite of many 
tempting offers of preferment elsewhere, until his death on the 
2oth of December 1884. 

See his Life and Work by James Ross (1887). (D. Mn.) 

ALEXANDER AETOLUS, of Pleuron in Aetolia, Greek poet 
and man of letters, the only representative of Aetolian poetry, 
flourished about 280 B.C. When living in Alexandria he was 
commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus to arrange the tragedies 
and satyric dramas in the library; some ten years later he took 
up his residence at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of 
Macedonia. His reputation as a tragic poet was so high that he 
was allotted a place in the Alexandrian tragic Pleiad; we only 
know the title of one play (Astragalistae). He also wrote short 
epics, epigrams and elegies, the considerable fragments of which 
show learning and eloquence. 

Meineke, Analecta Alexandrina (1853); Bergk, Poetae Lyrici 
Graeci; Couat, La Poesie alexandrine (1882). 

ALEXANDER BALAS (i.e. " lord "), ruler of the Greek king- 
dom of Syria 150-146 B.C., was a native of Smyrna of humble 
origin, but gave himself out to be the son of Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes and heir to the Syrian throne. His claims were 
recognized by the Roman senate, Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt 
and others. At first unsuccessful, he finally defeated the reigning 



566 ALEXANDER CORNELIUS ALEXANDER OF HALES 



king Demetrius Soter in 1 50 B.C. Being now undisputed master of 
Syria, he abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. Demetrius 
Soter's son profited by the opportunity to regain the throne. 
Ptolemy Philometor, who was Alexander's father-in-law, went 
over to his side, and Alexander was defeated in a pitched battle 
near Antioch in Syria. He fled for refuge to a Nabataean prince, 
/ who murdered him and senl his head to Ptolemy, who had been 
mortally wounded in the engagement. 

See i Maccab. 10 ff. ; Justin xxxv. I and 2 ; Josephus, Antiq. xiii. 2 ; 
Appian, Syr. 67 ; Polybius xxxiii. 14. 

ALEXANDER CORNELIUS, Greek grammarian, surnamed 
POLYHISTOR from his great learning, born at Miletus or Myndus 
in Caria, flourished about 70 B.C. He was taken prisoner in 
the Mithridatic war by Sulla, from whom (or from Cornelius 
Lentulus) he received his freedom and assumed the name 
Cornelius. He accompanied Crassus on his Parthian campaigns, 
and perished at the destruction by fire of his house at Laurentum. 
He is said to have written " books without number," chiefly on 
historical and geographical subjects. Of the extant fragments 
(Muller, Fragmenta'Historicorum Graecorwnf, iii.) those relating 
to the jews are important as containing quotations from lost 
Jewish authors. 

ALEXANDER JANNAEUS, king of the Jews, succeeded his 
brother Aristobulus in 103 B.C. and died in 76 B.C. His first act 
was the murder of one of his brothers who claimed the throne, 
and his reign was disgraced by the cruelties that he perpetrated 
in order to retain his position. (See JEWS and PHARISEES.) 

ALEXANDER NEVSKY, SAINT (1220-1263), grand-duke of 
Vladimir, was the second son of the grand-duke Yaroslav. His 
childhood and youth were spent at Great Novgorod, whither 
his father sent him to rule (1228) with some guardian 
.boyars. In 1239 he married Alexandra, daughter of Prince 
Bryachislav of PoMtsk. At an early age he distinguished 
himself in constant warfare with the Germans, Swedes and 
Lithuanians, who tried to wrest Novgorod and Pskov from 
Russia while she was still suffering from the effects of the 
terrible Tatar invasion. The most notable of these battles, 
whereby he won his honorific epithet of Nevsky (i.e. of the 
Neva), was fought on the banks of the Neva (July 15, 1 240) against 
the famous Swedish statesman, Birger Jarl, whom he utterly 
defeated, besides wounding him with his lance. In the following 
year the Teutonic Order, in conjunction with the Order of the 
Sword, succeeded in capturing Pskov; but Alexander recovered 
it in 1242, advanced into Livonia, and on the 5th of April 
defeated the knights on the ice of Lake Peipus and compelled 
them in the ensuing peace to renounce all their conquests. He 
also prevented the Swedes (in 1256) from settling in South 
Finland. On the death of his father (1246) Alexander and his 
younger brother Andrew went on a two years' journey into 
Mongolia to obtain their yarluiki, or letters of investiture, from 
the Grand Khan, who ^hen disposed of the fate of all the Russian 
princes. He returned (1250) as grand-duke of Kiev and Nov- 
gorod, while to Andrew was given the far more important grand- 
duchy of Vladimir. In 1252, however, the Tatars themselves 
expelled Andrew and placed Alexander on the throne of Vladimir. 
Alexander henceforth did his best for his country by humbling 
himself before the Tatars so as to give them no pretext for 
ravaging the land again. Most of his spare money he devoted to 
the ransoming of the numerous Russian captives detained at the 
Golden Horde. But the men of Novgorod, in their semi-inde- 
pendent republic, continued (1255-1257) to give the grand-duke 
trouble, their chief grievance being the imposition of a Tatar 
tribute, which they only submitted to in 1 259 on the rumour of an 
impending Tatar invasion. In 1262 the Tatar tribute was felt 
so grievously all over Russia that preparations were made for a 
general insurrection, and Alexander, who knew that an abortive 
rebellion would make the yoke heavier, was obliged to go to the 
Horde in person to prevent the Tatars from again attacking 
Russia. He stayed at Sarai, their Volgan capital, all the winter, 
and not only succeeded in obtaining a mitigation of the tribute, 
but also the abolition of the military service previously rendered 
by the Russians to the Tatars. This was his last service to his 



country. He died on his way home from the Horde, and in th,e 
words of his contemporary, the metropolitan Cyril, " with him 
the sun of Russia set." The Orthodox Church has canonized the 
ruler who gave his whole; life for Russia and the Orthodox faith. 
His relics, discovered in 1380, were in 1724 translated by Peter 
the Great from Vladimir to St Petersburg. 

See Sergyei Mikhailovich Solovev, History of Russia (Rus., 2nd 
ed., St Petersburg, 1897, vol. 3). (R. N. B.) 

ALEXANDER OP APHRODISIAS, pupil of Aristocles of 
Messene, the most celebrated of the Greek commentators on the 
writings of Aristotle, and styled, by way of pre-eminence, 
6 ?77J7Ti7S ("the expositor"), was a native of Aphrodisias in 
Caria. He came to Athens towards the end of the 2nd century 
A.D., became head of the Lyceum and lectured on peripatetic 
philosophy. The object of his work was to free the doctrine from 
the syncretism of Ammonius and to reproduce the pure doctrine 
of Aristotle. Commentaries by Alexander on the following works 
of Aristotle are still extant: the Analytica Priora, i.; the 
Topica; the Meleorologica; the De Sensu; and the Metaphysica, 
i.-v., together with an abridgment of what he wrote on the 
remaining books of the Metaphysica. His commentaries were 
greatly esteemed among the Arabians, who translated many of 
them. There are also several original writings by Alexander still 
extant. The most important of these are a work On Fate, in 
which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity ; and one 
On the Soul, in which he contends that the undeveloped reason in 
man is material (vovs V\LKOS) and inseparable from the body. 
He argued strongly against the doctrine of immortality. He 
identified the active intellect (vovs TTOMJTIKOS), through whose 
agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God. 
Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition 
of Aristotle, Venice, 1495-1498; his De Fato and De Anima were 
printed along with the works of Themistius at Venice (1534) ; the 
former work, which has been translated into Latin by Grotius and 
also by Schulthess, was edited by J. C. Orelli, Zurich, 1824; and 
his commentaries on the Metaphysica by H. Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. 
J. Nourisson has treated of his doctrine of fate (De la liberte el 
du hazard, Paris, 1870). In the early Renaissance his doctrine of 
the soul's mortality was adopted by P. Pomponazzi against 
the Thomists and the Averroists. 

See PERIPATETICS (ad fin.) ; ALEXANDRISTS ; POMPONAZZI, PIETRO ; 
also A. Apelt, " Die Schrift d. Alex. v. Aphr.," Philologus, xly., 1886; 
C. Ruelle, " Alex. d'Aphr. et le pretendu Alex. d'Alexandrie," Rev. 
des etudes grecques, v., 1892; E. Zeller's Outlines of Gk. Phil. (Eng. 
trans., ed. 1905, p. 296). 

ALEXANDER OF HALES (ALEXANDER HALENSIS), surnamed 
DOCTOR IRREFRAGABILIS, THEOLOGORUM MONARCHA and FONS 
VITAE, a celebrated English theologian of the i3th century, was 
born in Gloucestershire. Trained in the monastery of Hales he 
was early raised to an archdeaconry. He went, like most of the 
scholars of his day, to study at Paris, where he took the degree of 
doctor and became celebrated as a teacher. It is generally held 
that he taught Bonaventura, Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas, 
but a comparison of dates makes it clear that the two latter could 
nothavebeenhispupils and that the statementabout Bonaventura 
is open to doubt. In 1 2 2 2 (or 1 23 1 , see Denifle, Chartul. Univers. 
Paris, Paris, 1889, i. 135) Alexander entered the order of Minorite 
Friars and thenceforward lived in strict seclusion. He refused, 
however, to renounce his degree of doctor, and was the first of his 
order who continued to bear that title after initiation. He died 
in 1 245 and was buried in the convent of the Cordeliers at Paris. 
His most celebrated work was the Swmma Theologiae (Nuremberg, 
1452; Venice, 1576; Cologne, 1611), undertaken by the orders of 
Pope Innocent IV. and approved by Alexander IV., on the 
report of seventy learned theologians, as a system of instruction 
for all the schools in Christendom. The form is that of question 
and answer, and the method is rigidly scholastic. Of small 
intrinsic value, it is interesting partly as the first philosophical 
contribution of the Franciscans who were afterwards to take a 
prominent part in medieval thought (see SCHOLASTICISM), and 
partly as the first work based on a knowledge of the whole 
Aristotelian corpus and the Arabian commentators. 

See Wadding, Script, ord. minor. (Rome, 1650); for his method 



ALEXANDER OF TRALLES ALEXANDERSBAD 



567 






B. Haureau, Hist, de philos. scholast. (Paris, 1880); F. Picavet, 
" Abelard et A. de H." in the Bibliotheque de Vecole des hautes-etudes 
(2nd series, Paris, 1896, pp. 222-230); Schwane, Dogmengesch. 
(Freiburg, 1882); A. Harnack, Dogmengesch. (1890); J. Endres, " Des 
A. vonH. Leben und psychol. Lehre " in Philos. Jahrb. (i. Fulda, 1888, 
pp. 24-55, 203-296) ; also Vacant's Diet, de theologie catholique, vol. i. 
ALEXANDER OF TRALLES (ALEXANDER TRALLIANUS), 
Greek physician, born at Tralles in Lydia, lived probably about 
the middle of the 6th century and practised medicine with 
success at Rome. The Greek text of his Bi/3Xta larpua was 
printed at Paris in 1 548 and his De Lumbricis at Venice in 1 570. 
See E. Milward, Trallianus Reviviscens (London, 1734)- 
ALEXANDER SEVERUS (MARCUS AURELIUS SEVERUS 
ALEXANDER) (208-235), Roman emperor from A.D. 222 to 235, 
was bom at Area Caesarea in Palestine on the ist of October 208. 
His father, Gessius Marcianus, held office more than once as an 
imperial procurator; his mother, Julia Mamaea, was the daughter 
of Julia Maesa and the aunt of Heliogabalus. His original name 
was Bassianus, but he changed it in 221 when his grandmother, 
Maesa, persuaded the emperor Heliogabalus to adopt his cousin 
as successor and create him Caesar, In the next year, on the 
nth of March, Heliogabalus was murdered, and Alexander 
was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorians and accepted by 
the senate. He was then a mere lad, amiable, well-meaning, 
but entirely under the dominion of his mother, a woman of many 
virtues, who surrounded him with wise counsellors, watched 
over the development of his character and improved the tone 
of the administration, but on the other hand was inordinately 
jealous, and alienated the army by extreme parsimony, while 
neither she nor her son had a strong enough hand to keep 
tight the reins of military discipline. Mutinies became 
frequent in all parts of the empire; to ore of them the life of 
the jurist and praetorian praefect Ulpian was sacrificed; another 
compelled the retirement of Dio Cassius from his command. 
On the whole, however, the reigr of Alexander was prosperous 
till he was summoned to the East to face the new power of the 
Sassanians (see PERSIA: History). Of the war that followed 
we have very various accounts; Mommsen leans to that which is 
least favourable to the Romans. According to Alexander's own 
despatch to the senate he gained great victories. At all events, 
though the Persians were checked for the time, the conduct of 
the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. 
The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph (233), 
but next year he was called to face German invaders in Gaul, 
where he was slain (on the i8th or igth of March 235), together 
with his mother, in a mutiny which was probably led by Maxi- 
minus, a Thracian legionary, and at any rate secured him the 
throne. Alexander was the last of the Syrian princes. During 
his reign, acting, as he did in most things, under the influence 
of his mother, he did much to improve the morals and condition 
of the people. His advisers were men like the famous jurist 
Ulpian, the historian Dio Cassius and a select board of sixteen 
senators; a municipal council of fourteen assisted the city 
praefect in administering the affairs of the fourteen districts 
of Rome. The luxury and extravagance that had formerly been 
so prevalent at the court were put down; the standard of the 
coinage was raised; taxes were lightened; literature, art and 
science were encouraged; the lot of the soldiers was improved; 
and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted 
for lending money at a moderate rate of interest. In religious 
matters Alexander preserved an open mind. In his private 
chapel he had busts of Orpheus, Abraham, Apollonius of Tyana 
and Jesus Christ. It is said that he was desirous of erecting 
a temple to the founder of Christianity, but was dissuaded by 
the pagan priests. There is no doubt that, had Alexander's 
many excellent qualities been supported by the energy and 
strength of will necessary for the government of a military 
empire, he would have been one of the greatest of the Roman 
emperors. 

See Lampridius, Alexander Severus; Dio Cassius Ixxviii. 30, 
Ixxix. 17, Ixxx. i; Herodian vi. 1-18; Porrath, Der Kaiser Alex. 
Sev. (1876) ; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, ii. 2526 foil. (Groebe) ; 
monograph by R. V. Nind Hopkins, Cambridge Historical Essays, 
No. xiv. (1907). 



ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN, a celebrated impostor 
and worker of false oracles, was born at Abonouteichos (see 
INEBOLI) in Paphlagonia in the early part of the 2nd century 
A.D. The vivid narrative of his career given by Lucian might 
be taken as fictitious but for the corroboration of certain coins 
of the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius (J. H. Eckhel, 
Doctrina Nummorum veterum, ii. pp. 383, 384) and of a statue 
of Alexander, said by Athenagoras (Apology, c. 26) to have stood 
in the forum of Parium. After a period of instruction in medicine 
by a doctor who also, according to Lucian, was an impostor, 
he succeeded in establishing an oracle of Aesculapius at his 
native town. Having circulated a prophecy that the son of 
Apollo was to be born again, he contrived that there should 
be found in the foundations of the temple to Aesculapius, then 
in course of construction at Abonouteichos, an egg in which a 
small live snake had been placed. In an age of superstition no 
people had so great a reputation f orcredulity as the Paphlagonians, 
and Alexander had little difficulty in convincing them of the 
second coming of the god under the name of Glycon. A large 
tame snake with a false human head, wound round Alexander's 
body as he sat in a shrine in the temple, gave " autophones " 
or oracles unasked, but the usual methods practised were those 
of the numerous oracle-mongers of the time, of which Lucian 
gives a detailed account, the opening of sealed inquiries by 
heated needles, a neat plan of forging broken seals, and the 
giving of vague or meaningless replies to difficult questions, 
coupled with a lucrative blackmailing of those whose inquiries 
were compromising. The reputation of the oracle, which was 
in origin medical, spread, and with it grew Alexander's skilled 
plans of organized deception. He set up an " intelligence 
bureau" in Rome, instituted mysteries like those of Eleusis, 
from which his particular enemies the Christians and Epicureans 
were alike excluded as " profane," and celebrated a mystic 
marriage, between himself and the moon. During the plague 
of A.D. 166 a verse from the oracle was used as an amulet and 
was inscribed over the doors of houses as a protection, and an 
oracle was sent, at Marcus Aurelius' request, by Alexander to 
the Roman army on the Danube during the war with the 
Marcomanni, declaring that victory would follow on the throwing 
of two lions alive into the river. The result was a great disaster, 
and Alexander had recourse to the old quibble of the Delphic 
oracle to Croesus for an explanation. Lucian's own close in- 
vestigations into Alexander's methods of fraud led to a serious 
attempt on his life. The whole account gives a graphic descrip- 
tion of the inner working of one among the many new oracles 
that were springing up at thiaperiod. Alexander had remarkable 
beauty and the striking personality of the successful charlatan, 
and must have been a man of considerable intellectual abilities 
and power of organization. His income is said by Lucian to 
have reached an enormous figure. He died of gangrene of the 
leg in his seventieth year. 

See Lucian, 'AXed>5pos ?} ^(vd6navnf; Samuel Dill, Roman Society 
from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (1904); and F. Gregorovius, The 
Emperor Hadrian, trans, by M. E. Robinson (1898). 

ALEXANDERS (botanical name, Smyrnium Olusatrum, 
natural order Umbellif erae) , a stout herbaceous plant with a 
furrowed, much-branched stem 1-3 ft. high, and large compound 
leaves with broad sheathing stalks, and broad, cut or lobed 
segments. The small yellow flowers are borne in compound 
umbels. The plant is a native of the Mediterranean region, 
and was formerly cultivated as a pot-herb. It is now found 
apparently wild in Great Britain and Ireland, growing in waste 
places, especially near the sea and amongst ruins. 

In England the plant is sometimes popularly termed " alis- 
ander " ; in North America Thaspium aureum is sometimes 
called " alexanders." " Alexander's foot," botanical name 
Anacydus Pyrethrum, is the pellitory of Spain. 

ALEXANDERSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the 
kingdom of Bavaria, romantically situated in the Fichtelgebirge, 
near Wunsiedel, at a height of 1000 ft. above the sea. Pop. 
1200. Its waters, which are ferruginous and largely charged 
with carbonic acid gas, are of use in nervous and rheumatic 



5 68 



ALEXANDRE ALEXANDRIA 



disorders. In the neighbourhood is the Luisenburg (or Lux- 
burg) , so called after a visit paid by Queen Louise of Prussia in 
1805, a hill covered by majestic granite rocks, commanding a 
grand view of the whole range of the Fichtelgebirge. 

ALEXANDRE, NOEL (NATALIS ALEXANDER) (1639-1724), 
French theologian and ecclesiastical historian, was born at 
Rouen on the ipth of January 1639. In his I5th year he joined 
the Dominicans, and shortly after his ordination was appointed 
professor of philosophy at the convent of Saint-Jacques in 
Paris. The success of his subsequent lectures at the Sorbonne 
led to his selection by Colbert as tutor to his son, Jacques Nicolas 
Colbert, afterwards archbishop of Rouen. Alexandre obtained 
the degree of doctor in divinity from the Sorbonne in 1675 and 
for twelve years taught philosophy, theology and ecclesiastical 
law to the members of the Saint-Jacques community. He 
played a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs and preached 
several times before Louis XIV., who granted him an annual 
pension of 800 livres, and in the general assemblies of the French 
bishops. He became provincial of his order in 1706, but was 
banished to Chatellerault in 1709 for having subscribed to the 
Cas de conscience (1703), and was deprived of his pension in 
1713 on account of his opposition to the bull Unigenitus. He 
died in Paris on the 2ist of August 1724, having lost his sight 
some time before owing to his strenuous literary activity. His 
numerous works are still much valued by ecclesiastical students. 

His best-known work, the Selecta historiae ecclesiasticae capita, 
et in loca ejusdem insignia dissertationes historical, chronologicae, 
dogmaticae (26 vols., Paris, 1676-1686), was placed on the Index 
by Innocent XI., on account of his bold defence of the Gallican 
claims. In 1689 he brought out at Paris his history of the Old 
Testament: Selecta historiae Veteris Testamenti capita, &c., in 
6 vols. Of the numerous editions of Alexandre's ecclesiastical 
history the best is that of P. J. D. Mansi, which contains many 
valuable notes and additions (n vols., Lucca, 1749) and has 
been frequently reprinted. Alexandre's principal contribution 
to theological literature is his Theologia dogmatica et moralis 
secundvm ordinem catechismi concilii Tridentini (10 vols., Paris, 
1694), in which he clearly shows himself a disciple of the Thomist 
school. His Conformitt des ceremonies chinoises avec I'idoldtrie 
grecque et romaine and Sept lettres sur les ceremonies de la Chine 
(both published at Cologne in 1 700) are interesting as they mark 
him out as a pioneer in the study of comparative religion. 

See Catalogue complet des atwares du Pere Alexandre (Paris, 1716) ; 
Quetif-Echard, Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum (Paris, 1719-1721), 
t. ii. p. 810; and full bibliography in A. Vacant, Diet, de theologie 
(scholarly article by P. Mandounet, cols. 769-772). 

ALEXANDRETTA, or ISKANDERUN (med.[Scanderoon), a town 
of N. Syria, situated in the N.E. angle of the Levantine 
Mediterranean on the S.E. of the gulf to which it gives a title. 
Pop. about 10,000, two-thirds Moslem. Iskanderun preserves 
the name, but probably not the exact site, of Alexandria ad 
Issum, founded by Alexander in 333 B.C., about 23 m. S. of the 
scene of his victory, to supersede Myriandrus as key of the 
Syrian Gates (Beilan Pass). The importance of the place ever 
since has been derived from its relation to this pass, the easiest 
approach to the open ground of N. Syria of which Antioch and 
Aleppo have been the successive capitals; and this relation 
has prevailed over the extreme unhealthiness of the site, which 
lies on marshy deltaic ground, screened by the horseshoe of 
Elma Dagh from all purifying influences of N. and E. winds. 
As the main outlet for the overland trade from Bagdad and India, 
whose importance was great until the establishment of the 
Egyptian overland route, the place was a great resort, first of 
Genoese and Venetian merchants, then of tkose of West and 
North European nations. The British Levant (Turkey) Company 
maintained an agency and factory here for 200 years, till 1825, 
in spite of appalling mortality among its employ6s. Alexan- 
dretta is still the main port for the Aleppo district, to which a 
good ckaussee leads over the Beilan Pass, and it has a considerable 
export trade in tobacco, silk, cereals, liquorice, textiles. The 
health of the place has improved with the draining of the marshes 
and the provision of a better supply of water, but still leaves 



much to be desired. The wealthier inhabitants have summer 
residences at Beilan near the summit of the pass, long a strong- 
hold of freebooting Dere Beys and the scene of the victory 
won by Ibrahim Pasha in 1832, which opened Cilicia to his 
advance. There are resident consuls of all the principal powers, 
and the port is well served by coasting steamers under European 
and Ottoman flags. The distance by road to Aleppo has been 
shortened to about 70 m., and Antakia (Antioch) is about 45 m. 
distant by a branch of the same chaussee. (D. G. H.) 

ALEXANDRIA (Arab. I skenderia) , a city and chief seaport 
of Egypt, and for over a thousand years from its foundation 
the capital of the country, situated on the Mediterranean in 
31 12' N., 29 15' E., and 129 m. by rail N.W. of Cairo. The 
ancient Canopic mouth of the Nile (now dry) was 12 m. E. 

I. The Modern City. The city is built on the strip of land 
which separates the Mediterranean from Lake Mareotis (Mariut) , 
and on a T-shaped peninsula which forms harbours east and 
west. The stem of the T was originally a mole leading to an 
island (Pharos) which formed the cross-piece. In the course of 
centuries this mole has been silted up and is now an isthmus 
half a mile wide. On it a part of the modern city is built. The 
cape at the western end of the peninsula is Ras et-Tin (Cape of 
Figs) ; the eastern cape is known as Pharos or Kait Bey. South 
of the town between it and LakeMareotis runs theMahmudiya 
canal, which enters the western harbour by a series of locks. 
The customs house and chief warehouses are by the western 
harbour, but the principal buildings of the city are in the east 
and south-east quarters. From the landing-stage, by the 
customs house, roads lead to the Place Mehemet Ali, the centre 
of the life of the city and the starting-point of the electric tram- 
ways. The place, usually called the Grand Square, is an oblong 
open space, tree-lined, in the centre of which there is an equestrian 
statue of the prince after whom it is named. The square is faced 
with handsome buildings mainly in the Italian style. The most 
important are the law courts, exchange, L Ottoman bank, 
English church and the Abbas Hilmi theatre. A number of 
short streets lead from the square to the eastern harbour. Here 
a sea wall, completed in 1905, provides a magnificent drive and 
promenade along the shore for a distance of about 3 m. In 
building this quay a considerable area of foreshore was re- 
claimed and an evil-smelling beach done away with. From the 
south end of the square the rue Sherif Pasha in which are the 
principal shops and the rue Tewfik Pasha lead to the boulevard, 
or rue, de Rosette, a long straight road with a general E. and W. 
direction. In it are the Zizinia theatre and the municipal 
palace (containing the public library); the museum lies up a 
short street to the N. Opened in 1895 this museum possesses 
an important collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman anti- 
quities, found not only in the city but in all Lower Egypt and 
the Fayum. The western end of the boulevard leads to the Place 
Ibrahim, often called Place Ste Catherine, from the Roman 
Catholic church at its S.E. side. In a street running S. from the 
boulevard to the railway station is the mosque of Nebi Daniel, 
containing the tombs of Said Pasha and other members of the 
khedivial family. Immediately E. of the mosque is Kom ed- 
Dik, garrisoned by British troops, one of several forts built for 
the protection of the city. Except Kom ed-Dik the forts have 
not been repaired since the bombardment of 1882. Equally 
obsolete is the old line of fortifications which formerly marked 
the limits of the city south and east and has now been partly 
demolished. Throughout the central part of Alexandria the 
streets are paved with blocks of lava and lighted by electricity. 

The north quarter is mainly occupied by natives and Levan- 
tines. The narrow winding streets and the Arab bazaars present 
an Oriental scene contrasting with the European aspect of the 
district already described. This Arab quarter is traversed by 
the rue Ras et-Tin, leading to the promontory of that name. 
Here, overlooking the harbour, is the khedivial yacht club 
(built 1903) and the palace, also called Ras et-Tin, built by 
Mehemet Ali, a large but not otherwise noteworthy building. 
In the district between the Grand Square and the western 
harbour, one of the poorest quarters of the city, is an open space 



ALEXANDRIA 



569 



with Fort Caffareli or Napoleon in the centre. This quarter 
has been pierced by several straight roads, one of which, crossing 
the Mahmudiya canal by the Pont Neuf, leads to Gabbari, the 
most westerly part of the city and an industrial and manufactur- 
ing region, possessing asphalt works and oil, rice and paper 
mills. On either side of the canal are the warehouses of whole- 
sale dealers in cotton, wool, sugar, grain and other commodities. 
In the southern part of the city are the Arab cemetery, " Pompey's 
Pillar" and the catacombs. "Pompey's Pillar," which stands 
on the highest spot in Alexandria, is nearly 09 ft. high, including 
the pedestal. The shaft is of red granite and is beautifully 
polished. Nine feet in diameter at the base, it tapers to eight 
feet at the top. The catacombs, a short distance S.W. of the 
pillar, are hewn out of the rocky slope of a hill, and are an 
elaborate series of chambers adorned with pillars, statues, 
religious symbols and traces of painting (see below, Ancient 
City). Along the northern side of the Mahmudiya canal, which 
here passes a little S. of the catacombs, are many fine houses 
and gardens (Moharrem Bey quarter), stretching eastward for a 
considerable distance, favourite residences of wealthy citizens. 
A similar residential quarter has also grown up on the N.E., 
where the line of the old fortifications has become a boulevard. 
The district extending outside the E. fortifications, in the 
direction of Hadra, has been laid out with fine avenues, and 
contains numerous garden-cafes and pleasure resorts. Thence 
roads lead to the E. suburb known generally as Ramleh, which 
stretches along the coast, and is served by a local railway. It 
begins E. of the racecourse with Sidi Gabr, and does not end till 
the khedivial estates E. of San Stefano are reached, some 
5 m. E. All this space is filled with villas, gardens and hotels, 
and is a favourite summer resort not only of Alexandrians but 
also of Cairenes. 

The eastern bay is rocky, shallow and exposed, and is now used 
only by native craft. The harbour is on the W. of Pharos and 
partly formed by a breakwater (built 1871-1873 and prolonged 
1906-1907), 2 m. long. The breakwater starts opposite the 
promontory of Ras et-Tin, on which is a lighthouse, 180 ft. above 
the sea, built by Mehemet Ali. Another breakwater starts from 
the Gabbari side, the opening between the two works being about 
half a mile. A number of scattered rocks lie across the entrance, 
but through them two fairways have been made, one 600 ft. 
wide and 35 ft. deep, the other 300 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep. The 
enclosed water is divided into an outer and inner harbour by a 
mole, 1000 yds. long, projecting N.W. from the southern shore. 
The inner harbour covers 464 acres. It is lined for 2| m. by 
quays, affording accommodation for ships drawing up to 28 ft. 
The outer harbour (1400 acres water area) is furnished with a 
graving dock, completed in 1905, 520 ft. long, and with quays 
and jetties along the Gabbari foreshore. Their construction was 
begun in 1906. 

Alexandria is linked by a network of railway and telegraph 
lines to the other towns of Egypt, and there is a trunk telephone 
line to Cairo. The city secured in 1906 a new and adequate 
water-supply, modern drainage works having been completed the 
previous year. Being the great entrepdt for the trade of Egypt, 
the city is the headquarters of the British chamber of commerce 
and of most of the merchants and companies engaged in the 
development of the Delta. About 90 % of the total exports and 
imports of the country pass through the port, though the com- 
pletion, in 1904, of a broad-gauge railway connecting Cairo and 
Port Said deflected some of the cotton exports to the Suez Canal 
route. The staple export is raw cotton, the value of which is 
about 80 % of all the exports. The principal imports are manu- 
factured cotton goods and other textiles, machinery, timber and 
coal. The value of the trade of the port increased from 
30,000,000 in 1900 to 46,000,000 in 1906. In the same period 
the tonnage of the ships entering the harbour rose from 2,375,000 
to 3,695,000. Of the total trade Great Britain supplies from 35 
to 40 % of the imports and takes over 50 % of the exports. 
Among the exports sent to England are the great majority of the 
80,000,000 eggs annually shipped (see also EGYPT: Commerce). 

The population of the city (1907) was 332,246 or including the 



suburbs, about 400,000. The foreigners numbered over 90,000. 
The majority of these were Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Armenians 
and other Levantines, though almost every European and 
Oriental nation is represented. The predominant languages 
spoken, besides the Arabic of the natives, are Greek, French, Eng- 
lish and Italian. The labouring population is mainly Egyptian; 
the Greeks and Levantines are usually shopkeepers or petty 
traders. In its social life Alexandria is the most progressive and 
occidental of all the cities of North Africa, with the possible ex- 
ception of Algiers. (F. R. C.) 

II. The Ancient City. The Greek Alexandria was divided into 
three regions: (i) the Jews' quarter, forming the north-east 
portion of the city; (2) Rhacotis, on the west, occupied chiefly 
by Egyptians; (3) Brucheum, the Royal or Greek quarter, 
forming the most magnificent portion of the city. In Roman 
times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official 
quarter, making up the number of four regiones in all. The city 
was laid out as a gridiron of parallel streets, each of which had an 
attendant subterranean canal. Two main streets, lined with 
colonnades and said to have been each about 200 ft. wide, inter- 
sected in the centre of the city, close to the point where rose the 
Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (i.e. his Mausoleum). This point 
is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of 
the great east-west " Canopic " street only slightly diverged from 
that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette. Traces of its pave- 
ment and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate; but 
better remains still of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by 
the German excavators outside the E. fortifications, which lie 
well within the area of the ancient city. 

Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island 
of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole nearly a 
mile long and called the Heptastadium. The end of this abutted 
on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where rose 
the " Moon Gate." All that now lies between that point and the 
modern Ras et-Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually 
widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras et-Tin quarter 
represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the 
actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On 
the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay ; 
on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, 
now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour. 

In Strabo's time, (latter half of ist century B.C.) the principal 
buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen 
from a ship entering the Great Harbour, (i) The Royal Palaces, 
filling the N.E. angle of the town and occupying the promontory 
of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on the east. Lochias, 
the modern Pharillon, has almost entirely disappeared into the 
sea, together with the palaces, the " Private Port " and the 
island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, 
as throughout the N. Delta and indeed all the N.E. coast of 
Africa; and on calm days the foundations of buildings may be 
seen, running out far under sea, near the Pharillon. Search was 
made for relics of these palaces by German explorers in 1898- 
1899, but without much success. (2) The Great Theatre, on the 
modem Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used 
by Caesar as a fortress, where he stood a siege from the city mob 
after the battle of Pharsalus. (3) The Poseideion or Temple of 
the Sea God, close to the theatre and in front of it. (4) The 
Timonium built by Antony. (5, 6, 7) The Emporium (Exchange), 
Apostates (Magazines) and Navalia (Docks), lying west of (4), 
along the sea-front as far as the mole. Behind the Emporium 
rose (8) the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great 
obelisks, later known as " Cleopatra's Needles," and now removed 
to New York and ^London. This temple became in time the 
Patriarchal Church, some remains of which have been discovered : 
but the actual Caesareum, so far as not eroded by the waves, lies 
under the houses lining the new sea-wall. (9) The Gymnasium 
and (10) the Palaestra are both inland, near the great Canopic 
street (Boulevard de Rosette) in the eastern half of the town, 
but on sites not determined, (n) The Temple of Saturn: site 
unknown. (12) The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the 
Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of 



ALEXANDRIA 



the two main streets. (13) The Museum with its library and 
theatre in the same region; but on a site not identified. (14) 
The Serapeum, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. 
Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent 
discoveries go far to place it near " Pompey's Pillar" (see above), 
which, however, was an independent monument erected -to com- 
memorate Diocletian's siege of the city. We know the names of 
a few other public buildings on the mainland, but nothing as to 
their position. On the eastern point of the Pharos island stood 
the Great Lighthouse, one of the " Seven Wonders," reputed to 
be 400 ft. high. ' The first Ptolemy began it, and the second 
completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It is the prototype 
of all lighthouses (q.v.) in the world. A temple of Hephaestus 
also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the Augustan 
age the population of Alexandria was estimated at 300,000 free 
folk, in addition to an immense number of slaves. 

III. History. Founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, 
Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis (q.v.) as a Greek 
Ancient centre in Egypt, and to be the link between Macedonia 
and and the rich Nile Valley. If such a city was to be on 

medieval the Egyptian coast, there was only one possible site, 
period. behind the screen of the Pharos island and removed 
from the silt thrown out by Nile mouths. An Egyptian 
townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore and was a 
resort of fishermen and pirates. Behind it (according to the 
Alexandrian treatise, known as pseudo-Callisthenes) were 
five native villages scattered along the strip between Lake 
Mareotis and the sea. Alexander occupied Pharos, and had 
a walled city marked out by Deinocrates on the mainland to 
include Rhacotis. A few months later he left Egypt for the East 
and never returned to his city; but his corpse was ultimately 
entombed there. His yiceroy, Cleomenes, continued the creation 
of Alexandria. The Heptastadiurn, however, and the mainland 
quarters seem to have been mainly Ptolemaic work. Inheriting 
the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the centre of the new 
commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, 
the city grew in less than a century to be larger than Carthage; 
and for some centuries more it had to acknowledge no superior 
but Rome. It was a centre not only of Hellenism but of 
Semitism, and the greatest Jewish city in the world. There the 
Septuagint was produced. The early Ptolemies kept it in order 
and fostered the development of its museum into the leading 
Greek university; but they were careful to maintain the dis- 
tinction of its population into three nations, " Macedonian " 
(i.e. Greek), Jew and Egyptian. From this division arose 
much of the later turbulence which began to manifest itself 
under Ptolemy Philopater. Nominally a free Greek city, 
Alexandria retained its senate to Roman times; and indeed 
the judicial functions of that body were restored by Septimius 
Severus, after temporary abolition by Augustus. The city passed 
formally under Roman jurisdiction in 80 B.C., according to the 
will of Ptolemy Alexander; but it had been under Roman 
influence for more than a hundred years previously. There 
Julius Caesar dallied with Cleopatra in 47 B.C. and was mobbed 
by the rabble; there his example was followed by Antony, for 
whose favour the city paid dear to Octavian, who placed over 
it a prefect from the imperial household. Alexandria seems from 
this time to have regained its old prosperity, commanding, as it 
did, an important granary of Rome. This latter fact, doubtless, 
was one of the chief reasons which induced Augustus to place it 
directly under the imperial power. In A.D. 215 the emperor 
Caracalla visited the city; and, in order to repay some insulting 
satires that the inhabitants had made upon him, he commanded 
his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. 
This brutal order seems to have been carried out even beyond 
the letter, for a general massacre was the result. Notwith- 
standing this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon recovered its 
former splendour, and for some time longer was esteemed the 
first city of the world after Rome. Even as its main historical 
importance had formerly sprung from pagan learning, so now it 
acquired fresh importance as a centre of Christian theology and 
church government. There Arianism was formulated and there 



Athanasius, the great opponent of both heresy and pagan 
reaction, worked and triumphed. As native influences, however, 
began to reassert themselves in the Nile valley, Alexandria 
gradually became an alien city, more and more detached from 
Egypt; and, losing much of its commerce as the peace of the 
empire broke up during the 3rd century A.D., it declined fast 
in population and splendour. The Brucheum and Jewish 
quarters were desolate in the 5th century, and the central 
monuments, the Soma and Museum, fallen to ruin. On the 
mainland life seems to have centred in the vicinity of the 
Serapeum and Caesareum, both become Christian churches: 
but the Pharos and Heptastadiurn quarters remained populous 
and intact. In 616 it was taken by Chosroes, king of Persia; 
and in 640 by the Arabians, under 'Amr, after a siege that 
lasted fourteen months, during which Heraclius, the emperor of 
Constantinople, did not send a single ship to its assistance. 
Notwithstanding the losses that the city had sustained, 'Amr 
was able to write to his master, the caliph Omar, that he had 
taken a city containing " 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 1 2,000 dealers 
in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 
theatres or places of amusement." 

The story of the destruction of the library by the Arabs is 
first told by Bar-hebraeus (Abulfaragius), a Christian writer who 
lived six centuries later; and it is of very doubtful authority. 
It is highly improbable that many of the 700,000 volumes col- 
lected by the Ptolemies remained at the time of the Arab con- 
quest, when the various calamities of Alexandria from the time 
of Caesar to that of Diocletian are considered, together with the 
disgraceful pillage of the library in A.D. 389 under the rule of the 
Christian bishop, Theophilus, acting on Theodosius' decree con- 
cerning pagan monuments (see LIBRARIES: Ancient History). 
The story of Abulfaragius runs as follows: 

John the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, being 
in Alexandria at the time of its capture, and in high favour with 'Amr, 
begged that he would give him the royal library. 'Amr told him 
that it was not in his power to grant such a request, but promised 
to write to the caliph for his consent. Omar, on hearing the request 
of his general, is said to have replied that if those books contained 
the same doctrine with the Koran, they could be of no use, since 
the Koran contained all necessary truths; but if they contained 
anything contrary to that book, they ought to be destroyed ; and 
therefore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them to be 
burnt. Pursuant to this order, they were distributed among the 
public baths, of which there was a large number in the city, where, 
for six months, they served to supply the fires. 

Shortly after its capture Alexandria again fell into the hands 
of the Greeks, who took advantage of 'Amr's absence with the 
greater portion of his army. On hearing what had happened, 
however, 'Amr returned, and quickly regained possession of the 
city. About the year 646 "Amr was deprived of his government 
by the caliph Othman. The Egyptians, by whom 'Amr was 
greatly beloved, were so much dissatisfied by this act, and even 
showed such a tendency to revolt, that the Greek emperor 
determined to make an effort to reduce Alexandria. The attempt 
proved perfectly successful. The caliph, perceiving his mistake, 
immediately restored 'Amr, who, on his arrival in Egypt, drove 
the Greeks within the walls of Alexandria, but was only able 
to capture the city after a most obstinate resistance by the 
defenders. This so exasperated him that he completely de- 
molished its fortifications, although he seems to have spared the 
lives of the inhabitants as far as lay in his power. Alexandria 
now rapidly declined in importance. The building of Cairo in 
969, and, above all, the discovery of the route to the East by 
the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, nearly ruined its commerce; 
the canal, which supplied it with Nile water, became blocked; 
and although it remained a principal Egyptian port, at which 
most European visitors in the Mameluke and Ottoman periods 
landed, we hear little of it until about the beginning of the 
i gth century. 

[Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of 
Napoleon's Egyptian expedition of 1798. The French troops 
stormed the city on the 2nd of July 1798, and it remained in 
their hands until the arrival of the British expedition of 1801. 
The battle of Alexandria, fought on the 2ist of March of that 






ALEXANDRIA 



Battle of 
1801. 



year, between the French army under General Menou and the 
British expeditionary corps under Sir Ralph Abercromby, took 
place near the ruins of Nicopolis, on the narrow spit of land 
between the sea and Lake Aboukir, along which the British 
troops had advanced towards Alexandria after the 
actions of Aboukir on the 8th and Mandora on the 
I3th. The British position on the night of the 2oth 
extended across the isthmus, the right resting upon the ruins 
of Nicopolis and the sea, the left on the lake of Aboukir and 
the Alexandria canal. The line faced generally south-west 
towards the city, the reserve division under Major-General (Sir) 
John Moore on the right, the Guards brigade in the centre, 
and three other brigades on the left. In' second line were two 
brigades and the cavalry (dismounted). On the 2ist the troops 
were under arms at 3 A.M., and at 3.30 the French attacked 
and drove in the outposts. The French army now moved 
forward with great rapidity in their usual formation of columns. 
The brunt of the attack fell upon the command of Moore, 
and in particular upon the 28th (Gloucestershire Regiment). 
The first shock was repulsed, but a French column penetrated 
in the dark between two regiments of the British and a confused 
fight ensued in the ruins, in which the 42nd (Black Watch) 
captured a colour. The front and rear ranks of the 28th were 
simultaneously engaged, and the conduct of the regiment won 
for it the distinction of wearing badges both at the front and at 
the back of their head-dress. Other regiments which assisted 
in the overthrow of the French column were the 23rd, 4oth and 
S8th. In a second attack the enemy's cavalry inflicted severe 
losses on the 42nd. Sir Ralph Abercromby was here engaged 
in personal conflict with some French dragoons, and about this 
time received a mortal wound, though he remained on the field 
and in command to the end. The attack on the centre was 
repulsed by the cool and steady fire of the Guards, and the left 
wing maintained its position with ease, but the French cavalry 
for the second time came to close quarters with* the reserve. 
About half-past eight the combat began to wane, and the last 
shots were fired at ten. The real attack had been pressed home 
on the British right, and the History of the Queen's Royal West 
Surrey Regiment gives no undue praise to the regiments of the 
reserve in saying that " the determined attack would have been 
successful against almost any other troops." Technically, the 
details of the action show that, while not markedly better in 
a melee than the war-seasoned French, the British infantry had 
in its volleys a power which no other troops then existing 
possessed, and it was these volleys that decided the day even 
more than the individual stubbornness of the men. The 42nd, 
twice charged by cavalry, had but thirteen men wounded by 
the sabre. Part of the French losses, which were disproportion- 
ately heavy, were caused by the gunboats which lay close inshore 
and cannonaded the left flank of the French columns, and by a 
heavy naval gun which was placed in battery near the position 
of the 28th. The forces engaged on this day were approximately 
14,000 British to about 20,000 French, and the losses were: 
British, 1468 killed, wounded and missing, including Abercromby 
(who died on the 28th), Moore and three other generals wounded; 
French, 1160 killed and (?) 3000 wounded. The British sub- 
sequently advanced upon Alexandria, which surrendered on the 
3ist of August. (C. F. A.).] 

During the anarchy which accompanied Ottoman rule in 
Egypt from first to last, Alexandria sank to a small town of 
about 4000 inhabitants; and it owed its modern 
renascence solely to Mehemet Ali, who wanted a deep 
port and naval station for his viceregal domain. He 
stored its water communication with the Nile by making 
the Mahmudiya canal, finished in 1820; and he established 
at Ras et-Tin his favourite residence. The old Eunostus 
harbour became the port, and a flourishing city arose on 
the old Pharos island and the Heptastadium district, with out- 
lying suburbs and villa residences along the coast eastwards 
and the Mareotic shore. Being the starting-point of the " over- 
land route " to India, and the residence of the chief foreign 
consuls, it quickly acquired a European character and attracted 



Hodera 



not only Frank residents, but great numbers of Greeks, Jews 
and Syrians. There most of the negotiations between the 
powers and Mehemet Ali were conducted; thence started the 
Egyptian naval expeditions to Crete, the Morea and Syria; and 
thither sailed the betrayed Ottoman fleet in 1839. It was twice 
threatened by hostile fleets, the Greek in 1827 and the combined 
British, French and Russian squadrons in 1828. The latter 
withdrew on the viceroy's promise that Ibrahim should evacuate 
the Morea. The fortifications were strengthened in 1841, and 
remained in an antiquated condition until 1882, when they were 
renovated by Arabi Pasha. Alexandria was connected with 
Cairo by railway in 1856. Much favoured by the earlier viceroys 
of Mehemet All's house, and removed from the Mameluke 
troubles, Alexandria was the real capital of Egypt till Said 
Pasha died there in 1863 and Ismail came into power. Though 
this prince continued to develop the city, giving it a municipality 
in I866 1 and new harbour works in 1871-1878, he developed 
Cairo still more; and the centre of gravity definitely shifted 
to the inland capital. Fate, however, again brought 
Alexandria to the front. After a mutiny of soldiers 
there in 1881, the town was greatly excited by the 1882. 
arrival of an Anglo-French fleet in May 1882, and 
on the nth of June a terrible riot and massacre took place, 
resulting in the death of four hundred Europeans. Since satis- 
faction was not given for this and the forts were being 
strengthened at the instigation of Arabi Pasha, the war minister, 
the British admiral, Sir Beauchamp Seymour (afterwards Lord 
Alcester), sent an ultimatum on the loth of July and opened 
fire on the forts the next day. They were demolished, but as 
no troops were landed immediately a fresh riot and massacre 
ensued. A% Arabi did not submit, a British'military expedition 
landed at Alexandria on the loth of August, the sequel being the 
British occupation of the whole country, the history of which is 
set forth under EGYPT. 

Since the restoration of tranquillity and the establishment of 
sound political and economic conditions in the Nile valley, 
Alexandria has greatly expanded. As the British consular 
report for 1904 says, " Building ... for residential and other 
purposes proceeds with almost feverish rapidity. The cost of 
living has doubled and the price of land has risen enormously." 
On the E. and S.E. a new town of handsome houses, gardens 
and boulevards has been called into existence, in the arrange- 
ment of which the controlling influence of the municipality is 
evident (see Modern City above). 

IV. Antiquities. Persistent efforts have been made to explore 
the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have 
been given by the local Archaeological Society, and by many 
individuals, notably Greeks justly proud of a city which is one 
of the glories of their national story. The past and present 
directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time 
to carry out systematic excavations when opportunity offered; 
Mr D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the 
Egypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion of 
Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked 
for two years (1898-1899). But two difficulties face the would- 
be excavator in Alexandria. First, since the great and growing 
modern city stands right over the ancient one, it is almost 
impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except 
at enormous cost. Second, the general subsidence of the coast 
has sunk the lower-lying parts of the ancient town under water. 
Unfortunately the spaces still most open are the low grounds to 
N.E. and S.W., where it is practically impossible to get below 
the Roman strata. 

The most important results were those achieved by Dr G. 
Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighbourhood of 
" Pompey's Pillar," where there is a good deal of open ground. 
Here substructures of a large building or group of buildings have 
been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Hard 
by immense catacombs and columbaria have been opened which 
may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one 

1 This municipality was superseded by a new municipal body, 
with extensive powers, created in 1890. 



572 



ALEXANDRIA 



very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now lighted 
by electricity and shown to visitors. The objects found in these 
researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great 
basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. 
Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom es-Shugafa 
Hadra (Roman) and Ras et-Tin (painted). The Germans found 
remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east 
of the city, but little else. Mr Hogarth explored part of an 
immense brick structure under the mound of Kom ed-Dik, 
which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea or a 
Roman fortress. The making of the new foreshore led to the 
dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the 
foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some 
objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground 
is doubtless immense; but, despite all efforts, there is not much 
for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and 
the neighbourhood of " Pompey's Pillar." The native tomb- 
robbers, well-sinkers, dredgers and the like, however, come upon 
valuable objects from time to time, which find their way into 
private collections. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) Modern City. See latest editions of guide- 
books to Lower Egypt (Baedeker, Murray, Macmillan). (2) History. 
See authorities for history of EGYPT, (3) Ancient City and Anti- 
quities. Mahmud Bey el Fallaki, Memoire sur I'antique Alexandrie 
(1872) ; T. D. Neroutsos, V 'Ancienne Alexandrie (1888) ; D.G. Hogarth 
and E. F. Benson, Report on Prospects of Research in Alexandria 
(Egypt Expl.Fund Archaeological Report, 1894-1895) ; Bulletin de la 
Societe Archeologique d'Alexandrie(i8g8 foil.) ; O. Puchstein in Pauly- 
Wissowa, Realencydopddie, s.v. " Alexandria "; U. Wilcken, Observa- 
tiones ad historiam Egypti Provinciae Romanae (1885) ; G. Lumbroso, 
L'Egitto al tempo dei Greci e dei Romani (1882); H. Kiepert, Zur 
Topographic des alien Alexandria (1872). (D. G. H.) 

ALEXANDRIA, a city of Madison county, Indiana, U.S.A., 
about 46 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 715; (1900) 
7221 (1002 foreign-born); (1910) 5096. Alexandria is served by 
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Lake 
Erie & Western railways, and by the Indiana Union Traction 
System (electric). In the city are a Carnegie library and Beulah 
Park (24 acres), the latter belonging to the Northern Indiana 
Holiness Association, which there holds summer camp-meetings. 
The city is in a rich farming country, which produces Indian 
corn, oats and wheat; and is in the Indiana natural gas region, 
to which fact it owes its rapid growth as a manufacturing centre. 
It is one of the principal seats of the glass industry in Indiana 
plate glass, lamp chimneys, mirrors, &c., being manufactured 
here and also has mineral wool factories and paper mills. 
The municipality owns and operates the water-works and the 
gas-lighting plant. Alexandria was founded in 1836 and was 
chartered as a city in 1893. 

ALEXANDRIA, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Rapides 
Parish, on the S. bank of the Red river in almost the exact 
geographical centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 2861; (1900) 
5648 (3142 negroes); (1910) 11,213. The city is served by the 
Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company, the St Louis, 
Watkins & Gulf, the Texas & Pacific, the Louisiana & 
Arkansas, the Southern Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island & 
Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways. The Red river is 
navigable to Alexandria during the entire year. Alexandria is 
on a level plain in the centre of the Louisiana long-leaf pine 
forests, in which pine is interspersed with various hardwoods. 
The forests stretch on all sides within a radius of 75 m. In the 
immediate vicinity of the city, on the Red river, cotton, sugar, 
alfalfa and garden vegetables are cultivated; south of the Red 
river is a peculiarly rich farming country watered by Bayou 
Rapides and Bayou Bceuf. Near the city is the Louisiana 
Asylum for the Insane. The principal industries are cotton- 
pressing and the manufacture of lumber and of cotton-seed 
products; sugar and molasses, artificial ice, mineral waters 
and brick are other manufactures. The city owns and operates 
the water- works and electric-lighting plant; the water-supply 
is derived from artesian wells. Alexandria was named in 
honour of Alexander Fulton, on whose grant from Spain the 
first settlement was made in 1785; it was first incorporated as 
a town in 1818 and received a city charter in 1882. In the spring 



of 1863 a Union fleet under Admiral David D. Porter, operating 
on the Red river, co-operated with land forces under General 
N. P. Banks in pushing the Confederates westward. Alexandria 
was occupied on the 7th of May 1863, but the troops were soon 
withdrawn for the Port Hudson attack. On the igth of March 
1864 it was again occupied by the Union forces, who made it the 
point of concentration for another land and naval expedition 
against E. Kirby Smith and Shreveport. After the check of 
this expedition and its abandonment, Alexandria was again 
vacated on the I2th-i3th of May, when the city was almost 
entirely burned. The Union gunboats, which had passed up 
the river toward Shreveport at high water, were caught in its 
decline above the falls at Alexandria, but they were saved by a 
splendid piece of engineering (a dam at the falls), constructed by 
Lieutenant- Colonel Joseph Bailey (1827-1867), who for this 
service received the thanks of Congress and the brevet of 
brigadier-general of volunteers. 

ALEXANDRIA, a town of Rumania, situated among the rich 
corn-lands of the Teleorman department, on the right bank of 
the river Vedea. Pop. (1900) 13,675. Its chief trade is in 
grain, despatched by rail to the Danubian port of Zimnicea, 
or by river to Giurgevo. Alexandria was named after its 
founder, Alexander John Cuza, prince of Rumania from 1859 
to 1866. 

ALEXANDRIA, a manufacturing town of Dumbartonshire, 
Scotland, situated on the right bank of the Leven about 3 m. 
north of Dumbarton, on the North British and Caledonian 
railways. It owes its origin almost entirely to the cotton 
printing and bleaching works of the vicinity, for which there is 
an abundant supply of excellent water, and contains one of 
the largest of the Turkey-red dyeing establishments in the 
Vale of Leven. The public buildings include a public hall, the 
mechanics' institute with library and lecture-hall, an institute 
for men, with library and recreation rooms, a similar institu- 
tion for wome'n, banks and other important commercial offices. 
Pop. (1891) 7796; (1901) 8007. Alexandria is connected with 
BONHILL, on the opposite bank of the river, by a bridge which 
replaced in 1898 one bought three years earlier by the county 
council from the Smollett family, who have been closely associated 
with the district since the time of Sir James Smollett, the 
novelist's grandfather. The industries of Bonhill centre in the 
calico printing, dyeing and bleaching which find their head- 
quarters in the valley. Population (1891) 3843; (1901) 3333. 
JAMESTOWN, about i m. to the north-east of Alexandria, with a 
station on the Forth & Clyde railway from Balloch to Stirling 
(North British), contains some of the largest cotton-printing 
works in Scotland. Population (1891) 1668; (1901) 2080. 

ALEXANDRIA, a city and a port of entry of Alexandria 
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Potomac 
river, 6 m. below Washington, D.C., with which it is connected 
by a ferry. Pop. (1890) 14,339; (iQoo) i4,S 28 . of whom 4533 
were negroes; (1910. census), 15,329. Alexandria is served 
by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the 
Southern and the Washington Southern railways; by the 
Washington, Alexandria & Mount Vernon electric railway; 
and by several lines of river and coasting steamboats. It is a 
quaint, old-fashioned city, with quiet, shady streets, and a 
number of buildings dating back to the i8th century; of 
these the most interesting is the old Christ Church in which 
George Washington and Robert E. Lee worshipped. The city 
has a public library. About i\ m. W. of Alexandria is the 
Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in Virginia, opened 
here in 1823 and chartered in 1854; in 1906-1907 the Seminary 
had a faculty of 7 and 46 students. Alexandria is a distributing 
and jobbing centre for the north-east counties of Virginia. Among 
its manufactures are fertilizers, bottles, carbonated beverages, 
flour, beer, shoes, silk thread, aprons, brooms, leather, bricks, 
and tiling and structural iron. The total value of its factory 
product in 1905 was $2,186,658. The municipality owns and 
operates its gas-lighting plant. Alexandria, first known as 
Belhaven, was named in honour of John Alexander, who in the 
last quarter of the I7th century had bought the land on which 



ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 



573 



the city now stands from Robert Howison; the first settlement 
here was made in 1695. Alexandria was laid out in 1749 and 
was incorporated in 1779. From 1790 until 1846 Alexandria 
county was 8. part of the District of Columbia; at present the 
city, although within the limits of Alexandria county, is not 
administratively a part of it. The city was re-chartered in 
1852. For some time Alexandria seemed destined to become an 
important commercial centre, but the.rise of Washington created 
a rival that soon outstripped it, and since the Civil War the 
city's growth has been comparatively slight. At Alexandria in 
1755 General Edward Braddock organized his fatal expedition 
against Fort Duquesne, and here, in April of the same year, the 
governors of Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania 
and Maryland met (in a house still standing) to determine upon 
concerted action against the French in America. In March 
1785 commissioners from Virginia and Maryland met here to 
discuss the commercial relations of the two states, finishing their 
business at Mount Vernon on the 28th with an agreement for 
freedom of trade and freedom of navigation of the Potomac. 
The Maryland legislature in ratifying this agreement on the 
22nd of November proposed a conference between representatives 
from all the states to consider the adoption of definite com- 
mercial regulations. This led to the calling of the Annapolis 
convention of 1786, which in turn led to the calling of the 
Federal convention of 1787. In 1814 Alexandria was threatened 
by a British fleet, but bought immunity from attack by paying 
about $100,000. At the opening of the Civil War the city was 
occupied by Federal troops, and great excitement throughout 
the North was caused by the killing (May 24, 1861) of Colonel 
E. E. Ellsworth (1837-1861) by Captain James W. Jackson, a 
hotel proprietor, from whose building Ellsworth had removed 
a Confederate flag. After the erection of the state of West 
Virginia (1863), and until the close of the war, Alexandria was 
the seat of what was known as the " Alexandria Government " 
(see VIRGINIA). 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. Under this title are generally 
included certain strongly marked tendencies in literature, science 
and art, which took their rise in the ancient Egyptian city of 
Alexandria. That city, founded by Alexander the Great about 
the time when Greece, in losing her national independence, lost 
also her intellectual supremacy, was in every way admirably 
adapted for becoming the new centre of the world's activity and 
thought. Its situation brought it into commercial relations with 
all the nations lying around the Mediterranean, and at the same 
time rendered it the one communicating link with the wealth and 
civilization of the East. The great natural advantages it thus 
enjoyed were artificially increased to an enormous extent by the 
care of the sovereigns of Egypt. Ptolemy Soter (reigned 323-285 
B.C.), to whom, in the general distribution of Alexander's con- 
quests, this kingdom had fallen, began to draw around him from 
various parts of Greece a circle of men eminent in literature and 
philosophy. To these he gave every facility for the prosecution 
of their learned researches. Under the inspiration of his friend 
Demetrius of Phalerum, the Athenian orator, statesman and 
philosopher, this Ptolemy laid the foundations of the great 
Alexandrian library and originated the keen search for all 
written works, which resulted in the formation of a collection 
such as the world has seldom seen. He also built, for the con- 
venience of his men of letters, the Museum, in which, maintained 
by the royal bounty, they resided, studied and taught. This 
Museum, or academy of science, was in many respects not unlike 
a modern university. The work thus begun by Ptolemy Soter 
was carried on vigorously by his descendants, in particular by his 
two immediate successors, Ptolemy Philadelphus and Ptolemy 
Euergetes. Philadelphus (285-247), whose librarian was the 
celebrated Callimachus, bought up all Aristotle's collection of 
books, and also introduced a number of Jewish and Egyptian 
works. Among these appears to have been a portion of the 
Septuagint. Euergetes (247-222) largely increased the library by 
seizing on the original editions of the dramatists laid up in the 
Athenian archives, and by compelling all travellers who arrived 
in Alexandria to leave a copy of any work they possessed. 



The intellectual movement so originated extended over a long 
period of years. If we date its rise from the 4th century B.C., at 
the time of the fall of Greece and the foundation of the Graeco- 
Macedonian empire, we must look for its final dissolution in the 
7th century of the Christian era, at the time of the fall of Alex- 
andria and the rise of the Mahommedan power. But this very 
long period falls into two divisions. The first, extending from 
about 306 to 30, includes the time from the foundation of the 
Ptolemaic dynasty to its final subjugation by the Romans; 
the second extends from 30 to A.D. 642, when Alexandria was 
destroyed by the Arabs. The characteristic features of these 
divisions are very clearly marked, and their difference affords an 
explanation of the variety and vagueness of meaning attaching to 
the term " Alexandrian School." In the first of the two periods 
the intellectual activity was of a purely literary and scientific 
nature. It was an attempt to continue and develop, under new 
conditions, the old Hellenic culture. This direction of effort was 
particularly noticeable under the early Ptolemies, Alexandria 
being then almost the only home in the world for pure literature. 
During the last century and a half before the Christian era, the 
school, as it might be called, began to break up and to lose its 
individuality. This was due partly to the state of government 
under some of the later Ptolemies, partly to the formation of new 
literary circles in Rhodes, Syria and elsewhere, whose supporters, 
though retaining the Alexandrian peculiarities, could scarcely be 
included in the Alexandrian school. The loss of active life, 
consequent on this gradual dissolution, was much increased when 
Alexandria fell under Roman sway. Then the influence of the 
school was extended over the whole known world, but men of 
letters began to concentrate at Rome rather than at Alexandria. 
In that city, however, there were new forces in operation which 
produced a second grand outburst of intellectual life. The new 
movement was not in the old direction had, indeed, nothing in 
common with it. With its character largely determined by 
Jewish elements, and even more by contact with the dogmas of 
Christianity, this second Alexandrian school resulted in the 
speculative philosophy of the Neo-Platonists and the religious 
philosophy of the Gnostics and early church fathers. 

There appear, therefore, to be at least two definite significations 
of the title Alexandrian School; or rather, there are two Alex- 
andrian schools, distinct both chronologically and in substance. 
The one is the Alexandrian school of poetry and science, the other 
the Alexandrian school of philosophy. The term " school," 
however, has not the same meaning as when applied to the 
Academics or Peripatetics, the Stoics or Epicureans. These 
consisted of a company united by holding in common certain 
speculative principles, by having the same theory of things. 
There was nothing at all corresponding to this among the 
Alexandrians. In literature their activities were directed to the 
most diverse objects; they have only in common a certain spirit 
or form. There was among them no definite system of philosophy. 
Even in the later schools of philosophy proper there is found a 
community rather of tendency than of definite result or of fixed 
principles. 

I. Literature. The general character of the literature of the 
school appears as the necessary consequence of the state of affairs 
brought about by the fall of Greek nationality and independence. 
The great works of the Greek mind had formerly been the pro- 
ducts of a fresh life of nature and perfect freedom of thought. 
All their hymns, epics and histories were bound up with their 
individuality as a free people. But the Macedonian conquest at 
Chaeroneia brought about a complete dissolution of this Greek 
life in all its relations, private and political. The full, genial 
spirit of Greek thought vanished when freedom, with which it was 
inseparably united, was lost. A substitute for this originality 
was found at Alexandria in learned research, extended and 
multifarious knowledge. Amply provided with means for 
acquiring information, and under the watchful care of a great 
monarch, the Alexandrians readily took this new direction in 
literature. With all the great objects removed which could excite 
a true spirit of poetry, they devoted themselves to minute 
researches in all sciences subordinate to literature proper. They 



574 



ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 



studied criticism, giammar, prosody and metre, antiquities and 
mythology. The results of this study constantly appear in their 
productions. Their works are never national, never addressed 
to a people, but to a circle of learned men. Moreover, the very 
fact of being under the protection and, as it were, in the pay 
of an absolute monarch was damaging to the character of their 
literature. There was introduced into it a courtly element, clear 
traces of which, with all its accompaniments, are found in the 
extant works of the school. One other fact, not to be forgotten 
in forming a general estimate of the literary value of their produc- 
tions, is, that the same writer was frequently or almost always 
distinguished in several special sciences. The most renowned 
poets were at the same time men of culture and science, critics, 
archaeologists, astronomers or physicians. To such writers the 
poetical form was merely a convenient vehicle for the exposition 
of science. 

The forms of poetical composition chiefly cultivated by the 
Alexandrians were epic and lyric, or elegiac. Great epics are 
wanting; but in their place, as might almost have been expected, 
are found the historical and the didactic or expository epics. 
The subjects of the historical epics were generally some of the 
well-known myths, in the exposition of which the writer could 
exhibit the full extent of his learning and his perfect command 
of verse. These poems are in a sense valuable as repertoires of 
antiquities; but their style is on the whole bad, and infinite 
patience is required to clear up their numerous and obscure 
allusions. The best extant specimen is the Argonautica of 
Apollonius Rhodius; the most characteristic is the Alexandra 
or Cassandra of Lycophron, the obscurity of which is almost 
proverbial. 

The subjects of didactic epics were very numerous; they 
seem to have depended on the special knowledge possessed by 
the writers, who used verse as a form for unfolding their in- 
formation. Some, e.g. the lost poem of Callimachus, called Atria., 
were on the origin of myths and religious observances; others 
were on special sciences. Thus we have two poems of Aratus, 
who, though not resident at Alexandria, was so thoroughly 
imbued with the Alexandrian spirit as to be with reason included 
in the school; the one is an essay on astronomy, the other an 
account of the signs of the weather. Nicander of Colophon has 
also left us two epics, one on remedies for poisons, the other on 
the bites of venomous beasts. Euphorion and Rhianus wrote 
mythological epics. The spirit of all their productions is the 
same, that of learned research. They are distinguished by 
artistic form, purity of expression and strict attention to the 
laws of metre and prosody, qualities which, however good in 
themselves, do not compensate for want of originality, freshness 
and power. 

In their lyric and elegiac poetry there is much worthy of 
admiration. The specimens we possess are not devoid of talent 
or of a certain happy art of expression. Yet, for the most part, 
they either relate to objects thoroughly incapable of poetic 
treatment, where the writer's endeavour is rather to expound 
the matter fully than to render it poetically beautiful, or else 
expend themselves on short isolated subjects, generally myths, 
and are erotic in character. The earliest of the elegiac poets 
was Philetas, the sweet singer of Cos. But the most distinguished 
was Callimachus, undoubtedly the greatest of the Alexandrian 
poets. Of his numerous works there remain to us only a 
few hymns, epigrams and fragments of elegies. 1 Other lyric 
poets were Phanocles, Hermesianax, Alexander of Aetolia and 
Lycophron. 

Some of the best productions of the school were their epigrams. 
Of these we have several specimens, and the art of composing 
them seems to have been assiduously cultivated, as might 
naturally be expected from the court life of the poets, and their 
constant endeavours after terseness and neatness of expression. 
Of kindred character were the parodies and satirical poems, of 
which the best examples were the Silli of Timon and the Cinaedi 
of Sotades. 



1 A considerable fragment of his epic Hecale has been discovered 
in the Rainer papyrus. 



Dramatic poetry appears to have flourished to some extent. 
There are still extant three or four varying lists of the seven 
great dramatists who composed the Pleiad of Alexandria. Their 
works, perhaps not unfortunately, have perished. A ruder kind 
of drama, the amoebaean verse, or bucolic mime, developed into 
the only pure stream of genial poetry found in the Alexandrian 
School, the Idylls of Theocritus. The name of these poems 
preserves their original idea; they were pictures of fresh country 
life. 

The most interesting fact connected with this Alexandrian 
poetry is the powerful influence it exercised on Roman literature. 
That literature, especially in the Augustan age, is not to be 
thoroughly understood without due appreciation of the character 
of the Alexandrian school. The historians of this period were 
numerous and prolific. Many of them, e.g. Cleitarchus, devoted 
themselves to the life and achievements of Alexander the Great. 
The best-known names are those of Timaeus and Polybius. 

Before the Alexandrians had begun to produce original works, 
their researches were directed towards the masterpieces of 
ancient Greek literature. If that literature was to be a power 
in the world, it must be handed down to posterity in a form 
capable of being understood. This was the task begun and carried 
out by the Alexandrian critics. These men did not merely collect 
works, but sought to arrange them, to subject the texts to 
criticism, and to explain any allusion or reference in them which 
at a later date might become obscure. The complete philo- 
logical examination of any work consisted, according to them, of 
the following processes: 6i6p0axn.s, arrangement of the text; 
bviyvwaa, settlement of accents; rix vr l, theory of forms, 
syntax; e^i^T/cris, explanation either of words or things; and 
finally, /cpiffis, judgment on the author and his work, including 
all questions as to authenticity and integrity. To perform 
their task adequately required from the critics a wide circle of 
knowledge; and from this requirement sprang the sciences of 
grammar, prosody, lexicography, mythology and archaeology. 
The service rendered by these critics is invaluable. To them 
we owe not merely the possession of the greatest works of Greek 
intellect, but the possession of them in a readable state. The 
most celebrated critics were Zenodotus; Aristophanes of Byzan- 
tium, to whom we owe the theory of Greek accents; Crates of 
Mallus; and Aristarchus of Samothrace, confessedly the cory- 
phaeus of criticism. Others were Lycophron, Callimachus, 
Eratosthenes and many of a later age, for the critical school 
long survived the literary. Dionysius Thrax, the author of the 
first scientific Greek grammar, may also be mentioned. These 
philological labours were of great indirect importance, for they 
led immediately to the study of the natural sciences, and in 
particular to a more accurate knowledge of geographyandhistory. 
Considerable attention began to be paid to the ancient history of 
Greece, and to all the myths relating to the foundation of states 
and cities. A large collection of such curious information is con- 
tained in the Bibliotheca of Apollodorus, a pupil of Aristarchus 
who flourished in the 2nd century B.C. Eratosthenes was the 
first to write on mathematical and physical geography; he also 
first attempted to draw up a chronological table of the Egyptian 
kings and of the historical events of Greece. The sciences of 
mathematics, astronomy and medicine were also cultivated 
with assiduity and success at Alexandria, but they can scarcely 
be said to have their origin there, or in any strict sense to form a 
part of the peculiarly Alexandrian literature. The founder of 
the mathematical school was the celebrated Euclid (Eucleides); 
among its scholars were Archimedes; Apollonius of Perga, 
author of a treatise on Conic Sections; Eratosthenes, to whom 
we owe the first measurement of the earth; and Hipparchus, 
the founder of the epicyclical theory of the heavens, afterwards 
called the Ptolemaic system, from its most famous expositor, 
Claudius Ptolemaeus. Alexandria continued to be celebrated 
as a school of mathematics and science long after the Christian 
era. The science of medicine had distinguished representatives 
in Herophilus and Erasistratus, the two first great anatomists. 

AUTHORITIES. Miiller and Donaldson, History of the Literature 
of Ancient Greece; W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur; 



ALEXANDRIA TROAS ALEXANDRINE VERSE 



575 



Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought from the Age of Alexander 1 to the 
Roman Empire; Couat, La Poesie alexandrine; and especially 
Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur in der A lexandrinerzeit. 
Nicolai's Griechische Literaturgeschichte, though somewhat out of 
date, is useful for bibliography. 

II. Philosophy. Although it is not possible to divide literatures 
with absolute rigidity by centuries, and although the intellectual 
life of Alexandria, particularly as applied to science, long sur- 
vived the Roman conquest, yet at that period the school, which 
for some time had been gradually breaking up, seems finally to 
have succumbed. The later productions in the field of pure 
literature bear the stamp of Rome rather than of Alexandria. 
But in that city for some time past there had been various 
forces secretly working, and these, coming in contact with great 
spiritual changes in the world around, produced a second out- 
burst of intellectual activity, which is generally known as the 
Alexandrian school of philosophy. The doctrines of this school 
were a fusion of Eastern and Western thought, and combined in 
varying proportions the elements of Hellenistic and Jewish 
philosophy. Traces of this eclectic tendency are discoverable as 
far back as 280 B.C., but for practical purposes the dates of the 
school may be given as from about 30 B.C. to A.D. 529. The city 
of Alexandria had gradually become the neutral ground of 
Europe, Asia and Africa. Its population, then as at the present 
day, was a heterogeneous collection of all races. Alexander had 
planted a colony of Jews who had increased in number until at 
the beginning of the Christian era they occupied two-fifths of the 
city and held some of the highest offices. The contact of Jewish 
theology with Greek speculation became the great problem of 
thought. The Jewish ideas of divine authority and their tran- 
scendental theories of conduct were peculiarly attractive to the 
Greek thinkers who found no inspiration in the dry intellect- 
ualism into which they had fallen (see NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM) . 
At the same time the Jews of the Dispersion had to some extent 
shaken off the exclusiveness of their old political relations and 
were prepared to compare and contrast their old territorial 
theology with cosmopolitan culture. Further, when the two 
sides came to consider the results of their intellectual inheritance 
they found that they had sufficient common ground for the 
initial compromise. Thus the Hellenistic doctrine of personal 
revelation could be combined with the Jewish tradition of a 
complete theology revealed to a special people. The result was 
the application of a purely philosophical system to the somewhat 
vague and unorganized corpus of Jewish theology. The matter 
was Jewish, the arrangement Greek. According to the relative 
predominance of these two elements arose Gnosticism, the 
Patristic theology, and the philosophical schools of Neo-Pytha- 
goreanism, Neo-Platonism and eclectic Platonism. 

The members of the school may be enumerated under three 
heads, (i) The beginnings of the eclectic spirit are, according to 
some authorities, discernible in the Septuagint (280 B.C.) (see 
Frankel, H istorisch-kritische Studien zur Septuaginta, 1841), but 
the first concrete exemplification is found in Aristobulus (c. 160 
B.C.). So far as the Jewish succession is concerned, the great 
name is that of Philo in the first century of our era. He took 
Greek metaphysical theories, and, by the allegorical method, 
interpreted them in accordance with the Jewish Revelation. He 
dealt with (a) human life as explained by the relative nature of 
Man and God, (6) the Divine nature and the existence of God, and, 
(c) the great Logos doctrine as the explanation of the relation 
between God and the material universe. From these three 
arguments he developed an elaborate theosophy which was a 
syncretism of oriental mysticism and pure Greek metaphysic, 
and may be regarded as representing the climax of Jewish philo- 
sophy. (2) The first purely philosophical phenomenon of the 
Alexandrian school was Neo-Pythagoreanism, the second and last 
Neo-Platonism. Leaving all detailed descriptions of these schools 
to special articles devoted to them, it is sufficient here to say that 
their doctrines were a synthesis of Platonism, Stoicism and the 
later Aristotelianism with a leaven of oriental mysticism which 
gradually became more and more important. The world to 
which they spoke had begun to demand a doctrine of salvation to 
satisfy the human soul. They endeavoured to deal with the 



problem of good and evil. They therefore devoted themselves 
to examining the nature of the soul, and taught that its freedom 
consists in communion with God, to be achieved by absorption in 
a sort of ecstatic trance. This doctrine reaches its height in 
Plotinus, after whom it degenerated into magic and theurgy in its 
unsuccessful combat with the victorious Christianity. Finally 
this pagan theosophy was driven from Alexandria back to Athens 
under Plutarch and Proclus, and occupied itself largely in purely 
historical work based mainly on the attempt to re-organize 
ancient philosophy in conformity with the system of Plotinus. 
This school ended under Damascius when Justinian closed the 
Athenian schools (A.D. 529). (3) The eddies of Neo-Platonism 
had a considerable effect on certain Christian thinkers about the 
beginning of the 3rd century. Among these the most important 
were Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Clement, as a scholar 
and a theologian, proposed to unite the mysticism of Neo- 
Platonism with the practical spirit of Christianity. He combined 
the principle of pure living with that of free thinking, and held 
that instruction must have regard to the mental capacity of the 
hearer. The compatibility of Christian and later Neo-Platonic 
ideas is evidenced by the writings of Synesius, bishop of 
Ptolemais, and though Neo-Platonism eventually succumbed to 
Christianity, it had the effect, through the writings of Clement 
and Origen, of modifying the tyrannical fanaticism and ultra- 
dogmatism of the early Christian writers. 

AUTHORITIES. Matter, Histoire de I'ecole d'Alexandrie, 2nd ed. 
(3 vols., 1840-1844); Simon, Histoire de I'ecole d'Alexandrie (2 vols., 
1844-1845) ; Vacherot, Histoire critique de I'ecole d'Alexandrie 
(3 vols., 18461851); Kingsley, Alexandria and her Schools (1854); 
Gfrorer, Philo und die Alexandrinische Theosophie (1835); Dahne, 
GeschicJU. Darstellung der Jiidisch-Alexandrinischen Religionsphilo- 
sophie (1834); Histories of Philosophy by Zeller, Ueberweg, Windel- 
band, &c., and Bibliography of CHURCH HISTORY, &c. 

ALEXANDRIA TROAS (mod. Eski Stambvl), an ancient Greek 
city of the Troad, situated on the west coast at nearly its middle 
point, a little south of Tenedos. It was built by Antigonus, 
perhaps about 310 B.C., and was called by him Antigonia Troas. 
Early in the next century the name was changed by Lysimachus 
to Alexandria Troas, in honour of Alexander's memory. As the 
chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly 
in Roman times, and the existing remains sufficiently attest its 
former importance. Thence St Paul sailed for Europe for the 
first time, and there occurred later the episode of the raising of 
Eutychus (Acts xx. 5-12)- The site is now covered with valonia 
oaks, and has been much plundered, e.g by Mahommed IV., 
who took columns to adorn his new Valideh mosque in Stambul; 
but the circuit of the old walls can be traced, and in several 
places they are fairly well preserved. They had a circumference 
of about six English miles, and were fortified with towers at 
regular intervals. Remains of some ancient buildings, including 
a bath and gymnasium, can be traced within this area. Trajan 
built an aqueduct which can still be traced. The harbour had 
two large basins, now almost choked with sand. A Roman 
colony was sent to the place, as Strabo mentions, in the reign of 
Augustus. The abridged name "Troas" (Acts xvi. 8) was 
probably the current one in later Roman times. (D. G. H.) 

ALEXANDRINE VERSE, a name given to the leading measure 
in French poetry. It is the heroic French verse, used in epic 
narrative, in tragedy and in the higher comedy. There is some 
doubt as to the origin of the name; but most probably it is 
derived from a collection of romances, collected in the i2th 
century, of which Alexander of Macedon was the hero, and in 
which he was represented, somewhat like the British Arthur, 
as the pride and crown of chivalry. Before the publication of 
this work most of the trouvere romances appeared in octosyllabic 
verse. There is also a theory that the form was invented by a 
poet named Alexander. The new work, which was henceforth 
to set the fashion to French literature, was written in lines of 
twelve syllables, but with a freedom of pause which was after- 
wards greatly curtailed. The new fashion, however, was not 
adopted all at once. The metre fell into disuse until the reign 
of Francis I., when it was revived by Jean Antoine de Baif, 
one of the seven poets known as the Pleiades. Jodelle mingled 



576 



ALEXANDRISTS ALEXIS 



episodical Alexandrines with the vers communs of his tragedies 
and so introduced them into drama. It was Ronsard, however, 
who made the verse popular, and gave it vogue in France. From 
his time it became the recognized vehicle for all great poetry, 
and the regulation of its pauses became more and more strict. 
The following is an example of the verse as used by Racine 

Oil suis-je ? qu'ai-je fait ? || que dois-je faire encore ? 

Quel transport me saisit ? II quel chagrin me devore ? 

Two inexorable laws came to be established with regard to the 
pauses. The first is, that each line should be divided into two 
equal parts, the sixth syllable always ending with. a word. In 
the earlier use of this metre, on the contrary, it frequently 
happened that the sixth and seventh syllables belonged to the 
same word. The other is that, except under the most stringent 
conditions, there should be none of what the French critics call 
enjambement, that is, the overlapping of the sense from one line 
on to the next. Ronsard completely ignored this rule, which 
was after his time settled by the authority of Malherbe. The 
latest school of French prosody has given great attention to 
the breaking up of the Alexandrine, which no longer possesses 
the rigidity of authoritative form which it held until about 1880, 
but is often used with a licence no less than when Ronsard wrote. 
Michael Drayton, who was twenty-two years of age when 
Ronsard died, seemed to think that the Alexandrine might be 
as pleasing to English as it was to French ears, and in this metre 
he wrote a long poem in twenty-four books called the Polyolbion. 
The metre, however, failed to catch the English ear. The 
principal English measure is a line of ten syllables, and the 
Alexandrine is used only occasionally to give it variety and 
weight. In ordinary English heroic verse it is but rarely intro- 
duced; but in the favourite narrative metre, known as the 
Spenserian, it comes in regularly as the concluding line of each 
stanza. In English usage, moreover, it is to be observed that 
there is no fixed rule as to the position of the pause, though it is 
true that most commonly the pause occurs at the end of the sixth 
syllable. Spenser is very free in shifting the pause about; and 
though the later poets who have used this stanza are not so free, 
yet, with the exception of Shenstone and of Byron, they do not 
scruple to obliterate all pause between the sixth and seventh 
syllables. Thus Thomson (Castle of Indolence, i. 42) : 
And music lent new gladness to the morning air. 

The danger in the use of the Alexandrine is that, in attempting 
to give dignity to his line, the poet may only produce heaviness, 
incurring the sneer of Pope 

A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 

That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. 

The Alexandrine was the dominant metre in Dutch poetry 
from the i6th to the middle of the ipth century, and about 
the time of its introduction to Holland it was accepted in 
Germany by the school of Opitz. In the course of the lyth 
century, after being used without rhyme by Seckendorf and 
others, it formed a transitional station on the route to German 
blank verse, and has since then been rarely employed, except 
occasionally in rhymed comedy. 

ALEXANDRISTS, the name given to those philosophers of 
the Renaissance, who, in the great controversy on the subject of 
personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the De Anima 
given by Alexander of Aphrodisias. According to the orthodox 
Thomism of the Roman Catholic Church, Aristotle rightly re- 
garded reason as a faculty of the individual soul. Against 
this, the Averroists, led by Agostino Nifo (q.v.), introduced the 
modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes 
itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself 
again. These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine 
of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of 
the individual into the eternal One. The Alexandrists, led by 
Pietro Pomponazzi, boldly assailed these beliefs and denied 
that either was rightly attributed to Aristotle. They held that 
Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a 
mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority 
of universal reason. Hence the Alexandrists denied the possi- 




bility of immortality in every shape or form. Since the soul is 
organically connected with the body, the dissolution of the 
latter involves the extinction of the former. 

ALEXANDRITE, a variety of chrysoberyl (q.i>.) discovered in 
the Urals in 1833, on the day set apart for celebrating the majority 
of the cesarevich, afterwards the tsar, Alexander II., in whose 
honour the stone was named by Nils Gustaf Nordenskiold, of 
Helsingfors. It is remarkable for being strongly dichroic, 
generally appearing dark green by daylight 
and raspberry-red by candle-light, or by 
daylight transmitted through the stone. As 
red and green are the military colours of 
Russia, the mineral became highly popular 
as a gem-stone. The dark green crystals 
are usually cloudy and cracked, and grouped 
in triplets presenting a pseudo-hexagonal form. 
Alexandrite was found originally in the emerald- 
mine of Takovaya, east of Ekaterinburg in the Urals, and 
afterwards in the gold-bearing sands of the Sanarka in the 
southern Urals. Subsequently it was discovered in greater 
abundance in the gem-gravels of Ceylon. It has been found 
also in Tasmania. Some of the Ceylon alexandrite exhibits, 
when suitably cut, the Cat's-eye chatoyance, whence it has 
been called alexandrite cat's-eye. (F. W. R.*) 

ALEXANDROPOL, or ALEXAND'RAPOL. (Turk. Gumri), a 
Russian town and fortified camp in Transcaucasia, government 
of Erivan, near the junction of the Arpa-chai with the Aras, 
48 m. by rail E.N.E. of Kars. Altitude 5080 ft. It has a trade 
in silk. Here the Russians defeated the Turks in 1853. Pop. 
(1885)22,670; (1897)32,735. 

ALEXANDROVSK. (i) A town of N. Russia, in the govern- 
ment of Archangel, on the harbour of Catherine (Ekaterininsk), 
on the Murman coast, 5 m. from the mouth of Kola Bay. It was 
opened in 1899 and is a naval station, being free from ice all the 
year round. It is also called Port Catherine. Pop. (1901) 300. 
(2) A town of S. Russia, 83 m. S. of Ekaterinoslav, on the railway 
to the Crimea, near the left bank of the Dnieper, below its rapids. 
Pop. (1897) 16,393. Opposite it is the island of Khortitsa, upon 
which was the sich (or syech) or camp of theZaporozhianCossacks. 
All its neighbourhood is strewn with kurgans (tumuli). 

ALEXIS, Greek comic poet of the Middle Comedy, was born 
about 394 B.C. at Thurii and taken early to Athens, where he 
became a citizen. Plutarch says that he lived to the age of 106, 
and that he died on the stage while being crowned. According 
to Suidas, who calls him Menander's uncle, he wrote 245 comedies, 
of which some 130 titles are preserved. The fragments (about 
1000 lines) attest the wit and refinement of the author (Koch, 
Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta). 

ALEXIS, WILLIBALD, the pseudonym of GEORG WILHELM 
HEINRICH HARING (1798-1871), German historical novelist. 
He was born on the 29th of June 1798 at Breslau, where his 
father, who came of a French refugee family, named Hareng, 
held a high position in the war department. He attended the 
Werdersche Gymnasium in Berlin, and then, serving as a volunteer 
in the campaign of 1815, took part in the siege of the Ardenne 
fortresses. On his return he studied law at the universities 
of Berlin and Breslau and entered the legal profession, but he 
soon abandoned this career and devoted himself to literature. 
Settling in Berlin he edited, 1827-1835, the Berliner Konversa- 
tionsblatt, in which for the first two years he was assisted by 
Friedrich Christoph Forster (1791-1868); and in 1828 was 
created a doctor of philosophy by the university of Halle. In 
1852 he retired to Arnstadt in Thuringia, where after many 
years of broken health he died on the i6th of December 1871. 

Haring made his name first known as a writer by an idyll in 
hexameters, Die Treibjagd (1820), and several short stories in 
which the influence of Tieck is observable; but his literary 
reputation was first estabh'shed by the historical romance 
Walladmor (1823), which, published as being " freely translated 
from the English of Sir Walter Scott, with a preface by Willibald 
Alexis," so closely imitated the style of the famous Scotsman 
as really to deceive even Scott's admirers. The work became 



ALEXISBAD ALEXIUS 



577 



immediately popular and was translated into several languages, 
including English. It was followed by Schloss Avalon (1827), 
with regard to which the author adopted the same tactics and 
with equal success. These historical novels, however, were of 
considerable literary merit, and would doubtless have achieved 
popularity even without the borrowed plumage. Soon after- 
wards Haring published a number of successful short stories 
(Gesammelte Novellen, 4 vols., 1830-1831), some books of travel, 
and in the novels Das Haus Dusterweg (1835) and Zwb'lf Ndchle 
(1838) showed for a while a leaning towards the " Young 
German " school. In Cabanis (1832), however, a story of the 
time of Frederick the Great, he entered the field of patriotic- 
historical romance, in which he so far excelled as to have earned 
the name of " der Markische Walter Scott " (Walter Scott of the 
Mark). From 1840 onwards he published at short intervals a 
series of romances, each dealing with some epoch in the history 
of Brandenburg. Among them may be especially noted Der 
Roland von Berlin (1840), Der falsche Woldemar (1842), Die 
Hosen des Herrn von Bredow (1846-1848), Ruhe ist die erste 
Burgerpflicht (1852), Isegrimm (1854) and Dorolhe (1856). 
In all these the author shows himself as'a keen observer of men 
and things; the characters, situations and natural surroundings 
are excellently delineated, and the patriotic feeling which per- 
vades them is not overdone. Haring also made a name for 
himself in the field of criminology by commencing. in 1842, in 
conjunction with the publicist, Julius Eduard Hitzig (1780- 
1849), the publication of Der neue Pitaval (continued by A. 
Vollert, 36 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1865; new edition, 24 vols., 
Leipzig, 1866-1891), a collection of criminal anecdotes culled 
from all nations and all times. This publication attained great 
popularity, and is to-day of psychological interest and value. 

His Gesammelte Werke were published in 20 volumes (Berlin, 1874) ; 
the Vaterldndische Romane separately in 8 volumes (Berlin, 1881, 
1884), and, since the expiry of the copyright in 1901, in many cheap 
reprints. Cp. W. Alexis' Erinnerungen, edited by M. Ewert (1900), 
and essays by Julian Schmidt (Neue Bilder aus dem geistigen Leben 
unsrer Zeit, 1873), G. Freytag (Werke, vols. 16 and 23), A. Stern 
(Zur Literatur der Gegenwart, 1880) and T. Fontane (in Bayreuther 
Blatter, vi., 1883). 

ALEXISBAD, a spa of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt, 
lying under the Harz mountains, 1000 ft. above the sea, on the 
railway from Gernrode to Harzgerode. Pop. 1000. It is cele- 
brated for its medicinal waters, of which the Alexisbrunnen, a 
ferruginous spring, is used for drinking, while the Selkebrunnen 
supplies the baths, which are of use in feminine disorders. The 
place was founded in 1810 by Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. 

ALEXIUS I. (1048-1118), emperor of the East, was the third 
son of John Comnenus, nephew of Isaac Comnenus, emperor 
1057-1059. His father declined the throne on the abdication 
of Isaac, who was accordingly succeeded by four emperors of 
other families between that date and 1081. Under one of these 
emperors, Romanus Diogenes (1067-1071), he served with dis- 
tinction against the Seljuk Turks. Under Michael Parapinaces 
(1071-1078) and Nicephorus Botaniates (1078-1081) he was 
also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels 
in Asia Minor, Thrace and in Epirus (1071). The success of the 
Comneni roused the jealousy of Botaniates and his ministers, 
and the Comneni were almost compelled to take up arms in self- 
defence. Botaniates was forced to abdicate and retire to a 
monastery, and Isaac declined the crown in favour of his younger 
brother Alexius, who then became emperor in the 33rd year of 
his age. His long reign of nearly 37 years was full of difficulties 
(see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER). At the very outset he had to meet 
the formidable attack of the Normans (Robert Guiscard and his 
son Bohemund), who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid 
siege to Larissa in Thessaly. The Norman danger ended for the 
time with Robert Guiscard's death (1085) and the conquests 
were recovered. He had next to repel the invasions of Patzinaks 
(Petchenegs) and Kumans in Thrace, with whom the Manichaean 
sects of the Paulicians and Bogomilians made common cause; 
and thirdly, he had to cope with the fast-growing power of the 
Turks in Asia Minor. Above all he had to meet the difficulties 
caused by the arrival of the warriors of the First Crusade, which 



had been in a great degree initiated owing to the representations 
of his own ambassadors, though the help which he wanted from 
the West was simply mercenary forces and not the immense 
hosts which arrived to his consternation and embarrassment. 
The first part, under Peter the Hermit, he got rid of by sending 
them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks 
(1096). The second and much more serious host of warriors, led 
by Godfrey of Bouillon, he conducted also into Asia, promising 
to supply them with provisions in return for an oath of homage, 
and by their victories recovered for the Empire a number of 
important cities and islands Nicaea, Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, 
Ephesus, Philadelphia, Sardis, and in fact most of Asia Minor 
(1097-1099). This is ascribed as a credit to his policy and 
diplomacy by his daughter, by the Latin historians of the crusade 
to his treachery and falseness, but during the last twenty years 
of his life he lost much of his popularity. They were marked 
by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomilian 
heresies (one of his last acts was to burn Basilius, a Bogomilian 
leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological controversy), 
by renewed struggles with the Turks (1110-1117), by anxieties 
as to the succession, which his wife Irene wished to alter in favour 
of her daughter Anne's husband, Nicephorus Bryennius for 
whose benefit the special title panhypersebastos (i.e. as it were 
augustissimus si quis alius) was created. This intrigue disturbed 
even his dying hours. He deserves the credit of having raised 
the Empire from a condition of anarchy and decay at a time 
when it was threatened on all sides by new dangers. No emperor 
devoted himself more laboriously or with a greater sense of duty 
to the task of ruling. 

AUTHORITIES. Zonaras xviii. 27-29; Anna Comnena's Life', 
see also Du Cange, Familiae Byzantinae ; Friedrich Wilken, Rerum 
ab Alexio I., Joanne, Manuele et Alexio II. Comnenis Romanorum, 
Byzantinorum imperatoribus gestarum, libri iv. Commentatio (Heidel- 
berg, 1811); Finlay, History of Greece (vol. iii., Oxford, 1877); 
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited with notes, 
&c., by Prof. J. B. Bury (London, 1898), where further authorities 
are cited; F. Chalandon, Essai sur le regne d' Alexis I" Comnene 
(1900). (J. B. B.) 

ALEXIUS II. (COMNENUS) (1167-1183), emperor of the East, 
was the son of Manuel Comnenus and Maria, daughter of 
Raymund, prince of Antioch, and was born at Constantinople 
on the loth of September 1167. On Manuel's death, Maria, who 
had been immured in a convent under the name of Xene, had 
herself proclaimed regent (1170-1180), and handing over her 
son to evil counsellors, who encouraged him in every vice, 
supported the government of Alexius the protosebastos (nephew 
of Manuel) , who was supposed to be her lover. The young 
Alexius and his friends now tried to form a party against the 
empress mother and the protosebastos; and his sister Maria, 
wife of Caesar John, stirred up riots in the streets of the capital. 
Their party was defeated(May 2, 1182), but Andronicus Comnenus 
took advantage of these disorders to aim at the crown, entered 
Constantinople, where he was received with almost divine 
honours, and overthrew the regents. His arrival was celebrated 
by a barbarous massacre of the Latins in Constantinople, 
which he made no attempt to stop. He allowed Alexius to be 
crowned, but forced him to consent to the death of all his friends, 
including his mother, his sister and the Caesar, and refused to 
allow him the smallest voice in public affairs. The betrothal 
in 1180 of Alexius with Agnes, daughter of Louis VII. of France, 
a child of nine, was quashed, and he was married to Irene, 
daughter of Andronicus. The latter was now formally pro- 
claimed as co-emperor, and not long afterwards, on the pretext 
that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexius 
to be strangled with a bow-string (October 1183). (J. B. B.) 

ALEXIUS III. (ANGELUS), emperor of the East, was the second 
son of Andronicus Angelus, nephew of Alexius I. In 1195, while 
his brother Isaac II. was away hunting in Thrace, he was pro- 
claimed emperor by the troops; he captured Isaac at Stagira 
in Macedonia, put out his eyes, and kept him henceforth a close 
prisoner, though he had been redeemed by him from captivity at 
Antioch and loaded with honours. To compensate for this crime, 
and to confirm his position as emperor, he had to scatter money 



I. 19 






578 



ALEXIUS ALEXIUS PETROVICH 



so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence 
to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically 
defenceless. He consummated the financial ruin of the state. 
The empress Euphrosyne tried in vain to sustain his credit and 
his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument of her attempts 
at reform, was assassinated by the emperor's orders. Eastward 
the Empire was overrun by the Turks; from the north Bulgarians 
and Vlachs descended unchecked to ravage the plains of 
Macedonia and Thrace; while Alexius squandered the public 
treasure on his palaces and gardens. Soon he was threatened 
by a new and yet more formidable danger. In 1 202 the Western 
princes assembled at Venice, bent on a new crusade. To them 
Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac, made appeal, promising as a 
crowning bribe to heal the schism of East and West if they would 
help him to depose his uncle. The crusaders, whose objective 
had been Egypt, were persuaded to set their course for Constanti- 
nople, before which they appeared in June 1203, proclaiming 
the emperor Alexius IV. and summoning the capital to depose 
his uncle. Alexius III., sunk in debauchery, took no efficient 
measures to resist. His son-in-law, Lascaris, who was the only 
one to do anything, was defeated at Scutari, and the siege of 
Constantinople began. On the i;th of July the crusaders, the 
aged doge Dandolo at their head, scaled the walls and took the 
city by storm. During the fighting and carnage that followed 
Alexius hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, 
Irene, and such treasures as he could collect, got into a boat 
and escaped to Develton in Thrace, leaving his wife, his other 
daughters and his Empire to the victors. Isaac, drawn from his 
prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his 
son in state. 

Shortly afterwards Alexius made an effort in conjunction with 
Murtzuphlos (Alexius V.) to recover the throne. The attempt 
was unsuccessful and, after wandering about Greece, he sur- 
rendered with Euphrosyne, who had meanwhile joined him, to 
Boniface of Montferrat, then master of a great part of the 
Balkan peninsula. Leaving his protection he sought shelter with 
Michael, despot of Epirus, and then repaired to Asia Minor,where 
his son-in-law Lascaris was holding his own against the Latins. 
Alexius, joined by the sultan of Iconium (Konieh) , now demanded 
the crown of Lascaris, and on his refusal marched against him. 
Lascaris, however, defeated and took him prisoner. Alexius 
was relegated to a monastery at Nicaea, where he died on some 
date unknown. 

AUTHORITIES. Nicetas Acominatus, George Acropolites, Nice- 
phorus Gregoras; and the sources for the Fourth Crusade (see 
CRUSADES). (J. B. B.) 

ALEXIUS V., eastern Roman emperor, was proclaimed 
emperor on the 5th of February 1204, during the siege of 
Constantinople by the Latins (Fourth Crusade). His name was 
Alexius Ducas Murtzuphlos, and he was a' connexion of the 
imperial house of the Angeli. His elevation was the result of 
a revolution in the city against Isaac II. and Alexius IV. He 
conducted the defence with great bravery till it became hope- 
less (April 12), whereupon he fled. He would then have made 
common cause with Alexius III. against the Latins, but was 
blinded by that ex-monarch and fell into the hands of the 
crusaders, who put him to death by casting him from the top 
of the Pillar of Theodosius as the murderer of Alexius IV. 

ALEXIUS MIKHAILOVICH (1620-1676), tsar of Muscovy, 
the son of Tsar Michael Romanov and Eudoxia Stryeshnevaya, 
was born on the gth of March 1629. A youth at his father's 
death (1645), ne was committed to the care of the boyarin Boris 
Ivanovich Morozov, a shrewd and sensible guardian, sufficiently 
enlightened to recognize the needs of his country, and by no 
means inaccessible to Western ideas. Morozov's foreign policy 
was pacificatory. He secured the truce with Poland and carefully 
avoided complications with the Porte. His domestic policy was 
severely equitable, and aimed at relieving the public burdens by 
limiting the privileges of foreign traders and abolishing a great 
many useless and expensive court offices. On the 1 7th of January 
1648 he procured the marriage of the tsar with Maria Miloslav- 
skaya, himself marrying her sister, Anna, ten days later. The 



Miloslavskis were typical self-seeking I7th century boyars, 
whose extortions made them generally detested. In May 1648 
the people of Moscow rose against them, and the young tsar was 
compelled to dismiss both them and their patron Morozov. The 
successful issue of the Moscow riots was the occasion of disquiet- 
ing disturbances all over the tsardom culminating in dangerous 
rebellions at Pskov and Great Novgorod, with which the govern- 
ment was so unable to cope that they surrendered, practically 
granting the malcontents their own terms. One man only had 
displayed equal tact and courage at Great Novgorod, the 
metropolitan Nikon (<?..), who in consequence became .in 1651 
the tsar's chief minister. In 1653 the weakness and disorder of 
Poland, which had just emerged, bleeding at every pore, from the 
savage Cossack war, encouraged Alexius to attempt to recover 
from her secular rival the old Russian lands. On the ist of 
October 1653 a national assembly met at Moscow to sanction 
the war and find the means of carrying it on, and in April 1654 
the army was blessed by Nikon (now patriarch) . The campaign 
of 1654 was an uninterrupted triumph, and scores of towns, 
including the important fortress of Smolensk, fell into the hands 
of the Muscovites. In January 1655 the rout of Ochmatov 
arrested their progress; but in the summer of the same year, the 
sudden invasion by Charles X. of Sweden for the moment swept 
the Polish state out of existence; the Muscovites, unopposed, 
quickly appropriated nearly everything which was not already 
occupied by the Swedes, and when at last the Poles offered to 
negotiate, the whole grand-duchy of Lithuania was the least of 
the demands of Alexius. Fortunately for Poland, the tsar and 
the king of Sweden now quarrelled over the apportionment 
of the spoil, and at the end of May 1656 Alexius, stimulated by 
the emperor and the other enemies of Sweden, declared war 
against her. Great things were expected of the Swedish war, but 
nothing came of it. Dorpat was taken, but countless multitudes 
were lost in vain before Riga. In the meantime Poland had so 
far recovered herself as to become a much more dangerous foe 
than Sweden, and, as it was impossible to wage war with both 
simultaneously, the tsar resolved to rid himself of the Swedes 
first. This he did by the peace of Kardis (July 2, 1661), 
whereby Muscovy retroceded all her conquests. The Polish war 
dragged on for six years longer and was then concluded by a 
truce, nominally for thirteen years, which proved the most 
durable of treaties. By the truce of Andrussowo (February 
n, 1667) Vitebsk, Polotsk and Polish Livonia were restored 
to Poland, but the infinitely more important Smolensk and Kiev 
remained in the hands of the Muscovite together with the whole 
eastern bank of the Dnieper. This truce was the achievement of 
Athanasy Orduin-Nashchokin, the first Russian chancellor and 
diplomatist in the modern sense, who after the disgrace of Nikon 
became the tsar's first minister till 1670, when he was super- 
seded by the equally able Artamon Matvyeev, whose beneficent 
influence prevailed to the end of the reign. It is the crowning 
merit of the ever amiable and courteous tsar Alexius that he 
discovered so many great men (like Nikon, Orduin, Matvyeev, 
the best of Peter's precursors) and suitably employed them. He 
was not a man of superior strength of character, or he would never 
have submitted to the dictation of Nikon. But, on the other 
hand, he was naturally, if timorously, progressive, or he would 
never have encouraged the great reforming boyarin Matvyeev. 
His education was necessarily narrow; yet he was learned in his 
way, wrote verses, and even began a history of his own times. 
His last years, notwithstanding the terrible rebellion of Stenka 
Razin, were deservedly tranquil. By his first consort he had 
thirteen children, of whom two sickly sons and eight healthy 
daughters survived him. By his second consort, Natalia 
Naruishkina, he had two children, the tsarevich Peter and the 
tsarevna Natalia. 

See Robert Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). 

(R. N. H.J 

ALEXIUS PETROVICH (1690-1718), Russian tsarevich, the 
sole surviving son of Peter I. and Eudoxia Lopukhina, was born 
on the iQth of February 1690. The young tsar married the 
boyarinya Lopukhina at his mother's command. We know 



ALEXIUS PETROVICH 



579 



nothing of the bride except that she was beautiful, modest and 
" brought up in the fear of the Lord." She would, doubtless, 
have made a model tsaritsa of the pre-Petrine period, but, 
unfortunately, she was no fit wife for such a vagabond of genius 
as Peter the Great. From the first her society bored Peter 
unspeakably, and, after the birth of their second short-lived son 
Alexander, on the 3rd of October 1691, he practically deserted 
her. The young Alexius was ignored by his father till he was 
nine years old. Peter was a rare and unwelcome guest in his own 
family, and a son who loved his mother could have little affection 
for a father who had ever been that mother's worst persecutor. 
From his sixth to his ninth year Alexius was educated by the 
diffuse and pedantic Vyazemsky, but after the removal of his 
mother to the Suzdal Prokovsky Monastery he was confided to 
the care of -learned foreigners, who taught him history, geography, 
mathematics and French. In 1703 Alexius was ordered to follow 
the army to the field as a private in a bombardier regiment. In 
1704 he was present at the capture of Narva. At this period 
the preceptors of the tsarevich had the highest opinion of his 
ability; but, unfortunately, it was not the sort of ability that 
his father could make use of. He was essentially a student, 
with strong leanings towards archaeology and ecclesiology. A 
monastic library was the proper place for this gentle emotional 
dreamer, who clung so fondly to the ancient traditions. To a 
prince of his temperament the vehement activity of his ab- 
normally energetic father was very offensive. He liked neither the 
labour itself nor its object. Yet Peter, not unnaturally, wished 
his heir to dedicate himself to the service of new Russia, and 
demanded from him unceasing labour in order to maintain the 
brand-new state at the high level of greatness to which it had 
been raised. Painful relations between father and son, quite 
apart from the personal antipathies already existing, were there- 
fore inevitable. It was an additional misfortune for Alexius that 
his father should have been too busy to attend to him just as he 
was growing up from boyhood to manhood. He was left in the 
hands of reactionary boyars and priests, who encouraged him to 
hate his father and wish for the death of the tsar-antichrist. His 
confessor, Yakov Ignatiev, whom he promised to obey as " an 
angel and apostle of God," was his chief counsellor in these days. 
In 1708 Peter sent Alexius to Smolensk to collect provenderand 
recruits, and thence to Moscow to fortify it against Charles XII. 
At the end of 1709 he went to Dresden for twelve months for 
finishing lessons in French and German, mathematics and 
fortification, and, his education completed, he was married, 
greatly against his will, to the princess Charlotte of Brunswick- 
Wolfenbiittel, whose sister espoused, almost simultaneously, 
the heir to the Austrian throne, the archduke Charles. The 
wedding was celebrated at Torgau on the I4th of October 1711, 
in the house of the queen of Poland, and three weeks later the 
bridegroom was hurried away by his father to Thorn to super- 
intend the provisioning of the Russian troops in Poland. For 
the next twelve months Alexius was kept constantly on the 
move. His wife joined him at Thorn in December, but in April 
1712 a peremptory ukaz ordered him off to the army in Pomerania, 
and in the autumn of the same year he was forced to accompany 
his father on a tour of inspection through Finland. Evidently 
Peter was determined to tear his son away from a life of indolent 
ease. Immediately on his return from Finland Alexius was 
despatched by his father to Staraya Rusya and Ladoga to see 
to the building of new ships. This was the last commission 
entrusted to him. On his return to the capital Peter, in order 
to see what progress his son had made in mechanics and mathe- 
matics, asked him to draw something of a technical nature for 
his inspection. Alexius, in order to escape such an ordeal, 
resorted to the abject expedient of disabling his right hand by 
a pistol-shot. In no other way could the tsarevich have offended 
his father so deeply. He had behaved like a cowardly recruit 
who mutilates himself to escape military service. After this, 
Peter seemed for a time to take no further interest in Alexius. 
He left him entirely to himself. He employed him no more. 
He no longer pressed him to attend public functions. Alexius 
rejoiced at this welcome change, but he had cause rather to fear 



it. It marked the deepening of a hatred which might have been 
overcome. Alexius was evidently consoling himself with the 
reflexion that the future belonged to him. He was well aware 
that the mass of the Russian nation was on his side. Nearly all 
the prelates were devoted to him. Equally friendly were the 
great boyar families. All Alexius had to do was to sit still, 
keep out of his father's way as much as possible and await the 
natural course of events. But with Peter the present was every- 
thing. He could not afford to leave anything to chance. All 
his life long he had been working incessantly with a single object 
the regeneration of Russia. What if his successor refused to 
tread in his father's footsteps or, still worse, tried to destroy his 
father's work? By some such process of reasoning as this must 
the idea of changing the succession to the throne, by setting 
aside Alexius, have first occurred to the mind of Peter the Great. 
Nevertheless he made one last effort to reclaim his son. On the 
22nd of October 1715 Alexius' consort, the princess Charlotte, 
died, after giving birth to a son, the grand-duke Peter, afterwards 
Peter II. On the day of the funeral Peter addressed to Alexius 
a stern letter of warning and remonstrance, urging him no longer 
to resemble the slothful servant in the parable, and threatening 
to cut him off, as though he were a gangrenous swelling, if he did 
not acquiesce in his father's plans. But it was now that Alexius 
showed what a poor creature he really was. He wrote a pitiful 
reply to his father, offering to renounce the succession in favour 
of his baby half-brother Peter, who had been born the day after 
the princess Charlotte's funeral. As if this were not enough, 
in January 1716 he wrote to his father for permission to become 
a monk. Still Peter did not despair. On the 26th of August 
1716 he wrote to Alexius from abroad urging him, if he desired 
to remain tsarevich, to join him and the army without delay. 
Rather than face this ordeal Alexius fled to Vienna and placed 
himself under the protection of his brother-in-law, the emperor 
Charles VI., who sent him for safety first to the Tirolean fortress 
of Ahrenberg, and finally to the castle of San Elmo at Naples. 
He was accompanied throughout his journey by his mistress, the 
Finnish girl Afrosina. That the emperor sincerely sympathized 
with Alexius, and suspected Peter of harbouring murderous 
designs against his son, is plain from his confidential letter to 
George I. of England, whom he consulted on this delicate affair. 
Peter's agitation was extreme. The flight of the tsarevich to a 
foreign potentate was a reproach and a scandal. He must be 
recovered and brought back to Russia at all hazards. This 
difficult task was accomplished by Count Peter Tolstoi, the 
most subtle and unscrupulous of Peter's servants; but terrorized 
though he was, Alexius would only consent to return on his 
father solemnly swearing, " before God and His judgment seat," 
that if he came back he should not be punished in the least, but 
cherished as a son and allowed to live quietly on his estates and 
marry Afrosina. On the 3ist of January 1718 the tsarevich 
reached Moscow. Peter had already determined to institute a 
most searching inquisition in order to get at the bottom of the 
mystery of the flight. On the i8th of February a " confession " 
was extorted from Alexius which implicated most of his friends, 
and he then publicly renounced the succession to the throne in 
favour of the baby grand-duke Peter Petrovich. A horrible reign 
of terror ensued, in the course of which the ex-tsaritsa Eudoxia 
was dragged from her monastery and publicly tried for alleged 
adultery, while all who had in any way befriended Alexius were 
impaled, broken on the wheel and otherwise lingeringly done to 
death. All this was done to terrorize the reactionaries and 
isolate the tsarevich. In April 1718 fresh confessions were 
extorted from Alexius, now utterly broken and half idiotic with 
fright. Yet even now there were no actual facts to go upon. 
Alexius' " evil designs " were still in foro conscientiae, and had 
not been, perhaps never would be, translated into practice. 
The worst that could be brought against him was that he had 
wished his father's death. In the eyes of Peter, his son was now 
a self-convicted and most dangerous traitor, whose life was forfeit. 
But there was no getting over the fact that his father had sworn 
" before the Almighty and His judgment seat " to pardon him 
and let him live in peace if he returned to Russia. From Peter's 






5 8 



ALFANI ALFIERI 



point of view the question was, did the enormity of the tsare- 
vich's crime absolve the tsar from the oath which he had taken 
to spare the life of this prodigal son? This question was solemnly 
submitted to a grand council of prelates, senators, ministers and 
other dignitaries on the I3th of June 1718. The clergy left 
the matter to the tsar's own decision. The temporal dignitaries 
declared the evidence to be insufficient and suggested that 
Alexius should be examined by torture. Accordingly, on the 
1 9th of June, the weak and ailing tsarevich received twenty- 
five strokes with the knout (as then administered nobody ever 
survived thirty), and on the 24th fifteen more. It was hardly 
possible that he could survive such treatment; the natural 
inference is that he was not intended to survive it. Anyway, he 
expired two days later in the guardhouse of the citadel of St 
Petersburg, two days after the senate had condemned him to 
death for imagining rebellion against his father, and for hoping 
for the co-operation of the common people and the armed inter- 
vention of his brother-in-law, the emperor. This shameful 
sentence was the outcome of mingled terror and obsequiousness. 
Abominable, unnatural as Peter's conduct to his unhappy and 
innocent son undoubtedly was, there is no reason to suppose 
that he ever regretted it. He argued that a single worthless life 
stood in the way of the regeneration of Russia, and he therefore 
deliberately removed it. 

See Robert Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). 

(R. N. B.) 

ALFANI, DOMENICO, Italian painter, was born at Perugia 
towards the close of the isth century. He was a contemporary 
of Raphael, with whom he studied in the school of Perugino. 
The two artists lived on terms of intimate friendship, and the 
influence of the more distinguished of the two is so clearly 
traceable in the works of the other, that these have frequently 
been attributed to Raphael. Towards the close of his life Alfani 
gradually changed his style and approximated to that of the 
later Florentine school. The date of his death, according to 
some, was 1540, while others say he was alive in 1553. Pictures 
by Alfani may be seen in collections at Florence and in several 
churches in Perugia. 

ALFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, 10 m. W. of Hildesheim, on the river Leine and the 
Hanover- Cassel main line of railway. Pop. (1900) 4900. It has 
a handsome church with twin spires, and training colleges for 
schoolmasters and theological candidates. Its industries are 
flourishing, and embrace paper-making, agricultural machine- 
works, iron-founding and flax-spinning. 

ALFIERI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1740-1803), Italian dramatist, 
was born on the i7th of January 1749 at Asti in Piedmont. He 
lost his father in early infancy; but he continued to reside with 
his mother, who married a second time, till his tenth year, when 
he was placed at the academy of Turin. After he had passed a 
twelvemonth at the academy, he went on a short visit to a 
relation who dwelt at Coni; and during his stay there he made 
his first poetical attempt in a sonnet chiefly borrowed from lines 
in Ariosto and Metastasio, the only poets he had at that time 
read. When thirteen years of age he was induced to begin the 
study of civil and canonical law; but the attempt only served 
to disgust him with every species of application and to increase 
his relish for the perusal of French romances. By the death of 
his uncle, who had hitherto taken some charge of his education 
and conduct, he was left, at the age of fourteen, to enjoy without 
control his vast paternal inheritance, augmented by the recent 
accession of his uncle's fortune. He now began to attend the 
riding-school, where he acquired that rage for horses and 
equestrian exercise which continued to be one of his strongest 
passions till the close of his existence. 

After some time spent in alternate fits of extravagant dissipa- 
tion and ill-directed study, he was seized with a desire of travel- 
ling; and having obtained permission from the king, he departed 
in 1766, under the care of an English preceptor. Restless and 
unquiet, he posted with the utmost rapidity through the towns 
of Italy; and his improvement was such as was to be expected 
from his mode of travelling and his previous habits. Hoping to 



find in foreign countries some relief from the tedium and ennui 
with which he was oppressed, and being anxious to become 
acquainted with the French theatre, he proceeded to Paris. But 
he appears to have been completely dissatisfied with everything 
he witnessed in France and contracted a dislike to its people, 
which his intercourse in future years rather contributed to 
augment than diminish. In Holland he became deeply enamoured 
of a married lady, who returned his attachment, but who was 
soon obliged to accompany her husband to Switzerland. Alfieri, 
whose feelings were of the most impetuous description, was in 
despair at this separation, and returned to his own country in the 
utmost anguish and despondency of mind. While under this 
depression of spirits he was induced to seek alleviation from 
works of literature; and the perusal of Plutarch's Lives, which 
he read with profound emotion, inspired him with an enthusiastic 
passion for freedom and independence. Under the influence of 
this rage for liberty he recommenced his travels; and his only 
gratification, in the absence of freedom among the continental 
states, appears to have been derived from contemplating the wild 
and sterile regions of the north of Sweden, where gloomy forests, 
lakes and precipices conspired to excite those sublime and 
melancholy ideas which were congenial to his disposition. Every- 
where his soul felt as if confined by the bonds of society; he 
panted for something more free in government, more elevated in 
sentiment, more devoted in love and more perfect in friendship. 
In search of this ideal world he posted through various countries 
more with the rapidity of a courier than of one who travels for 
amusement or instruction. During a journey to London he 
engaged in an intrigue with a married lady of high rank; and 
having been detected, the publicity of a rencounter with the 
injured husband, and of a divorce which followed, rendered it 
expedient and desirable for him to quit England. He then 
visited Spain and Portugal, where he became acquainted with 
the Abbe Caluso, who remained through life the most attached 
and estimable friend he ever possessed. In 1772 Alfieri returned 
to Turin. This time he became enamoured of the Marchesa 
Turinetti di Prie, whom he loved with his usual ardour, and who 
seems to have been as undeserving of a sincere attachment as 
those he had hitherto adored. In the course of a long attendance 
on his mistress, during a malady with which she was afflicted, he 
one day wrote a dialogue or scene of a drama, which he left at her 
house. On a difference taking place between them the piece was 
returned to him, and being retouched and extended to five acts, 
it was performed at Turin in 1775, under the title of Cleopatra. 

From this moment Alfieri was seized with an insatiable thirst 
for theatrical fame, and the remainder of his life was devoted to 
its attainment. His first two tragedies, Filippo and Polinice, 
were originally written in French prose; and when he came to 
versify them in Italian, he found that, from his Lombard origin 
and long intercourse with foreigners, he expressed himself with 
feebleness and inaccuracy. Accordingly, with the view of 
improving his Italian style, he went to Tuscany and, during an 
alternate residence at Florence and ^Siena, he completed his 
Filippo and Polinice, and conceived the plan of various other 
dramas. While thus employed he became acquainted with the 
countess of Albany, who then resided with her husband at 
Florence. For her he formed an attachment which, if less violent 
than his former loves, appears to have been more permanent. 
With this motive to remain at Florence, he could not endure the 
chains by which his vast possessions bound him to Piedmont. 
He therefore resigned his whole property to his sister, the countess 
Cumiana, reserving an annuity which scarcely amounted to a 
half of his original revenues. At this period the countess of 
Albany, urged by the ill-treatment she received from her husband, 
sought refuge in Rome, where she at length received permission 
from the pope to live apart from her tormentor. Alfieri followed 
the countess to that capital, where he completed fourteen 
tragedies, four of which were now for the first time printed at 
Sienna. 

At length, however, it was thought proper that, by leaving 
Rome, he should remove the aspersions which had been thrown 
on' the object of his affections. During the year 1783 he 



ALFIERI 



581 



therefore travelled through different states of Italy, and published 
six additional tragedies. The interests of his love and literary 
glory had not diminished his rage for horses, which seems to 
have been at least the third passion of his soul. He came to 
England solely for the purpose of purchasing a number of these 
animals, which he carried with him to Italy. On his return he 
learned that the countess of Albany had gone to Colmar in 
Alsace, where he joined her, and resided with her under the same 
roof during the rest of his life. They chiefty passed their time 
between Alsace and Paris, but at length took up their abode 
entirely in that metropolis. While here, Alfieri made arrange- 
ments with Didot for an edition of his tragedies, but was soon 
after forced to quit Paris by the storms of the Revolution. 
He recrossed the Alps with the countess, and finally settled at 
Florence. The last ten years of his life, which he spent in that 
city, seem to have been the happiest of his existence. During 
that long period his tranquillity was only interrupted by the 
entrance of the Revolutionary armies into Florence in 1799. 
Though an enemy of kings, the aristocratic feeling of Alfieri 
rendered him also a decided foe to the principles and leaders of 
the French Revolution; and he rejected with the utmost con- 
tempt those advances which were made with a view to bring 
him over to their cause. The concluding years of his life were 
laudably employed in the study of the Greek literature and in 
perfecting a series of comedies. His assiduous labour on this 
subject, which he pursued with his characteristic impetuosity, 
exhausted his strength, and brought on a malady for which he 
would not adopt the prescriptions of his physicians, but obsti- 
nately persisted in employing remedies of his own. His disorder 
rapidly increased, and he died on the 8th of October 1803. 

The character of Alfieri may be best appreciated from the 
portrait which he has drawn of himself in his own Memoirs 
of his Life. He was evidently of an irritable, impetuous and 
almost ungovernable temper. Pride, which seems to have been 
a ruling sentiment, may account for many apparent inconsist- 
encies of his character. But his less amiable qualities were 
greatly softened by the cultivation of literature. His application 
to study gradually tranquillized his temper and softened his 
manners, leaving him at the same time in perfect possession of 
those good qualities which he had inherited from nature a 
warm and disinterested attachment to his family and friends, 
united to a generosity, vigour and elevation of character, which 
rendered him not unworthy to embody in his dramas the actions 
and sentiments of Grecian heroes. 

It is to his dramas that Alfieri is chiefly indebted for the high 
reputation he has attained. Before his time the Italian language, 
so harmonious in the Sonnets of Petrarch and so energetic in the 
Commcdia of Dante, had been invariably languid and prosaic in 
dramatic dialogue. The pedantic and inanimate tragedies of the 
1 6th century were followed, during the iron age of Italian litera- 
ture, by dramas of which extravagance in the sentiments and 
improbability in the action were the chief characteristics. The 
prodigious success of the Meropc of Maflfei, which appeared in the 
commencement of the iSth century, may be attributed more to a 
comparison with such productions than to intrinsic merit. In 
this degradation of tragic taste the appearance of the tragedies of 
Alfieri was perhaps the most important literary event that had 
occurred in Italy during the 1 8th century. On these tragedies 
it is difficult to pronounce a judgment, as the taste and system 
of the author underwent considerable change and modification 
during the intervals which elapsed between the three periods of 
their publication. An excessive harshness of style, an asperity 
of sentiment and total want of poetical ornament are the 
characteristics of his first four tragedies, Filippo, Polinice, 
Antigone and Virginia. These faults were in some measure 
corrected in the six tragedies which he gave to the world some 
years after, and in those which he published along with Saul, 
the drama which enjoyed the greatest success of all his produc- 
tions a popularity which may be partly attributed to the 
severe and unadorned manner of Alfieri being well adapted to the 
patriarchal simplicity of the age in which the scene of the tragedy 

placed. But though there be a considerable difference in his 



" 



dramas, there are certain observations applicable to them all. 
None of the plots are of his own invention. They are founded 
either on mythological fable or history; most of them had 
been previously treated by the Greek dramatists or by Seneca. 
Rosmunda, the only one which could be supposed of his own 
contrivance, and which is certainly the least happy effusion of 
his genius, is partly founded on the eighteenth novel of the third 
part of Bandello and partly on Prevost's Memoires d'un homme de 
qualite. But whatever subject he chooses, his dramas are always 
formed on the Grecian model and breathe a freedom and inde- 
pendence worthy of an Athenian poet. Indeed, his Agide and 
Bruto may rather be considered oratorical declamations and 
dialogues on liberty than tragedies. The unities of time and 
place are not so scrupulously observed in his as in the ancient 
dramas; but he has rigidly adhered to a unity of action and 
interest. He occupies his scene with one great action and one 
ruling passion, and removes from it every accessory event or 
feeling. In this excessive zeal for the observance of unity he 
seems to have forgotten that its charm consists in producing a 
common relation between multiplied feelings, and not in the 
bare exhibition of one, divested of those various accompaniments 
which give harmony to the whole. Consistently with that austere 
and simple manner which he considered the chief excellence of 
dramatic composition, he excluded from his scene all coups de 
Ihedlre, all philosophical reflexions, and that highly ornamented 
versification which had been so assiduously cultivated by his 
predecessors. In his anxiety, however, to avoid all superfluous 
ornament, he has stripped his dramas of the embellishments of 
imagination; and for the harmony and flow of poetical language 
he has substituted, even in his best performances, a style which, 
though correct and pure, is generally harsh, elaborate and 
abrupt; often strained into unnatural energy or condensed 
into factitious conciseness. The chief excellence of Alfieri con- 
sists in powerful delineation of dramatic character. In his 
Filippo he has represented, almost with the masterly touches of 
Tacitus, the sombre character, the dark mysterious counsels, the 
suspensa semper el obscura verba, of the modern Tiberius. In 
Polinice, the characters of the rival brothers are beautifully con- 
trasted ; in Maria Stuarda, that unfortunate queen is represented 
unsuspicious, impatient of contradiction and violent in her 
attachments. In Mirra, the character of Ciniro is perfect as a 
father and king, and Cecri is a model of a wife and mother. In 
the representation of that species of mental alienation where the 
judgment has perished but traces of character still remain, he is 
peculiarly happy. The insanity of Saul is skilfully managed; 
and the horrid joy of Orestes in killing Aegisthus rises finely and 
naturally to madness in finding that, at the same time, he had 
inadvertently slain his mother. 

Whatever may be the merits or defects of Alfieri, he may be 
considered as the founder of a new school in the Italian drama. 
His country hailed him as her sole tragic poet; and his successors 
in the same path of literature have regarded his bold, austere 
and rapid manner as the genuine model of tragic composition. 

Besides his tragedies, Alfieri published during his life many 
sonnets, five odes on American independence and the poem of 
Etruria, founded on the assassination of Alexander I., duke of 
Florence. Of his prose works the most distinguished for anima- 
tion and eloquence is the Panegyric on Trajan, composed in a 
transport of indignation at the supposed feebleness of Pliny's 
eulogium. The two books entitled La Tiranni.de and the Essays 
on Literature and Government are remarkable for elegance and 
vigour of style, but are too evidently imitations of the manner of 
Machiavel. His Anligallican, which was written at the same 
time with his Defence of Louis XVI., comprehends an historical 
and satirical view of the French Revolution. The posthumous 
works of Alfieri consist of satires, six political comedies and the 
Memoirs of his Life a work which will always be read with 
interest, in spite of the cold and languid gravity with which he 
delineates the most interesting adventures and the strongest 
passions of his agitated life. 

See Mem. di Vit. Alfieri; Sismondi, De la lit. du midi de I'Europe; 
Walker's Memoir on Italian Tragedy; Oiorn. de Pisa, torn. Iviii.: 



ALFORD ALFRED THE GREAT 



Life of Alfieri, by Centofanti (Florence, 1842); Vita, Giornuli, 
Lettere di Alfieri, by Teza (Florence, 1861); Vittorio Alfieri, by 
Antonini and Cognetti (Turin, 1898). 

ALFORD, HENRY (1810-1871), English divine and scholar, 
was born in London on the 7th of October 1810. He came of a 
Somersetshire family, which had given five consecutive genera- 
tions of clergymen to the Anglican church. Alford's early years 
were passed with his widowed father, who was curate of Steeple 
Ashton in Wiltshire. He was an extremely precocious lad, and 
before he was ten had written several Latin odes, a history of the 
Jews and a series of homiletic outlines. After a peripatetic 
school course he went up to Cambridge in 1827 as a scholar of 
Trinity. In 1832 he was 34th wrangler and 8th classic, and in 
1834 was made fellow of Trinity. He had already taken orders, 
and in 1835 began his eighteen years' tenure of the vicarage of 
Wymeswold in Leicestershire, from which seclusion the twice- 
repeated offer of a colonial bishopric failed to draw him. He 
was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1841-1842, and steadily 
built up a reputation as scholar and preacher, which would have 
been enhanced but for his discursive ramblings in the fields of 
minor poetry and magazine editing. In September 1853 Alford 
removed to Quebec Chapel, London, where he had a large and 
cultured congregation. In March 1857 Viscount Palmerston 
advanced him to the deanery of Canterbury, where, till his death 
on the 1 2th of January 1871, he lived the same strenuous- and 
diversified life that had always characterized him. The inscrip- 
tion on his tomb, chosen by himself, is " Diversorium Viatoris 
Hierosolymam Proficiscentis." 

Alford was a not inconsiderable artist, as his picture-book, 
The Riviera (1870), shows, and he had abundant musical and 
mechanical talent. Besides editing the works of John Donne, 
he published several volumes of his own verse, The School of the 
Heart (1835), The Abbot of Muchelnaye (1841), and a number of 
hymns, the best-known of which are " Forward! be our watch- 
word," " Come, ye thankful people, come," and " Ten thousand 
times ten thousand." He translated the Odyssey, wrote a well- 
known manual of idiom, A Plea for the Queen's English (1863), 
and was the first editor of the Contemporary Review (1866-1870). 
His chief fame, however, rests upon his monumental edition of 
the New Testament in Greek (4 vols.), which occupied him from 
1841 to 1861. In this work he first brought before English 
students a careful collation of the readings of the chief MSS. 
and the researches of the ripest continental scholarship of his 
day. Philological rather than theological in character, it marked 
an epochal change from the old homiletic commentary, and 
though more recent research, patristic and papyral, has largely 
changed the method of New Testament exegesis, Alford's work 
is still a quarry where the student can dig with a good deal of 
profit. 

His Life, writfen by his widow, appeared in 1873 (Rivington). 

(A. J. G.) 

ALFRED, or /ELFRED, known as THE GREAT (848-? 900), 
king of England, was born in 848 at Wantage, and was the fourth 
son of King ^Ethelwulf and his first wife (Osburh). He seems to 
have been a child of singular attractiveness and promise, and 
stories of his boyhood were remembered. At the age of five (853) 
he was sent to Rome, where he was confirmed by Leo IV., who 
is also stated to have " hallowed him as king." Later writers 
interpreted this as an anticipatory crowning in preparation for 
his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. That, however, 
could not have been foreseen in 853, as Alfred had three elder 
brothers living. It is probably to be understood either of 
investiture with the consular insignia, or possibly with some 
titular royalty such as that of the under-kingdom of Kent. 
In 855 Alfred again went to Rome with his father yEthelwulf, 
returning towards the end of 856. About two years later his 
father died. During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers, 
/Ethelbald and ^Ethelberht, nothing is heard of Alfred. But 
with the accession of the third brother ^Ethelred (866) the public 
life of Alfred begins, and he enters on his great work of delivering 
England from the Danes. It is in this reign that Asser applies 
to Alfred the unique title of secundarius, which seems to indicate 
a position analogous to that of the Celtic tanist, a recognized 



successor, closely associated with the reigning prince. It is 
probable that this arrangement was definitely sanctioned by the 
witenagemot, to guard against the danger of a disputed succession 
should jEthelred fall in battle. In 868 Alfred married Ealhswith, 
daughter of ^Ethelred Mucill, who is called ealdorman of the 
Gaini, an unidentified district. The same year the two brothers 
made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve Mercia from the pressure 
of the Danes. For nearly two years Wessex had a respite. But 
at the end of 870 the storm burst; and the year which followed 
has been rightly called " Alfred's year of battles." Nine general 
engagements were fought with varying fortunes, though the 
place and date of two of them have not been recorded. A 
successful skirmish at Englefield, Berks (December 31, 870), was 
followed by a severe defeat at Reading (January 4, 871), and this, 
four days later, by the brilliant victory of Ashdown, near Compton 
Beauchamp in Shrivenham Hundred. On the 22nd of January 
the English were again defeated at Basing, and on the 22nd of 
March at Marton, Wilts, the two unidentified battles having 
perhaps occurred in the interval. In April jEthelred died, and 
Alfred succeeded to the whole burden of the contest. While he 
was busied with his brother's exequies, the Danes defeated the 
English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and once more in his 
presence at Wilton in May. After this peace was made, and for 
the next five years the Danes were occupied in other parts of 
England, Alfred merely keeping a force of observation on the 
frontier. But in 876 part of the Danes managed to slip past 
him and occupied Wareham; whence, early in 877, under cover 
of treacherous negotiations, they made a dash westwards and 
seized Exeter. Here Alfred blockaded them, and a relieving 
fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes had to submit 
and withdrew to Mercia. But in January 878 they made a sudden 
swoop on Chippenham, a royal vill in which Alfred had been 
keeping his Christmas, " and most of the people they reduced, 
except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way 
... by wood and swamp, and after Easter he ... made a fort 
at Athelney, and from that fort kept fighting against the joe " 
(Chron.). The idea that Alfred, during his retreat at Athelney, 
was a helpless fugitive rests upon the foolish legend of the cakes. 
In reality he was organizing victory. By the middle of May his 
preparations were complete and he moved out of Athelney, 
being joined on the way by the levies of Somerset, Wilts and 
Hants. The Danes on their side moved out of Chippenham, and 
the two armies met at Edington in Wiltshire. The result was a 
decisive victory for Alfred. The Danes submitted. Guthrum, 
the Danish king, and twenty-nine of his chief men accepted 
baptism. By the next year (879) not only Wessex, but Mercia, 
west of Watling Street, was cleared of the invader. This is the 
arrangement known as the peace of Wedmore (878), though no 
document embodying its provisions is in existence. And though 
for the present the north-eastern half of England, including 
London, remained in the hands of the Danes, in reality the tide 
had turned, and western Europe was saved from the danger of 
becoming a heathen Scandinavian power. For the next few years 
there was peace, the Danes being kept busy on the continent. 
A landing in Kent in 884 or 88s, 1 though successfully repelled, 
encouraged the East Anglian Danes to revolt. The measures 
taken by Alfred to repress this revolt culminated in the capture 
of London in 885 or 886, and the treaty known as Alfred and 
Guthrum 's peace, whereby the boundaries of the treaty of 
Wedmore (with which this is often confused) were materially 
modified in Alfred's favour. Once more for a time there was a lull ; 
but in the autumn of 892 (893) the final storm burst. The Danes, 
finding their position on the continent becoming more and more 
precarious, crossed to England in two divisions, amounting in the 
aggregate to 330 sail, and entrenched themselves, the larger body 
at Appledore and the lesser under Haesten at Milton in Kent. 
The fact that the new invaders brought their wives and children 
with them shows that this was no mere raid, but a deliberate 

1 Where alternative dates are given the later date is that of the 
Saxon Chronicle. But the evidence of the Continental Chronicles 
makes it probable that the Saxon Chronicle is a year in advance of the 
true chronology in this part. 



ALFRED THE GREAT 



attempt, in concert with the Northumbrian and East Anglian 
Danes, to conquer England. Alfred, 893(894), took up a position 
whence he could observe both forces. While he was negotiating 
with Haesten the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck 
north-westwards, but were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son, 
Edward, and defeated in a general engagement at Farnham, 
and driven to take refuge in Thorney Island in the Hertford- 
shire Colne, where they were blockaded and ultimately compelled 
to submit. They then fell back on Essex, and after suffering 
another defeat at Benfleet coalesced with Haesten's force at 
Shoebury. Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at 
Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East 
Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed fort on 
the coast of North Devon. Alfred at once hurried westwards 
and raised the siege of Exeter; the fate of the other place is not 
recorded. Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march 
up the Thames valley, possibly with the idea of assisting their 
friends in the west. But they were met by a large force under 
the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wilts and Somerset, and 
forced to head off to the north-west, being finally overtaken and 
blockaded at Buttington, which some identify with Buttington 
Tump at the mouth of the Wye, others with Buttington near 
Welshpool. An attempt to break through the English lines was 
defeated with loss; those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. 
Then after collecting reinforcements they made a sudden dash 
across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of Chester. 
The English did not attempt a winter blockade, but contented 
themselves with destroying all the supplies in the neighbourhood. 
And early in 894 (895) want of food obliged the Danes to retire 
once more to Essex. At the end of this year<and early in 895 (896) 
the Danes drew their ships up the Thames and Lea and fortified 
themselves twenty miles above London. A direct attack on the 
Danish lines failed, but later in the year Alfred saw a means of 
obstructing the river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish 
ships. The Danes realized that they were out-manoeuvred. 
They struck off north-westwards and wintered at Bridgenorth. 

' The next year, 896 (897), they abandoned the struggle. Some 
retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia; those who had no 
connexions in England withdrew to the continent. The long 
campaign was over. The result testifies to the confidence inspired 
by Alfred's character and generalship, and to the efficacy of the 
military reforms initiated by him. These were (i) the division of 
the fyrd or national militia into two parts, relieving each other 
at fixed intervals, so as to ensure continuity in military operations; 
(2) the establishment of fortified posts (burgs) and garrisons at 
certain points; (3) the enforcement of the obligations of thane- 
hood on all owners of five hides of land, thus giving the king a 
nucleus of highly equipped troops. After the final dispersal of 
the Danish invaders Alfred turned his attention to the increase 
of the navy, and ships were built according to the king's own 
designs, partly to repress the ravages of the Northumbrian and 
East Anglian Danes on the coasts of Wessex, partly to pre- 
vent the landing of fresh hordes. This is not, as often asserted, 
the beginning of the English navy. There had been earlier naval 
operations under Alfred. One naval engagement was certainly 
fought under ^Ethelwulf (851), and earlier ones, possibly in 833 
and 840. Nor were the new ships a great success, as we hear of 
them grounding in action and foundering in a storm. Much, too, 
was needed in the way of civil re-organization, especially in the 

. districts ravaged by the Danes. In the parts of Mercia acquired 
by Alfred, the shire system seems now to have been introduced 
for the first time. This is the one grain of truth in the legend 
that Alfred was the inventor of shires, hundreds and tithings. 
The finances also would need careful attention; but the subject 
is obscure, and we cannot accept Asser's description of Alfred's 
appropriation of his revenue as more than an ideal sketch. 
Alfred's care for the administration of justice is testified both by 
history and legend; and the title " protector of the poor " was 
his by unquestioned right. Of the action of the witenagemot we 
do not hear very much under Alfred. That he was anxious to 
respect its rights is conclusively proved, but both the circum- 
nces of the time and the character of the king would tend to 



. 



throw more power into his hands. The legislation of Alfred 
probably belongs to the later part of the reign, after the pressure 
of the Danes had relaxed. The details of it cannot be discussed 
here. Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign 
powers, but little definite information is available. He certainly 
corresponded with Elias III., the patriarch of Jerusalem, and 
probably sent a mission to India. Embassies to Rome conveying 
the English alms to the pope were fairly frequent; while Alfred's 
interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he 
made in his translation of Orosius. His relations to the Celtic 
princes in the southern half of the island are clearer. Com- 
paratively early in his reign the South Welsh princes, owing to 
the pressure on them of North Wales and Mercia, commended 
themselves to Alfred. Later in the reign the North Welsh 
followed their example, and the latter co-operated with the 
English in the campaign of 893 (894). The Celtic principality in 
Cornwall, which seems to have survived at least till 926, must 
long have been practically dependent on Wessex. That Alfred 
sent alms to Irish as well as to continental monasteries may be 
accepted on Asser's authority; the visit of the three pilgrim 
" Scots " (i.e. Irish) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic; 
the story that he himself in his childhood was sent to Ireland to 
be healed by St Modwenna, though mythical, may point to 
Alfred's interest in that island. The history of the church under 
Alfred is most obscure. The Danish inroads had told heavily 
upon it; the monasteries had been special points of attack, and 
though Alfred founded two or three monasteries and imported 
foreign monks, there was no general revival of monasticism under 
him. To the ruin of learnmg and education wrought by the 
Danes, and the practical extinction of the knowledge of Latin 
even among the clergy, the preface to Alfred's translation of 
Gregory's Pastoral Care bears eloquent testimony. It was to 
remedy these evils that he established a court school, after the 
example of Charles the Great; for this he imported scholars like 
Grimbald and John the Saxon from the continent and Asser 
from South Wales; for this, above all, he put himself to school, 
and made the series of translations for the instruction of his 
clergy and people, most of which still survive. These belong 
unquestionably to the later part of his reign, not improbably to 
the last four years of it, during which the chronicles are almost 
silent. Apart from the lost Handboc or Encheiridion, which 
seems to have been merely a commonplace-book kept by the 
king, the earliest work to be translated was the Dialogues of 
Gregory, a book enormously popular in the middle ages. In this 
case the translation was made by Alfred's great friend Werferth, 
bishop of Worcester, the king merely furnishing a preface. The 
next work to be undertaken was Gregory's Pastoral Care, 
especially for the benefit of the clergy. In this Alfred keeps very 
close to his original; but the introduction which he prefixed to 
it is one of the most interesting documents of the reign, or indeed 
of English history. The next two works taken in hand were 
historical, the Universal History of Orosius and Bede's Ecclesi- 
astical History of the English People. The priority should 
probably be assigned to the Orosius, but the point has been much 
debated. In the Orosius, by omissions and additions, Alfred so 
remodels his original as to produce an almost new work; in the 
Bede the author's text is closely adhered to, no additions being 
made, though most of the documents and some other less inter- 
esting matters are omitted. Of late years doubts have been 
raised as to Alfred's authorship of the Bede translation. But 
the sceptics cannot be regarded as having proved their point. 
We come now to what is in many ways the most interesting 
of Alfred's works, his translation of Boethius' Consolation of 
Philosophy, the most popular philosophical manual of the middle 
ages."" Here again Alfred deals very freely with his original and 
though the late Dr G. Schepss showed that many of the additions 
to the text are to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the 
glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the 
work which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of his 
genius. It is in the Boethius that the of t-quoted sentence occurs: 
" My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life 
to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good 



584 



ALFRED OF SAXE-COBURG ALFRED 



works." The book has come down to us in two MSS. only. In 
one of these the poems with which the original is interspersed are 
rendered into prose, in the other into alliterating verse. The 
authorship of the latter has been much disputed; but probably 
they also are by Alfred. Of the authenticity of the work as a 
whole there has never been any doubt. The last of Alfred's 
wo rks is one to which he gave the title Bloslman, i.e. "Blooms" 
or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the Soliloquies of 
St Augustine, the remainder is drawn from various sources, and 
contains much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of 
him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting 
epitaph for the noblest of English kings. " Therefore he seems 
to me a very foolish man, and very wretched, who will not 
increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish 
and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear." 
Besides these works of Alfred's, the Saxon Chronicle almost 
certainly, and a Saxon Martyrology, of which fragments only 
exist, probably owe their inspiration to him. A prose version of 
the first fifty Psalms has been attributed to him; and the attri- 
bution, though not proved, is perfectly possible. How Alfred 
passed to " the life where all things are made clear "we do not 
know. The very year is uncertain. The arguments on the 
whole are in favour of 900. The day was the 26th of October. 
Alike for what he did and for what he was, there is none to 
equal Alfred in the whole line of English sovereigns; and no 
monarch in history ever deserved more truly the epithet of 
Great. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief original authorities for the reign of 
Alfred are the so-called Life by Asser (best edition by W. H. Steven- 
son, Clarendon Press, 1904) ; and the Saxon Chronicles (text and 
notes by Earle and Pfummer, 2 vols., Clar. Press, 1892-1899; 
parallel texts and translation, Thorpe, 2 vols., 1861, Rolls Series; 
translation alone, Joseph Stevenson in Church Historians of England, 
vol. ii., 1853). The above sketch is based mainly on C. Plummer's 
Life and Times of Alfred the Great (Clar. Press, 1902). Of earlier 
biographies that by Paul! is still of great value: Konig Alfred 
(Berlin, 1851); Eng. trans, by Thorpe (Bohn, 1853). Of recent 
works mention may be made of Alfred the Great, Chapters on his 
Life and Times, by various authors, edited by Alfred Bowker (1899) ; 
Earle, The Alfred Jewel (Clar. Press, 1901). 

For the bibliography of Alfred's works in general see Wulker, 
Grundriss zur Gesch. der angelsachsischen Litteratur, pp. 386-451 
(Leipzig, 1885). Only the more recent and accessible editions are 
mentioned here. Laws: The Legal Code of /Elfred the Great (M. H. 
Turk, Halle, 1893). (For the Anglo-Saxon laws as a whole see Lieber- 
mann, Gesetze der Angelsachsen, Halle, 1898-^1903. Earliereditions, 
Schmid, t 1 858; Thorpe, 1840.) Gregory's Dialogues: Hans Hecht, 
in Grein's Bibliothek der angels. Prosa (1900). Gregory's Pastoral Care : 
H. Sweet, for Early Eng. Text Society (1871-1872). (Dissertations by 
Wack and DeWitz,i889.) Orosius: Thorpe (in his translation of Pauh, 
U. S. 1853); Bosworth (1859); Sweet, E.E.T.S. (1883). (Disserta- 
tion: Scnelling, Konig Alfred's . . . Orosius, Halle, 1886.) Bede: 
T. Miller, for E.E.T.S. (1890); Prof. Schipper, in Grein's Bibliothek 
(U.S. 1899). Boethius: W. J. Seclgfield (Clar. Press, 1899); trans- 
lation by the same (1900). (Dissertation: G. Schepss, Archiv 
fur's Studium der neueren Sprachen, xciv. 14-160.) Blostman: 
First printed by Cockayne in the Shrine (1868-1869); reprinted, 
Englische Studien, xviii. ; new edition by Hargrove, Yale Studies 
in English, xiii. (1902); translation by the same, ib. xxii. (1904). 
(Dissertation: F. G. Hubbard, Modern Language Notes, ix. 322 ft.) 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: see above. Martyrology: Cockayne, in 
the Shrine, v.s. Psalter: Thorpe (Clar. Press, 1835). (Disserta- 
tions: for Alfred's authorship, Wichmann, Anglia, xi. 19 ff. ; against, 
J. D. Bruce, The Anglo-Saxon Version of the Book of Psalms, Balti- 
more, 1894.) (C. PL.) 

ALFRED ERNEST ALBERT, duke of Saxe-Coburg and 
Gotha, and duke of Edinburgh (1844-1900), second son 
and fourth child of Queen Victoria, was born at Windsor Castle 
on the 6th of August 1844. In 1856 it was decided that the 
prince, in accordance with his own wishes, should enter the 
navy, and a separate establishment was accordingly assigned 
to him, with Lieutenant Sowell, R. E., as governor. He passed 
a most creditable examination for midshipman in August 1858, 
and being appointed to the " Euryalus," at once began to work 
hard at the practical part of his profession. In July 1860, 
while on this ship, he paid an official visit to the Cape, and made 
a very favourable impression both on the colonials and on the 
native chiefs. On the abdication of Otto, king of Greece, in 
1862, Prince Alfred was chosen by the whole people to succeed 



him, but political conventions of long standing rendered it 
impossible for the British government to accede to their wishes. 
The prince therefore remained in the navy, and was promoted 
lieutenant on the 24th of February 1863 and captain on the 
23rd of February 1866, being then appointed to the command 
of the " Galatea." On attaining his majority in 1865 the prince 
was created duke of Edinburgh and earl of Ulster, with an 
annuity of 15,000 granted by parliament. While still in com- 
mand of the " Galatea " the duke started from Plymouth on the 
24th of January 1867 for his voyage round the world. On the 
nth of June 1867 he left Gibraltar and reached the Cape on the 
24th of July, and landed at Glenelg, South Australia, on the 3151 
of October. Being the first English prince to visit Australia, 
the duke was received with the greatest enthusiasm. During 
his stay of nearly five months he visited Adelaide, Melbourne, 
Sydney, Brisbane and Tasmania; and it was on his second 
visit to Sydney that, while attending a public picnic at Clonfert 
in aid of the Sailors' Home, an Irishman named O'Farrell shot 
him in the back with a revolver. The wound was fortunately 
not dangerous, and within a month the duke was able to resume 
command of his ship and return home. He reached Spithead 
on the 26th of June 1868, after an absence of seventeen months. 
The duke's next voyage was to India, where he arrived in 
December 1869. Both there and at Hong Kong, which he visited 
on the way, he was the first British prince to set foot in the 
country. The native rulers of India vied with one another in 
the magnificence of their entertainments during the duke's stay ' 
of three months. On the 23rd of January 1874 the marriage 
of the duke to the grand-duchess Marie Alexandrovna, only 
daughter of Alexander II., emperor of Russia, was celebrated 
at St Petersburg, and the bride and bridegroom made their 
public entry into London on the 1 2th of March. The duke still 
devoted himself to his profession, showing complete mastery of 
his duties and unusual skill in naval tactics. He was promoted 
rear-admiral on the 3oth of December 1878; vice-admiral, loth 
of November 1882; admiral, i8th of October 1887; and received 
his baton as admiral of the Fleet, 3rd of June 1893. He com-' 
manded the Channel fleet, 1883-1884; the Mediterranean fleet, 
1886-1889; and was commander-in-chief at Davenport, 1890- 
1893. He always paid the greatest attention to his official 
duties and was most efficient as an admiral. 

On the death of his uncle, Ernest II., duke of Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha, on the 22nd of August 1893, the vacant duchy fell 
to the duke of Edinburgh, for the prince of Wales had renounced 
his right to the succession. At first regarded with some coldness 
as a " foreigner," he gradually gained popularity, and by the 
time of his death, on the 3Oth of July 1900, he had completely 
won the good opinion of his subjects. The duke was exceedingly 
fond of music and an excellent violinist, and took a prominent 
part in establishing the Royal College of Music. He was also a 
keen collector of glass and ceramic ware, and his collection, 
valued at half a million of marks, was presented by his widow 
to the " Veste Coburg," near Coburg. When he became duke 
of Saxe-Coburg he surrendered his English allowance of 15,000 
a year, but the 10,000 granted in addition by parliament on 
his marriage he retained in order to keep up Clarence House. 
The duke had one son, who died unmarried on the 6th of 
February 1899, and four daughters. The third daughter, Princess 
Alexandra Louisa Olga Victoria, married the hereditary prince 
Ernest of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, who became regent of the 
duchy of Coburg during the minority of the deceased duke's 
nephew, the young duke of Albany, to whom the succession 
fell. (G. F. B.) 

ALFRED, a village in the township of Alfred, Allegany county, 
New York, U.S.A., about 75 m. S.W. of Buffalo. Pop. of the 
township, including the village (1900), 1615; (1910 U. 
census) 1590. Pop. of the village (1900) 756; (1910 U. S. census) 
759. The township is served, at Alfred station, by the 
Erie railway. The village, which is connected by stage with 
the station, is situated at the junction of two valleys and com- 
mands delightful views of mountain scenery. On the west slope 
of Pine Hill is Alfred University (co-educational), which embraces 



ALFRETON ALGAE 



585 



a college (non-sectarian), an academy (non-sectarian) and a 
theological seminary (Seventh-Day Baptist). Closely associated 
with it also, and under the management of the university 
trustees, is the New York State School of Clay- Working and 
Ceramics (IQOO), one of the most efficient schools of the kind 
in the country. In 1908 the legislature of New York appropri- 
ated $80,000 for the establishment of a state school of agricul- 
ture in connexion with the university. The institution had its 
beginning in 1836 in a private school. This developed into an 
academy, which in 1843 was incorporated as Alfred Academy 
and Teachers' Seminary; in 1857 the university was chartered 
under its present name. The principal industry of the village 
is the manufacture of roofing tiles. The township of Alfred lies 
within the territory purchased by Robert Morris in 1791. He sold 
it in the same year to a company resident in London, England. 
Their agent sold most of it to settlers and, it is said, named the 
township, when it was organized in 1806, in honour of Alfred 
the Great. The first settlement within its present limits was 
made in 1807. For several years most of the settlers were 
Seventh-Day Baptists, and in 1812 they organized a church 
here. The village of Alfred was chartered in 1887. 

J. S. Minard, Allegany County and Us People (Alfred, 1896). 

ALFRETON, a market town in the mid-parliamentary division 
of Derbyshire, England, 14 m. N. by E. of Derby, on the Midland 
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 17,505. It lies at a con- 
siderable elevation above the valley of a small stream tributary 
to the Derwent. The church of St Martin is Early English and 
later. The neighbourhood abounds in ironworks, collieries, 
quarries and potteries, and is thickly populated. To the north- 
east of Alfreton are South Normanton (pop. 5170), Blackwell 
(4144) and Tibshelf (3432); to the north Shirland (3929), to 
the south Ironville and other busy industrial villages. The 
foundation of Alfreton is traditionally ascribed to King Alfred. 

ALFUROS (ALFURES, HORAFORAS), a term of no ethnological 
value applied by the Malays to all the uncivilized non-Mahom- 
medan peoples in the eastern portion of the Malay Archipelago. 
Its origin is uncertain, but its meaning is " wild " or " un- 
civilized." The term is not restricted to the aborigines, but is 
far more frequently used to describe the tribes of Malayan 
blood. 

ALGAE. The Latin word alga seems to have been the 
equivalent of the English word " seaweed " and probably stood 
for any or all of the species of plants which form the 
" wrack " of a seashore. When the word " Algae " 
came to be employed in botanical classification as 
the name of a class, an arbitrary limitation had to be set to 
its signification, and this was not always in keeping with its 
original meaning. The absence of differentiation into root, 
stem and leaf which prevails among seaweeds, seems, for 
example, to have led Linnaeus to employ the term in the 
Genera Plantarum for a sub-class of Cryptogamia, the members 
of which presented this character in a greater or less degree. 
Of the fifteen genera included by Linnaeus among algae, not 
more than six viz. Chara, Fucus, Uha and Conferva, and in 
part Tremella and Byssus would to-day, in any sense in which 
the term is employed, be regarded as algae. The excluded 
genera are distributed among the liverworts, lichens and fungi; 
but notwithstanding the great advance in knowledge since the 
time of Linnaeus, the difficulty of deciding what limits to 
assign to the group to be designated Algae still remains. It 
arises from the fact that algae, as generally understood, do not 
constitute a homogeneous group, suggesting a descent from 
a common stock. Among them there exist, as will be seen 
hereafter, many well-marked but isolated natural groups, and 
their inclusion in the larger group is generally felt to be a 
matter of convenience rather than the expression of a belief in 
their close inter-relationship. Efforts are therefore continually 
being made by successive writers to exclude certain outlying 
sub-groups, and to reserve the term Algae for a central group 
reconstituted on a more natural basis within narrower limits. 

It is perhaps desirable, in an article like this, to treat of algae 
in the widest possible sense in which the term may be used, an 



Classifi- 
cation. 



indication being at the same time given of the narrower senses 
in which it has been proposed to employ it. Interpreted in this 
way, the place of algae in the vegetable kingdom may be shown 
by means of a table: 

C f Myxomycetes 

Thallophyta < Fungi 
Cryptogamia J I Algae 

Bryqphyta 
t Pteridophyta 



The Vegetable 
Kingdom 



Phanerogamia J Gymnosperms 
(_ Angiosperms 



Algae in this wide sense may be briefly described as the aggregate 
of those simpler forms of plant life usually devoid, like the rest 
of the Thallophyta, of differentiation into root, stem and leaf; 
but, unlike other Thallophyta, possessed of a colouring matter; 
by means of which they are enabled, in the presence of sunlight, 
to make use of the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere as a source 
of carbon. It is true that certain Bryophyta (Marchantiaceae, 
Anthoceroteae) possess a thalloid structure similar to that of 
Thallophyta, and are at the same time possessed of the colour- 
ing matter of the Green Algae. Their life-cycle, however, the 
structure of the reproductive organs and their whole organiza- 
tion proclaim them to be Bryophyta (q.v.). On the other hand, 
certain undoubted animals (Stentor, Hydra, Bonellia) are pro- 
vided with a green colouring matter by means of which they 
make use of atmospheric carbonic acid. A more important 
consideration is tte occasional absence of this colour in species, 
or groups of species, with, in other respects, algal affinities. 
Such aberrant forms are to be regarded in the same light as 
Cuscuta and Orobanchaceae, for example, among Phanerogams. 
As these non-green plants do not cease to be classed with other 
Phanerogams, so must the forms in question be retained among 
algae. In all cases the loss of the colouring matter is associated 
with an incapacity to take up carbon from so simple a compound 
as carbonic acid. 

It might be mentioned here that the whole group of the Fungi 
(q.v.) , wi th its many thousands of species, is now generally regarded 
as having been derived from algae, and the system of classifica- 
tion of fungi devised by Brefeld is based upon this belief. The 
similarity of the morphological characters of one group of fungi 
to those of certain algae has earned for it the name Phycomycetes 
or alga-fungi. 

Further discussion of the general characters of algae will be 
deferred in order to take a brief survey of the subdivisions of the 
group. For this purpose there will be adopted the classification 
of algae into four sub-groups, founded on the nature of the 
colouring matters present in the plant: 

I. CYANOPHYCEAE, or Blue-green Algae. 
II. CHLOROPHYCEAE, or Green Algae. 
III. PHAEOPHYCEAE, or Brown Algae. 
IV. RHODOPHYCEAE, or Red Algae. 

The merits and demerits of this system will appear during the 
description of the characters of the members of the several 
subdivisions. 

I. CYANOPHYCEAE. This group derives its name from the cir- 
cumstance that the cells contain in addition to the green colouring 
matter, chlorophyll, a blue-greencolouringmatterto which 
the term phycocyanin has been applied. To the eye, ' .". 
however, members of this group present a greater variety 
of colour than those of any other yellow, brown, olive, red, purple, 
violet and variations of all these being known. They undoubtedly 
represent the lowest grade of algal life, and their distribution rivals 
that of the Green Algae. They occur in the sea, in fresh water, on 
moist earth, on damp rocks and on the bark of trees. Certain species 
are regularly found in the intercellular spaces of higher plants ; such 
are species of Nostoc in the thallus of Anthoceros, the leaves of Azolla 
and the roots of Cycads. Many of them enter into the structure of 
the lichen-thallus, as the so-called gonidia. It is remarkable that 
species belonging to the Oscillatoriaceae are known to flourish in hot 
springs, the temperature of which rises as high as 8sC. 

The thallus may be unicellular or m ulticellular. When unicellular , 
it may consist of isolated cells, but more commonly the cells are held 
together in a common jelly (Chroococcaceae) derived from the outer 
layers of the cell-wall. The multicellular species consist of filaments, 
branched or unbranched, which arise by the repeated divisions of the 
cells in parallel planes, no formation of mucilage occurring in the 
dividing walls. Such filaments may not give rise to mucilage on the 






586 



ALGAE 



lateral surface either, in which case they are said to be free; when 
mucilage does occur on the lateral wall, it appears as the sheath 
surrounding either the single filament, or a sheaf of filaments of 
common origin. The mucilage may also form an embedding sub- 
stance similar to that of Chroococcaceae, in which the filaments lie 
parallel or radiate from a common centre (Rivulariaceae). The cells 
of the filament may be all alike, and growth may occur equally in 
all parts (Oscillatonaceae) ; or certain cells (heterocysts) may become 
marked off by their larger size and the transparency of their contents ; 
in which case growth may still be distributed equally throughout 
(Nostoc), or the filament may be attached where the heterocyst 
arises, and grow out at the opposite extremity into a fine hair 
(Rivulariaceae). An African form (Camptothrix), devoid of hetero- 
cysts and hair-like at both extremities, has recently been described. 
Branching has been described as " false " and " true." The former 
arises when a filament in a sheath, either in consequence of growth 
in length beyond the capacity of the sheath to accommodate it, 




B 



FIG. i. Cyanophyceae, variously magnified. 



A. Gloeocapsasp., colony in muci- 

lage. 

B. Phormidium sp., single fila- 

ment with hormogonium. 

C. Microcoleus sp., several fila- 

ments in common sheath. 



D. Nostoc sp., young colony-fila- 

ment with heterocysts. 

E. Scytonemasp., false branching. 

F. Rivularia sp. 

G. Stigonema sp., with hormo- 

gonium and true branching. 
H. Spirulina sp. 



(From Englcr and Pranil, P/lanzenlamilim, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.) 

or because of the decay of a cell, becomes interrupted by break- 
ing, and the free ends slip past one another. " True " branching 
arises only by the longitudinal division of a cell of a filament and 
the lateral outgrowth of one of the cells resulting from the division 
(Sirosiphonaceae). 

The nature of the contents of the cells of Cyanophyceae has given 
rise to considerable controversy. The cells are for the most part 
exceedingly minute, and are not easy to free from their colouring 
matters, so that investigation has been attended with great difficulty. 
Occupying as these algae do perhaps the lowest grade of plant life, 
it is a matter of interest to ascertain whether a nucleus or chromato- 
phore is differentiated in their cells, or whether the functions and 
properties of these bodies are diffused through the whole protoplast. 
It is certain that the centre of the cell, which is usually non-vacuo- 
lated, is occupied by protoplasm of different properties from the 
peripheral region; and A. Fischer has further established the fact 
that the peripheral mass, which is a hollow sphere in spherical cells, 
and either a hollow cylinder or barrel-shaped body in filamentous 
forms, must be regarded as the single chromatophore of the Cyano- 
phyceous cell. But what precisely is the nature of the central mass 
is still uncertain. Some investigators, such as R. Hegler, F. G. Kohl 
and E. \V. Olive, claim that this body is a true nucleus comparable 



with that of the higher plants. It is said to undergo division by a 
mitosis essentially of the same character, with the formation of a 
spindle and the differentiation of chromosomes. It is further stated 
by Olive that the chromosomes undergo longitudinal fission, and that 
for the same species the same number of chromosomes appear at 
each division. H. Wager speaks with greater reserve, acknowledg- 
ing, however, the central body to be a nucleus of a rudimentary- 
type, but devoid of nuclear membrane and nucleolus. He thinks 
it may possibly originate in the vacuolization of the central region, 
and the accumulation of chromatin granules therein. He finds no 
spindle fibres or true chromosomes, and considers the division direct, 
not indirect. With reference to the existence of a chromatophore, 
he with others finds the colouring matter localized in granules in the 
peripheral region, but does not consider these individually or in the 
aggregate as chromatophores. Among other contents of the cell, 
fatty substances and tannin are known. A curious adaptation seems 
to occur in certain floating forms, in the presence of a gas-vacuole, 
which may be made to vary its volume with varying pressure. There 
is evidence that the dividing wall of filamentous forms is deeply 
pitted, as is found to be the case in red algae. Reproduction is 
chiefly effected by the vegetative method. Asexual reproductive 
cells are not infrequent, but sexual reproduction even in its initial 
stages is unknown. Nor is motility by means of cilia known in the 
group. In the unicellular forms, cell-division involves multiplication 
of the plant. In all the multicellular plants of this group which have 
been adequately investigated, vegetative multiplication by means 
of what are known as hormogonia has been found to occur. These 
are short segments of filaments consisting of a few cells which dis- 
engage themselves from the ambient jelly, if it be present, in virtue 
of a peculiar creeping movement which they possess at this stage. 
After a time they come to rest and give rise to new colonies. True 
reproduction of the asexual kind occurs, however, in the formation 
of sporangia, particularly in the Chamaesiphpnaceae. Here the 
contents of certain cells break up endogenously into a great number 
of spores, which are distributed as a fine dust. Resting spores are 
also known. In these cases, certain cells of a colony of unicellular 
plants or of the filaments of multicellular plants enlarge greatly and 
thicken their wall. When unfavourable external conditions super- 
vene and the ordinary cells become atrophied, these cells persist 
and reproduce the plant with the return of more favourable con- 
ditions. The Oscillatoriaceae are capable of a peculiar oscillatory 
movement, which has earned for them their name, and which enables 
them to move through considerable distances. It is not clear how 
the movement is effected, though it has frequently been the subject 
of careful investigation. 

With the Cyanophyceae must be included, as their nearest allies, 
the Bacteriaceae (see BACTERIOLOGY). Notwithstanding the ab- 
sence of chlorophyll, and the consequent parasitic or saprophytic 
habit, Bacteriaceae agree in so many morphological features with 
Cyanophyceae that the affinity can hardly be doubted. 

A census of the Cyanophyceae. with their two main groups is 
given below: 

1. Coccogoneae 2 families, 29 genera, 253 species. 

2. Hormogoneae 6 families, 59 genera, 701 species. 

(Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, 1900.) 
II. CHLOROPHYCEAE. This group includes those algae in which 
the green colouring matter, chlorophyll, is not accompanied by a 
second colouring matter, as it is in other groups. It consists of 
three subdivisions Conjugatae, Euchlorophyceae and Characeae. 
Of these the first and last are relatively small and sharply defined 
families, distinguished from the second family, which forms the 
bulk of the group, by characters so diverse that their inclusion with 
them in one larger group can only be justified on the ground of 
convenience. Chlorophyceae include both marine and freshwater 
plants. 

Euchlorophyceae in their turn have been until recently regarded 
as made up of the three series of families Protococcales, Confervales 
and Siphonales. As the result of recent investigations by two 
Swedish algologists, Bohlin and Luther, it has been proposed to 
make a re-classification of a far-reaching nature. Algae are with- 
drawn from each of the three series enumerated above and con- 
solidated into an entirely new group. In these algae, the colouring 
matter is said to be yellowish-green, not strictly green, and con- 
tained in numerous small discoid chromatophores which are devoid 
of pyrenoids. The products of assimilation are stored up in the 
form of a fatty substance and not starch. A certain inequality in 
the character of the two cilia of the zoospores of some of the members 
of the group has earned for it the title Heterokontae, from the Greek 
KOVT(K, a punting-pole. In consonance with this name, its authors 
propose to re- name the Conjugatae ; Akontaeand Oedogoniaceae with 
a chaplet of cilia become Stephanokontae, and the algae remaining 
over in the three series from which the Heterokontae and Stephano- 
kontae are withdrawn become Isokontae. Conjugatae, Protococcales 
and Characeae are exclusively freshwater; Confervales and Siphon- 
ales are both freshwater and marine, but the latter group attains 
its greatest development in the sea. Some Chlorophyceae are terres- 
trial in habit, usually growing on a damp substratum, however. 
Trentepohlia grows on rocks and can survive considerable desicca- 
tion. Phycopeltis grows on the surface of leaves, Phyllobium anrl 
Phyllosiphon in their tissues. Gomontia is a shell-boring alga, 



ALGAE 




FIG. 2. Chlorophyceae, variously magnified. 
A. Chlamydomonas sp., unicellular ;c&r., chroma tophore; p. .pyrenoid; H. Oedogonium sp., intercalated growth by insertion of new piece(o) 



n., nucleus; p.v., pulsating vacuoles; e.s., eyespot 
BI. Volvox sp., with a, antheridia, and o, oogonia. 
B 2 . Volvox sp., surface view of a single cell showing connexions. 

C. Pandorina sp., a i6-celled colony. 

D. Hydrodictyon, a single mesh surrounded by 6 cells. 

E. Microspora sp., showing H-pieces in the wall. 

F. Entoderma sp., endophytic in Ectocarpus. 

G. Coleochaete sp., growing as a plate. 



leaving caps. 

K. Struvea sp., showing branches forming a net-work. 

L. Gaulerpa. sp., showing portion 'of axis with leaf-like and root- 
like appendages. 

M,. Chara sp., axis with leaf-like appendages and a branch. 

M 2 . Chara sp., apical region. 

N. Botrydium, a simple siphonaceous alga with root-like attachment. 

O. Acetabularia Mediterranea, mushroom-like calcareous siphona- 
ceous alga. 

(A, C, E, F, G, H, K, L, Mi t M2 from Engler and Prantl, Pftansenfamilien.by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann; B lt N from Vines, Students' Text Book o] Botany, by 
permission of Swan Sonnenschein and Co.; 62. D. O from Oltmanns, Morpholosie u. Biofagie der Algen, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) 



Dermatophyton grows on the carapace of the tortoise and Trichophilus 
in the hairs of the sloth. Certain Protococcales and Confervales exist 
as the gonidia of the lichenthallus. 

The thallus is of more varied structure in this group than in any 
other. In the simplest case it may consist of a single cell, which may 
remain free during the whole of the greater part of its txistence, 
or be loosely aggregated together withm a common mucilage, or be 
held together by the adhesion of the cell-walls at the surface of 
contact. These aggregations or colonies, as they are termed, may 
assume the form of a plate, a ring, a solid sphere, a hollow sphere, 
a perforate sphere, a closQd net, or a simple or branched filament. 
It is not easy in all cases to draw a distinction between a colony 
of planes and a multicellular individual. In a Volvox sphere, for 
example, there is a marked protoplasmic continuity between all the 
cells of the colony. The Ulyaceae, the thallus of which consists of 
laminae, one or more cells thick, or hollow tubes, probably represent 
a still more advanced stage in the passage of a colony into a multi- 
cellular plant. Here there is some amount of localization of growth 
and distinction of parts. It is only in such cases as Volvox and 
Ulvaceae that there is any pretension to the formation of a true 
parenchyma within the limits of the Chlorophyceae. In the whole 
series of the Confervales, the thallus consists of filaments branched 
or unbranched, attached at one extremity, and growing almost 

I wholly at the free end. The branches end in fine hairs in Chaeto- 
phoraceae. In Coleochaetaceae the branches are often welded into 
3. plate, simulating a parenchyma. In all Conjugatae and most 



Protococcales, and in the bulk of the Confervales, the thallus consists 
of a cell or cells, the protoplast of which contains a single nucleus. 
In Hydrodictyaceae, Cladophoraceae.SphaeropleaceaeandGomonti- 
aceae this is no longer the case. Instead of a single relatively large 



nucleus, each cell is found to contain many small nuclei, and is 
spoken of as a coenocyte. This character becomes still more pro- 
nounced in the large group of the Siphonales. Valoniaceae and 
Dasycladaceae are partially septate, but elsewhere no cellulose parti- 
tions occur, and the thallus is more or less the continuous tube from 
which the group is named. Yet the siphonaceous algae may assume 
great variety of form and reach a high degree of differentiation. 
Protosiphon and Botrydium, on the one hand, are minute vesicles 
attached to muddy surfaces by rhizoids; Caulerpa, on the other, 
presents a remarkable instance of the way in which much the same 
external morphology as that of cormophytes has been reached by a 
totally different internal structure. Many Siphonales are encrusted 
with lime like Corallina among Red Algae. Penicillus is brush-like, 
Halimeda and Cymopolia are jointed, Acetabularia has much the same 
external form as an expanded Coprinus, Neomeris simulates the 
fertile shoot of Equisetum with its densely packed whorled branches, 
and in Microdictyon, Anadyomene, Struvea and Boodlea the branches, 
spreading in one plane, become bound together in a more or less close 
network. Characeae are separated from other Chlorophyceae by 
a long interval, and present the highest degree of differentiation of 
parts known among Green Algae. Attached to the bottom of pools 
by means of rhizoids, the thallus of Characeae grows upwards by 
means of an apical cell, giving off whorled appendages at regular 
intervals. The appendages have a limited growth ; but in con- 
nexion with each whorl there arise, singly or in pairs, branches which 
have the same unlimited growth as the main axis. There is thus a 
close approach to the external morphology of the higher plants. 
The streaming of the protoplasm, known elsewhere among Chloro- 
phyceae, is a conspicuous feature of the cells of Characeae. 

The Chlorophyceae excel all other groups of algae in the magnitude 



588 



ALGAE 



and variety of form of the chlorophyll-bodies. In Ulva and Mesa- 
carpus the chromatophore is a single plate, which in the latter 
genus places its edge towards the incident light; in Spirogyra they 
are spiral bands embedded in the primordial utricle; in Zygnema 
they are a pair of stellate masses, the rays of which branch peri- 
pherally; in Oedogonium they are longitudinally-disposed anasto- 
mosing bands; in Desmids plates with irregular margins; in Clado- 
phora polyhedral plates; in Vaucheria minute elliptical bodies 
occurring in immense numbers. Embedded in the chromatophore, 
much in the same way as the nucleus is embedded in the cytoplasm, 
are the pyrenoids. Unknown in Cyanophyceae and Phoeophyceae, 
known only in Bangiaceae and Nemalion among Rhodophyceae, 
they are of frequent occurrence among Chlorophyceae, excepting 
Characeae. Sometimes several pyrenoids occur in each chloroplast, 
as in Mesocarpus and Spirogyra; sometimes only an occasional 
chloroplast contains pyrenoid at all, as in Cladophora. The pyrenoid 
seems to be of proVeid nature and gelatinous consistency, and to arise 
as a new formation or by division of pre-existing pyrenoids. When 
carbon-assimilation is active, starch-granules crowd upon the surface 
of the pyrenoid and completely obscure it from view. 

Special provision for vegetative multiplication is not common 
among Chlorophyceae. Valonia and Caulerpa among Siphonales 
detach portions of their thallus, which are capable of independent 
growth. In Caulerpa no other means of multiplication is as yet known. 
In Characeae no fewer than four methods of vegetative reproduction 
have been described, and the facility with which buds and branches 
are in these cases detached has been adduced as an evidence of 
affinity with Bryophyta, which, as a class, are distinguished by their 
ready resort to vegetative reproduction. 

With regard to true reproduction, which is characterized by the 
formation of special cells, the group Euchlorophyceae is characterized 
by the production of zoospores (Gr. f<?ov, animal, airopti, seed) ; 
that is to say, cells capable of motility through the agency of cilia. 
Such ciliary motion is known in the adult condition of the cells of 
Volvocaceae, but where this is not the case the reproductive cells are 
endowed with motility for a brief period. The zoospore is usually a 
pyrifprm mass of naked protoplasm, the beaked end of which where 
the cilia arise is devoid of colouring matter. A reddish-brown body, 
known as the eyespot, is usually situated near the limits of the 
hyaline portion, and in the protoplasm contractile vacuoles similar 
to those of lower animals have been occasionally detected. The 
movement of the zoospore is effected by the lashing of the cilia and 
is in the direction of the beak, while the zoospore slowly rotates on 
its long axis at the same time. Usually two cilia are present; in 
Botrydium and Hydrodictyon only one is present ; in certain species 
of Cladophora four; in Dasycladus a chaplet, and in Oedogonium 
a ring of many cilia. The so-called zoospore of Vaucheria is a 
coenocyte covered over with paired cilia corresponding in position to 
nuclei lying below. In all other cases, zoospores are uninucleate 
bodies. Zoospores arise in cells of ordinary size and form termed 
zoosporangia. In unicellular forms (Sphaerella) the thallus becomes 
transformed into a zoospprangium at the reproductive stage. In the 
zoosporangia of Oedogonium, Tetraspora and Coleochaete the con- 
tents become transformed into a single zoospore. In most cases 
repeated division seems to take place, and the final number is re- 
presented by some power of two. I n coenocy tic forms the zoospores 
would seem to arise simultaneously, probably because many nuclei 
are already present. The escape of zoospores is effected by the 
degeneration of the spprangial wall (Chaetophora) , or by a pore 
(Cladophora), a slit (Pediastrum) , or a circular fracture (Oedogonium). 
Zoospores are of two kinds: (l) Those which come to rest and ger- 
minate to form a new plant; these are asexual and are zoospores 
proper. (2) Those which are unable to germinate of themselves, but 
fuse with another cell, the product giving rise to a new individual ; 
these are sexual and are zoogametes (Gr. ftjjov, animal, and yaneTris, 
yaijitrii, husband, wife). When two similar zoogametes fuse, the 
process is conjugation, and the product a zygospore (Gr. fvy6f, 
yoke). Usually, however, only one of the fusing cells is a zoogamete, 
the other gamete being a much larger, resting cell. In such a case 
the zoogamete is male, is called an antherozoid or spermatozoid, 
and arises in an antheridium ; the larger gamete is an oosphere and 
arises in an oogonium. The fusion is now known as fertilization, 
and the product is an oospore. Reproduction by conjugation is 
also known as isogamy, by fertilization as oogamy. When zoospores 
come to rest, a new cell is formed and germination ensues at once. 
When zygospores and oospores are produced a new cell-wall is also 
formed, but a long period of rest ensues. All investigation goes to 
show that an essential part of sexual union is the fusion of the two 
nuclei concerned. It is interesting to know, on the authority of 
Oltmanns, that when the oosphere is forming in the oogonium of 
Vaucheria, there is a retrocession of all the included nuclei but one. 
That the antherozoid of Vaucheria contains a single nucleus had 
been inferred before. 

From a comparison of those Euchlorophyceae which have been 
most closely investigated, it appears probable that sexual repro- 
ductive cells have in the course of evolution arisen as the result of 
specialization among asexual reproductive cells, and that in turn 
oogamous reproduction has arisen as the result of differentiation 
of the two conjugating cells into the smaller male gamete and 
the larger male gamete. It would further appear that oogamous 



reproduction has arisen independently in each of the three main 
groups of Euchlorophyceae, viz. Protococcales, Siphonales and 
Confervales. Thus among Volvocaceae, a family of Protococcales, 
while in some of the genera (Chlpraster, Sphondylomorum) no sexual 
union has as yet been observed, in others (Pandorina, Chlorogonium, 
Stephanosphaera, Sphaerella) conjugation of similar gametes takes 
place, in others still (Phacotus, Eudorina, Volvox) the union is of the 
nature of fertilization. No other family of Protococcales has advanced 
beyond the stage of isogamous reproduction. Again, among Siphon- 
ales only one family (Vaucheriaceae)has reached the stage of oogamy, 
although an incipient heterogamy is said to occur in two other 
families (Codiaceae, Bryopsidaceae). Elsewhere among Siphonales, 
in those cases where reproductive cells are known, the reproduction 
is either isogamous or asexual. Among Confervales there is no family 
in which sexual reproductibn isogamy or oogamy is not known 
to occur among some of the component species, and as many as four 
families (Cylindrocapsaceae, Sphaeropleaceae, Oedogoniaceae, Coleo- 
chaetaceae) are oogamous. On these, as well as other grounds. 
Confervales are regarded as having attained to the highest rank 
among Euchlorophyceae. Although the phenomena attending 
isogamous and oogamous reproduction respectively are essentially 
the same in all cases, slight variations in both instances appear in 
different families, attributable doubtless to the independent origin 
of the process in different groups. Thus, although isogamy consists 
in typical cases of a union of naked motile gametes by a fusion which 
begins at the beaked ends, and results in the formation of an im- 
motile spherical zygote surrounded by a cell-wall, in Leptosira it is 
noticeable that the fusion begins at the blunt end ; in a species of 
Chlamydomonas the two gametes are each included in a cell-wall 
before fusion ; and in many cases, the zygote retains for some time 
its motility with the double number of cilia. Again, in oogamous 
reproduction, while in general only one oosphere is differentiated 
in the oogonium, in Sphaeroplea several oospheres arise in each 
oogonium; and while the oospheres usually contract away from 
the oogonial wall, acquiring for themselves a new cell-wall after 
fertilization, in Coleochaete the oosphere remains throughout in 
contact with the oogonial wall. The oosphere is in all cases fertilized 
while still within the oogonium, the antherozoids being admitted 
by means of a pore. There is usually distinguishable upon the 
surface of the oosphere an area free from chlorophyll, known as the 
receptive spot, at which the fusion with the antherozoid takes place ; 
and in many cases, before fertilization, a small mucilaginous mass 
has been observed to separate itself off from the oospnere at this 
point and to escape through the pore. In Coleochaete the oogonial 
wall is drawn out into a considerable tube, which is provided with 
an apical pore, and this tube has a somewhat similar appearance to 
the imperforate trichogyne of Florideae to be hereafter described. 
In certain species of Oedo'gonium minute male plantlets, known as 
dwarf males, become attached to the female plant in the neighbour- 
hood of the oogonia, thus facilitating fertilization. Indeed the genus 
Oedogonium exhibits a high degree of specialization in its reproduc- 
tive system, considering that its thallus has not advanced beyond 
the stage of an unbranched filament. 

Many Euchlorophyceae are endowed with both asexual and sexual 
reproduction. Such are Coleochaete, Oedogonium, Cylindrocapsa, 
Ulothrix, Vaucheria, Volvox, &c. In others only the asexual method 
is yet known. When a species resorts to both methods, it is gener- 
ally found that the asexual method prevails in the early part of the 
vegetative period and the sexual towards the close of that period. 
This is in consonance with the facts already mentioned that zoo- 
spores germinate forthwith, and that the sexually-produced cell or 
zygote enters upon a period of rest. It is known that zoogametes, 
which usually conjugate, may, when conjugation fails, germinate 
directly (Sphaerella). In rare cases the oosphere has been known 
to germinate without fertilization (Oedogonium, Cylindrocapsa). 
The germination of a zygospore or oospore is effected by the rupture 
of an outer cuticularized exosporium ; then the cell may protrude 
an inner wall, the endosporium, and grow out into the new plant 
(Vaucheria), or the contents may break up into a first brood of 
zoospores. It is held that in Coleochaete a. parenchyma results from 
the division of the oospore, from each cell f>( which a zoospore arises. 

Reproduction is also effected among Euchlorophyceae by means 
of aplanospores and akinetes. Aplanospores would seem to repre- 
sent zoospores arrested in their development; without reaching 
the stage of motility, they germinate within the sporangium. 
Akinetes are ordinary thallus cells, which on account of their 
acquisition of a thick wall are capable of surviving unfavourable 
conditions. Both aplanospores and akinetes may germinate with 
or without the formation of zoospores at the initial stage. 

Among Conjugatae reproduction is effected solely By means of 
conjugation of what are literally aplanospores. Among those 
Desmidiaceae which live a free life, two plants become surrounded 
by a common mucilage, in which they lie either parallel (Closterium) 
or crosswise (Cosmanum). Gaps then appear in the apposed sur- 
faces, usually at the isthmus; the entire protoplasts either pass out 
to melt into one another clear of the old walls, or partly pass out 
and fuse without complete detachment from the old walls. Among 
colonial Desmidiaceae, the break-up of the filament is a preliminary 
to this conjugation; otherwise the process is the same. The 
zygospore becomes surrounded with its own wall, consisting finally 






ALGAE 



589 



of three layers, the outer of which is furnished with spicular pro- 
minences of various forms. In Zygnemaceae there is no dissolution 
of the filaments, but the whole contents of one cell pass over by 
means of a conjugation-tube into the cavity of a cell of a neighbour- 
ing filament, where the zygospore is formed by the fusion of the two 




FIG. 3. Chlorophyceae, variously magnified. 

A. Spirogyra sp., in conjugation. E 3 . Coleochaete sp., zoospore. 

B. Zoospore of Pandorina. B 2 3 4, 

stages of conjugation. 

C. Ulpthrix sp., zoospores escap- 

ing. C 2 3, stages of con- 
jugation. 

Di. Oedogonium sp., oogonium 

at moment of fertilization 

with dwarf male attached. 

D 2 . Oedogonium sp., zoospore 

with crown of cilia. 
Ei. Coleochaete sp., with anthe- 

ridia and an oogonium. 
E 2 . Coleochaete sp., fertilized egg 
with investment of filaments. 
(AfromCooke, British Freshwater Algae, by permission of Kegan Paul, Trench, Trtibner 
andCo.;C, E, F, G,H, K from Engler and Prantl, by permission of WilhelmEngel- 
mann; BI from Vines, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein and Co.; Bg, D from 
Oltmanns, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) 

protoplasts. In these cases the activity of one of the gametes, and 
the passivity of the other, is regarded as evidence of incipient 
sex. In Sirogonium there is cell-division in the parent-cell prior 



i 2 3. Protosiphon, conjugation of 
zoogametes. 

G. Derbesia sp., zoospore with 
chaplet of cilia. 

Hi. Chara sp., oogonium and 
antheridium at a node on 
a lateral appendage. 

H 2 . Chara sp., antherozoid. 

Ki. Vaucheria sp., oogonium and 
antheridium before fertiliz- 
ation. 

K 2 . Vaucheria sp., after fertiliza- 
tion. 



to conjugation; and as two segments are cut off in the case of the 
active gamete, and only one in the case of the passive gamete, there 
is a corresponding difference of size, marking another step in the 
sexual differentiation. In Zygogonium, although no cell-division 
takes place, the gametes consist of a portion only of the contents of 
a cell, and this is regularly the case in Mesocarpaceae, which occupy 
the highest grade among Conjugatae. Some Zygnemaceae and 
Mesocarpaceae form either a short conjugating tube, or none at all, 
but the filaments approach each other by a knee-like bend, and the 
zygospore is formed at the point of contact, often being partially 
contained within the walls of the parent-cell. It would seem that 
in some cases the nuclei of the gametes remain distinct in the zygo- 
spore for a considerable time after conjugation. It is probable that 
in all cases nuclear fusion takes place sooner or later. In Zyg- 
nemaceae and Mesocarpaceae the zygospore, after a period of rest, 
germinates, to form a new filamentous colony; in Desmidiaceae its 
contents divide on germination, and thus give rise to two or more 
Desmids. Gametes which fail to conjugate sometimes assume the 
appearance of zygospores and germinate in due course. They are 
known as azygospores. 

The reproduction of Characeae is characterized by a pronounced 
oogamy, the reproductive organs being the most highly differ- 
entiated among Chlorophyceae. The antheridia and oogonia are 
formed at the nodes of the appendages. The oogonium, seated on 
a stalk cell, is surrounded by an investment consisting of five spirally- 
wound cells, from the projecting ends of which segments are cut off, 
constituting the so-called stigma. The oosphere is not differentiated 
within the wall of the oogonium, but certain cells known as wendungs- 
zellen, the significance of which has given rise to much speculation, 
are cut off from the basal portion of the parent-cell during its develop- 
ment. The antheridia are spherical orange-coloured bodies of very 
complex structure. The antherozoid is a spirally-coiled thread of 
protoplasm, furnished at one end with a pair of cilia. It much more 
resembles the antherozoids of Bryophyta and certain Pteridophyta 
than any known among other algae. The fertilized egg charged with 
food reserves rests for a considerable period, surrounded by its cortex, 
the whole having assumed a reddish-brown colour. On germination 
it gives rise to a row of cells in which short (nodal) and long (inter- 
nodal) cells alternate. From the first node arise rhizoids ; from the 
second a lateral bud, which becomes the new plant. This peculiar 
product of germination, which intervenes between the oospore and 
the adult form, is the proembryo. It will be remembered that in 
Musci, the asexual spore somewhat similarly gives rise to a protonema, 
from which the adult plant is produced as a lateral bud. The pro- 
embryonic branches of Characeae, one of the means of vegetative 
reproduction already referred to, are so called because they repeat 
the characters of the proembryo. 

Before leaving the Chlorophyceae, it should be mentioned that 
the genus Volvox has been included by some zoologists (Biitschli, 
for example) among Flagellata; on the other hand, certain green 
Flagellata, such as Euglena, are included by some botanists (for 
example, van Tieghem) among unicellular plants. A similar un- 
certainty exists with reference to certain groups of Phaeophyceae, 
and the matter will thus arise again. 

A census of the Chlorophyceae is furnished below: 

1. Confervoideae 12 families, 77 genera, 1021 species. 

2. Siphoneae-^-Q, families, 26 genera, 271 species. 

3. Protococcoideae 2 families, 90 genera, 342 species. 

4. Conjugateae 2 families, 33 genera, 1296 species. 

(De Toni's Sylloge Algarum, 1889.) 

5. Characeae 2 families, 6 genera, 181 species. 

(Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, 1897.) 
III. PHAEOPHYCEAE. The Phaeophyceae are distinguished by the 
possession of a brown colouring matter, phycophaein, in addition 
to chlorophyll. They consist of the following groups: Fucaceae, 
Phae&sporeae, Dictyotaceae, Cryptomonadaceae, Peridiniaceae and 
Diatomaceae. Of these the first three include multicellular plants, 
some of them of great size ; the last three are unicellular organisms, 
with little in common with the rest excepting the possession of a 
brown colouring matter. Fucaceae and Phaeosporeae are doubtless 
closely allied, and to these Dictyotaceae may be joined, though the 
relationship is less close. They constitute the Euphaeophyceae, and 
will be dealt with in the first place. 

Euphaeophyceae are almost exclusively marine, growing on rocks 
and stones on the coast, or epiphytic upon other algae. In tidal 
seas they range from the limits of high water to some distance 
beyond the low-water line. On the British coasts zones are observ- 
able in passing from high to low water mark, characterized by the 
prevalence of different species, thus: Pelvetia canaliculata, Fucus 
platycarpus, Fucus vesiculosus, Ascophyllum nodosum, Fucus serratus, 
Laminaria digitata. Some species are minute filamentous plants, 
requiring the microscope for their detection; others, like Lessonia, 
are of considerable bulk, or, like Macrocystis, of enormous length. 
In Fucaceae, Dictyotacea, and in Laminariaceae and Sphacelariaceae, 
among Phaeosporeae, the thallus consists of a true parenchyma; 
elsewhere it consists of free filaments, or filaments so compacted 
together, as in Cutleriaceae and Desmarestiaceae, as to form a false 
parenchyma. In Fucaceae and Laminariaceae the inner tissue is 
differentiated into a conducting system. In Laminariaceae the in- 
flation of the ends of conducting cells gives rise to the so-called 



59 



ALGAE 



trumpet-hyphae. In Nereocyslis and Macrocystis a zone of tubes 
occurs, which present the appearance of sieve-tubes even to the 
eventual obliteration of the perforations by a callus. While there 
is a general tendency in the group to mucilaginous degeneration of 
the cell-wall, in Laminaria digitals there are also glands secreting a 
plentiful mucilage. Secondary growth in thickness is effected by 
the tangential division of superficial cells. The most fundamental 
external differentiation is into holdfast and shoot. In Laminariaceae 
secondary cylindrical props arise obliquely from the base of the 
thallus. In epiphytic forms the rhizoids of the epiphyte often 
penetrate into the tissue of the host, and certain epiphytes are not 
known to occur excepting in connexion with a certain host ; but to 
what extent, if any, there is a partial parasitism in these cases has 
not been ascertained. In filamentous forms there is a differentiation 
into branches of limited and branches of unlimited growth (Sphace- 
laria). In Laminariaceae there is a distinction of stipe and blade. 
The blade is centrally-ribbed in Alaria and laterally-ribbed in 
Macrocystis. It is among the Sargassaceae that the greatest amount 
of external differentiation, rivalling that of the higher leafy plants, 
is reached. A characteristic feature of the more massive species is 
the occurrence of air- vesicles in their tissues. In Fucus vesiculosus 
they arise in lateral pairs; in Ascophyllum they are single and 
median ; in Macrocystis one vesicle arises at the base of each thallus 
segment; in Sargassum and Halidrys the vesicles arise on special 
branches. They serve to buoy up the plant when attached to the 
sea-bottom, and thus light is admitted into the forest-like growths 
of the gregarious species. When such plants are detached they are 
enabled to float for great distances, and the great Sargasso Sea of 
the North Atlantic Ocean is probably only renewed by the constant 
addition of plants detached from the shores of the Caribbean Sea 
and Gulf of Mexico. 

Growth in length is effected in a variety of ways. In Dictyota, 
Sphacelariaceae and Fucaceae there is a definite apical cell. In the 
first it is a biconvex lens, from which segments are continually cut 
off parallel to the posterior surface; and in the second an elongated 
dome, from which segments are cut off by a transverse wall. While, 
however, in Dictyota the product of the subsequent division in the 
segment enlarges with each subdivision, the divisions in the cylin- 
drical segment of Sphacelariaceae are such that the whole product 
after subdivision, however many cells it may consist of, does not 
exceed in bulk the segment as cut off from the apical cell. In 
Dictyotaceae the apical cell occasionally divides longitudinally, and 
thus the dichotomous branching is provided for. In some Sphace- 
lariaceae branches may appear at their inception as lateral pro- 
tuberances of the apical cell itself. In Fucaceae an apical cell is 
situate at the surface of the thallus in a slit-like depression at the 
apex. From this cell segments are cut off in three or four lateral 
oblique planes. 

A peculiar manner of growth in length is that to which the term 
trichothallic has been applied. It may readily be observed that in 
the hair-like branches of Ectocarpaceae, the point at which most 
rapid division occurs is situate near the base of the hair. In Des- 
marestia and Arthrocladia, lor example, it is found that the thallus 
ends in a tuft of such hairs, each of them growing by means of an 
intercalated growing point. In these cases, however, the portions 
of the hairs behind the growing region become agglutinated together 
into a solid cylindrical peeudo-parenchymatous axis. In Cutleria 
the laminated thallus is formed in the same way. The intercalated 
growing region of Laminaria affords an example of another variety 
of growth in Phaeophyceae. While the laminated portion of the 
thallus is being gradually worn off in our latitudes during the 
autumnal storms, a vigorous new growth appears at the junction 
of the stipe and the blade, as the result of which a new piece is 
added to the stipe and the lamina entirely renovated. 

Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur among Euphaeo- 
phyceae. Fucaceae are marked by an entire absence pfthe asexual 
method. The sexual organs oogonia and antheridia are borne 
on special portions of the thallus in cavities known as conceptacles. 
Both organs may occur in one conceptacle, as in Pelvctia, or each 
may be confined to one conceptacle or even one plant, as in Fucus 
vesiculosus. The oogonia arise on a stalk cell from the lining layer of 
the cavity, the contents dividing to form eight oospheres as in Fucus, 
four as in Ascophyllum, two as in Pelvelia, or one only as in Halidrys. 
It would seem that eight nuclei primarily arise in all Fucaceae, and 
that a number corresponding to the number of oospheres subse- 
quently formed is reserved, the rest being discharged to the periphery, 
where they may be detected at a late stage. On the maturation of 
the oospheres the outer layer of the oogonial wall ruptures, and the 
oospheres, still surrounded by a middle and inner layer, pass out 
through the mouth of the conceptacle. Then usually these layers 
successively give way, and the spherical naked oospheres float free 
in the water. The antheridia, which arise in the conceptacular 
cavity as special cells of branched filaments, are similarly discharged 
whole, the antherozoids only escaping when the antheridia are clear 
of the conceptacle. The antherozoids are attracted to the oospheres , 
round each of which they swarm in great numbers. Suddenly the 
attraction ceases, and the opsphere is fertilized, probably at that 
moment, by the entry of a single antherozoid into the substance of 
the oosphere; a cell-wall is formed thereupon, in some cases in so 
short an interval as five minutes. Remarkable changes of size and 



outline of the oosphere have recently been described as accompany- 
ing fertilization in Halidrys. Probably the act of fertilization in pfa^y 
has nowhere been observed in such detail as in Fucaceae. Diet 
taceae resemble Fucaceae in their pronounced oogamy. They dnw 
however, in being also asexually reproduced. The asexual cd 
are immotile spores arising in fours in sporangia from superncBJ 
cells of the thallus. In Dictyota the oospheres arise singly in oogooa. 
crowded together in sori on the surface of the female plant. ' 
antheridia have a similar origin and grouping on the male phac. 
Until the recent discovery by Williams of motility, by means of a 
single cilium, of the antherozoids of Dictyota and Taonia, they oe 
believed to be immotile bodies, like the male cells of red seaweed* 
In Dictyota the unfertilized oosphere is found to be capable of under- 
going a limited number of divisions, but the body thus form 
appears to atrophy sooner or later. 

Of the small family of the Tilopteridaceae our knowledge is a 
yet inadequate, but they probably present the only case of pro- 
nounced oogamy among Phaeosporeae. They are filamentous ton 
exhibiting, however, a tendency to division in more than one pbae, 
even in the vegetative parts. The discovery by Brebner of the 
specific identity of Haplospora globosa and Scaphospora specit 
marks an important step in the advance of our knowledge of d 
group. Three kinds of reproductive organs are known: r-r. 
sporangia, which each give rise to a single tetra-, or mnlti nirt m 
non-motile, probably asexual spore ; second, plurilocular spoca 
which are probably antheridia, generating antherozoids; and I 
sporangia, which are probably oogonia, giving rise to single 
nucleate non-motile oospheres. No process of fertilization mm ; 
yet been observed. 

The Cutleriaceae exhibit a heterogamy in which the female s 
cell is not highly specialized, as it is in the groups already desc 
From each locule of a plurilocular sporangium there is set free ; 
opsphere, which, being furnished with a pair of cilia, bmaims fa 
time. In similar organs on separate plants the much smaller anthei 
zoids arise. Fertilization has been observed at Naples ; but k : 
ently depends on climatic conditions, as at Plymouth the oo 
have been observed to germinate parthenogenetically. The > 
organs in the case of Cutleria multifida arise on a crustaceous f-.rm. 
Aglaozonia reptans, formerly considered to be a distinct species. They 
are unilocular, each producing a small number of zoospores. 

The possession of two kinds of reproductive organs, unilomfar 
and plurilocular sporangia, is general among the rest of the Pines- 
sporeae. Bornet, however, called attention in 1871 to the fact dot 
two kinds of plurilocular sporangia occurred in certain species d 
the genus Ectocarpus somewhat transparent organs of an oezafe 
tint producing small zoospores, and also more opaque organs of a 
darker colour producing relatively larger zoospores. On the d 
covery of another such species by F. H. Buffham, Batters in iSnz 
separated the three species, Ectocarpus secundus, E. fexammm 
E. Lebelii, together with the new species, into a genus, Gifoniu. 
characterized by the possession of two kinds of plurilocularsporaBpB- 
The suspicion that a distinction of sex accompanied this differeaoe 
of structure has been justified by the discovery by Sauvageam < 
undoubted fertilization in Giffordia secunda and G. fenestrata. 
conjugation of similar gametes, arising from distinct plurilocular 
sporangia, was observed by Berthold in Ectocarpus siliculonts aaA 
Scytosiphon lomentarius in 1880; and these observations have beea 
recently confirmed in the case of the former species by Sauvaga*. 
and in the case of the latter by Kuckuck. In these cases, howeve 
the potential gametes may, failing conjugation, germinate directrt 
like the zoospores derived from unilocular sporangia. The asaertiM 
of Areschoug that conjugation occurs among zoospores derived fraa 
unilocular sporangia, in the case of Diclyosiphon hippuroides, is mt 
doubt to be ascribed to error of observation. It would thus seem 
that the explanation of the existence of two kinds of sporangia. 
unilocular and plurilocular, among Phaeosporeae, lies in the I 
that unilocular sporangia are for asexual reproduction, and l 
plurilocular sporangia are gametangia potential or actual. It most. 
however, be remembered that so important a generalization m M 
yet supported upon a somewhat narrow base of observation, 
over, for the important family of the Laminariaceae only uniuJ 
sporangia are known to occur; and for many species of a 
families, only one or other kind, and in some cases neither kind, I 
hitherto been observed. The four species Ectocarpus stKcmlmi 
Giffordia secunda, Cutleria multifida and Haplospora globosa ! 
be taken to represent, within the Phaeosporeae, successive steps i 
the advance from isogamy to oogamy. 

The Peridiniaceae have been included among Flagellata n 
the title of Dinoflagellata. The majority of the species belong 
the sea, but many are found in fresh water. The thallus is uoimm 
spherical and unicellular, exhibiting a distinction between anti 
and posterior extremities, and dorsal and ventral surface* Tbe 
consists of a basis of cellulose, and in some cases readily breaks 
into a definite number of plates, fitting into one another like thej 
of the carapace of a tortoise; it is, moreover, often finely scuf~ 
or coarsely ridged and flanged. Two grooves are a constant 
of the family, one running_ transversely and another longitwfipnjf 
In these grooves lie two cilia, attached at the point of meeting OB 
dorsal surface. The protoplast is uninuclcate and vacuolate, ' 
contains rhromatophores ol a brownish colour. It is not clear a 



ALGAE 



59 1 




FlG. 4. Phaeophyceae, variously magnified. 



Halopteris, apical region. 

B. Chordaria sp., apical region showing so-called trichothallic growth. 

C. Dictyota sp., apical cells immediately after dichotomy. 

D. Cutleria sp., margin of thallus showing trichothallic growth. 

E. Halidrys, apical depression with leading cell. 

IMacrocystis sp., tubular elements from the medulla, with sieve-like 
transverse walls. 
Laminaria sp., hyphae with trumpet-like ends also from medulla. 
Elachistea sp., plurilocular sporanges. 




K. Ectocarpus sp., unilocular sporange. 

L. Ectocarpus stliculosus, female gamete surrounded by male gametes. 

a, b, c, d, e, stages of conjugation. 

M. Cutleria mullifida. a, antherozoids, b, a female gamete. 
N^ Fucus vesiculosus, young oogonium. 

Nj. Fucus vesiculosus, discharge of eight oospheres from oogonium. 
O. Laminaria sp., sporanges among paraphyses. 
P. Dictyota dichotoma, a sorus of oogonia. 
Q. Dictyota dichotoma, part of a sorus of antheridia. 

(A, B, C, D, E, H, L, M, P, from Engler and Pranti, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann; F, G, K. O, from Oltmanns, by permission of Gustav Fischer; 
Q, from The Annals o] Botany, by permission of the Clarendon Press; N t , N,, from Hauck, Metre sal gen, by permission of Eduard Kummer.) 



the brown colouring matter which is added to chlorophyll is identical 
with phycpphaein; two varieties of it have been termed phycopyrrin 
and peridinine. Certain species, such as Gymnodinium spirals, are 
colourless and therefore saprophytic in their method of nutrition. 
Multiplication takes place in some cases by the endogenous formation 
of zoospores, the organism having come to rest ; in others by longi- 
tudinal division, when the organism is still motile. No method of 

lal reproduction is known with certainty. 

'he Cryptomonadaceae also are unicellular, and live free or in 
Ionics. Each cell contains a flattened chromatophore of a brown 
or yellow colour. Hydrurus forms a branched gelatinous colony 
attached to stones in mountain streams. Chromophyton forms an 
eight-celled colony. Both plants multiply solely by means of zoo- 
spores. The Cryptomonadeae and Chromulineae are motile through 
the greater part of their life. CryptQmonas, when dividing in a 
mucilage after encystment, recalls tne condition in Gloeocystis. In 
Synura and Chromulina the cells form a spherical motile colony, 
recalling Volvocaceae. Chromulina is uniciliate, and is contained 
in a hyaline capsule. Like the Peridiniaceae, the Cryptomonadaceae 
have been included among Flagellata. They have no close affinity 
with Euphaeophyceae. Such colonial forms as Hydrurus and 
Phaeocystis are supposed, however, to indicate a stage in the passage 
to the multicellular condition. 

Jiatomaceae have long been recognized as plants. Together with 
diniaceae they constitute the bulk of marine plankton, and thus 
an important part in the support of marine animal life. They 
exhibit striking adaptations in these circumstances to the floating 

I it. (See DIATOMACEAE.) 
census of Phaeophyceae is given below : 
(i) Cyclosporinae (Fucaceae) 4 families, 32 genera, 347 species. 
(2) Tetrasporinae ( Dictyotaceae) I family, 17 genera, 1 30 species . 
(3) Phaeozoosporineae (Phaeosporeae) 24 families, 143 genera, 
571 species. 
(De Toni's Sylloge Algarum.) 
(4) Peridiniales 3 families, 32 genera, 167 species. 



to tni 
Di; 
Perid 
play 



(5) Cryptomonadaceae (including Chrysomonadaceae) 2 families, 

28 genera, 50-60 species. 

(6) Bacillariales (Diatomaceae) about 150 genera and 5000 

species, fossil and recent. 

(Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien.) 

IV. RHODOPHYCEAE, or FLORIDEAE. The members of this group 
are characterized by the possession of a red colouring matter, 
phycoerythrin, in addition to chlorophyll. There is, however, a 
considerable amount of difference in the shades of red which mark 
different species. The brightest belongs to those species which grow 
.near low-water mark, or under the shade of larger algae at higher 
levels; species which grow near high-water mark are usually of so 
dark a nue that they are easily mistaken for brown seaweeds. 
Rhodophyceae are mostly marine, but not exclusively so. Thorea, 
Lemanea, Tuomeya, Stenocladia, Batrachospermum, Balbiania are 
genera belonging entirely to fresh water; and Bangia, Chantransia, 
Caloglossa, Bostrychia and Delesseria contain each one or more 
freshwater species. Most of the larger species of marine Rhodo- 
phyceae are attached by means of a disc to rocks, stones or shells. 
Many are epiphytic on other algae, more especially the larger Phaeo- 
phyceae and Rhodophyceae. As in the case of epiphytic brown 
seaweeds, the rhizoids of the epiphyte often penetrate the substance 
of the supporting alga. Some Red Algae find a home in the gela- 
tinous substance of Flustra, Alcyonidium and other polyzoa, only 
emerging for the formation of the reproductive organs. Some are 
perforating algae and burrow into the substance of molluscan shells, 
in company with certain Green and Blue-green Algae. Some species 
belonging to the families Squamariaceae and Corallinaceae grow 
attached through their whole length and breadth, and are often 
encrusted with lime. The forms which grow away from the sub- 
stratum vary greatly in external configuration. In point of size the 
largest cannot rival the larger Brown Algae, while the majority 
require the aid of the microscope for their investigation. 

No unicellular Rhodophyceae are known, although a flagellate 
organism, Rhodomonas, has recently been described as possessed 



592 



ALGAE 



of the same red colouring matter. If the sub-group, Bangiaceae, 
be excluded, they may be said to consist exclusively of branched 
filaments. Growth in these cases takes place by means of an apical 
cell, from which successive segments are cut off by means of a 
transverse wall. The segment so cut off does not usually divide 
again by means of a transverse wall, nor indeed by a longitudinal 
wall which passes through the organic axis of the cell. New cells 
may be cut off laterally, which become the apical cells of branches. 
When the new cells grow no further, but constitute a palisading 
round the central cell covering its whole length, the condition 
is reached which characterizes the species of Polysiphonia, the 
4 ' siphons " of which may be regarded as one-celled branches. To the 
law that no subsequent transverse division takes place in segments 
cut off from the apical cell, there seem to be two exceptions: first, 
the calcareous genus Corallina, in the pliable joints of which inter- 
calated division occurs; and, second, the Nitophylleae, in which, 
moreover, median longitudinal division of axial cells is said to occur. 
Like the Fungi, therefore, the Red Algae consist for the most part 
of branched filaments, even where the thallus appears massive to 
the eye, and, as in the case of Fungi, this fact is not inconsistent 
with a great variety of external morphology. In the great majority 
the thallus is obviously filamentous, as in some species of Callitham- 
nion. In other species of that genus an apparent cortication arises 
by the downward growth of rhizoids, which are retained within the 
gelatinous wall of the axial cells. In Batrachospermum the whole 
system of branches are retained within a diffluent gelatinous sub- 
stance derived from the outer layers of the cell-walls. In other cases 
the mucilage is denser and the branches more closely compacted 
(Helminthora) . In such cases as Lemanea, the terminal cells of the 
lateral branches form a superficial layer which has all the appearance 
of a parenchyma when viewed from the surface. In Champia and 
allied genera, the cylindrical axis is due not to the derivatives of one 
axial filament, but of several, the growth of which is co-ordinated 
to form a septated tube. The branching of the thallus, which meets 
the eye in all these cases, is due to the unlimited growth of a few 
branches. When such a lateral branch overtops the main axis 
whose growth has become limited, as in Plocamium and Dasya, a 
sympodium is formed. For the most part the branching is mono- 
podial. Besides the differentiation into holdfast and shoot, and 
into branches of limited and branches of unlimited growth, there 
appear superficial structures of the nature of hairs. These are for 
the most part long, thin-walled, unicellular and colourless, and arise 
from the outer cells of the pseudo-cortex, or from the terminal 
cells of branches when the filaments are free. Among Rhodomelaceae, 
hair-like structures of a higher order are known. These arise from 
the axial cell, and are multicellular and branched. They soon fall 
off, and it is from the persistent basal cell that the branches of un- 
limited growth arise. Upon them also the reproductive organs arise 
in this family. It is not surprising, therefore, that they have been 
regarded as the rudiments of leaves. In Iridaea the thallus is an 
entire lamina; in Gallophyllis a lobed lamina; in Delesseria it is 
provided with midrib and veins, simulating the appearance of a leaf 
of the higher plants; in Constantinea the axis remains cylindrical, 
and the lateral branches assume the form of leaves. In the compact 
thalli a secondary development often takes place by the growth 
of rhizoid-like internal filaments. They present a hypha-like appear- 
ance, running longitudinally for considerable distances. It is not 
difficult in such compact species to distinguish between superficial 
cells, whose chief function is assimilation, subjacent cells charged with 
reserve material, and a core of tissue engaged in the convection of 
elaborated material from part to part. 

An interesting feature of the minute anatomy of Euflorideae, as the 
Red Algae, exclusive of the Bangiaceae, have been termed, is the 
existence of the so-called Floridean pit. When a cell divides it is 
found that there remains in the middle of the new wall a single large 
circular pit, which persists throughout the life of the cells, becoming 
more and more conspicuous with the progress of the thickening of 
the wall. These pits serve to indicate the genetic relationship of 
adjacent cells, when they form a compact pseudo-parenchyma, not- 
withstanding the fact that somewhat smaller secondary pits appear 
later between any contiguous cells. Protoplasmic continuity has 
been observed in the delicate membrane closing the pit. 

Vegetative multiplication occurs only sparingly in Rhodophyceae. 
Melobesia callithamnioides gives rise to multicellular propagula; 
Griffithsia corallina is said to give rise to new individuals, by detach- 
ing portions of the thallus from the base of which new attachment 
organs have already arisen. The spores of Monospora are by some 
regarded as unicellular propagula. Reproduction is both asexual 
and sexual. It is noteworthy that although all the members of the 
group are aquatic no zoospores are produced, a negative character 
common to them and the Blue-green Algae. As a rule the asexual 
cells, and the male and female sexual cells arise upon different plants, 
so that the species may be said to be trioecious. Numerous excep- 
tions, however, occur. Thus in Lemaneaceae asexual spores are 
unknown; in Batracho-spermum, Bonnemaisonia and Polysiphonia 
byssoides both kinds of sexual cells appear on the same plant; and 
in some cases the asexual cells may occur in conjunction with either 
the male or female sexual cells. The asexual cells are termed tetra- 
spores on account of the usual occurrence of four in each sporangium. 
What may be termed monospores, bispores and octospores, however, 



are not unknown. The sporangia may be terminal or intercalated. 
When they are confined to special branches such branches are 
spoken of as stichidia. The tetraspores may arise by the simultane- 
ous division of the contents of a sporangium, when they are arranged 
tetrahedrally, or they may arise by two successive divisions, in which 
case the arrangement may be zpnate when the spores are in a row, 
or cruciate when the second divisions are at right angles to the first, 
or tetrahedral when the second divisions are at right angles to the 
first and also to one another. Tetraspores are at first naked, but soon 
acquire a cell-wall and germinate without a period of rest. The 
male sexual cells are produced singly in the terminal cells of branches. 
They are spoken of as spermatia. Great numbers of antheridia are 
usually crowded together, when the part is distinguishable by the 
absence of the usual red colour. In Polysiphonia they cover the 
joints of the so-called leaves; in Chondria they arise on flattened 
disks; in the more massive forms they arise in patches on the ordinary 
surface; in a few cases (Gracilaria, Corallina, Galaxaura) they line 
the walls of conceptacle-like depressions. The female sexual cell is 
represented by the contents of a cell which is terminal on ordinary 
or specialized branches. This is the carpogonium; it consists of a 
ventral portion which contains a nucleus, but in which no oosphere 
is differentiated, and an elongated tubular portion known as the 
trichogyne, into which the cytoplasm extends. Fertilization is 
effected by the passive convection of a spermatium from the anthe- 
ridium to the trichogyne, to which it adheres, and to which it passes 
over its nucleus through an open communication set up at the point 
of contact. The nucleus then passes down the trichogyne and fuses 
with that of the egg. This fusion has been observed by Wille in 
Nemalion multifidim, and by Schmidle in Batrachospermum. It is 
singular that in the last-named species two nuclei occur regularly 
in the spermatium. The ventral portion of the carpogonium may 
be imbedded deep in the thallus in the massive species; the tricho- 
gyne, however, always reaches the surface. The first effect of 
fertilization is the occlusion of the trichogyne from the fertilized 
carpogonium. The subsequent course of development is character- 
istic of the Florideae. The carpogonium germinates forthwith, 
drawing its nourishment almost wholly from the parent plant. The 
ultimate product in all cases is a number of carpospores, but before 
this stage is reached the development is different in different sub- 
groups. In Batrachospermum filaments arise from the carpogonium 
on all sides; in Chantransia and Scinaia on one side only; in 
Helminthora the filaments are enclosed in a dense mucilage; in 
Nemalion, prior to the formation of the filaments, a sterile segment 
is cut off below ; In all these cases, however, the end-cells of the 
filaments each give rise to a carpospore, and the aggregate of such 
sporiferous filaments is a cystocarp. Again, in the family of the 
Gelidiaceae, the single filament arising from the carpogonium grows 
back into the tissue and preys upon the cells of the axis and larger 
branches, after which the end-cells give rise to carpospores and a 
diffused cystocarp is formed. In the whole group of the Crypto- 
nemiales the parasitism becomes more marked still. The filaments 
arising from the carppgonia grow into long thin tubes, which fuse 
with special cells rich in protoplasm contents ; and from these points 
issue isolated tufts of sporogenous filaments, several of which may 
form the product of one fertilized female cell. In Naccaria, one of 
the Gelidiaceae, it is observable that the ooblastema filament, as the 
tube arising from the fertilized carpogonium has been called, fuses 
completely with a cell contiguous to the carpogonium before giving 
rise to the foraging filaments already referred to. This is also the 
case among Cryptonemiales. In a whole series of Red Algae, the 
existence of a highly specialized auxiliary cell in the neighbourhood 
of the carpogonium is a characteristic feature. In the Gigartinales 
it is already differentiated previous to fertilization ; in Rhodymeniales 
it arises subsequent to fertilization. In the Gigartinales, the fila- 
ments which arise from the auxiliary c;ll may spread and give rise 
to isolated tufts of sporogenous filaments, as in the Cryptonemiales. 
In the Rhodymeniales a single tuft arises directly from the auxiliary 
cell. The carpospores are in all cases bright red naked masses of 
protoplasm when first discharged. They soon acquire a cell-wall, 
and germinate without a period of rest. When the cystocarps or 
segments of cystocarps are formed in the substance of a thallus, the 
site is marked merely by a swelling of the substance. When the 
cystocarp is produced externally, it may form a berry-like mas^ 
without an envelope, in which case it is known as a favella. In 
Rhodomelaceae there is a special urn-shaped envelope surrounding the 
sporogenous filaments. This is a ceramidium. 

The attachment of the cell of an ooblastema filament to a cell 
of the thallus may be effected by means of a minute pore, or the 
two cells may fuse their contents into one protoplasmic mass. In 
the latter case, and especially where the union is with a special 
auxiliary cell, it is of importance to know what happens to the nuclei 
of the fusing cells. Schmitz was of opinion that in the cases of open 
union there occurred a fusion of nuclei similar to that which occurs in 
the sexual union of two cells. He founded his generalization to a large 
extent upon the observation that in Gloeosiphonia capillaris two cells 
completely fuse, and that only one nucleus can be detected in the 
fused mass. Oltmanns has recently re-investigated the phenomena 
in this plant, among others, and has shown that the nucleus of the 
cell which is being preyed upon recedes to the wall and gradually 
atrophies. The nucleus of the ooblastema filament dominates the 



ALGAE 



593 




Polysiphonia sp., apical region showing leading cell and cutting 
off of pericentral cell. 

B. Polysiphonia sp., transverse section through a branch, and at 

o, mother-cell of tetraspores. 

C. Lomentaria sp., apex showing growth in length through co- 

ordinated growth of many filaments. 

Delesseria sp., showing apical region with leading cell. 

Chrysymenia uvaria, axis with swollen leaf-like appendages. 

Polyzonia sp., branch with leaf-like branches of limited growth. 

Callithamnion sp., tetrasporangium with spores arranged in a 

tetrad. 

H. Corallina sp., tetrasporangia with zonate arrangement of tetra- 
spores. 



FlG. 5. Rhodophyceae, variously magnified. 



K. Nemalion sp., carpogonial and antheridial branches. 

L. Batrachospermum sp., trichogyne with spermatia attached ; carpo- 
spores arising from" fertilized carpogonium. 

M. Polysiphonia sp., anthendium. 

N. Constantinea sp., with flattened leaf-like appendages. 

O. Dudresnaya coccinea, fusion of opblastema filaments with auxil- 
iary cells; a is an axial cell in transverse section with four 
appendages. 

P. Callithamnion corymbosum, a joint cell with carpogonial branch 
and a, b, two auxiliary cells. 

Q. Callithamnion corymbosum, fusion of products of fertilization with 
auxiliary cells, the nuclei of which a and b retire to the wall. 

R. Polysiphonia sp., section through young cystocarp. 



(A, C, D, E, F, G. H, K, L, M, P, Q, from Oltmanns, by permission of Gustav Fischer; B, X, O, R, from Engler and Prant], by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.) 



nass and from it all the nuclei of the carpospores are thus derived. 

There thus seems to be no justification for believing, as Schmitz 

aught, that a second sexual act occurs in the life-cycle of these 

?lorideae. 
The Bangiales are a relatively small group of Red Algae, to which 

luch of the description now given does not apply. Structurally 
they are either a plate of cells, as in Porphyra, or filaments, as in 
Bangia. There is no exclusive apical growth, and the cells divide 

i all directions. The characteristic pit is also absent. Sexual and 
xual reproduction prevail. The male cell is a spermatium, but 
the female cell bears no such receptive trichogyne as occurs in other 
Rhodophyceae. After fertilization the equivalent of the oospore 
divides directly to form a group of carpospores. There is thus a 
ertain resemblance to Euflorideae, but sufficient difference to necessi- 

ate their being grouped apart. Fertilization by means of non-motile 
spermatia and a trichogyne are known among the Fungi in the 
families Collemaceae and Laboulbeniaceae. 

A census of Rhodophyceae is furnished below: 

(1) Bangiaceae 4 families, 9 genera, 58 species. 

(2) Nemalioninae 4 families, 33 genera, 343 species. 

(3) Gigartininae 3 families, 54 genera, 409 species. 

(4) Rhodymeninae -4 families, 92 genera, 602 species. 

(De Toni's Sylloge Algarum, 1897.) 

After this survey of the four groups comprised under Algae 
it is easier to indicate the variations in the limits of the class as 
defined by different authorities. To consider the Cyanophyceae 



first, either the marked contrast in the method of nutrition of 
the generally colourless Bacteriaceae to that of the blue-green 
Cyanophyceae is regarded as sufficient ground for 
excluding Bacteriaceae from algae altogether, notwith- theaigae. 
standing their acknowledged morphological affinity 
with Cyanophyceae, or, in recognition of the incongruity of 
effecting such a separation, the whole group of the Schizophyta 
that is to say, the Cyanophyceae in the narrow sense, together 
with Bacteriaceae, is included or excluded together. Again, 
while Conjugatae may be shut out from Chlorophyceae as an 
independent group co-ordinate with them in rank, the Characeae 
constitute so aberrant a group that it has even been proposed 
to raise them as Charophyta to the dignity of a main division 
co-ordinate with Thallophyta. Similarly, while Diatomaceae 
may be excluded from among Phaeophyceae, though retained 
among algae, the Cryptomonadaceae and Peridiniaceae, like 
Euglena and other Chlorophyceae, may be excluded from 
Thallophyta and ranged among the flagellate Protozoa. It is 
doubtful, however, whether the conventional distinction between 
plants and animals will continue to be urged; and the suggestion 
of Haeckel that a class Protista should be established to receive 
the forms exhibiting both animal and plant affinities has much 



594 



ALGAE 



to recommend it on phylogenetic grounds. To adopt a figure, 
it is probable that the sources from which the two streams of 
life animal and vegetable spring may not be separable by a 
well-defined watershed at all, but consist of a great level upland, 
in which the waterways anastomose. Finally, while Chloro- 
phyceae and Phaeophyceae exhibit important affinities, the 
Rhodophyceae are so distinct that the term "algae" cannot be 
made to include them, except when used in its widest sense. 

It has been well said that the attempt to classify plants 
according to their natural affinities is an attempt to construct 
Pb logeay ^ or tnem ^ e genealogical tree by which their relation- 
' ships can be traced. Algae are, however, so hetero- 
geneous a class, of which the constituent groups are so 
inadequately known, that it is at present futile to endeavour 
thus to exhibit their pedigree. A synoptical representation of 
the present state of knowledge would be expressed by a network 
rather than by a tree. The following table is an adaptation of a 
scheme devised by Klebs, and indicates the inter-relationships 



PHOT 

Flagel 
proton 


>ZOA 

lata / 
lastigina... 


Peridiniaceae Diatomaceae 
jCryi>tomonadaceae Hydruraceae EUPHAEOPHYOEAE 


...Bacteriaceae 




Tboreaceae 


Eug 
Chic 
Voli 
Teti 


eneae 


CYANOPHYCEAE. 

t 


Bangiaceae- 


-El'FLORIDEAE 


romonadinae 1'leurococcaceae Endosphaeraceae 
rocaeeae ^^CUlorosphaeraceatf'CoxjUGATAE 
asporaceae^ Ulvaceae- CONFE^VALES:'. . . 


JSII'HONALES 
.CHARACEAK 



of the various constituent groups. The area included in the 
thick boundary line represents algae in the widest sense in 
which the term is used, and the four included areas the four 
main subdivisions. A continuous line indicates a close affinity, 
and a dotted line a doubtful relationship. 

In comparing algae with the great archegoniate series which 
has doubtless sprung from them, it is natural to inquire to what 
extent, if any, they present evidence of the existence 
tne marke d alternation of generations which 
tioas. dominates the life-history of the higher plants. Turn- 
ing first to the Rhodophyceae, both on account of the 
high place which they occupy among algae and also the remark- 
able uniformity in their reproductive processes, it is clear that, 
as is the case among Archegoniatae, the product of the sexual 
act never germinates directly into a plant which gives rise to the 
sexual organs. Even among Bangiaceae the carpospores arise 
from the fertilized cell by division, while in all other Rhodo- 
phyceae the oospore, as it may be called, gives rise to a fila- 
mentous structure, varying greatly in its dimensions, epiphytic, 
and to a large extent parasitic upon the egg-bearing parent 
plant, and in the end giving rise to carpospores in the terminal 
cells of certain branches. There is here obviously a certain 
parallelism with the case of Bryophyta, where the sporogonium 
arising from the oospore is epiphytic and partially parasitic 
upon the female plant, and always culminates in the production 
of spores. Not even Riccia, with its rudimentary sporogonium, 
has so simple a corresponding stage as Bangia, for, while there is 
some amount of sterile tissue in Riccia, in Bangia the oospore 
completely divides to form carpospores. Excluding Bangiaceae, 
however, from consideration, the Euflorideae present in the 
product of the development of the oospore like Bryophyta a 
structure partly sterile and partly fertile. There is, nevertheless, 
this important difference between the two cases. While the 
spore of Bryophyta on germination gives rise to the sexual 
plant, the carpospore of the alga may give rise on germination 
to a plant bearing a second sort of asexual cells, viz. the tetra- 
spores, and the sexual plant may only be reached after a series 



of such plants have been successively generated. It is possible, 
however, that' the tetraspore formation should be regarded as 
comparable with the prolific vegetative reproduction of Bryo- 
phyta, and in favour of this view there is the fact that the 
tetraspores originate on the thallus in a different way from 
carpospores with which the spores of Bryophyta are in the 
first place to be compared; moreover, in certain Nemalionales 
the production of tetraspores does not occur,' and the difficulty 
referred to does not arise in such cases. Altogether it is difficult 
on morphological grounds to resist the conclusion that Florideae 
present the same fundamental phenomenon of alternation of 
generations as prevails in the higher plants. It is by means of 
the cytological evidence, however, that this problem will finally 
be solved. As is well known, the dividing nuclei of the cells of 
the sporophyte generation of the higher plants exhibit a double 
number of chromosomes, while the dividing nuclei of the cells 
of the gametophyte generation exhibit the single number. In a 
fern-plant, for example, which is a sporophyte, every karyokinesis 
divulges the double number, while in the prothallium, 
which is the gametophyte generation, the single number 
appears. The doubling process is provided by the act 
of fertilization, where an antherozoid with the single 
number of chromosomes fuses with an oosphere also 
with the single number to provide a fertilized egg with 
the double number. The reduction stage, on the other 
hand, is the first division of the mother-cell of the 
spore. From egg to spore-mother-cell is sporophyte; 
from spore-mother-cell to egg is gametophyte. And 
since this rule has been found to hold good for all the 
archegoniate series and also for the flowering plants 
where, however, the gametophyte generation has become 
so extremely reduced as to be only with difficulty dis- 
cerned, it is natural that when alternation of generation 
is stated to occur in any group of Thallophyta it should 
be required that the cytological evidence should support 
the view. The genus Nemalion has been recently investigated 
by Wolfe with the object of examining the cytological evidence. 
He finds that eight chromosomes appear in karyokinesis in the 
ordinary thallus cells, but sixteen in the gonimoblast filaments 
derived from the fertilized carpogonium. Eight chromosomes 
appear again in the ultimate divisions which give rise to the 
carpospores. Upon the evidence it would seem therefore that 
so far as Nemalion is concerned an alternation occurs comparable 
with that existing in the lower Bryophyta where the sporophyte 
is relatively small, being attached to and to some extent parasitic 
upon the gametophyte. Nemalion is, however, one of those 
Florideae in which tetraspores do not occur. What is the case 
with those Florideae which have been described as trioecious? 
If the sporophyte generation is confined to the cystocarp, is the 
tetrasporiferous plant, as has been suggested, merely a potential 
gametophyte reproducing by a process analogous to the bud- 
formation of the Bryophyta? In answer to this question a 
recent writer, Yamanouchi, states in a preliminary communica- 
tion that he has found that in Polysiphonia molacea the germinat- 
ing carpospores exhibit forty chromosomes, and the germinating 
tetraspores twenty chromosomes. From this it would seem 
that in this plant reduction takes place in the tetraspore mother- 
cell, and that the tetrasporiferous plants are sporophytes which 
alternate with sexual plants. Novel as this result may seem, 
the tetraspores of Florideae become hereby comparable with 
the tetraspores of Dictyota, to which reference will be made 
hereafter. But it is clear that it becomes on this view increas- 
ingly difficult to explain the occasional occurrence of tetraspores 
on male, female and monoecious plants or the role of the 
carpospores in the life-cycle of Florideae. The results of future 
research on the cytology of the group will be awaited with 
interest. 

Among Phaeophyceae it is well known that the oospore of 
Fucaceae germinates directly into the sexual plant, and there is 
thus only one generation. Moreover, it is known that the re- 
duction in the number of chromosomes which occurs at the 
initiation of the gametophyte generation in Pteridophyta occurs 



ALGAE 



595 



in the culminating stage of Fucus, where the oogonium is 
. separated from the stalk-cell, so that unless it be contended 
that the Fucus is really a sporophyte which does not pro- 
duce spores, and that the gametophyte is represented merely 
by the oogonium and antheridium, there is no semblance of 
alternation of generation in this case. The only case among 
Phaeophyceae which has been considered to point to the existence 
of such a phenomenon is Cutleria. Here the asexual cells are 
borne upon the so-called Aglaozonia reptans and the sexual cells 
upon the plants known as Cutleria. The spores of the A glaozonia 
form are known to give rise to sexual plants, and the oospore of 
Cutleria has been observed to grow into rudimentary Aglaozonia. 
Latterly, however, as the result of the cytological investigations 
of Mottier and Lloyd Williams, great advance has been made in 
our knowledge of the conditions existing in Dictyota. Mottier 
first observed that a reduction in the number takes place in the 
mother-cells of the tetraspore. It will be remembered that, as 
in most Florideae, the male, female and asexual plants are 
distinct in this genus. Mottier's observation has been confirmed 
by Lloyd Williams, who has shown, moreover, that the single 
number occurs in germlings from the tetraspore, and also in the 
adult stages of all sexual plants, while the double number occurs 
in germlings from the oospore, and in adult stages of all asexual 
plants. It is probable, therefore, that we have here a sharp 
alternation of generations, both generations being, however, 
precisely similar to the eye up to point of reproduction. Among 
Chlorophyceae it is often the case that the oospore on germina- 
tion divides up directly to form a brood of zoospores. In 
Coleochacte this seems to be preceded by the formation of a 
minute parcnchymatous mass, in each cell of which a zoospore 
is produced. In Sphaeroplea it is only at this stage that 
zoospores are formed at all; but in most cases, such as 
Oedogonium, Ulothrix, Coleochaete, similar zoospores are pro- 
duced again and again upon the thallus, and the product of 
the oospore may be regarded as merely a first brood of a series. 
It has been held by some, however, that the first brood corre- 
sponds to the sporophyte generation of the higher plants, and 
that the rest of the cycle is the gametophyte generation. Were 
the case of Sphaeroplea to stand alone, the phenomenon might 
perhaps be regarded as an alternation of generations, but still 
only comparable with the case of Bangia, and not the case of the 
Florideae. But it is difficult to apply such a term at all to those 
cases in which there intervene between the oospore and the next 
sexual stage a series of generations, the zoospores of which are 

r precisely similar. 
The difficulty of tracing the relationships of algae is largely 
due to the inadequacy of our knowledge of the conditions under 
which they pass through the critical stages of their 

' h , life-cycle. Of the thousands of species which have 
morpnism. ... . , . , 

been distinguished, relatively few have been traced 
from spore to spore, as the flowering plants have been observed 
from seed to seed. The aquatic habit of most of the species and 
the minute size of many of them are difficulties which do not 
exist in the case of most seed-plants. From the analogy of the 
higher plants observers have justly argued that when they have 
seen and marked the characters of the reproductive organs they 
have found the plant at the stage when it exhibits its most note- 
worthy features, and they have named and classified the species 
in accordance with these observations. While even in such cases 
it is obvious that interesting stages in the life of the plant may 
escape notice altogether, in the cases of those plants the repro- 
duction of which is unknown, and which have been named and 
placed on the analogy of the vegetative parts alone, there is 
considerable danger that a plant may be named as a distinct 
species which is only a stage in the life of another distinct and 
perhaps already known species. To take an example, Lemanea 
and Batrachospermum are Florideae which bear densely-whorled 
branches, but which, on the germination of the carpospore, give 
rise to a laxly-filamentous, somewhat irregularly-branched plant, 
from which the ordinary sexual plants arise at a later stage. 
This filamentous structure has been attributed to the genus 

(tanlransia, which it greatly resembles, especially when, as is 
' 



said to be the case in Batrachospermum, it bears similar mono- 
spores. The true Chantransia, however, bears its own sexual 
organs as well as monospores. To the specific identity of 
Haplospora globosa and Scaphospora speciosa, and of Cutleria 
mullifida and A glaozonia reptans, reference has already been made. 
Again, many Green Algae some unicellular, like Sphaerella and 
Chlamydomonas; some colonial forms, like Volvox and Hormotila: 
some even filamentous forms, like Ulothrix and Stigeoclonium 
are known to pass into a condition resembling that of a Palmella, 
and might escape identification on this account. 

It is, on the other hand, a danger in the opposite sense to 
conclude that all Chantransia species are stages in the life-cycle 
of other plants, and, similarly, that all irregular colonial forms, 
like Palmella, represent phases in the life of other Green Algae. 
Long ago Kutzing went so far as to express the belief that the 
lower algae were all capable of transformations into higher forms, 
even into moss-protonemata. Later writers have also thought 
that in all four groups of algae transformations of a most far- 
reaching character occur. Thus Borzi finds that Protoderma 
oiride passes through a series of changes so varied that at different 
times it presents the characters of twelve different genera. 
Chodat does not find so general a polymorphism, but neverthe- 
less holds that Raphidium passes through stages represented by 
Protococcus, Characium, Dactylococcus and Sciadium. Klebs has, 
however, recently canvassed the conclusions of both these in- 
vestigators; and as the result of his own observations declares 
that algae, so far from being as polymorphic as they have been 
described, vary only within relatively narrow limits, and present 
on the whole as great fixity as the higher plants. It certainly 
supports his view to discover, on subjecting to a careful investiga- 
tion Botrydium granulatum, a siphonaceous alga whose varied 
forms had been described by J. Rostafinski and M. Woronin, 
that these authors had included in the life-cycle stages of a 
second alga described previously by Kutzing, and now described 
afresh by Klebs as Protosiphon botryoides. In Botrydium the 
chromatophores are small, without pyrenoids, and oil-drops are 
present; in Protosiphon the chromatophores form a net- work 
with pyrenoids, and the contents include starch. Klebs insists 
that the only solution of such problems is the subjection of the 
algae in question to a rigorous method of pure culture. It is 
interesting to learn that G. Senn, pursuing the methods described 
by Klebs, has confirmed Chodat's observation of the passage 
of Raphidium into a Dactylococcus-stage, although he was unable 
to observe further metamorphosis. He has also seen Pleurococcus 
viridis dividing so as to form a filament, but has not succeeded 
in seeing the formation of zoospores as described by Chodat. 
While, therefore, there is much evidence of a negative character 
against the existence of an extensive polymorphism among algae, 
some amount of metamorphosis is known to occur. But until 
the conditions under which a particular transformation takes 
place have been ascertained and described, so that the observa- 
tion may be repeated by other investigators, scant credence is 
likely to be given to the more extreme polymorphistic views. 

In comparison with the higher plants, algae exhibit so much 
simplicity of structure, while the conditions under which they 
grow are so much more readily controlled, that they 
have frequently been the subject of physiological 
investigation with a view chiefly to the application 
of the results to the study of the higher plants. (See PLANTS: 
Physiology of.) In the literature of vegetable physiology there 
has thus accumulated a great body of facts relating not only to 
the phenomena of reproduction, but also to the nutrition of algae. 
With reference to their chemical physiology, the gelatiniza- 
tion of the cell-wall, which is so marked a feature, is doubtless 
attributable to the occurrence along with cellulose of pectic 
compounds. There is, however, considerable variation in the 
nature of the membrane in different species; thus the cell-wall 
of Oedogonium, treated with sulphuric acid and iodine, turns a 
bright blue, while the colour is very faint in the case of Spirogyra, 
the wall of which is said to consist for the most part of pectose. 
While starch occurs commonly as a cell-content in the majority 
of the Green Algae no trace of it occurs in Vaucheria and some of 



59 6 



ALGAE 



its allies, nor is it known in the whole of the Phaeophyceae and 
Rhodophyceae. In certain Euphaeophyceae bodies built up of 
concentric layers, and attached to the chromatophores, were 
described by Schmitz as phaeophycean-starch; they do not, 
however, give the ordinary starch reaction. Other granules, 
easily mistaken for the " starch " granules, are also found in 
the cells of Phaeophyceae; these possess a power of movement 
apart from the protoplasm, and are considered to be vesicles and 
to contain phloroglucin. The colourless granules of Florideae, 
which are supposed to constitute the carbohydrate reserve 
material, have been called floridean-starch. A white efflores- 
cence which appears on certain Brown Algae (Saccorhiza bulbosa, 
Laminaria saccharina) , when they are dried in the air, is found 
to consist of mannite. Mucin is known in the cell-sap of 
Acelabularia. Some Siphonales (Codium) give rise to proteid 
crystalloids, and they are of constant occurrence among 
Florideae. The presence of tannin has been established in 
the case of a great number of freshwater algae. 

By virtue of the possession of chlorophyll all -algae are capable 
of utilizing carbonic acid gas as a source of carbon in the presence 
of sunlight. The presence of phycocyanin, phyco- 



Colouriag 
matters. 



phaein and phycoerythrin considerably modifies the 
absorption spectra for the plants in which they occur. 
Thus in the case of phycoerythrin the maximum absorption, 
apart from the great absorption at the blue end of the spec- 
trum, is not, as in the case where chlorophyll occurs alone, 
near the Fraunhofer line B, but farther to the right beyond 
the line D. By an ingenious method devised by Engelmann, 
it may be shown that the greatest liberation of oxygen, and 
consequently the greatest assimilation of carbon, occurs in that 
region of the spectrum represented by the absorption bands. 
In this connexion Pfeffer points out that the penetrating power 
of light into a clear sea varies for light of different colours. 
Thus red light is reduced to such an extent as to be insufficient 
for growth at a depth of 34 metres, yellow light at a depth of 
177 metres and green light at 322 metres. It is thus an obvious 
advantage to Red Algae, which flourish at considerable depths, 
to be able to utilize yellow light rather than the red, which is 
extinguished so much sooner. The experiment of Engelmann 
referred to deserves to be mentioned here, if only in illustration 
of the use to which algae have been put in the study of physio- 
logical problems. Engelmann observed that certain bacteria 
were motile only in the presence of oxygen, and that they 
retained their motility in a microscopic preparation in the 
neighbourhood of an algal filament when they had come to rest 
elsewhere on account of the exhaustion of oxygen. After the 
bacteria had all been brought to rest by being placed in the 
dark, he threw a spectrum upon the filament, and observed in 
what region the bacteria first regained their motility, owing to 
the liberation of oxygen in the process of carbon-assimilation. 
He found that these places corresponded closely with the region 
of the absorption band for the algae under experiment. 

Although algae generally are able to use carbonic acid gas as a 
source of carbon, some algae, like certain of the higher plants, 
are capable of utilizing organic compounds for this purpose. 
Thus Spirogyra filaments, which have been denuded of starch 
by being placed in the dark, form starch in one day if they are 
placed in a 10 to 20% solution of dextrose. According to 
T. Bokorny, moreover, it appears that such filaments will yield 
starch from formaldehyde when they are supplied with sodium 
oxymethyl sulphonate, a salt which readily decomposes into 
formaldehyde and hydrogen sodium sulphite, an observation 
which has been taken to mean that formaldehyde is always a 
stage in the synthesis of starch. With reference to the assimila- 
tion of nitrogen, it would seem that algae, like other green plants, 
can best use it when it is presented to them in the form of a 
nitrate. Some algae, however, seem to flourish better in the 
presence of organic compounds. In the case of Scenedesmus 
acutus it is said that the alga is unable to take up nitrogen in 
the form of a nitrate or ammoniacal salt, and requires some such 
substance as an amide or a peptone. On the other hand, it has 
been held by Bernhard Frank and other observers that atmo- 



Habitat. 



spheric nitrogen is fixed by the agency of Green Algae in the soil. 
(For the remarkable symbiotism between algae and fungi see 
FUNGI and LICHENS.) 

Most algae, particularly Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae, 
spend the whole of the life-cycle immersed in water. In the 
case of the freshwater algae, however, belonging to 
the Chlorophyceae and Cyanophyceae, although they 
required to be immersed during the vegetative period, the 
reproductive cells are often capable of resisting a considerable 
degree of desiccation, and in this condition' are dispersed through 
great distances by various agencies. Again, as is well known, 
many species of marine algae growing in the region between the 
limits of high and low water are so constituted that they are 
exposed to the air twice a day without injury. The occurrence 
of characteristic algae at different levels constituting the zones 
to which reference has already been made, is probably in part an 
expression of the fact that different species vary in the capacity 
to resist desiccation from exposure. Thus Laminaria digitala, 
which characterizes the lowest zone, is only occasionally exposed 
at all, and then only for short periods of time. On the other 
hand, Pelvetia canaliculata, which marks the upper belt, is exposed 
for longer periods, and during neap tides may not be reached 
by the water for many days. Algae of more delicate texture 
than either Fucaceae or Laminariaceae also occur in the region 
exposed by the ebb of the tide, but these secure their exemption 
from desiccation either by retaining water in their meshes by 
capillary attraction, as in the case of Pilayella, or by growing 
among the tangles of the larger Fucaceae, as in the case of 
Polysiphonia fastigiata, or by growing in dense masses on rocks, 
as in the case of Laurencia pinnatifida. Such a species as 
Delesseria sanguinea or Callophyllis laciniata would on the 
contrary run great risk by exposure for even a short period. 
A few algae approach the ordinary terrestrial plants in their 
capacity to live in a sub -aerial habitat subject only to such 
occasional supplies of water as is afforded by the rainfall. 
Of this nature are some of the species of Vaucheria. A very 
few species, like Chroolepus, which grows on rock surfaces, 
are comparable with the land plants which have been termed 
xerophilous. 

The great majority of the aquatic algae, both freshwater and 
marine, are attached plants. Some, however, are wanderers, 
either swimming actively with the aid of cilia, or 
floating inertly as the result of a specific weight closely Plankton. 
approaching that of the medium. To the aggregate 
of such forms, both animal and vegetable, the term plankton 
has been applied, and the investigation of the vegetable plankton, 
both freshwater and marine, has been pursued in recent times 
with energy and success. The German Plankton Expedition of 
1889 added greatly to our knowledge of the floating vegetable 
life of the North Atlantic Ocean, while many laboratories estab- 
lished on the shores of inland seas and lakes have rendered a 
similar service in the case of our freshwater phyto-plankton. 
The quantitative estimate of the amount of this flora has revealed 
its enormous aggregate amount and therefore its great import- 
ance in the economy of oceanic and lacustrine animal life. The 
organisms constituting this plankton are mostly unicellular, 
often aggregated together in colonies, and the remarkable 
structure which they exhibit has added a new chapter to the 
story of adaptation to environment. The families Diatomaceae, 
Peridiniaceae and Protococcaceae are best represented in the 
pelagic plankton, while in addition the Volvocaceae are an 
important element in freshwater plankton. 

The great majority of algae, however, grow like land-plants 
attached to a substratum, and to these the term benthos is now 
generally applied. While the root of land-plants 
serves for the double purpose of attachment and the 
supply of water, it is attachment only that is usually sought 
in the case of algae. Immersed as they usually are in a medium 
containing in solution the inorganic substances which they 
require for their nutrition, the absorption of these takes place 
throughout their whole extent. The elaborate provision for the 
conduct of water from part to part which has played so important 






Benthos. 



ALGAE 



597 



a role in the morphological development of land plants is entirely 
wanting in algae, such conducting tissues as do exist in the larger 
Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae serving rather for the con- 
vection of elaborated organic substance, and being thus com- 
parable with the phloem of the higher plants. The attachment 
organ of algae is thus more properly called a holdfast, and is 
found to be of very varied structure. It generally takes the form 
of a single flattened disc as in the Fucaceae, or a group of finger- 
like processes as in Laminariaceae, or a tuft of filaments as in 
many instances. When the attachment is in sand or mud, it 
often simulates the appearance of a true root as in Chara or 
Caul cr pa. It is clear that where the bottom of a lake or sea 
consists of oozy mud or shifting sand, it is impossible for algae 
to secure a foothold. Thus a rock emerging from a sandy 
beach may often be observed to stand covered with vegetation 
like an oasis in a desert. The rapidity with which walls, piles 
and pontoons stone, wood and iron become covered with 
marine plants is well known, while the discovery of some effective 
means of preventing the fouling of the bottoms of ships by the 
growth of algae would be hailed as a boon by shipowners. 
While rocks and boulders are the favoured situation for the 
growth of marine algae, those which readily disintegrate, like 
the coarser sandstones, are naturally less favoured than the 
hard and resistant. A large number of algae again live as 
epiphytes or.endophytes. In the case of the freshwater species 
the host-plants are mostly species of aquatic Graminaceae, 
Naiadaceae or Nymphaeaceae. In the case of marine algae, 
the hosts are chiefly the larger Phaeophyceae and Rhodo- 
phyceae. A bed of Zostera near the level of low water is, how- 
ever, on the British coast a favourite collecting ground for the 
smaller red and brown epiphytes. Of endophytes a distinction 
must be made between those which occupy the cell-wall only 
and those which perforate the cells, bringing about their destruc- 
tion. There can be little doubt that in some cases the epiphytism 
approaches parasitism. In one case described by Kuckuck the 
chromaphores of the infesting algae are absent, a circumstance 
which points to a complete parasitism. Allusion has already 
been made to the peculiar habit of the shell-boring algae. 

In many algae certain branches of limited growth bear a 
remarkable resemblance to leaves. The Characeae among 
freshwater algae and the Sargassaceae among marine algae 
might be cited as examples. Surveying the whole range of 
Habit algae life, Oltmanns distinguishes bush-forms, whip- 
forms, net-forms, leaf-forms, sack-forms, dorsi-ventral 
forms, and cushions, plates and crusts. The similarity of 
outline in many species to that of trees and shrubs will strike 
any one who examines algae mounted for the herbarium. 
Cladophora and Bryopsis among monosiphonous forms, Chara, 
Polysiphonia, Ceramium and Cystoscira among larger algae, are 
illustrations of this. The whip-forms are represented by Spiro- 
gyra, Chaetomorpha, Scytosiphon, Nemalion, Himanthalia and 
Chorda. Net-forms are found in Hydrodictyon and Microdictyon. 
The leaf-forms are very varied and owe their existence to the 
advantage accruing from the exposure of a large surface to the 
influence of the light. In some cases such as Delesseria, Neury- 
menia, Fucus, Alaria, the leaf-like structure is provided with 
a strengthening mid-rib, and when as in Delesseria it is also 
richly veined the resemblance to the leaf of a flowering plant 
is striking. Laminaria, Padina, Cutleria, Punctaria, Iridaea, 
Uha, Porphyra, are leaf-like with a rigidity varying from a 
fleshy lamina to the thin and pliable. Agarum, Claudea and 
Struvea are leaf -forms which are perforated like Aldroiianda 
among flowering plants. Enteromorpha, Asperococcus and 
Adenocyslis are sack-forms. Dorsi-ventral algae are rare. 
Leoeillea jungermanneoides bears a remarkable resemblance to 
a leafy liverwort. In the next group of forms the simplest are 
crusts attached to the substratum throughout their extent, and 
growing at the margin. Such are Myrionema, Ralfsia, Mdobesia 
and Hildebrandtia. Others are attached throughout their ex- 
tent, but also grow vertical filaments so as to form a velvety 
pile. Such are Coleochaete, Ochlochaete, Elachistea, Ascocydus 
and Rhododermis. Peysonellia squamaria, Mdobesia lichenoides, 



Leathesia difformis are forms which are not attached throughout 
but grow in plates like the foliaceous lichens. 

When it is sought to consider algae with a view to the correla- 
tion of the external form to the conditions of life, a subject 
the study of which under the name of ecology has Ecology 
been latterly pursued with great success among land 
plants, it is difficult as yet to arrive at generalizations which 
are trustworthy. Among land plants, as is well known, similarity 
of environment has often called forth similar adaptations among 
plants of widely separated families. The similarity of certain 
xerophilous Euphorbiaceae to Cactaceae is a ready illustration 
of this phenomenon. From what has been already said it is 
evident that among algae also strikingly similar forms exist in 
widely different groups. Instances might be multiplied. Com- 
pare, for example, the blue-green Gloeocapsa with the green 
Gloeocystis, the red Batrachospermum with the green Drapar- 
naldia, the red Corallina with the green Cymopolia, the green 
Enteromorpha with the brown Asperococcus, the green Uha with 
the red Porphyra, the red Ncfnalion with the brown Castagnea, 
and so on. But on the one hand similar forms seem to grow 
often under different conditions, while on the other hand different 
forms flourish under the same conditions. The conceivable varia- 
tions in the conditions which would count in algal life are 
variations in the chemical character of the water whether 
fresh, brackish or salt; or in the rate of movement of the 
water, whether relatively quiet, or a stream or a surf; or in 
the degree of illumination with the depth and transparency of 
the water. But the laws which determine the associations of 
various algae under one environment are as yet little understood. 
The occurrence of a plentiful mucilage in many freshwater 
forms is, however, doubtless a provision against desiccation on 
exposure. The fine subdivision of filamentous and net-forms 
is similarly a provision for easy access of water and light to all 
parts. The calcareous deposits in Characeae, Corallinaceae and 
Siphonaceae are at once a protection against attack and a 
means of support. The whip-forms would seem to be designed 
to resist injury from surf or current. The vesicles of Fucaceae 
and Laminariaceae prevent the sinking of the bulkier forms. 
But why certain Fucaceae favour certain zones in the littoral 
region, why certain epiphytes are confined to certain hosts, why 
Red and Brown Algae are not better represented in fresh water 
or Green Algae in salt, these are problems to which it is difficult 
to find a ready answer. 

Algae cannot be regarded as directly important in the in- 
dustries. On the coasts of Europe marine algae detached by 
the autumnal gales are commonly carted on to the llses 
land as a convenient manure. Porphyra laciniata 
and Rhodymenia palmata are locally used as food, the latter 
being known as dulse. Agar-agar is a gelatinous substance 
derived from an eastern species of Gracilaria. The ash of sea- 
weeds, known in Scotland as kelp, and in Brittany as varec, 
was formerly used as a source of iodine to a greater extent than 
is at present the case. 

Excepting where the thallus is impregnated with silica, as in 
Diatomaceae, or carbonate of lime, as in Corallinaceae, Characeae 
and some Siphonales, it is perhaps not surprising that 
algae should not have been extensively preserved in 
the fossil form. Considering, however, that it is the rocks. 
generally believed that Bryophyta and vascular 
plants are descended from an algal ancestry, it is natural to 
suppose that, prior to the luxuriant vegetable growths of the 
Carboniferous period, there must have existed an age of algae. 
It was doubtless this expectation that has led to the description 
of a number of Silurian and Devonian remains as algae upon 
what is now regarded as inadequate evidence. The geologic 
record is, as perhaps is to be expected, exceedingly poor, except 
as regards the calcareous Siphonales, which are well represented 
at vari9us horizons, from the Silurian to the Tertiary; even 
the Diatomaceae, which are found in great quantities in the 
Tertiary deposits, do not occur at all earlier than the chalk. 
It is believed, however, that the Devonian fossil, Nematophycus, 
is a Laminarian alga, but it is not until the late Secondary and 






59 8 



ALGARDI ALGAROTTI 



the Tertiary formations that fossil remains of algae become 
frequent. (See PALAEOBOTANY.) 

The subjoined list includes the larger standard works on algae, 
together with a number of papers to which reference is made in this 
article. For a detailed catalogue of Algological literature, see the 
" Bibliotheca Phycologica " in de Toni s Syllope Algarum, vol. i. 
(1889), with the addendum thereto in vol. iv. (1897) of the same 
work. 

GENERAL. J. G. Agardh, Species, genera et ordines Algarum (vols. 
i.-iii., Lund, 1848-1898), Analecta Algologica (Lund, 1892-1896); 
Till Algernes Systematik (Lund, 1872-1899); J. E. Areschoug, 
" Observations Phycologicae," Nova Acta reg. soc. sci. Upsaliensis 
(Upsala, 1866-1875); F. F. Blackman, "The Primitive Algae and 
the Flagellata," Ann. of Botany (vol. xiv., Oxford, 1900); E. Bornet 
and G. Thuret, Notes agologiques (fasc. i.-ii., Paris, 1876-1880); 
P. A. Dangeard, " Recherches sur les algues inferieures," Ann, des 
sci. naturelles, Bot. (vol. vii., Paris, 1888) ; A. Derbes and A. J. J. 
Solier, Memoire de la physiologic des algues (Paris, 1856); J. B. de 
Toni, Syttoge Algarum vol. i. Chlorophyceae, vol. ii. Bacillariaceae, 
vol. iii. Fucoideae, vol. iv. Florideae (Padua, 1889-1900); P. 
Falkenberg, " Die Algen im weitesten Sinne," Schenk's Handbuch 
der Botantk (vol. ii., 1882) ; W. G. Farlow, Marine Algae of New 
England (Washington, 1881); W. H. Harvey, Phycologia Britannica 
(4 vols., London, 1846-1855); Nereis Boreali-Americana (3 pts., 
Washington, 1851-1858); Phycologia Australica (5 vols., London, 
1858-1863); F. Hauck, " Die Meeresalgen Deutschlands und Oster- 
reichs," Rabenhort's Kryptogamen- Flora (Leipzig, 1885); F. R. 
Kjellman, The Algae of the Arctic Sea (Stockholm, 1883); F. T. 
Kiitzing, Tabulae Phycologicae (19 vols., Nordhausen, 1845-1869); 
P. Kuckuck, Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Meeresalgen (Kiel and 
Leipzig, 1897-1899); G. Murray, Phycological Memoirs (London, 
i'892-i895); An Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds (London, 
1895); C. Naegeli, Die neueren Algensysteme (Zurich, 1847); F. 
Oltmanns, Morphologic und Biologic der Algen (Jena, Band i. 1904, 
Band ii. 1905); N. Pringsheim, "Beitrage zur Morphologic der 
Meeresalgen," Abhand. Konigl. Akad. der Wissensch. (Berlin, 1862); 
J. Reinke, Alias deutscher Meeresalgen (Berlin, 1889-1892) ; F. Schiitt, 
Das Pflanzenleben der Hochsee (Leipzig, 1893); J. Stackhouse, 
Nereis Britannica (ed. i., Bath, 1801 ; ed. ii., Oxford, 1816) ; G. Thuret 
and E. Bornet, Etudes phycologiques (Paris, 1878); D. Turner, 
Historic Fucorum (4 vols., London, 1808-1819); G. Zanardini, 
Iconographia Phycologia Adriatica (Venice, 1860-1876). 

1. CYANOPHYCEAE. E. Bornet and Ch. Flahault, " Revision des 
Nostocacees heterocystees," Ann. des sc. naturelles, Bot.(\o\s. iii.-vii., 
Paris, 1887-1888); M. Gomont, "Monographic des Oscillariees," 
Ann. des sc. naturelles, Bot. (vols. xv.-xvi., Paris, 1893); Hegler, 
" Uber Kerntheilungserscheinungen," Ref. Botan. Centralbl. (vo\. 
Ixiv., Cassel, 1895); p. Kirchner, " Schizophyceae," in Engler and 
Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1900). 

2. CHLOROPHYCEAE. A. Borzi, " Studi anamorfici di alcune 
alghe verdi," Bull. Soc. Bot. /to/, in N. Giorn. Bot. Ital. (vol. xxii., 
Pisa, 1890); F. F. Blackman and A. G. Tansley, A Revision of the 
Classification of the Green Algae, reprinted from the New Phytologist 
(vol. i., London, 1903); K. Bohlin, " Studier ofver nagra slagten 
af alggruppen conferyales Borzi," Bihang till K. Svenska vel. akad. 
Handlinger (Bd. xxiii. afd. 3, 1897); Utkasttill, De grona algernas 
och arkegomiaternas bylogeni (Upsala, 1901); R. Chodat, " On the 
Polymorphism of the Green Algae," Ann. of Botany (vol. xi., Oxford, 
1897) ; M. C. Cooke, British Freshwater Algae (2 vols., London, 1882- 
1884), British Desmids (London, 1887); G. Klebs, Die Bedingungen 
der Fortpflanzung bei einigen Algen und Pilzen (Jena, 1896); A. 
Luther, Uber Chlorosaccus, n.g. ' Bihang till K . Svenska vel. akad. 
Handlinger (Bd. xxiv. afd. 3, 1899); H. Graf zu Solms-Laubach, 
" Monograph of the Acetabulariaceae," Trans. Linn. Soc. (Land.) 
Bot. (London, 1895); N. Wille, " Chlorophyceae," in Engler and 
Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1897). 

3. PHAEOPHYCEAE. E. A.L. Batters, "OnEctocarpussecundus," 
Grevillea (vol. xxi., London, 1893); G. Berthold, " Die geschlecht- 
liche Fortpflanzung der eigentfichen Phaeosporeen," Mitth. Zool. 
Stat. Neapel (vol. u., Leipzig, 1881); G. Brebner, "On the Classi- 
fication of the Tilopteridaceae," Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. (vol. viii., 
Bristol, 1896-1897) ; A. H. Church, " On the Polymorphy of Cutleria 
multifida, Ann. of Botany (vol. xii., Oxford, 1898); J. B. Farmer 
and J. LI. Williams, " Contributions to our Knowledge of the Life- 
history and Cytology of Fucaceae," Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (vol. cxc., 
London, 1898); E. Janczewski, "Observations sur 1'accroissement 
du thalle des Phaeosporees," Mem. soc. nat. de sc. (Cherbourg, 1895) ; 
F. R. Kjellmann, " rhaeophyceae," in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzen- 
familien (Leipzig, 1897) ; F. Oltmanns, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss der 
Fucaceen," Bibliotheca botanica, xiv. (Cassel, 1889) ; C. Sauvageau, 
" Observations relatives & la sexualite des Phaeosporees," Journal 
de botanique (vol. x., Paris, 1896); E. Strasburger, " Kerntheilung 
und Befruchtung bei Fucus," Cytologische Studien (Berlin, 1897) ; 
F. Schiitt, Die Peridinien der Plankton-Expedition (Kiel and Leipzig, 
1895); R- Valiante, Le Cystoseirae del Golfo di Napoli (Leipzig, 
1883); J. LI. Williams, "On the Antherozoids of Dictyota and 
Taonia, ' Ann. of Botany (vol. xi., Oxford, 1897). 

4. RHODOPHYCEAE. G. Berthold, " Die Bangiacen des Golfes 
von Neapel," Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel (Naples, 1882) ; F. Oltmanns, 



" Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Florideen," Botanische Zeitunj 
(1898); R. W. Phillips, "The Development of the Cystocarp it 
Rhodymeniales," i. and ii., Annals of Botany (vols. xi. xii., Oxford^ 
1897-1898); F. Schmitz, " Untersuchungen iiber die Befruchtunj 
der Florideen," Sitzungsber. der konigl. Akad.der Wissensch. (Berlin 
1883) ; " Kleinere Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Florideen," La Nuovc 
Notarisia, 1892-1894; F. Schmitz, P. Falkenberg, P. Hauptfleisch 
" Rhodophyceae," in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien (1897) 
W. Schmidle, " Die Befruchtung, Keimung und Haarinsertion vor 
Batrachospermum," Bot. Zeitung, (1899); (Sirodot, Les Batracho 
spermes (Paris, 1884); N. Wille, " Uber die Befruchtung bei Nemalior 
multifidum," Ber. d. deutschen hot. Gesellsc. Band xii. (Berlin 
1894); J- J- Wolfe, " Cytological Studies on Nemalion," Annals oj 
Botany (vol. xviii., Oxford, 1904) ; S. Yamanouchi, " The Life- 
History of Polysiphonia violacea," Botanical Gazette (vol. xii. 
Chicago, 1906). (R. W. P.) 

ALGARDI, ALESSANDRO (1602-1654), Italian sculptor, wa 
born at Bologna in 1602. While he was attending the school 
of the Caracci his preference for the plastic art became evident 
and he placed himself under the instruction of the sculptoi 
Conventi. At the age of twenty he was brought under the notict 
of Duke Ferdinand of Mantua, who gave him several commissions 
He was also much employed about the same period by jewellers 
and others in modelling in gold, silver and ivory. After a shorl 
residence in Venice he went to Rome in 1625 with an introductiot 
from the duke of Mantua to the pope's nephew, Cardinal Ludovisi 
who employed him for a time in the restoration of ancienl 
statues. The death of the duke of Mantua left him to his owr 
resources, and for several years he earned a precarious mainten- 
ance from these restorations and the commissions of goldsmiths 
and jewellers. In 1640 he executed for Pietro Buoncompagni his 
first work in marble, a colossal statue of San Filippo Neri. with 
kneeling angels. Immediately after, he produced a similar group 
representing the execution of St Paul, for the church of the 
Barnabite Fathers in Bologna. These works, displaying greal 
technical skill, though with considerable exaggeration of ex- 
pression and attitude, at once established Algardi's reputation, 
and other commissions followed in rapid succession. The turning 
point in Algardi's fortune was the accession of Innocent X.. ol 
the Bolognese house of Panfili, to the papal throne in 1644. He 
was employed by Camillo Panfili, nephew of the pontiff, to design 
the Villa Doria Panfili outside the San Pancrazio gate. The 
most important of Algardi's other works were the monument 
of Leo XI., a bronze statue of Innocent X. for the capitol, 
and, above all, La Fuega d'Altila, the largest alto-relievo in the 
world, the two principal figures being about 10 ft. high. In 1650 
Algardi met Velasquez, who obtained some interesting orders 
for his Italian companion in Spain. Thus there are four chimneys 
by Algardi in the palace of Aranjuez, where also the figures on the 
fountain of Neptune were executed by him. The Augustine 
monastery at Salamanca contains the tomb of the count and 
countess de Monterey, which was also the work of Algardi. 
From an artistic point of view, he was most successful in his 
portrait-statues and groups of children, where he was obliged to 
follow nature most closely. In his later years he became very 
avaricious and amassed a great fortune. He died in Rome on 
the loth of June 1654. 

See Le arti di Bologna disegnate da A. Caracci ed intagliati da 
S. Giulini, con' assistenza d' Alessandro A. Algardi (1740). 

AL6AROTH, POWDER OF. a basic chloride of antimony. 
It was known to Basil Valentine, and was used medicinally by the 
Veronese physician Victor Algarotus about the end of the i6th 
century. Its composition is probably Sb^sCU, and it may be 
prepared by the addition of much water to a solution of antimony 
chloride; a bulky amorphous precipitate being formed, which, 
on standing, gradually becomes crystalline. It is soluble in 
hydrochloric acid and tartaric acid, but insoluble in alcohol. 

On its composition and preparation see E. Peligot, Annalen, 1847, 
Ixiv. 280; L. Schaffer, Annalen, 1869, clii. 314; and R. W. E. 
Maclvor, Chem. News, 1875, xxxii- 229. 

ALGAROTTI, FRANCESCO, COUNT (1712-1764), Italian philo- 
sopher and writer on art, was born on the nth of December 
1712 at Venice, and died at Pisa in 1764. He studied at Rome 
and Bologna, and at the age of twenty went to Paris, where 
he enjoyed the friendship of Voltaire and produced his great 



ALGARVE ALGEBRA 



599 



work Neutonianismo per le dame, a work on optics. Voltaire 
called him his cher cygne de Padoue. Returning from a journey 
to Russia, he met Frederick the Great who made htm a count 
of Prussia (1740) and court chamberlain (1747). Augustus III. 
of Poland honoured him with the title of councillor. In 1754, 
after seven years' residence partly in Berlin and partly in Dresden, 
he returned to Italy, living at Venice and then at Pisa, where 
he died on the 3rd of May 1764. Frederick the Great erected 
to his memory a monument on the Campo Santo at Pisa. He 
was a man of wide knowledge, a connoisseur in art and music, 
and the friend of most of the leading authors of his time. His 
chief work on art is the Saggi sopra le belle arti (" Essays on the 
Fine Arts ") Among his other works may be mentioned Poems, 

Rvels in Russia, Essay on Painting, Correspondence. 
he best complete edition with biography was published by 
Michelessi (1791-1794). 
LGARVE, or ALGARVES, an ancient kingdom and province 
in the extreme S. of Portugal, corresponding with the modern 
administrative district of Faro, and bounded on the N. by 
Alemtejo, E. by the Spanish province of Huelva, and S. and W. 
by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 255,191; area, 1937 sq. m. 
The greatest length of the province is about 85 m. from E. to W. ; 
its average breadth is about 22m. from N. to S. The Serra de 
Malhao and the Serra de Monchique extend in the form of a 
crescent across the northern part of the province, and, sweeping 
to the south-west, terminate in the lofty promontory of Cape 
St Vincent, the south-west extremity of Europe. This headland 
is famous as the scene of many sea-fights, notably the defeat 
inflicted on the Spanish fleet in February 1797 by the British 
under Admiral Jervis, afterwards Earl St Vincent. Between 
the mountainous tracts in the north and the southern coast 
stretches a narrow plain, watered by numerous rivers flowing 
southward from the hills. The coast is fringed for 30 m. from 
Quarteira to Tavira, with long sandy islands, through which 
there are six passages, the most important being the Barra Nova, 
between Faro and Olhao. The navigable estuary of the Guadiana 
divides Algarve from Huelva, and its tributaries water the 
western districts. From the Serra de Malhao flow two streams, 
the Silves and Odelouca, which unite and enter the Atlantic 
below the town of Silves. In the hilly districts the roads are 
bad, the soil unsuited for cultivation, and the inhabitants few. 
Flocks of goats are reared on the mountain-sides. The level 
country along the southern coast is more fertile, and produces 
in abundance grapes, figs, oranges, lemons, olives, almonds, aloes, 
and even plantains and dates. The land is, however, not well 
suited for the production of cereals, which ire mostly imported 
from Spain. On the coast the people gain their living in great 
measure from the fisheries, tunny and sardines being caught 
in considerable quantities. Salt is also made from sea-water. 
There is no manufacturing or mining industry of any importance. 
The harbours are bad, and almost the whole foreign trade is 
carried on by ships of other nations, although the inhabitants 
of Algarve are reputed to be the best seamen and fishermen of 
Portugal. The chief exports are dried fruit, wine, salt, tunny, 
sardines and anchovies. The only railway is the Lisbon-Faro 
main line, which passes north-eastward from Faro, between the 
Monchique and Malhao ranges. Faro (11,789), Lagos (8291), 
Louie (22,478), Monchique (7345), Olhao (10,009), Silves (9687) 
and Tavira (12,175), the chief towns, are described in separate 
articles. 

The name of Algarve is derived from the Arabic, and signifies 
a land lying to the west. The title " king of Algarve," held by 
the kings of Portugal, was first assumed by Alphonso III., who 
captured Algarve from the Moors in 1253. 

ALGAU, or ALLGAU, the name now given to a comparatively 
small district forming the south-western corner of Bavaria, 
and belonging to the province of Swabia and Neuburg, but 
formerly applied to a much larger territory, which extended 
as far as the Danube on the N., the Inn on the S. and the 
Lech on the W. The Algau Alps contain several lofty peaks, 
the highest of which is Madelegabel (8681 ft.). The district is 
celebrated for its cattle, milk, butter and cheese. 



ALGEBRA (from the Arab, al-jebr wa'l-muqabala, transposition 
and removal [of terms of an equation], the name of a treatise by 
Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi), a branch of mathematics 
which may be defined as the generalization and extension of 
arithmetic. 

The subject-matter of algebra will be treated in the following 
article under three divisions: A. Principles of ordinary algebra; 
B. Special kinds of algebra; C. History. Special phases of the 
subject are treated under their own headings, e.g. ALGEBRAIC 
FORMS; BINOMIAL; COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS; DETERMIN- 
ANTS; EQUATION; CONTINUED FRACTION; FUNCTION; GROUPS, 
THEORY or; LOGARITHM; NUMBER; PROBABILITY; SERIES. 

A. PRINCIPLES or ORDINARY ALGEBRA 

1. The above definition gives only a partial view of the scope 
of algebra. It may be regarded as based on arithmetic, or as 
dealing in the first instance with formal results of the laws of 
arithmetical number; and in this sense Sir Isaac Newton gave 
the title Universal Arithmetic to a work on algebra. Any defini- 
tion, however, must have reference to the state of development 
of the subject at the time when the definition is given. 

2. The earliest algebra consists in the solution of equations. 
The distinction between algebraical and arithmetical reasoning 
then lies mainly in the fact that the former is in a more condensed 
form than the latter; an unknown quantity being represented 
by a special symbol, and other symbols being used as a kind of 
shorthand for verbal expressions. This form of algebra was 
extensively studied in ancient Egypt; but, in accordance with 
the practical tendency of the Egyptian mind, the study consisted 
largely in the treatment of particular cases, very few general 
rules being obtained. 

3. For many centuries algebra was confined almost entirely 
to the solution of equations; one of the most important steps 
being the enunciation by Diophantus of Alexandria of the laws 
governing the use of the minus sign. The knowledge of these 
laws, however, does not imply the existence of a conception of 
negative quantities. The development of symbolic algebra by 
the use of general symbols to denote numbers is due to Franciscus 
Vieta (Francois Viete, 1 540-1603) . This led to the idea of algebra 
as generalized arithmetic. 

4. The principal step in the modern development of algebra 
was the recognition of the meaning of negative quantities. 
This appears to have been due in the first instance to Albert 
Girard (1595-1632), who extended Vieta's results in various 
branches of mathematics. His work, however, was little known 
at the time, and later was overshadowed by the greater work of 
Descartes (1596-1650). 

5. The main work of Descartes, so far as algebra was concerned, 
was the establishment of a relation between arithmetical and 
geometrical measurement. This involved not only the geo- 
metrical interpretation of negative quantities, but also the idea 
of continuity; this latter, which is the basis of modern analysis, 
leading to two separate but allied developments, viz. the theory 
of the function and the theory of limits. 

6. The great development of all branches of mathematics in 
the two centuries following Descartes has led to the term algebra 
being used to cover a great variety of subjects, many of which 
are really only ramifications o'f arithmetic, dealt with by alge- 
braical methods, while others, such as the theory of numbers 
and the general theory of series, are outgrowths of the application 
of algebra to arithmetic, which involve such special ideas that 
they must properly be regarded as distinct subjects. Some 
writers have attempted unification by treating algebra as con- 
cerned with functions, and Comte accordingly defined algebra 
as the calculus of functions, arithmetic being regarded as the 
calculus of values. 

7. These attempts at the unification of algebra, and its 
separation from other branches of mathematics, have usually 
been accompanied by an attempt to base it, as a deductive 
science, on certain fundamental laws or general rules; and 
this has tended to increase its difficulty. In reality, the variety 
of algebra corresponds to the variety of phenomena. Neither 






6oo 



ALGEBRA 



mathematics itself, nor any branch or set of branches of mathe- 
matics, can be regarded as an isolated science. While, therefore, 
the logical development of algebraic reasoning must depend on 
certain fundamental relations, it is important that in the early 
study of the subject these relations should be introduced grad- 
ually, and not until there is some empirical acquaintance with the 
phenomena with which they are concerned. 

8. The extension of the range of subjects to which mathe- 
matical methods can be applied, accompanied as it is by an 
extension of the range of study which is useful to the ordinary 
worker, has led in the latter part of the igth century to an 
important reaction against the specialization mentioned in the 
preceding paragraph. This reaction has taken the form of a 
return to the alliance between algebra and geometry (5), on 
which modern analytical geometry is based; the alliance, 
however, being concerned with the application of graphical 
methods to particular cases rather than to general expressions. 
These applications are sometimes treated under arithmetic, 
sometimes under algebra; but it is more convenient to regard 
graphics as a separate subject, closely allied to arithmetic, 
algebra, mensuration and analytical geometry. 

9. The association of algebra with arithmetic on the one 
hand, and with geometry on the other, presents difficulties, in 
that geometrical measurement is based essentially on the idea 
of continuity, while arithmetical measurement is based essentially 
on the idea of discontinuity; both ideas being equally matters 
of intuition. The difficulty first arises in elementary mensura- 
tion, where it is partly met by associating arithmetical and 
geometrical measurement with the cardinal and the ordinal 
aspects of number respectively (see ARITHMETIC). Later, the 
difficulty recurs in an acute form in reference to the continuous 
variation of a function. Reference to a geometrical interpreta- 
tion seems at first sight to throw light on the meaning of a 
differential coefficient; but closer analysis reveals new difficulties, 
due to the geometrical interpretation itself. One of the most 
recent developments of algebra is the algebraic theory of number, 
which is devised with the view of removing these difficulties. 
The harmony between arithmetical and geometrical measure- 
ment, which was disturbed by the Greek geometers on the 
discovery of irrational numbers, is restored by an unlimited 
supply of the causes of disturbance. 

10. Two other developments of algebra are of special import- 
ance. The theory of sequences and series is sometimes treated 
as a part of elementary algebra; but it is more convenient to 
regard the simpler cases as isolated examples, leading up to the 
general theory. The treatment of equations of the second and 
higher degrees introduces imaginary and complex numbers, the 
theory of which is a special subject. 

11. One of the most difficult questions for the teacher of 
algebra is the stage at which, and the extent to which, the 
ideas of a negative number and of continuity may be introduced. 
On the one hand, the modern developments of algebra began 
with these ideas, and particularly with the idea of a negative 
number. On the other hand, the lateness of occurrence of any 
particular mathematical idea is usually closely correlated with 
its intrinsic difficulty. Moreover, the ideas which are usually 
formed on these points at an early stage are incomplete; and, 
if the incompleteness of an idea is not realized, operations in 
which it is implied are apt to be purely formal and mechanical. 
What are called negative numbers in arithmetic, for instance, are 
not really negative numbers but negative quantities ( 27 (i.)); 
and the difficulties incident to the ideas of continuity have 
already been pointed out. 

12. In the present article, therefore, the main portions of 
elementary algebra are treated in one section, without reference 
to these ideas, which are considered generally in two separate 
sections. These three sections may therefore be regarded as to 
a certain extent concurrent. They are preceded by two sections 
dealing with the introduction to algebra, from the arithmetical 
and the graphical sides, and are followed by a section dealing 
briefly with the developments mentioned in 9 and 10 
above. 



I. Arithmetical Introduction to Algebra. 

13. Order of Arithmetical Operations. It is important, before 
beginning the study of algebra, to have a clear idea as to the 
meanings of the symbols used to denote arithmetical operations. 

(i.) Additions and subtractions are performed from left to 
right. Thus 3 lb + 5 Ib 7 Ib + 2 lt> means that 5 Ib is to 
be added to 3 Ib, 7 Ib subtracted from the result, and 2 Ib 
added to the new result. 

(ii.) The above operation is performed with i Ib as the unit 
of counting, and the process would be the same with any other 
unit; e.g. we should perform the same process to find 
3S. + 5S. 7S.+2S. Hence we can separate the numbers from 
the common unit, and replace 3 lb+5lb 7lb+2lb by 
(3 + 5 7 + 2) Ib, the additions and subtractions being then 
performed by means of an addition-table. 

(iii.) Multiplications, represented by X, are performed from 
right to left. Thus 5X3X7X1^) means 5 times 3 times 7 times 
i Ib; i.e. it means that i Ib is to be multiplied by 7, the result 
by 3, and the new result by 5. We may regard this as meaning 
the same as 5X3X7 Ib, since 7 Ib itself means 7X1 ft), and 
the Ib is the unit in each case. But it does not mean the same 
as 5X21 ft, though the two are equal, i.e. give the same result 
(see 23). 

This rule as to the meaning of X is important. If it is intended 
that the first number is to be multiplied by the second, a special 
sign such as X should be used. 

(iv.) The sign -f- means that the quantity or number preceding 
it is to be divided by the quantity or number following it. 

(v.) The use of the solidus / separating two numbers is for 
convenience of printing fractions or fractional numbers. Thus 
16/4 does not mean 16-7-4, but *. 

(vi.) Any compound operation not coming under the above 
descriptions is to have its meaning made clear by brackets, the 
use of a pair of brackets indicating that the expression between 
them is to be treated as a whole. Thus we should not write 
8X7+6, but (8X7) +6, or 8X(7+6). The sign X coming 
immediately before, or immediately after, a bracket may be 
omitted; e.g. 8X(7+6) may be written 8(7+6). 

This rule as to using brackets is not always observed, the 
convention sometimes adopted being that multiplications or 
divisions are to be performed before additions or subtractions. 
The convention is even pushed to such an extent as to make 
" 4a+3f of 7+5 " mean "42 + (3 of 7) + s"; though it is 
not clear what "Find the value of 42+33 times 7 + 5 " would 
then mean. There are grave objections to an arbitrary rule of 
this kind, the chief being the useless waste of mental energy 
in remembering it. 

(vii.) The only exception that may be made to the above rule 
is that an expression involving multiplication-dots only, or a 
simple fraction written with the solidus, may have the brackets 
omitted for additions or subtractions, provided the figures are so 
spaced as to prevent misunderstanding. Thus 8 + (7 X 6) +3 may 
be written 8+7.6+3, and 8+ +3 may be written 8+7/6+3. 

But 2-i5 should be written (3-5)/(2.4), not 3.5/2.4. 

14. Latent Equations. The equation exists, without being 
shown as an equation, in all those elementary arithmetical 
processes which come under the head of inverse operations; i.e. 
processes which consist in obtaining an answer to the question 
" Upon what has a given operation to be performed in order to 
produce a given result?" or to the question " What operation of 
a given kind has to be performed on a given quantity or number 
in order to produce a given result?" 

(i.) In the case of subtraction the second of these two questions 
is perhaps the simpler. Suppose, for instance, that we wish to 
know how much will be left out of ios. after spending 35., or how 
much has been spent out of ios. if 35. is left. In either case we 
may put the question in two ways: (a) What must be added to 
35. in order to produce ios., or (b) To what must 35. be added in 
order to produce ios. If the answer to the question is X, we 
have either (a) ios. =35. +X, .'.X = ios.-3s. 
or (b) ios.=X+3s., .'.X = ios.-3s. 



ALGEBRA 



601 



(ii.) In the above case the two different kinds of statement lead 
to arithmetical formulae of the same kind. In the case of division 
we get two kinds of arithmetical formula, which, however, may be 
regarded as requiring a single kind of numerical process in order 
to determine the final result. 

(a) If 24d. is divided into 4 equal portions, how much will 

E portion be ? 
:t the answer be X; then 
24d.=4XX, .'. X = J of 24d. 
^) Into how many equal portions of 6d. each may 24d. be 
divided ? 
Let the answer be *; then 



(iii.) Where the direct operation is evolution, for which there is 
no commutative law, the two inverse operations are different 
i kind. 

(a) What would be the dimensions of a cubical vessel which 
ould exactly hold 125 litres; a litre being a cubic decimetre? 
Let the answer be X; then 

125 c.dm. =X 3 , .-. X = -J 125 c.dm. = -J 125 dm. 

(b) To what power must 5 be raised t6 produce 125 ? 
Let the answer be x; then 

125 = 5*. ' * = log 5 125. 

15. With regard to the above, the following points should be 
.ted. 

(1) When what we require to know is a quantity, it is simplest 
deal with this quantity as a whole. In (i.), for instance, we 
,nt to find the amount by which ios. exceeds 35., not the 
.mber of shillings in this amount. It is true that we obtain 
is result by subtracting 3 from 10 by means of a subtraction- 
ble (concrete or ideal); but this table merely gives the 

.eralized results of a number of operations of addition or 
ibtraction performed with concrete units. We must count 
ith something; and the successive somethings obtained by 
the addition of successive units are in fact numerical quantities, 
tot numbers. 

Whether this principle may legitimately be extended to the 
itation adopted in (iii.) (a) of 14 is a moot point. But the 
sent tendency is to regard the early association of arithmetic 
ith linear measurement as important; and it seems to follow 
t we may properly (at any rate at an early stage of the subject) 
lultiply a length by a length, and the product again by another 
length, the practice being dropped when it becomes necessary 
give a strict definition of multiplication. 

(2) The results may be stated briefly as follows, the more 
iual form being adopted under (iii.) (a): 

(i.) If A = B+X, or = X+B, thenX = A-B. 




(ii.) (a) If 
(6) If 
(iii.) (a) 



= m times X, then X= of A. 
A-=-M. 



L = * times M, then 

(b) If n=a x , then = log a n. 
The important thing to notice is that where, in any of these 
ve cases, one statement is followed by another, the second is 
ot to be regarded as obtained from the first by logical reasoning 
evolving such general axioms as that " if equals are taken from 
quals the remainders are equal "; the fact being that the two 
atements are merely different ways of expressing the same 
ation. To say, for instance, that X is equal to A- B, is the 
ime thing as to say that X is a quantity such that X and 
when added, make up A; and the above five statements 
necessary connexion between two statements of equality 
in fact nothing more than definitions of the symbols-, 

[of,-!-, \X, and log,,. 
An apparent difficulty is that we use a single symbol - to 

enote the result of the two different statements in (i.) (a) and 
(i.) (b) of 14. This is due to the fact that there are really two 

inds of subtraction, respectively involving counting forwards 
(complementary addition) and counting backwards (ordinary 

ubtraction) ; and it suggests that it may be wise not to use the 
one symbol - to represent the result of both operations until 

he commutative law for addition has been fully grasped. 



16. In the same way, a statement as to the result of an inverse 
operation is really, by the definition of the operation, a statement 
as to the result of a direct operation. If, for instance, we 
state that A = X-B, this is really a statement that X= A+B. 
Thus, corresponding to the results under 15 (2), we have the 
following : 

(i) Where the inverse operation is performed on the unknown 
quantity or number: 

(i.) If A=X-B, thenX = 



(ii.) (a) IfM=ofX, then X = m times M. 
(b) If w=X-^M, then X=w times M. 
(iii.) (a) If a = ty x, then x = aP. 

(b) If p = logaX, then x = a". 

(2) Where the inverse operation is performed with the un- 
known quantity or number: 

(i.) If B=A-X, then A = B+X. 
(ii.) (a) If ?n=A-=-X, then A = f times X. 

(b) If M =i of A, then A =x times M. 
(iii.) (a) If p = login, then n = x". 

(b) If a = v / n, then n = a*. 

In each of these cases, however, the reasoning which enables 
us to replace one statement by another is of a different kind 
from the reasoning in the corresponding cases of 15. There we 
proceeded from the direct to the inverse operations; i.e. so far 
as the nature of arithmetical operations is concerned, we launched 
out on the unknown. In the present section, however, we return 
from the inverse operation to the direct; i.e. we rearrange our 
statement in its simplest form. The statement, for instance, 
that 32-^=25, is really a statement tha! 32 is the sum of x 
and 25. 

17. The five equalities which stand first in the five pairs of 
equalities in 1 5 ( 2) may therefore be taken as the main types of a 
simple statement of equality. When we are familiar with the treat- 
ment of quantities by equations, we may ignore the units and deal 
solely with numbers; and (ii.) (a) and (ii.) (b) may then, by the 
commutative law for multiplication, be regarded as identical. 
The five processes of deduction then reduce to four, which may 
be described as (i.) subtraction, (ii.) division, (iii.) (a) taking a 
root, (iii.) (b) taking logarithms. It will be found that these 
(and particularly the first three) cover practically all the pro- 
cesses legitimately adopted in the elementary theory of the 
solution of equations; other processes being sometimes liable 
to introduce roots which do not satisfy the original equation. 

18. It should be noticed that we are still dealing with the 
elementary processes of arithmetic, and that all the numbers 
contemplated in 14-17 are supposed to be positive integers. 
If, for instance, we are told that 15 = ! of (x- 2), what is meant 
is that (i) there is a number u such that xu+2, '(2) there 
is a number v such that w = 4 times v, and (3) 15 = 3 times v. 
From these statements, working backwards, we find successively 
that n=5, =2o, z=22. The deductions follow directly 
from the definitions, and such mechanical processes as "clearing 
of fractions" find no place (21 (ii.)). The extension of the 
methods to fractional numbers is part of the establishment of 
the laws governing these numbers ( 27 (ii.)). 

19. Expressed Equations. The simplest forms of arithmetical 
equation arise out of abbreviated solutions of particular prob- 
lems. In accordance with 15, it is desirable that our state- 
ments should be statements of equality of quantities rather 
than of numbers; and it is convenient in the early stages to 
have a distinctive notation, e.g. to represent the former by capital 
letters and the latter by small letters. 

As an example, take the following. I buy 2 Ib of tea, and 
have 6s. 8d. left out of ios.; how much per K> did tea cost? 

(1) In ordinary language we should say: Since 6s. 8d. was 
left, the amount spent was ios. 6s. 8d., i.e. was 35. 4d. There- 
fore 2 Ib of tea cost 33. 4d. Therefore i ft of tea cost is. 8d. 

(2) The first step towards arithmetical reasoning in such a 
case is the introduction of the sign of equality. Thus we say: 

Cost of 2 Ib tea+6s. 8d. = ios. 
.'. Cost of 2 Ib tea = ios. 6s. 8d. =35. 4d. 
.'.Cost of i Ib tea = is. 8d 



602 



ALGEBRA 



(3) The next step is to show more distinctly the unit we are 
dealing with (in addition to the money unit), viz. the cost of i Ib 
tea. We write: 

(2Xcost of i ft tea)+6s. 8d. = los. 
.'. 2Xcost of i ft tea = ios.-6s. 8d. =33. 4d. 
.'. Cost of I Ib tea = is. 8d. 

(4) The stage which is introductory to algebra consists merely 
in replacing the unit " cost of i Ib tea " by a symbol, which 
may be a letter or a mark such as the mark of interrogation, the 
asterisk, &c. If we denote this unit by X, we have 

(2XX)+6s. 8d. = ios. 
.'. 2XX = ios.-6s. 8d. =33. 4d. 
.-.X = is. 8d. 

20. Notation of Multiples. The above is arithmetic. The 
only thing which it is necessary to import from algebra is the 
notation by which we write 2X instead of 2 X X or 2 . X. This is 
rendered possible by the fact that we can use a single letter to 
represent a single number or numerical quantity, however many 
digits are contained in the number. 

It must be remembered that, if a is a number, $a means 3 
times a, not a times 3; the latter must be represented by 0X3 
or a . 3. 

The number by which an algebraical expression is to be 
multiplied is called its coefficient. Thus in 30 the coefficient of a 
is 3. But in 3 . 40 the coefficient of 40 is 3, while the coefficient of 
a is 3 . 4. 

21. Equations with Fractional Coefficients. As an example of a 
special form of equation we may take 

(i.) There are two- ways of proceeding. 

(a) The statement is that (i) there is a number u such that 
*= 2W,(2) there is a number v such that x = yi, and (3) u-\-v= 10. 
We may therefore conveniently take as our unit, in place of x, a 
number y such that x = 6y. 

We then have 3y+2y= 10, 

whence 5^= 10, y= 2, x = 6y= 12. 

(b) We can collect coefficients, i.e. combine the separate 
quantities or numbers expressed in terms of x as unit into a 
single quantity or number so expressed, obtaining 

fx = io. 
By successive stages we obtain ( 18) %x=2, x=i2; or we 

may write at once ^ rz of io = - of 10=12. The latter 

is the more advanced process, implying some knowledge of the 
laws of fractional numbers, as well as an application of the 
associative law ( 26 (i.)). 

(ii.) Perhaps the worst thing we can do, from the point of view 
of intelligibility, is to " clear of fractions " by multiplying both 
sides by 6. It is no doubt true that, if \x-\-\x=\o, then 32+ 
2X= 60 (and similarly if %x- s f-\x-\-\x= 10, then ^x-\-2x-\-x=6o); 
but the fact, however interesting it may be, is of no importance 
for our present purpose. In the method (a) above there is 
indeed a multiplication by 6; but it is a multiplication arising 
out of subdivision, not out of repetition (see ARITHMETIC), so 
that the total (viz. 10) is unaltered. 

22. Arithmetical and Algebraical Treatment of Equations. The 
following will illustrate the passage from arithmetical to alge- 
braical reasoning. " Coal costs 35. a ton more this year than 
last year. If 4 tons last year cost 1043., how much does a ton 
cost this year ? " 

If we write X for the cost per ton this year, we have 



From this we can deduce successively X- 35. = 26s., X = 29s. 
But, if we transform the equation into 
4X-I2S. = 1043., 

we make an essential alteration. The original statement was 
with regard to X~3S. as the unit; and from this, by the applica- 
tion of the distributive law ( 26 (i.)), we have passed to a state- 
ment with regard to X as the unit. This is an algebraical process. 
In the same way, the transition from (* 2 +4*-f 4)~4 = 2i 
to re 2 +4* +4= 25, or from (*-|-2) 2 = 25 to A;+2 = V2S, is arith- 
metical; but the transition from ^+4^+4=25 to (*+2) 2 =25 
is algebraical, since it involves a change of the number we are 
thinking about. 



Generally, we may say that algebraic reasoning in reference to 
equations consists in the alteration of the form of a statement 
rather than in the deduction of a new statement; i.e. it cannot 
be said that " If A = B, then E = F " is arithmetic, while ' If 
C = D, then E = F " is algebra. Algebraic treatment consists in 
replacing either of the terms A or B by an expression which we 
know from the laws of arithmetic to be equivalent to it. The 
subsequent reasoning is arithmetical. 

23. Sign of Equality. The various meanings of the sign of 
equality ( = ) must be distinguished. 

(i-) 4X3 ft = 12 ft. 

This states that the result of the operation of multiplying 3 ft> 
by 4 is 12 Ib. (ii.) 4X3 lb=3X4 ft. 

This states that the two operations give the same result; i.e. 
that they are equivalent. 

(iii.) A's share = 53., or 

3 times A's share = 155. 

Either of these is a statement of fact with regard to a particular 
quantity; it is usually called an equation, but sometimes a 
conditional equation, the term " equation " being then extended 
to cover (i.) and (ii.). (iv.) x'=xXxXx. 

This is a definition of x*; the sign = is in such cases usually 
replaced by =. (v.) 24d. =25. 

This is usually regarded as being, like (ii.), a statement of 
equivalence. It is, however, only true if is. is equivalent to I2d., 
and the correct statement is then 



If the operator -j^j-X is omitted, the statement is really an 



equation, giving is. in terms of id. or vice versa. 
The following statements should be compared: 

X=A'sshare = f of 10 = 3X^5 = 15. 
X=A's share = f of 10 = 2 of 3o=is. 

In each case, the first sign of equality comes under (iv.) above, 
the second under (iii.), and the fourth under (i.); but the third 
sign comes under (i.) in the first case (the statement being that 
of io=s) and under (ii.) in the second. 

It will be seen from 22 that the application of algebra to 
equations consists in the interchange of equivalent expressions, 
and therefore comes under (i.) and (ii.). -We replace 4(^-3), for 
instance, by 4^-4. 3, because we know that, whatever the value 
of * may be, the result of subtracting 3 from it and multiplying 
the remainder by 4 is the same as the result of finding 4* and 4 . 3 
separately and subtracting the latter from the former. 

A statement such as (i.) or (ii.) is sometimes called an identilv. 

The two expressions whose equality is stated by an equation 
or an identity are its members. 

24. Use of Letters in General Reasoning. It may be assumed 
that the use of letters to denote quantities or numbers will first 
arise in dealing with equations, so that the letter used will in 
each case represent a definite quantity or number; such general 
statements as those of 15 and 16 being deferred to a later stage. 
In addition to these, there are cases in which letters can use- 
fully be employed for general arithmetical reasoning. 

(i.) There are statements, such as A+B = B+A, which are 
particular cases of the laws of arithmetic, but need not be ex- 
pressed as such. For multiplication, for instance, we have the 
statement that, if P and Q are two quantities, containing respec- 
tively p and q of a particular unit, then />XQ = gXP; or the 
more abstract statement that pXq = qXp. 

(ii.) The general theory of ratio and proportion requires the 
use of general symbols. 

(iii.) The general statement of the laws of operation of fractions 
is perhaps best deferred until we come to fractional numbers, 
when letters can be used to express the laws of multiplication 
and division of such numbers. 

(iv.) Variation is generally included in text-books on algebra, 
but apparently only because the reasoning is general. It is 
part of the general theory of quantitative relation, and in its 
elementary stages is a suitable subject for graphical treatment 
( 3i)- 



ALGEBRA 



603 




25. Preparation for Algebra. The calculation of the values 
of simple algebraical expressions for particular values of letters 
involved is a useful exercise, but its tediousness is apt to make 

e subject repulsive. 

What is more important is to verify particular examples of 
neral formulae. These formulae are of two kinds: (a) the 
general properties, such as m(a-\-b) = ma+mb, on which algebra 
is based, and (6) particular formulae such as (x-a)(x+a) 
= x*-a 2 . Such verifications are of value for two reasons. In 
the first place, they lead to an understanding of what is meant 
by the use of brackets and by such a statement as 3(7 + 2) 
3 . 7+3 . 2.' This does not mean (cf. 23) that the algebraic 
;ult of performing the operation 3(7+2) is 3 . 7+3 . 2; it means 
,t if we convert 7 + 2 into the single number 9 and then 
ultiply by 3 we get the same result as if we converted 3 . 7 
d 3 . 2 into 2 1 and 6 respectively and added the results. In 
ie second place, particular cases lay the foundation for the 
general formula. 

Exercises in the collection of coefficients of various letters 
occurring in a complicated expression ,are usually performed 
mechanically, and are probably of very little value. 

26. General Arithmetical Theorems. 

(i.) The fundamental laws of arithmetic (q.v.) should be con- 
stantly borne in mind, though not necessarily stated. The 
following are some special points. 

(a) The commutative law and the associative law are closely 
related, and it is best to establish each law for the case of two 
numbers before proceeding to the general case. In the case of 
addition, for instance, suppose that we are satisfied that in 
a+b+c+d+e we may take any two, as 6 and c, together 
(association) and interchange them (commutation). Then we 
have a+6+c+rf+e = a+c+6+rf+e. Thus any pair of adjoin- 
ing numbers can be interchanged, so that the numbers can be 
r ranged in any order. 
(b) The important form of the distributive law is #z(A+B) 
= wA+wB. The form (m+n) A = wA+wA follows at once from 
the fact that A is the unit with which we are dealing. 

(c) The fundamental properties of subtraction and of division 



re that A-B+B = A and wX of A = A, since in each case the 

second operation restores the original quantity with which we 

.rted. 

(ii.) The elements of the theory of numbers belong to arith- 
metic. In particular, the theorem that if n is a factor of a and 
of b it is also a factor of pa=*=qb, where p and q are any integers, 
is important in reference to the determination of greatest common 
divisor and to the elementary treatment of continued fractions. 
Graphic methods are useful here ( 34 (iv.)). The law of relation 
of successive convergents to a continued fraction involves more 
advanced methods (see 42 (iii.) and CONTINUED FRACTION). 

(iii.) There are important theorems as to the relative value of 
tions; e.g. 

i \ rr c u , 

(a) If - b =- d , then each ' 



sta 

( 




(b) , , is nearer to i than T is; and, generally, if T=F-J' t ' ien 

lies between the two. (All the numbers are, of course, 

supposed to be positive.) 

27. Negative Quantities and Fractional Numbers. (i.) What are 
sually called " negative numbers " in arithmetic are in reality 
ot negative numbers but negative quantities. If a person has to 
eceive 75. and pay 53., with a net result of +23., the order of 
he operations is immaterial. If he pays first, he then has -53. 

iis is sometimes treated as a debt of 55. ; an alternative method 

to recognize that our zero is really arbitrary, and that in fact 
ve shift it with every operation of addition or subtraction. But 
dien we say "-53." we mean "-(53.)," not "(-5)3."; the 
dea of (-5) as a number with which we can perform such 

erations as multiplication comes later ( 49). 

(ii.) On the other hand, the conception of a, fractional number 
ollows directly from the use of fractions, involving the sub- 
division of a unit. We find that fractions follow certain laws 



corresponding exactly with those of integral multipliers, and we 
are therefore able to deal with the fractional numbers as if they 
were integers. 

28. Miscellaneous Developments in Arithmetic. The following 
are matters which really belong to arithmetic; they are usually 
placed under algebra, since the general formulae involve the use 
of letters. 

(i.) Arithmetical Progressions such as 2, 5,8, . . . The formula 
for the rth term is easily obtained. The problem of finding the 
sum of r terms is aided by graphic representation, which shows 
that the terms may be taken in pairs, working from the outside 
to the middle; the two cases of an odd number of terms and an 
even number of terms may be treated separately at first, and 
then combined by the ordinary method, viz. writing the series 
backwards. 

In this, as in almost all other cases, particular examples should 
be worked before obtaining a general formula. 

(ii.) The law of indices (positive integral indices only) follows 
at once from the definition of a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , ... as abbreviations 
of a.a, a.a.a, a.a.a.a, . . ., or (by analogy with the definitions of 
2, 3, 4, ... themselves) of a.a, a.a*, a.a 3 , . . . successively. 
The treatment of roots and of logarithms (all being positive 
integers) belongs to this subject; a = fyn and ^> = log a being the 
inverses of n = a p (cf. 15, 16). The theory may be extended to 
the cases of p=i and p = o; so that a 3 means a.a.a.i, a 2 means 
a.a.i, a 1 means a.i, and a" means i (there being then none of the 
multipliers a). 

The terminology is sometimes confused. In n = a p , a is the 
root or base, p is the index or logarithm, and n is the power or 
antilogarithm. Thus a, a?, a 3 , ... are the first, second, third, 
. . . powers of a. But a? is sometimes incorrectly described as 
" a to the power p "; the power being thus confused with the 
index or logarithm. 

(iii.) Scales of Notation lead, by considering, e.g., how to express 
in the scale of 10 a number whose expression in the scale of 8 is 

2222222, tO 

(iv.) Geometrical Progressions. It should be observed that 
the radix of the scale is exactly the same thing as the root 
mentioned under (ii.) above; and it is better to use the term 
" root " throughout. Denoting the root by a, and the number 
2222222 in this scale by N, we have 

N= 2222222. 
aN =22222220. 

Thus by adding 2 to aN we can subtract N from aN+2, obtaining 
20000000, which is = 2 . a 7 ; and from this we easily pass to the 
general formula for the sum of a geometrical progression having 
a given number of terms. 

(v.) Permutations and Combinations may be regarded as 
arithmetical recreations; they become important algebraically 
in reference to the binomial theorem ( 41, 44). 

(vi.) Surds and Approximate Logarithms. From the arith- 
metical point of view, surds present a greater difficulty than 
negative quantities and fractional numbers. We cannot solve the 
equation 7s.+X = 4s.; but we are accustomed to transactions of 
lending and borrowing, and we can therefore invent a negative 
quantity -33. such that -3S.+3S. = o. We cannot solve the 
equation 7X = 4S. ; but we are accustomed to subdivision of 
units, and we can therefore give a meaning to X by inventing 
a unit ifS. such that 7X^5 = 13., and can thence pass to the idea 
of fractional numbers. When, however, we come to the equation 
a; 2 = 5, where we are dealing with numbers, not with quantities, 
we have no concrete facts to assist us. We can, however, find 
a number whose square shall be as nearly equal to 5 as we please, 
and it is this number that we treat arithmetically as Vs. We 
may take it to (say) 4 places of decimals; or we may suppose 
it to be taken to 1000 places. In actual practice, surds mainly 
arise out of mensuration; and we can then give an exact defini- 
tion by graphical methods. 

When, by practice with logarithms, we become familiar with 
the correspondence between additions of length on the log- 
arithmic scale (on a slide-rule) and multiplication of numbers 
in the natural scale (including fractional numbers), Vs acquires 



604 



ALGEBRA 



a definite meaning as the number corresponding to the ex- 
tremity of a length x, on the logarithmic scale, such that 5 
corresponds to the extremity of 2X. Thus the concrete fact 
required to enable us to pass arithmetically from the concep- 
tion of a fractional number to the conception of a surd is the 
fact of performing calculations by means of logarithms. 

In the same way we regard Iogi 2, not as a new kind of number, 
but as an approximation. 

(vii.) The use of fractional indices follows directly from this 
parallelism. We find that the product a m Xa m Xa m is equal to 
a 3 ; and, by definition, the product 3 a X ? X -\la is equal 
to a, which is a 1 . This suggests that we should write ? a as a 1 / 3 ; 
and we find that the use of fractional indices in this way satisfies 
the laws of integral indices. It should be observed that, by 
analogy with the definition of a fraction, a plq mean (a 1/8 ) p , 
not (a") 1 /'. 

II. Graphical Introduction to Algebra. 

29. The science of graphics is closely related to that of mensura- 
tion. While mensuration is concerned with the representation 
of geometrical magnitudes by numbers, graphics is concerned 
with the representation of numerical quantities by geometrical 
figures, and particularly by lengths. An important development, 
covering such diverse matters as the equilibrium of forces and 
the algebraic theory of complex numbers ( 66), has relation to 
cases where the numerical quantity has direction as well as 
magnitude. There are also cases in which graphics and mensura- 
tion are used jointly; a variable numerical quantity is repre- 
sented by a graph, and the principles of mensuration are then 
applied to determine related numerical quantities. General 
aspects of the subject are considered under MENSURATION; 
VECTOR ANALYSIS; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS. 

30. The elementary use of graphic methods is qualitative 
rather than quantitative; i.e. it is for purposes of illustration 
and suggestion rather than for purposes of deduction and exact 
calculation. We start with related facts, and adopt a particular 
method of visualizing the relation. One of the relations most 
commonly illustrated in this way is the time-relation; the 
passage of time being associated with the passage of a point 
along a straight line, so that equal intervals of time are repre- 
sented by equal lengths. 

31. It is important to begin thestudy of graphics with concrete 
cases rather than with tracing values of an algebraic function. 
Simple examples of the time-relation are the number of 
scholars present in a class, the height of the barometer, and the 
reading of the thermometer, on successive days. Another useful 
set of graphs comprises those which give the relation between 
the expressions of a length, volume, &c., on different systems 
of measurement. Mechanical, commercial, economic and statis- 
tical facts (the latter usually involving the time-relation) afford 
numerous examples. 

32. The ordinary method of representation is as follows. 
Let X and Y be the related quantities, their expressions in 
terms of selected units A and B being x and y, so that X = z.A, 
Y = y . B. For graphical representation we select units of length 
L and M, not necessarily identical. We take a fixed line OX, 
usually drawn horizontally; for each value of X we measure a 
length or abscissa ON equal to x.L,, and draw an ordinate NP 
at right angles to OX and equal to the corresponding value of 
y . M. The assemblage of ordinates NP is then the graph of Y. 

The series of values of X will in general be discontinuous, 
and the graph will then be made up of a succession of parallel and 
(usually) equidistant ordinates. When the series is theoretically 
continuous, the theoretical graph will be a continuous figure 
of which the lines actually drawn are ordinates. The upper 
boundary of this figure will be a line of some sort; it is this line, 
rather than the figure, that is sometimes called the " graph." 
It is better, however, to treat this as a secondary meaning. In 
particular, the equality or inequality of values of two functions 
is more readily grasped by comparison of the lengths of the 
ordinates of the graphs than by inspection of the relative positions 
of their bounding lines. 



33. The importance of the bounding line of the graph lies in 
the fact that we can keep it unaltered while we alter the graph 
as a whole by moving OX up or down. We might, for instance, 
read temperature from 60 instead of from o. Thus we 
form the conception, not only of a zero, but also of the arbitrari- 
ness of position of tkis zero (cf. 27 (i.)); and we are assisted 
to the conception of negative quantities. On the other hand, 
the alteration in the direction of the bounding line, due to 
alteration in the unit of measurement of Y, is useful in relation 
to geometrical projection. 

This, however, applies mainly to the representation of values 
of Y. Y is represented by the length of the ordinate NP, so 
that the representation is cardinal; but this ordinate really 
corresponds to the point N, so that the representation of X is 
ordinal. It is therefore only in certain special cases, such as 
those of simple time-relations (e.g. " J is aged 40, and K is aged 
26; when will J be twice as old as K?"), that the graphic 
method leads without arithmetical reasoning to the properties 
of negative values. In other cases the continuation of the graph 
may constitute a dangerous extrapolation. 

34. Graphic representation thus rests on the principle that 
equal numerical quantities may be represented by equal lengths, 
and that a quantity wA may be represented by a length mL, 
where A and L are the respective units; and the science of 
graphics rests on the converse property that the quantity 
represented by pL is pA, i.e. that pA is determined by finding 
the number of times that L is contained in pL. The graphic 
method may therefore be used in arithmetic for comparing two 
particular magnitudes of the same kind by comparing the corre- 
sponding lengths P and Q measured along a single line OX from 
the same point O. 

(i.) To divide P by Q, we cut off from P successive portions 
each equal to Q, till we have a piece R left which is less than Q. 
Thus P = Q+R, where k is an integer. 

(ii.) To continue the division we may take as our new unit 
a submultiple of Q, such as Q/r, where r is an integer, and repeat 
the process. We thus get P = kQ+m.Q./r+S = (k+m/r)Q+S, 
where S is less than Q/r. Proceeding in this way, we may be 
able to express P-i-Q as the sum of a finite number of terms 
k-\-m/r+n/r*+ ... ; or, if r is not suitably chosen, we may 
not. If, e.g. r=io, we get the ordinary expression of P/Q 
as an integer and a decimal; but, if P/Q were equal to 1/3, 
we could not express it as a decimal with a finite number of 
figures. 

(iii.) In the above method the choice of r is arbitrary. We 
can avoid this arbitrariness by a different procedure. Having 
obtained R, which is less than Q, we now repeat with Q and R 
the process that we adopted with P and Q; i.e. we cut off 
from Q successive portions each equal to R. Suppose we find 
Q = sR+T, then we repeat the process with R and T; and so 
on. We thus express P-i-Q in the form of a continued fraction, 

k-\ x- , which is usually written, forconciseness,^+jq:7q:& c -) 




(iv.) If P and Q can be expressed in the forms pL and qL, 
where p and q are integers, R will be equal to (p-kq)L, which 
is both less than pL and less than qL. Hence the successive 
remainders are successively smaller multiples of L, but still 
integral multiples, so that the series of quotients k, s, t, . . . 
will ultimately come to an end. Moreover, if the last divisor is 
uL, then it follows from the theory of numbers ( 26 (ii.)) that (a) 
M is a factor of p and of q, and (b) any number which is a factor 
of p and q is also a factor of u. Hence u is the greatest common 
measure of p and q. 

35. In relation to algebra, the graphic method is mainly 
useful in connexion with the theory of limits ( 58, 61) and the 
functional treatment of equations ( 60). As regards the latter, 
there are two classes of cases. In the first class come equations 
in a single unknown; here the function which is equated to 
zero is the Y whose values for different values of X are traced, 



ALGEBRA 



605 



and the solution of the equation is the determination of the 
points where the ordinates of the graph are zero. The second 
class of cases comprises equations involving two unknowns; 
here we have to deal with two graphs, and the solution of the 
equation is the determination of their common ordinates. 

Graphic methods also enter into the consideration of irrational 
numbers ( 65). 

III. Elementary Algebra of Positive Numbers. 

36. Monomials. (i.) An expression such as a.2.a.a.b.c.).a.a.c, 
denoting that a series of multiplications is to be performed, is 
called a monomial; the numbers (arithmetical or algebraical) 
which are multiplied together being its factors. An expression 
denoting that two or more monomials are to be added or sub- 
tracted is a multinomial or polynomial, each of the monomials 
being a term of it. A multinomial consisting of two or of three 
terms is a binomial or a trinomial. 

(ii.) By means of the commutative law we can collect like 
terms of a monomial, numbers being regarded as like terms. 
Thus the above expression is equal to 6a b bc*, which is, of course, 
equal to other expressions, such as 6baV. The numerical factor 
6 is called the coefficient of a 6 6c 2 (20); and, generally, the 
coefficient of any factor or of the product of any factors is the 
product of the remaining factors. 

(iii.) The multiplication and division of monomials is effected 
by means of the law of indices. Thus 6a 6 6c 2 -i-5a 2 6c = a 3 c, 
since b= i. It must, of course, be remembered ( 23) that this 
is a statement of arithmetical equality; we call the statement 
an " identity," but we do not mean that the expressions are 
the same, but that, whatever the numerical values of a, b and c 
may be, the expressions give the same numerical result. 

In order that a monomial containing a m as a factor may be 
divisible by a monomial containing a p as a factor, it is necessary 
that p should be not greater than m. 

(iv.) In algebra we have a theory of highest common factor and 
lowest common multiple, but it is different from the arithmetical 
theory of greatest common divisor and least common multiple. 
We disregard numerical coefficients, so that by the H.C.F. or 
L.C.M. of 6a 5 6c 2 and i2aWcd we mean the H.C.F. or L.C.M. 
of a B 6c 2 and aWcd. The H.C.F. is then an expression of the 
form a^c'd', where p, q, r, s have the greatest possible values 
consistent with the condition that each of the given expressions 
shall be divisible by a p i*c r d'. Similarly the L.C.M. is of the 
form a v b q c'd', where p, q, r, s have the least possible values 
consistent with the condition that a p b"c'd* shall be divisible by 
each of the given expressions. In the particular case it is clear 
that the H.C.F. is a*bc and the L.C.M. is aWc 2 d. 

The extension to multinomials forms part of the theory of 
factors ( 51). 

37. Products of Multinomials. (i.) Special arithmetical results 
may often be used to lead up to algebraical formulae. Thus a 
comparison of numbers occurring in a table of squares 



3" =9 



I3 2 =i69 



suggests the formula (A+a) 2 = A 2 +2Aa+a 2 . Similarly the 

equalities 

99X101 =9999 = 10000 1 
98X102=9996 = 100004 
97X103=9991 =100009 



lead up to (A -a) (A+a) = A 2 -a 2 . These, with (A-a) 2 = 
A 2 -2Aa+a 2 , are the most important in elementary work. 

(ii.) These algebraical formulae involve not only the distributive 
law and the law of signs, but also the commutative law. Thus 
(A+a) 2 = (A+a)(A+a)=A(A+a) +a(A+a)=AA+Aa+aA+aa; 
and the grouping of the second and third terms as 2Aa involves 
treating Aa and aA as identical. This is important when we 
come to the binomial theorem ( 41, and cf. 54 (i.)). 



(iii.) By writing (A+a) 2 =A 2 +2Aa+a 2 in the form (A+a) 2 = 
A 2 +(2A+a)a, we obtain the rule for extracting the square root 
in arithmetic. 

(iv.) When the terms of a multinomial contain various powers 
of x, and we are specially concerned with x, the terms are usually 
arranged in descending (or ascending) order of the indices; 
terms which contain the same power being grouped so as to 
give a single coefficient. Thus 2bx-4x 2 +6ab+$ax would be 
written -4 2 + (33+26)2+606. It is not necessary to regard 
-4 here as a negative number; all that is meant is that 4^ 
has to be subtracted. 

(v.) When we have to multiply two multinomials arranged 
according to powers of x, the method of detached coefficients 
enables us to omit the powers of x during the multiplication. If 
any power is absent, we treat it as present, but with coefficient o. 
Thus, to multiply x 3 -2x+i by 2# 2 +4, we write the process 

+I+0-2+I 

+2+0+4 

+2+0-4+2 

+O+O O+O 

+4+0-8+4 
+2+0+0+2-8+4 
giving 2* 6 +2:; 2 -8*+4 as the result. 

38. Construction and Transformation of Equations. (i.) The 
statement of problems in equational form should precede the 
solution of equations. 

(ii.) The solution of equations is effected by transformation, 
which may be either arithmetical or algebraical. The principles 
of arithmetical transformation follow from those stated in 
15-18 by replacing X, A, B, m, M, x, n, a and p by any ex- 
pressions involving or not involving the unknown quantity or 
number and representing positive numbers or (in the case of 
X, A, B and M) positive quantities. The principle of algebraic 
transformation has been stated in 22; it is that, if A = B is 
an equation (i.e. if either or both of the expressions A and B 
involves x, and A is arithmetically equal to B for the particular 
value of x which we require), and if B = C is an identity (i.e. if 
B and C are expressions involving x which are different in form 
but are arithmetically equal for all values of x), then the state- 
ment A= C is an equation which is true for the same value of x 
for which A = B is true. 

(iii.) A special rule of transformation is that any expression 
may be transposed from one side of an equation to the other, 
provided its sign is changed. This is the rule of transposition. 
Suppose, for instance, that P+Q-R+S = T. This may be 
written (P+Q-R)+S = T; and this statement, by definition 
of the sign-, is. the same as the statement that (P+Q-R) = 
T-S. Similarly the statements P+Q-R-S = T and P+ 
Q-R = T+S are the same. These transpositions are purely 
arithmetical. To transpose a term which is not the last term on 
either side we must first use the commutative law, which 
involves an algebraical transformation. Thus from the equation 
P+Q-R+S = T and the identity P+Q -R+S = P-R+S+Q 
we have the equation P-R+S+Q = T, which is the same 
statement as P-R+S = T-Q. 

(iv.) The procedure is sometimes stated differently, the 
transposition being regarded as a corollary from a general 
theorem that the roots of an equation are not altered if the 
same expression is added to or subtracted from both members 
of the equation. 'The objection to this (cf. 21 (ii.)) is that 
we do not need the general theorem, and that it is unwise to 
cultivate the habit of laying down a general law as a justification 
for an isolated action. 

(v.) An alternative method of obtaining the rule of trans- 
position is to change the zero from which we measure. Thus 
from P+Q-R+S = T we deduce P+(Q-R+S) = P+(T-P). 
If instead of measuring from zero we measure from P, we find 
Q-R+S = T-P. The difference between this and (iii.) is 
that we transpose the first term instead of the last; the 
two methods corresponding to the two cases under (i.) of 

IS (a). 

(vi.) In the same way, we do not lay down a general rule 



6o6 



ALGEBRA 



that an equation is not altered by multiplying both members by 

the same number. Suppose, for instance, that (*+i 

Here each member is a number, and the equation may, by the 

commutative law for multiplication, be written 2( - x ^~ l > _4(*~ 2 ) 

3 



This means that, whatever unit A we take, 




and 



44i 22 A are equal. We therefore take A to be 15, and find 

O 

that 6(x+i) = 2o(x-2). Thus, if we have an equation P = Q, 
where P and Q are numbers involving fractions, we can clear of 
fractions, not by multiplying P and Q by a number m, but by 
applying the equal multiples P and Q to a number nt as unit. 
If the P and Q of our equation were quantities expressed in 
terms of a unit A, we should restate the equation in terms of a 
unit A./m, as explained in 18 and 21 (i.) (a). 

(vii.) One result of the rule of transposition is that we can 
transpose all the terms in * to one side of equation, and all the 
terms not containing x to the other. An equation of the form 
ax=b, where a and b do not contain *, is the standard form of 
simple equation. 

(viii.) The quadratic equation is the equation of two expres- 
sions, monomial or multinomial, none of the terms involving 
any power of x except * and x 2 . The standard form is usually 
taken to be 

ax*-\-bx J t-c=o, 

from which we find, by transformation, 



and thence 



This only gives one root. As to the other root, see 47 (iii.). 

39. Fractional Expressions. An equation may involve a 
fraction of the form Q, where Q involves *. 

(i.) If P and Q can (algebraically) be written in the forms 
RA and SA respectively, where A may or may not involve x, 



then 



n = ~SA = "s' 



not = 



P U 



(ii.) In an equation of the form Q = y> the expressions P, Q, 

P II 

U, V are usually numerical. We then have . QV. = y. QV, or 

PV = UQ, as in 38 (vi.). This is the rule of cross-multiplication. 
(iii.) The restriction in (i.) is important. Thus ?^~ l _ = 

(*I|| (*+aj is equal to ||, except when x=i. For this 

latter value it becomes $, which has no direct meaning, and 
requires interpretation ( 61). 

40. Powers of a Binomial. We know that (A+o) 2 =A 2 + 
2Ao+o 2 . Continuing to develop the successive powers of A+o 
into multinomials, we find that (A+o) 3 = A 3 +3A 2 o+3Ao 2 +o 3 , 
&c.; each power containing one more term than the preced- 
ing power, and the coefficients, when the terms are arranged 
in descending powers of A, being given by the following 
table: 



4641 

5 10 10 5 

6 15 20 15 

&C., 



where the first line stands for (A+o)=i. AW, and the suc- 
cessive numbers in the (+i)th line are the coefficients of 
A n a, A^'a 1 , . . . Ao" in the n+i terms of the multinomial 
equivalent to (A+o) n . 

In the same way we have (A-a) 2 =A 2 -2Aa+a 2 , (A-o) 3 
= A 3 -3A 2 <z+3Ao 2 -a 3 , . . . , so that the multinomial equivalent 
to (A-o) n has the same coefficients as the multinomial equivalent 
to (A+o) n , but with signs alternately + and -. 

The multinomial which is equivalent to (A=*=o) n , and has its 
terms arranged in ascending powers of a, is called the expansion 
of (Ao)". 



41. The binomial theorem gives a formula for writing down the 
coefficient of any stated term in the expansion of any stated 
power of a given binomial. 

(i.) For the general formula, we need only consider (A+a)". 
It is clear that, since the numerical coefficients of A and of a are 
each i, the coefficients in the expansions arise from the grouping 
and addition of like terms (37 (ii.)). We therefore determine 
the coefficients by counting the grouped terms individually, 
instead of adding them. To individualize the terms, we replace 
(A+o) (A+o) (A+o) ... by (A+o) (B+J) (C+c) .... so that 
no two terms are the same; the " like " -ness which determines 
the placing of two terms in one group being the fact that they 
become equal (by the commutative law) when B, C, . . . and 
b, c, . . . . are each replaced by A and o respectively. 

Suppose, for instance, that = s, so that we take five factors 
(A+o) (B+6) (C+c) (D+d) (E+e) and find their produot. 
The coefficient of A 2 a 3 in the expansion of (A+o) 6 is then the 
number of terms such as AJBcde, AbcDe, AbCde, . . . , in each 
of which there are two large and three small letters. The first 
term is ABCDE, in which all the letters are large; and the 
coefficient of A 2 o 3 is therefore the number of terms which can be 
obtained from ABCDE by changing three, and three only, of the 
large letters into small ones. 

We can begin with any one of the 5 letters, so that the first 
change can be made in 5 ways. There are then 4 letters left, and 
we can change any one of these. Then 3 letters are left, and 
we can change any one of these. Hence the change can be made 
in 3.4.5 ways. 

If, however, the 3.4.5 results of making changes like this are 
written down, it will be seen that any o'ne term in the required 
product is written down several times. Consider, for instance, 
the term AbcDe, in which the small letters are bee. Any one of 
these 3 might have appeared first, any one of the remaining 2 
second, and the remaining i last. The term therefore occurs 
i. 2. 3 times. This applies to each of the terms in which there are 
two large and three small letters. The total number of such 
terms in the multinomial equivalent to (A+o) (B+6) (C+c) 
(D+d) (E+e) is therefore (3. 4.5)^(1. 2.3); and this is therefore 
the coefficient of A 2 o 3 in the expansion of (A+o) 6 . 

The reasoning is quite general; and, in the same way, the 
coefficient of A n ~ r a r in the expansion of (A+o) " is j(w-r+i) 
(n-r+2) . . . (-i)w)-Hi.2.3 . . . r\. It is usual to write 
this as a fraction, inverting the order of the factors in the 
numerator. Then, if we denote it by W( r ), so that 



we have 

where M(O), introduced for consistency of notation, is defined by 

This is the binomial theorem for a positive integral index. 

(ii.) To verify this, let us denote the true coefficient of A"- r a r 
by ("), so that we have to prove that (?) = ( r ), where W( r ) is defined 
by (i); and let us inspect the actual process of multiplying the 
expansion of (A+o)"" 1 by A+o in order to obtain that of (A+o) ". 
Using detached coefficients ( 37 (v.)), the multiplication is repre- 
sented by the following: 



(V) ++(?:.) 



<+ (?) + (") ++ (?)+-+(-,)+>. 

so that CH"7') + (;=!) 

Now suppose that the formula (2) has been established for 
every power of A+o up to the (n-i)th inclusive, so that 

7 1 ) =( w - I )w,("Ij 1 ) = (*-i)(,-i).Then(^,thecoeffident 

of A"- r o r in the expansion of (A+o)", is equal to (-i)( r ) + 
(-i)(,_i). But it may be shown that (r being >o) 



ALGEBRA 



607 



(4), 



and therefore 



<> 



Hence the formula (2) is also true for the nth power of A+a. 
But it is true for the ist and the 2nd powers; therefore it is 
true for the 3rd; therefore for the 4th; and so on. Hence it 
is true for all positive integral powers of n. 

(iii.) The product 1.2.3. r ' s denoted by \_L or rl, and is 
called factorial r. The form rl is better for printing, but the 
form |_L is more convenient for ordinary use. If we denote 
w(w-i) . . . (n-r+i) (r factors) by <r) , then (r) =tt (r) /H. 

(iv.) We can write <.-> in the more symmetrical form 



which shows that 

n(r) = n(n-r) (6). 

We should have arrived at this form in (i.) by considering the 
selection of terms in which there are to be two large and three 
small letters, the large letters being written down first. The 
terms can be built up in 5! ways; but each will appear 213! 
times. 

(v.) Since w (r) is an integer, (r) is divisible by rl; i.e. the 
product of any r consecutive integers is divisible by rl (see 42 (ii.)). 

(vi.) The product rl arose in (i.) by the successive multiplica- 
tion of r, r- i, r- 2, . . . i. In practice the successive factorials 
i!, 2!, 3! ... are supposed to be obtained successively by 
introduction of new factors, so that 

Thus in defining r! as i. 2. 3 . . . r we regard the multiplications 
as taking place from left to right; and similarly in n (r \ A 
product in which multiplications are taken in this order is called 
a continued product. 

(vii.) In order to make the formula (5) hold for the extreme 
values (o) and t (n) we must adopt the convention that 

o!=i (8). 

This is consistent with (7), which gives i!=i.o!. It should be 
observed that, for r=o, (4) is replaced by 

and similarly, for the final terms, we should note that 

P(g1=oilq>p ( I0 ). 

(viii.) If M r denotes the term involving a' in the expansion of 
(A+o) n , then Mr/Wr-i= {(n-r+ i)/r) .a/A. This decreases as r 
increases; its value ranging from na/A to a/(nA). If na<A, 
the terms will decrease from the beginning; if n A<a, the terms 
will increase up to the end; if na > A and wA > a, the terms will 
first increase up to a greatest term (or two consecutive equal 
greatest terms) and then decrease. 

(ix.) The position of the greatest term will depend on the 
relative values of A and a; if a/ A is small, it will be near the 
beginning. Advantage can be taken of this, when n is large, 
to make approximate calculations, by omitting terms that are 
negligible. 

(a) Let S r denote the sum o+i+ . . . +u,, this sum being 
taken so as to include the greatest term (or terms); and let 
M r+ i/M r = 0, so that0<i. Then the sum of the remaining terms 
M r+ i+M r+ 2+ .+M is less than (i +0+02+ . . . +0"- r - l ) r + 1 , 
which is less than u T +i/(i-6); and therefore (A+a) n lies 
between S r and S r +M r+ i/(i-0). We can therefore stop as soon 
as M r+ i/ (i-0) becomes negligible. 

(b) In the same way, for the expansion of (A-a) n , let o> denote 
MO-MI+ . . . =*=w r . Then, provided ff r includes the greatest term, 
it will be found that (A-a) n lies between <r, and <r,+i. 

For actual calculation it is most convenient to write the 

theorem in the form 

n . , n i n 
(Aa)"=A n (i x)"=A"7.r.A"H - x.-x.A n ... 

1 2 L 

where x=a/A; thus the successive terms are obtained by suc- 
cessive multiplication. To apply the method to the calculation 
of N", it is necessary that we should be able to express N in the 
form A+a or A -a, where a is small in comparison with A, A" is 
easy to calculate and a/A is convenient as a multiplier. 

42. The reasoning adopted in 41 (ii.) illustrates two general 



methods of procedure. We know that (A+a) n is equal to a 
multinomial of n+i terms with unknown coefficients, and we 
require to find these coefficients. We therefore represent them 
by separate symbols, in the same way that we represent the 
unknown quantity in an equation by a symbol. This is the 
method of undetermined coefficients. We then obtain a set of 
equations, and by means of these equations we establish the 
required result by a process known as mathematical induction. 
This process consists in proving that a property involving p is 
true when p is any positive integer by proving (i) that it is true 
when p = i, and (2) that if it is true when p = n, where n is any 
positive integer, then it is true when p = + 1 . The following are 
some further examples of mathematical induction. 

(i.) By adding successively 1,3, 5 . . . we obtain i, 4, 9, . . . 
This suggests that, if u n is the sum of the first n odd numbers, 
then = *. Assume this true for MI, 2 , ., u n . Then 
M Jl+ i = n +(2+i)= 2 +(2+i) = (+i) 2 , so that it is true 
for +!. But it is true for MI. Therefore it is true generally. 

(ii.) We can prove the theorem of 41 (v.) by a double applica- 
tion of the method. 

(a) It is clear that every integer is divisible by i !. 

(b) Let us assume that the product of every set of p consecutive 
integers is divisible by pi, and let us try to prove that the product 
of every set of p-\-i consecutive integers is divisible by (p-\-i)l. 
Denote the product (+i) . . . (+r- i) by w trl . Then the 
assumption is that, whatever positive integral value n may 
have, w [pl is divisible by pi. 

(i) d'>+ l] -(n-i 



. . . (n+p-i) = (p+i). n lf \ But, by hypothesis, w [pl is 
divisible by p!. Therefore t * 1+i:i -(-i) l ''+ l1 is divisible by pi 
Therefore, if (n-i)^^ is divisible by (p+i)l, n l " +li is divisible 



(2) But i l " +l ^=(p+i)l, which is divisible by (p+i)l. 

(3) Therefore n [f+l} is divisible by (p+i)l, whatever positive 
integral value n may have. 

(c) Thus, if the theorem of 41 (v.) is true for r=p, it is true 
for r=p+i. But it is true for r=i. Therefore it is true 
generally. 

(iii.) Another application of the method is to proving the law 
of formation of consecutive convergents to a continued fraction 
(see CONTINUED FRACTIONS). 

43. Binomial Coefficients. The numbers denoted by n\ T ) in 
41 are the binomial coefficients shown in the table in 40; 
( r > being the (r+i)th number in the (w+i)th row. They have 
arisen as the coefficients in the expansion of (A+a) n ; but 
they may be considered independently as a system of numbers 
defined by (i) of 41. The individual numbers are connected 
by various relations, some of which are considered in this 
section. 

(i.) From (4) of 41 we have 

<r)-(-l)(r) =(-l)(r-l) (ii). 

Changing into ni, n 2, ... ., and adding the results, 



In particular, 

<r)=(-l)(r-l)+(-2)(r-l)+... + (r-l)(r-I) (13). 

Similarly, by writing (4) in the form 

n<r)-(n-l)(r-l) = (-l)<r) (14), 

changing n and r into n - 1 and r- 1 , repeating the process, and 
adding, we find, taking account of (9) , 

W(r) = (n-i)w+(n-2((,_ n +... + (n-r-i)o (15). 
(ii.) It is therefore more convenient to rearrange the table 
of 40 as shown below, on the left; the table on the right giving 
the key to the arrangement. 

I 0(0) 



I I 

2 I 

I 3 I 

3 4 l 
1651 

4 10 6 i 
i 10 15 7 

&c. 



1(0) 2 (2 ) 

2 (1) 3 (5) 

2 <> 3(2) 4(4) 

3(O 4<s) 5(t) 
3<o) 4(2) 5) 6(6) 

4(i) 5o) 6(6) 
4(o) 5(2) 6 (4 ) 7() 
&c. 



8 ( 8) 



6o8 



ALGEBRA 



Here we have introduced a number O(o> given by 

0(0= i (16), 

which is consistent with the relations in (i.). In this table any 
number is equal to the sum of the numbers which lie horizontally 
above it in the preceding column, and the difference of any two 
numbers in a column is equal to the sum of the numbers hori- 
zontally between them in the preceding column. 

The coefficients in the expansion of (A+a) n for any particular 
value of n are obtained by reading diagonally upwards from 
left to right from the (n+i)th number in the first column. 

(iii.) The table might be regarded as constructed by successive 
applications of (9) and (4); the initial data being (16) and (10). 
Alternatively, we might consider that we start with the first 
diagonal row (downwards from the left) and construct the 
remaining diagonal rows by successive applications of (15). 
Constructed in this way, the successive diagonal rows, com- 
mencing with the first, give thefigurale numbers of the first, 
second, third, . . . order. The (r+i)th figurate number of 
the nth order, i.e. the (r-(-i)th number in the th diagonal row, 
is w(w-r-i) . . . (n+r-i)/r\ = n [r] /rl; this may, by analogy 
with the notation of 41, be denoted by [,). We then have 

(n + i)w = (r+i)[-,] = (w+r)!/(!r!) = (n+r)( r) = (n+r)(n) (17). 

(iv.) By means of (17) the relations between the binomial 
coefficients in the form />(,) may be replaced by others with the 
coefficients expressed in the form p iq -\. The table in (ii.) may be 
written 



I [2] 



2[0] 

2[1] 
3[0] 

3m 
4to] 

4m 
5[o] 4tl 



I [8] 



&C. 
The most important relations are 



'[si 



OM=O (19); 

![,] -(ii-i)[,] = n [r _i] + (-i)[r_i]+... + (n-5+i)[,_i] (20); 

n[r] = [r-l] + (n I) [r_l] +.-. + I [r-1] (21). 

(v.) It should be mentioned that the notation of the binomial 
coefficients, and of the continued products such as n(n-i) . . . 
(n-r-f-i), is not settled. Some writers, for instance, use the 
symbol n, in place, in some cases, of (,>, and, in other cases, 
of (r> . It is convenient to retain *, to denote x'/rl, so that we 
have the consistent notation 

x r =x r /rl, n C r>=n< r Vr!, [r]=nt r Vf!. 

The binomial theorem for positive integral index may then be 
written 

(*+>) -xyt+x-iyi + ... +Xn, r y r +... +x y n . 

This must not be confused with the use of suffixes to denote 
particular terms of a series or a progression (as in 41 (viii.) 
and (ix.)). 

44. Permutations and Combinations. The discussion, in 41 
(i.), of the number of terms of a particular kind in a particular 
product, forms part of the theory of combinatorial analysis 
(q.v.), which deals with the grouping and arrangement of indi- 
viduals taken from a defined stock. The following are some 
particular cases; the proof usually follows the lines already 
indicated. Certain of the individuals may be distinguishable 
from the remainder of the stock, but not from each other; these 
may be called a type. 

(i.) A permutation is a linear arrangement, read in a definite 
direction of the line. The number ( n Pr) of permutations of r 
individuals out of a stock of n, all being distinguishable, is lr) . 
In particular, the number of permutations of the whole stock 
is n\. 

If a of the stock are of one type, b of another, c of another, 
. . . the number of distinguishable permutations of the whole 
stock is n!-5-(ffl!Mc! . . .). 

(ii.) A combination is a group of individuals without regard 
to arrangement. The number ( B C r ) of combinations of r indi- 



viduals out of a stock of n has in effect been proved in 41 (i.) 
to be (,). This property enables us to establish, by simple 
reasoning, certain relations between binomial coefficients. 
Thus (4) of 41 (ii.) follows from the fact that, if A is any one of 
the n individuals, the n C, groups of r consist of n-iC r _i which 
contain A and n _iC, which do not contain A. Similarly, con- 
sidering the various ways in which a group of r may be obtained 
from two stocks, one containing m and the other containing n, 
we find that 



o I m 



which gives 



( 22 ). 
This may also be written 

(m+n)' 1 -) = ?<'>. n<>+r a) . <-. (+.. .+r {r) .fw<).n( r ) (33). 
If r is greater than m or n (though of course not greater than 
m+n), some of the terms in (22) and (23) will be zero. 

(iii.) If there are n types, the number of individuals in each 
type being unlimited (or at any rate not less than r) , the number 
( n H r ) of distinguishable groups of r individuals out of the total 
stock is W[ r ]. This is sometimes called the number of homo- 
geneous products of r dimensions formed out of n letters; i.e. 
the number of products such as x r , aT^y 3 , *""%*, . . . that 
can be formed with positive integral indices out of n letters 
x, y, z, . . ., the sum of the indices in each product being r. 

(iv.) Other developments of the theory deal with distributions, 
partitions, &c. (see COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS). 

(v.) The theory of probability (q.v.) also comes under this 
head. Suppose that there are a number of arrangements of r 
terms or elements, the first of which a is always either A or 
not-A, the second b is B or not-B, the third c is C or not-C, 
and so on. If, out of every N cases, where N may be a very 
large number, a is A in />N cases and not-A in (i p)N cases, 
where p is a fraction such that pN is an integer, then p is the 
probability or frequency of occurrence of A. We may consider 
that we are dealing always with a single arrangement abc . . .. 
and that the number of times that a is made A bears to the 
number of times that a is made not-A the ratio of p to i-p; 
or we may. consider that there are N individuals, for />N of which 
the attribute a is A, while for (i-p)N it is not-A. If, in this 
latter case, the proportion of cases in which b is B to cases in 
which b is not-B is the same for the group of /N individuals in 
which a is A as for the group of (i-/>)N in which a is not-A, 
then the frequencies of A and of B are said to be independent; 
if this is not the case they are said to be correlated. The possi- 
bilities of a, instead of being A and not-A, may be AI, Az, . . ., 
each of these having its own frequency; and similarly for 
b, c, . . . If the frequency of each A is independent of the 
frequency of each B, then the attributes a and b are independent; 
otherwise they are correlated. 

45. Application of Binomial Theorem to Rational Integral 
Functions. An expression of the form Cox n +Cix n ~ 1 + . . . -\-c n , 
where Co, c\, . . . do not involve *, and the indices of the powers 
of x are all positive integers, is called a rational integral function 
of x of degree n. 

If we represent this expression by f(x), the expression obtained 
by changing * into x-\-h is f(x-\-h); and each term of this may 
be expanded by the binomial theorem. Thus we have 



* + (n- 



n-2)(n- 



&c. 



+ j n(n- 
+ &c. 



( n -i)(n-2)c t x"-*+... I j, 



It will be seen that the expression in curled brackets in each 
line after the first is obtained from the corresponding expression 
in the preceding line by a definite process; viz. x' is replaced by 



ALGEBRA 



609 



r.x' ', except for r = o, when xf is replaced by o. The expres- 
sions obtained in this way are called the first, second, . . . 
derived functions oi f(x). If we denote these by fi(x),fa(x), . . ., 
so that /,(*) is obtained from f,-i(x) by the above process, we 
have 

/(*+*) =/(*) +/, (x).h+Mx)Vi2\+...+f,( X )h'/r\+... 
This is a particular case of Taylor's theorem (see INFINITESIMAL 
CALCULUS). 

46. Relation of Binomial Coefficients to Summation of Series. 
(i.) The sum of the first n terms of an ordinary arithmetical 
progression (a+b), (0+26), . . . (a+nb) is ( 28 (i.)) \n l(a+6) + 
(a+6)j = a+5(+i)6 = t i].a+[2].&. Comparing this 
with the table in 43 (iv.), and with formula (21), we see that 
the series expressing the sum may be regarded as consisting of 
two, viz. a+a+ . . . and 6+26+36+ . . . ; for the first series 
we multiply the table (i.e. each number in the table) by a, and 
for the second series we multiply it by 6, and the terms and 
their successive sums are given for the first series by the first 
and the second columns, and for the second series by the second 
and the third columns. 

(ii.) In the same way, if we multiply the table by c, the sum 
of the first n numbers in any column is equal to the th number 
in the next following column. Thus we get a formula for the 
sum of n terms of a series such as 

2.4.6+4.6.8+..., or 6.8.10.12+8.10.12.14+... 

(iii.) Suppose we have such a series as 2.5+5.8+8.11+ . . . 
This cannot be summed directly by the above method. But 
the wth term is (3 i)(3+2) = i8[2] 6[i] 2. The sum of 
n terms is therefore ( 43 (iv.)) 



(iv.) Generally, let N be any rational integral function of n 
of degree r. Then, since n^ is also a rational integral function 
of n of degree r, we can find a coefficient c r , not containing n, 
and such as to make N c r tr] contain no power of n higher 
than ft 1 "" 1 . Proceed ing in this way, we can express N in the form 
c r .[,] + e,_i.w [r _i ] + . . ., where c r , c r -i, e,-2, ... do not con- 
tain ; and thence we can obtain the sum of the numbers 
found by putting w=i, 2, 3, ... n successively in N. These 
numbers constitute an arithmetical progression of the rth order. 

(v.) A particular case is that of the sum i r +2 r +3'+ . . . +n r , 
where r is a positive integer. It can be shown by the above 
reasoning that this can be expressed as a series of terms con- 
taining descending powers of n, the first term bewgn r+1 l(r+i). 
The most important cases are 
+2 +3 +...+n 



) 2 = (i +2 +... 

The general formula (which is established by more advanced 
methods) is 



where BI, B 2 , ... are certain numbers known as Bernoulli's 
numbers, and the terms within the bracket, after the first, have 
signs alternately + and . The values of the first ten of 
Bernoulli's numbers are 



IV. Negative Numbers and Formal Algebra. 

47. Negative quantities will have arisen in various ways, e.g. 

(i.) The logical result of the commutative law, applied to a 
succession of additions and subtractions, is to produce a negative 
quantity 33. such that 3S.+3S.= o( 28 (vi.)). 

(ii.) Simple equations, especially equations in which the 
unknown quantity is an interval of time, can often only be 
satisfied by a negative solution ( 33). 

(iii.) In solving a quadratic equation by the method of 38 
(viii.) we may be led to a result which is apparently absurd. 
If, lor instance, we inquire as to the time taken to reach a given 
height by a body thrown upwards with a given velocity, we 
find that the time increases as the height decreases. Graphical 
I. 20 



representation shows that there are two solutions, and that an 
equation X 2 = pa 2 may be taken to be satisfied not only by' 
X = 3d but also by X= 30. 

48. The occurrence of negative quantities does not, however, 
involve the conception of negative numbers. In (iii.) of 47, 
for instance, " 30" does not mean that a is to be taken (3-) 
times, but that a is to be taken 3 times, and the result treated 
as subtractive; i.e. -30 means -(30), not (3)0 (cf. 27 (i.)). 

In the graphic method of representation the sign may be 
taken as denoting a reversal of direction, so that, if + 3 repre- 
sents a length of 3 units measured in one direction, 3 represents 
a length of 3 units measured in the other direction. But even 
so there are two distinct operations concerned in the 3, viz. 
the multiplication by 3 and the reversal of direction. The 
graphic method, therefore, does not give any direct assistance 
towards the conception of negative numbers as operators, 
though it is useful for interpreting negative quantities as results. 

49. In algebraical transformations, however, such as (x a)* 
= x*2ax+a?, the arithmetical rule of signs enables us to 
combine the sign with a number and to treat the result as a 
whole, subject to its own laws of operation. We see first that 
any operation with 40 36 can be regarded as an operation 
with (+)40+( )3&, subject to the conditions (i) that the signs 
(+) and (-) obey the laws (+)(+) = (+),(+)(-) = (-)(+) = 
( ), ( ) ( ) = (+), and (2) that, when processes of multiplica- 
tion are completed, a quantity is to be added or subtracted accord- 
ing as it has the sign (+) or ( ) prefixed. We are then able to 
combine any number with the + or the sign inside the 
bracket, and to deal with this constructed symbol according to 
special laws; i.e. we can replace pr or pr by (+p)r or ( p)r, 
subject to the conditions that (+/>) (+?) = (/>) (q) = (+pq), 
(+P) (<?) = (/>) (+9) = (~Pg), and that + (-s) means that 
s is to be subtracted. 

These constructed symbols may be called positive and negative 
coefficients; or a symbol such as ( p) may be called a negative 
number, in the same way that we call f a fractional number. 

This increases the extent of the numbers with which we have 
to deal; but it enables us to reduce the number of formulae. 
The binomial theorem may, for instance, be stated for (x+a)" 
alone; the formula for (x a) n being obtained by writing it as 
{x+(-)a}* or |*+(-o)|", so that 



where + ( ) r means or + according as r is odd or even. 

The result of the extension is that the number or quantity 
represented by any symbol, such as P, may be either positive 
or negative. The numerical value is then represented by 
|P|; thus " |*|< i " means that x is between i and +i. 

50. The use of negative coefficients leads to a difference 
between arithmetical division and algebraical division (by a 
multinomial), in that the latter may give rise to a quotient con- 
taining subtractive terms. The most important case is division 
by a binomial, as illustrated by the following examples: 

(i) (2) 

2.10+1)6.100+5.10+ 1(3.10+1 2.10+1)6.100+1.101 (3.101 
6.100+3.10 6.100+3.10 



2.IO+I 
2.IO+I 



2".IO I 

2.IO I 



In (i) the division is both arithmetical and algebraical, while in 
(2) it is algebraical, the quotient for arithmetical division being 
2.10+9. 

It may be necessary to introduce terms with zero coefficients. 
Thus, to divide i by i+* algebraically, we may write it in 
the form i+o.x+o.x*+o,x 3 +o.x i , and we then obtain 
i i +O.X+Q.X 



T+~x~ i+x 

where the successive terms of the quotient are obtained by a 
process which is purely formal. 

51. If we divide the sum of x 1 and a 1 by the sum of * and a, 
we get a quotient xa and remainder 20*, or a quotient ax 
and remainder 2* 2 , according to the order in which we work. 
Algebraical division therefore has no definite meaning unless 

5 



6io 



ALGEBRA 



dividend and divisor are rational integral functions of some 
expression such as x which we regard as the root of the notation 
( 28 (iv.)), and are arranged in descending or ascending powers 
of x. If P and M are rational integral functions of x, arranged 
in descending powers of x, the division of P by M is complete 
when we obtain a remainder R whose degree ( 45) is less than 
that of M. If R = o, then M is said to be a factor of P. 

The highest common factor (or common factor of highest degree) 
of two rational integral functions of x is therefore found in the 
same way as the G.C.M. in arithmetic; numerical coefficients 
of the factor as a whole being ignored (cf. 36 (iv.)). 

52. Relation between Roots and Factors. (i.) If we divide the 
multinomial 



by x a, according to algebraical division, the remainder is 

" 



This is the remainder-theorem; it may be proved by induction. 

(ii.) If x=a satisfies the equation P = o, then p a"+p 1 a"~ 1 + 
. +Pn=o; and therefore the remainder when P is divided 
by xa is o, i.e. xa is a factor of P. 

(iii.) Conversely, if xa is a factor of P, then p a a n +pia n ~ 1 
+. . . +p n = o; i.e. x=a satisfies the equation P=o. 

(iv.) Thus the problems of determining the roots of an equation 
P = o and of finding the factors of P, when P is a rational integral 
function of *, are the same. 

(v.) In particular, the equation P = o, where P has the value 
in (i.), cannot have more than n different roots. 

The consideration of cases where two roots are equal belongs 
to the theory of equations (see EQUATION). 

(vi.) It follows that, if two multinomials of the th degree 
in x have equal values for more than n values of x, the corre- 
sponding coefficients are equal, so that the multinomials are 
equal for all values of x. 

53. Negative Indices and Logarithms. (i.) Applying the general 
principles of 47-49 to indices, we find that we can interpret 
X" 1 " as being such that 

X-.X-" =X = I ; i.e. X~- = I/X". 

In the same way we interpret X"*'* as meaning i/X 1 "' 9 . 
(ii.) This leads to negative logarithms (see LOGARITHM). 

54. Laws of Algebraic Form. (i.) The results of the addition, 
subtraction and multiplication of multinomials (including 
monomials as a particular case) are subject to certain laws 
which correspond with the laws of arithmetic ( 26 (i.)) but differ 
from them in relating, not to arithmetical value, but to algebraic 
form. The commutative law in arithmetic, for instance, states 
that a+b and b+a, or ab and ba, are equal. The corresponding 
law of form regards a+b and b+a, or ab and ba, as being not 
only equal but identical (cf. 37 (ii.)), and then says that A+B 
and B+A, or AB and BA, are identical, where A and B are any 
multinomials. Thus a(b+c) and (b+c)a give the same result, 
though it may be written in various ways, such as ab+ac, 
ca+ab, &c. In the same way the associative law is that A(BC) 
and (AB)C give the same formal result. 

These laws can be established either by tracing the individual 
terms in a sum or a product or by means of the general theorem 
in 52 (vi.). 

(ii.) One result of these laws is that, when we have obtained 
any formula involving a letter a, we can replace o by a multi- 
nomial. For instance, having found that (x+a) 2 
we can deduce that (*+6+c) 2 = {x+(b+c)}* = 
(b+c)*. 

(iii.) Another result is that we can equate coefficients of like 
powers of * in two multinomials obtained from the same expres- 
sion by different methods of expansion. For instance, by 
equating coefficients of x' in the expansions of (i +*)"+" and of 
(i+x) m . (i+x) n we obtain (22) of 44 (ii.). 

(iv.) On the other hand, the method of equating coefficients 
often applies without the assumption of these laws. In 41 
(ii.), for instance, the coefficient of A"- r o' in the expansion of 

(A+a) (A+a)"- 1 has been called (*) ; and it has then been 
shown that (*) = (" 7 ') + (* 1 1) . This does not involve any 



assumption of the identity of results obtained in different 
ways; for the expansions of (A+a) 2 , (A+a) 3 , . . . are there 
supposed to be obtained in one way only, viz. by successive 
multiplications by A+a. 

55. Algebraical Division. In order to extend these laws so 
as to include division, we need a definition of algebraical division. 
The divisions in 50-52 have been supposed to be performed 
by a process similar to the process of arithmetical division, viz. 
by a series of subtractions. This latter process, however, is 
itself based on a definition of division in terms of multiplication 
( 15, 16). If, moreover, we examine the process of algebraical 
division as illustrated in 50, we shall find that, just as arith- 
metical division is really the solution of an equation ( 14), and 
involves the tacit use of a symbol to denote an unknown quantity 
or number, so algebraical division by a multinomial really 
implies the use of undetermined coefficients ( 42). When, for 
instance, we find that the quotient, when 6+5*+7 2 +i3At 3 +5a; 4 
is divided by 2+3*+^, is made up of three terms+3, 2X, 
and +$x 2 , we are really obtaining successively the values of 
CD, Ci, and Ca which satisfy the identity 6+$x+jx-+i3X 3 +sx 1 
= (co+CiX+ctf?) (2+3^+i 2 ); and we could equally obtain 
the result by expanding the right-hand side of this identity 
and equating coefficients in the first three terms, the coefficients 
in the remaining terms being then compared to see that there is 
no remainder. We therefore define algebraical division by 
means of algebraical multiplication, and say that, if P and M 
are multinomials, the statement " P/M = Q " means that Q is a 
multinomial such that MQ (or QM) and P are identical. In this 
sense, the laws mentioned in 54 apply also to algebraical 
division. 

56. Extensions of the Binomial Theorem. It has been men- 
tioned in 41 (ix.) that the binomial theorem can be used for 
obtaining an approximate value for a power of a number; the 
most important terms only being taken into account. There are 
extensions of the binomial theorem, by means of which approxi- 
mate calculations can be made of fractions, surds, and powers 
of fractions and of surds; the main difference being that the 
number of terms which can be taken into account is unlimited, 
so that, although we may approach nearer and nearer to the true 
value, we never attain it exactly. The argument involves the 
theorem that, if B is a positive quantity less than i, 0' can be 
made as small as we please by taking / large enough; this 
follows from the fact that t log B can be made as large (numeric- 
ally) as we please. 

(i.) By algebraical division, 



I+X 



= I-*+*'-...+(-)'*'-+(-)' +1 



(24). 

If, therefore, we take 'i/(i+a;) as equal to i *+**...+ 
( )'x r . there is an error whose numerical magnitude is I* 1 " 1 " 1 / 
(i+) I ; and, if |*| <i, this can be made as small as we please. 

This is the foundation of the use of recurring decimals; thus 
we can replace iS I =|-J=T%V/( I ~riTr)) by 363636(=36/io 2 
+36/io 4 +36/io 6 ), with an error (in defect) of only 36/(io 6 .99). 

(ii.) Repeated divisions of (24) by i+x, r being replaced by 
r+ 1 before each division, will give 



Comparison with the table of binomial coefficients in 43 suggests 
that, if m is any positive integer, 

(i+x)-=S r +R r (25), 

where 5^i-m [ iyx+m m x t ... + (-) r mi^x r ( 2 (>), 



This can be verified by induction. The same result would (55) 
be obtained if we divided i+o.x+o.x?+... at once by the 
expansion of (i+*) m . 

(iii.) From (21) of 43 (iv.) we see that |R r | is less than 
f[r+ii* r+1 if * is positive, or than | mi,+i]X m+1 (i+x)~* t \ if x is 
negative; and it can hence be shown that, if |*| < i, |R~| can be 



ALGEBRA 



611 



made as small as we please by taking r large enough, so that we 
can make S r approximate as closely as we please to (i+x)~ m . 

(iv.) To assimilate this to the binomial theorem, we extend 
the definition of w (r) in (i) of 41 (i.) so as to cover negative 
integral values of n; and we then have 

T\ 

so that, if n= m, 



(v.) The further extension to fractional values (positive or 
negative) of n depends in the first instance on the establishment 
of a method of algebraical evolution which bears the same relation 
to arithmetical evolution (calculation of a surd) that algebraical 
division bears to arithmetical division. In calculating V2, for 
instance, we proceed as if 2-0000 . . . were the exact square of 
some number of the form Cb+ci/io+c 2 /io 2 +. . . 

In the same way, to find X'/, where ~K=i+aiX+a^f+ . . . 
and q is apositive integer, we assume that X 1 /' = i+JiZ+fet 2 - - -, 
and we then (cf. 55) determine 61, 62, ... in succession so that 
(i+bix+b,x 2 + . . .)" shall be identical with X. 

The application of the method to the calculation of (i+x) n , 
when n p/q, q being a positive integer and p a positive or 
negative integer, involves, as in the case where n is a negative 
integer, the separate consideration of the form of the coefficients 
61, 62, ... and of the numerical value of i+bix+b& 2 +. . . 



(vi.) The definition of (rl , which has already been extended 
in (iv.) above, has to be further extended so as to cover fractional 
values of n, positive or negative. Certain relations still hold, 
the most important being (22) of 44 (ii.), which holds whatever 
the values of m and of n may be; rj of course, being a positive 
integer. This may be proved either by induction or by the 
method of 52 (vi.). The relation, when written in the form 
(23), is known as Vandermonde's theorem. By means of this 
theorem it can be shown that, whatever the value of n may be, 



+terms in *'~ H I 

(vii.) The comparison of the numerical value of 
'', when n is fractional, with that of 
involves advanced methods ( 64). It is found that this expres- 
sion can be used for approximating to the value of (i+x) n , 
provided that |ac|< i; the results are as follows, where u, denotes 
n (r > of and S r denotes jo+i+W2+. .+r. 

(a) If n> i, then, provided r>n, 

(1) If i >x>o, (i +*)" lies between Sr and Sr+i; 

(2) Ifo>*>-i, (i +*)" lies between S r and S r +Ur+i/(i+x). 

(b) If < i, the successive terms will either constantly 
decrease (numerically) from the beginning or else increase up to 
a greatest term (or two equal consecutive greatest terms) and 
then constantly decrease. If S r is taken so as to include the 
greatest term (or terms), then, 

(1) If i >x>o, (i +x) n lies between S, and S,+i; 

(2) If o >x> i, (i+x)" lies between Sr and Sr+Wr+i/C 1 u r+ i/u r ). 

The results in (6) apply also if n is a negative integer. 

(viii.) In applying the theorem to concrete cases, conversion 
of a number into a continued fraction is often useful. Suppose, 
for instance, that we require to calculate (23/13)'. We want to 
express (23/13)' in the form a 2 6, where 6 is nearly equal to i. We 
find that f logic (23/i3) = -37i6767 = logio(2-3S33)=logi (40/1?) 
nearly; and thence that (23/13)'= (40/17) (1 + 1063/3515200)*, 
which can be calculated without difficulty to a large number of 
significant figures. 

(ix.) The extension of (r), and therefore of lrl , to negative 
and fractional values of n, enables us to extend the applicability 
of the binomial coefficients to the summation of series ( 46 (ii.)). 
Thus the wth term of the series 2.5+5.8+8.11+. . . in 46 (iii.) 
is i8( i)[2]5 formula (20) of 43 (iv.) holds for the extended 
coefficients, and therefore the sum of n terms of this series is 
i8.(n )[3] 18. ( $)[3i = 3w 3 +6w 2 +ft. In this way we get the 
general rule that, to find the sum of n terras of a series, the rth 
term of which is (a+r6)(a+r+i-6) . . . (a+r+p 1-6), we 



divide the product of the />+i factors which occur either in 
the wth or in the (w+i)th term by p+i, and by the common 
difference of the factors, and add to a constant, whose value 
is found by putting n=o. 

57. Generating Functions. The series i m\\-fc-\-m\t-fP . . . 
obtained by dividing i+o. x+o.3?+. . . by (i+z)", or the 
series ^ + (plq\\-ff+(plq\fff+ ... obtained by taking the qth 
root of i+#(i)+/><2)* 2 + . . . , is an infinite series, i.e. a series 
whose successive terms correspond to the numbers i, 2, 3, ... 
It is often convenient, as in 56 (ii.) and (vi.), to consider the 
mode of development of such a series, without regard to 
arithmetical calculation; i.e. to consider the relations between 
the coefficients of powers of x, rather than the values of the terms 
themselves. From this point of view, the function which, by 
algebraical operations on i+o.*+o.r ! +. . . , produces the 
series, is called its generating function. The generating functions 
of the two series, mentioned above, for example, are (i+x)~ m and 
(i-\-x) p / <l . In the same way, the generating function of the series 
i + 2x+x 2 +o.x 3 +o.x*+. . . is (i+*) 2 . 

Considered in this way, the relations between the coefficrents 
of the powers of * in a series may sometimes be expressed by a 
formal equality involving the series as a whole. Thus (4) of 41 
(ii.) may be written in the form 



the symbol " J " being used to indicate that the equality is only 
formal, not arithmetical. 

This accounts for the fact that the same table of binomial 
coefficients serves for the expansions of positive powers of i+x 
and of negative powers of i x. For (4) may ( 43 (iv.)) be 
written 

(-l)[r]=[r]-[r-l], 

and this leads to relations of the form 



) (30), 

each set of coefficients being the numbers in a downward diagonal 
of the table. In the same way (21) of 43 (iv.) leads to such 
relations as 

i +3*+6* 2 +...7 (i +*+**+...) (i +2*+3* 2 +...) ( 3I ) ; 

the relation of which to (30) is obvious. 

An application of the method is to the summation of a recurring 
series, i.e. a series co+cix+c^+. . . whose coefficients are con- 
nected by a relation of the form poCr+piC,-i+...+ptc T -k=o, 
where po,pi, -Pk are independent of x and of r. 

58. Approach to a Limit. There are two kinds of approach to 
a limit, which may be illustrated by the series forming the ex- 
pansion of (*+A)",where n is a negative integer and i>h/x>o. 

(i.) Denote n^ r ^x n ~ r h r by u,, and WO+MI+. . . +u r by S r . 
Then ( 56 (iii.)) (x+h) n lies between S, and S r +i; and provided 
S r includes the numerically greatest term, |S r+ i S,| constantly 
decreases as r increases, and can be made as small as we please by 
taking r large enough. Thus by taking r=o, i, 2, ... we have 
a sequence So, Si, 82, ... (i.e. a succession of numbers correspond- 
ing to the numbers i, 2, 3, . . . ) which possesses the property 
that, by starting far enough in the sequence, the range of varia- 
tion of all subsequent terms can be made as small as we please, 
but (x+h) n always lies between the two values determining the 
range. This is expressed by saying that the sequence converges 
to (x+h) n as its limit; it may be stated concisely in any of the 
three ways, 

(*+A)" = !im(:e+it<i)*"- 1 JH ----- hW(r)*'- r ft r +-).(*+ft)'' = lim S,, 

S,i (x+h)". 

It will be noticed that, although the differences between 
successive terms of the sequence will ultimately become in- 
definitely small, there will always be intermediate numbers that 
do not occur in the sequence. The approach to the limit will 
therefore be by a series of jumps, each of which, however small, 
will be finite; i.e. the approach will be discontinuous. 

(ii.) Instead of examining what happens as r increases, let us 
examine what happens as k/x decreases, r remaining unaltered. 
Denote h/x by 8, where i>0>o; and suppose further that 
0<| i/re |, so that the first term of the series o+Mi+2+. . . is 



6l2 



ALGEBRA 



the greatest (numerically) . Then { (x+k) " S r ) /A 14 " 1 lies between 
tyr+i-F""'' 1 and w (r+ i ) a:"~ r ~ 1 (i+^) n ; and the difference between 
these can be made as small as we please by taking h small 
enough. Thus we can say that the limit of |(*+A)" Srl/A 1 "* 1 
is w (r+ iyr B ~ r ~ 1 ; but the approach to this limit is of a different 
kind from that considered in (i.), and its investigation involves 
the idea of continuity. 

V. Continuity. 

59. The idea of continuity must in the first instance be 
introduced from the graphical point of view; arithmetical 
continuity being impossible without a considerable extension of 
the idea of number ( 65). The idea is utilized in the elementary 
consideration .of a differential coefficient; and its importation 
into the treatment of certain functions as continuous is therefore 
properly associated with the infinitesimal calculus. 

60. The first step consists in the functional treatment of 
equations. Thus, to solve the equation ax?+bx+c=o, we 
consider, not merely the value of x for which a* 2 +te+e is o, 
but the value of ax* +bx+c for every possible value of x. By 
graphical treatment we are able, not merely to see why the 
equation has usually two roots, and also to understand why there 
is in certain cases only one root (i.e. two equal roots) and in other 
cases no root, but also to see why there cannot be more than two 
roots. 

Simultaneous equations in two unknowns x and y may be 
treated in the same way, except that each equation gives 
a functional relation between x and y. (" Indeterminate 
equations " belong properly to the theory of numbers.) 

61. From treating an expression involving a; as a function of 
* which may change continuously when x changes continuously, 
we are led to regard two functions x and y as changing together, 
so that (subject to certain qualifications) to any succession of 
values of x or of y there corresponds a succession of values of y or 
of *; and thence, if (x, y) and (x+h, y+K) are pairs of corre- 
sponding values, we are led to consider the limit ( 58 (ii.)) of the 
ratio k/h when h and k are made indefinitely small. Thus we 
arrive at the differential coefficient of /(*) as the limit of the ratio 
of f(x+0) f(x) to when 6 is made indefinitely small; and this 
gives an interpretation of * n-1 as the derived function of x n 

( 45). 
This conception of a limit enables us to deal with algebraical 

expressions which assume such forms as jj for particular values 
of the variable (39 (iii.)) . We cannot, for instance, say that the 
fraction * ~* is arithmetically equal to x+i when x*=i, as well 

-V I 

as for other values of x; but we can say that the limit of the 
ratio of s 2 i to xi when * becomes indefinitely nearly equal 
to i is the same as the limit of x-{~ i. 

On the other hand, if f(y) has a definite and finite vahy for 
y = x, it must not be supposed that this is necessarily the same 
as the limit which /(y) approaches when y approaches the value x, 
though this is the case with the functions with which we are 
usually concerned. 

62. The elementary idea of a differential coefficient is useful 
in reference to the logarithmic and exponential series. We know 
that logioN(i+0) = logi N+logio(i+0), and inspection of a 
table of logarithms shows that, when is small, logio(i+0) ; s 
approximately equal to X0, where X is a certain constant, whose 
value is -434. . . If we took logarithms to base a, we should 
have 

loga(i+0)=logaioXX9, 
approximately. If therefore we choose a quantity e such that 

log e ioXX = i, logi e = X, 
which gives (by more accurate calculation) 

e =2-71828..., 

we shall have lhn{log.(i+0)))/0 = i, 

and conversely lim{e* + <t>-e I }/<l>=e*. 

The deduction of the expansions 



' = i+x +x*/2\+x*/3\+... , 



is then more simply obtained by the differential calculus than 
by ordinary algebraic methods. 

63. The theory of inequalities is closely connected with that 
of maxima and minima, and therefore seems to come properly 
under this head. The more simple properties, however, only 
require the use of elementary methods. Thus to show that the 
arithmetic mean of n positive numbers is greater than their 
geometric mean (i.e. than the wth root of their product) we show 
that if any two are unequal their product may be increased, 
without altering their sum, by making them equal, and that if 
all the numbers are equal their arithmetic mean is equal to their 
geometric mean. 

VI. Special Developments. 

64. One case of convergence of a sequence has already been 
considered in 58 (i.). The successive terms of the sequence in 
that case were formed by successive additions of terms of a series; 
the series is then also said to converge to the limit which is the 
limit of the sequence. 

Another example of a sequence is afforded by the successive 

convergent^ to a continued fraction of the form a^-\ 



where 00,01,02, are integers. Denoting these convergent^ by 
Po/Qo, Pi/Qi, P2/Q.2, . . they may be regarded as obtained from 
a series + (g-g) + (g-g) +.. . J the successive terms of 

this series, after the first, are alternately positive and negative, 
and consist of fractions with numerators i and denominators 
continually increasing. 

Another kind of sequence is that which is formed by intro- 
ducing the successive factors of a continued product; e.g. the 
successive factors on the right-hand side of Wallis's theorem 

*_2-2 4.4 6.6 

2 "1.3 '3-5 '57'" 

A continued product of this kind can, by taking logarithms, be 
replaced by an infinite series. 

In the particular case considered in 58 (i.) we were able to 
examine the approach of the sequence So, Si, 82, ... to its limit 
X by direct examination of the value of X S r . In most cases 
this is not possible; and we have first to consider the convergence 
of the sequence or of the series which it represents, and then to 
determine its limit by indirect methods. This constitutes the 
general theory of convergence of series (see SERIES). 

The word " sequence," as defined in 58 (i.), includes pro- 
gressions such as the arithmetical and geometrical progressions, 
and, generally, the succession of terms of a series. It is usual, 
however, to confine it to those sequences (e.g. the sequence 
formed by taking successive sums of a series) which have to be 
considered in respect of their convergence or non-convergence. 

In order that numerical results obtained by summing the first 
few terms of a series may be of any value, it is usually necessary 
that the series should converge to a limit; but there are excep- 
tions to this rule. For instance, when n is large, ! is approxi- 
mately equal to ^(2irn).(n/e)"; the approximation may be 
improved by Stirling's theorem 

log,2 + log3+... +log e ( - 1 ) +|Iogn ='ilog e (2jr) +n\oe.n n 
B. B, . (-V'B, 

' l.2.n 3.4.n 3 ~ r ~ r (2r i).2r.n s '- l ~ r 

where BI, B 2 , . . . are Bernoulli's numbers ( 46 (v.)), although 
the series is not convergent. 

65. Consideration of the binomial theorem for fractional index, 
or of the continued fraction representing a surd, or of theorems 
such as Wallis's theorem ( 64), shows that a sequence, every 
term of which is rational, may have as its limit an irrational 
number, i.e. a number which cannot be expressed as the ratio 
of two integers. 

These are isolated cases of irrational numbers. Other cases 
arise when we consider the continuity of a function. Suppose, 
for instance, that y = * 2 ; then to every rational value of x there 
corresponds a rational value of y, but the converse does not 
hold. Thus there appear to be discontinuities in the values of y. 

The difficulty is due to the fact that number is naturally not 



ALGEBRA 



613 



continuous, so that continuity can only be achieved by an 
artificial development. The development is based on the 
necessity of being able to represent geometrical magnitude by 
arithmetical magnitude; and it may be regarded as consisting 
of three stages. Taking any number n to be represented by a 
point on a line at distance L from a fixed point O, where L is 
a unit of length, we start with a series of points representing the 
integers i, 2, 3, ... This series is of course discontinuous. The 
next step is to suppose that fractional numbers are repre- 
sented in the same way. This extension produces a change of 
character in the series of numbers. In the original integral 
series each number had a definite number next to it, on each 
side, except i, which began the series. But in the new series 
there is no first number, and no number can be said to be next 
to any other number, since, whatever two numbers we take, 
others can be inserted between them. On the other hand, this 
new series is not continuous; for we know that there are some 
points on the line which represent surds and other irrational 
numbers, and these numbers are -not contained in our series. 
We therefore take a third step, and obtain theoretical continuity 
by considering that every point on the line, if it does not represent 
a rational number, represents something which may be called an 
irrational number. 

This insertion of irrational numbers (with corresponding 
negative numbers) requires for its exact treatment certain 
special methods, which form part of the algebraic theory of 
number, and are dealt with under NUMBER. 

66. The development of the theory of equations leads to the 
amplification of real numbers, rational and irrational, positive 
and negative, by imaginary and complex numbers. The quadratic 
equation 3?+b*=o, for instance, has no real root; but we may 
treat the roots as being -H>V i, and 6V i, if V i is 
treated as something which obeys the laws of arithmetic and 
emerges into reality under the condition *] I.T] i = i. 
Expressions of the form 6V i and o+6V i, where a and b 
are real numbers, are then described as imaginary and complex 
numbers respectively; the former being a particular case of the 
latter. 

Complex numbers are conveniently treated in connexion not 
only with the theory of equations but also with analytical trigono- 
metry, which suggests the graphic representation of o+frV i 
by a line of length (a 2 +6 2 ) J drawn in a direction different from 
that of the line along which real numbers are represented. 

REFERENCES. W. K. Clifford, The Common Sense of the Exact 
Sciences (1885), chapters i. and iii., forms a good introduction to 
algebra. As to the teaching of algebra, see references under 
ARITHMETIC to works on the teaching of elementary mathematics. 
Among school-books may be mentioned those of W. M. Baker and 
A. A. Bourne, W. G. Borchardt, W. D. Eggar, F. Gorse, H. S. Hall 
and S. R. Knight, A. E. F. Layng, R. B. Morgan. G. Chrystal, 
Introduction to Algebra (1898) ; H. B. Fine, A College Algebra (1905) ; 
C. Smith, A Treatise on Algebra (ist ed. 1888, 3rd ed. 1892), are more 
suitable for revision purposes ; the second of these deals rather fully 
with irrational numbers. For the algebraic theory of number, and 
the convergence of sequences and of series, see T. I. I' A. Bromwich, 
Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series (1908) ; H. S. Carslaw, 
Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series (1906); H. B. Fine, 
The Number-System of Algebra (1891); H. P. Manning, Irrational 
Numbers (1906); T. Pierpont, Lectures on the Theory of Functions 
of Real Variables (1905). For general reference, G. Chrystal, Text- 
Book of Algebra (pt. i. 5th ed. 1904, pt. ii. 2nd ed. 1900) is 
indispensable; unfortunately, like many of the works here men- 
tioned, it lacks a proper index. Reference may also be made to the 
special articles mentioned at the commencement of the present 
article, as well as to the articles on DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF; 
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; INTERPOLATION; VECTOR ANALYSIS. 
The following may also be consulted: E. Borel and J. Drach, 
Introduction a V etude de la theorie des nombres et de I'algebre supe- 
rieure (1895); C. de Comberousse, Cours de mathematiques, vols. i. 
and iii. (1884-1887); H. Laurent, Traite d'analyse, vol. i. (1885) 
E. Netto, Vorlesungen uber Algebra (vol. i. 1896, vol. ii. 1900); S, 
Pincherle, Algebra complementare (1893); G. Salmon, Lessons intro- 
ductory to the Modern Higher Algebra (4th ed., 1885); J. A. Serret 
Cours d'algebre superieure (4th ed., 2 vols., 1877) ; O. Stolz and J. A 
Gmeiner, Theoretische Arithmetik (pt. i. 1900, pt. ii. 1902) anc 
Einleitung in die Funktionen-theorie (pt. i. 1904, pt. ii. 1905) 
these being developments from O. Stolz, Vorlesungen uber allgemeine 
Arithmetik (pt. i. 1885, pt. ii. 1886); J. Tannery, Introduction a la 



heorie des fonctions d'une variable (ist ed. 1886, 2nd ed. 1904); 
H. Weber, Lehrbuch der Algebra, 2 vols. (ist ed. 1895-1896, 2nd ed. 
1898-1899; vol. i. of 2nd ed. transl. by Griess as Traite d'algebre 
superieure, 1898). For a fuller bibliography, see Encyclopadie der 
math. Wissenschaften (vol. i., 1898). A list of early works on algebra 

s given in Encyclopaedia Britannica, gth ed., vol. i. p. 518. 

B. SPECIAL KINDS OF ALGEBRA 

1. A special algebra is one which differs from ordinary algebra 
n the laws of equivalence which its symbols obey. Theoretically, 

no limit can be assigned to the number of possible algebras; 
the varieties actually known use, for the most part, the same 
signs of operation, and differ among themselves principally by 
their rules of multiplication. 

2. Ordinary algebra developed very gradually as a kind of 
shorthand, devised to abbreviate the discussion of arithmetical 
problems and the statement of arithmetical facts. Although 
the distinction is one which cannot be ultimately maintained, it 
is convenient to classify the signs of algebra into symbols of 
quantity (usually figures or letters), symbols of operation, such 
as +, V, and symbols of distinction, such as brackets. Even 
when the formal evolution of the science was fairly complete; 
it was taken for granted that its symbols of quantity invariably 
stood for numbers, and that its symbols of operation were re- 
stricted to their ordinary arithmetical meanings. It could not 
escape notice that one and the same symbol, such as -<J(aV), 
or even (a b), sometimes did and sometimes did not admit of 
arithmetical interpretation, according to the values attributed 
to the letters involved. This led to a prolonged controversy on 
the nature of negative and imaginary quantities, which was 
ultimately settled in a very curious way. The progress of 
analytical geometry led to a geometrical interpretation both of 
negative and also of imaginary quantities; and when a " mean- 
ing " or, more properly, an interpretation, had thus been found 
for the symbols in question, a reconsideration of the old algebraic 
problem became inevitable, and the true solution, now so 
obvious, was eventually obtained. It was at last realized that 
the laws of algebra do not depend for their validity upon any 
particular interpretation, whether arithmetical, geometrical or 
other; the only question is whether these laws do or do not 
involve any logical contradiction. When this fundamental 
truth had been fully grasped, mathematicians began to inquire 
whether algebras might not be discovered which obeyed laws 
different from those obtained by the generalization of arithmetic. 
The answer to this question has been so manifold as to be almost 
embarrassing. All that can be done here is to give a sketch of 
the more important and independent special algebras at present 
known to exist. 

3. Although the results of ordinary algebra will be taken for 
granted, it is convenient to give the principal rules upon which 
it is based. They are 

(a+b)+c=a+(b+c} (A) (aXi)Xc=oX(6Xc) (A' 
a+b*=b+a (c) 



(D) 



(a-b)+b=a (i) (a+b)Xb=a (i') 

These formulae express the associative and commutative laws 
of the operations + and X, the distributive law of X, and the 
definitions of the inverse symbols and -5- , which are assumed 
to be unambiguous. The special symbols o and i are used to 
denote a a and a -5- a. They behave exactly like the corre- 
sponding symbols in arithmetic; and it follows from this that 
whatever " meaning " is attached to the symbols of quantity, 
ordinary algebra includes arithmetic, or at least an image of it. 
Every ordinary algebraic quantity may be regarded as of the 
form 0+0 V -i, where o, are " real "; that is to say, every 
algebraic equivalence remains valid when its symbols of quantity 
are interpreted as complex numbers of the type a+/3V i 
(cf . NUMBER) . But the symbols of ordinary algebra do not neces- 
sarily denote numbers; they may, for instance, be interpreted 
as coplanar points or vectors. Evolution and involution are 
usually regarded as operations of ordinary algebra; this leads 
to a notation for powers and roots, and a theory of irrational 
algebraic quantities analogous to that of irrational numbers. 



614 



ALGEBRA 



4. The only known type of algebra which does not contain 
arithmetical elements is substantially due to George Boole. 

Although originally suggested by formal logic, it is 
Noa ' most simply interpreted as an algebra of regions in 

space. Let i denote a definite region of space; and 
let a, b, &c., stand for definite parts of i. Let a-\-b 
denote the region made up of a and b together (the common 
part, if any, being reckoned only once), and let aXb or ab mean 
the region common to a and b. Then a+a=aa=a; hence 
numerical coefficients and indices are not required. The inverse 
symbols , -i- are ambiguous, and in fact are rarely used. 
Each symbol a is associated with its supplement a which satisfies 
the equivalences a+a=i, aao, the latter of which means that 
a and a have no region in common. Finally, there is a law of 
absorption expressed by a-\-aba. From every proposition in 
this algebra a reciprocal one may be deduced by interchang- 
ing + and X, and also the symbols o and i. For instance, 
x+y=x+xy and xyx(x+y) are reciprocal. The operations 
+ and X obey all the ordinary laws A, c, D ( 3). 

5. A point A in space may be associated with a (real, positive, 
or negative) numerical quantity a, called its weight, and denoted 

by the symbol aA. The sum of two weighted points 
MSbias's aA> B iSj by definition, the point (a+j3)G, where G 
KMC divides AB so that AG: GB =/3 : a. It can be proved 
calculus. by geometry that 

(oA+/3B) + 7 C = oA+(/JB+-yC) = ( a +/j+ 7 )P, 
where P is in fact the centroid of masses a, j3, 7 placed at A, B, C 
respectively. So, in general, if we put 



X is, in general, a determinate point, the barycenlre of oA, 
#B, &c. (or of A, B, &c. for the weights a, 0, &c.). If 
(a-j-/3+. . . +X) happens to be zero, X lies at infinity in 
a determinate direction; unless aA is the barycentre of 
0B, -yC, ... XL, in which case aA+|8B+ . . . +XL vanishes 
identically, and X is indeterminate. If ABCD is a tetrahedron 
of reference, any point P in space is determined by an equation 
of the form 



a, j3, 7, 5 are, in fact, equivalent to a set of homogeneous co- 
ordinates of P. For constructions in a fixed plane three points 
of reference are sufficient. It is remarkable that Mobius employs 
the symbols AB, ABC, ABCD in their ordinary geometrical 
sense as lengths, areas and volumes, except that he distinguishes 
their sign; thus AB = -BA, ABC=-ACB, and so on. If be 
had happened to think of them as " products," he might have 
anticipated Grassmann's discovery of the extensive calculus. 
From a merely formal point of view, we have in the barycentric 
calculus a set of " special symbols of quantity " or " extra- 
ordinaries " A, B, C, &c., which combine with each other by 
means of operations + and which obey the ordinary rules, 
and with ordinary algebraic quantities by operations X and -f- , 
also according to the ordinary rules, except that division by an 
extraordinary is not used. 
6. A quaternion is best defined as a symbol of the type 

q = Za,, = 0060 + aid = 0^2 +0383, 

Hamilton's w h ere e<>, . . . 3 are independent extraordinaries and 
" oo, . . . aj ordinary algebraic quantities, which may 
be called the co-ordinates of q. The sum and product 
of two quaternions are defined by the formulae 



where the products e,e, are further reduced according to the 
following multiplication table, in which, for example, the 



e 
t\ 

K'L 
ft 


e<> 


Cl 


2 


3 


d 


It 


3 


-ft 


2 


es 


to 


1 


e 


ei 


ei 


-o 



second line is to be read eio = ei, e^= et>, e\e-t=e%, e\e*= 



The effect of these definitions is that the sum and the pro- 
duct of two quaternions are also quaternions ; that addition 
is associative and commutative; and that multiplication is 
associative and distributive, but not commutative. Thus 
Cie 2 = etfi, and if q, q 1 are any two quaternions, qq' is generally 
different from q'q. The symbol eo behaves exactly like i in 
ordinary algebra; Hamilton writes i, i, j, k instead of b, i, 
62, es, and in this notation all the special rules of operation may 
be summed up by the equalities 

j2 = ;2= 2 =*;/;=_!. 

Putting q=a+f}i+yj+8k, Hamilton calls a the scalar part of q, 
and denotes it by Sq; he also writes Vq for fii+yj -\-frk, which 
is called the vector part of q. Thus every quaternion may be' 
written in the form q=Sq+Vq, where either Sq or Vq may 
separately vanish; so that ordinary algebraic quantities (or 
scalars, as we shall call them) and pure vectors may each be 
regarded as special cases of quaternions. 

The equations q'+x=q and y+q'q are satisfied by the 
same quaternion, which is denoted by qq'. On the other hand, 
the equations q'x=q and yq' = q have, in general, different 
solutions. It is the value of y which is generally denoted by 
q-*-q'', a special symbol for * is desirable, but has not been 
established. If we put qo Sq'Vq', then q<, is called the 
conjugate of q', and the scalar q'q!, = cog' is called the norm of q' 
and written Ng'. With this notation the values of * and y may 
be expressed in the forms 

x = gog/Ng', y = ggi/Ng', 

which are free from ambiguity, since scalars are commutative 
with quaternions. The values of x and y are different, unless 



In the applications of the calculus the co-ordinates of a 
quaternion are usually assumed to fce numerical; when they are 
complex, the quaternion is further distinguished by Hamilton 
as a biquaternion. Clifford's biquaternions are quantities 
5+177, where q, r are quaternions, and , 17 are symbols (com- 
mutative with quaternions) obeying the laws 2 =, rf=t), 
i7=?j=o (cf. QUATERNIONS). 

7. In the extensive calculus of the wth category, we have, 
first of all, n independent " units," e\, e%, . . . e n . From these 

are derived symbols of the type 

Grass- 



which we shall call extensive quantities of the first species 
.(and, when necessary, of the wth category). The co- 
ordinates 0.1, ... a n are scalars, and in particular applications 
may be restricted to real or complex numerical values. 
If Bi=S/3e, there is a law of addition expressed by 
A, +B, = Z(o,- +ft)ei = Bi +A, ; 

this law of addition is associative as well as commutative. 
The inverse operation is free from ambiguity, and, in fact, 
A,-Bi = S(o i -/Si)e i . 

To multiply AI by a scalar, we apply the rule 

Ai=Ai = Z(fo<),-, 
and similarly for division by a scalar. 

All this is analogous to the corresponding formulae in the 
barycentric calculus and in quaternions; it remains to consider 
the multiplication of two or more extensive quantities. The 
binary products of the units e< are taken to satisfy the equalities 

Ci 2 =o, eiej=ejei-, 

this reduces them to %n(n i) distinct values, exclusive of zero. 
These values are assumed to be independent, so we have 5( i) 
derived units of the second species or order. Associated with these 
new units there is a system of extensive quantities of the second 
species, represented by symbols of the type 

A a = ZaiE,-< 2 > [t = i, 2,...in(-i)], 

where Ei' 2) ,E2 <2> , &c., are the derived units of the second species. 
If Ai=2o<e < , Bi=S/3<e/, the distributive law of multiplication is 
preserved by assuming 



it follows that AiBi= BiAi, and that Ai 2 =o. 

By assuming the truth of the associative law of multiplication, 
and taking account of the reducing formulae for binary products, 



ALGEBRA 



615 



we may construct derived units of the third, fourth . . . nth 
species. Every unit of the rth species which does not vanish 
is the product of r different units of the first species; two such 
units are independent unless they are permutations of the same 
set of primary units e t , in which case they are equal or opposite 
according to the usual rule employed in determinants. Thus, 
for instance 

ei.eie> = eiei.ea = e\e&i = e&iei = e^etd ; 

and, in general, the number of distinct units of the rth species 
in the wth category (r<n) is C n , r . Finally, it is assumed that 
(in the wth category) e^es . . .e n =i, the suffixes being in their 
natural order. 

Let A P =SaE (r> and B, = S/3E (<) be two extensive quantities of 
species r and s; then if r+s<w, they may be multiplied by the 
rule ArB. = 2(o0)E<'>E<'> 

where the products E (r) E (>) may be expressed as derived units of 
species (r+i). The product B,A r is equal or opposite to A r B,, 
according as rs is even or odd. This process may be extended 
to the product of three or more factors such as A r B,Q . . . 
provided that r+s+t+ . . . does not exceed n. The law is 
associative; thus, for instance, (AB)C = A(BC). But the com- 
mutative law does not always hold; thus, indicating species, 
as before, by suffixes, A P B.Q=(-i) r< - f " + "'QB,A P , with analo- 
gous rules for other cases. 

If r+s>n, a product such as E r E,, worked out by the previous 
rules, comes out to be zero. A characteristic feature of the 
calculus is that a meaning can be attached to a symbol of this 
kind by adopting a new rule, called that of regressive multiplica- 
tion, as distinguished from the foregoing, which is progressive. 
The new rule requires some preliminary explanation. If E is 
any extensive unit, there is one other unit E', and only one, 
such that the (progressive) product EE' = i . This unit is called 
the supplement of E, and denoted by |E. For example, when 



and so on. Now when r+s>n, the product E r E, is defined to 
be that unit of which the supplement is the progressive product 
\EJ[E,. For instance, if = 4, E r =ie 3 , E, = e 2 e 3 e4, we have 

|E,I E. = ( 2 e<) ( ei) = eie&t = e>, 
consequently, by the rule of regressive multiplication, 



Applying the distributive law, we obtain, when r+s>n, 

A r B s = SoE,S/3E. = S(o0)ErE., 
where the regressive products E r E, are to be reduced to units of 
species (r+sn) by the foregoing rule. 

If A=SaE, then, by definition, |A=Sa|E, and hence 

A|(B+C)=A|B+A|C. 
Now this is formally analogous to the distributive law of multi- 
plication; and in fact we may look upon A|B as a particular way 
of multiplying A and B (not A and B). The symbol AB, from 
this point of view, is called the inner product of A and B, as 
distinguished from the outer product IAB. An inner product may 
be either progressive or regressive. In the course of reducing 
such expressions as (AB)C, (AB)jC(DE)) and the like, where a 
chain of multiplications has to be performed in a certain order, 
the multiplications may be all progressive, or all regressive, or 
partly, one, partly the other. In the first two cases the product 
is said to be pure, in the third case mixed. A pure product is 
associative; a mixed product, speaking generally, is not. 

The outer and inner products of two extensive quantities A, B, 
are in many ways analogous to the quaternion symbols Vab and 
Sab respectively. As in quaternions, so in the extensive calculus, 
there are numerous formulae of transformation which enable us 
to deal with extensive quantities without expressing them in 
terms of the primary units. Only a few illustrations can be given 
here, Let a, b, c, d, e, f be quantities of the first species in the 
fourth category; A, B, C . . . quantities of the third species in 
the same category. Then 

(de) (abc) = ( abde) c + (cade) b + (bcde)a 

= (abce)d (abcd)e, 
(ab) (AB) = (aA) (6B) - (aB) (6A) 
ab\c = (a\c]b-(b\c) a , 



These may be compared and contrasted with such quaternion 
'ormulae as 

S(VabVcd) = SadSbc - SacSbd 

dSabc = aSbcd bScda -f- cSadb 

where a, b, c, d denote arbitrary vectors. 

8. An w-tuple linear algebra (also called a complex number 
system) deals with quantities of the type A=2o < e < 
derived from n special units e\, e% . . . e n . The sum 
and product of two quantities are defined in the first 
instance by the formulae 



so that the laws A, c, D of 3 are satisfied. The binary products 
e ( ej, however, are expressible as linear functions of the units e< by 
means of a "multiplication table" which defines the special 
characteristics of the algebra in question. Multiplication may 
or may not be commutative, and in the same way it may or may 
not be associative. The types of linear associative algebras, not 
assumed to be commutative, have been enumerated (with some 
omissions) up to sextuple algebras inclusive by B. Peirce. Quater- 
nions afford an example of a quadruple algebra of this kind; 
ordinary algebra is a special case of a duplex linear algebra. If, 
in the extensive calculus of the wth category, all the units (in- 
cluding i and the derived units E) are taken to be homologous 
instead of being distributed into species, we may regard it as a 
(a n i)-tuple linear algebra, which, however, is not wholly 
associative. It should be observed that while the use of special 
units, or extraordinaries, in a linear algebra is convenient, 
especially in applications, it is not indispensable. Any linear 
quantity may be denoted by a symbol (ai, 02, ... a) in which 
only its scalar coefficients occur; in fact, the special units only 
serve, in the algebra proper, as umbrae or regulators of certain 
operations on scalars (see NUMBER). This idea finds fuller 
expression in the algebra of matrices, as to which it must suffice 
to say that a matrix is a symbol consisting of a rectangular array 
of scalars, and that matrices may be combined by a rule of addi- 
tion which obeys the usual laws, and a rule of multiplication 
which is distributive and associative, but not, in general, com- 
mutative. Various special algebras (for example, quaternions) 
may be expressed in the notation of the algebra of matrices. 

9. In ordinary algebra we have the disjunctive law that if 
06 = 0, then either a = o or 6=0. This applies also to quater- 
nions, but not to extensive quantities, nor is it true for linear 
algebras in general. One of the most important questions in 
investigating a linear algebra is to decide the necessary relations 
between a and b in order that this product may be zero. 

10. The algebras discussed up to this point may be considered 
as independent in the sense that each of them deals with a class 
of symbols of quantity more or less homogeneous, Sul>sldlary 
and a set of operations applying to them all. But when a igei, ns , 
an algebra is used with a particular interpretation, 

or even in the course of its formal development, it frequently 
happens that new symbols of operation are, so to speak, super- 
posed upon the algebra, and are found to obey certain formal laws 
of combination of their own. For instance, there are the symbols 
A, D, E used in the calculus of finite differences; Aronhold's 
symbolical method in the calculus of invariants; and the like. 
In most cases these subsidiary algebras, as they may be called, 
are inseparable from the applications in which they are used; 
but in any attempt at a natural classification of algebra (at 
present a hopeless task), they would have to be taken into 
account. Even in ordinary algebra the notation for powers 
and roots disturbs the symmetry of the rational theory; and 
when a schoolboy illegitimately extends the distributive law by 
writing V(tt+6) = Va+V6, he is unconsciously emphasizing 
this want of complete harmony. 

AUTHORITIES. A. de Morgan, " On the Foundation of Algebra," 
Trans. Camb. P.S. (vii., viii., 1839-1844); G. Peacock, Symbolical 
Algebra (Cambridge, 1845); G. Boole, Laws of Thought (London, 
1854) ; E. Schroder, Lehrbuc h derArithmetiku.Algebr a (Leipzig, 1873), 
Voriesungen uber die Algebra der Logik (ibid.. i8oO;-i895); A. F. 
Mobius, Der barycentrische Calcul (Leipzig, 1827) (reprinted in his col- 
lected works, vol. i., Leipzig, 1885); W. R. Hamilton, Lectures on 
Quaternions (Dublin, 1853), Elements of Quaternions (ibid., 1866); 



6i6 



ALGEBRA 



H; Grassmann, Die lineale Ausdehnungslehre (Leipzig, 1844), 
Die Ausdehnungslehre (Berlin, 1862) (these are reprinted with 
valuable emendations and notes in his Gesammelte math. u. 
phys. Werke, vol. i., Leipzig (2 parts), 1894, 1896), and papers in 
Grunerts Arch, vi., Crelle, xlix. Ixxxiv., Math. Ann. vii. xii.; B. 
and C. S. Peirce, "Linear Associative Algebra," Amer. Journ. 
Math. iv. (privately circulated, 1871) ; A. Cayley, on Matrices, Phil. 
Trans, cxlviii., on Multiple Algebra, Quart. M. Journ. xxii.; J. J. 
Sylvester, on Universal Algebra (i.e. Matrices), Amer. Journ. Math. 
yi.; H. J. S. Smith, on Linear Indeterminate Equations, Phil. 
Trans, cli.; R. S. Ball, Theory of Screws (Dublin, 1876); and papers 
in Phil. Trans, clxiv., and Trans. R. Ir. Ac. xxv. ; W. K. Clifford, 
on Biquaternions, Proc. L. M. S. iv.; A. Buchheim, on Extensive 
Calculus and its Applications, Proc. L. M. S. xv.-xvii. ; H. Taber, 
on Matrices, Amer. J. M. xii.; K. Weierstrass, " Zur Theorie der 
aus n Haupteinheiten gebildeten complexen Grossen," Getting. 
Nachr. (1884) ; G. Frobenius, on Bilinear Forms, Crelle, Ixxxiv., and 
Berl. Ber. (1896) ; L. Kronecker.on Complex Numbers and Modular 
Systems, Berl. Ber. (1888) ; G. Scheffers, Complexe Zahlensysteme," 
Math. Ann. xxxix. (this contains a bibliography up to 1890) ; S. Lie, 
Vorlesungen uber continuirliche Gruppen (Leipzig, 1893), ch. xxi. ; A. 
M'Aulay, " Algebra after Hamilton, or Multenions," Proc.R.S. E., 
1908, 28, p. 503. For a more complete account see H. Hankel 
Theorie der complexen Zahlensysteme (Leipzig, 1867); O. Stolz, Vor- 
lesungen uber allgemeine Arithmetik (ibid., 1883); A. N.Whitehead, 
A Treatise on Universal Algebra, with Applications (vol. i., Cambridge, 
1898) (a very comprehensive work, to which the writer of this article 
is in many ways indebted) ; and the Encyclopddie d. math. Wissen- 
schaften (vol. i., Leipzig, 1898), &c., A i (H. Schubert), A 4 (E. 
Study), and B i c (G. Landsberg). For the history of the develop- 
ment of ordinary algebra M. Cantor's Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der 
Mathematik is the standard authority. (G. B. M.) 

C. HISTORY 

Various derivations of the word " algebra," which is of 
Arabian origin, have been given by different writers. The 
first mention of the word is to be found in the title 
* a wor k by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi 
(Hovarezmi), who flourished about the beginning of 
the gth century. The full title is Urn al-jebr -wa'l-muqabala, 
which contains the ideas of restitution and comparison, or 
opposition and comparison, or resolution and equation, jebr 
being derived from the verb jabara, to reunite, and muqabala, 
from gabala, to make equal. (The root jabara is also met with 
in the word algebrista, which means a " bone-setter," and is still 
in common use in Spain.) The same derivation is given by 
Lucas Paciolus (Luca Pacioli), who reproduces the phrase in 
the transliterated form alghebra e almucabala, and ascribes the 
invention of the art to the Arabians. 

Other writers have derived the word from the Arabic particle 
al (the definite article), and geber, meaning " man." Since, how- 
ever, Geber happened to be the name of a celebrated Moorish 
philosopher who flourished in about the nth or I2th century, it 
has been supposed that he was the founder of algebra, which 
has since perpetuated his name. The evidence of Peter Ramus 
(1515-1572) on this point is interesting, but he gives no authority 
for his singular statements. In the preface to his Arithmeticae 
libri duo el lolidem Algebrae (1560) he says: " The name Algebra 
is Syriac, signifying the art or doctrine of an excellent man. 
For Geber, in Syriac, is a name applied to men, and is sometimes 
a term of honour, as master or doctor among us. There was a 
certain learned mathematician who r-ent his algebra, written in 
the Syriac language, to Alexander the Great, and he named it 
almucabala, that is, the book of dark or mysterious things, 
which others would rather call the doctrine of algebra. To this 
day the same book is in great estimation among the learned in 
the oriental nations, and by the Indians, who cultivate this art, 
it is called aljabra and alboret; though the name of the author 
himself is not known." The uncertain authority of these state- 
ments, and the plausibility of the preceding explanation, have 
caused philologists to accept the derivation from al and jabara. 
Robert Recorde in his Whetstone of Witle (1557) uses the variant 
algeber, while John Dee (1527-1608) affirms that algiebar, and 
not algebra, is the correct form, and appeals to the authority 
of the Arabian Avicenna. 

Although the term " algebra " is now in universal use, various 
other appellations were used by the Italian mathematicians 
during the Renaissance. Thus we find Paciolus calling it I'Arte 



Magiore; ditta dal vulgo la Regula de la Cosa over Alghebra e 
Almucabala. The name I'arte magiore, the greater art, is designed 
to distinguish it from I'arte minore, the lesser art, a term which 
he applied to the modern arithmetic. His second variant, la 
regula de la cosa, the rule of the thing or unknown quantity, 
appears to have been in common use in Italy, and the word cosa 
was preserved for several centuries in the forms COM or algebra, 
cossic or algebraic, cossist or algebraist, &c. Other Italian 
writers termed it the Regula rei et census, the rule of the thing 
and the product, or the root and the square. The principle 
underlying this expression is probably to be found in the fact 
that it measured tie limits of their attainments in algebra, for 
they were unable to solve equations of a higher degree than 
the quadratic or square. 

Franciscus Vieta (Francois Viete) named it Specious Arith- 
metic, on account of the species of the quantities involved, which 
he represented symbolically by the various letters of the alphabet. 
Sir Isaac Newton introduced the term Universal Arithmetic, 
since it is concerned with the doctrine of operations, not affected 
on numbers, but on general symbols. 

Notwithstanding these and other idiosyncratic appellations, 
European mathematicians have adhered to the older name, by 
which the subject is now universally known. 

It is difficult to assign the invention of any art or science 
definitely to any particular age or race. The few fragmentary 
records, which have come down to us from past civilizations, 
must not be regarded as representing the totality of their know- 
ledge, and the omission of a science or art does not necessarily 
imply that the science or art was unknown. It was formerly the 
custom to assign the invention of algebra to the Greeks, but 
since the decipherment of the Rhind papyrus by Eisenlohr this 
view has changed, for in this work there are distinct signs of an 
algebraic analysis. The particular problem a heap (hau) and 
its seventh makes 19 is solved as we should now solve a 
simple equation; but Ahmes varies his methods in other similar 
problems. This discovery carries the invention of algebra back 
to about 1700 B.C., if not earlier. 

It is probable that the algebra of the Egyptians was of a most 
rudimentary nature, for otherwise we should expect to find 
traces of it in the works of the Greek geometers, of 
whom Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.C.) was the first. 
Notwithstanding the prolixity of writers and the 
number of the writings, all attempts at extracting an algebraic 
analysis from their geometrical theorems and problems have 
been fruitless, and it is generally conceded that their analysis 
was geometrical and had little or no affinity to algebra. The 
first extant work which approaches to a treatise on algebra 
is by Diophantus (q.v.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who 
flourished about A.D. 350. The original, which consisted of a 
preface and thirteen books, is now lost, but we have a Latin 
translation of the first six books and a fragment of another on 
polygonal numbers by Xylander of Augsburg (1575), and Latin 
and Greek translations by Caspar Bachet de Merizac (1621- 
1670). Other editions have been published, of which we may 
mention Pierre Fermat's (1670), T. L. Heath's (1885) and 
P. Tannery's (1893-1895). In the preface to this work, which 
is dedicated to one Dionysius, Diophantus explains his notation, 
naming the square, cube and fourth powers, dynamis, cubus, 
dynamodinimus, and so on, according to the sum in the indices. 
The unknown he terms arithmos, the number, and in solutions 
he marks it by the final s; he explains the generation of powers, 
the rules for multiplication and division of simple quantities, 
but he does not treat of the addition, subtraction, multiplication 
and division of compound quantities. He then proceeds to 
discuss various artifices for the simplification of equations, giving 
methods which are still in common use. In the body of the work 
he displays considerable ingenuity in reducing his problems to 
simple equations, which admit either of direct solution, or fall 
into the class known as indeterminate equations. This latter 
class he discussed so assiduously that they are often known 
as Diophantine problems, and the methods of resolving them as 
the Diophantine analysis (see EQUATION, Indeterminate). It is 



ALGEBRA 



617 



difficult to believe that this work of Diophantus arose spontane- 
ously in a period of general stagnation. It is more than likely 
that he was indebted to earlier writers, whom he omits to 
mention, and whose works are now lost; nevertheless, but for 
this work, we should be led to assume that algebra was almost, 
if not entirely, unknown to the Greeks. 

The Romans, who succeeded the Greeks as the chief civilized 
power in Europe, failed to set store on their literary and 
scientific treasures; mathematics was all but neglected; and 
beyond a few improvements in arithmetical computations, there 
are no material advances to be recorded. 

In the chronological development of our subject we have now 
to turn to the Orient. Investigation of the writings of Indian 
mathematicians has exhibited a fundamental dis- 
tinction between the Greek and Indian mind, the 
former being pre-eminently geometrical and specula- 
tive, the latter arithmetical and mainly practical. We find that 
geometry was neglected except in so far as it was of service to 
astronomy; trigonometry was advanced, and algebra improved 
far beyond the attainments of Diophantus. 

The earliest Indian mathematician of whom we have certain 
knowledge is Aryabhatta, who flourished about the beginning 
of the 6th century of our era. The fame of this astronomer and 
mathematician rests on his work, the Aryabhattiyam, the third 
chapter of which is devoted to mathematics. Ganessa, an 
eminent astronomer, mathematician and scholiast of Bhaskara, 
quotes this work and makes separate mention of the cuttaca 
(" pulveriser "), a device for effecting the solution of indeter- 
minate equations. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, one of the earliest 
modern investigators of Hindu science, presumes that the 
treatise of Aryabhatta extended to determinate quadratic 
equations, indeterminate equations of the first degree, and 
probably of the second. An astronomical work, called the 
Surya-siddhanta (" knowledge of the Sun "), of uncertain 
authorship and probably belonging to the 4th or sth century, 
was considered of great merit by the Hindus, who ranked it 
only second to the work of Brahmagupta, who flourished about 
a century later. It is of great interest to the historical student, 
for it exhibits the influence of Greek science upon Indian mathe- 
matics at a period prior to Aryabhatta. After an interval of 
about a century, during which mathematics attained its highest 
level, there flourished Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598), whose work 
entitled Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (" The revised system of 
Brahma ") contains several chapters devoted to mathematics. 
Of other Indian writers mention may be made of Cridhara, the 
author of a Ganita-sara (" Quintessence of Calculation "), and 
Padmanabha, the author of an algebra. 

A period of mathematical stagnation then appears to have 
possessed the Indian mind for an interval of several centuries, 
for the works of the next author of any moment stand but little 
in advance of Brahmagupta. We refer to Bhaskara Acarya, 
whose work the Siddhanla-ciromani (" Diadem of an Astronomical 
System"), written in 1150, contains two important chapters, 
the Lilavali (" the beautiful [science or art] ") and Viga-ganita 
(" root-extraction "), which are given up to arithmetic and algebra. 

English translations of the mathematical chapters of the 
Brahma-siddhanta and Siddhanta-ciromani by H. T. Colebrooke 
(1817), and of the Surya-siddhanta by E. Burgess, with annota- 
tions by W. D. Whitney (1860), may be consulted for details. 

The question as to whether the Greeks borrowed their algebra 
from the Hindus or vice versa has been the subject of much 
discussion. There is no doubt that there was a constant traffic 
between Greece and India, and it is more than probable that an 
exchange of produce would be accompanied by a transference of 
ideas. Moritz Cantor suspects the influence of Diophantine 
methods, more particularly in the Hindu solutions of indeter- 
minate equations, where certain technical terms are, in all 
probability, of Greek origin. However this may be, it is certain 
that the Hindu algebraists were far in advance of Diophantus. 
The deficiencies of the Greek symbolism were partially remedied; 
subtraction was denoted by placing a dot over the subtrahend; 
multiplication, by placing bha (an abbreviation of bhavita, the 



" product ") after the factors; division, by placing the divisor 
under the dividend; and square root, by inserting ka (an 
abbreviation of karana, irrational) before the quantity. The 
unknown was called yavatlavat, and if there were several, the 
first took this appellation, and the others were designated by the 
names of colours; for instance, * was denoted by ya and y by ka 
(from kdlaka, black). 

A notable improvement on the ideas of Diophantus is to be 
found in the fact that the Hindus recognized the existence 
of two roots of a quadratic equation, but the negative 
roots were considered to be inadequate, since no interpreta- 
tion could be found for them. It is also supposed that they 
anticipated discoveries of the solutions of higher equations. 
Great advances were made in the study of indeterminate equa- 
tions, a branch of analysis in which Diophantus excelled. But 
whereas Diophantus aimed at obtaining a single solution, the 
Hindus strove for a general method by which any indeterminate 
problem could be resolved. In this they were completely 
successful, for they obtained general solutions for the equations 
ax=>=by=c, xy=ax+by+c (since rediscovered by Leonhard 
Euler) and cy 2 =ax*-\-b. A particular case of the last equation, 
namely, y t =ax i +i, sorely taxed the resources of modern alge- 
braists. It was proposed by Pierre de Fermat to Bernhard 
Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians. John 
Wallis and Lord Brounker jointly obtained a tedious solution 
which was published in 1658, and afterwards in 1668 by John 
Pell in his Algebra. A solution was also given by Fermat in his 
Relation. Although Pell had nothing to do with the solution, 
posterity has termed the equation Pell's Equation, or Problem, 
when more rightly it should be the Hindu Problem, in recognition 
of the mathematical attainments of the Brahmans. 

Hermann Hankel has pointed out the readiness with which the 
Hindus passed from number to magnitude and vice versa. 
Although this transition from the discontinuous to continuous 
is not truly scientific, yet it materially augmented the develop- 
ment of algebra, and Hankel affirms that if we define algebra 
as the application of arithmetical operations to both rational 
and irrational numbers or magnitudes, then the Brahmans are 
the real inventors of algebra. 

The integration of the scattered tribes of Arabia in the 7th 
century by the stirring religious propaganda of Mahomet was 
accompanied by a meteoric rise in the intellectual 
powers of a hitherto obscure race. The Arabs became 
the custodians of Indian and Greek science, whilst 
Europe was rent by internal dissensions. Under the rule of the 
Abbasids, Bagdad became the centre of scientific thought; 
physicians and astronomers from India and Syria flocked to 
their court; Greek and Indian manuscripts were translated 
(a work commenced by the Caliph Mamun (813-833) and ably 
continued by his successors) ; and in about a century the Arabs 
were placed in possession of the vast stores of Greek and Indian 
learning. Euclid's Elements were first translated in the reign 
of Harun-al-Rashid (786-809), and revised by the order of 
Mamun. But these translations were regarded as imperfect, 
and it remained for Tobit ben Korra (836-901) to produce a 
satisfactory edition. Ptolemy's Almagest, the works of Apol- 
lonius, Archimedes, Diophantus and portions of the Brahma- 
siddhanta, were also translated. The first notable Arabian 
mathematician was Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi, who 
flourished in the reign of Mamun. His treatise on algebra and 
arithmetic (the latter part of which is only extant in the form 
of a Latin translation, discovered hi 1857) contains nothing that 
was unknown to the Greeks and Hindus; it exhibits methods 
allied to those of both races, with the Greek element predominat- 
ing. The part devoted to algebra has the title al-jebr wa'l- 
muqdbala, and the arithmetic begins with " Spoken has 
Algoritmi," the name Khwarizmi or Hovarezmi having passed 
into the word Algoritmi, which has been further transformed 
into the more modern words algorism and algorithm, signifying 
a method of computing. 

Tobit ben Korra (836-901), born at Harran in Mesopotamia, 
an accomplished linguist, mathematician and astronomer, 






6i8 



ALGEBRA 



rendered conspicuous service by his translations of various Greek 
authors. His investigation of the properties of amicable numbers 
(g.v.) and of the problem of trisecting an angle, are of importance. 
The Arabians more closely resembled the Hindus than the Greeks 
in the choice of studies; their philosophers blended speculative 
dissertations with the more progressive study of medicine; 
their mathematicians neglected the subtleties of the conic sections 
and Diophantine analysis, and applied themselves more particu- 
larly to perfect the system of numerals (see NUMERAL) , arithmetic 
and astronomy (?..). It thus came about that while some 
progress was made in algebra, the talents of the race were 
bestowed on astronomy and trigonometry (<?..). Fahri des al 
Karhi, who flourished about the beginning of the nth century, 
is the author of the most important Arabian work on algebra. 
He follows the methods of Diophantus; his work on indeter- 
minate equations has no resemblance to the Indian methods, 
and contains nothing that cannot be gathered from Diophantus. 
He solved quadratic equations both geometrically and algebraic- 
ally, and also equations of the form x 2 "-\-ax"-\-b = o; he also 
proved certain relations between the sum of the first n natural 
numbers, and the sums of their squares and cubes. 

Cubic equations were solved geometrically by determining 
the intersections of conic sections. Archimedes' problem of 
dividing a sphere by a plane into two segments having a pre- 
scribed ratio, was first expressed as a cubic equation by Al Mahani, 
and the first solution was given by Abu Gafar al Hazin. The 
determination of the side of a regular heptagon which can be 
inscribed or circumscribed to a given circle was reduced to a more 
complicated equation which was first successfully resolved by 
Abul Gud. The method of solving equations geometrically was 
considerably developed by Omar Khayyam of Khorassan, who 
flourished in the nth century. This author questioned the 
possibility of solving cubics by pure algebra, and biquadratics by 
geometry. His first contention was not disproved until the 1 5th 
century, but his second was disposed of by Abul Wefa (940-998), 
who succeeded in solving the forms x* a and x t +ax 3 =b. 

Although the foundations of the geometrical resolution of 
cubic equations are to be ascribed to the Greeks (for Eutocius 
assigns to Menaechmus two methods of solving the equation 
x? = a and x 3 = 2 3 ) , yet the subsequent development by the Arabs 
must be regarded as one of their most important achievements. 
The Greeks had succeeded in solving an isolated example; the 
Arabs accomplished the general solution of numerical equations. 

Considerable attention has been directed to the different styles 
in which the Arabian authors have treated their subject. Moritz 
Cantor has suggested that at one time there existed two schools, 
one in sympathy with the Greeks, the other with the Hindus; 
and that, although the writings of the latter were first studied, 
they were rapidly discarded for the more perspicuous Grecian 
methods, so that, among the later Arabian writers, the Indian 
methods were practically forgotten and their mathematics became 
essentially Greek in character. 

Turning to the Arabs in the West we find the same enlightened 
spirit; Cordova, the capital of the Moorish empire in Spain, was 
as much a centre of learning as Bagdad. The earliest known 
Spanish mathematician is Al Madshritti (d. 1007), whose fame 
rests on a dissertation on amicable numbers, and on the schools 
which were founded by his pupils at Cordova, Dania and Granada. 
Gabir ben Aflah of Sevilla, commonly called Geber, was a cele- 
brated astronomer and apparently skilled in algebra, for it has 
been supposed that the word " algebra " is compounded from his 
name. 

When the Moorish empire began to wane the brilliant in- 
tellectual gifts which they had so abundantly nourished during 
three or four centuries became enfeebled, and after that period 
they failed to produce an author comparable with those of the 
7th to the nth centuries. 

In Europe the decline of Rome was succeeded by a period, 
lasting several centuries, during which the sciences and arts 
were all but neglected. Political and ecclesiastical dissensions 
occupied the greatest intellects, and the only progress to be 
recorded is in the art of computing or arithmetic, and the trans- 



lation of Arabic manuscripts. The first successful attempt to 
revive the study of algebra in Christendom was due to Leonardo 
of Pisa, an Italian merchant trading in the Mediter- 
ranean. His travels and mercantile experience had led 
him to conclude that the Hindu methods of computing 
were in advance of those then in general use, and in 1202 he 
published his Liber Abaci, which treats of both algebra and 
arithmetic. In this work, which is of great historical interest, 
since it was published about two centuries before the art of 
printing was discovered, he adopts the Arabic notation for 
numbers, and solves many problems, both arithmetical and 
algebraical. But it contains little that is original, and although 
the work created a great sensation when it was first published, 
the effect soon passed away, and the book was practically 
forgotten. Mathematics was more or less ousted from the 
academic curricula by the philosophical inquiries of the school- 
men, and it was only after an interval of nearly three centuries 
that a worthy successor to Leonardo appeared. This was Lucas 
Paciolus (Lucas de Burgo), a Minorite friar, who, having pre- 
viously written works on algebra, arithmetic and geometry, 
published, in 1494, his principal work, entitled Summa de 
Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalita. In it 
he mentions many earlier writers from whom he had learnt the 
science, and although it contains very little that cannot be found 
in Leonardo's work, yet it is especially noteworthy for the 
systematic employment of symbols, and the manner in which it 
reflects the state of mathematics in Europe during this period. 
These works are the earliest printed books on mathematics. 
The renaissance of mathematics was thus effected in Italy, 
and it is to that country that the leading developments of the 
following century were due. The first difficulty to be overcome 
was the algebraical solution of cubic equations, the 
pans asinorum of the earlier mathematicians. The .. _._, 

, . . . equations. 

first step m this direction was made by Scipio 
Ferro (d. 1526), who solved the equation x 3 +ax=b. Of his 
discovery we know nothing except that he declared it to 
his pupil Antonio Marie Floridas. An imperfect solution of 
the equation x 3 +px*=q was discovered by Nicholas Tartalea 
(Tartaglia) in 1530, and his pride in this achievement led him 
into conflict with Floridas, who proclaimed his own knowledge 
of the form resolved by Ferro. Mutual recriminations led to a 
public discussion in 1535, when Tartalea completely vindicated 
the general applicability of his methods and exhibited the 
inefficiencies of that of Floridas. This contest over, Tartalea 
redoubled his attempts to 'generalize his methods, and by 1541 
he possessed the means for solving any form of cubic equation. 
His discoveries had made him famous all over Italy, and he was 
earnestly solicited to publish his methods; but he abstained 
from doing so, saying that he intended to embody them in 
a treatise on algebra which he was preparing. At last he 
succumbed to the repeated requests of Girolamo or Geronimo 
Cardano, who swore that he would regard them as an inviol- 
able secret. Cardan or Cardano, who was at that time writing 
his great work, the Ars Magna, could not restrain the temptation 
of crowning his treatise with such important discoveries, and in 
1545 he broke his oath and gave to the world Tartalea's rules 
for solving cubic equations. Tartalea, thus robbed of his most 
cherished possession, was in despair. Recriminations ensued 
until his death in 1557, and although he sustained his claim for 
priority, posterity has not conceded to him the honour of his 
discovery, for his solution is now known as Cardan's Ride. 

Cubic equations having been solved, biquadratics soon 
followed suit. As early as 1539 Cardan had solved certain 
particular cases, but it remained for his pupil, Lewis 
(Ludovici) Ferrari, to devise a general method. His f^" d ' 
solution, which is sometimes erroneously ascribed to equations. 
Rafael Bombelli, was published in the Ars Magna. 
In this work, which is one of the most valuable contributions 
to the literature of algebra, Cardan shows that he was familiar 
with both real positive and negative roots of equations whether 
rational or irrational, but of imaginary roots he was quite 
ignorant, and he admits his inability to resolve the so-called 



ALGEBRA 



619 



" irreducible case " (see EQUATION). Fundamental theorems 
in the theory of equations are to be found in the same work. 
Clearer ideas of imaginary quantities and the " irreducible 
case " were subsequently published by Bombelli, in a work of 
which the dedication is dated 1572, though the book was not 
published until 1579. 

t* Contemporaneously with the remarkable discoveries of the 
Italian mathematicians, algebra was increasing in popularity 
in Germany, France and England. Michael Stifel and Johann 
Scheubelius (Scheybl) (1494-1570) flourished in Germany, and 
although unacquainted with the work of Cardan and Tartalea, 
their writings are noteworthy for their perspicuity and the 
introduction of a more complete symbolism for quantities and 
operations. Stifel introduced the sign (+) for addition or a 
positive quantity, which was previously denoted by plus, piu, 
or the letter p. Subtraction, previously written as minus, mene 
or the letter m, was symbolized by the sign ( ) which is still 
in use. The square root he denoted by (V), whereas Paciolus, 
Cardan and others used the letter R. 

The first treatise on algebra written in English was by Robert 
Recorde, who published his arithmetic in 1552, and his algebra 
entitled The Whetstone of Witte, which is the second part of Arith- 
melik, in 1557. This work, which is written in the form of a 
dialogue, closely resembles the works of Stifel and Scheubelius, 
the latter of whom he often quotes. It includes the properties 
of numbers; extraction of roots of arithmetical and algebraical 
quantities, solutions of simple and quadratic equations, and a 
fairly complete account of surds. He introduced the sign ( = ) 
for equality, and the terms binomial and residual. Of other 
writers who published works about the end of the i6th century, 
we may mention Jacques Peletier, or Jacobus Peletarius (De 
occulta parte Numerorum, quam Algebram vacant, 1558); Petrus 
Ramus (Arithmeticae Libri duo et totidem Algebrae, 1560), and 
Christoph Clavius, who wrote on algebra in 1 580, though it was 
not published until 1608. At this time also flourished Simon 
Stevinus (Stevin) of Bruges, who published an arithmetic in 
1585 and an algebra shortly afterwards. These works possess 
considerable originality, and contain many new improvements 
in algebraic notation; the unknown (res) is denoted by a small 
circle, in which he places an integer corresponding to the power. 
He introduced the terms multinomial, trinomial, quadrinomial, 
&c., and considerably simplified the notation for decimals. 

About the beginning of the I7th century various mathematical 
works by Franciscus Vieta were published, which were after- 
wards collected by Franz van Schooten and republished in 1646 
at Leiden. These works exhibit great originality and mark an 
important epoch in the history of algebra. Vieta, who does not 
avail himself of the discoveries of his predecessors the negative 
roots of Cardan, the revised notation of Stifel and Stevin, &c. 
introduced or popularized many new terms and symbols, some 
of which are still in use. He denotes quantities by the letters 
of the alphabet, retaining the vowels for the unknown and the 
consonants for the knowns; he introduced the vinculum and 
among others the terms coefficient, affirmative, negative, pure 
and adjected, equations. He improved the methods for solving 
equations, and devised geometrical constructions with the aid 
of the conic sections. His method for determining approximate 
values of the roots of equations is far in advance of the Hindu 
method as applied by Cardan, and is identical in principle 
with the methods of Sir Isaac Newton and W. G. Horner. 

We have next to consider the works of Albert Girard, a Flemish 
mathematician. This writer, after having published an edition 
of Stevin's works in 1625, published in 1629 at Amsterdam a 
small tract on algebra which shows a considerable advance on 
the work of Vieta. Girard is inconsistent in his notation, some- 
times following Vieta, sometimes Stevin; he introduced the new 
symbols ff for greater than and for less than ; he follows Vieta in 
using the plus (+) for addition, he denotes subtraction by 
Recorde's symbol for equality ( = ), and he had no sign for 
equality but wrote the word out. He possessed clear ideas of 
indices and the generation of powers, of the negative roots of 
equations and their geometrical interpretation, and was the 



first to use the term imaginary roots. He also discovered how to 
sum the powers of the roots of an equation. 

Passing over the invention of logarithms (q.v.) by John Napier, 
and their development by Henry Briggs and others, the next 
author of moment was an Englishman, Thomas Harriot, whose 
algebra (Artis analyticae praxis) was published posthumously 
by Walter Warner in 1631. Its great merit consists in the 
complete notation and symbolism, which avoided the cumber- 
some expressions of the earlier algebraists, and reduced the art 
to a form closely resembling that of to-day. He follows Vieta 
in assigning the vowels to the unknown quantities and the 
consonants to the knowns, but instead of using capitals, as with 
Vieta, he employed the small letters; equality he denoted by 
Recorde's symbol, and he introduced the signs > and < for 
greater than and less than. His principal discovery is concerned 
with equations, which he showed to be derived from the continued 
multiplication of as many simple factors as the highest power of 
the unknown, and he was thus enabled to deduce relations 
between the coefficients and various functions of the roots. 
Mention may also be made of his chapter on inequalities, in 
which he proves that the arithmetic mean is always greater 
than the geometric mean. 

William Oughtred, a contemporary of Harriot, published an 
algebra, Clavis mathematicae, simultaneously with Harriot's 
treatise. His notation is based on that of Vieta, but he introduced 
the sign X for multiplication, 4f for continued proportion, 
: : for proportion, and denoted ratio by one dot. This last 
character has since been entirely restricted to multiplication, 
and ratio is now denoted by two dots (:). His symbols for 
greater than and less than ( "H and J) have been completely 
superseded by Harriot's signs. 

So far the development of algebra and geometry had been 
mutually independent, except for a few isolated applications of 
geometrical constructions to the solution of algebraical problems. 
Certain minds had long suspected the advantages which would 
accrue from the unrestricted application of algebra to geometry, 
but it was not until the advent of the philosopher Rene Descartes 
that the co-ordination was effected. In his famous Geometria 
(1637), which is really a treatise on the algebraic representation 
of geometric theorems, he founded the modern theory of 
analytical geometry (see GEOMETRY), and at the same time he 
rendered signal service to algebra, more especially in the theory 
of equations. His notation is based primarily on that of Harriot ; 
but he differs from that writer in retaining the first letters of the 
alphabet for the known quantities and the final letters for the 
unknowns. 

The 1 7th century is a famous epoch in the progress of science, 
and the mathematics in no way lagged behind. The discoveries 
of Johann Kepler and Bonaventura Cavalieri were the foundation 
upon which Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz 
erected that wonderful edifice, the Infinitesimal Calculus (q.v.). 
Many new fields were opened up, but there was still continual 
progress in pure algebra. Continued fractions, one of the earliest 
examples of which is Lord Brouncker's expression for the ratio 
of the circumference to the diameter of a circle (see CIRCLE), 
were elaborately discussed by John Wallis and Leonhard Euler; 
the convergency of series treated by Newton, Euler and the 
Bernoullis; the binomial theorem, due originally to Newton and 
subsequently expanded by Euler and others, was used by Joseph 
Louis Lagrange as the basis of his Calcul des Fonctions. Diophan- 
tine problems were revived by Caspar Bachet, Pierre Fermat 
and Euler; the modern theory of numbers was founded by 
Fermat and developed by Euler, Lagrange and others; and the 
theory of probability was attacked by Blaise Pascal and Fermat, 
their work being subsequently expanded by James Bernoulli, 
Abraham de Moivre, Pierre Simon Laplace and others. The 
germs of the theory of determinants are to be found in the works 
of Leibnitz; Etienne Bezout utilized them in 1764 for expressing 
the result obtained by the process of elimination known by his 
name, and since restated by Arthur Cayley. 

In recent times many mathematicians have formulated other 
kinds of algebras, in which the operators do not obey. the laws of 



620 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



ordinary algebra. .This study was inaugurated by George Peacock, 
who was one of the earliest mathematicians to recognize the 
symbolic character of the fundamental principles of algebra. 
About the same time, D. F. Gregory published a paper " on 
the real nature of symbolical algebra." In Germany the work 
of Martin Ohm (System der Mathematik, 1822) marks a step 
forward. Notable service was also rendered by Augustus de 
Morgan, who applied logical analysis to the laws of mathematics. 

The geometrical interpretation of imaginary quantities had 
a far-reaching influence on the development of symbolic 
algebras. The attempts to elucidate this question by H. Kiihn 
(1750-1751) and Jean Robert Argand (1806) were completed 
by Karl Friedrich Gauss, and the formulation of various systems 
of vector analysis by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, Hermann 
Grassmann and others, followed. These algebras were essentially 
geometrical, and it remained, more or less, for the American 
mathematician Benjamin Peirce to devise systems of pure 
symbolic algebras; in this work he was ably seconded by his 
son Charles S. Peirce. In England, multiple algebra was 
developed by James Joseph Sylvester, who, in company with 
Arthur Cayley, expanded the theory of matrices, the germs of 
which are to be found in the writings of Hamilton (see above, 
under (B); and QUATERNIONS). 

The preceding summary shows the specialized nature which 
algebra has assumed since the i7th century. To attempt a 
history of the development of the various topics in this article 
is inappropriate, and we refer the reader to the separate articles. 

REFERENCES. The history of algebra is treated in all historical 
works on mathematics in general (see MATHEMATICS: References). 
Greek algebra can be specially studied in T. L. Heath's Diophantus. 
See also John Wallis, Opera Mathematica (1693-1699), and Charles 
Mutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815), article 
" Algebra." (C. E.*) 

ALGEBRAIC FORMS. The subject-matter of algebraic forms 
is to a large extent connected with the linear transformation of 
algebraical polynomials which involve two or more variables. 
The theories of determinants and of symmetric functions and of 
the algebra of differential operations have an important bearing 
upon this comparatively new branch of mathematics. They 
are the chief instruments of research, and have themselves much 
benefited by being so employed. When a homogeneous poly- 
nomial is transformed by general linear substitutions as hereafter 
explained, and is then expressed in the original form with new 
coefficients affecting the new variables, certain functions of the 
new coefficients and variables are numerical multiples of the 
same functions of the original coefficients and variables. The 
investigation of the properties of these functions, as well for a 
single form as for a simultaneous set of forms, and as well for 
one as for many series of variables, is included in the theory of 
invariants. As far back as 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, and later 
Carl Friedrich Gauss, had met with simple cases of such functions, 
George Boole, in 1841 (Camb. Math. Journ. iii. pp. 1-20), made 
important steps, but it was not till 1845 that Arthur Cayley 
(Coll. Math. Papers, i. pp. 80-94, 95-112) showed by his calculus 
of hyper-determinants that an infinite series of such functions 
might be obtained systematically. The subject was carried on 
over a long series of years by himself, J. J. Sylvester, G. Salmon, 
L. O. Hesse, S. H. Aronhold, C. Hermite, Francesco Brioschi, 
R.F. A. Clebsch, P. Gordon, &c. The year 1868 saw a considerable 
enlargement of the field of operations. This arose from the study 
by Felix Klein and Sophus Lie of a new theory of groups of sub- 
stitutions; it was shown that there exists an invariant theory 
connected with every group of linear substitutions. The invariant 
theory then existing was classified by them as appertaining to 
" finite continuous groups." Other " Galois " groups were 
defined whose substitution coefficients have fixed numerical 
values, and are particularly associated with the theory of equa- 
tions. Arithmetical groups, connected with the theory of 
quadratic forms and other branches of the theory of numbers, 
which are termed "discontinuous," and infinite groups connected 
with differential forms and equations, came into existence, and 
also particular linear and higher transformations connected with 
analysis and geometry. The effect of this was to co-ordinate 



many branches of mathematics and greatly to increase the 
number of workers. The subject of transformation in general 
has been treated by Sophus Lie in the classical work Theorie 
der Transformationsgruppcn. The present article is merely con- 
cerned with algebraical linear transformation. Two methods of 
treatment have been carried on in parallel lines, the unsymbolic 
and the symbolic; both of these originated with Cayley, but 
he with Sylvester and the English school have in the main con- 
fined themselves to the former, whilst Aronhold, Clebsch, Gordan, 
and the continental schools have principally restricted themselves 
to the latter. The two methods have been conducted so as to 
be in constant touch, though the nature of the results obtained 
by the one differs much from those which flow naturally from 
the other. Each has been singularly successful in discovering 
new lines of advance and in encouraging the other to renewed 
efforts. P. Gordan first proved that for any system of forms 
there exists a finite number of covariants, in terms of which all 
others are expressible as rational and integral functions. This 
enabled David Hilbert to produce a very simple unsymbolic 
proof of the same theorem. So the theory of the forms apper- 
taining to a binary form of unrestricted order was first worked 
out by Cayley and P. A. MacMahon by unsymbolic methods, 
and later G. E. Stroh, from a knowledge of the results, was able 
to verify and extend the results by the symbolic method. The 
partition method of treating symmetrical algebra is one which has 
been singularly successful in indicating new paths of advance in 
the theory of invariants; the important theorem of expressibility 
is, directly, we exclude unity from the partitions, a theorem con- 
cerning the expressibility of covariants, and involves the theory 
of the reducible forms and of the syzygies. The theory brought 
forward has not yet found a place in any systematic treatise in 
any language, so that it has been judged proper to give a fairly 
complete account of it. 1 

I. THE THEORY OF DETERMINANTS.* 
Let there be given n 2 quantities 

an a an ... a\ n 
ati an ojs az 

a>l UK Ot Osn 
Onl dot Ont On 

and form from them a product of n quantities 

Oia <J0 a*y BJ ,> 

where the first suffixes are the natural numbers I, 2, 3, . . .n taken 
in order, and a, /3, y, ... i- is some permutation of these n numbers. 
This permutation by a transposition of two numbers, say o, ft, 
becomes ft, a, y, . . . v, and by successively transposing pairs of letters 
the permutation can be reduced to the form I, 2,^3, . . .n. Let k 
such transpositions be necessary; then the expression 



the summation being for all permutations of the n numbers, is 
called the determinant of the n 2 quantities. The quantities 
ia> a 2j3 are called the elements of the determinant ; the term 
( )*oiaOj/Jory. ..ai. is called a member of the determinant, and 
there are evidently n\ members corresponding to the n\ permuta- 
tions of the n numbers I, 2, 3, ... n. The determinant is usually 
written 

on ai2 an ... flu 

Oai an Ota . 

oi ajs ass 



the square array being termed the matrix of the determinant. 
A matrix has in many parts of mathematics a signification apart 
from its evaluation as a determinant. A theory of matrices has 
been constructed by Cayley in connexion particularly with the 
theory of linear transformation. The matrix consists of n rows and 
n columns 1 . Each row as well as each column supplies one and only 
one element to each member of the determinant. Consideration of 
the definition of the determinant shows that the value is unaltered 
when the suffixes in each element are transposed. 

Theorem. If the determinant is transformed so as to read by 
columns as it formerly did by rows its value is unchanged. The 
leading member of the determinant is Onaaass Onm and corresponds 
to the principal diagonal of the matrix. 

We write frequently 

A = S au02j<i>a.--a = (anO22O33...a.)- 
If the first two columns of the determinant be transposed the 



1 The elementary theory is given in the article DETERMINANT. 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



621 



expression for the determinant becomes 2( )*ai/3otaai y ...a ll i>, viz. 
a and ft are transposed, and it is dear that the number of trans- 
positions necessary to convert the permutation ftay...n of the second 
suffixes to the natural order is changed by unity. Hence the trans- 
position of columns merely changes the sign of the determinant. 
Similarly it is shown that the transposition of any two columns or 
of any two rows merely changes the sign of the determinant. 

Theorem. Interchange of any two rows or of any two columns 
merely changes the sign of the determinant. 

Corollary. If any two rows or any two columns of a determinant 
be identical the value of the determinant is zero. 

Minors of a Determinant. From the value of A we may separate 
those members which contain a particular element an, as a factor, 
and write the portion an, Ait ; At, the cofactor of Oit, is called a 
minor of order n I of the determinant. 

Now oiiAn = 2 =<= 011022033.. .o n , wherein On is not to be changed, 
but the second suffixes in the product 022033 a,* assume all per- 
mutations, the number of transpositions necessary determining the 
sign to be affixed to the member. 

HenceanAn = aii2= fc a22as3a n , 1 , where the cofactor of on is clearly 
the determinant obtained by erasing the first row and the first 
column. 



Hence An = 



O 32 O83 . 



a2 On8 



Similarly An,, the cofactor of an, is shown to be the product of 
( )*+* and the determinant obtained by erasing from A the i'* 
row and k* column. No member of a determinant can involve 
more than one element from the first row. Hence we have the 
development 

A =aiiAn -f-OizAu +Oi>Au + +OiAin, 

proceeding according to the elements of the first row and the corre- 
sponding minors. 

Similarly we have a development proceeding according to the 
elements contained in any row or in any column, viz. 



This theory enables the evaluation of a determinant by successive 
reduction of the orders of the determinants involved. 

103 i A i i > f; i i * i 

'H-5 J|-|o 3 6 |+ 3 |o-5 



Ex. gr. 



2 1 
0-5 



= 1|3 | -6 | -5 | +3.2 | - 5 |-3. 1|0| 
= 3+30-30-0=3. 
Since the determinant 



Oil Oa O23 . 
Oil On O23 

131 a 32 O33 . 



. 02n 
O2 



having two identical rows, 



Onl <*n2 OnJ On 

vanishes identically; we have by development according to the 
elements of the first row 



A, 



and, in general, since 

OiiA<i+Oi2A,2+a,3Ai3+... +OinAi 

if we suppose the i th and k" 1 rows identical 

otiAii+ot2Ai2+ot3Ai3+...+at n Ai,, =0 (*5) ; 
and proceeding by columns instead of rows, 

OiiAli+02iA2t + a3iAsi+ + <hiAnt =0 (*$') 

identical relations always satisfied by these minors. 

If in the first relation of (A) we write at, =Ai,+c,-,+d,-,+... we 
find that 20i, A;, = 26i, Ai, + 2Ci,Ai, + 2di, Ai, +... so that A breaks up into 
a sum of determinants, and we also obtain a theorem for the addition 
of determinants which have n i rows in common. If we multiply 
the elements of the second row by an arbitrary magnitude X, and 
add to the corresponding elements of the first row, A becomes 
2oi,Ai,+X2o2,Ai, = 2ai,Ai, = A, showing that the value of the deter- 
minant is unchanged. In general we can prove in the same way 
the- 

Theorem. The value of a determinant is unchanged if we add 
to the elements of any row or column the corresponding elements 
of the other rows or other columns respectively each multiplied 
by an arbitrary magnitude, such magnitude remaining constant in 
respect of the elements in a particular row or a particular column. 

Observation. Every factor common to all the elements of a row 
or of a column is obviously a factor of the determinant, and may 
be taken outside the determinant brackets. 



Ex.gr. 



111 



2_ a 2 ^!_. 



ft -a 




y o 




I p-tf y*-a? 
|/3 o 7 o 



The minor Ait is 



3A 

dan,' 



and is itself a determinant of order rii. 



We may therefore differentiate again in regard to any element a,, 
wh we will thus obtain a minor of A,t, which is a 

a = r~ 
,, dor, 



where r<t, 
minor also of A 



of order n2. It will be Aa = r~ 



and will be obtained by erasing from the determinant A,-t the row 
and column containing the element a,.; this was originally the 
r th row and s 1 * column of A; the r 1 * row of A is the r"* or (r i)'* 
row of Art according as ri and the s'* column of A is the s* or (s i) rt 
column of A,-* according as s^k. Hence, if T,,- denote the number 
of transpositions necessary to bring the succession ri into ascending 
order of magnitude, the sign to be attached to the determinant 
arrived at by erasing the *"* and r* rows and the k"' and s* columns 
from A in order produce A,-* will be I raised to the power of 

Tn+Tt.+i+k+r+s. 

Similarly proceeding to the minors of order n 3, we find that 

Ait = 3^ Aa =s- - Ait = >. -. ,, A is obtained from A by eras- 
", data r , O0r,da< u dauda,,da lu 

tu 

ing the*' k , r", <* rows, the '*, s' k , u" 1 columns, and multiplying 
the resulting determinant by I raised to the power Tiri+T,t 
+i+k+r+s+t+u and the general law is clear. 
Corresponding Minors. In obtaining the minor Ait in the form 

n 

of a determinant we erased certain rows and columns, and we would 
have erased in an exactly similar manner had we been forming 
the determinant associated with Ai,, since the deleting lines intersect 

rl 

in two pairs of points. In the latter case the sign is determined by 
i raised to the same power as before, with the exception that Tu*. 
replaces Tt; but if one of these numbers be even the other must 
be uneven; hence 



Moreover 

= I aik a " \ Ait 
1 0,-t a,, I II 1 

where the determinant factor is given by the four points in which 
the deleting lines intersect. This determinant and that associated 
with Ait are termed corresponding determinants. Similarly p lines 

rt 

of deletion intersecting in p 2 points yield corresponding determinants 
of orders p and n p respectively. Recalling the formula 



it will be seen that Oit and Ait involve corresponding determinants. 
Since Au is a determinant we similarly obtain 

21 2|t-l 2,ArH " j',n' 

and thence 

A = 2oiiO2tAii where * < k ; 
>,* s* 

and as before 



A =2 



A,,- 
u 



> k, 



an important expansion of A. 
Similarly 

" Oli O2i Osi 

Oit 021 oat An i > k > r, 

air a a* |J 

and the general theorem is manifest, and yields a development 
in a sum of products of corresponding determinants. If the j* 
column be identical with the * rt the determinant A vanishes identi- 
cally ; hence if j be not equal to , k, or r, 

= 2 



Similarly, by putting one or more of the deleted rows or columns 
equal to rows or columns which are not deleted, we obtain, with 
Laplace, a number of identities between products of determinants 
of complementary orders. 

Multiplication. From the theorem given above for the expansion 
of a determinant as a sum of products of pairs of corresponding 
determinants it will be plain that the product of A = (an, 022, ... a,,) 
and D = (bn, 622, 6n) may be written as a determinant of order 2, 
viz. 

On Osi osi ... oi 100 ... 

012 022 03J... 0,2 01 ... 

013 023 038 ... 0,3 01 ... 



Oln 2n Os ... fln 

...0 6n 

... 2>21 

... bn 







... - 1 

6,,... 6,. 

Ol, ... bl, 
*S3 - &Sn 



... &, fro 6 nl ... &, 
Multiply the i", V*, ... n* rows by 6n, 612, ... 



ABI 

.CD| 

for brevity. 



respectively, and 



622 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



add to the (n + i^row; by b n , b K *j, and add to the (re+2) IA row; 
by 631, 632, - 6s and add to the (n+z)' d row, &c. C then becomes 



011621+012622 + +Ol6 2B> 0216511+022622 + +O2 B &2, 

o B i6 2 i+o n2 6 22 + +o BB 62 B 

011631+012632 + +Ol63 B , 021631+022632 + +O2 B 63n, 

0,1631 +o n2 6 S 2+ +o BB 6 2n 
Oii&ni+Oi26 B 2+ +oi B 6 BB , atil 



and all the elements of D become zero. 
theorem the determinant becomes 



+a nB 6 

Now by the expansion 

C. 

We thus obtain for the product a determinant of order n. We 
may say that, in the resulting determinant, the element in the ** 
row and k" 1 column is obtained by multiplying the elements in the 
&<* row of the first determinant severally by the elements in the *'* 
row of the second, and has the expression 



and we obtain other expressions by transforming either or both 
determinants so as to read by columns as they formerly did by rows. 

Remark. In particular the square of a determinant is a deter- 
minant of the same order (611622683.. .6 BB ) such that bn = bti; it is 
for this reason termed symmetrical. 

The Adjoint or Reciprocal Determinant arises from A = (011022033 
...o nB ) by substituting for each element An, the corresponding minor 
An so as to form D = (AiiA22A 8 ... ^4 nn ). If we form the product 
A.D by the theorem for the multiplication of determinants we 
find that the element in the i* row and '* column of the product is 



-', =B,,A*,+ B 



the value of which is zero when k is different from i, whilst it has 
the value A when k=i. Hence the product determinant has the 
principal diagonal elements each equal to A and the remaining 
elements zero. Its value is therefore A" and we have the identity 

D.A = A"or D=A n ~ 1 . 

It can now be proved that the first minor of the adjoint determinant, 
say B r , is equal to A'^o,,. 
From the equations 

Oll*l + Ol2*2+Ol3*3+... =1 , 
O21*l + Oy 2 * 2 + O 2 3*3 + ... 2 , 
031*1 +032*2 +033*3 + = l , 

we derive . 



and thence 



and comparison of the first and third systems yields 

B r . = A"-*Or.. 

In general it can be proved that any minor of order p of the adjoint 
is equal to the complementary of the corresponding minor of the 
original multiplied by the (p i)* power of the original determinant. 

Theorem. The adjoint determinant is the (n i) 1 * power of the 
original determinant. The adjoint determinant will be seen sub- 
sequently to present itself in the theory of linear equations and in 
the theory of linear transformation. 

Determinants of Special Forms. It was observed above that the 
square of a determinant when expressed as a determinant of the 
same order is such that its elements have the property expressed 
byOit = ow. Such determinants are called symmetrical. It is easy 
to see that the adjoint determinant is also symmetrical, viz. such 
that A<t = AjK, for the determinant got by suppressing the i th row 
and k llt column differs only by an interchange of rows and columns 
from that got by suppressing the k* row and '** column. If any 
symmetrical determinant vanish and be bordered as shown below 

012 On Xi 

2 O22 O23 X 2 
Ol3 023 OJ3 X 3 

Xi X2 Xj . 

it is a perfect square when considered as a function of Xi, X 2 , X 3 . For 
since AjiAjj A? 2 = Aoa3, with similar relations, we have a number 
of relations similar to AuA 22 = A?2, and either A,. = +V (A,,A.,) or 
V (AfrA,,) for all different values of r and s. Now the determinant 
has the value 



. 2SX r X,A r . in general, and hence by substitution 



A skew symmetric determinant has o,, = o and a,, = a n for all 
values of r and i. Such a determinant when of uneven degree 
vanishes, for if we multiply each row by i we multiply the deter- 
minant by ( 1)"= i, and the effect of this is otherwise merely 
to transpose the determinant so that it reads by rows as it formerly 



did by columns, an operation which we know leaves the determinant 
unaltered. Hence A= A or A=o. When a skew symmetric 
determinant is of even degree it is a perfect square. This theorem 
is due to Cayley, and reference may be made to Salmon's Higher 
Algebra, 4th ed. Art. 39. In the case of the determinant of order 4 
the square root is 



A skew determinant is one which is skew symmetric in all respects, 
except that the elements of the leading diagonal are not all zero. 
Such a determinant is of importance in the theory of orthogonal 
substitution. In the theory of surfaces we transform from one set 
of three rectangular axes to another by the substitutions 

X= ax+ by+ cz, 

Y=a'x+b'y+c'z, 

Z=a"x+b"y+c"z, 

where X ! +Y l +Z 2 = x J +ji 2 +z 2 . This relation implies six equations 
between the coefficients, so that only three of them are independent. 
Further we find 

*=oX+o'Y+o"Z, 

y = 6X+6'Y+6"Z, 



and the problem is to express the nine coefficients in terms of three 
independent quantities. 

In general in space of n dimensions we have n substitutions 
similar to 

Xi = Oll*l +0l2*2 + + Ol B * B , 

and we have to express the n 2 coefficients in terms of %n(n i) 
independent quantities; which must be possible, because 

x+xi+-+xs=*f +*!+*!+-+*.. 

Let there be 2n equations 



*2 = 621$! + &22& + 623*8 + , 



where 6,, = ! and 6 r . = b n for all values of r and s. There are 
then Jn(w i) quantities 6,,. Let the determinant of the b's be 
At and B ra , the minor corresponding to b rl . We can eliminate the 
quantities {i,{ 2 , and obtain n relations 

A(,Xi = (2B,i-A ( ,)*i +2B2,*2+2B,,* S +... F 

AX 2 = 2B,2*,+(2B 2 2-At)* 2 +2B3 2 *3+..., 

and from these another equivalent set 

(2B, 1 -A6)Xi +2B 12 X 2 +2Bi,X 3 +..., 

2B2,X, + (2B 22 -A&)X 2 +2B 2 3X 3 +-, 



2B.j-A t 
~ 



and now writing 



we have a transformation which is orthogonal, because 2X ! = S* 2 
and the elements an, an, are functions of the \n(n i) independent 
quantities b. We may therefore form an orthogonal transforma- 
tion in association with every skew determinant which has its 
leading diagonal elements unity, for the Jn(n i) quantities 6 are 
clearly arbitrary. 

For the second order we may take 

At= I -ill =i+xs - 

and the adjoint determinant is the same; hence 
(1+X*)*, = (1-X')X,+ 2XX 2 , 
(1+X 2 )* 2 =-2XXi + (l 
Similarly, for the order 3, we take 



1+X 2 



and the adjoint is 



leading to the orthogonal substitution 



+2(M*+X)X, 



A*3= 2(X>-+M): 

Functional determinants were first investigated by Jacob! in a 
work De Determinantibus Functionalibus. Suppose n dependent 
variables y\, yt,...y n , each of which is a function of n independent 
variables *i, %,...* so that y, =/.(*i, *2,*). From the differential 
coefficients of the y's with regard to the x's we form the functional 
determinant 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



623 



R = 



8yi 
Sx n 



SI 3*2 

a ; 



y y 

l 3*2 '" <:&: 



\Xi, X t ,...X n 

for brevity. 



If we have new variables z such that z, =<K(yi, y2,...y), we have 
also z, = t,(xi, *2, ...*:), and we may consider the three determinants 

i,yi,yn\ fa, z*,...z a \ fa, z 2 , ...z n \ 
i, x 2 ,...xj ' \yi, yt,...y n ) ' \xi, xt, ...*/ 
Forming the product of the first two by the product theorem, 
we obtain for the element in the i' h row and k th column 



t , 



3z,- 



+... 

which is jp- , the partial differential coefficient of z,- with regard 
to XL Hence the product theorem 

/i, ,....) /yi, yi,...*A _/i. 
Vyi.yt,-y/ V*i. x 2 ,...xj \*i, 

and as a particular case 

(.? *w*.. .-*.) =1. 

Ve lf xi,...x n ) \yi, y y n / 

Theorem. If the functions yi, y>,...y B be not independent of 
one another the functional determinant vanishes, and conversely 
if the determinant vanishes, yi, y2,...y n are not independent functions 
of Xi, xt,...x n . 

Linear Equations. It is of importance to study the application 
of the theory of determinants to the solution of a system of linear 
equations. Suppose given the n equations 

/I = Oii^i +Oi2^2 + + Ol n #n = 0, 
/2 = O2lXl+ 022X2 + . . + OvnXn == 0, 



respec- 



+a nn x n =0. 
Denote by A the determinant (011022.. .o nn ). 

Multiplying the equations by the minors Ain, Ai^ 
tively, and adding, we obtain 

x f i(ai/iAi|i+O2MA2(i+ +o n fiA n) i) =XyA =o, 

since from results already given the remaining coefficients of 
x\, Xi,...x n_i, .rm-i, * vanish identically. 

Hence if A does not vanish Xi = X 2 = ... = *, = o is the only solution ; 
but if A vanishes the equations can be satisfied by a system of values 
other than zeros. For in this case the n equations are not independ- 
ent since identically 

Ai^/,+A 2F /2+...+A nM / B =0, 

and assuming that the minors do not all vanish the satisfaction of 
n I of the equations implies the satisfaction of the n" 1 . 
Consider then the system of n I equations 



081*1+032X2+. ..+a 3n x n =0 



which becomes on writing - i =y, 

Xn 



We can solve these, assuming them independent, for the n i 
ratios yi, y 2 ,...y n _i. 
Now 

021 An +022 Al2 + - +02,Al n = 



i2 + . . . +o nn Ai n = 0, 
and therefore, by comparison with the given equations, Xi=pAu, 
where p is an arbitrary factor which remains constant as i varies. 

Hence yi = -r L where An and Ai n are minors of the complete 

Ai n 

determinant (011022 




or, in words, y< is the quotient of the determinant obtained by 
erasing the i th column by that obtained by erasing the n th column, 
multiplied by ( l)'" 1 "". For further information concerning the 



compatibility and independence of a system of linear equations, see 
Gordon, Vorlesungen tiber Invariantentheorie, Bd. I, 8. 

Resultants. When we are given k homogeneous equations in k 
variables or k non-homogeneous equations in k i variables, the 
equations being independent, it is always possible to derive from 
them a single equation R = o, where in R the variables do not 
appear. R is a function of the coefficients which is called the " re- 
sultant " or " eliminant " of the k equations, and the process by 
which it is obtained is termed " elimination." We cannot combine 
the equations so as to eliminate the variables unless on the supposi- 
tion that the equations are simultaneous, i.e. each of them satisfied 
by a common system of values; hence the equation R = o is derived 
on this supposition, and the vanishing of R expresses the condition 
that the equations can be satisfied by a common system of values 
assigned to the variables. 

Consider two binary equations of orders m and re respectively 
expressed in non-homogeneous form, viz. 

/(*) =f = a x m -aix m - l +a i x m ^-... =0, 
^(x) = <j> = box" - bix"- l +bix n -^ - ... = 0. 

If 01, 02, ...am be the roots of /=o, ft, ft, ...&, the roots of <t> = o, 
the condition that some root of < = o may cause /to vanish is clearly 



so that R/,0 is the resultant of / and <t>, and expressed as a function 
of the roots, it is of degree m in each root ft and of degree n in each 
root a, and also a symmetric function alike of the roots o and of the 
roots /3; hence, expressed in terms of the coefficients, it is homo- 
geneous .and of degree n in the coefficients of /, and homogeneous 
and of degree m in the coefficients of $. 
Ex. gr. 



We have to multiply o c j3; Oift+oa by Oo/Jj 01/82+02 and we 
obtain 

03ft:ft] -OoOi(j8;ft+ft/Sj) +OcO 2 (ft;+ft) +o;ftft 

-Oi02(ft+ft)+03, 
where 



and clearing of fractions 

R/. = (00&2 -026 

We may equally express the result as 



This expression of R shows that, as will afterwards appear, the 
resultant is a simultaneous invariant of the two forms. 

The resultant being a product of rr.n root differences, is of degree 
mn in the roots, and hence is of weight mn in the coefficients of the 
forms; i.e. the sum of the suffixes in each term of the resultant is 
equal to mn. 

Resultant Expressible as a Determinant. From the theory of 
linear equations it can be gathered that the condition that p linear 
equations in p variables (homogeneous and independent) may be 
simultaneously satisfied is expressible as a determinant, viz. if 

On*i+Oi2*>+...+oip*;p = 0, 
021X1+022*2+... +a^px p =0, 

a P iXi+a p ,x 1 +...+a Pp x p =0, 
be the system the condition is, in determinant form, 

(onO22...o, p ) =0; 

in fact the determinant is the resultant of the equations. 
Now, suppose /and <f> to have a common factor xy, 

. /(*) -/i<*) (*-T) ; *(*) =*i(*)(*-?), 

/i and <f>i being of degrees m i and n l respectively; we have 
the identity <*>,(*)/(*) =fi(x)<t>(x) of degree m+n-i. 

Assuming then </>i to have the coefficients BI, B 2 ,...B n 
and fi the coefficients Ai, A2,...Am, 

we may equate coefficients of like powers of * in the identity, and 
obtain m+n homogeneous linear equations satisfied by the m+n 
quantities Bi, B ? ,...B n , Ai, A 2) ...A m . Forming the resultant of these 
equations we evidently obtain the resultant of/ and <t>. 

Thus to obtain the resultant of 



we assume the identity 
' 



and derive the linear equations 

-A C 6 U 



=0, 

160 =0, 

161 A 2 &c = 0, 
i&a A2&i=0, 

A2&2 = 0, 



624 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



a numerical factor 
being disregarded. 



and by elimination we obtain the resultant 
Oo /^ ( ) 
a\ OQ bi bo 
Oz ai bz bi bo 
03 02 62 bi 
8 V 

This is Euler's method. Sylvester's leads to the same expression, 
but in a simpler manner. 

He forms n equations from / by separate multiplication by x' 
X"- 3 ,...*, I, in succession, and similarly treats $ with m multipliers 
x mr ~ l , x m ^,...x, i. From these m+n equations he eliminates the 
m+n powers w"^"- 1 , x m+n ~ t ,...x, i, treating them as independent 
unknowns. Taking the same example as before the process leads 
to the system of equations 

= 0, 
> = 0. 
= 0, 
= 0, 



whence by elimination the resultant 

ao <ii az a> 

do d t a- a, 

bo bi bz 00 

b, bi bz 
.0 60 61 62 . 

which reads by columns as the former determinant reads by rows, 
and is therefore_identical with the former. E. Bezout's method gives 
the resultant in the form of a determinant of order m or n, according 
as m is < n. As modified by Cayley it takes a very simple form. 
He forms the equation 

/(*)*(*')-/(*')*(*) -o, 

which can be satisfied when / and <j> possess a common factor. He 
first divides by the factor x x', reducing it to the degree m i in both 
x and x' where m>n; he then forms m equations by equating to 
zero the coefficients of the various powers of x'; these equations 
involve the m powers x a , x, x*,...x m - 1 of x, and regarding these as the 
unknowns of a system of linear equations the resultant is reached in 
the form of a determinant of order m. Ex. gr. Put 



after division by x x' the three equations are formed 
-Oobix+Oobi =0, 

- (0062 +a\bi Ozbo)x+aibzazb<, = Q, 

and thence the resultant 

ajii 0062 



which is a symmetrical determinant. 

Case of Three Variables. In the next place we consider the 
resultants of three homogeneous polynomials in three variables. 
We can prove that if the three equations be satisfied by a system 
of values of the variable, the same system will also satisfy the 
Jacobian or functional determinant. For if u, v, w be the poly- 
nomials of orders m, n, p respectively, the Jacobian is (MI v t w,), 
and by Euler's theorem of homogeneous functions 
xui +yuz +zut = mu 

: +ZV, = HV 



denoting now the reciprocal determinant by (Ui V 2 W 3 ) we 
]x = mu\3i+nvVi+pwWi; Jy = ..., Jz = ..., and it appears th, 



obtain 

vanishing of u, v, and w implies the vanishing of^J. Further, if 
~t = n=p, we obtain by differentiation 



or 



Hence the system of values also causes ** to vanish in this case ; 

?5T dT 
and by symmetry ** and ** also vanish. 

The proof being of general application we may state that a system 
of values which causes the vanishing of k polynomials in k variables 
causes also the vanishing of the Jacobian, and in particular, when 
the forms are of the same degree, the vanishing also of the differential 
coefficients of the Jacobian m regard to each of the variables. 

There is no difficulty in expressing the resultant by the method 
of symmetric functions. Taking two of the equations 
ax n +(by +cz)x m - l +...=0, 

we find that, eliminating x, the resultant is a homogeneous function 
of y and z of degree mn; equating this to zero and solving for the 
ratio of y to z we obtain mn solutions ; if values of y and z, given 
by any solution, be substituted in each of the two equations, they 
will possess a common factor which gives a value of x which, corn- 



bined with the chosen values of y and z, yields a system of values 
which satisfies both equations. Hence in all there are mn such 
systems. If, therefore, we have a third equation, and we substitute 
each system of values in it successively and form the product of the 
mn expressions thus formed, we obtain a function which vanishes 
if any one system ot values, common to the first two equations, also 
satisfies the third. Hence this product is the required resultant of 
the three equations. 

Now by the theory of symmetric functions, any symmetric 
functions of the mn values which satisfy the two equations, can 
be expressed in terms of the coefficient of those equations. Hence, 
finally, the resultant is expressed in terms of the coefficients of 
the three equations, and since it is at once seen to be of degree 
mn in the coefficient of the third equation, by symmetry it must 
be of degrees np and pm in the coefficients of the first and second 
equations respectively. Its weight will be mnp (see Salmon's 
Higher Algebra, 4th ed. 77). The general theory of the resultant 
of k homogeneous equations in k variables presents no further 
difficulties when viewed in this manner. 

The expression in form of a determinant presents in general 
considerable difficulties. If three equations, each of the second 
degree, in three variables be given, we have merely to elimin- 
ate the six products **, y, z, yz, zx, xy from the six equations 

u = v=w = *ji=*=^=Q; if we apply the same process [to these 

equations each of degree three, we obtain similarly a determinant 
of order 21, but thereafter the process fails. Cayley, however, has 
shown that, whatever be the degrees of the three equations, it is 
possible to represent the resultant as the quotient of two deter- 
minants (Salmon, I.e. p. 89). 

Discriminants. The discriminant of a homogeneous polynomial 
in k variables is the resultant of the k polynomials formed by 
differentiations in regard to each of the variables. 

It is the resultant of k polynomials each of degree m I, and 
thus contains the coefficients of each form to the degree (m l)*" 1 ; 
hence the total degrees in the coefficients of the k forms is, by addition, 
k(m i)*- 1 ; it may further be shown that the weight of each term 
of the resultant is constant and equal to m(m i)*- 1 (Salmon, I.e. 
p. 100). 

A binary form which has a square factor has its discriminant 
equal to zero. This can be seen at once because the factor in question 
being once repeated in both differentials, the resultant of the latter 
must vanish. 

Similarly, if a form in k variables be expressible as a quadratic 
function of k i, linear functions Xi, X 2 , ...Xin, the coefficients 
being any polynomials, it is clear that the k differentials have, in 
common, the system of roots derived from Xi=X J = ...=X t _i = o, 
and have in consequence a vanishing resultant. This implies the 
vanishing of the discriminant of the original form. 

Expression in Terms of Roots. Since x*f+$-=mf, if we take 



any root x\, yi, of] g, and substitute in mf we must obtain 



f 



hence the resultant of *j- and / is, disregarding 

numerical factors, yiys-.-yn-iXdiscriminant of /=a<,Xdisct. of/. 
Now 

= (xyi - *iy) (xyz -*jy)... (xy m -x m y) , 

= Zy i (xy, - * 2 y) . . . (xy m - x n y) , 
and substituting in the latter any root of /and forming the product, 
we find the resultant of / and J- , viz. 

yi Xzyi)*(xiya syi) 2 ... (x,y, x,y,y... 
and, dividing by yiyzVm, the discriminant of / is seen to be equal 
to the product of the squares of all the differences of any two roots 
of the equation. The discriminant of the product of two forms is 
equal to the product of their discriminants multiplied by the square 
of their resultant. This follows at once from the fact that the dis- 
criminant is 

II(a r -a,) 2 II(/J r -ft) 2 tII(a r -&)) 1! . 

REFERENCES FORTHETHEORYOF DETERMINANTS. T.MuirV'List 
of Writings on Determinants," Quarterly Journal of Mathematics. 
vol. xyiii. pp. 110-149, October 1881, is the most important biblio- 
graphical article on the subject in any language; it contains 589 
entries, arranged in chronological order, the first date being 1693 
ind the last 1880. The bibliography has been continued, and pub- 
lished at various dates (vol. xxi. pp. 299-320; vol. xxxvi. pp. 171-267) 
n the same periodical. These lists contain 1740 entries. T. Muir, 
History of the Theory of Determinants (2nd ed., London, 1906). 
School treatises are those of Thomson, Mansion, Bartl, Mollame, in 
English, French, German and Italian respectively. Advanced 
Realises are those of William Spottiswoode (1851), Francesco 
Brioschi (1854), Richard Baltzer (1857), George Salmon (1859), 
N. Trudi (1862), Giovanni Garbieri (1874), Siegmund Gunther 
[1875), Georges J. Dostor (1877), Baraniecki (the most extensive 
of all) (1879), R. F. Scott (2nd ed., 1904), T. Muir (1881). 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



625 



II. THE THEORY OF SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS 

Consider n quantities ai, at, a 3 ,...a n . 

Every rational integral function of these quantities, which does 
not alter its value however the n suffixes I, 2, 3, ... re be permuted, 
is a rational integral symmetric function of the quantities. If we 
write (i +oi*)(i +02*). ..(i +a n x) = i +aix+a 2 *?+...+a n *",ai, (h, a n 
are called the elementary symmetric functions. 



2 = 0102 + 0103 + 0203 + ... = 



The general monomial symmetric function is 

Pl P2 p s p n 

2*o a a ...a . 

i 2 3 

the summation being for all permutations of the indices which 
result in different terms. The function is written 



for brevity, and repetitions of numbers in the bracket are indicated 
by exponents, so that (pipipi) is written (p'pi). The weight of the 
function is the sum of the numbers in the bracket, and the degree 
the highest of those numbers. 

Ex. gr. The elementary functions are denoted by 

(1), (V), (1), ... (1), 
are all of the first degree, and are of weights i, 2, 3,... respectively. 

Remark In this notation (0) = 2o = (") ; (0 2 )=Soo = (");...(0') 
= (") &c. The binomial coefficients appear, in fact, as symmetric 
functions, and this is frequently of importance. 

The order of the numbers in the bracket (pipi...p n ) is immaterial ; 
we may therefore always place them, as is most convenient, in 
descending order of magnitude; the numbers then constitute an 
ordered partition of the weight w, and the leading number denotes 
the degree. 

The sum of the monomial functions of a given weight is called 
the homogeneous-product-sum or complete symmetric function of 
that weight ; it is denoted by fc; it is connected with the elementary 
functions by the formula 



which remains true when the symbols a and h are interchanged, 
as is at once evident by writing x for x-. This proves, also, that 
in any formula connecting ai, 02, as, with hi, hi, ha,... the symbols 
a and h may be interchanged. 

Ex. gr. from fe = aj 02 we derive 02 = ^5 hi. 

The function Saf 'a^.-.a^" being as above denoted by a partition 

of the weight, viz. (pipi.. .p n ), it is necessary to bring under view 
other functions associated with the same series of numbers: such, 
for example, as 



The expression just written is in fact a partition of a partition, 
and to avoid confusion of language will be termed a separation 
of a partition. A partition is separated into separates so as to pro- 
duce a separation of the partition by writing down a set of partitions, 
each separate partition in its own brackets, so that when all the 
parts of these partitions are reassembled in a single bracket the 
partition which is separated is reproduced. It is convenient to write 
the distinct partitions or separates in descending order as regards 
weight. If the successive weights of the separates w\, viz, a> 8 ,... be 
enclosed in a bracket we obtain a partition of the weight w which 
appertains to the separated partition. This partition is termed the 
specification of the separation. The degree of the separation is the 
sum of the degrees of the component separates. A separation is 
the symbolic representation of a product of monomial symmetric 
functions. A partition, (pipipipifapi) = (p\Plps>, can be separated in 
the manner (pipi)(pip2)(Pips) = (Pip2)'*(pipa), and we may take the 
general form of a partition to be ( t ***#, *...) and that of a separa- 

tion (Ji)'i(Ji) f (J )'... when Ji, J 2 , J 3 ... denote the distinct separates 
involved. 

Theorem. The function symbolized by (ra), viz. the sum of the 
n' h powers of the quantities, is expressible in terms of functions 

which are symbolized by separations of any partition (n^n^n"'...} 
of the number n. The expression is 



(JO'XW'XJs)' 3 - being a separation of (rc"W 3 ,..) and the summa- 
tion being in regard to all such separations. For the particular case 



To establish this write 



the product on the right involving a factor for each of the quantities 
<ii 02, as, and /t being arbitrary. 

Multiplying out the right-hand side and comparing coefficients 
Xi = ( 




the summation being for all partitions of m. 
Auxiliary Theorem. The coefficient of x 



... in the product 



ation of (r*J**r?..,) of specification (m w m''V'...),andthesumisfor 

all such separations. 

To establish this observe the result. 

iXP= VPrffWryvyrtHr, 

P\ Zl TiWirs! X 3 2 1 

and remark that (3) lr i(2i)"'2(i 3 )' r3 is a separation of (3 lr i2 lr n lrt+3 ' r 3) 
of specification (y>). A similar remark may be made in respect of 

fl 1 V M2 1 



and therefore of the product of those expressions. Hence the theorem. 
Now 

log (1+A.X,+M ! X,+M !I X,+...) 
= S log 



whence, expanding by the exponential and multinomial theorems, 
a comparison of the coefficients of /*" gives 

() "V /_ xi+i+s+--* (,,. + +,, + ... - 1) ! "i -2/3 

W ' - 



and, by the auxiliary theorem, any term X 
right-hand side is such that the coefficient of 



* ""' 

*... on the 
!... in 



where 



'/nmj 3 ...) is the specification of Ui)'i(Jj)"G3)', 
. =ji+Jj+ji+. Comparison of the coefficients of 
*M therefore yields the result 



-2<-> 



/ 



for the expression of So" in terms of products of symmetric functions 
symbolized by separations of (Wi'n 2 2 re 3 3 ...). 

Let (n) a , (n) x , (n), denote the sums of the re tt powers of quantities 
whose elementary symmetric functions are fli, <J 2 , 03,... ; xi, Xt, *>,..; 
Xi, X 2 , X 3) ... respectively: then the result arrived at above from 
the logarithmic expansion may be written 
(n) a (n)x= (n)x, 

exhibiting (n) x as an invariant of the transformation given by the 
expressions of Xi, X2, Xs in terms of xi, xi, Xt,.... 

The inverse question is the expression of any monomial symmetric 
function by means of the power functions (r) =s r . 

Theorem of Reciprocity. If 

Y^'v^v^ 3 -LafS'^e" 3 w A '*. A2 v As -L 



where 6 is a numerical coefficient, then also 






**' 



We have found above that the coefficient of (xi*x,*x,'...) in the 
produc 



the sum being for all separations of /i'^ 2 ^*...) which have the 
specification (m^'m^fft^ 3 ...). We can multiply out this expression so 
as to obtain a series of monomials of the form e(s" 1 s^ 1 s' i ...). It 
can be shown that the number 9 enumerates distributions of a 
certain nature defined by the partitions (m^m**...), (*'***...), 



626 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



and it is seen intuitively that the number 6 remains 
unaltered when the first two of these partitions are interchanged 
(see COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS). Hence the theorem is established. 
Putting *i = i and x t = x,-x t = ...=o, we find a particular law of 
reciprocity given by Cayley and Betti, 



......... 

3 = ... = i, for then X m becomes 



and another by putting *i=*2 = 
and we have 



Theorem of Expressibility. " If a symmetric function be sym- 
boilized by (X/ZK...) and (XiX 2 X 3 ...), (jtiittitt.-), (v\wt) be any 
partitions of X, it, v... respectively, the function (\itv ...) is expressible 
by means of functions symbolized by separation of 

(X 

For, writing as before, 



P is a linear function of separations of (l* l l**l** ...) of specification 
(m>X'...),and if X^'X^X* 1 ... = ZP'^^ef,'..., P' is a linear 
function of separations of (/f 2 /* 8 ...) of specification (s* 1 ^** 1 ...). 
Suppose the separations of (^'/j 2 /, 3 ...) to involve k different specifica- 
tions and form the k identities 



where (wj^wj^wj,* 1 ...) is one of the k specifications. 
The law of reciprocity shows that 

p(0 ="KXX,"->' 

viz.: a linear function of symmetric functions symbolized by the 
k specifications ; and that 0,i = 0<. A table may be formed expressing 
the k expressions P (1) , P< 2) ,...P (t) as linear functions of the k expressions 

(w^'m^OT^ 3 *...), * = 1, 2, ...k, and the numbers 6, t occurring therein 

possess row and column symmetry. By solving k linear equations 
we similarly express the latter functions as linear functions of the 
former, and this table will also be symmetrical. 

Theorem. "The symmetric function (m^'m^m*** ...) whose 
partition is a specification of a separation of the function sym- 
bolized by (/j 1 /^ 3 ...) is expressible as a linear' function of sym- 
metric functions symbolized by separations of (^'/^ < 3 ...) and a 
symmetrical table may be thus formed." It is now to be remarked 
that the partition (J* 1 /^'...) can be derived from (m^'m^'m 1 ^...) 

by substituting for the numbers mi,, m t ,, m,,,... certain partitions of 
those numbers (vide the definition of the specification of a separation). 
Hence the theorem of expressibility enunciated above. A new 
statement of the law of reciprocity can be arrived at as follows : 



where (Ji)'i(Js) J (J)' 3 s a separation of (/HS*<~) of specification 
(m^'m^'m 1 ^' "...), placing s under the summation sign to denote the 
specification involved, 



-l 
-* 



where 6., =6,.. ' 

Theorem of Symmetry. If we form the separation function 



appertaining to the function (J* 1 /* 2 /*'...), each separation having a 
specification (m^'m^'m**'...), multiply by IH.\ m,l itt.1... and take 
therein the coefficient of the function (m^'m^'m 1 ...), we obtain the 
same result as if we formed the separation function in regard to the 
specification (m^'m^'m*}'...), multiplied by /*! ft4 ! M I!... and took 
therein the coefficient of the function (m'm'm'...). 

Ex.gr., take(jV*...)=(21 ) ;(m^- m %:..) 
we find 



The Differential Operators. Starting with the relation 

(1 +a,x) (1 +14*)... (1 +a*) = H-a.x+a,* 2 +.- +ax" 
multiply each side by i+iix, thus introducing a new quantity n\ 
we obtain 

(1 +a,*) (1 +(4*)...(1 -r-a.*) (1 +itx) = 1 + (0, +/i)*+ (a ? + l a l )x?+... 
so that f(ai, at, a>,.. .On) =/, a rational integral function of the ele- 
mentary functions, is converted into 



where 



and d\ denotes, not s successive operations of d\, but the operator 
of order s obtained by raising d, to the s* power symbolically as 
in Taylor's theorem in the Differential Calculus. 

Write also d\ D, so that 



/(oi+n, (h+iuh, ...a n +iua-i) =/+MDi/+M 2 D 2 /+ A D,/-(-.... 
The introduction of the quantity ft converts the symmetric 
function (XiXjXj...) into 

(XiX 2 X s +...) +MMX 2 X,...) +M 
Hence, if/(aj, a ..... o n ) = (XiX 2 X 3 ...), 



(l+^D 1 +M 2 D 2 + /t D 3 +...)(X 1 X2X 3 ...). 
Comparing coefficients of like powers of n we obtain 

DXi(X 1 X 2 X,...) = (X 2 X 3 ...), 

while D,(XiX 2 X 3 ...) =o unless the partition (X^Xs...) contains a part s. 
Further, if DAiDx 2 denote successive operations of D\ t and DAJ, 

DX,DX 2 (X,X 2 X 2 ...) = (X 3 ...), 
and the operations are evidently commutative. 

Also D^ 1 D^D^\...(p"'pl 1 pl i ...) =i, and the law of operation of the 

operators D upon a monomial symmetric function is clear. 
We have obtained the equivalent operations 

1 + M D 1 + M 2 D 2 -|- M D 3 +... =^id, 

where exp denotes (by the rule over exp) that the multiplication 
of operators is symbolic as in Taylor's theorem. d[ denotes, in fact, 
an operator of order s, but we may transform the right-hand side 
so that we are only concerned with the successive performance of 
linear operations. For this purpose write 

a. =5,+aA j+1 +a 2 aa, +2 +.... 

It has been shown (vide " Memoir on Symmetric Functions of 
the Roots of Systems of Equations," Phil. Trans. 1890, p. 490) that 



where now the multiplications on the dexter denote successive 
operations, provided that 



i being an undetermined algebraic quantity. 
Hence we derive the particular cases 

1 i 

expdi = exp(di r 

1 



and we can express D. in terms of d\, dt, ds,..., products denoting 
successive operations, by the same law which expresses the ele- 
mentary function a, in terms of the sums of powers si, St, *i,... 
Further, we can express d, in terms of DI, D 2 , D 3 , ... by the same 
law which expresses the power function s, in terms of the elementary 
functions Oi, Oj, a^,... 

Operation of D, upon a Product of Symmetric Functions. Suppose 
/to be a product of symmetric functions fifi...f m . If in the identity 
/ = /'/2"-/"> we introduce a new root n we change o, into a,+pa^.i, and 
we obtain 



= (1 +/*D,+M 2 D 2 +... 



and now expanding and equating coefficients of like powers of 



the summation in a term covering every distribution of the operators 
of the type presenting itself in the term. 
Writing these results 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



we may write in general 

D./ = SD( P1P!P 3...)/, 

the summation being for every partition (pu^ps-. ) of s, and 
D( P1PZP3 ...)/ being = 2(Dpif l )(Dp,f,)(Dp t f,)f,...f m . 
Ex. gr. To operate with D s upon (21 3 )(21 4 )(1 5 ), we have 



and hence 



Application to Symmetric Function Multiplication. An example 
will explain this. Suppose we wish to find the coefficient of (52 4 1 3 ) 
in the product (2i s )(2i 4 )(i 6 ). 
Write 

(21') (21)(1)=...+A(52) (!')+...; 
then 

D 5 D<Df(2P)(21<)(15)=A; 

every other term disappearing by the fundamental property of D.. 
Since 

D,( 
we have: 



627 



(1 3 )+2(1')(13)(1*)| =A 
D|Df 5(ia)(l 2 )(l 2 )+2(l)(l 2 >(l)+2(1 
D*D? 12(1 2 X1*) (1) +7(1') (1) (1) +2(1') (1) +6(1*) (!)! = A 

L) 1 12(l) A, 

where ultimately disappearing terms have been struck out. Finally 
A=6-I2 = 72. 

The operator di =aaSai+aida i +a^Sai+... which is satisfied by every 
symmetric fraction whose partition contains no unit (called by 
Cayley non-unitary symmetric functions), is of particular importance 
in algebraic theories. This arises from the circumstance that the 
general operator 



is transformed into the operator di by the substitution 

(do, Oi, as, ...a,, ...) = (oo, XoOi, XoXiOs, ..., \c\i... X,_ia,,...), 
so that the theory of the general operator is coincident with that 
of the particular operator di. For example, the theory of invariants 
may be regarded as depending upon the consideration of the sym- 
metric functions of the differences of the roots of the equation 

Oo* n - (7)oi*- 1 + (J)ai* n - 2 - ... = ; 
and such functions satisfy the differential equation 

O aai+2a 1 ao2+3a 2 ao3+... +na n _ida n =0. 

For such functions remain unaltered when each root receives the 
same infinitesimal increment h ; but writing! h for x causes Oo, a lt 
a* at,... to become respectively dc, Oi+Aoo, at+zhai, a s +3Aoj, ... and 
f(af, ai, at, as,...) becomes 



and hence the functions satisfy the differential equation. The 
important result is that the theory of invariants is from a certain 
point of view coincident with the theory of non-unitary symmetric 
functions. On the one hand we may state that non-unitary sym- 
metric functions of the roots of Oox n Oi3c"~'+Ojx n ~ 2 ...=o, are 
symmetric functions of differences of the roots of 

and on the other hand that symmetric functions of the differences 
of the roots of 

are non-unitary, symmetric functions of the roots of 

Oi 
a i\ x 

An important notion in the theory of linear operators in general 
is that of MacMahon's multilinear operator (" Theory of a Multi- 
linear partial Differential Operator with Applications to the Theories 
of Invariants and Reciprocants," Proc. Land. Matt. Soc. t. xviii. 
(1886), pp. 61-88). It is defined as having four elements, and is 



written 



i>; m,n) 



m '- m-3i ) 

"(w-;})!:^ 00 5 



the coefficient of 



being 



The operators 



o8i+aid2+, a () A, 1 +2aid a ,+... are seen to be (i, o; i, i) and 
(i, I ; I, i) respectively. Also the operator of the Theory of Pure 



Reciprocals (see Sylvester Lectures on the New Theory of Reciprocants 
Oxford, 1888) is 

(4, 1 ;2, 1) = 

It will be noticed that 

0*. v, m, n)=M(l, 0;m, w)+i-(0, l;m, n). 

The importance of the operator consists in the fact that taking 
any two operators of the system 

(/, v;m,n); (it 1 , i> 1 m 1 , n 1 ), 
the operator equivalent to 

(M, v, m, n)(n l , v l ; m 1 , a 1 ) -O* 1 , v 1 ; m 1 , >)(/*, "! m, n), 
known as the " alternant " of the two operators, is also an operator 
of the same system. We have the theorem 

(M, "-, m, n) (M I , ^ ; m\ n 1 ) - (y, i- 1 ; >, n 1 ) (u, v ; m, n) = (AH, vi ; mi, ,) ; 
where 



-l) \ ^ 



(. . 
n 1 re 



, m 1 



m 1 -! 



ni=n 1 +n, 

and we conclude that qud " alternation " the operators of the 

system form a " group." It is thus possible to study simultane- 

ously all the theories which depend upon operations of the group. 

Symbolic Representation of Symmetric Functions. Denote the 



elementary symmetric function a, by |j , 

taking n equal to w , we may write 

1 
where 



Further, let 

1 +b lX 
so that 



, ||, ...at pleasure; then, 



2 ) (1 + P2C7!).. 



and, by multiplication, 

n(l+a 1 a+a2<7 2 +...) 



II(l+6 1 p+6jp 2 +...+&..p) > 

f 



Denote by brackets ( ) and [ ] symmetric functions of the quan- 
tities p and or respectively. Then 



= I +&,(!) +6? (I) +6 2 (2) +bl (1 s ) +6A(21) +6,(3) +... 



Expanding the right-hand side by the exponential theorem, and 
then expressing the symmetric functions of n, ai, an, which 
arise, in terms of 61, 62, ... b m , we obtain by comparison with the 
middle series the symbolical representation of all symmetric functions 
in brackets ( ) appertaining to the quantities pj, p,, p,,... To obtain 
particular theorems the quantities a lt <r it a s , ...a m are auxiliaries 
which are at our entire disposal. Thus to obtain Stroh's theory of 
seminvariants put 



we then obtain the expression of non-unitary symmetric functions 
of the quantities p as functions of differences of the symbols a,, 02, 

Ex. gr. if (2*) with m=2 must be a term in 



and since b* =<7* we must have 
(2') = 2 ^(o 1 -o 2 ) < = 2 ^ 






=2a, 2o,o 3 +oJ 
as is well known. 

Again, if <7 2 , ff 3 ...<r m bethe m, m'* roots of I, 6i = 6 
= o and ft,,, = i , leading to 



and 



628 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



and we see further that (ffiOi+ff^Oa+.-.+ow.^)* vanishes identically 
unless k = o (mod m). If m be infinite and 

1 +6i*+6 2 x 2 +... = (1 +<nx) (1 +<nx)... =eft* =ef>t* = ... , 
we have the symbolic identity 



and 



Instead of the above symbols we may use equivalent differential 
operators. Thus let 

8. =018.0+20^,, +3o3a 02 +... 

and let a, b, c, ... be equivalent quantities. Any function of differ- 
ences of in, &t, &c, being formed, the expansion being carried out, 
an operand Oo or 60 or d, ... being taken and 6, c,... being subsequently 
put equal to a, a non-unitary symmetric function will be produced. 
Ex. gr. (.- k )'(.-c) = (J-2.k+l)(.-8) 

=|-2|a k + a 6|-sjc+2 a a 6 t -| c 

= 603 40561+20162 2o2d +2oi6iCi 26 2 Ci 
= 2(a?-3o,a 2 +3a 3 )=2(3). 

The whole theory of these forms is consequently contained implicitly 
in the operation 5. 

Symmetric Functions of Several Systems of Quantities. It will 
suffice to consider two systems of quantities as the corresponding 
theory for three or more systems is obtainable by an obvious enlarge- 
ment of the nomenclature and notation. 
Taking the systems of quantities to be 

tti, &2, (*** 

A. ft, Pi,-. 
we'start with the fundamental relation 



As shown by L. Schlafli ' this equation may be directly formed and 
exhibited as the resultant of two given equations, and an arbitrary 
linear non-homogeneous equation in two variables. The right-hand 
side may be also written 



The most general symmetric function to be considered is 



conveniently written in the symbolic form 



Observe that the summation is in regard to the expressions obtained 
by permuting the n suffixes I, 2, 3, ...n. The weight of the function 
is bipartite and consists of the two numbers Zp and Sj; the sym- 
bolic expression of the symmetric function is a partition into biparts 
(multiparts) of the bipartite (multipartite) number 2/>, 2g. Each 
part of the partition is a bipartite number, and in representing the 
partition it is convenient to indicate repetitions of parts by power 
symbols. In this notation the fundamental relation is written 



Ol 2 )? 2 



1 + (ID)* + (O 



where in general a M = (lip 01'). 

All symmetric functions are expressible in terms of the quantities 
a in a rational integral form ; from this property they are termed 
elementary functions; further they are said to be single-unitary 
since each part of the partition denoting O M involves but a single 
unit. 

The number of partitions of a biweight pq into exactly M biparts 
is given (after Euler) by the coefficient of a/ixvy" in the expansion 
of the generating function 

__ 1 _ 

1 ax. 1ay.lax*. 1 axy. I -ay*, l ax*. 1 axPy. 1 oij/2. 1 -ay'... 

The partitions with one bipart correspond to the sums of powers 
in the single system or unipartite theory ; they are readily expressed 
in terms of the elementary functions. For write (pq) =i OT and take 
logarithms of both sides of the fundamental relation ; we obtain 



S(oi*+/3i;y) 
- 



i , &c., 



and 



= log (l+a 10 x-\-aaiy+...+ap,x"y'+...). 
From this formula we obtain by elementary algebra 



corresponding to Thomas Waring's formula for the single system. 
The analogous formula appertaining to n systems of quantities which 

1 Vienna Transactions, t. iv. 1852. 



expresses s P9r ... in terms of elementary functions can be at once 
written down. 

Ex. gr. We can verify the relations 



The formula actually gives the expression of Q5g) by means of 
separations of 



which is one of the partitions of (Jg). This is the true standpoint 
from which the theorem should be regarded. It is but a particular 
case of a general theory of expressibihty. 
To invert the formula we may write 




= exp 
and thence derive the formula 



-Si^l^i 

which expresses the elementary functions in terms of the single 
bipart functions. The similar theorem for n systems of quantities 
can be at once written down. 

It will be shown later that every rational integral symmetric 
function is similarly expressible. 

The Function hp, . As the definition of hp, we take 
l+niox+n n y + ...- 



and now expanding the right-hand side 



the summation being for all partitions of the biweight. Further 
writing 

l+hioX+h 9 iy+...+h p ,x>'y*+... 
1 



we find that the effect of changing the signs of both * and y is merely 
to interchange the symbols o and h; hence in any relation connect- 
ing the quantities hp, with the quantities o w we are at liberty to 
interchange the symbols a and h. By the exponential and multi- 
nomial theorems we obtain the results 



p+v-l 



, s i ( ST )! Wi Fj 

' ' *-i!i!... pigi a pjt" 



and in this a and A are interchangeable. 



fer^-sx 



L (S*-D! r A -, . 
Ti!ir 2 !... PHI pvit"' 



- +gi-i)! \ - \ (fc+g.-i)i r i i ^ 

Z-t ( pi\qi\ $ ( pj.q 2 \... ) Ti!7rj!... pji ptto" 
Differential Operations. If, in the identity 

(l+a I *+ft;y)(l+a. ! *+/S 2 :y)...(l+a*+/3,or) 
= l+oio*+ooO'+a2or ! +Oii*;y+a ( )s:y a +... , 
we multiply each side by (i+px+vy), the right-hand side becomes 



hence any rational integral function of the coefficients Oio, O<B, ... 
Op,, ... say /(oio, Ooi, ...) =/ is converted into 



where d t , 



> * 



The rule over exp will serve to denote that iidw+vdvi is to be 
raised to the various powers symbolically as in Taylor's theorem. 

Writin g D w=^T7i d ^n,. 



now, since the introduction of the new quantities n, v results in 
the addition to the function (p~^ip t q t p^qt...) of the new terms 



we find 
and thence 



while D,,f =o unless the part r7is involved in f. We may then state 
fhat I ),,, is an operation which obliterates one part pq when such 
part is present, but in the contrary case causes the function to 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



629 






vanish. From the above Dp, is an operator of order pq, but it is 
convenient for some purposes to obtain its expression in the form 
of a number of terms, each of which denotes pq successive linear 
operations; to accomplish this write 

a*,- 

^_W ^ 

and note the general result * 

exp 
=exp ...... 

where the multiplications on the left- and right-hand sides of the 
equation are symbolic and unsymbolic respectively, provided that 
nip,, Mp, are quantities which satisfy the relation 

exp (M K (+M M r,+...+M P ^rf+...) 
= 1+wicf +W011+ +'^,| 1> ij'+... ; 

where , i) are undetermined algebraic quantities. In the present 
particular case putting m^ = n, m al = v and w M = o otherwise 

M 10 +Mon7+...+M p( ,py+...=Iog 
or 



and the result is thus 



and thence 



= log 

From these formulae we derive two important relations, viz. 
?-l)U ^/ x*- | (S>-l)!r.'i D -i 



the last written relation having, in regard to each term on the 
right-hand side, to do with ZJT successive linear operations. Recall- 
ing the formulae above which connect Sp, and O TC , we see that dp* 
and Dp, are in co-relation with these quantities respectively, and 
maybe said to be operations which correspond to the partitions (pq), 
(T(foi v ) respectively. We might conjecture from this observation 
that every partition is in correspondence with some operation; 
this is found to be the case, and it has been shown (loc. tit. p. 493) 
that the operation 

^j r-fCrdj- ^multiplication symbolic) 

corresponds to the partition (plqi"i "plql^-)- The partitions being 
taken as denoting symmetric functions we have complete correspond- 
ence between the algebras of quantity and operation, and from 
any algebraic formula we can at once write down an operation 
formula. This fact is of extreme importance in the theory of alge- 
braic forms, and is easily representable whatever be the number of 
the systems of quantities. 

We may remark the particular result 



dp, causes every other single part function to vanish, and must 
cause any monomial function to vanish which does not comprise 
one of the partitions of the biweight pq amongst its parts. 
Since 

, p+-i(/,+ g -l)! d 
">-(-) p\ q \ 3w 

the solutions of the partial differential equation <f M = o are the 
single bipart forms, omitting S OT , and we have seen that the solutions 
of D M = o are those monomial functions in which the part pq is absent. 
One more relation is easily obtained, viz. 

r+ ' 



REFERENCES FOR SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS. Albert Girard, In- 
vention nomelle en I'algebre (Amsterdam, 1629); Thomas Waring, 
Meditationes Algebraicae (London, 1782) ; Lagrange, Mem. de I'acad. 
de Berlin (1768); Meyer-Hirsch, Sammlung von Aufgaben aus der 
Theorie der algebraischen Cleichungen (Berlin, 1809); Serret, Cours 
d'algtbre superieure, t. iii. (Paris, 1885); Unferdinger, Sitzungsber. 
d. Acad. d. Wissensch. i. Wien, Bd. Ix. (Vienna, 1869) ; L. Schlafli, 
" Ueber die Resultante eines Systemes mehrerer algebraischen 
Gleichungen," Vienna Transactions, t. iv. 1852; MacMahon, 
" Memoirs on a New Theory of Symmetric Functions," American 



1 Phil. Trans., 1890, p. 490. 



Journal of Mathematics, Baltimore, Md. 1888^-1890; " Memoir on 
Symmetric Functions of Roots of Systems of Equations," Phil. 
Trans. 1890. 

III. THE THEORY OF BINARY FORMS 

A binary form of order n is a homogeneous polynomial of the 
nth degree in two variables. It may be written in the form 

n n-l n-2 2 

0X1+0X1 Xi-{-CX l Xj+...; 

or in the form 

ox i +(i)6x ] xi + (.t)cx i x z +..., 

which Cayley denotes by 

(a, b, c, ...)(*i, x 2 )" 

("),(")... being a notation for the successive binomial coefficients 
n, jn(n i) Other forms are 

n n-l n-2 2 

ox +nbx x +n(n l)cx x +..., 
the binomial coefficients (") being replaced by s!("), and 

ox'+yji^ *,+<>I c *,+ . 

the special convenience of which will appear later. For present 
purposes the form will be written 



the notation adopted by German writers; the literal coefficients 
have a rule placed over them to distinguish them from umbral 
coefficients ^hich are introduced almost at once. The coefficients 
do, 01, 02,. ..On, n + l in number are arbitrary. If the form, some- 
times termed a quantic, be equated to zero the n + l coefficients 
are equivalent to but n, since one can be made unity by division 
and the equation is to be regarded as one for the determination 
of the ratio of the variables. 

If the variables of the quantic f(xi, xi) be subjected to the linear 
transformation 

Xl 



i, 2 being new variables replacing x\, Xi and the coefficients an, aiz, 
an, 022, termed the coefficients of substitution (or of transformation), 
being constants, we arrive at a transformed quantic 



in the new variables which is of the same order as the original 

_./ / i ~t 
quantic; the new coefficients a , a , a ...a are linear functions 

1 S n 

of the original coefficients, and also linear functions of products, 
of the coefficients of substitution, of the nth degree. 
By solving the equations of transformation we obtain 
rf i = ojzari 012X3, 



where r = 

r is termed the determinant of substitution or modulus of trans- 
formation; we assure Xi, x 2 to be independents, so that r must 
differ from zero. 

In the theory of forms we seek functions of the coefficients and 
variables of the original quantic which, save as to a power of the 
modulus of transformation, are equal to the like functions of the 
coefficients and variables of the transformed quantic. We may 
have such a function which does not involve the variables, viz. 

F(o ,0,0 ,...a ) =r A F(oo, 01, a->,...a a ), 

the function F(o^, oT, 02,. ..On) is then said to be an invariant of the 
quantic qua linear transformation. If, however, F involve as well 
the variables, viz. 

F(o ,0,0 ,...;{i, fc)=r A F(oi), 01, 02,...; *i, x), 

the function F(oe, 01, 02,... xi, x s ) is said to be a cafariant of the 
quantic. The expression " invariantive forms " includes both invari- 
ants and covariants, and frequently also other analogous forms which 
will be met with. Occasionally the word " invariants " includes 
covariants; when this is so it will be implied by the text. In- 
variantive forms will be found to be homogeneous functions alike 
of the coefficients and of the variables. Instead of a single quantic 
we may have jeveral_ 

/(oo, Oi, 02...; xi, Xs), <t>(Sol bi, Ht,...', Xi, x 2 ), ... 

which have different coefficients, the same variables, and are of 
the same or different degrees in the variables; we may transform 
them all by the same substitution, so that they become 



If then we find 



630 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



the function F, on the right which multiplies r, is said to be a 
sinullaneous invariant or covariant of the system of quantics. 
This notion is fundamental in the present theory because we will 
find that one of the most valuable artifices for finding invariants 
of a single quantic is first to find simultaneous invariants of several 
different quantics, and subsequently to make all the quantics 
identical. Moreover, instead of having one pair of variables Xi, Xt 
we may have several pairs y,, y?; zi, &;... in addition, and transform 
each pair to a new pair by substitutions, having the same coefficients 
nn, ma, <ui. 2j and arrive at functions of the original coefficients 
and variables (of one or more quantics) which possess the above- 
defined invariant property. A particular quantic of the system 
may be of the same or different degrees in the pairs of variables 
which it involves, and these degrees may vary from quantic to 
quantic of the system. Such quantics have been termed by Cayley 
multipartite. 

Symbolic Form. Restricting consideration, for the present, to 
binary forms in a single pair of variables, we must introduce the 
symbolic form of Aronhold, Clebsch and Gordan; they write the 
form 



C 



n 1 n 



wherein a\, oj are umbrae, such that 



n-l n-l 

Oi O2....O1O2 , 



are symbolical representations of the real coefficients o , ai,... 
o_i, <J, and in general a a is the symbol for at. If we restrict 

ourselves to this set of symbols we can uniquely pass from a product 
of real coefficients to the symbolic representations of such product, 
but we cannot, uniquely, from the symbols recover the real form. 
This is clear because we can write 



~ ~ n-I 

0102=0, o 



n 

= 



2n-3 



a, 05=0, o| 



while the same product of umbrae arises from 



* 

Ooo 3 =o .a a\ 



3 

of. 



Hence it becomes necessary to have more than one set of umbrae, 
so that we may have more than one symbolical representation of 
the same real coefficients. We consider the quantic to have any 

number of equivalent representations a*=6"=c" = .... So that 

n k fc jiiHt.fc _ n fc * . , f 

a, 02 = 0, &,=, c 2 = ...=o t ; and if we wish to denote, by 

umbrae, a product of coefficients of degree s we employ s sets of 
umbrae. 

Ex. gr. We write 0,02 =or'a,.6"~ 2 6|, 

* n-3 ,n J,. n 3 

o|=o, aj.ii b*. Cl c\, 

and so on whenever we require to represent a product of real co- 
efficients symbolically; we then have a one-to-one correspondence 
between the products of real coefficients and their symbolic forms. 
If we have a function of degree s in the coefficients, we may select 
any s sets of umbrae for use, and haying made a selection we may 
when only one quantic is under consideration at any time permute 
the sets of umbrae in any manner without altering the real signi- 
ficance of the symbolism. Ex. gr. To express the_f unction CoOu of, 
which is the discriminant of the binary quadratic Oo*f +201*1*2 +02*! 
= o| = ij, in a symbolic form we have 



Such an expression as Oi6 2 -a 2 6i, which is 
da x db x da x db x 
dx['dxl~dxl'dx'i' 

is usually written (ab) for brevity; in the same notation the deter- 
minant, whose rows are 01, Oj, a,; hi, bi, b,; Ci, c t , c, respectively, 
is written (abc) and so on. It should be noticed that the real function 
denoted by (ab)' is not the square of a real function denoted by (ab). 
For a single cjuantic of the first order (ab) is the symbol of a function 
of the coefficients which vanishes identicaHyj thus 

(aft) = aj>i aj&i = aoOi OiOo = 

and, indeed, from a remark made above we see that (06) remains 
unchanged by interchange of a and 6; but (ab) = (ba), and these 
two facts necessitate (ab) = o. 

To find the effect of linear transformation on the symbolic form 
of quantic we will disuse the coefficients an, a a , 021, 022, and employ 
Xi, Mi, Xj, M2- For the substitution 



MI 

\2 M2 



of modulus 

the quadratic form o.>x?+2OiXi* 2 +O2:<:|j = x =f(x), 
becomes 

;! =AI = 



"It =OoXf +2aiXi 

^i =OpXi/i 1 +Oi(X 1 >i2+_X 2 jii) +02X2/15, 



where 



We pass to the symbolic forms 

al = (o,*, +02*2)*, A| = (A,|, + A 2 fe) J , 
by writing for 

Oo, Oi, 02 the symbols of, 0102, o| 
'Ao,A,,A2' Af,AiA 2 ,A| 

and then 

Ac = of X? +2oi02XiX 2 +olXl = (oiX,+a 2 X 2 ) s =a\, 

Ai = (O 

A 2 = (ai 
so that 



whence Ai, A 2 become o x , a^ respectively and 



The practical result of the transformation is to change the umbrae 
Oi, 02 into the umbrae 



respectively. 

By similarly transforming the binary n" form a" we find 

Ao = (01X1 +02X 2 )" = o" + A", 

Ai = (01X1+02X2) (a\Hi +O2M2) = O A O /1 =A" A 2 , 

n Jf j ^ j^ _ IL IL 

Afc ^ \OiAi ~i~fl2X 2 J \OiMi ~i O2Ms) ^ O ji o == A i A* 
so that the umbrae Ai, A 2 are o x , O M respectively. 
Theorem. When the binary form 



is transformed to 



by the substitutions 



Aj = 



l = X, & 



the umbrae AI, A 2 are expressed in terms of the umbrae fli, 02 by the 
formulae 

Al=XlOl+X2O2, A2=MlOl+M2<Z2. 

We gather that Ai, A 2 are transformed to 01, 02 in such wise that 
the determinant of transformation reads by rows as the original 
determinant reads by columns, and that the modulus of the trans- 
formation is, as before, (XM). For this reason the umbrae AI, A 2 are 
said to be contragredient to *i, Xt. If we solve the equations connect- 
ing the original and transformed unbrae we find 

(X/i)(-02)=X,(-A2)+MiA l , 

(X/u)oi = X 2 ( A 2 ) +At 2 Ai, 

and we find that, except for the factor (X/n), 02 and +01 are trans- 
formed to -A 2 and +Ai by the same substitutions as Xi and * a are 
transformed to & and { 2 - For this reason the umbrae -02, 01 are 
said to be cogredient to Xi and Xi. We frequently meet with co- 
gredient and cpntragedient quantities, and we have in general the 
following definitions: (l) " If two equally numerous sets of quan- 
tities x, y, z,... x', y', z',... are such that whenever one set x, y, z,... 
is expressed in terms of new quantities X, Y, Z, ... the second set 
*'. y'< z', ... is expressed in terms of other new quantities X', Y', 2.', ... , 
by the same scheme of linear substitution the two sets are said to 
be cogredient quantities." (2) " Two sets of quantities *, y, z, ...; 
, )j, f, ... are said to be contragredient when the linear substitutions 
for the first set are 

* = X,X+ w Y+*iZ+..., 



and these are associated with the following formulae appertaining 
to the second set, 

H = 

H = 

Z = 

wherein it should be noticed that new quantities are expressed in 
terms of the old, as regards the latter set, and not vice versa." 

Ex. gr. The symbols ^-, j , ^, ... are contragredient with the 
variables x, y, z, ... for when 

(x, y, z, ...) =(X,, w, , ...)(X, Y, Z, ...), 

X2, , 

X, Mi, 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



631 



we find 



d d \ 
3T dZ' '") = 



Ml, M2, M8, 

"i, n, 3, 



d?' 



Observe the notation, which is that introduced by Cayley into the 
theory of matrices which he himself created. 

Just as cogrediency leads to a theory of covariants, so contra- 
grediency leads to a theory of contravariants. If u, a quantic in 
x, y, z, ..., be expressed in terms of new variables X, Y, Z ... ; and 
if , n, f, , be quantities contragredient to *, y, z, ...; there are 
found to exist functions of |, 77, ?, ..., and of the coefficients in u, 
which need, at most, be multiplied by powers of the modulus to be 
made equal to the same functions of H, H, Z, ... of the transformed 
coefficients of u ; such functions are called contravariants of u. There 
also exist functions, which involve both sets of variables as well as 
the coefficients of u, possessing a like property; such have been 
termed mixed concomitants, and they, like contravariants, may 
appertain as well to a system of forms as to a single form. 

As between the original and transformed quantic we have the 
umbral relations 



and for a second form 



The original forms are a", 6", and we may regard them either as 
different forms or as equivalent representations of the same form. 
In other words, B, 6 may be regarded as different or alternative 
symbols to A, a. In either case 

(AB) = AA-AA = (XM)(O&) ; 

and, from the definition, (06) possesses the invariant property. We 
cannot, however, say that it is an invariant unless it is expressible 
in terms of the real coefficients. Since (o6)=Oi6 2 0261, that this 
may be the case each form must be linear; and if the forms be 
different (06) is an invariant_(simultaneous) of the two forms, its 
real expression being Oo&i Oi6 . This will be recognized as the re- 
sultant of the two linear forms. If the two linear forms be identical, 
the umbral sets a t , 02; 61, 6 2 are alternative, are ultimately put equal 
to one another and (06) vanishes. A single linear form has, in fact, 
no invariant. When either of the forms is of an order higher than 
the first (06), as not being expressible in terms of the actual co- 
efficients of the forms, is not an invariant and has no significance. 
Introducing now other sets of symbols C, D, ...; c, d, ... we may 
write 



so that the symbolic product 

(o6) i (ac)'(6c)*..., 

possesses the invariant property. If the forms be all linear and 
different, the function is an invariant, viz. the *"* power of that 
appertaining to o, and 61 multiplied by the j* power of that apper- 
taining to o and c, multiplied by &c. If any two of the linear forms, 
say p zi q lt be supposed identical, any symbolic expression involving 
the factor (pq) is zero. Notice, therefore, that the symbolic product 
(abY(ac)'(bc)"... may be always viewed as a simultaneous invariant 
of a number of different linear forms a x , ft*, d, .... In order that 
(o6) l '(oc)'(6c)*... may be a simultaneous invariant of a number of 
different forms a^ 1 , 6?, c" 3 ,..., where ni, n it n,, ... may be the same 
or different, it is necessary that every product of umbrae which 
arises in the expansion of the symbolic product be of degree n\ in 01, 02 ; 
in the case of 61, 6 2 of degree 2 ; in the case of Ci, c 2 of degree n 3 ; 
and so on. For these only will the symbolic product be replaceable 
by a linear function of products of real coefficients. Hence the 
condition is 

i+j +...=,, 



If the forms o", 6", c",...be identical the symbols are alternative, 
and provided that the form does not vanish it denotes an invariant 
of the single form a". 

There may be a number of forms o2,6",c",... and we may suppose 
such identities between the symbols that on the whole only two, 
three, or more of the sets of umbrae are not equivalent; we will 
then obtain invariants of two, three, or more sets of binary forms. 
The symbolic expression of a covariant is equally simple, because 
we see at once that since A, B|, C{,... are equal to a z , b,, c x , ... 
respectively, the linear forms o*, &*, c x , ... possess the invariant 
property, and we may write 

(AB)'(AQ'(BC) i ...AfKCI : . ; 

= (\^ i+i+ ^-(abf(ac) i (bc)''...a^ C l..., 
and assert that the symbolic product 



possesses the invariant property. It is always an invariant or co- 
variant appertaining to a number of different linear forms, and as 
before it may vanish if two such linear forms be identical. In 
general it will be simultaneous covariant of the different forms 
a* 1 , 6?, c' x \ ... if 



It will also be a covariant if the symbolic product be factorizable 
into portions each of which satisfies these conditions. If the forms 
be identical the sets of symbolsare ultimately equated, and the form, 
provided it does not vanish, is a covariant of the form <. 

The expression (oft) 4 properly appertains to a quartic; for a 
quadratic it may also be written (o6) 2 (cdY, and would denote the 
square of the discriminant to a factor prts. For the quartic 
(oft) 4 = (aA -0,6,)' =af 6J_-_4of a,Wi +6ofaf 6J6J 

4aio|6i6 2 +a 4 ,6 4 =a,a t 4oiO3+6a? 4oiO3+ooOi 
= 2(ao04-4oia3+3a|), 
one of the well-known invariants of the quartic. 

For the cubic (o6) 2 Oi6i is a covariant because each symbol a, b 
occurs three times; we can first of all find its real expression as a 
simultaneous covariant of two cubics, and then, by supposing the 
two cubics to merge into identity, find the expression of the quad- 
ratic covariant, of the single cubic, commonly known as the Hessian. 
By simple multiplication 

(af 6,61 -2a?a2&? 6 2 +o 1 a|6f )*? 



and transforming to the real form, 

20161+0260)*! + (0063 ai6 2 



the simultaneous covariant; and now, putting 6 = 0, we obtain 
twice the Hessian 

(0002 of)3cf + (oo03 oi02)3CiX2+(aio 8 ol)ac|. 

It will be shown later that all invariants, single or simultaneous, 
are expressible in terms of symbolic products. The degree of the 
covariant in the coefficients is equal to the number of different 
symbols a, 6, c, ... that occur in the symbolic expression ; the degree 
in the variables (i.e. the order of the covariant) is p(r + T+... and 
the weight 1 of the coefficient of the leading term x % +a '~ r> ~--- ; s e q ua l 
to i+j+k-\-.... It will be apparent that there are four numbers 
associated with a covariant, viz. the orders of the quantic and 
covariant, and the degree and weight of the leading coefficient; 
calling these n, , 0, w respectively we can see that they are not 
independent integers, but that they are invariably connected by 
a certain relation n8 2w = e. For, if <t>(ao,...Xi, x 2 ) be a covariant 
of order t appertaining to a quantic of order n, 



we find that the left- and right-hand sides are of degrees nO and 
2w+t respectively in Xi, m, X 2 , m, and thence nd = 2iv+f. 

Symbolic Identities. For the purpose of manipulating symbolic 
expressions it is necessary to be in possession of certain simple 
identities which connect certain symbolic products. From the 
three equations 



we find by eliminating XL and xt the relation 

fflx(&c)+ft*(ca)+c*(o6)=0 . . . (I.) 

Introduce now new umbrae di, 02 and recall that +didi are 
cogredient with Xi and x,. We may in any relation substitute for 
any pair of quantities any other cogredient pair so that writing 
+d it di for Xi and %, and noting that g* then becomes (gd), the 
above-written identity becomes 

(ad)(bc) + (bd)(ca) + (cdXab)=0 . . - (II.) 
Similarly in (I.), writing for Ci, Ci the cogredient pair -yj,+yi, we 



Again in (I.) transposing a*(bc) to the other side and squaring, we 
obtain 

2(oc)(6c)a I 6x = (6c)'o' I +(ac) J &,-(a&) s <:= . (IV.) 
and herein writing di., di for x\, xj, 

2(ac)(bc)(ad)(bd) = (6<;)'(o<Z) z +(ac)'(ftd) 2 - (o&)*(cd)<*. (V.) 

As an illustration multiply (IV.) throughout by o"~ 2 6" c" x so 
that each term may denote a covariant of an n". 



.1 \S n,n 2 n-2 , 

= (bc)aj> x c x 



/ \2 n 

(ac) a x 



n 2,n"n 2 , ,-.2 n- 2 ,-2 n 

x -(ab)a x b x c x , 



1 The weight of a term o o 1 1 ...a n " is defined as being ki+2kt+. 
+nk.. 



632 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



Each term on the right-hand side may be shown by permutation 
of a, ft, c to be the symbolical representation of the same covariant ; 
they are equivalent symbolic products, and we may accordingly 
write 

nt \ /I.^-* 1 1 J. lt-1 ** * f r .t.\^^ n ~ 3 l. n J n 

2(ac) (bc)a, b, c x = (ab) a, b., Cf < 

a relation which shows that the form on the left is the product of 
the two covariants 

(aVfa^b^ and <. 

The identities are, in particular, of service in reducing symbolic 
products to standard forms. A symbolical expression may be always 
so transformed that the power of any determinant factor (oft) is 
even. For we may in any product interchange a and b without 
altering its signification ; therefore 



where fa becomes fa by the interchange, and hence 

(ab) im+l fa = 2(oft) 2m+1 (^i ~ <fc) ! 

and identity (I.) will always result in transforming fa fa so as to 
make it divisible by (aft). 
Ex.gr. 

(ab)(ac)b,c z = (ab)(bc)a,c, 



so that the covariant of the quadratic on the left is half the product 
of the quadratic itself and its only invariant. To obtain the corre- 
sponding theorem concerning the general form of even order we 

multiply throughout by (ab) 2m ~V I n ~ 2 and obtain 



(06)* 



1 !/ IN 2 

=2(00) 



Paying attention merely to the determinant factors there is no 
form with one factor since (aft) vanishes identically. For two factors 
the standard form is (aft) 2 ; for three factors (aft) 2 (ac) ; for four factors 
(aft) 4 and (aft^cd) 1 ; for five factors (aft) 4 (oc) and (ab)*(ac)(de)*; for 
six factors (oft), (a&) 2 (6c) 2 (ca) 2 , and (aft) 2 (cd) 2 (e/) s . It will be a useful 
exercise for the reader to interpret the corresponding covariants of 
the general quantic, to show that some of them are simple powers 
or products of other covariants of lower degrees and order. 

The Polar Process. The /i" polar of a* x with regard to y is 

rx- 

i.e. n of the symbolic factors of the form are replaced by / others 
in which new variables y\, yt replace the old variables xi, xt. The 
operation of taking the polar results in a symbolic product, and the 
repetition of the process in regard to new cogredient sets of variables 
results in symbolic forms. It is therefore an invariant process. 
All the forms obtained are invariants in regard to linear trans- 
formations, in accordance with the same scheme of substitutions, 
of the several sets of variables. 

An important associated operation is 

a a 2 



which, operating upon any polar, causes it to vanish. Moreover, 
its operation upon any invariant form produces an invariant form. 

Every symbolic product, involving several sets of cogredient 
variables, can be exhibited as a sum of terms, each of which is a 
polar multiplied by a product of powers of the determinant factors 

(xy), (xz), (ye),... 

Transvection. We have seen that (aft) is a simultaneous invariant 
of the two different linear forms a*, b,, and we observe that (aft) is 
equivalent to 

a/ a sf d<t> 

dXi dxi dxi dxi 
where / = a x , <t> = b,. 

If / = o z , < = & z be any two binary forms, we generalize by forming 
the function 

(m-k)\ (n-k)\ /dfd<t> dfd<t>\ * 
m\ wl \dxidxi dxxixj ' 

This is called the k* transvectant of/ over <f>; it may be con- 
veniently denoted by 

(/, *)* 
Observing that 

f* m J. n- \* /-..lA* w-*in Jb 

(o x , & z ) =(a&) o ft, , 

it is clear that the k" 1 transvectant is a simultaneous covariant of 
the two forms. 

It has been shown by Gordan that every symbolic product is 
expressible as a sum of transvectants. 

If m^ji there are n+l transvectants corresponding to the values 
o, i, 2,... n of k; if h o we have the product of the two forms, and 
for all values of k>n the transvectants vanish. In general we may 
have any two forms 



fa, <k, ih. <fa being the umbrae, as usual, and for the jfe<* transvectant 
we have 



a simultaneous covariant of the two forms. We may suppose 
<t%, $1 to be any two covariants appertaining to a system, and 
the process of transvection supplies a means of proceeding from 
them to other covariants. 

The two forms a^, ft*, or 4%, $J, may be identical; we then have 
the <* transvectant of a form over itself which may, or may not, 
vanish identically; and, in the latter case, is a covariant of the 
single form. It is obvious that, when k is uneven, the k"> trans- 
vectant of a form over itself does vanish. We have seen that trans- 
vection is equivalent to the performance of partial differential 
operations upon the two forms, but, practically, we may regard the 
process as merely substituting (aft)*, (<^)* for <z*ft*. ^* respec- 
tively in the symbolic product subjected to transvection. It is 
essentially an operation performed upon the product of -two forms. 
If, then, we require the transvectants of the two forms /+X/', 
we take their product 



and the fe tt transvectant is simply obtained by operating upon each 
term separately, viz. 



. *0*+ W, *0*: 

and, moreover, if we require to find the k"> transvectant of one 
linear system of forms over another we have merely to multiply 
the two systems, and take the k"> transvectant of the separate 
products. 

The process of transvection is connected with the operations C; 
for jj 



or *(^)^ -, 

so also is the polar process, for since 

,t ">-lt,t t , 

f v =a x b v , <f v = b z ,,, 

if we take the k lh transvectant of ft over #*, regarding y lt y, as the 
variables, f 

(/,*,<$ t = (aft) t ar i ftr* = (/,^)*; 

or the k' h transvectant of the k' h polars, in regard to y, is equal 
to the A|* transvectant of the forms. Moreover, the k th transvectant 
(a&^a^ftr"* is derivable from the *<* polar of a, viz. aT*a k y 
by substituting for y lt y t the cogredient quantities ftj, fti, and 
multiplying by ft z *. 

First and Second Transvectants. A few words must be said about 
the first two transvectants as they are of exceptional interest. 
Since, if/=a, <#> = 6", 



the first transvectant differs but by a numerical factor from the 
Jacobian or functional determinant, of the two forms. We can 
find an expression for the first transvectant of (/, <f>) 1 over another 
form c". 
For 

(m+n) (f,<t>)[ nf.^+mfl.fa 
and 




Put m i for m, n i for n, and multiply through by (aft); then 




Multiply by c^T 1 and for yi, y t write Cj,-Ci; then the right-hand 
side becomes 



of which the first term, writing c| > = ^, is 



-\ar^cT \ (^) I o.+(oft) 1 c I '-(o ) > ft: 

I ) m /J. \?l. n ~4 V~* I nt l\ 2 *-2Tn-2 t n/ \2 m- n 

~2 a * ( c > b x c x +c(ab) a t ft^ -ft.(oc) a, c 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



633 



and this, on writing e,, c\ for yi, y t , becomes 






and thence it appears that the first transvectant of (/, </>)' over \f> 
is always expressible by means of forms of lower degree in the 
coefficients wherever each of the forms/, <t>, $ is of higher degree than 
the first in Xi, *j. 

The second transvectant of a form over itself is called the Hessian 
of the form. It is 

unsymbolically it is a numerical multiple of the determinant 

.-/ ^-if I 1 } It is also the first transvectant of the differ- 

dx\ dx\ \dxdx 2 / 

ential coefficients of the form with regard to the variables, viz. 

/-i- 2J-\ . For the quadratic it is the discriminant (oft) 2 and for 
\flxi ' 3*2/ 
the cubic the quadratic covariant (a&) 2 a,b x . 

In general for a form in n variables the Hessian is 




and there is a remarkable theorem which states that if H=o and 
n =2, 3, or 4 the original form can be exhibited as a form in I, 2, 3 
variables respectively. 

The Form /+X<. An important method for the formation of 
covariants is connected with the form /+X<, where / and <f> are of 
the same order in the variables and X is an arbitrary constant. 
If the invariants and covariants of this composite quantic be formed 
we obtain functions of X such that the coefficients of the various 
powers of X are simultaneous invariants of / and <t>. In particular, 
when is a covariant of/, we obtain in this manner covariants of/. 

The Partial Differential Equations. It will be shown later that 
covariants may be studied by restricting attention to the leading 
coefficient, viz. that affecting x' where is the order of the covariant. 
An important fact, discovered by Cayley, is that these coefficients, 
and also the complete covariants, satisfy certain partial differential 
equations which suffice to determine them, and to ascertain many 
of their properties. These equations can be arrived at in many 
ways; the method here given is due to Gordan. Xi, X 2 , , m being 
as usual the coefficients of substitution, let 

x,J! +x^ =D^,X,^ +x 2 A =D V 



be linear operators. Then if .;', J be the original and transformed 
forms of an invariant 

w being the weight of the invariant. 
Operation upon J results as follows : 



The first and fourth of these indicate that (X/i) 10 is a homogeneous 
function of Xi, X 8 , and of m, ^ separately, and the second and third 
arise from the fact that (X^) is caused to vanish by both D Ajul and 



Since J =F(Ao,Ai,...A t ,...), where At =0^*0*. 

we find that the results are equivalent to 



According to the well-known law for the changes of independent 
variables. Now 



so we obtain 



-w]; 



= = IX 



equations which are valid when Xi, X 2 , /*i, /^ have arbitrary values, 
and therefore when the values are such that J =j, At=o*. 
Hence 



=0, 



--ill], 



= 0, 



the complete system of equations satisfied by an invariant. The 
fourth shows that every term of the invariant is of the same weight. 
Moreover, if we add the first to the fourth we obtain 



where is the degree of the invariant ; this shows, as we have before 
observed, that for an invariant 

w = 20. 

The second and third are those upon the solution of which the theory 
of the invariant may be said to depend. An instantaneous deduction 

from the relation w -nO is that forms of uneven orders possess only 

t 

invariants of even degree in the coefficients. The two operators 



have been much studied by Sylvester, Hammond, Hilbert and 
Elliott (Elliott, Algebra of Quantics, ch. vi.). An important refer- 
ence is " The Differential Equations satisfied by Concomitants of 
Quantics," by A. R. Forsyth, Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol. xix. 

The Evectant Process. If we have a symbolic product, which 
contains the symbol o only in determinant factors such as (06), we 
may write x 1 ,-x l for a lt a t , and thus obtain a product in which 
(ab) is replaced by b x , (ac) by c x and so on. In particular, when the 
product denotes an invariant we may transform each of the symbols 
a, 6,. ..to x in succession, and take the sum of the resultant products; 
we thus obtain a covariant which is called _the first evectant of the 
original invariant. The second evectant is obtained by similarly 
operating upon all the symbols remaining which only occur in deter- 
minant factors, and so on for the higher evectants. 

Ex. gr. From (ac) t (bd) 1 (ad)(bc) we obtain 



= 4(bd)*(bc)cld x the first evectant; 

and thence 4^ the second evectant; in fact the two evectants 
are to numerical factors pres, the cubic covariant Q, and the square 
of the original cubic. 

If 9 be the degree of an invariant j 



'and, herein transforming from a to x, we obtain the first evectant 



Combinants. An important class of invariants, of several binary 
forms of the same order, was discovered by Sylvester. The invariants 
in question are invariants qua linear transformation of the forms 
themselves as well as qua linear transformation of the variables. 
If the forms be a*, &, <,... the Aronhold process, given by the 
operation 8 as between any two of the forms, causes such an in- 
variant to vanish. Thus it has annihilators of the forms 

- d . - d , - d 

^ +a '^ + ^ + - 

T d .-r d T d , 

"dj^ +"l ~JT ' 6 2^P" + 

dao l dai 2 aa 2 

and Gordan, in fact, takes the satisfaction of these conditions as 
defining those invariants which Sylvester termed " combinants." 
The existence of such forms seems to have been brought toSylvester s 
notice by observation of the fact that the resultant of oj and V t 
must be a factor of the resultant of Xo+/i&* and XaT+iibZ 
for a common factor of the first pair must be also a common factor 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



of the second pair; so that the condition for the existence of such 
common factor must be the same in the two cases. A leading pro- 
position states that, if an invariant of Xa* and nb^ be considered 
as a form in the variables X and /t,_and_an invariant of the latter be 
taken, the result will be a combinant of a* and &. The idea can be 

generalized so as to have regard to ternary and higher forms each 
of the same order and of the same number of variables. 

For further information see Gordan, Vorlesungen iiber Invarianten- 
theorie, Bd. ii. 6 (Leipzig, 1887) ; E. B. Elliott, Algebra of Quantics, 
Art. 264 (Oxford, 1895). 

Associated Forms. A system of forms, such that every form 
appertaining to the binary form is expressible as a rational and 
integral function of the members of the system, is difficult to obtain. 
If, however, we specify that all forms are to be rational, but not 
necessarily integral functions, a new system of forms arises which 
is easily obtainable. A binary form of order n contains n independ- 
ent constants, three of which by linear transformation can be given 
determinate values; the remaining n 3 coefficients, together with 
the determinant of transformation, give us n2 parameters, and in 
consequence one relation must exist between any n l invariants 
of the form, and fixing upon n 2 invariants every other invariant 
is a rational function of its members. Similarly regarding x\, x^ as 
additional parameters, we see that every covariant is expressible as 
a rational function of n fixed covariants. We can so determine these 
n covariants that every other covariant is expressed in terms of them 
by a fraction whose denominator is a power of the binary form. 

observe that with 



First 
f* =fiXi+fai, we find 



-',/ 2 = a 2 a; 



(aft). 



x 
d, writing /j and /i for 3*1 and y t 

(n - k) (a/) t+1 o:"" 



.(af)b z -(bf) ai . 



and that thence every symbolic product is equal to a rational 
function of covariants in the form of .a fraction whose denominator 
is a power of },. Making the substitution in any symbolic product 
the only determinant factors that present themselves in the numera- 
tor are of the form (a/), (bf), (c/),...and every symbol a finally appears 
in the form. 



+k has / as a factor, and may be written /. ut ; for observing that 
vfo=/- =/ ; fao=f.iti; where o = i, i=o, 

assume that & = (affc* =/. t =< 

Taking the first polar with regard to y 



an 



Moreover the second term on the left contains 



if k be uneven, and 



if k be even; in either case the factor 
and therefore 

(n -fe)* t+l +M./=*(n-2)/.(M/);r'*-' : 
and tt+i is seen to be of the form /. ut+i. 
We may write therefore 

ttl -(/)'r* 

These forms, n in number, are called " associated forms " of / 
(" Schwesterformen," " formes associ6es "). 

Every covariant is rationally expressible by means of the forms 
/, 5, 8,... since, as we have seen o = I, Wi=o. It is easy to find 
the relations 

1 

. = ((/,/') 2 ,/') 



and so on. 

To exhibit any covariant as a function of MO, MI, Ut,... take 
a." = (aiyi+aiyi)*a.nd transform it by the substitution 



f J ! 



= where/,: 



thence 
and 



Now a covariant of o =/ is obtained from the similar covariant 

of aj by writing therein xi, xi, for yi, y 2 , and, since y\, y t have been 
linearly transformed to and jj, it is merely necessary to form the 
covariants in respect of the form (wi^+MaTj)*, and then division, by 
the proper power of /, gives the covariant in question as a function 
of/, o=i, a, 3,.... 

Summary of Results. We will now give a short account of the 
results to which the foregoing processes lead. Of any form o" there 
exists a finite number of invariants and covariants, in terms of which 
all other covariants are rational and integral functions (cf. Gordan, 
Bd. ii. 21). This finite number of forms is said to constitute 
the complete system. Of two or more binary forms there are also 
complete systems containing a finite number of forms. There 
are also algebraic systems, as above mentioned, involving fewer 
covariants which are such that all other covariants are rationally 
expressible in terms of them; but these smaller systems do not 
possess the same mathematical interest as those first mentioned. 

The Binary Quadratic. The complete system consists of the form 

itself, a 2 , and the discriminant, which is the second transvectant of 
the form upon itself, viz.: (/, f')* = (ab) 2 ; or, in real coefficients, 
2(o o 2 -0j). The first transvectant, (JJ') 1 = (ab) c^.vanishes identi- 
cally. Calling the discriminate D, the solution of the quadratic 
a 2 =o is given by the formula 



If the form o* be written as the product of its linear factors p x q t , 
the discriminant takes the form ^(PS) 2 - The vanishing of this 
invariant is the condition for equal roots. The simultaneous system 
of two quadratic forms a 2 , a 2 , say/ and <j>, consists of six forms, viz. 

the two quadratic forms/, <j>; the two discriminants (/, f') t ,(<i>,^>')'', 
and the first and second transvectants of/ upon <t>, (f, <)' and (/, 0) 2 , 
which may be written (aa)a z a t and (ao) 2 . These fundamental or 
ground forms are connected by the relation 



If the covariant (f,<t>) 1 vanishes / and <t> are clearly proportional, 
and if the second transvectant of (/, qb) 1 upon itself vanishes, / 
and <t> possess a common linear factor; and the condition is both 
necessary and sufficient. In this case (/, 0) 1 is a perfect square, 
since its discriminant vanishes. If (/.0) 1 be not a perfect square, 
and r t , s x be its linear factors, it is possible to express / and <f 
in the canonical forms \i(r I ) t +\i(s x ) 1 , iti(r,) 2 +iti(s x ) 2 respectively. 
In fact, if / and <j> have these forms, it is easy to verify that 
(/, <f>) 1 (X/i) (rs)r x St. The fundamental system connected with n 
quadratic forms consists of (i.) the n forms themselves j\, /!,.../, 
(ii.) the (p functional determinants (/i/t) 1 , (in.) the C l ) in- 
variants (jfi, /t) 2 , (iv.) the (,) forms (/i, (ft, /m)) 2 , each such form 
remaining unaltered for any permutations of i, k, m. Between these 
forms various relations exist (cf. Gordan, 134). 

The Binary Cubic. The complete system consists of 



and 

(A,A') 2 = (ab)*(cd)*(ad) (be) = R. 
To prove that this system is complete we have to consider 



and each of these can be shown either to be zero or to be a rational 
integral function of/, A Q and R. These forms are connected by the 
relation 

2Q 2 +A'+R/ ! =0. 

The discriminant of / is equal to the discriminant of A, and is 
therefore (A, A') 2 = R; if it vanishes both / and A have two roots 
equal, A is a rational factor of / and Q is a perfect cube ; the cube 
root being equal, to a numerical factor pres, to the square root of 

A. The Hessian A = A*is such that (/,A) 2 = o, and if/isexpressible 
in the form ^(pz) > +tt(qt) i , that is as the sum of two perfect cubes, 
we find that A* must be equal to p^qjor then 

(M*)+X.), /)'-<* 

Hence, if p x , q, be the linear factors of the Hessian A|, the cubic 
can be put into the form X(/> I )*+/j(gi) 3 and immediately solved. 
This method of solution fails when the discriminant R vanishes, 
for then the Hessian has equal roots, as also the cubic /. The 
Hessian in that case is a factor of /, and Q is the third powerof 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



635 






the linear factor which occurs to the second power in /. If, more- 
over, A vanishes identically / is a perfect cube. 

The Binary Quarlic. The fundamental system consists of five 
forms a 4 . =/;(/,/')'= (a&)W=A:; (/-/') 4 = (^) 4 =*': (/- A) 1 - 
(flA)aX= (^\cb)a\b lC l=t;(fAY= (aA) 4 = (a&) 2 (6 C )V)'=/, viz. 

two invariants, two quartics and a sextic. They are connected 
by the relation 



The discriminant, whose vanishing is the condition that / may 
possess two equal roots, has the expression j 2 si 3 ; it is nine 

times the discriminant of the cubic resolvent k 3 nfk ojt and has 

also the expression 4(1, t') 6 . The quartic has four equal roots, that 
is to say, is a perfect fourth power, when the Hessian vanishes 
identically ; and conversely. This can be verified by equating to 
zero the five coefficients of the Hessian (ab) 2 a 2 & 2 . Gordan has also 
shown that the vanishing of the Hessian of the binary n" is the 
necessary and sufficient condition to ensure the form being a perfect 
n' h power. The vanishing of the invariants i and j is the necessary 
and sufficient condition to ensure the, quartic having three equal 
roots. On the one hand, assuming the quartic to have the form 
4x'* 2 , we find '=/ = o, and on the other hand, assuming i=j = o, we 
find that the quartic must have the form a #* +40^*2 which proves 
the proposition. The quartic will have two pairs of equal roots, that 
is, will be a perfect square, if it and its Hessian merely differ by a 
numerical factor. For it is easy to establish the formula (ya;) 2 A 4 = 
2f.fi 2(/*) 2 connecting the Hessian with the quartic and its first 
and second polars; now a, a root of/, is also a root of A*, and con- 

sequently the first polar /* = y'a"+ys^ must also vanish for the 

root a, and thence sj- and ^J- must also vanish for the same root; 
which proves that o is a double root of /, and / therefore a perfect 
square. When /= 6* 2 :>c 2 it will be found that A= /. The simplest 
form to which the quartic is in general reducible \sf=x*+(>mxlx*+xl, 
involving one parameters; then A 1 l = 2m(x t l +xl) +2(l 3m 2 ) a: 2 * 2 ; 
= 2(i+3m 2 ) ;j = 6m(l-m)*;t= (l-9m 2 ) (aj-*) (*!+$*,*,. The 
sextic covariant / is seen to be factorizable into three quadratic 
factors $ = *!*,, ^ = * 2 +* 2 , t = x\ *?,, which are such that the three 
mutual second transvectants vanish identically ; they are for this 
reason termed conjugate quadratic factors. It is on a consideration 
of these factors of t that Cayley bases his solution of the quartic 

equation. For, since 2? = A 3 2*!f*A $j( f) 3 , he compares the 
right-hand side with the cubic resolvent k 3 giX^ g/X 3 , of /=0, 

and notices that they become identical on substituting A for k, 
and / for X; hence, if ki, fe, k 3 be the roots of the resolvent 






and now, if all the roots of / be different, so also are those of the 
resolvent, since the latter, and /, have practically the same dis- 
criminant; consequently each of the three factors, of 2P, must be 
perfect squares and taking the square root 

t = ^^>.x-^\ 

and it can be shown that <t>, x, <!> are the three conjugate quadratic 

factors of t above mentioned. We have A+k>f = <(>*, A+fe/=x 2 . 

&+kaf=<^, and Cayley shows that a root of the quartic can be 

expressed in the determinant form 

the remaining roots being obtained by varying 
the signs which occur in the radicals <*, xj. ^- 
The transformation to the normal form reduces 
the quartic to a quadratic. The new variables 
= are the linear factors of <j>. If 4> = r x .s x , the 
= 1 normal form of o*, can be shown to be given by 



1, * 



<t> is any one of the conjugate quadratic factors of t, so that, in 
determining r x , s* from V A+fci/=o, fei is any root of the resolvent. 
The transformation to the normal form, by the solution of a cubic 
and a quadratic, therefore, supplies a solution of the quartic. If 
(Xp.) is the modulus of the transformation by which a* is reduced to 

i* 
the normal form, i becomes (X/z) 4 *, and j, (X/i) 3 j; hence j a is 

absolutely unaltered by transformation, and is termed the absolute 

c i> 2 (1 +3ffl 2 ) 2 . , . 

invariant. Since theref ore j 2 = g m ^H_ m iy we have a cubic equation 

for determining tn 2 as a function of the absolute invariant. 



Remark. Hermite has shown (Crelle, Bd. Hi.) that the substitution, 

*=', 4, reduces 3*j-!fi to the form 
J f Vj 

1 l_i dz 

2*\ 2 



iants (*, ')*; (t^.H) 6 ; (f*, *); (ft, i 7 ) 14 
forms (f,i>Y; (>,i 3 )'; (i 4 ,T); ('.T) 
Iratic forms t; (H,t 2 ) 4 ; (H, i 3 )' 



rfce Binary Quintic. The complete system consists of 23 forms, of 
which the simplest are /=</; the Hessian H = (/,/')* = (ab) 2 <$>'; 
the quadratic covariant =(/,/') 4 = (06) 'a^ ; and the nonic co- 
variant T = (/, (f, /') ") ' = (/,H) ' = (aH) aX = (ab) 2 (ca) a&'c 4 ; the 
remaining 19 are expressible as transvectants of compounds of 
these four. 

There are four invariants (i,i'Y; (t^.H) 6 ; (f, t' 6 ) 10 ; (ft, t 7 ) 14 

four linear forr 

three quadratic 

three cubic forms , 

two quartic forms (H,t) 2 ; (H,i 2 ) 3 ! 

three quintic forms /; (/, f) 1 ; (i 2 , T) 4 

two sextic forms H ; (H, t) 1 

one septic form (i, T) 2 

one nonic form T. 

We will write the cubic covariant (/, i) 2 =/, and then remark that 
the result, (/,/)' =o, can be readily established. The form / is com- 
pletely defined by the relation (/,/)' = o as no other covariant possesses 
this property. 

Certain convariants of the quintic involve the same determinant 
factors as appeared in the system of the quartic; these are 
/, H, ', T and /, and are of special importance. Further, it is 
convenient to have before us two other quadratic covariants, 
viz. T = (j, jyjxjx ', 8 = (ir)i Z T Z ; four other linear covajiants, viz. 
o =(/)*/i ; P=(ia)i x ; y = (rtL)r x : 6 = (T&)TX. Further, in the case 
of invariants, we write A = (i, i') 2 and take three new forms 
B = (t,T) 2 ; C = (T, r'Y; ^R = (f)y). Hermite expresses the quintic 
in a forme-type in which the constants are invariants and the 
variables linear covariants. If o, /3 be the linear forms, above 
defined, he raises the identity a z (aj8) = a z (aff) ff x (aa) to the fifth 
power (and in general to the power n) obtaining 



and then expresses the coefficients, on the right, in terms of the 
fundamental invariants. On this principle the covariant j is ex- 
pressible in the form 



-4C)o 

when 5, a are the above defined linear forms. 

Hence, solving the cubic, 

R 2 j = ( mia) (5 -mzo) (8 -m 3 o) 
wherein mi mi, ma are invariants. 

Sylvester showed that the quintic might, in general, be expressed as 
the sum of three fifth powers, viz. in the canonical form/=fei(pi) 6 
+fe(2i) 6 +W>'*) 6 . Now, evidently, the third transvectant of/, ex- 
pressed in this form, with the cubic p x q x rx is zero, and hence from 
a property of the covariant j we must have j = p x q x r x ; showing that 
the linear forms involved are the linear factors of j. We may there- 
fore write 



and we have merely to determine the constants k\, kt, kt. To 
determine them notice that R = (o5) and then 

(/, 6 ) 5 =-R 5 < 

(/,a*S) 6 =-5R 6 ( 

\ f ^J&\ ^ --- __ 1 flT? ^ ( W?if -J--l"l> J-*M*fc \ 

three equations for determining k\, kt, ks- This canonical form 
depends upon / having three unequal linear factors. When C 
vanishes/ has theform/ = ^> 2 9 a ., and (/,/)* = (apf(aq)a* t =o. Hence, 
from the identity a I (pq)=px(aq)qx(ap), we obtain (pq) 6 f=(aq) i pl 
S(ap)(aq) t p t q i (ap) & q^, the required canonical form. Now, when 

C=o, clearly (see ante) R'/ = c5 2 p wherep=4+|Ba; and Gordan then 

proves the relation 

6R 4 ./= B 6 +5B 4 p-4AV, 

which is Bring's form of quintic at which we can always arrive, by 
linear transformation, whenever the invariant C vanishes. 

Remark. The invariant C is a numerical multiple of the resultant 
of the covariants i and/,and if C =o,p is the common factor of iand/. 

The discriminant is the resultant of gj- and jftr and of degree 

8 in the coefficients; since it is a rational and integral function 
of the fundamental invariants it is expressible as a linear function 
of A ! and B; it is independent of C, and is therefore unaltered 
when C vanishes; we may therefore take / in the canonical form 
B 5 +5B 4 p-4AV. 



6 3 6 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



The two equations 



38 



= 5B 4 +4BS 3 p)=0, 
=5(B 4 -4AV)=0, 



yield by elimination of S and p the discriminant 

D=64B-A 2 . 

The general equation of degree 5 cannot be solved algebraically, 
but the roots can be expressed by means of elliptic modular functions. 
For an algebraic solution the invariants must fulfil certain condi- 
tions. When R = o, and neither of the expressions AC B 2 , 2 AB 3C 
vanishes, the covariant a* is a linear factor of/; but, when R = AC 
B 2 = 2AB 3C =o, aj also vanishes, and then / is the product of the 
form ^ and of the Hessian of . When a* and the invariants B and 
C all vanish, either A or j must vanish ; in the former case j is a 
perfect cube, its Hessian vanishing, and further / contains j as a 
factor; in the latter case, if px, <r x be the linear factors of *',/ can be 
expressed as (p(r) s /=Cip'+c 2 a; if both A and j vanish i also vanishes 
identically, and so also does /. If, however, the condition be the 
vanishing of i, f contains a linear factor to the fourth power. 

The Binary Sextic. The complete system consists of 26 forms, 
of which the simplest are /=* ; the Hessian H = (ab) 2 a t J) 4 I ; the 
quartic * = (oi)o*i*; the covariants J = (a) 4 a*; T = (oi) 2 (c6)o'^c'; 
and the invariants A = (ab)> ; B = (if) 4 . There are 

5 invariants: (a,b)', (t.f) 4 , (/,/')', (fJ 3 )', Of,*),* 4 ) 8 ; 

6 of order 2: /, (*,/)', </,P) 4 , (i,P) 3 , (/,/ 3 ) 6 , ((/,), /')"; 
5 of order 4: i, (/,/)*, (i,l), (J,PY, ((/,*), ?Y; 

5 of order 6:/, = (<"XC (/,/), ((/,i), J), (P,D; 

3 of order 8: H, (/,), (H,/); 

1 of order 10: (H,i); 

1 of order 12: T. 

For a further discussion of the binary sextic see Gordan, loc. cit., 
Clebsch, loc. cit. The complete systems of the quintic and sextic 
were first obtained by Gordan in 1868 (Journ. f. Math. Ixix. 323- 
354). August von Gall in 1880 obtained the complete system of the 
binary octavic (Math. Ann. xvii. 31-52, 139-152, 456); and, in 
1888, that of the binary septimic, which proved to be much more 
complicated (Math. Ann. xxxi. 318-336). Single binary forms 
of higher and finite order have not been studied with complete 
success, but the system of the binary form of infinite order has been 
completely determined by Sylvester, Cayley, MacMahon and Stroh, 
each of whom contributed to the theory. 

As regards simultaneous binary forms, the system of two quad- 
ratics, and of any number of quadratics, is alluded to above and 
has long been known. The system of the quadratic and cubic, con- 
sisting of 15 forms, and that of two cubics, consisting of 26 forms, 
were obtained by Salmon and Clebsch ; that of the cubic and quartic 
we owe to Sigmund Gundelfinger (Programm Stuttgart, 1869, 1-43); 
that of the quadratic and quintic to Winter (Programm Darmstadt, 
1880); that of the quadratic and sextic to von Gall (Programm 
Lemgo, 1873); that of two quartics to Gordan (Math. Ann. ii. 
227-281, 1870); and to Eugenic Bertini (Bait. Giorn. xiv. 1-14, 1876; 
also Math. Ann. xi. 30-41, 1877). The system of four forms, of 
which two are linear and two quadratic, has been investigated by 
Perrin (5. M. F. Bull. xv. 45-61, 1887). 

Ternary and Higher Forms. The ternary form of order n is 
represented symbolically by 

(01*1 -r-aaXz+Os* j)" =a " ' 
and, as usual, b, c, rf,...are alternative symbols, so that 

n t n n T 
, =6 *= C * =<**=- 

To form an invariant or covariant we have merely to form a 
product of factors of two kinds, viz. determinant factors (abc), 

(abd), (bee), etc and other factors a,, & If- c,,... in such manner, 

that each of the symbols a, b, c,... occurs n times. Such a symbolic 
product, if it does not vanish identically, denotes an invariant or 
a covariant, according as factors a lt b t , c*,... do not or do appear. 
To obtain the real form we multiply out, and, in the result, sub- 
stitute for the products of symbols the real coefficients which they 
denote. 

For example, take the ternary quadratic 



or in real form ax]+bxl+cxl+2fic 1 x i +2gX3Xi+2hx 1 X2. We can 
see that (abc)a I bzC t is not a covariant, because it vanishes iden- 
tically, the interchange of a and 6 changing its sign instead of 
leaving it unchanged ; but (abc) 1 is an invariant. If o* , i* , c\ be 
different forms we obtain, after development of the squared deter- 
minant and conversion to the real form (employing single and 
double dashes to distinguish the real coefficients of b x and c x ), 

a(Vc'+l>"c'-2}'n+b(c'a"+c"a'-2g'g") 
+c(a'b'+a-b'-2h'h")+2j(g'h"+g'h'-a'f-a^f) 
+2g(h'f'+h'f'-b'g"-b^')+2h(J'g"+fg'-c'h'-c'h'); 



a simultaneous invariant of the three forms, and now suppressing 
the dashes we obtain 

6 (abc +2fgh - of - bg 1 - ch?) , 

the expression in brackets being the -well-known invariant of a*, 
the vanishing of which expresses the condition that the form may 
break up into two linear factors, or, geometrically, that the conic 
may represent two right lines. The complete system consists of 
the form itself and this invariant. 

The ternary cubic has been investigated by Cayley, Aronhold, 
Hermite, Brioschi and Gordan. The principal reference is to 
Gordan (Math. Ann. i. 00-128, 1869, and vi. 436-512, 1873). The 
complete covariant and contravariant system includes no fewer 
than 34 forms; from its complexity it is desirable to consider the 
cubic in a simple canonical form; that chosen by Cayley was 
ax a +by*+cz*+6dxyz (Amer. J. Math. iv. 1-16, 1881). Another 
form, associated with the theory of elliptic functions, has been 
considered by Dingeldey (Math. Ann. xxxi. 157-176, 1888), viz. 
x-f &z 3 +gix*y+gsx 3 , and also the special form axz'qby' of the 
cuspidal cubic. An investigation, by non-symbolic methods, is 
due to F. C. J. Mertens (Wien. Ber. xcv. 942-991, 1887). Hesse 
showed independently that.the general ternary cubic can be reduced, 
by linear transformation, to the form 

x*+y 3 +z a +6mxyz, 
a form which involves 9 independent constants, as should be the 
case; it must, however, be remarked that the counting of con- 
stants is not a sure guide to the existence of a conjectured canonical 
form. Thus the ternary quartic is not, in general, expressible as 
a sum of five 4th powers as the counting of constants might have 
led one to expect, a theorem due to Sylvester. Hesse's canonical 
form shows at once that there cannot be more than two independ- 
ent invariants; for if there were three we could, by elimination 
of the modulus of transformation, obtain two functions of the 
coefficients equal to functions of m, and thus, by elimination of m, 
obtain a relation between the coefficients, showing them not to 
be independent, which is contrary to the hypothesis. 

The simplest invariant is S = (abc)(abd)(ocd)(bcd) cf degree 4, 
which for the canonical form of Hesse is m(im'); its vanishing 
indicates that the form is expressible as a sum of three cubes. The 
Hessian is symbolically (aic) 2 Ox6iCi = H 3 , and for the canonical form 
(l+2m s )xyzm?(x i +y 3 -{-z > ). By the process of Aronhold we can 
form the invariant S for the cubic o'+XH*, and then the coefficient 
of X is the second invariant T. Its symbolic expression, to a 
numerical factor pres, is 

(Hbc)(Hbd)(Hcd)(bcd'), 

and it is clearly of degree 6. 

One more covariant is requisite to make an algebraically complete 
set. This is of degree 8 in the coefficients, and degree 6 in the 
variables, and, for the canonical form, has the expression 
-t)m'(x i +y*+z 3 ) 1 -(2m+5m t +20m ! ')(x*+y+z'>)xyz 



Passing on to the ternary quartic we find that the number of 
ground forms is apparently very great. Gordan (Math. Ann. xvii. 
217-233), limiting himself to a particular case of the form, has 
determined 54 ground forms, and G. Maisano (Batt. G. xix. 198-237, 
1881) has determined all up to and including the 5th degree in the 
coefficients. 

The system of two ternary quadratics consists of 20 forms; it 
has been investigated by Gordan (Clebsch-Lindemann's Vorlesungen 
i. 288, also Math. Ann. xix. 529-552); Perrin (S. M. F. Bull, xviii. 
1-80, 1-890); Rosanes (Math. Ann. vi. 264); and Gerbaldi (Annali 
(2), xvii. 161-196). 

Ciamberlini has found a system of 127 forms appertaining to three 
ternary quadratics (Batt. G. xxiv. 141-157). 

A. R. Forsyth has discussed the algebraically complete sets of 
ground forms of ternary and quaternary forms (see Amer. J. xii. 1-60, 
115-160, and Camb. Phil. Trans, xiv. 409-466, 1889). He proves, 
by means of the six linear partial differential equations satisfied 
by the concomitants, that, if any concomitant be expanded in 
powers of Xi, Xi, x, the point variables and of u\, Ut, Ui, the contra- 
gredient line variables it is completely determinate if its leading 
coefficient be known. For the unipartite ternary quantic of order 

n he finds that the fundamental system contains -(n+4)( i) 

individuals. He successfully considers the systems of two and 
three simultaneous ternary quadratics. In Part III. of the Memoir 
he discusses bi-ternary quantics, and in particular those which 
are lineo-linear, quadrato-linear, cubo-linear, quadrato-quadratic, 
cubo-cubic, and the system of two lineo-linear quantics. He shows 
that the system of the bi-ternary nm ic comprises 

|(+l)(+2Xt + 1)(+2) -3 individuals. 

Bibliographical references to ternary forms are given by Forsyth 
(Amer. J. xii. p. 16) and by Cayley (Amer. J. iv., 1881). Clebsch, 
in 1872, in papers in Abh. d. K. Akad. d. U. zu Gotlingen, t. xvii. 
and Math. Ann. t. v., established the important result that in the 
case of a form in n variables, the concomitants of the form, or of 
a system of such forms, involve in the aggregate n I classes of 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



637 



variables. For instance, those of a ternary form involve two classes 
which may be geometrically interpreted as point and line co-ordinates 
in a plane; those of a quaternary form involve three classes which 
may be geometrically interpreted as point, line and plane co- 
ordinates in space. 

IV. ENUMERATING GENERATING FUNCTIONS 
Professor Michael Roberts (Quart. Math. J. iv.) was the first to 
remark that the study of covariants may be reduced to the study 
of their leading coefficients, and that from any relations connect- 
ing the latter are immediately derivable the relations connecting 
the former. It has been shown above that a covariant, in general^ 
satisfies four partial differential equations. Two of_ these show 
that the leading coefficient of any covariant is an isobaric and homo- 
geneous function of the coefficients of the form ; the remaining two 
may be regarded as operators which cause the vanishing of the 
covariant. These may be written, for the binary n' c , 



or in the form 



where 



Let a covariant of degree e in the variables, and of degree 9 in the 
coefficients (the weight of the leading coefficient being w and 
nS 2to = ), be 



Operating with Q-^gj-we findQC =o; that is to say, C satisfies 

one of the two partial differential equations satisfied by an in- 
variant. It is for this reason called a seminvariant, and every 
seminvariant is the leading coefficient of a covariant. The whole 
theory of invariants of a binary form depends upon the solutions 
of the equation fi = o. Before discussing these it is best to trans- 
form the binary form by substituting I !0i, 2!os, 3 !a a ,...n!a n , for 
01, aj, a s .. .a, respectively ; 
it then becomes 



and 



One advantage we have obtained is that, if we now write a< = o, 
and substitute o._i for a., when s>o, we obtain 

d , d d , d 



takes the simpler form 
d d 



which is the form of Q for a binary (n-l)". 

Hence by merely diminishing each suffix in a seminvariant by 
unity, we obtain another seminvariant of the same degree, and of 
weight w-e, appertaining to the (n- 1)*. Also, if we increase each 
suffix in a seminvariant, we obtain terms, free from Oo, of some 
seminvariant of degree 6 and weight w+e. Ex. gr. from the in- 
variantol 20108+20004 of the quartic the diminishing process yields 
of-aogdj, the leading coefficient of the Hessian of the cubic, and the 
increasing process leads to 01-20204+20105 which only requires the 
additional term-2aoO 6 to become a seminvariant of the sextic. A 
more important advantage, springing from the new form of Q, arises 
from the fact that if 



the sums of powers So 2 , So 3 , So 4 , ...So" all satisfy the equation fl=o. 
Hence, excluding o , we may, in partition notation, write down the 
fundamental solutions of the equation, viz. 

(2), (3), (4),. (ii), 
and say that with o , we have an algebraically complete system. 
Every symmetric function denoted by partitions, not involving 
the figure unity (say a non-unitary symmetric function), which 
remains unchanged by any increase of n, is also a seminvariant, 
and we may take if we please another fundamental system, viz. 

o,,(2), (3), (22), (32),...(2* n ) or (32* ( "- 3) ). 

Observe that, if we subject any symmetric function (pipips---) to 
the diminishing process, it becomes aj 11 "* 11 (ptp 3 ...). 

Next consider the solutions of fl = o which are of degree 6 and 
weight w. The general term in a solution involves the product 
ooj rl a 2 ...o" n wherein Sir=0, Ssjr,=to;the number of such products 
that may appear depends upon the number of partitions of w into 
6 or fewer parts limited not to exceed n in magnitude. Let this 
number be denoted by (w; 6, n). In order to obtain the seminvari- 



ants we would write down the (w; 9, n) terms each associated with 
a literal coefficient; if we now operate with we obtain a linear 
function of (to i; 9, n) products, for the vanishing of which the 
iteral coefficients must satisfy (to I ; 9, n) linear equations; hence 
(w, 9, n) (w i; 9, n) of these coefficients may be assumed arbi- 
trarily, and. the number of linearly independent solutions of li = o, of 
the given degree and weight, is precisely (to; 9, n) (w i; 6, n). 
This theory is due to Cayley ; its validity depends upon showing that 
the (to i; 0, n) linear equations satisfied by the literal coefficients 
ire independent; this has only recently been established by E. B. 
Elliott. These seminvariants are said to form an asyzygetic system. 
It is shown in the article on COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS that (to; 9, n) 
is the coefficient of o 9 z" in the ascending expansion of the fraction 

1 a. 1 oz. 1 az 2 . ...1 oz"' 
Hence (to; 9, ) (to i; 9, n) is given by the coefficient of a'z" 
in the fraction 

1-z 

1 a. 1 oz. 1 oz 2 ....! oz".' 
the enumerating generating function of asyzygetic seminvariants. 
We may, by a well-known theorem, write the result as a coefficient 
of z in the expansion of 

and since this expression is unaltered by the interchange of and 
9 we prove Hermite's Law of Reciprocity, which states that the 
asyzygetic forms of degree 9 for the n" are equinumerous with those 
of degree n for the 0' c . 

The degree of the covariant in the variables is e = nB 2w ; conse- 
quently we are only concerned with positive terms in the develop- 
ments and (to, 9, n) (to i ; 9, n) will be negative unless n9 210^0. 
It is convenient to enumerate the seminvariants of degree 8 and 
order e = n9 2w by a generating function; so, in the first written 

generating function for seminvariants, write - for z and oz" for o ; 

we obtain 

1-z- 2 

1 -oz". 1 -oz"- 2 . 1 -oz"- 1 . ...1 -oz~" +4 . 1 oz-"-**. 1 w" 
in which we have to take the coefficient of o'z"*-*, the expansion 
being in ascending powers of o. As we have to do only with that 
part of the expansion which involves positive powers of z, we must 
try to isolate that portion, say A(z). For n=2 we can prove that 
the complete function may be written 



where 



and this is the reduced generating function which tells us, by its 
denominator factors, that the complete system of the quadratic 
is composed of the form itself of degree order i , 2 shown by oz*, and 
of the Hessian of decree order 2, o shown by a 2 . 

Again, for the cubic, we can find 

. M _ _ 1-o'z" _ 
n ' 1 -oz 3 . 1 -o 2 z 2 . 1 -o 3 2 3 . 1 -o 4 

where the ground forms are indicated by the denominator factors, 
viz.: these are the cubic itself of degree order i, 3; the Hessian 
of degree order 2, 2; the cubi-covariant G of degree order 3, 3, 
and the quartic invariant of degree order 4, o. Further, the numera- 
tor factor establishes that these are not all algebraically independent, 
but are connected by a syzygy of degree order 6, 6. 

Similarly for the quartic 



_ _ f 

4 1_ OZ 4 i_ a j.i _%<.! -o 3 .l-o s z*' 

establishing the 5 ground forms and the syzygy which connects 
them. 

The process is not applicable with complete success to quintic 
and higher ordered binary forms. This arises from the circum- 
stance that the simple syzygies between the ground forms are 
not all independent, but are connected by second syzygies, and these 
again by third syzygies, and so on; this introduces new difficulties 
which have not been completely overcome. As regards invariants 
a little further progress has been made by Cayley, who established 
the two generating functions for the quintic 



1 -o 4 . 1 -o 8 . 1 -a 12 . 1 -a" 



and for the sextic 



1 -a a . 1 -a 4 . 1 -a'. I -a 10 . 1 -a 16 ' 

Accounts of further attempts in this direction will be found in 
Cayley's Memoirs on Qualities (Collected Papers), in the papers of 
Sylvester and Franklin (Amer. J. i.-iv.), and in Elliott's Algebra 
of Quantics, chap. viii. 

Perpetuants. Many difficulties, connected with binary forms 
of finite order, disappear altogether when we come to consider the 



6 3 8 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



form of infinite order. In this case the ground forms, called also 
perpetuants, have been enumerated and actual representative 
seminvariant forms established. Putting equal to oo , in a generat- 
ing function obtained above, we find that the function, which 
enumerates the asyzvgetic seminvariants of degree 6, is 

1-Z 2 .1-Z 3 .1-Z 4 ....1-Z 

that is to say, of the weight w, we_ have one form corresponding to 
each non-unitary partition of w into the parts 2, 3, 4,.. .6. The 
extraordinary advantage of the transformation of Q to association 
with non-unitary symmetric functions is now apparent; for we 
may take, as representative forms, the symmetric functions which 
are symbolically denoted by the partitions referred to. Ex. gr., of 
degree 3 weight 8, we have the two forms (3*2), a(2 4 ). If we wish 
merely to enumerate those whose partitions contain the figure 8, 
and do not therefore contain any power of a as a factor, we have 
the generator 



l-2.l-zU-z 4 . ...l-z' 

If 9 = 2, every form is obviously a ground form or perpetuant, 
and the series of forms is denoted by (2), (2*), (2 s ),... (2 K+l ).... 
Similarly, if 9 = 3, every form (s"" 1 "^*) is a perpetuant. For these 
two cases the perpetuants are enumerated by 



1-z 2 ' 



and ; 



respectively. 

When = 4 it is clear that no form, whose partition contains a 
part 3, can be reduced; but every form, whose partition is com- 
posed of the parts 4 and 2, is by elementary algebra reducible by 
means of perpetuants of degree 2. These latter forms are enumer- 

ated by i_ z 2 ;_ Z 4 : hence the generator of quartic perpetuants 
must be 

_ Z* __ Z< __ _ 

1-Z 2 . 1-Z 3 . 1-2* 1-Z 2 .1-Z 4 ~1-Z 2 .1-Z 3 .1-Z 4 ' 

and the general form of perpetuants is (4 lt+1 3*+* 2f). 

When 0^ 5, the reducible forms are connected by syzygies 
which there is some difficulty in enumerating. Sylvester, Cayley 
and MacMahon succeeded, by a laborious process, in establishing 
the generators for = 5, and 8 = 6, viz. : 



_ _ _ _ 

I-ZM-Z'.I-Z'.I-Z 6 ' I-ZM-ZM-ZM-Z'.I-Z ' 

but the true method of procedure is that of Stroh which we are 
about to explain. 

Method of Stroh. In the section on " Symmetric Functions," 
it was noted that Stroh considers 



" a a e 

where <n-f <r t +...+a t = Q and j| = jj = ...=| = o, symbolically, to be 

the fundamental form of seminvariant of degree 6 and weight w; 
he observes that every form of this degree and weight is a linear 
function of such symbolic expressions. We may write 

(1 +*,{)(! +a,|)...(l +*) = 1 +A 2 ? +A,+...+A,{. 
If we expand the symbolic expression by the multinomial theorem, 
and remember that any symbolic product a^'a^a" 8 ... retains the 
same value, however the suffixes be permuted, we shall obtain a 

Tt\ 1T2 W3 

sum of terms, such as w\ ^,% a i--2<r"VV* 3 ..., which in real 

Tl'TliTs! 

form is w\ o )rl a, r2 o, 7 . ) ...S<7] n o 2 o-j'... ; and, if we express 2ofVJVJ J ... 
in terms of A 2 , Aa,..., and arrange the whole as a linear function 
of products of A 2 , A a ,..., each coefficient will be a seminvariant, 
and the aggregate of the coefficients will give us the complete 
asyzygetic system of the given degree and weight. 
When the proper degree 8 is < w a factor o"~* must be of course 
understood. 
Ex. gr. 



In general the coefficient, of any product A^A^A,^..., will have, as 

coefficient, a seminvariant which, when expressed by partitions, 
will have as leading partition (preceding in dictionary order all 
others) the partition (irnrvr 3 ...). Now the symbolic expression of 
the seminvariant can be expanded by the binomial theorem so as 
to be exhibited as a sum of products of seminvariants, of lower 
degrees if <ricn + <7 2 02 +...+<r e ag can be broken up into any two 
portions 



such that ai+at+...+a, = Q, for then 

<r*n + o+ 2 + . . . + o- = ; 
and each portion raised to any power denotes a seminvariant. 



Stroh assumes that every reducible seminvariant can in this way 
be reduced. The existence of such a relation, as <ri-f-o-j-r-...+i = 0, 
necessitates the vanishing of a certain function of the coefficients 
A 2 , A 3 ,...A0, and as a consequence one product of these coefficients 
can be eliminated from the expanding form and no seminvariant, 
which appears as a coefficient to such a product (which may be 
the whole or only a part of the complete product, with which the 
seminvariant is associated), will be capable of reduction. 

Ex. gr. for = 2, (<iiai-)-a 2 ii 2 )'; either <TI or <rj will vanish if 
o-i<r 2 = A 2 = o; but every term, in the development, is of the form 
(222.. .)A|" and therefore vanishes; so that none are left to undergo 
reduction. Therefore every form of degree 2, except of course that 
one whose weight is zero, is a perpetuant. The generating function 



For = 3, (o-ioi + o- 2 a 2 + ffsas)" ; the condition is clearly <ri<r 2 a 3 = As = 0, 
and since every seminvariant, of proper degree 3, is associated, as 
coefficient, with a product containing Aa, all such are perpetuants. 

The general form is (3*2* and the generating function , - ^ - 5 . 

1 2.1 2 s 

For = 4, (o-iai+<7 2 a 2 +<T3ei3+<r*a < )' < '; the condition is 

) = AA 3 = 0. 



Hence every product "of A,, A 2 , A 3 , A 4 , which contains the pro- 
duct A 4 As disappears before reduction; this means that every 
seminvariant, whose partition contains the parts 4, 3, is a perpetuant. 
The general form of perpetuant is (4*3*2'') and the generating function 



l-2 2 .l-Z 3 .l-2 4 

In general when 6 is even and =2<t>, the condition is 



and we can determine the lowest weight of a perpetuant ; the degree 
in the quantities a is 



Again, if is uneven =2^+1, the condition is 
"Sr-.*rt +l ll(<' 1 +<' 2 W(v l +v 2 +<r 3 )...ll(<r 1 +<r, 
and the degree, in the quantities a, is 



= 2 2 *-l=2- I -l. 

Hence the lowest weight of a perpetuant is 2*- 1 1 , when is 
>2. The generating function is thus 



z 3 )(l -z 4 )... (1 -2) 

The actual form of a perpetuant of degree has been shown' by 
MacMahon to be 



' j being given any zero or positive integer values. 

Simultaneous Seminvariants of two Binary Forms. Taking the 
two forms to be 



every leading coefficient of a simultaneous covariant vanishes by 
the operation of 



Observe that we may employ the principle of suffix diminution 
to obtain from any seminvariant one appertaining to a (p i)* and 
a q i' c , and that suffix augmentation produces a portion of a 
higher seminvariant, the degree in each case remaining unaltered. 
Remark, too, that we are in association with non-unitary sym- 
metric functions of two systems of quantities which will be denoted 
by partitions in brackets ( ), ( )i> respectively. Solving the equation 



by the ordinary theory of linear partial differential equations, we 
obtain p+q+i independent solutions, of which p appertain to 
$2aM = 0, jto fikU = 0; the remaining one is J ot = 00610! 6 , the leading 
coefficient of the Jacobian of the two forms. This constitutes an 
algebraically complete system, and, in terms of its members, all 
seminvariants can be rationally expressed. A similar theorem holds 
in the case of any number of binary forms, the mixed seminvariants 
being derived from the Jacobians of the several pairs of forms. 
If the seminvariant be of degree 0, 0' in the coefficients, the forms 
of orders p, a respectively, and the weight w, the degree of the 
covariant in the variables will be p9 -\-q6' 2w = , an easy general 
tion of the theorem connected with a single form. 



iza- 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



639 



The general term of a seminvariant of degree 9, 8' and weight 
io will be 



where 



. 
012 

t Q P 

2/> = , So-, = and Sip, + Ss<r, 
11 11 



The number of such terms is the number of partitions of w into 
8+6' parts, the part magnitudes, in the two portions, being limited 
not to exceed p and q respectively. Denote this number by 
(w; 6, p', 0'. q). The number of linearly independent seminvariants 
of the given type will then be denoted by 

(w; e, p; 6', q)-(w-l; 6, p; 6', q); 
and will be given by the coefficient of aWz in 

1 z . 

1-6. l- 



__ _ 
l-o. 1-oz.l -oz 2 . ... 1-oz". 
that is, by the coefficient of z" in 



. 
1 -6z 2 ... 1 -frz' 



1 -z. 1 -z 2 . 1 -z 3 . ... 1 a*. 1 -z 2 . 1 -z 3 . ... 1 -z' ' 
which preserves its expression when 8 and p and 6' and q are separ- 
ately or simultaneously interchanged. 

Taking the first generating function, and writing 02?, bz 9 , ~ 2 for 

a b and z respectively, we obtain the coefficient of 
je' ZI ><H-,<>'-2. that is of a6*'z, in 

_____ _ l-s-2 _ . 

1 aaP.l ozP-2. ...l-ozT+2. 1 az-J>.l 6B.l te-2. ...1 te-+2.i_i> z -a > 
the unreduced generating function which enumerates the covariants 
of degrees 8, 0' in the coefficients and order e in the variables. Thus, 
for two linear forms, p = q=i, we find 

1 z~ 



1 az. 1 
the positive part of which is 



_ _ 
. \-bz.l -bzr 1 ' 



1 02. lbz. lab' 

establishing the ground forms of degrees-order (i, o; i), (o, i; i), 
(i, i ; o), viz: the linear forms themselves and their Jacobian J &. 
Similarly, for a linear and a quadratic, p = i, q = 2, and the reduced 
form is found to be 

1 - 



1 -02. l-bz*. 1 -062. 1 -b 2 . 1 -o 2 6' 

where the denominator factors indicate the forms themselves, 
their Jacobian, the invariant of the quadratic and their resultant; 
connected, as shown by the numerator, by a syzygy of degrees- 
order (2, 2; 2). 

The complete theory of the perpetuants appertaining to two 
or more forms of infinite order has not yet been established. For 
two forms the seminvariants of degrees i, i are enumerated by 

1 and the only one which is reducible is o & of weight zero ; 
1 z 

hence the perpetuants of degrees i, i are enumerated by 
_1 . z 

and the series is evidently 



one for each of the weights I, 2, 3,..ad infin. 

For the degrees i, 2, the asyzygetic forms are enumerated by 

3 - = - s, and the actual forms for the first three weights are 

i 2. 1 Z 



amongst these forms are included all the asyzygetic forms of degrees 
i, i, multiplied by ba, and also all the perpetuants of the second 
binary form multiplied by 0$; hence we have to subtract from the 

1 z 2 

generating function y and jtT^l> anc ^ obtain the generating 

function of perpetuants of degrees i, 2. 

1 1 2 2 z 3 

1-Z. 1-2 2 ~1-Z~1-Z 2 ~I-Z. 1-2 2 ' 

The first perpetuant is the last seminvariant written, viz. : 



or, in partition notation, 



and, in this form, it is at once seen to satisfy the partial differential 
equation. It is important to notice that the expression 

'- 



a 

denotes a seminvariant, if 9, 9', be neither of them unity, for, after 



operation, the terms destroy one another in pairs: when 6 = 0, (6)' 
must be taken to denote oo and so for tf. In general it is a semin- 
variant of degrees 6, 6', and weight 6+tf+s; to this there is an 
exception, viz., when 8 = 0, or when 9' = o, the corresponding partial 
degrees are i and i. When 6 = 8' = o, we have the general per- 
petuant of degrees i, i. There is a still more general form of 
seminvariant ; we may have instead of 6, 8' any collections of non- 
unitary integers not exceeding 0, 8' in magnitude respectively, 
Ex. gr. 



is a seminvariant; and since these forms are clearly enumerated 
by 

_ 1 _ 
1 -z. 1 -z 2 . ... 1 -z. 1 -z 2 . 1 -z 3 . ... 1 -z*' ' 

an expression which also enumerates the asyzygetic seminvariants, 
we may regard the form, written, as denoting the general form of 
asyzygetic seminvariant; a very important conclusion. For the 
case in hand, from the simplest perpetuant of degrees I, 2, we 
derive the perpetuants of weight w, 



a series of -(w 2) or of -(w i 



forms according as w is even or 



uneven. Their number for any weight w is the number of ways 
of composing a> 3 with the parts I, 2, and thus the generating 
function is verified. We cannot, by this method, easily discuss 
the perpetuants of degrees 2, 2, because a syzygy presents itself 
as early as weight 2. It is better now to proceed by the method of 
Stroh. 

We have the symbolic expression of a seminvariant. 

-L(<riai+<r. i o s + ... 



and c 1 +a 2 +...+ffg+T 1 +T 2 +. 

Proceeding as we did in the case of the single binary form we 
find that for a given total degree 6+8', the condition which expresses 
reducibility is of total degree 2 6+e '~ 1 I in the coefficients a and r; 
combining this with the knowledge of the generating function of 
asyzygetic forms of degrees 0, 0', we find that the perpetuants of 
these degrees are enumerated by 



_ _ 

1 -Z. 1 -Z 2 . 1 -2 3 . ... 1 -2. 1 -Z 8 . 1 -Z 3 . ... 1 -" 

and this is true for 8+9' = 2 as well as for other values of 8+8 1 (com- 
pare the case of the single binary form). 

Observe that, if there be more than two binary forms, the 
weight of the simplest perpetuant of degrees 0, 8 1 , % 6*,... is 
2 e+9'+e"+,-l i t as can be seen by reasoning of a similar kind. 

To obtain information concerning the actual forms of the per- 
petuants, write 



where 

For the case 



Ai+Bi = 0. 
i, 0' = I, the condition is 



which since Ai+Bi=o, is really a condition of weight unity. For 
w = i the form is AiOi+Bi&i, which we may write a<J>i Oi6 = 

a (i) 6 -(i) 6 ; the remaining perpetuants, enumerated by y-^, 

have been set forth above. 

For the case 0=1, 0' = 2, the condition is <nriTj = AiBj = 0; and 
the simplest perpetuant, derived directly from the product 
AiB 2 , is (i)a(2)i-(2i)i>; the remainder of those enumerated by 

_ z _ 2 may be represented by the form 



X, and w each assuming all integer (including zero) values. For 
the case = 0' = 2, the condition is 

0. 



To represent the simplest perpetuant, of weight 7, we may take 
as base either A|B,Bj or AiAiBf.and since Ai + Bi=o the former is 
equivalent to AiA|B s and the latter to AtBiBj; so that we have, 



640 



ALGEBRAIC FORMS 



apparently, a choice of four products. A|BiB 2 gives (2 2 ) (2i) 
(2'i).(2), and AiAiB 2 ,(2 2 i) a (2)6-(2 2 ).(2i) 6 ; these two merely differ 
in sign; and similarly A 2 BiBf yields (2) (2 2 i),,-(2i),,(2 2 ), and that 
due to AiAjBl merely differs from it in sign. We will choose from 
the forms in such manner that the product of letters A is either a 
power of Ai, or does not contain Ai; this rule leaves us with 
AfBiB 2 and A 2 BiB|; of these forms we will choose that one which 
in letters B is earliest in ascending dictionary order; this is 
Af BiBj, and our earliest perpetuant is 



and thence the general form enumerated by the generating function 



For the case 9=1, 8' = 3, the condition is 

VlVt ( l +r 1 )(,+r 1 )(r 1 +T l )-A 1 B|+A!BA-ft 

By the rules adopted we take A5B 2 B 3 , which gives 

(I') (32) l -(l) (321) t +o (321 2 ) 1> , 

the simplest perpetuant of weight 7; and thence the general form 
enumerated by the generating function 



_ _ 

1-z. 1-z 2 . 1-z 

viz: (i x i + *) a (3* +1 2"> 41 )-- 

For the case 6 = 2, 8' = 3, the condition is 



T 2 )(T 1 +T 3 )(r 2 +T,)=0. 



The calculation results in 



-AlBlB,Bf+AfBtBiB 1 +A 2 BfBB?+AIBlB;-2A 2 B2B 2 B* 
+A,B|B,=0. 

By the rules we select the product AJB 3 B 2 Bf , giving the simplest 
perpetuant of weight 15, viz: 



and thence the general form 

(2 A2+4 ) a (3" >+1 2 +1 l' 1 > +2 ) 6 
due to the generating function 



For the case 6= I, 9* = 4, the condition is 



the calculation gives 

A,B 4 (A 2 B 2 +AiB,-)-B 4 )(-BS-A 1 B 2 B,-AfB 4 )=0. 
Selecting the product A*B 4 BaBl, we find the simplest perpetuant 



and thence the general form 

(l Al+4 ).(4" +1 3 u ' +1 2 42 ) 1> 
due to the generating function 



+a (432n<) 4 , 



1-z. 1-z 2 . l-z. 1-s 4 ' 

The series may be continued, but the calculations soon become 
very laborious. 

V. RESTRICTED SUBSTITUTIONS 

We may regard the factors of a binary n" equated to zero as 
denoting n straight lines through the origin, the co-ordinates being 
Cartesian and the axes inclined at any angle. Taking the variables 
to be x, y and effecting the linear transformation 



so that 



y 
~ 



Y'X 

'X 



it is seen that the two lines, on which lie (x, y), (X, Y), have a 
definite projective correspondence. The linear transformation 
replaces points on lines through the origin by corresponding points 
on projectively corresponding lines through the origin; it therefore 
replaces a pencil of lines by another pencil, which corresponds pro- 
jectively, and harmonic and other properties of pencils which are 
unaltered bv linear transformation we may expect to find indicated 
in the invariant system. Or, instead of looking upon a linear sub- 
stitution as replacing a pencil of lines by a projectively correspond- 
ing pencil retaining the same axes of co-ordinates, we may look upon 
the substitution as changing the axes of co-ordinates retaining the 
same pencil. Then a binary n", equated to zero, represents n 



straight lines through the origin, and the *, y of any line through 
the origin are given constant multiples of the sines of the angles 
which that line makes with two fixed lines, the axes of co-ordinates. 
As new axes of co-ordinates we may take any other pair of lines 
through the origin, and for the X, Y corresponding to x, y any new 
constant multiples of the sines of the angles which the line makes 
with the new axes. The substitution for x, y in terms of X, Y is the 
most general linear substitution in virtue of the four degrees of 
arbitrariness introduced, viz. two by the choice of axes, two by 
the choice of multiples. If now the n" denote a given pencil of 
lines, an invariant is the criterion of the pencil possessing some 
particular property which is independent alike of the axes and of 
the multiples, and a covariant expresses that the pencil of lines 
which it denotes is a fixed pencil whatever be the axes or the 
multiples. 

Besides the invariants and covariants, hitherto studied, there 
are others which appertain to particular cases of the general linear 
substitution. Thus what have been called seminvanants are not 
all of them invariants for the general substitution, but are invariants 
for the particular substitution 



Again, in plane geometry, the most general equations of substitu- 
tion which change from old axes inclined at <> to new axes inclined 
at ' =/8 a, and inclined at angles o, ft to the old axis of x, without 
change of origin, are 



x=- 



sing sin fl 

sin (j ~"~sin <j ' 



a transformation of modulus 



The theory of invariants originated in the discussion, by George 
Boole, of this system so important in geometry. Of the quadratic 

ax*+2bxy+cy*, 
he discovered the two invariants 

ac i 2 , o 2&coso)+c, 

and it may be verified that, if the transformed of the quadratic be 
AX 2 -r2BXY+CY 2 , 



A -2B cos u'+C 



a-2bcosu+c). 



The fundamental fact that he discovered was the invariance of 
x 2 +2 cos a xy+y 1 , viz. 

x s +2 cos u xy+ji=X+2 cos w'XY+Y 2 , 

from which it appears that the Boolian invariants of ax*+2bxy y 2 
are nothing more than the full invariants of the simultaneous 
quadratics 

ax*+2bxy+y 2 , x 2 +2 cosaxy+y 2 , 

the word invariant including here covariant. In general the Boolian 
system, of the general n", is coincident with the simultaneous system 
of the n ic and the quadratic * 2 +2 cos xy+y*. 

Orthogonal System. In particular, if we consider the transforma- 
tion from one pair of rectangular axes to another pair of rect- 
angular axes we obtain an orthogonal system which we will now 
briefly inquire into. We have cos u>' = cos <a = o and the substitution 

Xi = cos 0Xi sin 0X 2 
xt = sin 0Xi +cos 0X 2 , 

with modulus unity. This is called the direct orthogonal substitu- 
tion, because the sense of rotation from the axis of Xi to the axis 
of X is the same as that from that of x\ to that of x. If the senses 
of rotation be opposite we have the skew orthogonal substitution 

Xi=cps0Xi+sin0X 2 , 
x 2 = sin0Xi cos0X 2 , 

of modulus i. In both cases -j and T are cogredient with x\ 

and Xi; for, in the case of direct substitution, 
d .d .d 



and for skew substitution 
d 



Hence, in both cases, contragrediency and cogrediency are identical, 
and contravariants are included in covariants. 



d . 
x7 

d 

r 

d 



ALGECIRAS 



641 



Consider the binary <. (aiXi+a t x t ) n = a' x , and the direct sub- 
stitution 

Xi = XXj 



where X 2 +#j 2 = l; X, n replacing cos 6, sin 6 respectively. In the 
notation 

a* =01*1 +a 2 x 2 , 
observe that 

o.=oj+o|, 

<Z 
Suppose that 

a x = b x =c x = ... 
is transformed into 

AX=BX=C X =... 

then of course (AB) = (ab) the fundamental fact which appertains 
to the theory of the general linear substitution ; now here we have 
additional and equally fundamental facts ; for since 

, A 2 = 



showing that, in the present theory, ai, at, and (xa) possess the 
invariant property. Since x\-\-x\ = x x we have six types of symbolic 
factors which may be used to form invariants and covariants, viz. 

(ab), Oa, at, (xa), a x , x x . 
The general form of covariant is therefore 
(06) *' (ac) * (be) ^..0-W. 

x (xa) * (xb) *v) * 3 ...a^4 

= (AB) 4l (AC) ^ (BC) ^...A 

X(XA)* 1 (XB)* 2 (XC)* 3 ...A^ 
If this be of order e and appertain to an n" 



viz., the symbols a, b, c,... must each occur n times. It may denote 
a simultaneous orthogonal invariant of forms of orders n\, n 2 , tit,...; 
the symbols must then present themselves i, n a , n>... times re- 
spectively. The number of different symbols a, b, c,... denotes the 
degree 9 of the covariant in the coefficients. The coefficients of 
the covariants are homogeneous, but not in general isobaric functions, 
of the coefficients of the original form or forms. Of the above 
general form of covariant there are important transformations due 
to the symbolic identities: 



as a consequence any even power of a determinant factor may be 
expressed in terms of the other symbolic factors, and any uneven 
power may be expressed as the product of its first power and a 
function of the other symbolic factors. Hence in the above general 
form of covariant we may suppose the exponents 

hi, hi, h 3 ,...ki, ki, k 3 ,... 

if the determinant factors to be, each of them, either zero or unity. 
Or, if we please, we may leave the determinant factors untouched 
and consider the exponents ji, ji, j>,...li, li, h,... to be, each of them, 
either zero or unity. Or, lastly, we may leave the exponents h, k,j, I, 
untouched and consider the product 

to be reduced either to the form g' g where g is a symbol of the series 

a, b, c,... or to a power of x x . To assist us in handling the symbolic 
products we have not only the identity 

(ab) c x + (bc)a x + (ca) b x = 0, 
but also 



and many others which may be derived from these in the manner 
which will be familiar to students of the works of Aronhold, Clebsch 
and Gordan. Previous to continuing the general discussion it is 
useful to have before us the orthogonal invariants and covariants 
of the binary linear and quadratic forms. 

For the linear forms wci+aiXt = a x = b x there are four fundamental 
forms 

(i.) a x = anXi+aiXi of degree-order (1, 1), 

(a.) *.-*}+*! (0,2), 

(iii.) (xa)=aix, -OoX 2 (1,1), 

(iv.)<n=a+a (2,0), 

(iii.) and (iv.) being the linear covariant and the quadrinvariant 

i. 21 



respectively. Every other concomitant is a rational integral function 
of these four forms. The linear covariant, obviously the Jacobian 
of a x and x x is the line perpendicular to a,, and the vanishing of the 
quadrinvariant 04 is the condition that a, passes through one of the 
circular points at infinity. In general any pencil of lines, connected 
with the line a by descriptive or metrical properties, has for its 
equation a rational integral function of the four forms equated to 
zero. 

For the quadratic a" *j+2ai3cijc 2 -fa 2 *5, we have 
(i.) al=" 
Cu.) *. 
(iii.) (a_ 
(iv.) a. = 00+05, 
(v.) (xa)a 1 = aix 

This is the fundamental system; we may, if we choose, replace 
(ab) 2 by <z| = a\ +2o? +O 2 since the identity a<A -a J = (ab) 1 shows the 
syzygetic relation 

(00+02)' -<o+2o 2 +oi) = 2(0^2-0?). 

There is no linear covariant, since it is impossible to form a 
symbolic product which will contain x once and at the same time 
appertain to a quadratic, (v.) is the Jacobian; geometrically it 
denotes the bisectors of the angles between the lines a 8 , or, as we 
may say, the common harmonic conjugates of the lines aj and the 
lines x x . The linear invariant a a is such that, when equated to zero, 
it determines the lines oj as harmonically conjugate to the lines * ; 
or, in other words, it is the condition that a 2 may denote lines at 
right angles. 

REFERENCES. Cayley, " Memoirs on Quantics," in the Collected 
Mathematical Papers (Cambridge, 1898); Salmon, Lessons Intro- 
ductory to the Modern Higher Algebra (Dublin, 1885) ; E. B. Elliott, 
Algebra of Quantics (Oxford, 1895) ; F. Brioschi, Teoria dei Covari- 
anti (Rome, 1861); W. Fiedler, Die Elemente der neueren Geometric 
und der Algebra der binaren Formen (Leipzig, 1862); A. Clebsch, 
Theorie der binaren Algebraischen Formen (Leipzig, 1872); Vor- 
lesungen uber Geometrie (Leipzig, 1875); Faa de Bruno, Theorie des 
formes binaires (Turin, 1876) ; P. Gordan, Vorlesungen uber In- 
variantentheorie, Bd. i. "Determinanten" (Leipzig, 1885); Bd. ii. 
" Binare Formen " (Leipzig, 1887) ; G. Rubini, Teoria delle forme in 
generate, e specialmenle delle binarie (Leue, 1886) ; E. Study, Methoden 
zur Theorie der Ternaren Formen (Leipzig, 1889); Lie, Theorie der 
Transformationsgruppen (Leipzig, 1888-1890) ; Franz Meyer, Bericht 
uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Invariantentheorie; Jahresbericht 
der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung, Bd. i. (Berlin, 1892); 
Encyklopddie der mathematischen Wissenschaften, Bd. i., Heft 3, 4, 
by Heinrich Burkhardt and Franz Meyer (Leipzig, 1899); J. H. 
Grace and A. Young, The Algebra of Invariants (Cambridge, 
1903). (P. A. M.) 

ALGECIRAS, or ALGEZIEAS, a seaport of southern Spain in 
the province of Cadiz, 6 m. W. of Gibraltar, on the opposite 
side of the Bay of Algeciras. Pop. (1900) 13,302. Algeciras 
stands at the head of a railway from Granada, but its only 
means of access to Gibraltar is by water. Its name, which 
signifies in Arabic the island, is derived from a small islet on 
one side of the harbour. It is supplied with water by means 
of a beautiful aqueduct. The fine winter climate of Algeciras 
attracts many invalid visitors, on whom the town largely 
depends for its prosperity. The harbour is bad, but at the 
beginning of the 2oth century it became important as a fishing- 
station. Whiting, soles, bream, bass and other fish are caught 
in great quantities by the Algeciras steam-trawlers, which visit 
the Moroccan coast, as well as Spanish and neutral waters. 
There is also some trade in farm produce and building materials 
which supplies a fleet of small coasters with cargo. 

Algeciras was perhaps the Portus Albus of the Romans, but 
it was probably refounded in 713 by the Moors, who retained 
possession of it until 1344. It was then taken by Alphonso XI. 
of Castile after a celebrated siege of twenty months, which 
attracted crusaders from all parts of Europe; among them 
being the English earl of Derby, grandson of Edward III. It is 
said that during this siege gunpowder was first used by the Moors 
in the wars of Europe. The Moorish city was destroyed by 
Alphonso; it was first reoccupied by Spanish colonists from 
Gibraltar in 1704; and the modern town was erected in 1760 
by King Charles III. During the siege of Gibraltar in 1780- 
782, Algeciras was the station of the Spanish fleet and floating 
batteries. On the 6th of July 1801 the English admiral Sir 
James Saumarez attacked a Franco-Spanish fleet off Algeciras, 



642 



ALGER OF LIEGE ALGERIA 



and sustained a reverse; but on the i2th he again attacked the 
enemy, whose fleet was double his own strength, and inflicted 
on them a complete defeat. The important international con- 
ference on Moroccan affairs, which resulted in an agreement 
between France and Germany, was held at Algeciras from the 
i6th of January to the 7th of April 1906. (See MOROCCO). 

ALGER OF LlGE (d c. 1131), known also as ALGER OF 
CLUNY and ALGERUS MAGISTER, a learned French priest who 
lived in the first half of the 1 2th century. He was first a deacon 
of the church of St Bartholomew atLiege,hisnativetown, and was 
then appointed (c. noo) to the cathedral church of St Lambert. 
He declined many offers from German bishops and finally retired 
to the monastery of Cluny, where he died about 1131 at a great 
age and leaving a good reputation for piety and intelligence. 
His History of the Church of Li&ge, and many of his other works, 
are lost. The most important of those still extant are: i. De 
Misericordia et Justitia, a collection of biblical and patristic 
extracts with a commentary (an important work for the history 
of church law and discipline), which is to be found in the Anecdota 
of Martene, vol. v. 2. De Sacramentis Corporis et Sanguinis 
Domini ; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian 
heresy, highly commended by Peter of Cluny and Erasmus. 
3. De Gratia et Liber o Arbilrio; given in B. Fez's Anecdota, 
vol. iv. 4. De Sacrificio Missae; given in the Collectio Scriptor. 
Vet. of Angelo Mai, vol. ix. p. 371. 

See Migne, Patrol Ser. Lat. vol. clxxx. pp. 739-972: Herzog- 
Hauck, Realencyk. fur prot. TheoL, art. by S. M. Deutsch. 

ALGER, RUSSELL ALEXANDER (1836-1907), American 
soldier and politician, was born in Lafayette township, Medina 
county, Ohio, on the 27th of February 1836. Left an orphan 
at an early age, he worked on a farm to pay his expenses at 
Richfield (Ohio) Academy, was a schoolmaster for two winters, 
and, having studied law in the meantime, was admitted to the 
bar in 1859. He began practice at Cleveland, Ohio, but early in 
1860 he removed to Michigan, where he abandoned his profes- 
sion and engaged in the lumber business. Enlisting in a Michigan 
cavalry regiment in September 1861, he rose from captain to 
colonel, distinguished himself in the Gettysburg campaign and 
under Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and in 1864 and 
1865 respectively received the brevets of brigadier-general and 
major-general of volunteers. After the war he invested exten- 
sively in pine lands in Michigan, and accumulated a large 
fortune in the lumber business. In 1884 he was elected governor 
of Michigan on the Republican ticket, serving from 1885 to 
1887. In 1889-1890 he was commander-in-chief of the Grand 
Army of the Republic. From 1897 to 1899 he was secretary of 
war in President McKinley's cabinet. His administration of 
the war department during the Spanish-American War was 
severely criticized for extravagance in army contracts, for 
unpreparedness, and for general inefficiency, charges which he 
answered in his The Spanish-American War (1901). The extent 
of his personal responsibility is at least uncertain. In 1902 he 
was appointed by the governor of Michigan, and in 1903 was 
elected by the state legislature, as United States senator to 
complete the unexpired term of James McMillan (1838-1902). 
He died at Washington, D.C., on the 24th of January 1907. 

ALGERIA (Algerie), a country of North Africa belonging to 
France, bounded N. by the Mediterranean, W. by Morocco, 
S. by the Sahara and E. by Tunisia. The boundaries, however, 
are in part not accurately determined. Algeria extends for 
about 650 m. along the coast, and stretches inland from 320 
to 380 m., lying between 2 10' W. and 8 50' E., and 32 and 
37 N. It is divided, politically, into three departments, 
Oran in the west, Algiers in the centre and Constantine in the 
east. Its area is 184,474 sq. m., exclusive of the dependent 
Saharan regions, which have an area of some 750,000 sq. m. 
(see SAHARA, TUAT, &c.). 

Physical Features. The character of the Algerian coast is 
severe and inhospitable. The western half is bordered by a hilly 
rampart, broken only here and there, in the bays where the larger 
streams find their outlet, by flat and sandy plains. Between 
Dellys and Philippeville high mountains rise almost sheer from 



the sea, leaving only a narrow strip of beach. East of Philippe- 
ville the mountains recede from the coast, and the rampart of 
hills reappears. Only between Bona and La Calle is the general 
character of the sea-board low and sandy. Save near the towns 
and in the cultivated district of Kabylia, the coast is bare and 
uninhabited; and in spite of numerous indentations, of which 
the most important going from west to east are the Gulf of 
Oran, the Gulf of Arzeu, the Bay of Algiers, and the gulfs of 
Bougie, Stora and Bona, there are few good harbours. From 
time immemorial, indeed, this coast has had an evil reputation 
among mariners, quite apart from the pirates who for centuries 
made it the base of their depredations. A violent current, 
starting from the Straits of Gibraltar, rushes eastward along the 
shore, and, hurled back from the headlands, is deflected to the 
west. In summer the east wind brings dense and sudden fogs; 
while in winter the northerly gales blow straight into the mouths 
of the harbours. In these circumstances navigation is especially 
perilous for sailing craft. The terrors of this " savage sea and 
inhospitable shore," once described by Sallust, have, however, 
been greatly mitigated by the introduction of steam, the im- 
provement of the harbours, and the establishment by the French 
government of an excellent system of lighthouses. 

Southward from the sea the country falls naturally into three 
divisions, clearly distinguished by their broad physical character- 
istics. The healthy, and on the whole fertile coast region, from 
50 to 100 m. in width, is known, as in Morocco and Tunisia, 
as the Tell (Arabic for " hill "). It is a mountainous country 
intersected with rocky canons and fertile valleys, which occasion- 
ally broaden out into alluvial plains like that of the Shelif, or 
the Metija near Algiers, or those in the neighbourhood of Oran 
and Bona. Behind the Tell is a lofty table-land with an average 
elevation of 3000 ft., consisting of vast plains, for the most part 
arid or covered with esparto grass, in the depressions of which 
are great salt lakes and swamps (Arabic, shots) fed by streams 
which can find no outlet to the sea through the encircling hills. 
To the south this region is divided by the Great Atlas from the 
deserts of the Sahara, with its bases, in which the boundary of 
Algeria is lost. 

The country is traversed by lofty ranges of the Atlas system, 
which run nearly parallel to the coast, and rise in places over 
7000 ft. These are commonly divided into two leading chains, 
distinguished as the Great 1 and Little Atlas. The Great, or 
Saharan Atlas contains some of the highest points in the country. 
The chief ranges are Ksur and Amur in the west and the Aures 
in the east. The peak of Shellia, the highest point in Algeria, 
in the Aures range, has a height of 7611 ft. In the Amur are 
Jebel Ksel (6594 ft.) and Tuila Makna (6561 ft.). The Little 
Atlas, otherwise the Tell or Maritime Atlas, lies between the sea 
and the Saharan Atlas, and is composed of many distinct ranges, 
generally of no great elevation and connected by numerous 
transverse chains forming extensive table-lands and elevated 
valleys. The principal ranges of the Little Atlas from west to 
east are the Tlemcen (5500 ft.); the Warsenis (with Kef Sidi 
Omar, 6500 ft.) ; the Titeri (4900 ft.) ; the Jurjura, with the 
peak of Lalla Kedija (7542 ft.) and Mount Babor (6447 ft.); 
and the Mejerda (3700 ft.), which extends into Tunisia. The 
Jurjura range, forming the background of the plains between 
Algiers and Bougie, extends through the district of Kabylia, 
with which for grandeur of scenery no other part of Algeria can 
compare. South of the Jurjura and separated from it by the 
valley of the Sahd, is the Biban range with a famous double pass 
of the same name, through which alone access is gained to the 
highlands beyond. The Bibans or Fortes de fer (Iron Gates) 
consist of two defiles with stupendous walls of rock, which by 
erosion have assumed the most fantastic shapes. In the case of 
the Petite porte the walls in some places are not more than twelve 
feet apart. The Dahra range (see MOSTAGANEM) overlooks the 
sea, and is separated from the Warsenis by the valley of the 
Shelif (see ATLAS MOUNTAINS, SAHARA and TUAT). 

The rivers are numerous but the majority are short. Most 

1 The name "Great" Atlas is more correctly applied to the 
main range in Morocco. 



ALGERIA 



643 



ALGERIA AND 
TUNISIA 

Scale, 1:7,700,000 

English Miles 
o to ao 40 60 80 100 



Lfmg.W.of GreenwicfcO Longitude East of Greenwich 




of them rise in the mountains near the coast, and rush down 
through deep and rocky channels. During the rainy season 
they render communication between different parts of the country 
extremely difficult. The most important river, both from its 
length and volume, is the Shelif. It rises on the northern slopes 
of the Amur mountains and flows N.E. across the high plateau, 
piercing the little Atlas between the Warsenis and Titeri ranges. 
It then turns W. and reaches the Mediterranean at the eastern 
end of the Gulf of Arzeu. The Shelif, which has many tributaries, 
is about 430 m. long. The Seybuse (about 150 m. long), formed 
by the union of several small streams in the department of 
Constantine, runs through a fertile valley and reaches the 
Mediterranean near Bona. The Sahel (about too m. long), which 
contains the greatest body of water after the Shelif, rises in the 
department of Algiers near Aumale, and flows for the most part 
N.E. to its mouth near Bougie. The Kebir or Rummel the 
river is known by both names is formed by the union of several 
small streams south of Constantine, and flows past that town 
N.W. 140 m. to the sea. Among the less important rivers which 
empty into the Mediterranean are the Macta, the Tafna, the 
Harrach and the Mazafran. The Macta, but 3 m. long, enters 
the sea in the Gulf of Arzeu, some 25 m. W. of the mouth 
of the Shelif. It is formed by the Habra (140 m.) and the Sig 
(130 m.), which rise in the Amur mountains and flowing north 
unite in a marshy plain, whence issues the Macta. On the lower 
courses of the Habra and the Sig, barrages have been built for 
irrigation purposes. The Habra barrage holds 38,000,000 cubic 
metres; that on the Sig 18,000,000. The Tafna (about 100 m.) 
rises in a large cavern in the mountains south of Tlemcen and 
flows N.E. to the sea at Rachgun. It has many affluents; the 
largest, the Isser (70 m.), joins it on the east bank about 30 m. 
above its mouth. The Harrach (40 m.), a picturesque stream, 
enters the Mediterranean in the Bay of Algiers. The Mazafran 
(50 m.) crosses the plains S.W of Algiers, reaching the sea N.\of 
Kolea. The Mejerda and its affluent the Mellegue, rivers of 



Tunisia (q.v.), have their rise in Algeria, in the mountainous 
country east of Constantine. None of these rivers is navigable. 
Besides these there are a number of streams in the interior, but 
they are usually dry except in the rainy season. 

Algeria abounds in extensive salt lakes and marshes. Of the 
lakes in the northern part of the country near the coast the 
principal are, the Fezara, 14 m. S.W. of Bona ; Sebkha and 
ElMelah, south of Oran; and three small lakes in the immediate 
vicinity of La Calle. In the high plateaus are the Shat-el-Gharbi 
or Western Shat, the Shat-el-Shergui or Eastern Shat, the Zarhez- 
Gharbi and the Zarhez-Shergui, the Shat-el-Hodna and a number 
of others. South of the Jebel Aures is another series of salt lakes 
closely connected with the Shat-el-Jerid (of Tunisia). The chief 
of these is the Shat Melrir. There are a number of warm mineral 
springs, containing principally salts of lime, used with success 
by both Arabs and Europeans in several kinds of disease. 

One of the most remarkable groups of springs is near Guelma, 
in the department of Constantine. There are two principal 
sources. Their waters unite in one stream whose course is marked 
by gigantic limestone cones, some of which are 36 ft. high. The 
water, which is at boiling point, falls into natural basins of a 
creamy white colour, formed by the deposit of carbonate of lime. 
The springs are known to the Arabs as Hammam Meskutin (the 
" accursed baths "). The name and the cones are accounted 
for by a legend which represents that at this spot lived a sheikh 
who, finding his sister too beautiful to be married to anyone else, 
determined to espouse her himself. Whilst the marriage fes- 
tivities were being celebrated the judgment of Heaven descended 
on the guilty pair; fire came from below; the water became hot 
and the sheikh and his sister were turned into stone. Within a 
mile of Hammam Meskutin are ferruginous and sulphureous 
springs. 

[Geology. The geology of Algeria has been worked out in con- 
siderable detail by French geologists. Rocks of Archean and 
Palaeozoic ages contribute only a small share, but there is a 



644 



ALGERIA 



very complete sequence of formations from the Lias to those of 
recent date. An interesting and orderly petrological sequence of 
Tertiary igneous rocks has been determined. 

Archean rocks form the cores of the ancient crystalline masses 
within the littoral zone from Algiers to Bona. They consist 
of gneiss, mica-schist, quartzites, crystalline limestones and 
conglomerates. Primary deposits are doubtfully represented 
by the detached fragments of unfossiliferous strata of Traras, 
Blida and east of Orleansville. Carboniferous and Permian 
strata are possibly represented by some black and grey micaceous 
shales with beds of coal in the Jurjura. At Jebel-kahar and 
west of Traras, Pomel attributes certain conglomerates, red 
sandstones and purple and green shales to the Permian. The 
rocks of Secondary and Tertiary ages have been profoundly 
affected by the Alpine movements, and are thrown into a series 
of complex folds, so that in numerous instances their strati- 
graphy is imperfectly understood. The gypsiferous and sali- 
ferous marls of Shellata, Suk Ahras and Ain Nussi have yielded 
Triassic fossils. Triassic rocks are considered to be present in 
Constantine and in the Jurjura. Rhaetic beds (Infra Lias), 
consisting of dolomites and siliceous limestones, have been 
recognized at Saida. The lower and middle divisions of the 
Jurassic, composed of massive limestones more or less siliceous 
and overlain by the marls amd highly fossiliferous limestones 
of the Upper Lias, play an important part in the constitution 
of the chief mountains of the Tell. In south Oran they determine 
the principal axes of the mountain ranges. The Inferior Cre- 
taceous rocks include the Neocomian and Gault (Albian and 
Aptian) subdivisions, and form the flanks of the mountains in 
the Tell. In the south the Albian subdivision of the Gault is 
alone represented. Rocks of Upper Cretaceous age are repre- 
sented in all their stages.' The Cenomanian presents two distinct 
facies. North of the Atlas it belongs to the European type, in 
the south it contains a fauna of oysters and sea-urchins belonging 
to the facies " africano-syrian " of Zittel. There is a continuous 
transition between the Senonian and Danian, proving that the 
Algerian region did not participate in the immersion which 
occurred in Provence and in the Corbieres of southern France 
during the Danian epoch. The Lower Eocene rocks contain 
the chief phosphatic deposits of Algeria, those of the Tebessa 
region being the best known. Certain species of nummulites, 
which are very common, distinguish the various subdivisions of 
the Eocene. The highest beds, consisting of quartzites, shales, 
marls and sandstones with the remains of fucoids, are found in 
the Jurjura and Shellata. The Oligocene period consists of a 
marine phase confined to the littoral zone of Kabylia, and of 
a continental phase occupying vast areas composed of lacustrine, 
alluvial, gypsiferous marls, sandstones and conglomerates. 
The Miocene formation obtains its greatest development in 
Oran and is much expanded in the Tell. At the close of the 
Lower Miocene period (beds with Oslrea crassissima) great 
modifications in the relief and limits of the Algerian formations 
took place. Hitherto marine conditions were confined to the 
littoral; in Middle Miocene times (Helvetian) the sea broke in 
and spread in a south-east direction in the form of long ramified 
fjords but did not extend as far as the Sahara. To the Pliocene 
period the marine deposits of the Sahel of Algiers and of the 
Sahel Jijelli must be attributed; also the lacustrine marls and 
limestone of the basin of Constantine, and the ancient alluviums 
of the basins and depressions which bear no relation to the 
existing valleys. Among the Tertiary volcanic rocks those of 
acid types (granites, granulites) were the first to appear and are 
developed latitudinally; rocks of intermediate type (dacites, 
andesites) characterize the Miocene and early Pliocene periods; 
while the basic rocks (ophites, elaeolite syenites and basalts) 
attained their maximum in later Pliocene and Quaternary 
times. Their development, feeble as compared with the acid 
rocks, is meridional. The Quaternary period includes an older 
stage containing fragments of fossils from the underlying forma- 
tions; a later stage containing the bones of Hippopotamus, 
Elephas, Rhinoceros, Camelus, Equus; and finally the vast 
accumulations of sand which began to be formed in prehistoric 



times. The broad platforms of the hamada are covered with 
Quaternary deposits. (W. G.*)] 

Climate. Although Algeria enjoys a warm climate, the 
temperature varies considerably in different parts, according to 
the elevation and configuration of the country. Along the coast 
the weather is very mild, the thermometer rarely falling to 
freezing-point even in winter. The coldest month is January, 
the hottest August. The mean annual temperature in the 
coast plains is 66 F. Heavy rains prevail from December to 
March, and rain is not uncommon during other months also, 
excepting June, July, August and September, which are very 
hot and rainless. The average annual fall is '29 in. On the 
mountains and the high plateaus the winter is often very severe; 
snow lies for six months on the higher peaks of the Kabyle 
mountains. On the plateaus the temperature passes from one 
extreme to the other, and rain seldom falls. (For the climate 
of the Saharan region see SAHARA.) Throughout Algeria, especi- 
ally in the summer, there is a great difference between day and 
night temperature, notably in the inland districts. Between 
May and September the sirocco, or hot wind of the desert, 
sweeps at intervals over the country, impregnating the air with 
fine sand; but in general, with the exception of the vicinity of 
the marshes, the climate is healthy. Its salubrity has been 
increased by the draining of many marshes in the neighbourhood 
of the larger towns. 

Fauna and Flora. The fauna of Algeria resembles that of the 
Mediterranean system generally, though many animals once 
common to South Europe and North Africa such as the lion, 
panther, hyena and jackal are now extinct in Europe. Lions, 
formerly plentiful, have disappeared, and leopards and panthers 
are rare; but jackals, hyenas and Algerian apes are not un- 
common. Wild boars are found in the oak forests, and brown 
bears in the uplands. In the south are various species of ante- 
lope and wild goat. Red deer (Certnts elaphus barbarits), which 
differ from the typical European species only in the fact that the 
second tine is absent from their antlers, a peculiarity which they 
share with the red deer of Spain and Corsica, are still found in 
the forest of Beni Saleh in the department of Constantine, but 
are being exterminated by forest fires and poaching Arabs. Of 
domestic animals the camel and sheep are the most important. 
The chief wealth of the Arab tribes of the plateaus consists in 
their immense flocks of sheep. The horses and mules of Algeria 
are noted; and the native cattle are an excellent stock on which 
to graft the better European varieties. Of birds, eagles, vultures, 
hawks, owls and quails are common; snipe, curlews, plovers, 
storks and herons frequent the marshy parts; and the ostrich 
the desert. Partridges and woodcocks are fairly common. 
Among the reptiles are various species of serpents, tortoises, 
turtles, lizards, &c. Locusts are common and sometimes do 
great damage. Scorpions are numerous in the arid regions. 
Algerian prawns, especially those of Bona, are large and of a 
delicate flavour. Of the twenty-one species of freshwater fish, 
five are peculiar to the country, but none is of much economic 
value save the barbel and eel. A species of trout is found in 
the streams near Collo, but in none of the other rivers. 

The flora of Algeria consists of about 3000 species, of which 
some 450 are indigenous to the country, 100 being peculiar to 
the Sahara. The flora of the Tell is South European in character. 
The agave and prickly pear, the myrtle, the olive and the dwarf 
palm grow luxuriantly; and the fields are covered with nar- 
cissus, iris and other flowers of every hue. Roses, geraniums, 
and the like, bloom throughout the winter. The flora of the 
high plateaus consists chiefly of grasses, notably various kinds 
of alfa or esparto, and aromatic herbs. In the Saharan oases 
the characteristic tree is the date palm " the king of the 
desert." Over 11,000 sq. m. of the mountainous country near 
the coast are covered with forests of various species of oak, pine, 
fir, cedar, elm, ash, maple, olive, many of them of gigantic size, 
and other trees; and on the slopes of the mountains up to 3800 
ft. above the sea the fig is common. Its fruit forms one of the 
staple articles of food among the Kabyles. Cork and carob 
trees are also very common. A magnificent conifer, the Atlantic 



ALGERIA 



645 



pinsapo (Abies Pinsapo), is found on the heights round Bougie. 
The forests suffer great damage from fires, occasioned in part 
by the custom of burning up the grass every autumn, and in 
part by incendiarism. In 1902 alone, according to the British 
consular report, " at a moderate estimate the number of trees 
damaged or destroyed might be put down at 6,000,000." 
Forestry is a state-protected industry, the government owning 
over 500,000 acres of forest. The chief tree which has commercial 
value is the cork, and the stripping of the bark is under official 
supervision. The first cork harvest was gathered in 1890, 
when 1474 cwt. were sold for 1361. Since that date the yield 
has been very great. Another tree of great commercial value 
is the soap tree (Sapitidus utilis), introduced into the country in 
1845 and grown extensively in low-lying lands near the coast. 

Inhabitants. Algeria had in 1906 a population of 5,231,850, 
consisting of a medley of European, Eastern and African races. 
The census showed that in addition to French settlers and their 
descendants (278,976) there were 117,475 Spaniards (most of 
whom are found in the department of Oran), 33,153 Italians 
(chiefly in the department of Constantine), 64,645 Jews, 6217 
Maltese, and smaller communities of British, Germans, Levan- 
tines and Greeks. There were, moreover, 170,444 naturalized 
French citizens, mainly of Spanish and Italian origin. (These 
figures are exclusive of 73,799 persons counted apart, as not 
enjoying municipal rights. In the 73,799 the troops, French 
and native, are included) . The total European population, in 
which category are reckoned the Jews, other than those of Mzab, 
was 680,263. Compared with the census of 1901 the figures of 
1906 showed a decrease of 14,000 French, 36,000 Spaniards 
and 5000 Italians, but an increase of nearly 100,000 in the 
foreigners naturalized. Of other races: (i) The Berbers (q.v.) 
constitute 75 % of the entire population. The Kabyles (q.v.), a 
division of the Berbers, occupy chiefly the more mountainous 
parts of the Tell, but some live in the plains and valleys. (2) 
Arabs, a numerous class, are found principally in the south. 
(3) The so-called " Moors," generally of mixed blood, inhabit 
the towns and villages near the sea-coast. (4) Negroes, originally 
brought from the interior and sold as slaves, are now found 
chiefly in the towns, where they serve as labourers and domestic 
servants. (5) Mzabites (q.v.) or Beni-Mzab, a distinct branch 
of the Berber race, are for the most part engaged in petty trade, 
and are distinguished by their sleeveless coats of many colours. 
(6) A few Tuareg (q.v.), another division of the Berbers, are 
among the nomads found in the Algerian Sahara. The Kabyles, 
Mzabites, Tuareg, Arabs and Moors all profess Mahommedanism, 
though it is only among the Arabs that its tenets are held in 
any purity. The census of 1906 gave the number of the native 
population at 4,447,149. There were also 28,639 non-European 
foreigners in the country. 

The Turks, though for a considerable period the dominant 
race, were never very numerous in Algeria. The majority of 
them were repatriated by the French. The Kuluglis,descendants 
of Turks by native women once a distinct race noted for their 
energy, bravery and pride have almost ceased to exist as a 
separate people, being merged in the Moors. Jews have long 
been settled in Algeria. Some are supposed to have fled thither 
when expelled from Cyrenaica in the reign of the emperor 
Hadrian, and others on their banishment from Italy in 1342. 
The purely " African " Jew is now found only in the oases in 
the extreme south of the country. In the towns the " native " 
Jews have intermarried with later arrivals from Europe. A 
remarkable feast is kept annually by the Algerian Jews to com- 
memorate the defeat by the Turks of the emperor Charles V.'s 
attempt to capture Algiers (1541). The Jews, who enjoyed 
religious freedom under the Mahommedans, believed that the 
success of the Spaniards would but lead to their own persecution. 

Chief Towns, The chief towns are Algiers, the capital and 
principal seaport, with a population (1906), including Mustapha 
and other suburbs, of 154,049; Oran (100,499),' a western 

1 The figures given are not those of the communes, but of the 
towns proper, certain classes of persons (such as troops, lunatics, 
convicts) excluded from the municipal franchise not being counted. 



seaport and capital of the department of the same name, and 
Constantine (46,806), an inland town, capital of the department 
of Constantine. Besides Algiers and Oran the principal seaports 
are Bona (36,004), Mostaganem (i9,528),Philippeville (16,539), 
Bougie (10,419), Cherchel (4733) and La Calle (2774). Inland, 
besides Constantine, are the important towns of Tlemcen (24,060) , 
Sidi-bel-Abbes (24,494), Mascara (18,989) and Blida (16,866). 
In the Sahara are Biskra (4218), El Wad (7586), Tuggurt (2073) 
and Wargla (3579). All these places are separately noticed. 

Nemours (1229) is a seaport near the Moroccan frontier, 
which formerly bore an Arabic name pregnant with its history 
Jamaa-el-Ghazuat (" rendezvous of the pirates "). The 
surrounding country is rich in mineral wealth. Arzeu (3085) 
occupies a site on the western side of the gulf of the same name. 
It has a good harbour, is the outlet for the produce of several 
fertile valleys, and the starting-point of a railway which pene- 
trates into the Sahara. This railway passes Saida (6256), 106 
m. south of Arzeu, one of the capitals of Abd-el-Kader, and 
serves to bring down from the high plateaus their rich crops 
of esparto grass. Four miles S.E. of Arzeu is a Berber village, 
where are interesting ruins of a Roman settlement, identified by 
some authorities as the Portus Magnus of Pliny ; other authorities 
claim Oran as occupying the site of Portus Magnus. In the 
vicinity are the famous quarries of Numidian marbles. Tenes 
(3176) is a seaport situated about 100 m. east of Arzeu on the 
site of the Phoenician town, afterwards the Roman colony, of 
Cartenna. Outside the town to the west is a public garden in 
which are several Roman tombs with inscriptions. Between 
Tenes and Algiers are Tipasa (q.v.) and Castiglione (1634), 
formerly called Bu-Ismail, both pleasant watering-places. 
Five miles inland west of Castiglione is Kolea (2932), a town 
dating from 1550 and originally peopled by Moslem refugees 
from Spain. It was destroyed by earthquake in 1825 and has 
been rebuilt largely in European style. It contains the kubba 
of a celebrated marabout, Sidi Embarek, who lived in the i7th 
century. Dellys (3275), 50 m. by sea E. of Algiers, has a small 
harbour sheltered from the W. and N.W. winds only. It is a 
walled town regularly laid out, built by the French on the site 
of the Roman Ruscurium, the western ramparts of which may 
still be seen. Jijelli (4878), on the eastern side of the Gulf of 
Bougie, occupies the site of the Roman colony of Igilgilis. The 
old town, built on a rocky peninsula, was completely destroyed 
by earthquake in 1856. A new town arose eastward of the former 
site, which is now restored as a citadel. Twenty miles by sea 
west of Philippeville is Collo (2258), a city of considerable 
importance during the Roman occupation. It was the Kollops 
Magnus of Ptolemy. 

Twenty-three miles S.W. by rail from Algiers is Bufarik 
(the " hanging well "); pop. 5980. A thoroughly French town, 
it dates from 1835, when General Drouet d'Erlon established 
there an entrenched camp on a hillock in the midst of a pesti- 
lential swamp. Soon afterwards Marshal Clausel began to build 
a regular city, which was at first called Medina Clausel in his 
honour. The draining of the site and neighbourhood was a costly 
undertaking, and was only accomplished by the sacrifice of many 
lives. The town, surrounded by vast orchards and farms, is 
now one of the most flourishing in the country; and the most 
important market in the colony for the sale of cattle and agri- 
cultural produce is held there. Sixty-three miles S.W. of Algiers 
is Medea (4030) supposed to stand on the site of a Roman 
town finely situated on a plateau 3000 ft. above the sea. It is 
surrounded by a wall pierced by five gates. An ancient aqueduct 
is built into the eastern side of the wall. The town, which was 
chosen by the Turks as capital of the beylik of Titeri, is now 
French in character. Miliana (3991), which occupies the site 
of the Roman Milliana, lies about midway between Blida and 
Orleansville, is 2400 ft. above the sea, and is built on a plateau 
of the Zakkar mountains, commanding magnificent views of 
the valley of the Shelif. It possesses few remains of antiquity. 
An old Moorish minaret has been turned into a clock tower. 
The town, which is walled, has been rebuilt by the French. The 
chief streets are bordered by trees and have streams of water 



ALGERIA 



running down either side. Hammam R'Irha to the N.E. of 
Miliana, noted from the time of the Romans for its thermal 
springs, occupies a picturesque position 1800 ft. above the sea. 
Being the only place within easy distance of western Europe 
where patients can take with safety a course of baths during the 
winter months, it has become a resort of invalids. Orleansville 
(3510), on the extensive plain of the Shelif, 130 m. S.W. by rail 
from Algiers, and 132 m. N.E. from Oran, is an important military 
station. The basilica of St Reparatus, discovered in 1843, was 
allowed to be used as a public stable and has been completely 
destroyed. There was in it a beautiful mosaic of which, fortu- 
nately, drawings exist. From this it appears that the church 
was built in A.D. 324, and that St Reparatus, bishop of the 
diocese, was buried in it in 475. Orleansville occupies the site 
of the Roman Castellum Tingitanum. 

Ninety miles S.W. of Bougie is Aumale (2350), a town and 
military post established by the French in 1846 on the site of the 
ancient Auzia. The Roman town was founded in the reign of 
Augustus, and it flourished for two centuries before it disappeared 
from history. Out of the materials of the ancient city the Turks 
built a fort, which at the time of the French occupation was 
itself a heap of ruins. Setif (12,261), the Si tins Colonia of the 
Romans, is 50 m. S.E. of Bougie and 97 m. by rail W. of Con- 
stantine. It stands 3573 ft. above the sea, and is the junction of 
several great lines of communication. Its market is attended 
by Kabyles, Arabs of the plateaus and people from the Sahara. 
The town has been entirely rebuilt in the French style. Most of 
the Roman ruins, even those existing at the time of the French 
occupation (1839), have disappeared. The walls of the Roman 
city, restored probably by the Byzantines, have been incorporated 
in the French walls, which are pierced by four gates. Batna 
(5279), a walled town 3350 ft. above the sea, 50 m. S. of Con- 
stantine by the railway to Biskra, commands the passage of 
the Aures mountains by which the nomads of the Sahara were 
wont to enter the Tell. Its importance rests on its strategic 
position. On the railway between Constantine and Bona and 
76 m. from the latter, is Guelma (6584), the Roman Kalama, 
finely situated on the right bank of the Seybuse. The French 
occupied the place in 1836 and built their town out of the Roman 
ruins. Thirty miles S.E. of Guelma is Suk Ahras (7602), a 
station on the railway to Tunis, identified with the Roman city 
Tagaste, the birthplace of St Augustine. 

Towns in the Sahara. On the southern slopes of the Great 
Atlas, 2437 ft. above the sea, looking out on the Saharan desert, 
and 200 m. in a straight line S.W. of Algiers, is the ancient town 
of El Aghuat (erroneously written Laghouat); pop. 5660. It 
formerly belonged to Morocco, by whom it was ceded to the 
Turks towards the close of the 1 7th century. It was stormed on 
the 4th of December 1852 by the French, who almost entirely 
destroyed the Arab town. The modern town contains little of 
interest, but is an important military station. One hundred 
and twelve miles S. of El Aghuat, and 36 m. W.N.W. of Wargla, 
is Ghardaia (pop. 7868), the capital of the Mzab country, annexed 
by France in 1882. This country consists of seven oases, five 
in close proximity and two isolated. The town of Ghardaia (in 
the local documents Taghardeit) is situated on a mosque-crowned 
hill in the middle of the Wadi Mzab, 1755 ft. above the sea. 
Ghardaia, which is divided by walls into three quarters, is built 
of limestone and the houses are in terraces one above the other. 
The central quarter is the home of the ruling tribe, the Beni-Mzab. 
The eastern quarter belongs to the Jews, of whom there are about 
300 families; the western is occupied by the Medabia, Arabs 
from the Jebel Amur. The gardens belong exclusively to the 
Beni-Mzab. According to native accounts the town was founded 
about the middle of the i6th century. Aghrem Baba Saad, a 
small ruined town to the west of Ghardaia, is the fortified post 
in which the Beni-Mzab took refuge when the Turks under Salah 
Rais (about 1555) attempted unsuccessfully to subjugate the 
country. Next to Ghardaia the most important Mzabite town 
is Beni-Isguen (pop. 4916), an active trading centre. Guerrara, 
one of the two isolated oases, 37m. N.E. of Ghardaia, contains 
a flourishing commercial town with 1912 inhabitants. 



The caravan route south from Ghardaia brings the traveller, 
after a journey of 130 m., to the oasis and town of El Golea 
(pop. about 2500). The town consists of three portions the 
citadel on a limestone hill, the upper and the lower town 
separated by irregular plantations of date trees. The place is 
an important station for the caravan trade between Algeria and 
the countries to the south. It was occupied by the French under 
General Gallifet in 1873. El Golea was originally a settlement 
of the Zenata Berbers, by whom it was known as Taorert, and 
there is still a considerable Berber element in its population. 
The full Arab name is El Golea'a el Menia'a, or the " little 
fortress well defended." 

Archaeology. Algeria is rich in prehistoric memorials of man, 
especially in megalithic remains, of which nearly every known 
kind has been found in the country. Numerous flints of palaeo- 
lithic type have been discovered, notably at Tlemcen and Kolea. 
Near Jelfa, in the Great Atlas, and at Mechera-Sfa (" ford of the 
flat stones"), a peninsula in the valley of the river Mina not far from 
Tiaret in the department of Oran, are vast numbers of megalithic 
monuments. In the Kubr-er-Rumia " grave of the Roman 
lady " (Roman being used by the Arabs to designate strangers 
of Christian origin) the Medrassen and the Jedars, Algeria 
possesses a remarkable series of sepulchral monuments. The 
Kubr-er-Rumia best known by its French name, Tombeau 
de la Chretienne, tradition making it the burial-place of the 
beautiful and unfortunate daughter of Count Julian is near 
Kolea, and is known to be the tomb of the Mauretanian king 
Juba II. and of his wife Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Cleopatra, 
queen of Egypt, and Mark Antony. It is built on a hill 756 ft. 
above the sea. Resting on a lower platform, 209 ft. square, 
is a circular stone building surmounted by a pyramid. Originally 
the monument was about 130 ft. in height, but it has been 
wantonly damaged. Its height is now 100 ft. 8 in.: the cylindri- 
cal portion 36 ft. 6 in., the pyramid 64 ft. 2 in. The base, 198 ft. 
in diameter, is ornamented with 60 engaged Ionic columns. 
The capitals of the columns have disappeared, but their design 
is preserved among the drawings of James Bruce, the African 
traveller. In the centre of the tomb are two vaulted chambers, 
reached by a spiral passage or gallery 65 ft. broad, about the 
same height and 489 ft. long. The sepulchral chambers are 
separated by a short passage, and are cut off from the gallery 
by stone doors made of a single slab which can be moved up and 
down by levers, like a portcullis. The larger of the two chambers 
is 145 ft. long by 1 1 ft. broad and 1 1 ft. high. The other chamber 
is somewhat smaller. The tomb was early violated, probably 
in search of treasure. In 1555 Salah Rais, pasha of Algiers, set 
men to work to pull it down, but the records say that the attempt 
was given up because big black wasps came from under the stones 
and stung them to death. At the end of the i8th century Baba 
Mahommed tried in vain to batter down the tomb with artillery. 
In 1866 it was explored by order of the emperor Napoleon III., 
the work being carried out by Adrian Berbrugger and Oscar 
MacCarthy. 

The Medrassen is a monument similar to the Kubr-er-Rumia, 
but older. It was built about 150 B.C. as the burial-place of 
the Numidian kings, and is situated 35 m. S.W. of Constantine. 
The form is that of a truncated cone, placed on a cylindrical base, 
196 ft. in diameter. It is 60 ft. high. The columns encircling the 
cylindrical portion are stunted and much broader at the base 
than the top; the capitals are Doric. Many of the columns, 
60 in number, have been much damaged. When the sepulchral 
chamber was opened in 1873 by Bauchetet, a French engineer 
officer, clear evidence was found that at some remote period the 
tomb had been rifled and an attempt made to destroy it by fire. 

The Jedars (Arab. " walls " or " buildings ") are in the depart- 
ment of Oran. The name is given to a number of sepulchral 
monuments placed on hill-tops. A rectangular or square podium 
is in each case surmounted by a pyramid. The tombs date 
from the sth to the 7th century of the Christian era, and lie in 
two distinct groups between Tiaret and Frenda, a distance of 
35 m. Tiaret (pop. 5778), an ancient town modernized by the 
French, can be reached by railway from Mostaganem. Near 



ALGERIA 



647 



Frenda (2063), which has largely preserved its old Berber char- 
acter, are numerous dolmens and prehistoric rock sculptures. 

Algeria contains many Roman remains besides those mentioned 
and is also rich in monuments of Saracenic art. For a description 
of the chief antiquities see the separate town articles, including, 
besides those already cited, Lambessa, Tebessa, Tipasa and 
Timgad. 

Agriculture. Ever since the time of the Romans Algeria has 
been noted for the fertility of its soil. Over two-thirds of the 
inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. More than 
7,500,000 acres are devoted to the cultivation of cereals. The 
Tell is the grain-growing land. Under French rule its productive- 
ness has been largely increased by the sinking of artesian wells 
in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of 
the crops raised, wheat, barley and oats are the principal cereals. 
A great variety of vegetables and of fruits, especially the orange, 
is exported. A considerable amount of cotton was grown during 
the American Civil War, but the industry afterwards declined. 
In the early years of the aoth century efforts to extend the 
cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of cotton 
is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of crin 
vegetal (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from 
the leaves of the dwarf palm. The olive (both for its fruit and 
oil) and tobacco are cultivated with great success. The soil of 
Algeria everywhere favours the growth of the vine. The country, 
in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the 
French government, " can produce an infinite variety of wines 
suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste." 
The culture of the vine was early undertaken by the colonists, 
but it was not until vineyards in France were attacked by 
phylloxera that the export of wine from Algeria became con- 
siderable. Algerian vineyards were also attacked (1883) despite 
precautionary measures, but in the meantime the worth of their 
wines had been proved. In 1850 less than 2000 acres were 
devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 
42,000 acres, which yielded 7,436,000 gallons of wine. Despite 
bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 
1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres, the produce being 
88,000,000 gallons. The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 
400,000 acres, and in that year the amount of wine produced 
was 157,000,000 gallons. By that time the limits of profitable 
production had been reached in many parts of the country. 
Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France, 
which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons. 

Fishery is a flourishing but not a large industry. The fish 
caught are principally sardines, bonito, smelts and sprats. Fresh 
fish are exported to France, dried and preserved fish to Spain 
and Italy. Coral fisheries exist along the coast from Bona to 
Tunis. 

Minerals. Algeria is rich in minerals, found chiefly in the 
department of Constantine, where iron, lead and zinc, copper, 
calamine, antimony and mercury mines are worked. The most 
productive are those of iron and zinc. Lignite is found in the 
department of Algiers and petroleum in that of Oran. Immense 
phosphate beds were discovered near Tebessa in 1891. They 
yielded 313,500 tons in 1905. Phosphate beds are also worked 
near Setif, Guelma and Ain Beida. There are more than 300 
quarries which produce, amongst other stones, onyx and beautiful 
white and red marbles. Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was 
used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found 
near Kleber in the department of Oran, some being certainly 
those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken. 
Salt is collected on the margins of the shots. 

Shipping and Commerce. The carrying trade between Algeria 
and France is confined, by a law passed in 1889, to French 
bottoms. The largest port is Algiers, after which follow Oran, 
Philippeville and Bona. There is a considerable coasting trade. 
The average number of vessels entering and clearing Algerian 
ports each year has been, since 1900, about 4000, with a total 
tonnage of some 6,500,000. In the coasting trade some 12,000 
small vessels are engaged. 

Under French administration the commerce of Algeria has 



greatly developed. The total imports and exports at the time 
of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed 175,000. In 
1850 the figures had reached 5,000,000; in 1868, 12,000,000; in 
1880, 17,000,000; and in 1890, 20,000,000. From this point 
progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by 
year. In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was 24,500,000. 
About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which 
country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free 
since 1851, and all since 1867. French goods, except sugar, have 
been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835. 
After the increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which 
applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished. 

The chief exports are sheep and oxen, most of which are raised 
in Morocco and Tunisia, and horses; animal products, such as 
wool and skins; wine, cereals (rye, barley, oats), vegetables, 
fruits (chiefly figs and grapes for the table) and seeds, esparto 
grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly olive oil), iron ore, zinc, 
natural phosphates, timber, cork, crin vegetal and tobacco. Of 
these France takes fully three-quarters. The import of wool 
exceeds the export. Sugar, coffee, machinery, metal work of all 
kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported. Of these by far 
the greater part comes from France. The British imports consist 
chiefly of coal, cotton fabrics and machinery. 

Communications. Algeria possesses a railway system covering 
over 2000 m. A decree of 1857 granted to the Paris-Lyons 
Company the right to construct a line linking Algiers with Oran 
(266 m.) and Constantine (290 m.) and shorter lines joining the 
seaports to the trunk line, notably Philippeville to Constantine 
(54 m.). These lines were opened between 1862 and 1871, but it 
was not until 1879 that a general scheme for railway construction 
was adopted. A trunk line runs from the frontier of Morocco at 
Lalla Maghnia, 44 m. W. of Tlemcen, across the Tell to the 
Tunisian frontier, whence it is continued to the city of Tunis; 
while traverse railways connect the seaports with the trunk line 
and with towns to the south, the Philippeville line being continued 
to Biskra. From Arzeu a line goes south across the plateaus and 
crossing the Ksur range at a height of 4211 ft. enters the Sahara. 
Passing Ain Sefra and Figig (372 m. from Arzeu) the line is 
continued towards Tuat. The normal gauge of the railways is 
4ft. 85 in.; a few "light lines" have a gauge of 3 ft. 3 in. 
Algeria is also traversed by a network of roads constructed by 
the French, of which the routes nationales alone are 2000 m. in 
length. There are complete postal and telegraphic facilities in 
all parts of the colony save the Saharan Territories, and cable 
communication with France. 

Central Government. By the Turks the country was divided 
into four provinces Algiers and Titeri in the centre and south, 
Constantine in the east and Mascara or Oran in the west. 1 The 
last three were governed by beys dependent upon the repre- 
sentative of the Porte resident at Algiers. The Turkish governors 
were in the i7th century replaced by deys (see below, History). 
The French rule was at first (1830) purely military. In 1834 the 
post of governor-general was created. Under the direction of the 
ministry of war that official exercised nearly all the executive 
power. At the same time a civil administration and consultative 
council were formed. The principle of unity of authority was set 
aside by the second republic in 1848, when many of the public 
services were attached to the corresponding ministries in Paris, 
and the departments organized on the metropolitan model by 
division into arrondissements and communes and by placing 
a prefect at their head. Under Napoleon III. the governor- 
generalship was abolished, a minister of Algeria and the colonies 
created (24th of June 1858), and the whole administration 
conducted from Paris. At the same time the powers of the 
prefects were augmented and each department given a general 
council. This arrangement was not of long duration. By decree 
of the 24th of November 1860, the ministry \>f Algeria and the 
colonies was abolished and the office of governor-general re- 
established with increased powers. This regime, strongly military 
in its type, ended with the fall of the second empire. After a 

'This western beylik corresponded roughly with the former 
sultanate of Tlemgen (?..). 



648 



ALGERIA 



brief transitional period, a decree of the 20th of March 1871 
placed at the head of Algeria a civil governor-general and gave 
the control in Paris to the ministry of the interior. In 1876, on 
the initiative of General Chanzy, then governor-general, that 
official was accorded the right to correspond direct with all the 
ministers in Paris. This concession led, however, to the diminu- 
tion of the authority of the governor-general, whose powers were, 
step by step, absorbed by the various ministries in France. It 
had its logical end in the system adopted in 1881 and known as 
the rattachement. Under this system the plan of 1848 was carried 
out more completely, every department of state being placed 
under one or other of the ministries in Paris, whilst the governor- 
general became little more than an ornamental personage. After 
lasting fifteen years the rattachement was, with the approval of the 
legislature, abrogated by decree dated thesistof December 1896. 
The opposing principle, that of concentrating power in the hands 
of the governor-general, was re-affirmed, but in practice was 
modified by the retention of the direction from Paris of a few 
of the public services. The decree of 1896, which was of a 
provisional character, was replaced by another, dated the 23rd of 
August 1898, defining the powers of the governor-general under 
the new scheme. By a law of the igth of December 1900, Algeria 
was constituted a legal personality, with power to own goods, 
contract loans, &c., and a decree of 1901 placed the customs 
department, until then directed from Paris, under the control of 
the governor-general, whose hands were also strengthened in 
various minor matters. 

It will be seen that the form of government is entirely dependent 
on the will of France. The French chambers alone possess the 
legislative power, though in the absence of express legislation 
decrees of the head of the state have the force of law. To the 
legislature in Paris Algeria elects three senators and six deputies 
(one senator and two deputies for each department). The 
franchise is confined to " citizens," in which category the native 
Jews are included by decree of the 24th of October 1870. The 
Mahommedans, who number nearly eight-ninths of the popula- 
tion, are not, however, " citizens " but " subjects," and con- 
sequently have not the vote. They can, however, acquire 
" citizenship " at their own request, by placing themselves 
absolutely under the civil and political laws of France (decree of 
1865, confirmed in 1870). The number of Mahommedans who 
avail themselves of this rule is very small; naturalizations do not 
exceed an average of thirty persons a year. For certain specified 
objects, financial and municipal, Mahommedans are, however, 
permitted to exercise the franchise. 

The actual form of government may be summarized thus: 
At the head of the administration in Algeria is a governor- 
general, who exercises control over all branches, civil and military, 
of the administration, except the services of justice, public 
instruction and worship (as far as concerns Europeans) and the 
treasury. He corresponds directly with the other Barbary 
states; draws up the budget, and contracts loans on behalf of the 
colony. The governor-general is assisted by: 

(1) The Council of Government, a purely advisory body, 

composed entirely of high officials; 

(2) A Superior Council, composed partly of elected and partly 

of nominated members, including representatives of the 
Mahommedans. .Its duty is to deliberate upon all ad- 
ministrative matters, including the budget, and it possesses 
certain powers over the finances; 

(3) The Financial Delegations (created by decree in 1898), an 

elective body whose duty is to investigate all matters 
affecting taxation and to vote the budget. The delega- 
tions consist of representatives of (a) " colonists," i.e. the 
rural community; (b) taxpayers, being citizens other than 
" colonists," i.e. the urban community; (c) the Mahom- 
medan population. The last section is partly elective and 
partly nominated. A proportion of the members of the 
delegations are elected to the superior council. 
Local Government. The departments, presided over by pre- 
fects, are divided into territoires civils and territoires du com- 
mandant. In the regions under civil administration the local 

\ 



organization closely resembles that of France. The country is 
divided into arrondissements and communes, with most of the 
apparatus of self-government enjoyed by the corresponding 
units in France. The canton (in France a judicial area) has, 
however, no existence in Algeria. In the territoires du com- 
mandant, which are the districts farthest from the coast, and in 
which the European population is small, the prefect is replaced 
by a high military officer, who exercises all the functions of a 
prefect. 

The prefect of each department is'assisted by a general council, 
consisting of members elected by the citizens and of nominated 
representatives of the Mahommedan population. The powers of 
the council correspond to those of the councils in France. 
Communes are of three kinds: (i) those with full powers, (2) 
mixed, (3) native. In those of the first kind, modelled on the 
French communes, the Mahommedans possess the municipal 
franchise. The " mixed " communes are under an administrator 
nominated by the governor-general and assisted by a municipal 
council composed of Europeans and natives. These communes 
are large areas, each containing several towns or villages. In the 
territoires du commandant the mixed commune is presided over 
by a military officer who fulfils the duties of mayor. Native com- 
munes are organized on the same plan as those last mentioned. 
It will be seen that communes do not correspond with any natural 
unit. The unit among the Mahommedans is the douar, a tribal 
division administered by a cadi. The communes with full powers 
have each for centre a town with a considerable European 
population. 

By decree of the I4th of August 1905, the frontier between 
Saharan territory dependent on Algeria and that attached to 
French West Africa was laid down. The Algerian Sahara was 
divided into four territories, officially named Tuggurt, Ghardaia, 
Ain Sefra and the Saharan Oases (Tuat, Gurara and Tidikelt). 
The governor-general represents the territories in civil affairs; 
the budget is distinct from that of Algeria and an annual sub- 
vention is provided by France. 

Finance. Revenue is derived chiefly from direct taxation, 
customs and monopolies. The heaviest item of expenditure 
chargeable on the Algerian budget is on public works, posts 
and telegraphs and agriculture. Algeria has had a budget 
distinct from that of France since 1901. This budget includes 
all the expenses of Algeria save the cost of the army (estimated 
at 2,000,000 yearly) and the guarantee of interest on the 
railways open before 1901. Both these items are borne by 
France. The Algerian budget for 1906 showed revenue and 
expenditure balancing at 3,820,000. The country has a debt 
(1905), including capital, annuities and interest, of some 
3,400,000. 

Defence. The military force constitutes the XIX. army 
corps of the French army. There are in addition a territorial 
army reserve and a special body of troops, largely Arab, for the 
defence of the Saharan territory. The troops quartered in 
Algeria exceed 50,000. The defence of the coast is provided by 
the French navy. 

Land Tenure. The colonization of Algeria by the French 
has been greatly hampered by the system of land tenure which 
they found in force. Except among the Kabyles, private 
property in land was unknown. Amongst the Arabs, lands 
were either held in common by a whole tribe, under a tenure 
known as the arch or sabegha, or sometimes, especially in the 
towns, under a modified form of freehold (melk) by the family. 
At the same time the boundaries of property were ill defined 
and difficult to determine. This system made it impossible for 
French immigrants to obtain land by lawful transfer. The 
only lands at the outset available for settlement were, in fact, 
the confiscated domains of the dey. The obvious solution of 
the difficulty was to encourage the free movement of real estate 
by substituting private ownership for the traditional system. 
Before doing this, however, it was necessary to define the 
limits of tribal properties already existing a work of great 
difficulty with a view to their ultimate division, and at the 
same time to guard against any premature traffic in the rights 



ALGERIA 



649 






of Arabs in the lands about to be divided. A sfnalus-consulte 
of 1863 laid the basis for the change in the land system by 
providing (i) for the delimitation of the territory of each tribe, 
(2) for the repartition of the territory thus delimited among 
newly formed tribal divisions (douars or communes), and (3) 
for the recognition of private ownership by the issue of title 
deeds for such individual or family property (melk) as already 
existed. The purpose of this excellent law, which would have 
laid firmly the basis for gradual change, was defeated by the 
impatience of the French colonists. At the instance of their 
representatives in the chambers it was abandoned in 1870, and 
was not revived till seventeen years later. A law was passed 
in 1873, and amended in 1887, legalizing the immediate con- 
version of tribal and family property into private freehold. 
The result has been disappointing. For the most part, the 
Arab tribes have been reluctant to avail themselves of their new 
powers, and where they have done so the hasty reversal of the 
traditions of centuries has proved demoralizing to the natives, 
without any sufficient equivalent in the way of healthy French 
colonization. The main profit 'has been reaped by Jewish 
usurers. 

The state domains were exhausted by 1870, but were again 
replenished by the large confiscations which followed the Arab 
revolt of 1871. Government lands were originally given free to 
applicants, but with a provisional and insecure title, which 
made it impossible for poor colonists to borrow money on their 
land. This was modified by a law of 1851. But ultimately, the 
results not being satisfactory, the precedent of Australia was 
followed, and by a law of 1860 domain lands were sold publicly 
at a fixed price. This had the effect of attracting more and a 
better class of immigrants, but was none the less reversed in 
1881. 

In September 1904, a new scheme, intended to attract more 
European settlers, was adopted. The lands of the state 
other than woods and forests but especially the barren lands 
and brushwoods situated in the plains, were offered for coloniza- 
tion, to be disposed of (i) by sale at a fixed price, (2) by auction, 
and (3), in certain cases, by agreement. Purchasers were to be 
Frenchmen, or Europeans naturalized as French citizens, who 
had never held " colonization lands "; and they were obliged, 
under pain of forfeiture, either to take up residence themselves 
on their property within six months and to live on it and exploit 
it for a period of ten years, or else to place on the land another 
family fulfilling the same conditions. If the purchaser farmed 
the land himself and made satisfactory progress, the period 
of obligatory residence was reduced to five years. When 
the interests of colonization required it, free gifts of land 
might be made; in which case the grantee must himself 
exploit his concession. In no case might land acquired 
under this scheme be let to natives until after the expiration 
of ten years. 

For the purpose of creating villages, land was put at the 
disposition of societies or individuals, who undertook to people 
them with immigrants fulfilling the same conditions as inde- 
pendent settlers. Two-thirds of the villagers were to be French 
immigrants, the other third Frenchmen or naturalized French- 
men already settled in Algeria. To favour the establishment of 
special industries, the governor-general was given power to 
authorize the introduction of foreign instead of French immi- 
grants. The societies or individuals undertaking village settle- 
ments must do so from philanthropic motives, inasmuch as 
within two years of the founding of a village, the land, under 
pain of forfeiture to the state, must be transferred gratuitously 
to the villagers. As will be seen, settlement on the land by 
Europeans is hampered by official restrictions, especially by 
the stringent regulations as to residence. 

Justice. Two judicial systems exist in Algeria native and 
French. Native courts decide suits between Mahommedans. 
From the decision of the cadis appeal lies to the French courts. 
The French system provides, for civil cases, a court of first 
instance in each of the sixteen arrondissements into which the 
country is divided. A court of appeal sits at Algiers. There are 



also tribunals of commerce and justices of the peace with 
extensive jurisdiction. The criminal courts are organized as in 
France. Trial by jury has been introduced; but as natives are 
not allowed to act as jurymen this has often led to serious 
miscarriages of justice and to excessive severities. 

Whilst modifications of the law require special legislation or 
decree, it has been legally decided that all laws in force in 
France before the conquest of the country (i.e. those anterior 
to the 22nd of July 1834) are in force in Algeria. In 
practice the courts allow themselves wide latitude in applying 
this principle. 

Education. The system of education is complicated by the 
co-existence of Mahommedan and Christian communities. 
Before the arrival of the French two kinds of instruction 
were given, reading and writing being taught in the ordinary 
schools and higher education largely theological in medressas 
(colleges), usually attached to the chief mosques. Attempts 
by the French to improve the education of the natives were at 
first marked by hesitation and long periods in which little or 
nothing was done. The provision for the instruction of the 
European and Jewish population was also inadequate. In 
1883 a law was passed for the reorganization of the systems in 
force, and primary instruction was made compulsory for Euro- 
peans and Jews, whilst in the case of Mahommedans discretion 
in the establishment of schools was vested in the governor- 
general. 

Attempts are made to assimilate the Mahommedan population 
by means of Franco-Arab primary and secondary schools, which 
supplement the purely French and purely Arab establishments 
of the same character. These attempts meet with little success, 
owing in part to racial prejudice and in part to the indifference 
of the Arabs to education. Few Moslems attend the secondary 
schools. Purely Mahommedan higher schools exist at Algiers, 
Tlemgen and Constantine. From these establishments the ranks 
of native officials are recruited. There is one secondary school 
for Moslem girls. The education provided for Europeans 
resembles in most respects that given in France. (The lycies at 
Algiers, Oran and Constantine are open to Mahommedans, but 
few take advantage of them.) Besides the government schools 
there are establishments conducted by clerics and laymen. The 
best girls' schools are generally those kept by nuns. At Algiers 
there is an establishment with faculties of law, medicine and 
pharmacy, science and letters. At Oran is a college for European 
girls. The scholars attending primary schools number about 
150,000 (over 100,000 being Europeans and some 15,000 Jewish) 
and those at secondary schools about 6000. (F. R. C.) 

HISTORY 

From a geographical point of view Algeria, together with 
Morocco and Tunisia, from which it is separated only by artificial 
and purely political frontiers, forms a distinct country, 
which it is convenient to designate by the name of 
Africa Minor. Both historically and geographically, 
Africa Minor belongs much more to the Mediterranean world 
than to the African. All the foreign invaders who successively 
established their dominion over this country either crossed 
the Mediterranean or followed its shores. The Phoenicians, 
the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines, the Arabs, the Turks 
and the French, all came from the east or from the north. The 
history of Africa Minor is the history of all those foreigners 
who have successively endeavoured to exploit this land, the 
history of their divers civilizations struggling against an ever- 
renascent barbarism. 

The political divisions of Africa Minor have changed many 
times, for, as the country has no natural centre, many towns 
have aspired to play the r6Ie of capital. The rivalry of these 
towns is intimately connected with the struggles and insurrections 
which have stained the land with blood. The existing division 
viz. Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia dates back to the time of the 
Turkish dominion. It is since that time only that the expression 
Algeria has been in use. 

At the beginning of the i6th century the native dynasties 



Minor. 



650 



ALGERIA 



which divided Africa Minor between them the Marinides at Fez, 
the Abd-el- Wahid at Tlemcen, and the Hafsides at Tunis were 
without strength and without authority. Two nations, 
^ en at the height of their power, Spain and Turkey, 
Spain. disputed the empire of the Mediterranean. The 
Spaniards took Mers-el-Kebir (1505), Oran (1509), and 
Bougie and Tripoli (1510). Two Turkish corsairs, Arouj and his 
brother, Khair-ed-Din (otherwise known as Barbarossa), at first 
established in the island of Jerba and afterwards at Jijelli, 
disputed with the Spaniards the dominion of the country. Arouj 
seized Algiers (1516); Khair-ed-Din, succeeding him in 1518, 
did homage for his conquest to the sultan at Constantinople, who 
named him beylerbey and sent him soldiers (1519). Then began 
the struggle of the Turks with Spain. In 1541 the emperor 
Charles V. undertook a great expedition against Algiers. He 
succeeded in landing, and proceeded to attack the town. But 
during the night of the 26th of October a violent storm destroyed 
a great part of his fleet. His provisions and his ammunition were 
lost, his army was compelled to retreat with considerable loss, 
and the emperor had to re-embark with the remnant of his troops. 
This check completely discouraged the Spaniards and assured 
success to the Turks. The Spanish garrisons established in the 
coast towns, badly paid and left without reinforcements, had 
difficulty in defending themselves. In the end, the only towns 
the Spaniards retained on the Algerian coast were Oran and 
Mers-el-Kebir. These two towns, taken by the Turks in 1708 
and retaken by the Spaniards in 1732, were finally abandoned in 
1791. 

Under the Turkish dominion Algeria had originally at its head 
a beylerbey resident at Algiers. He controlled three beys: 
^ e k ev ^ Titeri m the south, the bey of the east at 
Constantine, and the bey of the west who resided at 
Mascara and afterwards at Oran. These three beys 
existed till 1830. The beylerbeys were replaced in 1 587 by pashas 
sent triennially by the Porte. But the authority of these pashas, 
strangers to the country, was always precarious. They found 
themselves, in fact, in conflict with two forces, which in principle 
were in their service, but which in reality held the power the 
tdiffe des reis, otherwise called the corporation of the corsairs 
(see BARBARY PIRATES), and the janissaries, a kind of military 
democracy in which each member was promoted according to 
seniority. In 1669 the corsairs drove out the pasha, and put into 
his place a dey elected by themselves. After some fruitless 
attempts Turkey ceased to send pashas to Algiers where they 
were not allowed even to land and thus recognized the de facto 
independence of this singular republic. The authority of the 
deys, moreover, was scarcely more solid than that of the pashas. 
They trembled before the janissaries, who from the i8th century 
elected and deposed them at their pleasure. 

The relations which the European powers were able to maintain 
with northern Africa were at that time difficult and uncertain. 
Ships trading in the Mediterranean were seized by the corsairs, 
who pillaged the coasts of Europe, carried off their captives to 
Algiers, and destroyed the fishing and commercial settlements 
founded by the Marseillais on the shores of Africa. The Christian 
governments either uttered useless and impotent complaints 
at Constantinople, or endeavoured to negotiate directly with 
Algiers, as in the case of the negotiations of Sanson Napollon 
during the ministry of Richelieu. More rarely their patience 
became exhausted, and ships were sent to bombard this nest 
of pirates. Two naval demonstrations were made by France 
during the reign of Louis XIV., one by Abraham Duquesne 
in 1682, and the other by Marshal Jean d'Estrees in 1688, but 
these repressive measures were too intermittent to produce a 
durable effect. 

In 1815 at the congress of Vienna, and in 1818 at the congress 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, the powers endeavoured to concert measures 
to put an end to the Barbary piracy. Nevertheless the naval 
demonstrations made by Lord Exmouth in 1816, and by a com- 
bined English and French squadron in 1819, remained equally 
fruitless. But the result which the European powers in concert 
had been unable to achieve, was brought about by the accidental 



circumstances which led France to undertake alone an expedi- 
tion against Algiers. 

Some difficulties had arisen between France and the dey of 
Algiers with reference to the debts contracted to Bacri and 
Busnach, two Algerine Jews who had supplied corn to 
the French government under the Directory. This i^nea- 
question of interest would not have been sufficient in tioa. 
itself to bring about a rupture, but the situation became 
acute when the dey, Hussein, struck the French consul, Deval, 
on the face with his fly-flap (April 30, 1827). Thereupon the 
port of Algiers was blockaded. The minister of war, the due de 
Clermont-Tonnerre, would have gone further, but the president 
of the council, the comte de Villele, opposed the sending of an 
expedition, while in the Martignac ministry M. de la Ferronays, 
minister of foreign affairs, was bent upon negotiating. It needed 
a second insult the firing on " La Provence," a vessel carrying 
a flag of truce, in the harbour of Algiers (August 3, 1829) 
to spur the French government to further action than an in- 
effectual blockade. An expedition against Algiers was then 
decided upon, and Marshal de Bourmont, the minister of war, 
himself took the command. On the i4th of June 1830 the French 
troops landed at Sidi-Ferruch. On the igth of June they beat 
the enemy at Staoueli. On the 4th of July the fort de I'Empereur 
was blown up. On the sth of July Algiers capitulated. Some 
days later the dey was deported, as well as the greater part of the 
janissaries. Those who were not married were conveyed imme- 
diately to Asia Minor; the rest had permission to remain, but in 
fact they left the country soon afterwards. 

Meanwhile the revolution of July 1830 had broken out in 
France. The new government found itself very much em- 
barrassed by the situation bequeathed by the Restoration. The 
more serious section in parliament were frankly opposed to the 
idea of conquering or of colonizing Algeria; on the other hand, 
popular sentiment was hostile to evacuation. The French 
government fearing to displease the other powers by following 
up its conquest, and hampered in particular by its engagements 
towards England, yet conscious that the only means of putting 
an end to the piracy was to remain decided provisionally in 
favour of that intermediate system, called restricted occupation, 
which consisted in occupying merely the principal seaports and 
awaiting events. The Algerians extricated the government from 
its difficulty by attacking the French troops, who were obliged 
to defend themselves. The natives gained some successes, and 
it became necessary to avenge the honour of the flag. In this 
gradual manner were the French led to conquer Algeria. 

General Bertrand Clausel,who succeeded Marshal de Bourmont, 
was one of the few men who at that period dreamed of conquering 
and colonizing Algeria. His enthusiastic confidence knew no 
obstacles. If the dey had left, the three beys remained. With 
the feeble resources at his disposal Clausel undertook an expedi- 
tion against Bu-Meyrag, the bey of Titeri, took from him Blida 
and Medea, dismissed him, replaced him by a successor devoted 
to France, and returned to Algiers after having left a garrison 
in Medea. Then, not having the means of directly extending the 
rule of France to the east or west, Clausel devised a system of 
protectorates. He negotiated directly with the bey of Tunis 
with a view to installing as beys at Oran and Constantine Tunisian 
princes who recognized the authority of France. But the events 
which were taking place in Europe made it imperative to send 
home a part of the army of Africa, and Medea had to be 
evacuated. At the same time the negotiations set on foot with 
the bey of Tunis were censured by the government, and General 
Clausel was recalled (February 1831). 

The period of uncertainty was prolonged under his successors, 
General Pierre Berthezene (February to December 1831); 
A. J. M. R. Savary, due de Rovigo (December 1831 to March 
I 833), General Avizard (March to April 1833), and General Voirol 
(April 1833 to September 1834). The French, not yet certain 
whether or not they would retain Algeria, remained on the 
defensive. At the time they occupied only the three towns of 
Algiers, Bona and Oran, witrf their suburbs, where their situation 
was moreover singularly precarious. The Arabs would pillage 



ALGERIA 



651 



the suburbs and run away. Sometimes they cut off supplies by 
ceasing to bring provisions to the market, but the French were 
not to be turned aside by such tactics. 

At Algiers the energies of the French were devoted to protect- 
ing themselves against the incursions of the Hajutas. This was 
sufficient to absorb the attention of the general-in-chief, who left 
the guardianship of the east and west to the initiative of the 
generals established at Bona and Oran. At Bona, where General 
Monk d'Uzer was in command till 1836, things went fairly well. 
At once firm and conciliatory, he had been able to attach to the 
French cause the natives whom the cruelty of Ahmed, bey of 
Constantine, had alienated. The occupation of Bougie by 
General Camille Alphonse Trezel in October 1833 gave theFrench 
a footing at another point of this eastern province. But at Oran, 
where General Desmichels had succeeded General P. F. X. Boyer 
in the spring of 1833, their situation was much less favourable. 
There the French had found a redoubtable adversary in the 
young Abd-el-Kader, who had been proclaimed amir at Mascara 
in 1832. 

A man of rare intelligence, a fearless horseman and an eloquent 
orator, Abd-el-Kader had acquired a great reputation by his 
i piety. He reunited under his sway the tribes that had 
Kader.' hitherto been divided, and infused a unique spirit into 
their resistance. For fifteen years he held the French 
in check, treating on terms of equality with their government. 
Moreover, the treaty which General Desmichels had the weakness 
to sign with him on the 24th of February 1834 greatly improved 
his position. In pursuance of this treaty, French officers were to 
represent their country at the court of the amir; while the amir 
on his part was represented in the three French coast towns, 
Oran, Arzeu and Mostaganem, by vakils who immediately 
began to act as masters of the natives. Such was the situation 
at the period when, the French having at last resolved to keep 
Algeria, the ordinance of the 22nd of July 1834 laid down the 
bases of the political and administrative organization of the 
" French possessions in the north of Africa," at the head of 
which was placed a governor-general. But this date (July 
22, 1834), very important from a judicial point of view, is 
much less so from a historical point of view. The position of 
the first governor-general, Jean Baptiste Drouet d'Erlon (1765- 
1844), remained fully as precarious as that of his predecessor. 
During this time the power of Abd-el-Kader increased. Master 
of the province of Oran, he crossed the Shelif at the appeal of 
the natives, the people flocking to witness his progress as that of 
an emperor. He entered Miliana and Medea, where he installed 
beys of his own choice. All the western part of Algeria belonged 
to him. General Trezel, who had succeeded General Desmichels 
at Oran, resolved to march against the amir, but was defeated 
on the banks of the Macta (June 1835). This defeat shook 
public opinion. Drouet d'Erlon was recalled and replaced by 
Marshal Clausel. 

In short, five years after the capitulation of Algiers, the French 
dominion extended as yet over only six coast towns. Clausel, 
who returned with the same colonial ambitions as in 1830, 
resolved to conquer the interior of the country. He marched 
against the amir, defeated him and entered Mascara. Then he 
proceeded to deliver the inhabitants of Tlemcen, who had been 
attacked by Abd-el-Kader, and there he left a garrison. Turning 
towards the east, Clausel organized at Bona the first expedition 
against Constantine. This failed, and the only result of it was 
the occupation of Guelma. Clausel was recalled and replaced 
by General C. M. D. Damremont (February 1837). The task of 
maintaining the position of France was then divided between 
Thomas Robert Bugeaud (1784-1849), acting independently 
in the west, and Damremont, who directed all his efforts towards 
the east. By the signature of the celebrated treaty of the 
Tafna (June i, 1837), Bugeaud made peace with Abd-el- 
Kader. In return for a vague recognition of the sovereignty of 
France in Africa, this treaty gave up to the amir the whole of 
western Algeria. France reserved to herself only Oran and its 
environs, Mazagran, Algiers and the Metija; she gave up 
Tlemcen and the Titeri beylik. This was a triumph for Abd-el- 



Kader, who regarded the peace as but a truce which would allow 
him time to gain strength to resume the war under more favour- 
able conditions. 

Damremont, on his part, directed a second expedition on 
Constantine. The town was taken, but Damremont was killed 
(October 1837). Marshal Sylvain Charles Valee (1773-1846), 
who replaced him, founded Philippeville to serve as a seaport 
for the region of Constantine, occupied Jijelli, and at the head 
of the expeditionary column returned from Constantine to 
Algiers by the interior, passing through Setif and les Fortes 
de fer. Abd-el-Kader maintained that the French had .thus 
violated the treaty of the Tafna, and began the war again. 
For two years his power had been increasing. A whole hierarchy 
of khalifas, aghas and caids obeyed him. He had a regular 
army of 8000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, without counting 
50,000 goums (bodies of Arab horsemen) brought by the khalifas. 
He was well furnished with war material, possessing magazines 
and arsenals in the heart of the Tell. He had attacked and 
subjugated all who were not willing to recognize his authority. 
Under his influence old rivalries were effaced; at his voice all 
the tribes joined in the holy war. On the i8th of November 
1839 he sent his declaration of war to Marshal Valee, but the 
impatient Hajutas had already devastated the Metija. Marshal 
Valee marched against Abd-el-Kader, and at first gained some 
successes: the French occupied Cherchel, Medea and Miliana. 
But at the end of 1840 Valee was recalled and replaced by 
Bugeaud, who adopted totally different tactics. The system of 
Marshal Valee had been the defensive: he multiplied the forti- 
fied posts in order to draw the enemy to a spot chosen beforehand. 
Bugeaud resolutely adopted the offensive, reduced the weight 
carried by the soldiers in order to increase the mobility of his 
troops, and carried the war into the province of Oran, from 
which Abd-el-Kader drew his principal resources. One after 
the other, all the magazines of the amir those at Takdempt, 
Boghar, Taza, Saida and Sebdu were taken and destroyed. 
In the spring of 1843 the due d'Aumale had an opportunity 
of surprising the smola (camp) of Abd-el-Kader near Taguin. 
This was a serious blow for the amir, whose determination to 
continue the contest was, however, as strong as ever. He took 
refuge in Morocco, and induced that power to declare war on 
the French on the pretext that they would not give up the 
frontier post of Lalla-Maghnia. Morocco was soon vanquished. 
While Frangois, prince de Joinville, was bombarding Tangier and 
Mogador, Bugeaud gained the victory of the Isly (August 1844). 
Morocco signed a treaty of peace at Tangier on the icth of 
September 1844. 

The struggle, however, was not ended. Islam made a supreme 
effort in Algeria. The Dahra and the Warsenis rose at the voice 
of a fanatic called Bu-Maza (" the goat man "), a Khuan of 
the order of the Mouley-Taieb. Elsewhere other " masters of 
the hour," false Bu-Mazas, rose. Abd-el-Kader reappeared in 
Algeria, which he overran with a rapidity which baffled all 
pursuit. He beat the French at Sidi Brahim, raided the tribes 
of the Tell Oranais which had abandoned him, penetrated as 
far as the borders of the Metija, and reached the Jurjura, where 
he endeavoured to rouse the Kabyles. But his eloquence 
offended the narrow and cramped particularism of those little 
democratic cities, deaf to the sentiment of the common interest. 
From that time he played a losing game. He returned toward 
the west, penetrating farther and farther to the south. Badly 
received by the great aristocratic family of the Walid-sidi- 
Sheikh, he re-entered Morocco, but the emperor of that country, 
dreading his influence and fearing difficulties with the French, 
drove him out. This was the end. On the 23rd of December 
1847 Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere in the 
plains of Sidi-Brahim. His adversary, Bugeaud, was there no 
longer. Having failed to persuade the French government to 
adopt his plans of military colonization, he had retired in June 
1847 and had been replaced by the due d'Aumale. 

The surrender of Abd-el-Kader marks the end of the period 
of the conquest. It is true that Great Kabylia had to be subdued 
only ten years later, and that terrible insurrections still had to 



6 52 



ALGERIA 



Preach 
progress 



be quelled. But at the end of the reign of Louis Philippe the 
essential work was accomplished. All that remained was to 
complete and to secure it. 

Under the second republic Algeria was governed successively 
by Generals L. E. Cavaignac (February to April 1848), N. A. T. 
Changarnier (April to September i848),V.Charon(Sep- 
tember 1848 to October 1850), and A. H. d'Hautpoul 
(October 1850 to December 1851). The policy followed 
at this period consisted in assimilating Algeria to France. Im- 
portant efforts were made to attract French colonists to the 
country, the colonization of Algeria appearing as a means 
towards the extinction of pauperism in the mother-country. 
This point of view suggested numerous projects, as chimerical 
as they were generous; two millions sterling (50 million francs) 
were expended with a view to installing Parisian unemployed 
workmen as colonists, but this attempt failed miserably. The 
most remarkable military events of this period were (i) the siege 
and destruction of the oasis of Zaatcha, where the inhabitants, 
displeased by an alteration in the tax on palms, rose at the voice 
of a fanatic named Bu-Zian; (2) the ineffectual campaign of 
Marshal Saint Arnaud in Little Kabylia, where the tribes rose 
at the instigation of Bu-Magla (" the mule man ") in 1851. 

Marshal J. L. C- A. Randon (1795-1871), named governor- 
general of Algeria after the coup d'ttat, had at first to repress 
in the south a rising of a new " master of the hour," Mahomet 
ben Abdallah, the sherif of Wargla. A column seized Laghouat 
(El Aghuat) in December 1852. Si-Hamza, leader of the Walid- 
sidi-Sheikh, an ally of France, indignant at the growing influence 
of a base-born agitator, pursued him and seized Wargla (1853). 
In 1854 General Desvaux entered Tuggurt. Henceforth matters 
remained quiet in the region of the Sahara, and Marshal Randon 
turned his efforts towards Kabylia. Neither the Romans nor 
the Turks had been able to subdue this square mountainous 
tract, of which Bougie, Setif, Aumale and Dellys form the four 
corners. But in two months (May to June 1857) Marshal Randon 
made himself master of it, and built in the heart of this country 
Fort Napoleon (now Fort National), " the thorn in the side of 
Kabylia," whose batteries commanded all the Kabyle villages 
of the region. 

In 1858 the creation of a " ministry of Algeria and of the 
colonies " brought about the resignation of Marshal Randon. 
The administrative headquarters of Algeria was then transferred 
from Algiers to Paris. The ministry of Algeria was entrusted 
first to Prince Napoleon, and afterwards to the marquis J. N. S. P. 
de Chasseloup-Laubat (1805-1873). But this office, created at 
the least prematurely, soon disappeared without causing any 
regrets. This ephemeral regime lasted from the 24th of June 
1858 to the 24th of November 1860. The decree of the 24th 
of November 1860 transferred the services from Paris back to 
Algiers, and re-established the functions of governor-general, 
which were exercised at the end of the second empire first by 
Marshal Pelissier, due de Malakoff (December 1860 to September 
1864) and then by Marshal MacMahon, due de Magenta (Sep- 
tember 1864 to July 1870), At this period the conception of 
the Arab kingdom was prevalent. The emperor Napoleon III., 
in a celebrated letter, wrote that he was as much the emperor of 
the Arabs as the emperor of the French. Algeria was considered 
as a kind of great military fief, and the officers who ruled there 
commonly took the side of the native chieftains against the civil 
population. European colonization, hampered by the ill-will 
of the Arab bureaux, then made little progress. 

It was at this period that the great insurrection of the Walid- 
sidi-Sheikh broke out in the Sud Oranais. This powerful family 
Revolt ot ^ ac ^ l' ve d U P to tnat ti me on a good understanding with 
1864-1871. France; Si-Hamza, chief of the elder branch, had re- 
mained until his death (1861) a faithful ally of France. 
Thanks to him, the security of the southern frontier was 
assured. But after his death his son, Si-Sliman, imbued with 
anti-French sentiments, revolted in 1864 and massacred the 
Beaupretre column. Several years were occupied in quelling the 
insurrection. Compelled to guard themselves on the south 
against the Walid-sidi-Sheikh,the French realized how much they 



lost by not having the support of these great chieftains. They 
then accepted the services offered to them by Si-Sliman-ben- 
Kadour, chief of the younger branch of the Walid-sidi-Sheikh, 
who maintained tranquillity in the Sud Oranais during the great 
insurrection of Kabylia iniS?!. 

The causes of this insurrection were manifold, and, moreover, 
interdependent: the injury done to the military prestige of 
France by its defeats in Europe; the fall of the imperial govern- 
ment, in which, in the eyes of the natives, the authority of France 
was incarnate; and the insults offered with impunity in the 
streets by the civil population to the officers, who were loved and 
respected by the Arabs, at the same time that the decree of 
Adolphe Cremieux accorded to the Algerine Jews the rights of 
French citizens. The great native chiefs, bewildered and dis- 
quieted, thought themselves menaced. The insurrection was 
inevitable. Mokrani, bach-agha of the Mejana, whom the 
imperial government had loaded with honours, gave the signal. 
He had an interview with El Haddad, the sheikh of the Khuans, 
the religious confraternity of Sidi-Abd-er-Rahman, whose in- 
fluence was great, and having secured his support in April 1871, 
Mokrani proclaimed the holy war. At the bidding of El Haddad 
the whole of Kabylia rose, and numbers of French colonists were 
massacred; the columns of Colonel Cerez and General F. G. 
Saussier had to engage in numerous fights. The death of the 
bach-agha at the battle of Suflat, the submission of the Sheikh El 
Haddad, and finally the arrest of Bu-Meyrag, brother of Mokrani, 
mark the declining stages of the insurrection, which was com- 
pletely suppressed by August 1871. A heavy war contribution 
was imposed upon the rebels and their lands were sequestrated. 
The Beni-Manassir, who rose almost at the same time in the 
Dahra, were subdued soon after. Subsequently the native 
population of the Algerine Tell remained quiet, the massacre of 
the colonists at Margueritte many years later being a local and 
isolated movement. 

Under the third republic Algeria was governed successively by 
Admiral L. H. de Gueydon (March 1871 to June 1873), General 
A. E. A. Chanzy (June 1873 to February 1879), 
J. P. L. Albert Grevy (March 1879 to November 1881), 187Q . 

Tirman (November 1881 to April 1891), Jules Cambon 
(April 1891 to September 1897), Louis Lepine (September 1897 
to August 1898), E. J. Laferriere (August 1898 to October 1900), 
Charles Jonnart (October 1900 to June 1901), A. J. P. Revoil 
(June 1901 to April 1903), and again Jonnart. During the first 
years of the new regime a keen reaction was produced against the 
political system of the imperial government in Africa. The civil 
territory was considerably enlarged at the expense of the military. 
An effort was made to attract French colonists to Algeria by 
gratuitous concessions of land. Some lands were granted in 
particular to natives of Alsace-Lorraine, who preferred to retain 
French nationality after the war. Peasants from the south of 
France, whose vines had been destroyed by the phylloxera, 
crossed the Mediterranean and established in Algeria an im- 
portant vineyard. This double current of immigration notably 
increased the French population of North Africa. The tendency 
then was to treat Algeria as a piece of France. This assimilative 
policy attained its culminating point in the so-called decrees of 
rattachement (1881), in pursuance of which each ministerial 
department in France was made responsible for Algerine affairs 
which came by their nature within its jurisdiction. 

After a great inquiry held in 1892 by a senatorial committee a 
reaction was produced in France against this excessive assimila- 
tion. The system of ratlachement was in great part abandoned, 
and decentralization was obtained by augmenting the powers of 
the governor-general, and by granting to Algeria legal personality 
and a special budget (see above, Central Government}. These 
reforms appear to have given satisfaction to Algerian opinion. 
Profoundly troubled as Algeria was in the last years of the igth 
century by the anti-Semitic agitation, which occasioned frequent 
changes of governors, it appears to-day to have turned aside from 
sterile political struggles to interest itself exclusively in the 
economic development of the country. 

The movement of expansion towards the south was continued 



ALGHERO ALGIERS 



653 



under the third republic. In 1873 General G. A. A. Gallifet 
entered El Golea. In 1882 the oasis of Mzab was annexed. In 
the Sud Oranais an insurrection, fomented by a marabout named 
Bu-Amama, broke out in 1881, and the insurgents massacred the 
European labourers engaged in the collection of alfa (or esparto) 
grass. But soon the French columns re-established peace, and 
Bu-Amama had to take refuge in Morocco. In 1883 Si-Hamza, 
chief of the elder branch of the Walid-sidi-Sheikh, made his 
submission, and since then that family has remained devoted to 
France. 

The attempts at penetration into the extreme south, abandoned 
after the massacre by Tuareg of a mission sent in 1881, under 
Colonel Paul Flatters, to study the question of railway com- 
munication with Senegal, were begun again in 1890, in which 
year the British government recognized the western Sahara as 
within the French sphere. Since then military stations and 
scientific and commercial exploration have increased. But the 
results of these efforts remained inconsiderable until the spring 
of 1900, when the French authorities decided to occupy the oases 
of Gurara, Tuat and Tidikelt. This being accomplished by 
March 1901, the conquest of the Algerine Sahara was from that 
time completed, and nothing any longer hindered the attempts to 
join Algeria and the Sudan across the Sahara. (A. GIR.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a general account of Algeria, see Maurice 
Wahl, L'Algerie (5th ed., Paris, 1908); P: Leroy-Beaulieu, Algerie 
et Tunisie (2nd ed., Paris, 1897) ; J. A. Battandier and L. Trabut, 
L'Algerie; le sol et les habitants (Paris, 1898), specially valuable 
for agriculture and fauna; Arthur Girault, Principes de colonisa- 
tion et de legislation coloniale, Tome iii. ch. i.-viii. (3rd ed., Paris, 
1908), containing valuable bibliographies of works relating to 
legislation, jurisprudence, &c.; Jules Duval, L'Algerie et les colonies 
franfaises (Paris, 1877). The Statistique generate de V 'Algerie is 
published periodically by the Algerian government. The British 
Foreign Office publishes annual Reports on the Trade of Algeria; 
Sir R. Lambert Playfair's Handbook for Travellers in Algeria 
(Murray's Handbooks), corrected to 1902, is a capital guide to the 
country, as is also Algerie et Tunisie (Paris, 1906), in the Guides- 
Joanne Series; the Bibliography of Algeria (London, 1888), and the 
Supplement to the Bibliography of Algeria (London, . 1898), by Sir 
Lambert Playfair, contain thousands of entries and many notes. 
J. A. Battandier and L. Trabut, Flore de V Algerie (Algiers and 
Paris, 1884 and onwards), contains a scientific and descriptive 
catalogue, in several volumes, of the indigenous flora. For the 
geology of Algeria, see M. A. Pomel, Description stratigraphique 
generate de V Algerie (1889), and numerous papers by E. Ficheur, 
L. Gentil, G. Rolland, P. Thomas, and J. Welsch will be found in 
the Bull. Soc. Geol. France, and Compt. Rend. Acad. Set. The 
volumes of the International Geological Congress review Algerian 
geology. The French government publication, Exploration scien- 
tifique de V Algerie (20 vols., 1844-1853), gives the results of in- 
vestigations made in 1840-1842. O. Depont and X. Coppolani, 
Les Confreries religieuses musulmanes (Algiers, 1897), and Carte de 
I' Algerie . . . domaine geographique des confreries (Algiers, 1898), 
have special reference to the Islamic sects in Algeria. Stephane 
Gsell's Les monuments antiques de I' Algerie (2 vols., Paris, 1901), one 
of the publications of the Service des monuments historiques of the 
colony, is an authoritative and finely illustrated work on the an- 
tiquities of Algeria. For archaeology see also the bibliography in 
AFRICA, ROMAN. 

The best elementary work on the history of Algeria is that of Cat, 
Petite histoire de I' Algerie (Algiers, 1889). For more profound re- 
searches consult : (a) for the Turkish period : H. D. de Gramont, 
Histoire d'Alger sous la domination turque (1887); Mercier, Histoire 
de I'Afrique septemrionale (1888-1891); Eugene Plantet, Correspon- 
dance des deys d'Alger avec la cour de France (1889-1892); Paul 
Masspn, Histoire des etablissements et du commerce frangais dans 
I'Afrique barbaresque (1903); General Faure-Biguet, Histoire de 
I'Afrique septentnonale sous la domination musulmane (1905) ; 
(b) for the French period: Camille Rousset, La Conquete d'Alger 
(8th ed., 1899), Les Commencements d'une conquete: V Algerie de 
1830 a 1840, with atlas (1887), and La Conquete de I' Algerie, 1841- 
1857, with atlas (1889); Pelissier, Annales dlgeriennes (1854); Leon 
Roches, Trente-deux ans a travers I'Islam (1884-1887); Colonel 
Trumelet, Histoire de V insurrection des Ouled-Sidi-Cheik (1887); 
Rinn, Histoire de I' insurrection de 1871 (1891). 

The best general maps are those of the Carte de I' Algerie, in 
numerous sheets, on the scale of 1 : 50,000 (published by the Service 
geographique de I'Armee, Paris). (F. R. C.) 

ALGHERO, a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of 
Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 21 m. S.S.W. by rail from 
the town of Sassari. Pop. (1901) 10,779. The see was founded 
in 1503, but the cathedral itself dates from the i2th century, 



though it has been reconstructed. The town was strongly 
fortified by medieval walls, which have to some extent been 
demolished. It was originally founded by the Doria family of 
Genoa about 1102, but was occupied by the house of Aragon in 
J354) who held it successfully against various attacks until it 
fell to the house of Savoy with the rest of Sardinia in 1720. 
Catalonian is still spoken here. Charles V. visited Alghero on his 
way to Africa in 1541. The coral and fishing industries are the 
most important in Alghero, but agriculture has made some 
progress in the district, which produces good wine. There is a 
large penal establishment containing over 700 convicts. Seven 
miles to the W.N.W. is the fine natural harbour of Porto Conte, 
secure in all weather, and on the W. of this harbour is the Capo 
Caccia, with two stalactite grottos, the finest of which, the 
Grotta di Nettuno, is accessible only from the sea. The important 
prehistoric necropolis of Anghelu Ruju was excavated in 1904 
6^ m. N. of Alghero (Nolizie degli Scavi, 1904, 301 seq.). 

ALGIDUS MONS, a portion of the ridge forming the rim of the 
larger crater of the Alban volcano (see ALBANUS MONS) and more 
especially the eastern portion, traversed by a narrow opening 
(now called the Cava d'Aglio) of which the Via Latina took 
advantage, and which frequently appears in the early military 
history of Rome. That a distinct town existed (Dion. Halic. 
x. 21, xi. 3) on the mountain is improbable; there must have 
been a fortified post, but the extensive castle on the hill (Maschio 
d'Ariano) to the south of the Via Latina is entirely medieval, 
a fact which has not been recognized by some topographers. 

ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands), capital 
and largest city of Algeria, North Africa, seat of the governor- 
general, of a court of appeal, and of an archbishop, and station 
of the French XIX. corps d'arm&e. It is situated on the west 
side of a bay of the Mediterranean, to which it gives its name, 
in 36 47' N., 3 4' E., and is built on the slopes of the Sahel, a 
chain of hills parallel to the coast. The view of the city from the 
sea is one of great beauty. Seen from a distance it appears like 
a succession of dazzling white terraces rising from the water's 
edge. The houses being seemingly embowered in the luxuriant 
verdure of the Sahel, the effect is imposing and picturesque, 
and has given rise to the Arab comparison of the town to a 
diamond set in an emerald frame. The city consists of two 
parts; the modern French town, built on the level ground by 
the seashore, and the ancient city of the deys, which climbs the 
steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the kasbah 
or citadel, 400 ft. above the sea. The kasbah forms the apex of 
a triangle of Which the quays form the base. 

Extending along the front of the town is the boulevard de la 
Republique, a fine road built by Sir Morton Peto on a series of 
arches, with a frontage of 3700 ft., and bordered on one side by 
handsome buildings, whilst a wide promenade overlooking the 
harbour runs along the other. Two inclined roads lead from 
the centre of the boulevard to the quay 40 ft. below. On the 
quay are the landing-stages, the custom-house and the railway 
station. At the southern end of the boulevard de la Republique 
is the square de la Republique, formerly the place Bresson, in 
which is the municipal theatre; at the other extremity of the 
boulevard is the place du Gouvernement, which is planted on 
three sides with a double row of plane trees and is the fashionable 
resort for evening promenade. The principal streets of the city 
meet in the place du Gouvernement: the rue Bab Azoun (Gate 
of Grief) which runs parallel to the boulevard de la Republique; 
the rue Bab-el-Oued (River Gate) which goes north to the site 
of the old arsenal demolished in 1900; the rue de la Marine which 
leads to the ancient harbour, and in which are the two principal 
mosques. A large part of the modern town lies south of the 
square de la Republique; in this quarter are the law courts, 
hdtel de ville, post office and other public buildings. The streets 
in the modern town are regularly laid out; several are arcaded 
on both sides. 

The old town presents a strong contrast to the new town. 
The streets are narrow, tortuous and inaccessible to carriages. 
They often end in a cul-de-sac. The principal street is the 
rue de la Kasbah, which leads up to the citadel by 497 steps. The 



654 



ALGIERS 



streets are joined by alleys just wide enough to pass through. 
The houses, built of stone and whitewashed, are square, sub- 
stantial, flat-topped buildings, presenting to the street bare walls, 
with a few slits protected by iron gratings in place of windows. 
Each house has a quadrangle in the centre, into which it looks, 
and which is entered by a low, narrow doorway. Shops in the 
native quarter are simply chambers in the walls of the houses, 
and open at the front. In these shops the few Moorish industries 
are carried on, such as embroidery in gold and silver thread, the 
making of kid slippers of every kind and colour, the manufacture 
of gold and silver ornaments. To European eyes the native city, 
with its motley throng of Moors, Arabs, Jews and negroes, is the 
most interesting sight in Algiers. Various squares are set apart 
for markets, and here are to be witnessed scenes of the greatest 
animation. 

The public buildings of chief interest are the kasbah, the 
government offices (formerly the British consulate), the palaces 
of the governor-general and the archbishop all these are fine 
Moorish houses; the " Grand " and the " New " Mosques, the 
Roman Catholic cathedral of St Philippe, the church of the Holy 
Trinity (Church of England), and the Bibliotheque Nationale 
d'Alger a Turkish palace built in 1799-1800. The kasbah was 
begun in 1516 on the site of an older building, and served as the 
palace of the deys until the French conquest. A road has been 
cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into 
barracks, and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. 
There still remain a minaret and some marble arches and columns. 
Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures 
of the dey. The Grand Mosque (Jamaa-el-Kebir) is traditionally 
said to be the oldest mosque in Algiers. The pulpit (mimbar) 
bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 1018. 
The minaret was built by Abu Tachfin, sultan of Tlemcen, 
in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and is 
divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches. 
The principal fagade, in the rue de la Marine, consists of 
a row of white marble columns supporting an arcade. The 
New Mosque (Jamaa-el-Jedid) , dating from the I7th century, 
is in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a large white 
cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is 
90 ft. high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque. 
The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands at the 
southern end of the rue d'Isly near the site of the demolished 
Fort Bab Azoun. The interior is richly decorated with various 
coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial 
inscriptions relating to the English residents (voluntary and 
involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, British 
consul in 1580. One tablet records that in 1631 two Algerine 
pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore, and carried 
off its inhabitants to slavery; another recalls the romantic 
escape of Ida M'Donnell, daughter of Admiral Ulric, consul- 
general of Denmark, and wife of the British consul. When Lord 
Exmouth was about to bombard the city in 1816, the British 
consul was thrown into prison and loaded with chains. Mrs. 
M'Donnell who was but sixteen escaped to the British fleet 
disguised as a midshipman, carrying a basket of vegetables 
in which her baby was hidden. (Mrs. M'Donnell subsequently 
married the due de Talleyrand-Perigord and died at Florence 
in 1880). Among later residents commemorated is Edward 
Lloyd, who was the first person to show the value of esparto 
grass for the manufacture of paper, and thus started an industry 
which is one of the most important in Algeria. 

The cathedral of St Philippe, built on the site of a mosque, is 
in the place Malakoff, next to the governor-general's palace. 
In its construction an attempt has been made to produce a build- 
ing suitable for Christian worship whilst the architecture is 
Moorish in style. The principal entrance, reached by a flight 
of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico supported by four 
black- veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of Moorish 
plaster work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white 
marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the former 
mosque. In one of the chapels is a tomb containing the bones of 
San Geronimo. The finding of the remains of the saint in 1853 



afforded striking confirmation of an incident recorded by a 
Spanish Benedictine named Haedo, who published a topography 
of Algeria in 1612. Haedo sets forth that a young Arab who 
had embraced Christianity and had been baptized with the name 
of Geronimo was captured by a Moorish corsair in 1569 and taken 
to Algiers. The Arabs endeavoured to induce Geronimo to 
renounce Christianity, but as he steadfastly refused to dp so he 
was condemned to death. Bound hand and foot he was thrown 
alive into a mould in which a block of concrete was about to be 
made. The block containing his body was built into an angle of 
the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours, then under construction. 
In 1853 the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours was demolished, 
and in the angle specified by Haedo the skeleton of Geronimo was 
found. The bones were interred at St Philippe. Into the mould 
left by the saint's body liquid plaster of Paris was run, and a 
perfect model obtained, showing the features of the youth, the 
cords which bound him, and even the texture of his clothing. 
This model is now in the museum at Mustapha (see below). 

Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, 
science and letters. The college buildings are large and hand- 
some. There is also a lycee in which the instruction is similar 
to that given in France, and in which Christians, Jews and 
Mahommedans are educated together. The museum (a state 
institution), formerly housed in the same building as the library, 
was transferred in 1897 to a new building in the suburb of 
Mustapha Superieur. In the museum are some of the ancient 
sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with 
medals and Algerian money. New buildings, to contain speci- 
mens of Moslem art, were added in 1903. 

The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two 
harbours, both artificial the old or northern harbour and the 
southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an 
area of 235 acres. The depth at the entrance is 72 to 108 ft., 
and in port from 36 to 66 ft. Two government dry docks are 
available for merchant vessels. The quays cover 18,000 sq. yds. 
There are three jetties, north, east and south. Within this har- 
bour is the small harbour of the deys, now transformed into a 
wet dock. An opening in the south jetty affords an entrance 
into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. This harbour 
is formed by the projection of a mole, 2500 ft. in length, from 
the eastern jetty of the old harbour. It provides extensive 
quayage with a minimum depth of water of 28 ft. Agha harbour 
has also an independent entrance on its southern side. Algiers 
is the chief coaling station in the Mediterranean, having become 
so largely at the expense of Gibraltar. In other respects the trade 
resembles that of other Algerian ports. (For trade statistics see 
ALGERIA.) The inner harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ed- 
Din (see History, below), who, to accommodate his pirate vessels, 
caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected 
with the mainland by a mole. The lighthouse which occupies 
the site of Fort Penon was built in 1544. Work on the northern 
harbour was begun in 1836, on the southern in 1904. Algiers 
maintains communication with Marseilles by a quick service of 
steamers, which run the 497 miles across the Mediterranean in 
twenty-eight to thirty hours. The journey between Algiers and 
Paris, from which it is distant 1031 miles, is accomplished in 
about forty-five hours. 

Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the 
close of the igth century. The French, after their occupation of 
the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and ditch, with two 
terminal forts, Bab Azoun to the south and Bab-el-Oued to the 
north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at 
the beginning of the 2oth century, when a line of forts occupying 
the heights of Bu Zarea (at an elevation of 1300 ft. above the 
sea) took their place. 

Owing to the mildness of its climate Algiers has become a 
favourite resort for those seeking to escape the rigours of a 
European winter. The city is well supplied with water and its 
sanitary state is good. The mistral of the Riviera is entirely 
absent from Algiers, but in summer the city occasionally suffers 
from the sirocco or desert wind. The environs of Algiers are 
noted for their beauty and healthiness. Of the suburbs the most 



ALGOA BAY ALGOL 



655 



picturesque is Mustapha Superieur, about 2 m. from the centre 
of the city on the slopes of the hills to the south. Here are the 
summer palace of the governor-general, many fine Moorish and 
French villas and luxurious hotels, all surrounded by beautiful 
gardens. A numerous British colony resides at Mustapha, 
where there is an English club. Mustapha Inferieur is built on 
the lower slopes of the hills. Farther to the south is the large 
Jardin d'Essai, containing five avenues of palms, planes, bamboos 
and magnolias. Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858- 
1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is con- 
spicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the 
Bu Zarea hills, 2 m. to the north of the city. Above the altar 
is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black woman. The church 
also contains a solid silver statue of the archangel Michael, 
belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen. Beyond 
Notre-Dame d'Afrique is the beautiful Valley of the Consuls, 
very little changed since the time of the deys. (The valley was 
in those days the favourite residence of the consuls.) At the 
Petit Seminaire, on the site of the old French consulate, Cardinal 
Lavigerie died (1892). 

In 1906 the population of the commune of Algiers was 154,049; 
the population municipale, which excludes the garrison, prisoners, 
&c., was 145,280. Of this total 138,240 were living in the city 
proper or in Mustapha. Of the inhabitants 105,908 were Euro- 
peans. French residents numbered 50,996, naturalized French- 
men 23,305, Spaniards 12,354, Italians 7368, Maltese 865, and 
other Europeans (chiefly British and Germans) 1652, besides 
12,490 Jews. The remainder of the population all Mahom- 
medans are Moors, Arabs, Berbers, Negroes, with a few Turks. 
The vast majority of the Europeans are Roman Catholics. 
Most of the naturalized French citizens are of Spanish or Italian 
origin. 

History. In Roman times a small town called Icosium 
existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The rue 
de la Marine follows the lines of a Roman street. Roman 
cemeteries existed near the rues Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. 
Bishops of Icosium which was created a Latin city by Vespasian 
are mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present city 
was founded in 944 by Bulukkin b. Zeiri, the founder of the 
Zeirid-Sanhaja dynasty, which was overthrown by Roger II. 
of Sicily in 1148 (see FATIMITES). The Zeirids had before that 
date lost Algiers, which in 1159 was occupied by the Almohades, 
and in the i3th century came under the dominion of the Abd-el- 
Wahid, sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate 
of Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under 
amirs of its own, Oran being the chief seaport of the Abd-el- 
Wahid. The islet in front of the harbour, subsequently known 
as the Penon, had been occupied by the Spaniards as early as 
1302. Thereafter a considerable trade grew up between Algiers 
and Spain. Algiers, however, continued of comparatively little 
importance until after the expulsion from Spain of the Moors, 
many of whom sought an asylum in the city. In 1510, following 
their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, 
the Spaniards fortified the Penon. In 1516 the amir of Algiers, 
Selim b. Teumi, invited the brothers Arouj and Khair-ed-Din 
(Barbarossa) to expel the Spaniards. Arouj came to Algiers, 
caused Selim to be assassinated, and seized the town. Khair- 
ed-Din, succeeding Arouj, drove the Spaniards from the Penon 
(1530) and was the founder of the pashalik, afterwards deylik, 
of Algeria. Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the 
Barbary pirates. In October 1541 the emperor Charles V. 
sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number 
of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly Spaniards, 
was defeated by the Algerians under their pasha, Hassan. 
Repeated attempts were made by various European nations 
to subdue the pirates, and in 1816 the city was bombarded by 
a British squadron under Lord Exmouth, assisted by Dutch 
men-of-war, and the corsair fleet burned. The piracy of the 
Algerians was renewed and continued until 1830. On the 4th 
of July in that year a French army under General de Bourmont 
attacked the city, which capitulated on the following day (see 
ALGERIA, History). 



ALGOA BAY, a wide, shallow bay of South Africa, 436 m. 
E. from the Cape of Good Hope, bounded W. by Cape Recife, 
E. by Cape Padrone. St Croix Island in the bay is in 33 47' 
S. 25 46' E. On this island Bartholomew Diaz made his second 
landing in South Africa some time after the 3rd of February 1488, 
and from the cross which he is thought to have erected on it 
the island gets its name. Algoa Bay was the first landing-place 
of the British emigrants to the eastern province of Cape Colony 
in 1820. At a spot 6 m. N.E. of Cape Recife these emigrants 
founded a town, Port Elizabeth (q.v.), its harbour being sheltered 
from all winds save the S.E. By seafarers " Algoa Bay " is used 
as synonymous with Port Elizabeth. 

ALGOL, the Arabic name (signifying " the Demon ") of ft 
Persei, a star of the second magnitude, noticed by G. Montanari 
in 1669 to fluctuate in brightness. John Goodricke established 
in 1782 the periodicity of its change in about 2 d 21*, and sug- 
gested their cause in recurring eclipses by a large dark satellite. 
Their intermittent character prompted the supposition. The 
light of Algol remains constant during close upon 56 hours; 
then declines in 6j hours (approximately) to nearly one-fourth 
its normal amount, and is restored by sensibly the same grada- 
tions. The amplitude of the phase is i-i magnitude; and the 
absence of any stationary interval at minimum proves the eclipse 
to be partial, not annular. Its conditions were investigated 
from photometric data, by Professor E. C. Pickering in i88o; 1 
and 'their realization was finally demonstrated by Dr H. C. 
Vogel's spectroscopic measures in iSSg. 2 Previously to each 
obscuration, the star was found to be moving rapidly away from 
the earth; its velocity then diminished to zero pari passu with 
the loss of light, and reversed its direction during the process of 
recovery. Algol, in fact, travels at the rate of 26-3 miles a second 
round the centre of gravity of the system which it forms with an 
invisible companion, while the two together approach the sun 
with an unvarying speed of 2-3 miles per second. The elements 
of this disparate pair, calculated by Dr Vogel on the somewhat 
precarious assumption that its dark and bright members are of 
equal mean density, are as follows: 



1,061,000 English miles. 

834-300 
3,230,000 
j solar mass. 



about \ solar, 
which no deviation 



from 



Diameter of Algol 

Satellite . 

Distance from centre to centre 
Mass of Algol 

,, Satellite . 
Mean density 

The plane of the joint orbit, in 
circularity has yet been detected, nearly coincides with the 
line of sight. The period of Algol, as measured by its eclipses, 
is subject to complex irregularities. It shortened fitfully by 
eight seconds between 1790 and 1879; soon afterwards, restora- 
tion set in, and its exact length in 1003 was 2 d 20* 48" 56', 
being only two seconds short of its original value. By an ex- 
haustive discussion, Dr S. Chandler ascertained in 1888 the 
compensatory nature of these disturbances; 3 and he afterwards 
found the most important among several which probably 
conspire to produce the observed effects, to be comprised in a 
period of 15,000 light-cycles, equivalent to 118 years. 4 An 
explanatory hypothesis, propounded by him in :892, 6 is still on 
its trial. The system of Algol, according to this view, is triple; 
it includes a large, obscure primary, round which the eclipsing 
pair revolves in an orbit somewhat smaller than that of Uranus, 
very slightly elliptical, and inclined 20 to the line of sight, the 
periodic time being 1 18 years. The alternate delay and accelera- 
tion of the eclipses are then merely apparent; they represent 
the changes in the length of the light- journey as the stars perform 
their wide circuit. If these suppositions have a basis of reality, 
the proper motion of Algol sfiould be disturbed by a small, but 
measurable undulation, corresponding to the projection of its 
orbit upon the sky; and although certainty on the point cannot 
be attained for some years to come, Lewis Boss regarded the 
evidence available in 1895 as tending to confirm Dr Chandler's 
theory. 6 

1 Proceedings Amer. Acad. vol. xvi. p. 27. 
* Astr. Nach. No. 2947. ' Astr. Journal, No. 165. 

4 Ibid. No. 509. " Ibid. Nos. 255-256. Ibid. No. 343. 



656 



ALGONQUIN ALHAMBRA 



A rival interpretation of the phenomena it dealt with was put 
forward by F. Tisserand in iSps. 1 It involved the action of no 
third mass, but depended solely upon the progression of the 
line of apsides in a moderately elliptical orbit due to the spheroidal 
shape of the globes traversing it. Inequalities of the required 
sort in the returns of the eclipses would ensue; moreover, their 
duration should concomitantly vary with the varying distance 
from periastron at the times of their occurrence. It is a moot 
question whether changes of the latter kind actually occur. 
When they are proved to do so, Tisserand's hypothesis will hold 
the field. 

Algol gives a helium-spectrum which undergoes no alteration 
at minimum. Hence the light from the marginal and central 
portions of the disc is identical in quality, and the limb can be 
little, if at all, darkened by the " smoke-veil " absorption 
conspicuous in the sun. The rays of this star spend close upon 
a century in travelling hither. Dr Chase's measures with the 
Yale heliometer indicated for it, in 1894, a parallax of about 
o" -035 ; 2 and it must, accordingly, be of nearly four times the 
total brightness of Sirius, while its aerial lustre exceeds seventy- 
fold that of the solar photosphere. Variables of the Algol class 
are rendered difficult to discover by the incidental character of 
their fluctuations. At the end of 1905, however, about 37 had 
been certainly recognized, besides some outlying cases of in- 
determinate type, in which continuous occupations by two 
bright stars, revolving in virtual contact, are doubtfully supposed 
to be in progress. (A. M. C.) 

ALGONQUIN, or ALGONKIN (a word formerly regarded as a 
French contraction of Algomequin, " those on the other side " 
of the river, viz. the St Lawrence, but now believed to be from 
the Micmac algoomaking " at the place of spearing fish "), a 
collective term for a number of tribes of North American Indians 
dwelling in the valley of the Ottawa river and around the 
northern tributaries of the St Lawrence. The Algonquins allied 
themselves with the French against the Iroquois. Many were 
driven west by the latter and later became known as Ottawa. 
The French missionaries at work among the Algonquins early 
in the iyth century found their language to be the key to the 
many Indian dialects now included by philologists under the 
general term " Algonquian stock." The chief tribes included 
in this stock were the Algonquin, Malecite, Micmac, Nascapi, 
Pennacook, Fox, Kickapoo, Delaware, Cheyenne, Conoy, Cree, 
Mohican, Massachuset, Menominee, Miami, Misisaga, Mohegan, 
Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nipmuc, Ojibway, Ottawa, Pequot, 
Potawatami, Sac, Shawnee and Wampanoag. The Indians of 
Algonquian stock number between 80,000 and 90,000, of whom 
rather more than half are in the United States, the rest being in 
Canada. Of the Algonquins proper there remain about 1500 
settled in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. 

For details see Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge, 
Washington, 1907. 

ALGUAZIL, a Spanish title often to be met in stories and 
plays, derived from the Arabic " visir " and the article " al." 
The alguazil among the early Spaniards was a judge, and some- 
times the governor of a town or fortress. In later times he has 
gradually sunk down to the rank of an officer of the court, who 
is trusted with the service of writs and certain police duties, 
but he is still of higher rank than the mere corchete or catch-poll. 
The title has also been given to inspectors of weights and measures 
in market-places, and similar officials. 

ALGUM, or ALMUG TREE. The Hebrew words Algummim or 
Almuggim are translated Algum or Almug trees in the authorized 
version of the Bible (see i Kings x. u, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 
10, u) ; almug is an erroneous form (see Max Mttller, Science of 
Language, vol. i.). The wood of the tree was very precious, 
and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of India), 
along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was used 
in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem, and for 
the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs, as well as for 
harps and psalteries. It is probably the red sanders or red 



1 Comptes Rendus, t. cxx. p. 125. 



*Astr. Jour. No. 318. 



sandal- wood of India ( Pier ocar pus santalinus) . This tree belongs 
to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Papilionaceae. 
The wood is hard, heavy, close-grained and of a fine red colour. 
It is different from the white fragrant sandal-wood, which is the 
produce of Santalum album, a tree belonging to a distinct natural 
order Santalaceae. ' 

ALHAMA DE GRANADA, a town of southern Spain, in the 
province of Granada, 24 m. S.W. of Granada. Pop. (1900) 7679. 
Alhama is finely situated on a ledge of rock which overlooks a 
deep gorge traversed by the river Marchan or Alhama; while the 
rugged peaks of the Sierra de Alhama rise behind it to a height of 
6800 ft. The town is largely modern; for over one thousand of 
its picturesque old Moorish houses, which formerly rose in 
terraces up the mountain side, were destroyed, together with five 
churches, the hospital, the theatre, the prison, and 800 of the 
inhabitants, in an earthquake which took place in 1884. Sub- 
scriptions were received from all parts of Spain, and the present 
town was built at a little distance from its predecessor. Few 
vestiges of antiquity survived, except the baths from which 
Alhama (hi Arabic " the Bath ") derives its name. These are 
situated near the river, and appear to have been used continu- 
ously since Roman times (c. 19 B.C. A.D. 409). The temperature 
of the hot sulphurous springs is about 112 F.; and, as the 
waters are considered beneficial in cases of rheumatism and 
dyspepsia, many visitors come to Alhama in spring and autumn, 
attracted also by the fine scenery of the district. In the isth 
century Alhama, and the neighbouring fortress of Loja (q.v.), 
were generally regarded as the keys of the kingdom of Granada, 
and their capture went far to insure the overthrow of the Moorish 
power. Alhama was taken by the Spanish marquis of Cadiz in 
1482; and its fall is celebrated in an ancient ballad, Ay de mi, 
Alhama, which Byron translated into English. 

ALHAMBRA, THE, an ancient palace and fortress of the, 
Moorish monarchs of Granada, in southern Spain, occupying a 
hilly terrace on the south-eastern border of the city of Granada. 
This terrace or plateau, which measures about 2430 ft. in length 
by 674 ft. at its greatest width, extends from W.N.W. to E.S.E., 
and covers an area of about 3 5 acres. It is enclosed by a strongly 
fortified wall, which is flanked by thirteen towers. The river 
Darro, which foams through a deep ravine on the north, divides 
the plateau from the Albaicin district of Granada; the Assabica 
valley, containing the Alhambra Park, on the west and south, and 
beyond this valley the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror, 
separate it from the Antequeruela district. 

The name Alhambra, signifying in Arabic " the red," is probably 
derived from the colour of the sun-dried tapia, or bricks made of 
fine gravel and clay, of which the outer walls are built. Some 
authorities, however, hold that it commemorates the red flare 
of the torches by whose light the work of construction was 
carried on nightly for many years; others associate it with the 
name of the founder, Mahomet Ibn Al Ahmar; and others 
derive it from the Arabic Dar al Amra, " House of the Master." 
(For an account of the period to which the Alhambra belongs, see 
GRANADA (city) .) The palace was built chiefly between 1 248 and 
1354, in the reigns of Al Ahmar and his successors; but even the 
names of the principal artists employed are either unknown or 
doubtful. The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed 
to Yusef I., who died in 1354. Immediately after the expulsion 
of the Moors in 1492, their conquerors began, by successive acts 
of vandalism, to spoil the marvellous beauty of the Alhambra. 
The open work was filled up with whitewash, the painting and 
gilding effaced, the furniture soiled, torn or removed. Charles V. 
(1516-1556) rebuilt portions in the modern style of the period, and 
destroyed the greater part of the winter palace to make room for 
a modern structure which has never been completed. Philip V. 
(1700-1746) Italianised the rooms, and completed the degrada- 
tion by running up partitions which blocked up whole apartments, 
gems of taste and patient ingenuity. In subsequent centuries the 
carelessness of the Spanish authorities permitted this masterpiece 
of Moorish art to be still further defaced; and in 1812 some of 
the towers were blown up by the French under Count Sebastian!, 
while the whole buildings narrowly escaped the same fate. In 



ALHAMBRA 



657 



Plan of the Alhambra 

Scale of Yards 
50 100 



i. Court of Myrtles 
i. Hall of Ambassadors 

3. Court of lions 8. Baths 

4. Hall of the Abencerrages 9. Court of the Council Chamber 

5. Room of the Two Sisters to. Queen 's Robing Room 




from BMdckcfi Spain * Portugal, by pcnniuion of Karl Baedeker. . 



1821 an earthquake caused further damage. The work of 
restoration undertaken in 1828 by the architect Jose Contreras 
was endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII.; and after the death of 
Contreras in 1847, it wa s continued with fair success by his son 
Rafael (d. 1890), and his grandson Mariano. 

The situation of the Alhambra is one of rare natural beauty; 
the plateau commands a wide view of the city and plain of 
Granada, towards the west and north, and of the heights of the 
Sierra Nevada, towards the east and south. Moorish poets 
describe it as " a pearl set in emeralds," in allusion to the brilliant 
colour of its buildings, and the luxuriant woods round them. 
The park (Alameda de la Alhambra) , which in spring is overgrown 
with wild-flowers and grass, was planted by the Moors with roses, 
oranges and myrtles; its most characteristic feature, however, 
is the dense wood of English elms brought hither in 1812 by the 
duke of Wellington. The park is celebrated for the multitude of 
its nightingales, and is usually filled with the sound of running 
water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied 
through a conduit 5 m. long, which is connected with the Darro 
at the monastery of Jesus del Valle, above Granada. 

The Moorish portion of the Alhambra resembles many medieval 
Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a castle, a 
palace and a residential annexe for subordinates. The Alcazaba 
or citadel, its oldest part, is built' on the isolated and precipitous 
foreland which terminates the plateau on the north-west. Only 
its massive outer walls, towers and ramparts are left. On its 
watch-tower, the Torre de la Vela, 85 ft. high, the flag of 
Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised, in token of the Spanish 
conquest of Granada, on the 2nd of January 1492. A turret 
containing a huge bell was added in the i8th century, and restored 
after being injured by lightning in 1881. Beyond the Alcazaba 



is the palace of the Moorish kings, or Alhambra properly so r called; 
and beyond this, again, is the Alhambra Alta (Upper Alhambra), 
originally tenanted by officials and courtiers. 

In spite of the long neglect, wilful vandalism and ill-judged 
restoration which the Alhambra has endured, it remains the most 
perfect example of Moorish art in its final European development, 
freed from the direct Byzantine influences which can be 
traced in the cathedral of Cordova, more elaborate and fantastic 
than the Giralda at Seville. The majority of the palace buildings 
are, in ground-plan, quadrangular, with all the rooms opening on 
to a central court; and the whole reached its present size simply 
by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same 
principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each 
other by smaller rooms and passages. In every case the exterior 
is left plain and austere, as if the architect intended thus to 
heighten by contrast the splendour of the interior. Within, the 
palace is unsurpassed for the exquisite detail of its marble pillars 
and arches, its fretted ceilings and the veil-like transparency of 
its filigree work in stucco. Sun and wind are freely admitted, and 
the whole effect is one of the most airy lightness and grace. Blue, 
red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of 
time and exposure, are the colours chiefly employed. The 
decoration consists, as a rule, of stiff, conventional foliage, Arabic 
inscriptions, and geometrical patterns wrought into arabesques 
of almost incredible intricacy and ingenuity. Painted tiles are 
largely used as panelling for the walls. 

Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the 
Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a massive 
triumphal arch dating from the I5th century. A steep ascent leads 
past the Pillar of Charles V., a fountain erected in 1554, to the 
main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta Judiciaria 



658 



ALHAZEN ALI 



(Gate of Judgment), a massive horseshoe archway, surmounted 
by a square tower, and used by the Moors as an informal court of 
justice. A hand, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against 
the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, 
the symbol of authority, occupies the corresponding place on 
the interior. A narrow passage leads inward to the Plaza de 
los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a broad open space which 
divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left of the 
passage rises the Torre del Vino (Wine Tower), built in 1345, and 
used in the i6th century as a cellar. On the right is the palace of 
Charles V., a cold-looking but majestic Renaissance building, out 
of harmony with its surroundings, which it tends somewhat to 
dwarf by its superior size. Its construction, begun in 1526, was 
abandoned about 1650. 

The present entrance to the Palacio Arabe, or Casa Real 
(Moorish palace), is by a small door from which a corridor 
conducts to the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), 
also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court 
of the Pond), from the Moorish birka, " pond," or berka, " bless- 
ing/' This court is 140 ft. long by 74 ft. broad; and in the centre 
there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish, 
and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are galleries on 
the north and south sides; that on the south 27 ft. high, and 
supported by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, 
was the principal entrance, and over it are three elegant windows 
with arches and miniature pillars. From this court the walls of 
the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north, 
and reflected in the pond. 

The Sala de los Ambajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is the 
largest in the Alhambra, and occupies all the Torre de Comares. 
It is a square room, the sides being 37 ft. in length, while the 
centre of the dome is 75 ft. high. This was the grand reception 
room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the 
entrance. The tiles are nearly 4 ft. high all round, and the colours 
vary at intervals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with 
inscriptions, interwoven with flowers a,nd leaves. There are nine 
windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is admirably 
diversified with inlaid-work of white, blue and gold, in the shape 
of circles, crowns and stars a kind of imitation of the vault of 
heaven. The walls are covered with varied stucco-work of most 
delicate pattern, surrounding many ancient escutcheons. 

The celebrated Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is an 
oblong court, 1 16 f t. in length by 66 ft. in breadth, surrounded by 
a low gallery supported on 1 24 white marble columns. A pavilion 
projects into the court at each extremity, with filigree walls and 
light domed roof, elaborately ornamented. The square is paved 
with coloured tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while 
the walls are covered 5 ft. up from the ground with blue and 
yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and 
gold. The columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly 
placed, with a view to artistic effect; and the general form of 
the piers, arches and pillars is most graceful. They are adorned 
by varieties of foliage, &c.; about each arch there is a large 
square of arabesques; and over the pillars is another square 
of exquisite filigree work. In the centre of the court is the 
celebrated Fountain of Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin 
supported by the figures of twelve lions in white marble, not 
designed with sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength 
and courage. 

The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives 
its name from a legend according to which Boabdil, the last king 
of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that illustrious line to 
a banquet, massacred them here. This room is a perfect square, 
with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base. The roof is 
exquisitely decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, and the 
columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in a re- 
markably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de 
las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two 
very beautiful white marble slabs laid as part of the pavement. 
These slabs measure 1 5 ft. by 7 J ft., and are without flaw or stain. 
There is a fountain in the middle of this hall, and the roof a 
dome honeycombed with tiny cells, all different, and said to 



number 5000 is a magnificent example of the so-called " stalac- 
tite vaulting " of the Moors. 

Among the other wonders of the Alhambra are the Sala de la 
Justicia (Hall of Justice), the Patio del Mexuar (Court of the 
Council Chamber), the Patio de Daraxa (Court of the Vestibule), 
and the Peinador de la Reina (Queen's Robing Room) , in which 
are to be seen the same delicate and beautiful architecture, the 
same costly and elegant decorations. The palace and the Upper 
Alhambra also contain baths, ranges of bedrooms and summer- 
rooms, a whispering gallery and labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchres. 

The original furniture of the palace is represented by the cele- 
brated vase of the Alhambra, a splendid specimen of Moorish 
ceramic art, dating from 1320, and belonging to the first period 
of Moorish porcelain. It is 4 ft. 3 in. high; the ground is white, 
and the enamelling is blue, white and gold. 

Of the outlying buildings in connexion with the Alhambra, 
the foremost in interest is the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife 
(the Moorish Jennat al Arif, " Garden of Arif," or " Garden of 
the Architect "). This villa probably dates from the end of 
the i3th century, but has been several times restored. Its 
gardens, however, with their clipped hedges, grottos, fountains, 
and cypress avenues, are said to retain their original Moorish 
character. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the 
summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian 
slaves who were employed to build the Alhambra, and confined 
here in subterranean cells. The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion 
Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish 
fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommoda- 
tion for a. garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs were 
discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte Mauror. 

See Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra; from 
drawings taken on the spot by J. Goury and Owen Jones; with a 
complete translation of the Arabic inscriptions and a historical notice 
of the Kings of Granada, by P. de Gayangos. These two magnificent 
folios, though first published in London between 1842 and 1845, give 
the best pictorial representation of the Alhambra. See also Rafael 
Contreras, La Alhambra, El Alcazar, y la %ran Mezquita de Occidente 
(Madrid, 1885); The Alhambra, by Washington Irving, was written 
in 1832, and rewritten in 1857, when it had already become widely 
celebrated for its picturesque and humorous descriptions. A well- 
illustrated edition was published in London in 1896. 

ALHAZEN (ABU ALI AL-HASAN IBN ALHASAN), Arabian 
mathematician of the nth century, was born at Basra and died 
at Cairo in 1038. He is to be distinguished from another Alhazen 
who translated Ptolemy's Almagest in the loth century. Having 
boasted that he could construct a machine for regulating the 
inundations of the Nile, he was summoned to Egypt by the caliph 
Hakim; but, aware of the impracticability of his scheme, and 
fearing the caliph's anger, he feigned madness until Hakim's 
death in 102 1 . Alhazen was, nevertheless, a diligent and success- 
ful student, being the first great discoverer in optics after the 
time of Ptolemy. According to Giovanni Battista della Porta, 
he first explained the apparent increase of heavenly bodies near 
the horizon, although Bacon gives the credit of this discovery 
to Ptolemy. He taught, previous to the Polish physicist Witelo, 
that vision does not result from the emission of rays from the eye, 
and wrote also on the refraction of light, especially on atmospheric 
refraction, showing, e.g. the cause of morning and evening twilight. 
He solved the problem of finding the point in a convex mirror 
at which a raj coming from one given point shall be reflected to 
another given point. His treatise on optics was translated into 
Latin by Witelo (1270), and afterwards published by F. Risner 
in 1572, with the title Opticae thesaurus Alhazeni libri VII., 
cum ejusdem libra de crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus. This 
work enjoyed a great reputation during the middle ages. Works 
on geometrical subjects were found in the Bibliotheque nationale 
de Paris in 1834 by E. A. Sedillot; other manuscripts are pre- 
served in the Bodleian library at Oxford and in the library of 
Leiden. 

See Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp. Escur.; T. E. Montucla, Histoire des 
mathematiques (1758); and E. A. Sedillot, Materiaux pour I'histoire 
des sciences mathematiques. 

ALI, in full, 'ALI BEN AstJ TALIB (c. 600-661), the fourth of 
the caliphs or successors of Mahomet, was born at Mecca about 



ALHAMBRA 



PLATE I. 




THE COURT OF THE MYRTLES. 



i. 658. 



From Gayangos and Owen Jones, The Alhambra. 



PLATE II. 



ALHAMBRA 





CAPITAL IN THE COURT 
OF THE LIONS. 




PRAYER NICHE. 



CAPITAL IN THE COURT OF THE 
MYRTLES. 



' 


















^ - 

" 



l( ( i - 

i 



I OIXTAIX IN THE COURT OF THE LIONS. 

b 




DETAIL FROM THE FOUNTAIN (QUARTER-SIZE). 



From Gayangos and Owen Jones, The Alhambra. 



ALI 



659 



the year A.D. 600. His father, Abu Talib, was an uncle of the 
prophet, and All himself was adopted by Mahomet and educated 
under his care. As a mere boy he distinguished himself by being 
one of the first to declare his adhesion to the cause of Mahomet, 
who some years afterwards gave him his daughter Fatima in 
marriage. Ali proved himself to be a brave and faithful soldier, 
and when Mahomet died without male issue, a few emigrants 
thought him to have the best claim to succeed him. Abu Bekr, 
Omar and Othman, however, occupied this position before 
him, and it was not until 656, after the murder of Othman, that 
he assumed the title of caliph. The fact that he took no steps 
to prevent this murder is, perhaps, the only real blot upon his 
character. Almost the first act of his reign was the suppression 
of a rebellion under Talha and Zobair, who were instigated by 
Ayesha, Mahomet's widow, a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the 
chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel 
army was defeated at the " Battle of the Camel," near Bassorah 
(Basra), the two generals being killed, and Ayesha taken prisoner. 
Ali soon afterwards made Kufa his capital. His next care was 
to get rid of the opposition of Moawiya, who had established 
himself in Syria at the head of a numerous army. A prolonged 
battle took place in July 657 in the plain of Siffin (Suffein), 
near the Euphrates; the fighting was at first, it is said, in favour 
of Ali, when suddenly a number of the enemy, fixing copies of 
the Koran to the points of their spears, exclaimed that " the 
matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which 
forbids Moslems to shed each other's blood." The superstitious 
soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that 
the issue be referred to arbitration (see further CALIPHATE, 
section B. i). Abu Musa was appointed umpire on the part of 
Ali, and "Amr-ibn-el-Ass, a veteran diplomatist, on the part of 
Moawiya. It is said that 'Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it 
would be for the advantage of Islam that neither candidate 
should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa 
having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Moawiya, 'Amr 
declared that he also deposed Ali, and announced further that 
he invested Moawiya with the caliphate. This treacherous 
decision (but see CALIPHATE, ib.) greatly injured the cause of 
Ali, which was still further weakened by tie loss of Egypt. 
After much indecisive fighting, Ali found his position so unsatis- 
factory that according to some historians he made an agreement 
with Moawiya by which each retained his own dominions un- 
molested. It chanced, however according to a legend, the 
details of which are quite uncertain that three of the fanatic 
sect of the Kharijites had made an agreement to assassinate Ali, 
Moawiya and 'Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among 
the faithful. The only victim of this plot was Ali, who died 
at Kufa in 661, of the wound inflicted by a poisoned weapon. 
A splendid mosque called Meshed Ali was afterwards erected 
near the city, but the place of his burial is unknown. He had 
eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is said, thirty- 
three children, one of whom, Hassan, a son of Fatima, succeeded 
him in the caliphate. His descendants by Fatima are known as 
the Fatimites (q.v.; see also EGYPT: History, Mahommedan 
period). The question of Ali's right to succeed to the caliphate 
is an article of faith which divided the Mahommedan world into 
two great sects, the Sunnites and the Shiites, the former denying, 
and the latter affirming, his right. The Turks, consequently, 
hold his memory in abhorrence; whereas the Persians, who 
are generally Shi'as, venerate him as second only to the prophet, 
call him the " Lion of God " (Sher-i-Khuda) , and celebrate the 
anniversary of his martyrdom. Ali is described as a bold, noble 
and generous man, " die last and worthiest of the primitive 
Moslems, who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companion- 
ship with the prophet himself, and who followed to the last the 
simplicity of his example." It is maintained, on the other 
hand, that his motives were throughout those of ambition rather 
than piety, and that, apart from the tragedy of his death, he 
would have been an insignificant figure in history. (See further 
CALIPHATE.) 

In the eyes of the later Moslems he was remarkable for learning 
and wisdom, and there are extant collections (almost all certainly 



spurious) of proverbs and verses which bear his name : the Sentences 
of Ali (Ene. trans., William Yule, Edinburgh, 1832); H. L. 
Fleischer, Alis hundert Spriiche (Leipz. 1837); the Divan, by 
G. Kuypert (Leiden, 1745, and at Bulak, 1835); C. Brockelmann, 
Gesch. d. arabisch. Lit. (vol. i., Weimar, 1899). 

ALI, known as ALI BEY (1766-1818), the assumed name of 
DOMINGO BADIA Y LEBLICH, a Spanish traveller, born in 1766. 
After receiving a liberal education he devoted particular attention 
to the Arabic language, and made a special study of the manners 
and customs of the East. Pretending to be a descendant of the 
Abbasids, Badia in 1803 set out on his travels. Under the name 
of Ali Bey el Abbassi, and in Mussulman costume, he visited 
Morocco, Tripoli, Egypt, Arabia and Syria, and was received 
as a person of high rank wherever he appeared. He made the 
pilgrimage to Mecca, at that time in the possession of the Waha- 
bites. On his return to Spain in 1807 he declared himself a 
Bonapartist, and was made intendant first of Segovia and 
afterwards of Cordova. When the French were driven from 
Spain, Badia was compelled to take refuge in France, and there 
in 1814, published an account of his travels under the title of 
Voyage d' Ali Bey en Asie et en Afrique, &c. A few years later 
he set out again for Syria, under the assumed name of Ali Othman, 
and, it is said, accredited as a political agent by the French 
government. He reached Aleppo, and there died on the soth 
of August 1818, not without suspicion of having been poisoned. 

An account of his Eastern adventures was published in London 
in 1816, in two volumes, entitled Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus, 
Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Turkey, between the year 3.1803 an d 1807. 

ALI, known as ALI PASHA (1741-1822), Turkish pasha of 
lannina, surnamed Arslan, " the Lion," was born at Tepeleni, a 
village in Albania at the foot of the Klissura mountains. He was 
one of the Toske tribe, and his ancestors had for some time 
held the hereditary office of bey of Tepeleni. His father, a 
man of mild and peaceful disposition, was killed when Ali was 
fourteen years old by neighbouring chiefs who seized his terri- 
tories. His mother Khamko, a woman of extraordinary character, 
thereupon herself formed and led a brigand band, and studied to 
inspire the boy with her own fierce and indomitable temper, 
with a view to revenge and the recovery of the lost property. 
In this wild school Ali proved an apt pupil. A hundred tales, for 
the most part probably mythical, are told of his powers and 
cunning during the years he spent among the mountains as a 
brigand leader. At last, by a picturesque stratagem, he gained 
possession of Tepeleni and took vengeance on his enemies. To 
secure himself from rivals in his own family, he is said to have 
murdered his brother and imprisoned his mother on a charge of 
attempting to poison him. With a view to establishing his 
authority he now made overtures to the Porte and was com- 
missioned to chastise the rebellious pasha of Scutari, whom he 
defeated and killed. He also, on pretext of his disloyalty, put to 
death Selim, pasha of Delvinon. Ali was now confirmed in the 
possession of all his father's territory and was also appointed 
lieutenant to the derwend-pasha of Rumelia, whose duty it was 
to suppress brigandage and highway robbery. This gave him an 
opportunity for amassing wealth by sharing the booty of the 
robbers in return for leaving them alone. The disgrace that fell 
in consequence on his superior, Ali escaped by the use of lavish 
bribes at Constantinople. In 1787 he took part in the war with 
Russia, and was rewarded by being made pasha of Trikala in 
Thessaly and derwend-pasha of Rumelia. It now suited his 
policy to suppress the brigands, which he did by enlisting most of 
them under his own banner. His power was now already 
considerable; and in 1788 he added to it by securing his nomina- 
tion to the pashalik of lannina by a characteristic trick. 

The illiterate brigand, whose boyish ambition had not looked 
beyond the recovery of his father's beylick, was now established 
as one of the most powerful viziers under the Ottoman govern- 
ment. Success only stimulated his insatiable ambition. He 
earned the confidence of the Porte by the cruel discipline he 
maintained in his own sanjak, and the regular flow of tribute and 
bribes which he directed to Constantinople ; while he bent all his 
energies to extending his territories at the expense of his neigh- 
bours. The methods he adopted would have done credit to 



66o 



ALI 



Cesare Borgia; they may be studied in detail in the lurid pages 
of Pouqueville. Soon, by one means or another, his power was 
supreme in all central Albania. Two main barriers still obstructed 
the realization of his ambition,which now embraced Greece and 
Thessaly, as well as Albania, and the establishment in the 
Mediterranean of a sea-power which should rival that of the dey 
of Algiers. The first of these was the resistance of the little 
Christian hill community of Suli; the second the Venetian 
occupation of the coast, within a mile of which by convention 
with the Porte no Ottoman soldier might penetrate. It needed 
three several attacks before, in 1803, Ali conquered the Suliot 
stronghold. Events in western Europe gave him an earlier 
opportunity of becoming master of most of the coast towns. Ali 
had watched with interest the career of Bonaparte in Italy, and 
the treaty of Campo Formio (1797), which blotted the Venetian 
republic from the map of Europe, gave him the opportunity he 
desired. In response to his advances commissaries of the French 
republic visited him at lannina and, affecting a sudden zeal for 
republican principles, he easily obtained permission to suppress 
the " aristocratic " tribes on the coast. His plans in Albania 
were interrupted by the war against Pasvan Oglu, the rebellious 
pasha of Widdin, in which Ali once more did good service. 
Meanwhile international politics had developed in a way that 
necessitated a change in Ali's attitude. Napoleon's occupation 
of the Ionian Islands and his relations with Ali had alarmed 
Russia, which feared that French influence would be substituted 
for her own in the Balkan peninsula; and on the 5th of September 
1 798 a formal alliance, to which Great Britain soon after acceded, 
was signed on behalf of the emperor Paul and the sultan. Once 
more Ali turned Turk and fought against his recent friends with 
such success that in the end he remained in possession of Butrinto, 
Prevesa and Vonitza on the coast, was created pasha " of three 
tails " by the sultan, and received the congratulations of Nelson. 
But the campaign of Austerlitz followed, then the peace of 
Pressburg which guaranteed to Napoleon the former dominions 
of Venice, and finally the treaty of Tilsit, which involved, among 
other things, the withdrawal of the Russians from the Ionian 
Islands and the Albanian coast. 

Amid all the momentous changes the part of Ali was a difficult 
one. He had, moreover, to contend with domestic enemies, and 
with difficulty defeated a league formed against him by some 
Mussulman tribes, under Ibrahim of Berat and Mustapha of 
Delvinon, and the Suliots. He knew, however, how to retain the 
confidence of the sultan, who not only confirmed him in the 
possession of the whole of Albania from Epirus to Montenegro, 
but even in 1799 appointed him vali of Rumelia, an office which 
he held just long enough to enable him to return to lannina laden 
with the spoils of Thessaly. He was now at the height of his 
power. In 1803 the Suliot stronghold fell; and he was undis- 
puted master of Epirus, Albania and Thessaly, while the pashalik 
of the Morea was held by his son Veli, and that of Lepanto by his 
son Mukhtar. Only the little town of Parga held out against him 
on the coast; and in order to obtain this he once more in 1807 
entered into an alliance with Napoleon. The French emperor, 
however, preferred to keep Parga, as a convenient gate into the 
Balkan peninsula, and it remained in French occupation until 
March 1814, when the Pargiots rose against the gairison and 
handed the fortress over to the British to save it from falling into 
the hands of Ali, who had bought the town from the French 
commander, Cozi Nikolo, and was closely investing it. The 
cordial relations between Napoleon and the pasha of lannina had 
not long continued. Ali was angered by the refusal to surrender 
Parga and justly suspicious of the ambitions which this refusal 
implied; he could not feel himself secure with the Ionian Islands 
and the Dalmatian coast in the hands of a power whose plans in 
the East were notorious, and he was glad enough to avail himself 
of Napoleon's reverses in 1812 to help to rid himself of so danger- 
ous a neighbor. His services to the allies received their reward. 
Still bent on obtaining Parga, he sent a special mission to London, 
backed by a letter from Sir Robert Liston, the British ambassador 
at Constantinople, calling the attention of the government to the 
pasha's supereminent qualities " and his services against the 



French. After some hesitation it was decided to evacuate Parga 
and hand it over to the Ottoman government, i.e. Ali Pasha. 
The convention by which this was effected was ultimately signed 
on the i7th of May 1817, being ratified by the sultan on the 24th 
of April 1819. By its terms the Pargiots were to receive an 
asylum in the islands, the Ottoman government undertaking to 
pay compensation for their property. Ali had no difficulty in 
finding the money; the garrison, as soon as it was received, 
marched out with the bulk of the inhabitants; and the last 
citadel of freedom in the Balkans fell to the tyrant of lannina. 1 

Ali's authority in the great part of the peninsula subject to him 
now overshadowed that of the sultan; and Mahmud II., whose 
whole policy had been directed to destroying the overgrown 
power of the provincial pashas, began to seek a pretext for 
overthrowing the Lion of Iannina,whose all-devouring ambition 
seemed to threaten his own throne. The occasion came in 1820 
when Ali, emboldened by impunity, violated the sanctity of 
Stamboul itself by attempting to procure the murder of his 
enemy Pacho Bey in the very precincts of the palace. A decree 
of disposition was now issued against the sacrilegious vali, who 
had dared " to fire shots in Constantinople, the residence of the 
caliph, and the centre of security." Its execution was entrusted 
to Khurshid Pasha, with the bulk of the Ottoman forces. 

For two years Ali, now over eighty years of age, held his own, 
in spite of the defection of his vassals and even of his sons. At 
last, in the spring of 1822, after a prolonged siege in his island 
fortress at lannina, which even the outbreak of the Greek revolt 
had not served to raise, the intrepid old man was forced to sue for 
terms. He asked and received an interview with Khurshid, was 
received courteously and dismissed with the most friendly 
assurances. As he turned to leave the grand vizier's tent he 
was stabbed in the back; his head was cut off and sent to 
Constantinople. Notwithstanding their treason to their father, 
his sons met with the same fate. 

In spite of the ferocious characteristics which have been sug- 
gested in the above sketch, Ali Pasha is undoubtedly one of the 
most remarkable, as he is one of the most picturesque, figures 
in modern history; and as such he was recognized in his own 
day. His court at lannina was the centre of a sort of barbarous 
culture, in which astrologers, alchemists and Greek poets played 
their part, and was often visited by travellers. Amongst others, 
Byron came, and has left a record of his impressions in " Childe 
Harold's Pilgrimage," less interesting and vivid than the prose 
accounts of Pouqueville, T. S. Hughes and William M. Leake. 
Leake (iii. 259) reports a reproof addressed by Ali to the French 
renegade Ibrahim Effendi, who had ventured to remonstrate 
against some particular act of ferocity: " At present you are 
too young at my court to know how to comport yourself. . . . 
You are not yet acquainted with the Greeks and Albanians: 
when I hang up one of these wretches on the plane-tree, brother 
robs brother under the very branches: if I burn one of them 
alive, the son is ready to steal his father's ashes to sell them for 
money. They are destined to be ruled by me; and no one but 
Ali is able to restrain their evil propensities." This is perhaps 
as good an apology as could be made for his character and 

1 In his report on the Ionian Treaty presented to Lord Castlereagh 
at the congress of Vienna in December 1814, Sir Richard Church 
strongly advocated, not only the retention of Parga, but that 
Vonitza, Prevesa and Butrinto also should be taken from Ali Pasha 
and placed under British protection, a measure he considered 
necessary for the safety of the Ionian Islands. " Ali Pasha," he 
wrote, " is now busy building forts along his coast and strengthening 
his castles in the interior. In January 1814 he had 14,000 peasants 
at work on the castle of Argiro Castro, and about 1500 erecting a 
fort at Porto Palermo, nearly opposite Corfu." In 1810 he had 
erected a fort directly opposite Santa Maura commanding the 
harbour. 

The fate of Parga created intense feeling at the time in England, 
and was cited by Liberals as a crowning instance of the perfidy 
of the government and of Castlereagh's subservience to reactionary 
tendencies abroad. The step, however, was not lightly taken. In 
occupying the town the British general had expressly refrained from 
pledging Great Britain to remain there ; and the" government held 
that any permanent occupation of a post on the mainland carried 
with it risks of complications out of all proportion to any possible 
benefit. 



ALIAGA ALICE, PRINCESS 



661 



methods. To the wild people over whom he ruled none was 
needed. He had their respect, if not their love; he is the hero 
of a thousand ballads; and his portrait still hangs among the 
ikons in the cottages of the Greek mountaineers. All accounts 
agree in describing him in later life as a man of handsome 
presence, with a venerable white beard, piercing black eyes 
and a benevolent cast of countenance, the effect of which was 
heightened in conversation by a voice of singular sweetness. 

AUTHORITIES. Apart from the scattered references in the pub- 
lished and unpublished diplomatic correspondence of the period, 
contemporary journals and books of travel contain much interesting 
material for the life of AH. Of these may especially be mentioned 
Francois C. H. L. Pouqueville, Voyage en Morce, a Constantinople, 
en Albanie, &c. (3 vols., Paris, 1805), of which an English version 
by A. Plumptre was published in 1815; ib. Voyage dans la Grece 
(5 vols., Pans, 1820, 1821). Pouqueville, who spent some time as 
French resident at lannina, had special facilities for obtaining first- 
hand information, though his emotionalism makes his observations 
and deductions at times somewhat suspect. Very interesting also 
are Thomas Smart Hughes, Travels in Greece and Albania (2 vols., 
2nd ed., Lond. 1830); John Cam Hobhouse (Lord Broughton), 
A Journey through Albania, &c. . . . during the years 1809 and 1810 
(Lond., 410, 1813, a new ed., 2 vols., 1855); William Martin Leake, 
Travels in Northern Greece (4 vols., Lond. 1845). See also Pouque- 
ville's Hist, de la regeneration de la Grece, 1740-1824 (4 vols., Paris, 
1824, 3rd ed., Brussels, 1825); R. A. Davenport, Life of AH Pasha, 
vizier of Epirus (1861). (W. A. P.) 

ALIAGA, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, 
Philippine Islands, about 70 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. 
(1903) 11,950. It has a comparatively cool and healthful 
climate, and is pleasantly situated about midway between the 
Pampanga Grande and the Pampanga Chico rivers, and in a 
large and fertile valley of which the principal products are Indian 
corn, rice, sugar and tobacco. Tagalog is the most important 
language; Ilocano, Pampango and Pangasinan are also used. 

ALIAS (Lat. for " at another time "), a term used to connect 
the different names of a person who has passed under more 
than one, in order to conceal his identity, or for other reasons; 
or, compendiously, to describe the adopted name. The expres- 
sion alias dictus was formerly used in legal indictments, and 
pleadings where absolute precision was necessary in identifying 
the person to be charged, as "John Jones, alias dictus James 
Smith." The adoption of a name other than a man's baptismal 
or surname need not necessarily be for the purpose of deception 
or fraud; pseudonyms or nicknames fall thus under the descrip- 
tion of an alias. Where a person is married under an alias, the 
marriage is void when both parties have knowingly and wilfully 
connived at the adoption of the alias, with a fraudulent intention. 
But if one of the parties to a marriage has acquired a new name 
by use and reputation, or if the true name of any one of the 
parties is not known to the other, the use of an alias in these cases 
will not affect the validity of the marriage. 

ALIBI (Lat. for "elsewhere"), in law, the defence resorted 
to in criminal prosecutions, where the person charged alleges 
that he was so far distant at the time from the place where the 
crime was committed that he could not have been guilty. An 
alibi, if substantiated, is the most conclusive proof of innocence. 

ALICANTE, a province of south-eastern Spain; bounded on 
the N. by Valencia, W. by Albacete and Murcia, S. by Murcia, 
and S.E. and E. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 470,149; 
area, 2096 sq. m. Alicante was formed in 1833 of districts taken 
from the ancient provinces of Valencia and Murcia, Valencia 
contributing by far the larger portion. The surface of the 
province is extremely diversified. In the north and west there 
are extensive mountain ranges of calcareous formation, inter- 
sected by deep ravines; while farther south the land is more 
level, and there are many fertile valleys. On the Mediterranean 
coast, unhealthy salt marshes alternate with rich plains of 
pleasant and productive huertas or gardens, such as those of 
Alicante and Denia. Apart from Segura, which flows from 
the highlands of Albacete through Murcia and Orihuela to the 
sea, there is no considerable river, but a few rivulets flow east 
into the Mediterranean. The climate is temperate, and the 
rainfall very slight. Despite the want of rivers and of rain, 
agriculture is in a flourishing condition. Many tracts, originally 



rocky and sterile, have been irrigated and converted into vine- 
yards and plantations. Cereals are grown, but the inhabitants 
prefer to raise such articles of produce as are in demand for 
export, and consequently part of the grain supply has to be 
imported. Esparto grass, rice, olives, the sugar-cane, and 
tropical fruits and vegetables are largely produced. Great 
attention is given to the rearing of bees and silk- worms; and 
the wine of the province is held in high repute throughout Spain, 
while some inferior kinds are sent to France to be mixed with 
claret. There are iron and lignite mines, but the output is 
small. Mineral springs are found at various places. The manu- 
factures consist of fine cloths, silk, cotton, woollen and linen 
fabrics, girdles and lace, paper, hats, leather, earthenware 
and soap. There are numerous oil mills and brandy distilleries. 
Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the carrying trade, 
while the fisheries on the coast are also actively prosecuted, 
tunny and anchovies being caught in great numbers. Barilla 
is obtained from the sea-weed on the shores, and some of the 
saline marshes, notably those near Torrevieja, yield large 
supplies of salt. The principal towns, which are separately 
described, include Alicante, the capital (pop. 1900, 50,142), 
Crevillente (10,726), Denia (12,431), Elche (27,308), Novelda 
(11,388), Orihuela (28,530), and Villena (14,099). Other towns, 
of less importance, are Aspe (7927), Cocentaina (7093), Monovar 
(10,601), Pinoso (7946), and Villajoyosa (8902). 

ALICANTE, the capital of the Spanish province described 
above, and one of the principal seaports of the country. Pop. 
(1900) 50,142. It is situated in 38 21' N. and o 26' W., on the 
Bay of Alicante, an inlet of the Mediterranean Sea. It is the 
termini of railways from Madrid and Murcia. From its harbour, 
the town presents a striking picture. Along the shore extends 
the Paseo de los Martires, a double avenue of palms; behind 
this, the white flat-roofed houses rise in the form of a crescent 
towards the low hills which surround the city, and terminate, 
on the right, in a bare rock, 400 ft. high, surmounted by an ancient 
citadel. Its dry and equable climate renders Alicante a popular 
health-resort. The city is an episcopal see, and contains a modern 
cathedral. 

The bay affords good anchorage, but only small vessels can 
come up to the two moles. The harbour is fortified, and there 
is a small lighthouse on the eastern mole; important engineering 
works, subsidized by the state, were undertaken in 1902 to 
provide better accomodation. In the same year 1737 vessels 
of 939,789 tons entered the port. The trade of Alicante consists 
chiefly in the manufacture of cotton, linen and woollen goods, 
cigars and confectionery; the importation of coal, iron, 
machinery, manures, timber, oak staves and fish; and the 
exportation of lead, fruit, farm produce and red wines, which 
are sent to France for blending with better vintages. Fine 
marble is procured in the island of Plana near the coast. 

Alicante was the Roman Lucentum; but, despite its antiquity, 
it has few Roman or Moorish remains. In 718, it was occupied 
by the Moors, who were only expelled in 1304, and made an 
unsuccessful attempt to recapture the city in 1331. Alicante 
was besieged by the French in 1709, and by the Federalists of 
Cartagena in 1873. For an account of the events which led up 
to these two sieges, see SPAIN. 

For further details of the local history, see J. Pastor de la Roca, 
Historia general de la ciudad y Castillo de Alicante, &c. (Alicante, 1854); 
and the Ensayo biogrdfico bibliogrdfico de escritores de Alicante y de su 
provincia, by M. R. Garcia and A. Montero y Perez (Alicante, 1890). 

ALICE MAUD MARY, GRAND-DUCHESS OF HESSE-DARMSTADT 
(1843-1878), second daughter and third child of Queen Victoria, 
was born at Buckingham Palace, on the 25th of April 1843. A 
pretty, delicate-featured child " cheerful, merry, full of fun and 
mischief," as her elder sister described her fond of gymnastics, 
a good skater and an excellent horsewoman, she was a general 
favourite from her earliest days. Her first years were passed 
without particular incident in the home circle, where the training 
of their children was a matter of the greatest concern to the queen 
and the prince consort. Among other things, the royal children 
were encouraged to visit the poor, and the effect of this training 



662 



ALIDADE ALIEN 



was very noticeable in the later life of Princess Alice. After 
the marriage of the Princess Royal in 1858, the new responsi- 
bilities devolving upon Princess Alice, as the eldest daughter at 
home, called forth the higher traits of her character, and brought 
her into still closer relationship with her parents, and especially 
with her father. In the summer of 1860, at Windsor Castle, 
Princess Alice first met her future husband, Prince Louis of 
Hesse. An attachment quickly sprang up, and on the prince's 
second visit in November they were formally engaged. In the 
following year, on the announcement of the contemplated 
marriage, the House of Commons unanimously voted a dowry 
of 30,000 and an annuity of 6000 to the princess. In December 
1861, while preparations were being made for the marriage, the 
prince consort was struck down with typhoid fever, and died 
on the 1 4th. Princess Alice nursed her father during his short 
illness with the utmost care, and after his death devoted herself 
to comforting her mother under this terrible blow. Her marriage 
took place at Osborne, on the ist of July 1862. The princess 
unconsciously wrote her own biography from this period in her 
constant letters to Queen Victoria, a selection of which, edited 
by Dr. Carl Sell, were allowed to be printed in 1 883. These letters 
give a complete picture of the daily life of the duke and duchess, 
and they also show the intense love of the latter for her husband, 
her mother and her native land. She managed to visit England 
every year, and it was at her special request that when she died 
her husband laid an English flag upon her coffin. 

In the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Hesse- 
Darmstadt was upon the side of the Austrians; Prince Louis 
accompanied his troops to the front, and was duly appointed by 
the grand-duke to the command of the Hessian division. This 
was a time of intense trial to the princess, whose husband and 
brother-in-law, the crown prince of Prussia, were necessarily 
fighting upon opposite sides. The duke of Hesse also took part 
in the principal battles of the Franco-Prussian war, while the 
duchess was actively engaged in organizing hospitals for the 
relief of the sick and wounded. The death of the duke's father, 
Prince Charles of Hesse, on the aoth of March 1877, was followed 
by that of the grand-duke on the I3th of June, and Prince Louis 
succeeded to the throne as Grand Duke Louis IV. In the summer 
of 1878 the grand-duke and duchess, with their family, came 
again to England, and went to Eastbourne, where the duchess 
remained for some time. She returned to Darmstadt in the 
autumn, and on the 8th of November 1878 her daughter, Princess 
Victoria, was attacked by diphtheria. Three more of her 
children, as well as her husband, quickly caught the disease, and 
the youngest, " May," succumbed on the i6th. On the 7th of 
December the princess was herself attacked, and, being weakened 
by nursing and anxiety, had not strength to resist the disease, 
which proved fatal on the I4th of December, the seventeenth 
anniversary of her father's death. She left one son and four 
daughters. 

See Carl Sell, Alice: Mittheilungen CMS ihrem Leben und Brief en, 
&c. (Darmstadt, 1883), with English translation by the Princess 
Christian, A lice: biographical sketch and letters (1884). (G. F. B.) 

ALIDADE (from the Arab.), the movable index of a graduated 
arc, used in the measurement of angles. The word is used also 
to designate the supporting frame or arms carrying the micro- 
scopes or verniers of a graduated circle. 

ALIEN (Lat. alienus), the technical term applied by British 
constitutional law to anyone who does not enjoy the character of 
a British subject; in general, a foreigner who for the purposes of 
any state comes into certain domestic relations with it, other 
than those applying to native-born or naturalized citizens, but 
owns allegiance to a foreign sovereign. 

English law, save with the special exceptions mentioned, 
admits to the character of subjects all who are born within the 
king's allegiance, that is, speaking generally, within the British 
dominions. In the celebrated question of the post-nati in the 
reign of James I. of England, it was found, after solemn trial, 
that natives of Scotland born before the union of the crowns were 
aliens in England, but that, since allegiance is to the person of the 
king, those born subsequently were English subjects. A child 



born abroad, whose father or whose grandfather on the father's 
side was a British subject, may claim the same character unless 
at the time of his birth his father was an attainted traitor, or in 
the service of a state engaged in war against the British empire 
(4th Geo. II. c. 21). Owing to this exceptional provision some 
sons of Jacobite refugees born abroad, who joined in the rebellion 
of 1745, were admitted to the privilege of prisoners of war. 

It has been enacted in the United Kingdom with regard to the 
national status of women and children that a married woman is 
to be deemed a subject of the state of which her husband is for the 
time being a subject; that a natural-born British woman, having 
become an alien by marriage, and thereafter being a widow, may 
be rehabilitated under conditions slightly more favourable than 
are required for naturalization; that where a father or a widow 
becomes an alien, the children in infancy becoming resident in the 
country where the parent is naturalized, and being naturalized by 
the local law, are held to be subjects of that country; that those 
of a father or of a widow readmitted to.British nationality or who 
obtains a certificate of naturalization, becoming during infancy 
resident with such parent in the British dominions in the former 
case or in the United Kingdom in the latter, become readmitted 
or naturalized (Naturalization Act 1870, s. 10). The nationality 
of children not covered by these enactments is not affected by the 
change of their parents' nationality. The same statute provides 
that a declaration of alienage before a justice of peace or other 
competent judge, having the effect of divesting the declarant of 
the character of a British subject, may be made by a naturalized 
British subject desiring to resume the nationality of the country 
to which he originally belonged, if there be a convention to that 
effect with that country; by natural-born subjects who were also 
born subjects of another state according to its law; or by persons 
born abroad having British fathers. 

Naturalization, which means conferring the character of a 
subject, may now, under the act of 1870, be obtained by applying 
to the home secretary and producing evidence of having resided 
for not less than five years in the United Kingdom, or of having 
been in the service of the crown for not less than five years, and 
of intention to reside in the United Kingdom or serve under the 
crown. Such a certificate may be granted by the secretary of 
state to one naturalized previously to the passing of the act, or to 
a British subject as to whose nationality a doubt exists, or to a 
statutory alien, i.e. one who has become an alien by declaration in 
pursuance of the act of 1870. 

In the United States the separate state laws largely determine 
the status of an alien, but subject to Federal treaties. (For 
further particulars see ALLEGIANCE and NATURALIZATION.) 

Many of the disabilities to which aliens were subject in the 
United Kingdom, either by the common law or under various acts 
of parliament, have been repealed by the Naturalization Act 
1870. It enables aliens to take, acquire, hold and dispose of real 
and personal property of every description, and to transmit a 
title to it, in all respects as natural-born British subjects. But 
the act expressly declares that this relaxation of the law does not 
qualify aliens for any office or any municipal, parliamentary or 
other franchise, or confer any right of a British subject other than 
those above expressed in regard to property, nor does it affect 
interests vested in possession or expectancy under dispositions 
made before the act, or by devolution of law on the death of any 
one dying before the act. A ship, any share in which is owned by 
an alien, shall not be deemed a British ship (Merchant Shipping 
Act 1894, s. i). By the Juries Act 1870, s. 8, aliens who have 
been domiciled for ten years in England or Wales, if in other 
respects duly qualified, are liable to serve on juries or inquests in 
England or Wales; and by the Naturalization Act 1870, s. 5, the 
aliens' old privilege of being tried by a jury de medietate linguae 
(that is, of which half were foreigners), was abolished. 

It seems to be a rule of general public law that an alien can be 
sent out of the realm by exercise of the crown's prerogative; but 
in modern English practice, whenever it seems necessary to expel 
foreigners (see EXPULSION), a special act of parliament has to 
be obtained for the purpose, unless the case falls within the 
extradition acts or the Aliens Act 1905. The latter prohibits the 



ALIENATION ALIMENTARY CANAL 



663 



landing in the United Kingdom of undesirable alien steerage 
passengers, called in the act " immigrants," from ships carrying 
more than twenty alien steerage passengers, called in the act 
" immigrant ships "; nor can alien immigrants be landed except 
at certain ports at which there is an " immigrant officer," to 
whom power of prohibiting the landing is given, subject to a 
right of appeal to the immigration board of the port. The act 
contains a number of qualifications, and among these empowers 
the secretary of state to exempt any immigrant ship from its 
provisions if he is satisfied that a proper system is maintained to 
prevent the immigration of undesirable persons. The principal 
test of undesirableness is not having or being in a position to 
obtain the means of supporting one's self and one's dependents, 
or appearing likely from disease or infirmity to become a charge 
on the rates, provided that the immigrant is not seeking to avoid 
prosecution or punishment on religious or political grounds, or 
persecution, involving danger of imprisonment or danger to life 
or limb, on account of religious belief. Lunatics, idiots, persons 
who from disease or infirmity appear likely to become a detriment 
to the public otherwise than through the rates, and persons 
sentenced in a foreign country for crimes for which they could 
be surrendered to that country, are also enumerated as undesir- 
able. Power is also given to the secretary of state to expel 
persons sentenced as just mentioned, or, if recommended by the 
court in which they have been convicted, persons convicted of 
felony or some offence for which the court has power to impose 
imprisonment without the option of a fine, or of certain offences 
against the police laws; and persons in receipt of any such 
parochial relief as disqualifies for the parliamentary franchise, or 
wandering without ostensible means of subsistence, or living under 
insanitary conditions due to overcrowding. (JNO. W.) 

ALIENATION (from Lat. aliemts, belonging to another), 
the act or fact of being estranged, set apart or separated. In 
law the word is used for the act of transfer of property by 
voluntary deed and not by inheritance. In regard to church 
property the word has come to mean, since the Reformation, 
a transfer from religious to secular ownership. " Alienation " 
is also used to denote a state of insanity (q.v.). 

ALIEN-HOUSES, religious houses in England belonging to 
foreign ecclesiastics, or under their control. They generally 
were built where property had been left by the donors to foreign 
orders to pray for their souls. They were frequently regular 
" priories," but sometimes only " cells," and even " granges," 
with small chapels attached. Some, particularly in cities, seem 
to have been a sort of mission-houses. There were more than 
100 in England. Many alien-houses were suppressed by Henry 
V. and the rest by Henry VIII. 

ALIENIST (Lat. alienus, that which belongs to another, i.e. is 
external to one's self), one who specializes in the study of mental 
diseases, which are often included in the generic name " Aliena- 
tion." (See INSANITY.) 

ALIGARH, a city and district of British India in the Meerut 
division of the United Provinces. The city, also known as Koil, 
was a station on the East Indian railway, 876 m. from Calcutta. 
Sir Sayad Ahmad Khan, K. C.S.I., who died in 1898, founded in 
1864 the Aligarh Institute and Scientific Society for the transla- 
tion into the vernacular of western literature; and afterwards 
the Mahommedan Anglo-Oriental college, under English pro- 
fessors, with an English school attached. The college meets 
with strong support from the enlightened portion of the Mussul- 
man community, whose aim is to raise it to the status of a 
university, with the power of conferring degrees. The populati on 
(1901) 70,434, showed an increase of 14% in the decade. 
There are several flour-mills, cotton-presses and a dairy farm. 
Aligarh Fort, situated on the Grand Trunk road, consists of a 
regular polygon, surrounded by a very broad and deep ditch. 
It became a fortress of great importance under Sindhia in 1759, 
and was the depot where he drilled and organized his battalions 
in the European fashion with the aid of De Boigne. It was 
captured from the Mahrattas under the leadership of Perron, 
another French officer, by Lord Lake's army, in September 
1803, since which time it has been much strengthened and 



improved. In the rebellion of 1857 the troops stationed at 
Aligarh mutinied, but abstained from murdering their officers, 
who, with the other residents and ladies and children, succeeded 
in reaching Hathras. 

The district of Aligarh has an area of 1957 sq. m. It is nearly 
a level plain, but with a slight elevation in the centre, between 
the two great rivers the Ganges and Jumna. The only other 
important river is the Kali Nadi, which traverses the entire 
length of the district from north-east to south-west. The 
district is traversed by several railways and also by the Ganges 
canal, which is navigable. The chief trading centre is Hathras. 
In 1901 the population was 1,200,822, showing an increase of 
15% in the decade, due to the extension of irrigation. There 
are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton. 

ALIGNMENT (from Fr. A and ligne, the Lat. linea, a line), 
a setting in line, generally straight, or the way in which the 
line runs; an expression used in surveying, drawing, and in 
military arrangements, the alignment of a regiment or a camp 
meaning the situation when drawn up in line or the relative 
position of the tents. The alignment of a rifle has reference to 
the way of getting the sights into line with the object, so as to 
aim correctly. 

ALIMENT (from Lat. aliment-urn, from alere to nourish), a 
synonym for " food," literally or metaphorically. The word 
has also been used in the same legal sense as ALIMONY (q.v.). 
Aliment, in Scots law, is the sum paid or allowance given in 
respect of the reciprocal obligation of parents and children, 
husband and wife, grandparents and grandchildren, to contribute 
to each other's maintenance. The term is also used in regard 
to a similar obligation of other parties, as of creditors to im- 
prisoned debtors, the payments by parishes to paupers, &c. 
Alimentary funds, whether of the kind above mentioned, or set 
apart as such by the deed of a testator, are intended for the 
mere support of the recipient, and are not attachable by 
creditors. 

ALIMENTARY CANAL, in anatomy. The alimentary canal, 
strictly speaking, is the whole digestive tract from the mouth 
to the anus. From the one orifice to the other the tube is 
some 25 to 30 ft. long, and the food, in its passage, passes 
through the following parts one after the other: mouth, 
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines, caecum, large 
intestines, rectum and anus. Into this tube at various points 
the salivary glands, liver and pancreas pour their secretions 
by special ducts. As the mouth (q.v.) and pharynx (q.v.) are 
separately described, the detailed description will here begin 
with the oesophagus or gullet. 

The oesophagus (Gr. oi<rco, I will carry, and <j>a-yelv, to eat), a 
muscular tube lined with mucous membrane, stretches from the 
lower limit of the pharynx, at the level of the cricoid cartilage, 
to the cardiac orifice of the stomach. It is about 10 in. long 
(25 cm.) and half to one inch in diameter. At first it lies 
in the lower part of the neck, then in the thorax, and lastly, for 
about an inch, in the abdomen. As far as the level of the fourth 
or fifth thoracic vertebra it lies behind the trachea, but when 
that tube ends, it is in close contact with the pericardium, and, 
at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra, passes through the 
oesophageal opening of the diaphragm (q.v.), accompanied by 
the two vagi nerves, the left being in front of it and the right 
behind. In the abdomen it lies just behind the left lobe of the 
liver. Both in the upper and lower parts of its course it lies a 
little to the left of the mid line. Its mucous membrane is thrown 
into a number of longitudinal pleats to allow stretching. 

The stomach (Gr. orijuaxos) is an irregularly pear-shaped 
bag, situated in the upper and left part of the abdomen. It is 
somewhat flattened from before backward and so has an anterior 
and posterior surface and an upper and lower border. When 
moderately distended the thick end of the pear oifundus bulges 
upward and to the left, while the narrow end is constricted to 
form the pylorus, by means of which the stomach communicates 
with the small intestine. The cardiac orifice, where the oeso- 
phagus enters, is placed about a third of the way along the upper 
border from the left end of the fundus, and, between it and the 



664 



ALIMENTARY CANAL 



pylorus, the upper border is concave and is known as the lesser 
curvature. From the cardiac to the pyloric orifice, round the 
lower border, is the greater curvature. The stomach has in front 
of it the liver (see fig. i), the diaphragm and the anterior 
abdominal wall, while behind it are the pancreas, left kidney, 
left adrenal, spleen, colon and mesocolon. These structures form 
what is known as the stomach chamber. When the stomach is 
empty it contracts into a tubular organ which is frequently 
sharply bent, and the transverse colon ascends to occupy the 
vacant part of the stomach chamber. 

The last inch of the stomach before reaching the pylorus is 



Diaphragm 



Attachment of 

falciform ligament 



Right lobe of liver 



Gall-bladder 



Transverse colon 
Small intestine 



Ascending colon \ 



Anterior superior 
spine 

Caecum 




SCALE IN INCHES SCALE IN CENIIMfTRES 

From A. Birmingham; Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG. I . The Abdominal Viscera in situ, as seen when the abdomen is laid open and the great 
omentum removed (drawn to scale from a photograph of a male body aged 56, hardened by 
formalin injections). 

The ribs on the right side are indicated by Roman numerals; it will be observed that the 
eighth costal cartilage articulated with the sternum on both sides. The subcostal, intertuber- 
cular, and right and left Poupart lines are drawn in black, and the mesial plane is indicated 
by a dotted line. The intercostal muscles and part of the diaphragm have been removed, 
to show the liver and stomach extending up beneath the ribs. The stomach is moderately 
distended, and the intestines are particularly regular in their arrangement. 

usually tubular and is known as the pyloric canal. Before reach- 
ing this there is a bulging known as the pyloric vestibule (see 
D. J. Cunningham, Tr. R. Soc. of Edinb. vol. xlv. pt. i, No. 2). 
The pylorus is an oval opening, averaging half an inch in its long 
axis but capable of considerable distension; it is formed by a 
special development of the circular muscle layer of the stomach, 
and during life is probably tightly closed. The mucous membrane 
of the stomach is thrown into pleats or rugae when the organ is 
not fully distended, while between these it has a mammillated 
appearance. 

Superficial to the mucous coat is a sub-mucous, consisting of 
loose connective tissue, while superficial to this are three coats 
of unstriped muscle, the inner oblique, the middle circular and the 



outer longitudinal. The peritoneal coat is described in the article 
on the coelom and serous membranes. 

The small intestine is a tube, from 22 to 25 ft. long, beginning 
at the pylorus and ending at the ileo-caecal valve; it is divided 
into duodenum, jejunum and ileum. 

The duodenum is from 9 to 1 1 in. long and forms a horseshoe 
or C-shaped curve, encircling the head of the pancreas. It differs 
from the rest of the gut in being retroperitoneal. Its first part 
is horizontal and lies behind the fundus of the gall-bladder, 
passing backward and to the right from the pylorus. The second 
part runs vertically downward in front of the hilum of the right 
kidney, and into this part the pancreatic 
and bile ducts open. The third part runs 
horizontally to the left in front of the 
aorta and vena cava, while the fourth 
part ascends to the left side of the second 
lumbar vertebra, after which it bends 
sharply downward and forward to form 
the duodeno-jejunal flexure. 

The jejunum forms the upper two-fifths 
of the rest of the small intestine; it, like 
the ileum, is thrown into numerous con- 
volutions and is attached by the mesen- 
tery to the posterior abdominal wall. (See 
COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.) 

The ileum is the remaining three-fifths 
of the small intestine, though there is no 
absolute point at which the one ends and 
the other begins. Speaking broadly, the 
jejunum occupies the upper and left part 
of the abdomen below the subcostal 
plane (see ANATOMY: Superficial and 
Artistic), the ileum the lower and right 
part. About 3 ft. from its termination 
a small pouch, known as Meckel's diverti- 
culum, is very occasionally found. At its 
termination the ileum opens into the 
large intestine at the ileo-caecal valve. 

The caecum is a blind sac occupying the 
right iliac fossa and extending down 
some two or three inches below the ileo- 
caecal junction. From its posterior and 
left surface the vermiform appendix pro- 
trudes, and usually is directed upward and 
to the left, though it not infrequently 
hangs down into the true pelvis. This 
worm-like tube is blind at its end and 
is usually 3 or 4 in. long, though it has 
been seen as long as 10. in. Its internal 
opening into the caecum is about i in. 
below that of the ileum. On transverse 
section at is seen to be composed of (i) 
an external muscular coat, (2) a sub- 
mucous coat, (3) a mass of lymphoid 
tissue, which appears after birth, and (4) 
mucous membrane. In many cases its 
lumen is wholly or partly obliterated, 
though this is probably due to disease 
(see R. Berry and L. Lack, Journ. Anal. 6* 

Phys. vol. xl. p. 247). Guarding the opening of the ileum 
into the caecum is the ileo-caecal valve, which consists of two 
cusps projecting into the caecum; of these the upper forms 
a horizontal shelf, while the lower slopes up to it obliquely. 
Complete absence of the valve has been noticed, and in one 
such case the writer found that no abdominal inconvenience 
had been recorded during life. The caecum is usually com- 
pletely covered by peritoneum, three special pouches of which 
are often found in its neighbourhood; of these the ileo-colic is 
just above the point of junction of the ileum and caecum, the ileo- 
caecal just below that point, while the retro-caecal is behind the 
caecum. At birth the caecum is a cone, the apex of which is 
the appendix; it is bent upon itself to form a U, and sometimes 



Outline of liver 



Stomach 



Great omentum (cut) 

Transverse mesocolon 

with jejunum 

beneath it 

Taenia of transverse 

colon 

External oblique 

muscle 

Internal oblique 
position of umbilicus 



Part of iliac colon 
(sigmoid flexure) 



Small intestine 



ALIMENTARY CANAL 



665 



this arrangement persists throughout life (see C. Toldt, " Die 
Formbildung d. menschl. Blinddarmes," Sits, der Wiener Akad. 
Bd. ciii. Abteil. 3, p. 41). 

The ascending colon runs up from the caecum at the level 
of the ileo-caecal valve to the hepatic flexure beneath and 
behind the right lobe of the liver; it is about 8 in. long and 
posteriorly is in contact with the abdominal wall and right 
kidney. It is covered by peritoneum except on its posterior 
surface (see fig. i). 

The transverse colon is variable in position, depending largely 
on the distension of the stomach, but usually corresponding to 
the subcostal plane (see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic). 
On the left side of the abdomen it ascends to the splenic flexure, 
which may make an impression on the spleen (see DUCTLESS 
.GLANDS), and is bound to the diaphragm opposite the eleventh 
rib by a fold of peritoneum called the phrenico-colic ligament. 
The peritoneal relations of this part are discussed in the 
article on the coelom and serous membranes. 

The descending colon passes down in front of the left 
kidney and left side of the posterior abdominal wall to the 
crest of the ilium; it is about 6 in. long and is usually 
empty and contracted while the rest of the colon is dis- 
tended with gas; its peritoneal relations are the same as 
those of the ascending colon, but it is more likely to be 
completely surrounded. 

The iliac colon stretches from the crest of the ilium to 
the inner border of the psoas muscle, lying in the left iliac 
fossa, just above and parallel to Poupart's ligament. Like 
the descending, it is usually uncovered by peritoneum 
on its posterior surface. It is about 6 in. in length. 

The pelvic colon lies in the true pelvis and forms a loop, 
the two limbs of which are superior and inferior while the 
convexity reaches across to the right side of the pelvis. In 
the foetus this loop occupies the right iliac fossa, but, as 
the caecum descends and enlarges and the pelvis widens, 
it is usually driven out of this region. The distal end of 
the loop turns sharply downward to reach the third piece 
of the sacrum, where it becomes the rectum. To this 
pelvic colon Sir F. Treves {Anatomy of the Intestinal 
Canal, London, 1885) has given the name of the omega 
loop. Formerly the iliac and pelvic colons were spoken of 
as the sigmoid flexure, but Treves and T. Jonnesco (Le 



peritoneal coat has already been described wherever it is present. 
.The muscular coat consists of unstriped fibres arranged in two 
layers, the outer longitudinal and the inner circular (see fig. 2). 
In the large intestine the longitudinal fibres, instead of being 
arranged evenly round the tube as they are in -the small, are 
gathered into three longitudinal bands called taeniae (see fig. i); 
by the contraction of these the large intestine is thrown into a 
series of sacculi or slight pouches. The taeniae in the caecum 
all lead to the vermiform appendix, and form a useful guide 
to this structure. In the rectum the three taeniae once more 
become evenly arranged over the whole surface of the bowel, 
but more thickly on the anterior and posterior parts. The 
circular layer is always thicker than the longitudinal; in the 
small intestine it decreases in thickness from the duodenum to 
the ileum, but in the large it gradually increases again, so that 
it is thickest in the duodenum and rectum. 



UCSCMKUMTTS GLAND* ... 



VUU 



Circular 
muscular fibres 

Longitudinal 
muscular fibres 
Peritoneum 



Circular 
muscular fibres 

Longitudinal 
muscular fibres 
Peritoneum 




Blood-vessels 

forming net- 
work in sub- 
mucosa 



Peritoneum 



SMALL INTESTINE X 20 
Text -Book of Anatomy. 



Colon pehien pendant la vie intra-uterine, Paris, 1892) have *' 01 B ' mgh ""f"' T ft , ,, A , 

,.,.,.. J ' ., FIG. 2. Diagram to show the structure of the small and large intestine 



pointed out the inapplicability of the term, and to the 
latter author the modern description is due. 

The rectum, according to modern ideas, begins in front of the 
third piece of the sacrum; formerly the last part of the $2 (or 
omega) loop was described as its first part. It ends in a dilata- 
tion or rectal ampulla, which is in contact with the back of the 
prostate in the male and of the vagina in the female and is in 
front of the tip of the coccyx. The rectum is not straight, as 
its name would imply, but has a concavity forward corresponding 
to that of the sacrum and coccyx. 

When viewed from in front three bends are usually seen, the 
upper and lower of which are sharply concave to the left, the 
middle one to the right. At the end of the pelvic colon the 
mesocolon ceases, and the rectum is then only covered by peri- 
toneum at its sides and in front; lower down the lateral covering 
is gradually reflected off and then only the front is covered. 
About the junction of the middle and lower thirds of the tube 
the anterior peritoneal covering is also reflected off on to the 
bladder or vagina, forming the reclo-vesical pouch in the male 
and the pouch of Douglas in the female. This reflexion is usually 
about/3 in. above the anal aperture, but may be a good deal lower. 
. The anal canal is the termination of the alimentary tract, and 
runs downward and backward from the lower surface of the 
rectal ampulla between the levatores ani muscles. It is about 
an inch long and its lateral walls are in contact, so that in 
section it appears as an antero-posterior slit (see J. Symington, 
Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. 23, 1888;. 

Structure of the Intestine. The intestine has four coats: 
serous, muscular, submucous and mucous. The serous or 



and the duodenum. 

The submucous coat is very strong and consists of loose 
areolar tissue in which the vessels break up. 

The mucous coat is thick and vascular (see fig. 2); it consists 
of an epithelial layer most internally which forms the intestinal 
glands (see EPITHELIAL, ENDOTHELIAL AND GLANDULAR TISSUES). 
External to this is the basement membrane, outside which is a 
layer of retiform tissue, and this is separated from the submucous 
coat by a very thin layer of unstriped muscle called the muscu- 
laris mucosae. In the duodenum and jejunum the mucous 
membrane is thrown into a series of transverse pleats called 
valvulae conniventes (see fig. 3) ; these begin about an inch from 
the pylorus and gradually fade away as the ileum is reached. 
About 4 in. from the pylorus the common bile and pan- 
creatic ducts form a papilla, above which one of the valvulae 
conniventes makes a hood and below which a vertical fold, the 
frenulum, runs downward. The surface of the mucous membrane 
of the whole of the small intestine has a velvety appearance, 
due to the presence of closely-set, minute, thread-like elevations 
called iiilli (see fig. 2). Throughout the whole length of the 
intestinal tract are minute masses of lymphoid tissue called 
solitary glands (see fig. 2) ; these are especially numerous in the 
caecum and appendix, while in the ileum they are collected 
into large oval patches, known as agminated glands or Peyer's 
patches, the long axes of which, from half an inch to 4 in. 
long, lie in the long axis of the bowel. They are always found 
in that part of the intestine which is farthest from the mesenteric 
attachment. In the interior of the rectum three shelf-like folds, 



666 



ALIMENTARY CANAL 



one above the other, project into the cavity and correspond 
to the lateral concavities or kinks of the tube. They are not in 
the same line and the largest is usually on the right side. They 
are known as the plicae recti or valves of Houston. In the anal 
canal are four or five longitudinal folds called the columns of 
Morgagni. (For further details, see Quain's Anatomy, London, 
1896; Gray's Anatomy, London, 1905; Cunningham's Anatomy, 
Edinburgh, 1906.) 

Embryology. The greater part of the alimentary canal is 
formed by the closing-in of the entoderm to make a longitudinal 
tube, ventral and parallel to the notochord. This tube is blind 
in front and behind (cephalad and caudad), but the middle part 
of its ventral wall is for some distance continuous with the wall 
of the yolk-sac, and this part of the canal, which at first opens 
into the yolk-sac by a very wide aperture, is called the mid gut. 
The part in front of it, which lies dorsal to the heart, is the fore 
gut, while the part behind the aperture of the yolk-sac is the 
hind gut. 

The pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and part of the duodenum 
are developed from the fore gut, a good deal of the colon and the 




From A. Birmingham; Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. 
FIG. 3. Valvulae Conntventes (natural size). 

A, As seen in abitof jejunum which has been filled with alcohol 
and hardened. 

B, A portion of fresh intestine spread out under water. 

rectum from the hind gut, while the mid gut is responsible for 
the rest. The cephalic part of the fore gut forms the pharynx 
(q.v.), and about the fourth week the stomach appears as a 
fusiform dilatation in the straight tube. Between the two the 
oesophagus gradually forms as the embryo elongates. The 
opening into the yolk-sac, which at first is very wide, gradually 
narrows, as the ventral abdominal walls close in, until in the 
adult the only indication of the connexion between the gut and 
the yolk-sac is the very rare presence (about 2 %) of Meckel's 
diverticulum already referred to. The stomach soon shows 
signs of the greater and lesser curvatures, the latter being 
ventral, but maintains its straight position. About the sixth 
week the caecum appears as a lateral diverticulum, and, until 
the third month, is of uniform calibre; after this period the 
terminal part ceases to grow at the same rate as the proximal, 
and so the vermiform appendix is formed. The mid gut forms a 
loop with its convexity toward the diminishing vitelline duct, 
or remains of the yolk-sac, and until the third month it protrudes 
into the umbilical cord. The greater curvature of the stomach 
grows more rapidly than the lesser, and the whole stomach turns 
over and becomes bent at right angles, so that what was its left 
surface becomes ventral. This turning over of the stomach 
throws the succeeding part of the intestine into a duodenal loop, 
which at first has a dorsal and ventral mesentery (see COELOM 



AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). The intestine now grows very 
rapidly and is thrown into a series of coils; the caecum ascends 
and passes to the right ventral to the duodenum, and presses 
it against the dorsal wall of the abdomen; then it descends 
toward its permanent position in the right iliac fossa. 

From the ventral surface on the hinder (caudal) closed end of 
the intestinal tube the allantois grows to form the placenta and 
bladder (see URINARY SYSTEM, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM and 
PLACENTA) , and this region is the cloaca into which the alimentary, 
urinary and generative canals or ducts all open, but later two 
lateral folds appear which, by their union, divide the cloaca into 
a ventral and a dorsal part, the former being genito-urinary and 
the latter alimentary or intestinal. In this way the rectum or 
dorsal compartment is shut off from the genito-urinary. Later 
an ectodermal invagination at the hind end of the embryo . 
develops and forms the anal canal; this is the proctodaeum, and 
for some time it is separated from the hind (caudal) end of the 
rectal part of the mesodaeum (or part of the intestinal canal 
formed from the mesoderm) by a membrane called the anal 
membrane. This is eventually absorbed and the digestive tract 
now communicates with the surface by the anus. 

F. Wood Jones (British Medical Journal, lyth of December 
1904) has given a somewhat different description of the develop- 
ment of the cloaca and anus, which better explains the various 
abnormalities met with in this region but requires further 
confirmation before it is generally accepted. For the develop- 
ment of the mouth, pharynx, lungs, liver and pancreas from 
the primitive alimentary canal, the reader is referred to the 
special articles on those structures. (For further details, see 
W. His, Anatomic menschlicher Embryonen (Leipzig, 1880-1885); 
C. S. Minot's Embryology (New York, 1897) ; and J. P. M'Murrich, 
Development of the Human Body (London, 1906). (F. G. P.) 

Comparative Anatomy. The primitive condition of the verte- 
brate alimentary canal may be described as a straight, simple 
tube, consisting of an anterior portion, the stomodaeum, formed 
by an ectodermal invagination, the mesenteron, a long median 
portion lined by endoderm, and a short posterior portion, the 
proctodaeum, formed by ectodermal invagination. In the lower 
vertebrates the primitive tube subserved also the purpose of 
respiration, and traces of the double function remain in the 
adult structure of all vertebrates (see MOUTH, PHARYNX). 
In fish, the pharynx, or branchial region, suddenly becomes 
narrower, posterior to the gill-slits, to form the oesophagus; in 
higher animals the oesophagus, in the adult, is separated from 
the primitive pharyngeal region and lies dorsal to it. Probably, 
in the primitive vertebrata, the entire alimentary canal was lined 
with ciliated cells. Traces of this ciliation persist in many living 
forms. In the Ammocoete, the larval form of Petromyzon (see 
CYCLOSTOMATA), the whole canal is ciliated except the pharynx 
and the rectum; in the Dipnoi the epithelium of the stomach and 
the intestines is ciliated; in Selachii that of the posterior part of 
the gullet, and the spiral valve, is ciliated; extensive ciliation 
may occur in almost any region of the gut of the lower teleos- 
tomes, but in the higher forms (Teleostei) it is generally absent. 
In the latter, however, and in higher groups of vertebrates, a 
peculiar striated border on the columnar cells lining the intes- 
tinal tract has been held to be a final trace of ancestral 
ciliation. 

The alimentary canal may be conveniently described in three 
divisions, the oesophagus or gullet, the passage by which food 
reaches the stomach, the stomach, typically an expanded region 
in which the food remains for a considerable time and is mechani- 
cally pulped, mixed with mucus and certain digestive juices (see 
NUTRITION) and partly macerated, the intestinal tract or gut, 
extending from the distal end of the stomach to the cloaca or 
anus, in which the food is subjected to further digestive action, 
but which is above all the region in which absorption of the 
products of digestion takes place, the refuse material together 
with quantities of waste matter entering the gut from the blood 
and liver being gradually passed towards the anus for discharge 
from the body. 

The oesophagus is essentially merely a passage, as straight as 



ALIMENTARY CANAL 



667 



may be, from the pharynx to the stomach, varying in length 
with the length of the neck and thoracic regions in different 
animals, and in calibre with the nature of the food. It is almost 
invariably lined with a many-layered epithelium, forming a 
tough coating, readily repaired and not easily damaged by hard 
food masses. It is occasionally separated from the stomach by a 
slight constriction which may be capable of contraction so as to 
prevent regurgitation. There are few exceptions to this 
structural and functional simplicity. In fishes (see ICHTHYOLOGY, 
Anatomy) the swim-bladder is developed as a dorsal outgrowth 
of the oesophagus and may remain in open connexion with it. 
In certain Teleosteis (e.g. Lutodeira) it is longer than the length 
it has to traverse and is thrown into convolutions. In many other 
fish, particularly Selachiis, a set of processes of the lining wall 
project into the cavity near the stomach and have been supposed 
to aid in preventing food particles, or living creatures swallowed 
without injury, escaping backwards into the mouth. In some 
egg-eating snakes the sharp tips of the ventral spines (hypapo- 
physes) of the posterior cervical vertebrae penetrate the wall of 
the oesophagus and are used for breaking the shells of the eggs 
taken as food. In some aquatic Chelonians, the food of which 
consists chiefly of seaweeds, the lining membrane is produced 
into pointed processes backwardly directed. In birds this 
region frequently presents peculiarities. In Opisthocomus it 
forms an enormously wide double loop, hanging down over the 
breast-bone, which is peculiarly flattened and devoid of a keel in 
the anterior portion. In many birds part of the oesophagus may 
be temporarily dilated, forming a " crop," as for instance in birds 
of prey and humming birds. In the flamingo, many ducks, storks, 
and the cormorant the crop is a permanent although not a highly 
specialized enlargement. Finally, in the vast majority of seed- 
eating birds, in gallinaceous birds, pigeons, sandgrouse, parrots 
and many Passeres, particularly the finches, the crop is a 
permanent globular dilatation, in which the food is retained for 
a considerable time, mixed with a slight mucous secretion, and 
softened and partly macerated by the heat of the body. Many 
birds feed their young from the soft contents of the crop, and in 
pigeons, at the breeding season, the cells lining the crop pro- 
liferate rapidly and are discharged as a soft cheesy mass into the 
cavity, forming the substance known as pigeon's milk. Amongst 
Mammalia, in Rodentia, Carnivora, elephants and ruminants, 
the wall of the oesophagus contains a layer of voluntar> muscle, 
by the contraction of which these animals induce anti- 
peristaltic movements and can so regurgitate food into the 
mouth. 

Stomach. Where the oesophagus passes into the stomach, the 
lining wall of the alimentary tract changes from a many-layered 
epithelium to a mucous epithelium, consisting of a single layer 
of endodermal cells, frequently thrown into pits or projecting as 
processes; from being chiefly protective, it has become secretory 
and absorbing, and maintains this character to the distal 
extremity where it passes into the epiblast of the proctodaeum. 
In most cases the course of the alimentary canal from the distal 
end of the oesophagus to the cloaca or anus is longer than the 
corresponding region of the body, and the canal is therefore 
thrown into folds. The fundamental form of the stomach is a 
sac-like enlargement of the canal, the proximal portion of which 
is continuous with the line of the oesophagus, but the distal 
portion of which is bent in the proximal portion, the whole 
forming an enlarged bent tube. At the distal end of the tube the 
intestinal tract proper begins, and the two regions are separated 
by a muscular constriction. In fishes the stomach is generally 
in one of two forms; it may be a simple bent tube, the proximal 
limb of which is almost invariably much wider than the distal, 
anteriorly directed limb; or the oesophagus may pass directly 
into an expanded, globular or elongated sac, from the anterior 
lateral wall of which, not far from the oesophageal opening, the 
duodenum arises. In Batrachia and Reptilia the stomach is in 
most cases a simple sac, marked off from the oesophagus only by 
increased calibre. In the Crocodilia, however, the anterior 
portion of the stomach is much enlarged and very highly muscular, 
the muscles radiating from a central tendinous area on each of 



the flattened sides. The cavity is lined by a hardened secretion 
and contains a quantity of pebbles and gravel which are used in 
the mechanical trituration of the food, so that the resemblance to 
the gizzard of birds is well marked. This muscular chamber 
leads by a small aperture into a distal, smaller and more glandular 
chamber. In birds the stomach exhibits two regions, an anterior 
glandular region, the proventriculus, the walls of which are 
relatively soft and contain enlarged digestive glands aggregated 
in patches (e.g. some Steganopodes) , in rows (e.g. most birds of 
prey) or in a more or less regular band. The distal region is 
larger and is lined in most cases by a more or less permanent 
lining which is thick and tough in birds with a muscular gizzard, 
very slight in the others. In many birds, specially those 
feeding on fish, the two regions of the stomach are of equal 
width, and are indistinguishable until, on opening the cavity, the 
difference in the character of the lining membrane becomes 
visible. In other birds the proventriculus is separated by a well- 
marked constriction from the posterior and larger region. In 
graminiferous forms the latter becomes a thick-walled muscular 
gizzard, the muscles radiating from tendinous areas and the 
cavity containing pebbles or gravel. 

In mammals, the primitive form of the stomach consists of 
a more or less globular or elongated expansion of the oesophageal 
region, forming the cardiac portion, and a forwardly curved, 
narrower pyloric portion, from which the duodenum arises. 
The whole wall is muscular, and the lining membrane* is richly 
glandular. In the Insectiwra, Carnivora, Perissodaclyla, and 
in most Edentata, Chiroptera, Rodentia and Primates, this 
primitive disposition is retained, the difference consisting chiefly 
in the degrees of elongation of the stomach and the sharpness 
of the distal curvature. In other cases the cardiac portion may 
be prolonged into a caecal sac, a condition most highly differenti- 
ated in the blood-sucking bat, Desmodeus, where it is longer 
than the entire length of the body. There are two cardiac 
extensions in the hippopotamus and in the peccary. In many 
other mammals one, two or three protrusions of the cardiac 
region occur, whilst in the manatee and in some rodents the 
cardiac region is constricted off from the pyloric portion. In 
the Artiodactyla the stomach is always complex, the complexity 
reaching a maximum in ruminating forms. In the Suidae a 
cardiac diverticulum is partly constricted from the general 
cavity, forming an incipient condition of the rumen of true 
ruminants; the general cavity of the stomach shows an approach 
to the ruminant condition by the different characters of the 
lining wall in different areas. In the chevrotains, which in many 
other respects show conditions intermediate between non- 
ruminant artiodactyles and true ruminants, the oesophagus 
opens into a wide cardiac portion, incompletely divided into 
four chambers. Three of these, towards the cardiac extremity, 
are lined with villi and correspond to the rumen or paunch; 
the fourth, which lies between the opening of the oesophagus 
and the pyloric portion of the stomach, is the ruminant reticulum 
and its wall is lined with very shallow " cells." A groove runs 
along its dorsal wall from the oesophageal aperture to a very 
small cavity lined with low, longitudinally disposed folds, and 
forming a narrow passage between the cardiac and pyloric 
divisions; this is an early stage in the development of the 
omasum, psalterium or manyplies of the ruminant stomach. 
The fourth or true pyloric chamber is an elongated sac with 
smooth glandular walls and is the abomasum, or rennet sack. 
In the camel the rumen forms an enormous globular paunch 
with villous walls and internally showing a trace of division 
into two regions. It is well marked off from the reticulum, 
the " cells " of which are extremely deep, forming the well-known 
water-chambers. The psalterium is sharply constricted off from 
the reticulum and is an elongated chamber showing little trace 
of the longitudinal ridges characteristic of this region; it opens 
directly into the relatively small abomasum. In the true 
ruminants, the rumen forms a capacious, villous reservoir, 
nearly always partly sacculated, into which the food is passed 
rapidly as the animal grazes. The food is subjected to a rotary 
movement in the paunch, and is thus repeatedly subjected to 



668 



ALIMENTARY CANAL 



moistening with the fluids secreted by the reticulum, as it is 
passed over the aperture of that cavity, and is formed into a 
rounded bolus. Most ruminants swallow masses of hairs, and 
these, by the rotary action of the paunch, are aggregated into 
peculiar dense, rounded balls which are occasionally discharged 
from the mouth and are known as " hair-balls " or " bezoars." 
The food bolus, when the animal is lying down after grazing, is 
passed into the oesophagus and reaches the mouth by anti- 
peristaltic contractions of the oesophagus. After prolonged 
mastication and mixing with saliva, it is again swallowed, but 
is now passed into the psalterium, which, in true ruminants, is a 
small chamber with conspicuous longitudinal folds. Finally 
it reaches the large abomasum where the last stages of gastric 
digestion occur. 

In the Cetacea the stomach is different from that found in 
any other group of mammals. The oesophagus opens directly 
into a very large cardiac sac the distal extremity of which 
forms a long caecal pouch. At nearly the first third of its 
length this communicates by a narrow aperture in to the elongated, 
relatively narrow pyloric portion. The latter is convoluted and 
constricted into a series of chambers that differ in different groups 
of Cetacea. In the Sirenia the stomach is divided by a constric- 
tion into a cardiac and a pyloric portion, and the latter has a pair 
of caeca. In most of the Marsupialia the stomach is relatively 
simple, forming a globular sac with the oesophageal and pyloric 
apertures closely approximated; in the kangaroos, on the other 
hand, the stomach is divided into a relatively small, caecal cardiac 
portion and an enormously long sacculated and convoluted 
pyloric region, the general arrangement of which closely recalls 
the large caecum of many mammals. 

Intestinal Tract. It is not yet possible to discuss the general 
morphology of this region in vertebrates as a group, as, whilst the 
modifications displayed in birds and mammals have been com- 
pared and studied in detail, those in the lower groups have not 
yet been systematically co-ordinated. 

Fishes. In the Cyclostomata, Holocephali and a few Teleostei 
the course of the gut is practically straight from the pyloric end 
of the stomach to the exterior, and there is no marked differentia- 
tion into regions. In the Dipnoi, a contracted sigmoid curve 
between the stomach and the dilated intestine is a simple 
beginning of the complexity found in other groups. In very 
many of the more specialized teleosteans, the gut is much 
convoluted, exhibiting a series of watchspring-like coils. In a 
number of different groups, increased surface for absorption is 
given, not by increase in length of the whole gut, but by the 
development of an internal fold known as the spiral valve. 
This was probably originally a longitudinal fold similar to the 
typhlosole of chaetopods. It forms a simple fold in the larval 
Ammocoele, and in its anterior region remains straight in some 
adult fish, e.g. Polyplerus, but in the majority of cases it forms 
a complex spiral, wound round the inner wall of the expanded 
large intestine, the internal edge of the fold sometimes meeting 
to form a central column. It occurs in Cyclostomata, Selachii, 
Holocephali, Chondrostei, Crossopterygii, Amiidae, Lepidosteidae 
and Dipnoi. A set of organs peculiar to fish and known as 
the pyloric caeca are absent in Cyclostomata and Dipnoi, in most 
Selachii and in A mia, but present, in numbers ranging from one 
to nearly two hundred, in the vast majority of fish. These are 
outgrowths of the intestinal tract near the pyloric extremity 
of the stomach, and their function is partly glandular, partly 
absorbing. In a few Teleostei there is a single caecal diverticulum 
at the beginning of the " rectum," and in the same region a 
solid rectal gland occurs in most elasmobranchs, whilst, again, 
in the Dipnoi a similar structure opens into the cloaca. These 
caeca have been compared with the colic caeca of higher verte- 
brates, but there is yet no exact evidence for the homology. 

In the Batrachia the course of the intestinal tract is nearly 
straight from the pyloric end of the stomach to the cloaca, in the 
case of the perennibranchiates there being no more than a few 
simple loops between the expanded " rectum " and the straight 
portion that leaves the stomach. In the Caducibranchiata the 
anterior end of the enlarged rectum lies very close to the distal 



extremity of the stomach, and the gut, between these two regions, 
is greatly lengthened, forming a loop with many minor loops 
borne at the periphery of an expanse of mesentery, recalling the 
Meckelian tract of birds and mammals. In the tadpole this 
region is spirally coiled and is still longer relatively to the length 
of the whole tract. In Hyla and Pipa there is a small caecum 
comparable with the colic caecum of birds and mammals. 

In Reptilia the configuration of the intestinal tract does not 
differ much from that in Batrachia, the length and complexity 
of the minor coils apparently varying with the general configura- 
tion of the body, that is to say, in reptiles with a long, narrow, 
and snake-like body the minor loops of the gut are relatively 
short and unimportant, whilst in those with a more spacious 
cavity, such as chelonians, many lizards and crocodiles, the gut 
may be relatively long and disposed in many minor coils. There 
is comparatively little differentiation between the mid-gut and 
the gut in cases where the whole gut is long; in the others the 
hind-gut is generally marked by an increase of calibre. A short 
caecal diverticulum, comparable with the colic caecum of birds 
and mammals, is present in many snakes and lizards and in some 
chelonians. 

In fishes, batrachians and reptiles the intestinal tract is swung 
from the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity by a mesentery which 
is incomplete on account of secondary absorption in places, and 
which grows out with the minor loops of the gut. There are also 
traces, more abundant in the lower forms, of the still more 
primitive ventral mesentery. 

Intestinal Tract in Birds and Mammals. There is no doubt 
but that the similarity of the modes of disposition of the alimen- 
tary tract in birds and mammals points to the probability of the 
chief morphological features of this region in these animals 
having been laid down in some common ancestor, although we 




FIG. 4. Intestinal Tract of Chauna chavaria. 
c.c. Colic caeca. p.v. Cut root of portal vein. 

d. Duodenum. r.v. Rectal vein, 

g. Glandular patch. s. Proventriculus. 

*./. Meckel's tract. y. Meckel's diverticulum, or 

/.*'. Hind-gut. Yolk-sac vestige. 

have no\. yet sufficient exact knowledge of the gut in Pisces, 
Batrachia ]and Reptilia to find amongst these with any certainty 
the most crobable survival from the ancestral condition. The 
primitive gut must be supposed to have run backwards from the 
stomach to the cloaca suspended from the dorsal wall of the 
body-cavity by a dorsal mesentery. This tract, in the course 
of phylogeny of the common ancestors of birds and mammals, 
became longer than the straight length between its extreme points 
and, consequently, was thrown into a series of folds. The 



ALIMENTARY CANAL 



669 



mesentery grew out with these folds, but the presence of adjacent 
organs, the disturbance due to the outgrowth of the liver, and 
the secondary relations brought about between different portions 
of the gut, as the out-growing loops invaded each other's localities, 
disturbed the primitive simplicity. Three definite regions of 
outgrowth, however,became conspicuous and are to be recognized 
in the actual disposition of the gut in existing birds and mammals. 
The first of these is the duodenum. In the vast majority of birds, 

and in some of the 
simpler mammals, the 
portion of the gut im- 
mediately distal of the 
stomach grows out into 
a long and narrow loop 
(fig. 4, d), the proximal 
and distal ends of which 
are close together, whilst 
the loop itself may re- 
main long and narrow, 
or may develop minor 
loops on its course. In 
mammals generally, how- 
ever, the duodenum is 
complex and is not so 
sharply marked off from 
the distal portion of the 
gut as in birds. The 
second portion is Meckel's 
tract. It consists of the 
part generally known as 
the small intestines, the 
jejunum and ileum of 
human anatomy, and 
stretches from the distal 
end of the duodenum to the caecum or caeca. It is the chief 
absorbing portion of the gut, and in nearly all birds and 
mammals is the longest portion. It represents, however, only 
a very small part of the primitive straight gut, corresponding 
to not more than two or three somites of the embryo. This 
narrow portion grows out to form the greater part of what is 
called the pendent loop in mammalian embryology. Its 
anterior or proximal end lies close to the approximated 




FIG. 5. Intestinal Tract of Cams 
vulpes. S, cut end of duodenum; C, 
caecum; R, cut end of rectum. 




C.L 



FIG. 6. Intestinal Tract of Macropus bennetti. S, cut end of 
duodenum; R, cut end of rectum; C, caecum; Ci, accessory 
caecum ; C.L, colic loop of hind-gut. 

proximal and distal ends of the duodenal loop, whilst its distal 
end passes into the hind-gut at the colic caecum or caeca. In 
the embryos of all birds and mammals, the median point of 
Meckel's tract, the part of the loop which has grown out farthest 
from the dorsal edge of the mesentery, is marked by the diverli- 
culum caecum mtelli, the primitive connexion of the cavity of the 
gut with the narrowing stalk of the yolk-sac (fig. 4, y). Natur- 
ally, in birds where the yolk-sac is of great functional importance 
this diverticulum is large, and in a majority of the families of 



birds persists throughout life, forming a convenient point of 
orientation. In mammals, no doubt in association with the 
functional reduction of the yolk-sac, this diverticulum, which is 
known as Meckel's diverticulum, has less importance, and whilst 
it has been observed in a small percentage of adult human subjects 
has not been recognized in the adult condition of any lower 
Mammalia. 

In birds, Meckel's tract falls into minor folds or loops, the 
disposition of which forms a series of patterns remarkably 
different in appearance 
and characteristic of 
different groups. In 
fig. 4 an extremely 
primitive type is repre- 
sented. In mammals 
Meckel's tract remains 
much more uniform; it 
may be short, or in- 
crease enormously in 
length, but in either 
case it falls into a fairly 
symmetrical shape, sus- 
pended at the circum- 
ference of a nearly 
circular expanse of 
mesentery. Where it 
is short it is thrown 
into very simple minor 
loops (figs. 5, 6 and 7); 
where it is long, these 
minor loops form a con- 
voluted mass (figs. 8 
and 9). 

The third portion of 

the gut should be termed the hind-gut and lies between the 
caecum or caeca and the anus, corresponding to the large 
intestines, colon and rectum of human anatomy. It is 
formed from a much larger portion of the primitive straight 
gut than the duodenum and Meckel's tract together, and its 
proximal portion, in consequence, lies very close to the origin 
of the duodenum. In the vast majority of birds, the hind-gut 
in the adult is relatively extremely short, often being only from 




C.L, 



FIG. 7. Intestinal Tract of Tapir. S, 
cut end of duodenum; R, cut end of 
rectum; C, caecum; CL, colon. 




P.C.L 



S.P. 



FIG. 8. Intestinal Tract of Giraffe. 5, cut end of duodenum; 
R, cut end of rectum; C, caecum; P.C.L, post-caecal loop; S.P, 
spiral loop ; SF, third loop of hind-gut. 

one-eighth to one-thirtieth of the whole length of the gut. A 
certain number of primitive birds, however, have retained a 
relatively long condition of the hind-gut (fig. 4), the greatest 
relative length occurring in struthious birds, and particularly 
in the ostrich, where the hind-gut exceeds in length the duodenum 
and Meckel's tract together. Mammals may be contrasted with 
birds as a group in which the hind-gut is always relatively long, 
sometimes extremely long, and in which, moreover, there is a 
strong tendency to differentiation of the hind-gut into regions 



670 



ALIMONY 




the characters of which are of systematic importance. The first 
region is the" colon, which forms a very simple expansion in 
mammals such as Carnivora (fig. 5), where the whole hind-gut 
is relatively short, or a series of simple loops in mammals in which 
the whole gut has a primitive disposition (e.g. Marsupialia, fig. 6). 
In the odd-toed Ungulata, the colon (fig. 7) forms an enormously 
long loop, the two limbs of which are closely approximated and 
the calibre of which is very large. In Ruminantia (fig. 8) the 
colon is still more highly differentiated, displaying first a simple 
wide loop, then a complicated watchspring-like coil, and finally 

a very long, irregular 
portion. In the higher 
Primates (fig. 9) it 
forms one enormous 
very wide loop, corre- 
sponding to the ascend- 
ing, transverse and 
descending colons of 
human anatomy, and a 
shorter distal loop, the 
omega loop of human 
anatomy. Other strik- 
ing patterns are dis- 
played in other mam- 
malian groups. 

The second region of 
the hind-gut is usually 
known as the rectum, 
and although it is some- 
FIG 9. Intestinal Tract of Gorilla. 5, t j mes lengthened it is 
cut end of duodenum; R, cut end of rec- . ,1 i-,. t i i 

turn; C, vermiform appeAdix of caecum; *?&>** lltll e longer 
X,Xj,X,, cut ends of factors of the portal than the portion of the 
vein. primitive straight gut 

that it represents. 

Adaptations of the Intestinal Tract to Function. The chief 
business of the gut is to provide a vascular surface to which the 
prepared food is applied so that the nutritive material may be 
absorbed into the system. Overlying and sometimes obscuring 
the morphological patterns of the gut, are many modifications 
correlated with the nature of the food and producing homoplastic 
resemblances independent of genetic affinity. Thus in birds and 
mammals alike there is a direct association of herbivorous habit 
with great relative length of gut. The explanation of this, no 
doubt, is simply that the vegetable matter which such creatures 
devour is in a form which requires not only prolonged digestive 
action, but, from the intimate admixture of indigestible material, 
a very large absorbing surface. In piscivorous birds and 
mammals, the gut is very long, with a thick wall and a relatively 
small calibre, whilst there is a general tendency for the regions of 
the gut to be sh'ghtly or not at all defined. Fish, as it is eaten by 
wild animals, contains a large bulk of indigestible matter, and so 
requires an extended absorbing surface; the thick wall and 
relatively small calibre are protections against wounding by fish 
bones. In frugivorous birds- the gut is strikingly short, wide and 
simple, whilst a similar change has not taken place in frugivorous 
mammals. Carnivorous birds and mammals have a relatively 
short gut. In birds, generally, the relation of the length and 
calibre of the gut to the size of the whole creature is striking. If 
two birds of similar habit and of the same group be compared, it 
will be found that the gut of the larger bird is relatively longer 
rather than relatively wider. The same general rule applies to 
Meckel's tract in mammals, whereas in the case of the hind-gut 
increase of capacity is given by increase of calibre rather than by 
increased length. 

The Colic Caeca. These organs lie at the junction of the hind- 
gut with Meckel's tract and are homologous in birds and mammals 
although it happens that their apparent position differs in the 
majority of cases in the two groups. In most birds, the hind-gut 
is relatively very short, and the caecal position, accordingly, is 
at a very short distance from the posterior end of the body, 
whereas in most mammals the hind-gut is very long and the 
position of the caecum or caeca is relatively very much farther 



from the anus. Next, in most birds, the caeca when present are 
paired, whereas in most mammals there is only a single caecum. 
On the other hand, in certain birds (herons) as a normal occur- 
rence, and in many birds as an individual variation, only a single 
caecum occurs. In some mammals, e.g. many armadillos, in 
Hyrax and the manatee, the caeca are normally paired; in many 
other (e.g. some rodents and marsupials) in addition to the 
normal caecum there is a reduced second caecum, whilst in quite 
a number of forms the relation of the caecum, ileum and colon at 
their junction is readily intelligible on the assumption that the 
caeca were originally paired. The origin and many of the 
peculiarities of the ileo-caecal valve find their best explanation on 
this hypothesis. 

The caeca are hollow outgrowths of the wall of the gut, the 
blind ends being directed forwards. The caecal wall is in most 
cases highly glandular and contains masses of lymphoid tissue. 
In birds and in mammals this tissue may be so greatly increased 
as to transform the caecum into a solid or nearly soh'd sac, the 
calibre of which is for the most part smaller than that of the 
unmodified caecum. In some birds, the whole area of the caecum 
may be modified in this way; in mammals, it is generally the 
terminal portion, which then becomes the vermiform appendix, 
familiar in the anthropoid apes, in man and in some rodents. 
It is difficult to see in this modification merely a degeneration; 
not improbably it is the formation of a new glandular organ. 

The caeca exhibit almost every gradation of development, 
from relatively enormous size to complete absence, and there is 
no definite, invariable connexion between the nature of the food 
and the degree of their development. In the case of birds, it may 
be said that on the whole the caeca are generally large in herbi- 
vorous forms and generally small in insectivorous, frugivorous, 
carnivorous and piscivorous forms, but there are many excep- 
tions. Thus, owls and falcons have a diet that is closely similar, 
and yet owls have a pair of very long caeca, whilst in the 
Falconidae these organs are much reduced and apparently 
functionless. The insectivorous and omnivorous rollers,motmots 
and bee-eaters have a pair of large caeca, whilst in passerine 
birds of similar habit the caeca are vestigial glandular nipples. 
It is impossible to doubt that family history dominates in this 
matter. Certain families tend to retain the caeca, others to 
lose them, and direct adaptation to diet appears only to accelerate 
or retard these inherited tendencies. So also in mammals, no 
more than a general relation between diet and caecal develop- 
ment can be shown to exist, although the large size of the single 
caecum of mammals is more closely associated with a herbivorous 
as opposed to a carnivorous, frugivorous, piscivorous or omni- 
vorous diet than is the case in birds. There is no relationship 
between diet and the complete or partial presence of both 
members of the primi-pair of caeca in mammals, the occurrence 
of the pair being rather an " accident " of inheritance than in any 
direct relation to function. 

LITERATURE. T. W. Bridge, in The Cambridge Natural History 
(vol. vii).; D. S. Jordan, A Guide to the Study of Fishes; R. Owen, 
Anatomy of Vertebrates; M. Weber, Die Saugethiere; W. H. Flower, 
The Organs of Digestion in Mammalia; R. Wiedersheim, Lehrbuch 
der vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbellhiere ; A. Oppel, Lehrbuch 
der vergleichenden mikroskopischen Anatomie der Wirbelthiere; 
Chalmers Mitchell, " The Intestinal Tract of Birds," Transactions 
of the Linn. Soc. of London (vol. viii., 1901); and "On the In- 
testinal Tract of Mammals," Transactions of the Zool. Soc. of London 
(vol. xvii., 1905). (In the two latter memoirs a fuller list of litera- 
ture is given.) (P. C. M.) 

ALIMONY (from Lat. alere, to nourish), in law the allowance 
for maintenance to which a wife is entitled out of her husband's 
estate for her support on a decree for judicial separation or for 
the dissolution of the marriage. Though, as a rule, payable to a 
wife, it may, if the circumstances of the case warrant it, be 
payable by the wife to the husband. Alimony is of two kinds, 
(a) temporary (pendente lite), and (b) permanent. Temporary 
alimony, or alimony pending suit, is the provision made by the 
husband for the wife in causes between them to enable her to live 
during the progress of the suit, and is allowed whether the suit is 
by or against the husband and whatever the nature of the suit 
may be. The usual English practice is to allot as temporary 



ALIN ALISMACEAE 



671 



alimony about one-fifth of the husband's net income; where it 
appears that the husband has no means or is in insolvent circum- 
stances, the court will refuse to allot temporary alimony. So 
where the wife is supporting herself by her own earnings, this fact 
will be taken into consideration. And where the wife and 
husband have lived apart for many years before the institution 
of the suit, and she has supported herself during the separation, 
no alimony will be allotted. Nor will the wife be entitled to 
alimony where she has sufficient means of support independent 
of her husband. Permanent alimony is that which is allotted to 
the wife after final decree. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1007, 
the court may, if it think fit, on any decree for dissolution or 
nullity of marriage, order that the husband shall, to the satisfac- 
tion of the court, secure to the wife such a gross sum of money or 
such annual sum of money for any term not exceeding her life, 
as having regard to her fortune (if any), to the ability of her 
husband, and to the conduct of the parties, it may deem reason- 
able. The court may suspend the pronouncing of its decree until 
a proper deed or instrument has been executed by all necessary 
parties. The court may also make, an order on the husband for 
payment to the wife during their joint lives of a reasonable 
monthly or weekly sum for her maintenance; the court may also 
at any time discharge, modify, suspend or increase the order 
according to the altered means of the husband; the court has 
also power to make provision for children. Alimony is paid 
direct to the wife or to a trustee or trustees on her behalf, but the 
court may impose any restrictions which seem expedient. We 
may also describe as a kind of alimony the allowance of a reason- 
able weekly sum not exceeding 2 which in England, under the 
Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act 1895, may be 
given to a married woman on applying to a court of summary 
jurisdiction if she has been forced by cruelty to leave her husband 
or has been deserted by him. 

United States. Alimony is granted by the courts of the several 
states on much the same principle as in England, though in many 
states the courts of equity as such may grant alimony without 
divorce or separation proceedings independently of any statute, 
on the ground that it is just that the husband should support his 
wife when she lives apart from him for his fault, and since the 
courts of common law provide no remedy the courts of equity 
will. This is so in Alabama (Brady v. Brady, 1905, 39 So. Rep. 
237), Kentucky, North Carolina, Iowa, California, Ohio, Virginia, 
South Dakota and the District of Columbia. In other states 
alimony without such proceedings is allowed by statute, and 
such alimony is now very general throughout the United States. 
The usual grounds for the allowance of it are desertion and such 
conduct as would amount to legal cruelty. After divorce a 
vinculo, alimony or separate maintenance is sometimes granted 
on good reason. The marriage must be proven as a fact, but a 
" common law " marriage, i.e. one established by cohabitation 
and repute, is sufficient. In several states alimony or mainten- 
ance is by statute allowed to the husband in certain cases out of 
the wife's property. This is so in Massachusetts, Virginia, 
Rhode Island and Iowa. In Oregon he is entitled to one-third of 
his wife's real estate in addition to maintenance on divorce for 
her fault. The amount of alimony depends upon the circumstances 
of each case as in England. Permanent alimony is generally 
more than when pendente lite, and usually one- third the husband's 
income. It may generally be changed from time to time as the 
circumstances of the parties change. Judgment for alimony is 
considered a judgment in personam and not in rem, and can only 
be enforced outside the state where rendered in case the husband 
has been personally served with process within that state. The 
remarriage of the man is not sufficient ground for reducing the 
alimony (Smith v. Smith, 1905, 102 N.W. Rep. 631), but on 
remarriage of a woman to one able to support her, her former 
husband being in poor circumstances, it will be reduced (Kiralfy 
v. Kiralfy, 1901, 36 Wise. N.S. 407). 

ALIN, OSCAR JOSEF (1846-1900), Swedish historian and 
politician, was born at Falun on the 22nd of December 1846. 
In 1872 he became docent, and in 1882 professor of political 
economy at Upsala, of which university he was afterwards 



rector. In September 1888 he was elected a member of the first 
chamber of the Riksdag, where he attached himself to the con- 
servative protectionist party, over which, from the first, he 
exercised great authority. But it is as a historian that Alin is 
most remarkable. Among his numerous works the following are 
especially worthy of note: Bidrag till svenska r&dels historia under 
medeltiden (Upsala, 1872); Sveriges Historia, 1511-1611 (Stock- 
holm, 1878) ; Bidrag till svenska statsrickets historia (Stockholm, 
1884-1887); Den stiensk-norsk Unionen (Stockholm, 1880-1891), 
the best book on the Norwego-Swedish Union question from the 
Swedish point of view; Fjerde Artiklen a} Fredstraktaten i Kiel 
(Stockholm, 1899); Carl Johan och Sveriges yttre politik, 1810- 
1815 (Stockholm, 1899); Carl XIV. och Rikets Slander, 1840- 
1841 (Stockholm, 1893). He also edited Svenska Riksdagsakler , 
1521-1554 (Stockholm, 1887), in conjunction with E. Hilde- 
brand, and Sveriges Grundlagar (Stockholm, 1892). He died at 
Upsala on the 3ist of December 1900. 

Obituary notice in Sv. Hist. Tidssk. (1901). (R. N. B.) 

ALIPUR, a suburb of Calcutta, containing Belvedere House, 
the official residence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, and a 
number of handsome mansions. It lies within the limits of the 
south suburban municipality, and is a cantonment of native 
troops. On the Calcutta maidan, opposite Alipur Bridge, stood 
two trees under which duels were fought. It was here that the 
meeting in 1780 between Warren Hastings and Sir Philip Francis 
took place. 

ALIQUOT (a Lat. word meaning " some," " so many "), a 
term generally occurring in the phrase " aliquot part," and 
meaning that one quantity is exactly divisible into another; 
thus 3 is an aliquot part of 6. 

ALIRAJPUR, a native state of India, under the Bhopawar 
agency in Central India. It lies in Malwa, near the frontier of 
Bombay. It has an area of 836 sq. m.; and a population 
(1901) of 50,185. The country is hilly, and many of the in- 
habitants are aboriginal Bhils. It has from time to time been 
under British administration. The chief, whose title is Rana, 
is a Rah tor Rajput. He has an estimated revenue of 8700, 
and pays a tribute of 700. The Victoria bridge at Alirajpur 
was built to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of 1897. 

ALISMACEAE (from the Gr. aXwr/ia, a water-plant mentioned 
by Dioscorides), in botany, a natural order of monocotyledons 
belonging to the series Helobieae, and represented in Britain 
by the water plantain, Alisma Plantago, the arrow-head, Sagit- 
taria, the star-fruit, Damasonium, and flowering rush, Bu- 
tomus (from the Gr. (iovs, ox, Ttfivuv, to cut, in allusion to 
leaves cutting the tongues of oxen feeding on them). They 
are marsh- or water-plants with generally a stout stem (rhizome) 
creeping in the mud, radical leaves and a large, much branched 
inflorescence. The leaves show a great variety in shape, often 




FIG. i. Flowering Rush (Butomus umbellatus). I, Flower in 
vertical section; 2, horizontal plan of arrangement of flower. 

on the same plant, according to their position in, on or 
above the water. The submerged leaves are long and grass- 
like, the floating leaves oblong or rounded, while the aerial 
leaves are borne on long, thin stalks above the water, and are 
often heart- or arrow-shaped at the base. The flower-bearing 
stem is tall; the flowers are borne in whorls on the axis as in 
arrow-head, on whorled branchlets as in water plantain or in 
an umbel as in Butomus (fig. i). The flowers are regular and 
rather showy, generally with three greenish sepals, followed in 
regular succession by three white or purplish petals, six to 
indefinite stamens and six to indefinite free carpels. The floral 



672 



ALISON 



arrangement thus recalls that of a buttercup, a resemblance 
which extends to the fruit, which is a head of achenes or follicles. 
The flowers contain honey, and attract flies, short-lipped bees or 
other small insects by the agency of which pollination is effected. 
The fruit of Butomus is of interest in having the seeds borne 
over the inner face of the wall of the leathery pod (follicle). 
Damasonium derives its popular name, star-fruit, from the fruits 
spreading when ripe in the form of a star. It is a western 




FIG. 2. Water Plantain (Alisma Plantago). Plant about 3 ft. high. 
I, Flower; 2, same in vertical section; 3, horizontal plan of flower; 
4, mature fruit. 

Mediterranean plant which spreads to the south of England, 
where it is sometimes found in gravelly ditches and pools. The 
order contains about fifty species in fourteen genera, and is 
widely distributed in temperate and warm zones. Alisma 
Plantago (fig. 2), a common plant in Britain (except in the north) 
in ditches and edges of streams, is widely distributed in the north 
temperate zone, and is found in the Himalayas, on the mountains 
of tropical Africa and in Australia. 

ALISON, ARCHIBALD (1757-1839), Scottish author, son of 
Patrick Alison, provost of Edinburgh, was born on the i3th of 
November 1757 at Edinburgh. After studying at the university 
of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, he took orders in the 
Church of England, and was appointed in 1778 to the curacy of 
Brancepeth, near Durham. In 1784 he married Dorothea, 
youngest daughter of Professor Gregory of Edinburgh. The 
next twenty years of his life were spent in Shropshire, where he 
held in succession the livings of High Ercall, Roddington and 
Kenley. In 1800 he removed to Edinburgh, having been 
appointed senior incumbent of St Paul's Chapel in the Cowgate. 
For thirty-four years he filled this position with much ability, 
his preaching attracting so many hearers that a new and larger 
church was built for him. His last years were spent at Colinton, 



near Edinburgh, where he died on the i7th of May 1839. Alison 
published, besides a Life oj Lord Woodhouselee, a volume of 
sermons, which passed through several editions, and a work 
entitled Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790), 
based on the principle of association (see under AESTHETICS, 
p. 288). His elder son, Dr William Pulteney Alison (1790-1859), 
was a distinguished Edinburgh medical professor. 

SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, Bart. (1792-1867), the historian, 
was the younger son, and was born at Kenley, Shropshire, on 
the 2gth of December 1792. He studied at the university of 
Edinburgh, distinguishing himself especially in Greek and 
mathematics. In 1814 he passed at the Scottish bar, but he did 
not at once practise. The close of the war had opened up the 
continent, and Alison set out in the autumn of 1814 for a 
lengthened tour in France. It was during this period that the 
idea of writing his history first occurred to him. A more im- 
mediate result of the tour was his first literary work of any 
importance, Travels in France during the Years 1814-1815, 
written in collaboration with his brother and A. F. Tytler, 
which appeared in the latter year. On his return to Edinburgh 
he practised at the bar for some years with very fair success. 
In 1822 he became one of the four advocates-depute for Scotland. 
As a result of the experience gained in this office, which he held 
until 1830, he wrote his Principles of the Criminal Law of Scot- 
land (1832) and Practice of the Criminal Law of Scotland (1833), 
which in 1834 led to his appointment by Sir Robert Peel to 
the office of sheriff of Lanarkshire, which ranks next to a judge- 
ship in the supreme court. The office, though by no means a 
sinecure, gave him time not only to make frequent contributions 
to periodical literature, but also to write the long-projected 
History of Europe, for which he had been collecting materials 
for more than fifteen years. The history of the period from the 
beginning of the French Revolution till the restoration of the 
Bourbons in 1815 was completed in ten volumes in 1842, and met 
with a success almost unexampled in works of its class. Within 
a few years it ran through ten editions, and was translated into 
many of the languages of Europe, as well as into Arabic and 
Hindustani. At the time of the author's death it was stated 
that 108,000 volumes of the library edition and 439,000 volumes 
of the popular edition had been sold. A popularity so widespread 
must have had some basis of merit, and the good qualities of 
Alison's work lie upon the surface. It brought together, though 
not always in a well-arranged form, an immense amount of in- 
formation that had before been practically inaccessible to the 
general public. It at least made an attempt to show the organic 
connexion in the policy and progress of the different nations of 
Europe; and its descriptions of what may be called external 
history of battles, sieges and state pageants are spirited and 
interesting. On the other hand the faults of the work are 
numerous and glaring. The general style is prolix, involved and 
vicious; mistakes of fact and false deductions are to be found 
in almost every page; and the constant repetition of trite moral 
reflections and egotistical references seriously detracts from its 
dignity. A more grave defect resulted from the author's strong 
political partisanship, which entirely unfitted him for dealing 
with the problems of history in a philosophical spirit. His 
unbending Toryism made it impossible for him to give any 
satisfactory explanation of so complex a fact as the French 
Revolution, or accurately to estimate the forces that were to shape 
the Europe of the igth century. A continuation of the History, 
embracing the period from 1815 to 1852, which was completed 
in four volumes in 1856, did not meet with the same success 
as the earlier work. The period being so near as to be almost 
contemporary, there was a stronger temptation, which he seems 
to have found it impossible to resist, to yield to political pre- 
judice, while the materials necessary for a clear knowledge of the 
influences shaping European affairs were not as yet accessible. 
The book is now almost wholly out of date. In 1845 Alison was 
chosen rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1851 of 
Glasgow University. In 1852 a baronetcy was conferred upon 
him, and in the following year he was made a D.C.L. of Oxford. 
His literary activity continued till within a short time of his 



ALIWAL ALIZARIN 



673 



death, the chief works he published in addition to his History 
being the Principles of Population (1840), in answer to Mai thus; 
a Life of Marlborough (1847, 2nd edition greatly enlarged, 1852); 
and the Lives of Lord Casllereagh and Sir C. Stewart (1861.) This 
latter, based on MS. material preserved at Wynyard Park, is still 
of value, not only as the only available biography, but more 
especially because Alison's Tory sympathies enabled him to give 
a juster appreciation of the character and work of Castlereagh 
than the Liberal writers by whom for many years he was mis- 
judged and condemned (see LONDONDERRY, Robert Stewart, 2nd 
marquess of). Three volumes of Alison's political, historical and 
miscellaneous essays were reprinted in 1850. He died at Fossil 
House, Glasgow, on the 23rd of May 1867. His autobiography, 
Some Account of my Life and Writings, edited by his daughter- 
in-law, Lady Alison, was published in 1883 at Edinburgh. 
Sir Archibald Alison married in 1825 Eh'zabeth Glencairn, 
daughter of Colonel Tytler, by whom he had three children, 
Archibald, Frederick and Eliza Frances Catherine. Both sons 
became distinguished officers. 

SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON, Bart. (1826-1907), the elder of the 
sons, entered the 72nd Highlanders in 1846. He served at the 
siege of Sevastopol; and during the Indian Mutiny he was 
military secretary to Sir Colin Campbell and was severely 
wounded at the relief of Lucknow, losing an arm. From 1862 
to 1873 he was assistant adjutant-general at headquarters, 
Portsmouth and Aldershot. He was second in command of the 
Ashanti expedition 1873-1874, and was made a K.C.B. For 
three years Alison was deputy adjutant-general in Ireland, and 
then, for a few months, commandant of the Staff College. He 
was promoted to be major-general in 1877, and was head of the 
intelligence branch of the war office (1878-1882). He com- 
manded the troops at Alexandria in 1882 until the arrival of Sir 
Garnet Wolseley, led the Highland brigade at the battle of 
Tel-el- Kebir, and remained in command of the army of occupa- 
tion until 1883. He commanded at Aldershot 1883-1888, 
was for some months adjutant-general to the forces during 
Lord Wolseley's absence in Egypt, was made G.C.B. in 
1887, was promoted general, and became a military member 
of the Council of India in 1889. He retired in 1893 and died 
in 1907. 

ALIWAL, a village of British India, in the Ludhiana district 
of the Punjab, situated on the left bank of the Sutlej, and famous 
as the scene of one of the great battles of the ist Sikh War. Late 
in January 1846 it was held by Ranjur Singh, who had crossed 
the river in force and threatened Ludhiana. On the 28th Sir 
Harry Smith, with a view to clearing the left or British bank, 
attacked him, and after a desperate struggle thrice pierced the 
Sikh troops with his cavalry, and pushed them into the river, 
where large numbers perished, leaving 67 guns to the victors. 
The consequence of the victory was the submission of the whole 
territory east of the Sutlej to the British. 

ALIWAL NORTH, a town of South Africa, on the south bank 
of the Orange River, 4300 ft. above the sea, and 282 m. by rail 
N.W. by N. of the port of East London. Pop. (1904) 5566, of 
whom 1758 were whites. The town, a trading and agricultural 
centre for the N.E. part of the Cape and the neighbouring 
regions of Basutoland and Orange Free State, presents a 
pleasing appearance. It contains many fine stone buildings. 
The streets are lined with trees, and water from the neighbouring 
sulphur springs flows along them in open channels. The river, 
here the boundary between the Cape province and Orange Free 
State, is crossed by a stone bridge 860 ft. long. The sulphur 
springs, i m. from the town, which yield over 500,000 gallons 
daily, are resorted to for the cure of rheumatism and skin diseases 
By reason of its dry and bracing climate, Aliwal North is also 
a favourite residence of sufferers from chest complaints. In the 
neighbourhood are stone quarries. Aliwal North is the capital 
of a division of the province of the same name, with an area ol 
1330 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of 14,857, of whom 40% are 
whites. 

Aliwal North was so called to distinguish it from Aliwal South 
now Mossel Bay, the seaport of the pastoral Grasveld district 

I. 22 



on the west side of Mossel Bay. Both places were named in 
lonour of Sir Harry Smith, governor of Cape Colony 1847-1852, 
Aliwal (see above) being the village in the Punjab where in 1846 
ic gained a great victory over the Sikhs. Crossing the Orange 
Rjver at this spot in September 1848, Sir Harry noted that 
t was " a beautiful site for a town," and in the May following 
the town was founded. In the early months of the Boer War 
of 1899-1902 Aliwal North was held by the Boers. It was 
reoccupied by the British in March 1900. 
ALIZARIN, or 1-2 DIOXYANTHRAQUINONE, 



a vegetable dyestuff formerly prepared from madder root (Rubia 
tinclorum) which contains a glucoside ruberythric acid (CaiHaOu). 
This glucoside is readily hydrolysed by acids or ferments,breaking 
up into alizarin and glucose: 

C 2 ,H 28 1 4+2H 2 O =2C 6 H 12 O,-|-CH8O4 
Ruberythric acid = Glucose + Alizarin. 

Alizarin was known to the ancients, and until 1868 was obtained 
entirely from madder root. The first step in the synthetical 
production of alizarin was the discovery in 1868 of C. Graebe 
and C. Liebermann that on heating with zinc dust, alizarin was 
converted into anthracene. In order to synthesize alizarin, 
they converted anthracene into anthraquinone and then bromi- 
nated the quinone. The dibrominated product so obtained was 
then fused with caustic potash, the melt dissolved in water, and 
on the addition of hydrochloric acid to the solution, alizarin 
was precipitated. This process, owing to its expensive nature, 
was not in use very long, being superseded by another, discovered 
simultaneously by the above-named chemists and by Sir W. H. 
Perkin; the method being to sulphonate anthraquinone, and 
then to convert the sulphonic acid into its sodium salt and fuse 
this with caustic soda. 

In practice, the crude anthracene is purified by solution in 
the higher pyridine bases, after which treatment it is frequently 
sublimed. It is then oxidized to anthraquinone by means of 
sodium dichromate and sulphuric acid in leaden vats, steam 
heated so that the mixture can be brought to the boil. When 
oxidation is complete the crude anthraquinone is separated in 
filter presses and heated with an excess of commercial oil of 
vitriol to 120 C., the various impurities present in the crude 
material being sulphonated and rendered soluble in water, 
whilst the anthraquinone is unaffected; it is then washed, to 
remove impurities, and dried. The anthraquinone so obtained 
is then heated for some hours at about 150-160 C. with fuming 
sulphuric acid (containing about 40-50 % SO 3 ), and by this 
treatment is converted into anthraquinone-/3-monosulphonic 
acid. The solution is poured into water and sodium carbonate 
is added to neutralize the excess of acid, when the sodium salt 
of the monosulphonic acid (known as silver salt) separates out. 
This is filtered, washed, and then fused with caustic soda, when 
the sulpho-group is replaced by a hydroxyl group, and a second 
hydroxyl group is simultaneously formed; in order to render 
the formation of this second group easier, a little potassium 
chlorate or sodium nitrate is added to the reaction mixture. 
The melt is dissolved in water and the dyestuff is liberated from 
the sodium salt by hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, or is con- 
verted into the calcium salt by digestion with hot milk of lime, 
then filtered and the calcium salt decomposed by acid. The 
precipitated alizarin is then well washed and made into a paste 
with water, in which form it is put on to the market. 

K. Lagodzinski (Berichte, 1895, 28, p. 1427) has synthesized 
alizarin by condensing hemipinic acid [(CHsOHCeH^COOH)^ 
with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. The 
product on acidification gives a compound CisH^Os-HjO which 
is probably an oxy-methoxy-benzoyl benzoic acid. This is 
dissolved in cold concentrated sulphuric acid, in which it forms 
a yellowish red solution, but on heating to 100 C. the colour 
changes to red and violet, and on pouring out upon ice, the 
monomethyl ether of alizarin is precipitated. This compound 
is hydrolysed by hydriodic acid and alizarin is obtained. It 



674 



ALKAHEST ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



can also be synthesized by heating catechol with phthalic 
anhydride and sulphuric acid at 150 C. 



Pure alizarin crystallizes in red prisms melting at 290 C. It 
is insoluble in water, and not very soluble in alcohol. It dissolves 
readily in caustic alkalis on account of its phenolic character, 
and it forms a yellow-coloured di-acetate. Its value as a dyestuff 
depends on its power of forming insoluble compounds (lakes) 
with metallic oxides. It has no affinity for vegetable fibres, 
and consequently cotton goods must be mordanted before dyeing 
with it (see DYEING). 

Numerous derivatives of alizarin are known. On solution in 
glacial acetic acid and addition of nitric acid, /3-nitroalizarin 
OH 



(alizarin orange) 



is produced, and this on heating 



with sulphuric acid and glycerin is converted into alizarin blue. 

The trioxyanthraquinones purpurin, anthrapurpurin, anthra- 

gallol and flavopurpurin are also very valuable dyestuffs. 

These compounds may be represented by the following formulae : 

OH OH OH OH 

aCO N X\OH HO/\/COx/\OH /\./COv/\OHy CO X /\OH 
co A/ \x x co/\/ H 



OH 



Purpurin. 



Anthrapurpurin. Flavopurpurin. 



Anthragaltol. 



Purpurin (1-2-4 trioxyanthraquinone) is found with alizarin in 
madder root; it is now prepared synthetically by oxidizing 
alizarin with manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid. After the 
separation of the silver salt (see above) obtained on sulphonating 
anthraquinone, the remaining acid liquid gives on treatment 
with calcium carbonate the calcium salt of anthraquinone 2-6 
disulphonic acid (anthraquinone-a-disulphonic acid). This is 
converted into the sodium salt by means of sodium carbonate, 
and on alkali fusion yields flavopurpurin. In a similar manner 
anthrapurpurin is prepared by alkali fusion of anthraquinone 
2-8 disulphonic acid. Anthragallol is synthetically prepared by 
the condensation of benzoic and gallic acids with sulphuric acid 
OH OH 

OCOOH /NOH /\/COx/\OH 

+ =2HoO+ 

HOOCX/OH \ACOA/OH 

or from pyrogallol and phthalic anhydride in the presence of 
sulphuric acid or zinc chloride. 

* A. Baeyer in 1890, by heating alizarin with fuming sulphuric 
acid for 24-48 hours at 35-40 C., obtained a product, which 
after treatment with caustic soda gave a sulphuric acid ester 
of quinalizarin, and this after acidification and boiling was 
converted into quinalizarin (Alizarin Bordeaux) or 1-2-6-9 
tetra-oxyanthraquinone. Penta-oxyanthraquinones have been 
obtained from purpurin and anthrapurpurin, while a hexa- 
oxyanthraquinone has been obtained from 1-5 dinitro-anthra- 
quinone. 

ALKAHEST (a pseudo-Arabic word believed to have been 
invented by Paracelsus), a liquid, much sought after by the 
alchemists, having the power of dissolving gold and every 
other substance, which it was supposed would possess invaluable 
medicinal qualities. 

ALKALI, an Arabic term originally applied to the ashes of 
plants, from which by lixiviation carbonate of soda was obtained 
in the case of sea-plants and carbonate of potash in that of land- 
plants. The method of making these " mild " alkalis into 
" caustic " alkalis by treatment with lime was practised in the 
time of Pliny in connexion with the manufacture of soap, and it 
was also known that the ashes of shore-plants yielded a hard 
soap and those of land-plants a soft one. But the two substances 
were generally confounded as " fixed alkali " (carbonate of 
ammonia being " volatile alkali "), till Duhamel du Monceau in 
1 736 established the fact that common salt and the ashes of sea- 
plants contain the same base as is found in natural deposits of 
soda salts (" mineral alkali "), and that this body is different 
from the " vegetable alkali " obtained by incinerating land- 



plants or wood (pot-ashes). Later, Martin Heinrich Klaproth, 
finding vegetable alkali in certain minerals, such as leucite, 
proposed to distinguish it as potash, and at the same time 
assigned to the mineral alkali the name natron, which survives 
in the symbol, Na, now used for sodium. The word alkali supplied 
the symbol for potassium, K (kalium). In modern chemistry 
alkali is a general term used for compounds which have the 
property of neutralizing acids, and is applied more particularly 
to the highly soluble hydrates of sodium and potassium and of 
the three rarer "alkali metals," caesium, rubidium and lithium, 
also to aqueous ammonia. In a smaller degree these alkaline 
properties are shared by the less soluble hydrates of the "metals 
of the alkaline earths," calcium, barium and strontium, and by 
thallium hydrate. An alkali is distinguished from an acid or 
neutral substance by its action on litmus, turmeric and other 
indicators. 

ALKALI MANUFACTURE. The word " alkali " denotes 
both soda and potash, but by "alkali manufacture" we under- 
stand merely the manufacture of sodium sulphate, carbonate and 
hydrate. The corresponding potash compounds are not manu- 
factured in the United Kingdom, but exclusively in Germany 
(from potassium chloride and from the mother-liquor of the 
strontia process in the manufacture of beetroot sugar) and in 
France (from vinasse) . The term alkali is employed in a technical 
sense for the carbonate and hydrate (of sodium) , but since in the 
Leblanc process the manufacture of sodium sulphate necessarily 
precedes that of the carbonate, we include this as well as the 
manufacture of hydrochloric acid which is inseparable from it. 
We also treat of the utilization of hydrochloric acid for the 
manufacture of chlorine and its derivatives, which are usually 
comprised within the meaning of the term " alkalj manufacture." 
A great many processes have been proposed for the manufacture 
of alkali from various materials, but none of these has become 
of any practical importance except those which start from 
sodium chloride (common salt); and among the latter again 
only three classes of processes are actually employed for manu- 
facturing purposes, viz. the Leblanc, the ammonia-soda, and the 
electrolytic processes. 

I. THE LEBLANC PROCESS 

The Leblanc process, which was invented by Nicolas Leblanc 
(q.v.) about 1790, begins with the decomposition of sodium 
chloride by sulphuric acid, by which sodium sulphate and 
hydrochloric acid are produced. The sodium sulphate is after- 
wards fluxed with calcium carbonate and coal, and a mixture is 
thus obtained from which sodium carbonate can be extracted 
by exhausting it with water. 

Leblanc himself for a time carried out his process on a manu- 
facturing scale, but he was ruined in the political troubles of the 
time and died by his own hand in 1806. His invention was, 
however, at once utilized by others in France; and in Great 
Britain, after a few previous attempts on a small scale, it was 
definitely introduced by James Muspratt (q.v.) in 1823. From 
that time onward the Leblanc process spread more and more, and 
for a considerable period nearly all the alkali of commerce was 
made by it. The rise of the ammonia-soda process (since 1870) 
gradually told upon the Leblanc process, which in consequence 
has been greatly restricted in Great Britain and Germany, and 
has become practically extinct in all other countries, except as 
far as its first part, the manufacture of sodium sulphate and 
hydrochloric acid, is concerned. 

The production of alkali in Great Britain, soon after the 
introduction of the Leblanc process, became the most extensive 
in the world, and outstripped that of all other countries put 
together. With the rise of the ammonia-soda process, for which 
the economic conditions are nearly as favourable in other 
countries, the predominance of Great Britain in that domain has 
become less, but even now that country produces more alkali 
than any other single country. Most of the British alkali works 
are situated in South Lancashire and the adjoining part of 
Cheshire, near the mouth of the Tyne and in the West of 
Scotland. 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



675 



Various industries are carried on in Leblanc alkali works, as 
follows: 

1. Manufacture of sodium sulphate. 

2. Manufacture of hydrochloric acid. 

3. Preparation of chlorine. 

4. Employment of chlorine for the manufacture of bleaching- 

powder and of chlorates. 

5. Manufacture of ordinary alkali from sulphate of soda. 

6. Manufacture of caustic soda. 

7. Manufacture of soda crystals. 

8. Recovery of sulphur from alkali waste. 

i. Manufacture of Sodium Sulphate. This is commercially 
known as salt-cake, and is made by decomposing common 
salt with sulphuric acid of about 80%, the reaction being 
2NaCl+H 2 SO4 = Na 2 SO4+2HCl. This reaction proceeds in two 
stages. At first principally 
acid sodium sulphate, 
NaHSO4, is formed together 
with some normal sulphate; 
later, when the temperature 
has risen, the NaHSO 4 acts 
with more NaCl so that 
nearly all of it is converted 
into Na 2 SC>4. The gaseous 
hydrochloric acid evolved 
during all this time must be 
absorbed in water, unless it 
is directly converted into 
chlorine (see below, 2 and 3). 

The process is carried out 
either in hand-wrought fur- 
naces,or mechanical furnaces, 
both called " decomposing " 
or " salt-cake furnaces." In 
the former case, the first re- 
action is produced in cast- 
iron pans or " pots," very 
heavy castings of circular 
section, fired from below, 
either directly or by the 
waste heat from the muffle- 
furnace. The reaction is 
completed in a "roasting- 
furnace." The latter was 
formerly often constructed 
as a reverberatory furnace, 
which is easy to build and to 
work, but the hydrochloric 
acid given off here, being 
mixed with the products of 
the combustion of the fuel, 
cannot be condensed to 
strong acid and is partly, 

if not entirely, wasted. It is, therefore, decidedly prefer- 
able to employ " muffle-furnaces " in which the heating is 
performed from without, the fire-gases passing first over the arch 
and then under the bottom of the muffle. This requires more 
time and fuel than the work in " open " furnaces, but in the 
muffles the gaseous hydrochloric acid is separated from the 
fire-gases, just like that evolved in the pot, and can therefore 
be condensed into strong hydrochloric acid, like the pot-acid. 
This roaster-acid is, however, of less value than the pot-acid, as 
it contains more impurities. 

It is not easy to keep the muffles permanently tight, and as 
soon as any leakages occur, either hydrochloric acid must escape 
into the fire-flue, or some fire-gases must enter into the muffle. 
The former is decidedly more objectionable than the latter, as it 
means that uncondensed hydrochloric acid is sent into the air. 
This drawback has been overcome by the construction of " plus- 
pressure " furnaces (figs, i and 2), where the fire-grate is 
placed ii ft. below the top of the muffle. In consequence the 
fire-gases, when arriving there by the chimney shaft (a), have 



already a good upward draught, and when circulating round the 
muffle are at a lower pressure than the gases within the muffle, 
so that in case of any cracks being formed, no hydrochloric acid 
escapes into the fire-flues, but vice versa. 

Since the work with ordinary hand-wrought salt-cake furnaces 
is disagreeable and costly, many attempts have been made to 
construct mechanical salt-cake furnaces. Of these J. Mactear's 
furnaces (fig. 3) have met with the greatest success. They 
consist of a horizontal pan, 17 ft. wide, which is made up 
of a central pan (e), and a series of concentric compartments 
(c 1 )) ( c2 ), (c 3 ), and which is supported on a frame (dd), revolving 
round a perpendicular axis on the wheels (n n). It is covered 
with an arch and heated on the top from one side (/), either 
by an ordinary coal-grate or by a gas-producer. A set of 
stirring blades carried in the frame (b b), and driven by gearing, 




FIGS, i and 2. Salt-cake Furnace. (Sectional Elevation and Plan.) Scale 

Figs. 1-9 from Lunge's Handbuch der Soda-Industrie, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u. Sohn. 



passes through a gap in the arch in such a manner that the 
gases cannot escape outwards. The salt is conveyed to the 
furnace by a chain of buckets running on the pulley (g), and 
passing into the hopper (h), and through the pipe (i) is mixed 
with the proper amount of acid supplied by the pipe (/). The 
mixture is fed in continuously to the central pan (e), whence 
it overflows into the compartments (c 1 ), (c 2 ), (c 3 ) successively 
until it reaches the circumference, where it is discharged con- 
tinously by o and p into the collecting-box (q), being now con- 
verted into salt-cake. This furnace acts very well, and has been 
widely introduced both in Great Britain and in other countries, 
but it has one great drawback, apart from its high cost, viz. that 
all the hydrochloric acid gas gets mixed with fire-gases, and 
consequently is condensed in a weaker and less pure form than 
from ordinary pots and muffles. This has led some factories 
which had introduced such furnaces to revert to hand-wrought 
muffle-furnaces. 

Much was expected at one time from the " direct salt-cake 
process " of Hargreaves and Robinson, in which common salt is 



6 7 6 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



subjected in a series of large cast-iron cylinders to the action of 
pyrites-burner gases and steam at a low red heat. The reaction 
going on here is: 2NaCl+SO2+O+H 2 = Na2Sq4+2HCl. 
This means that the previous manufacture of sulphuric acid in 
the vitriol-chambers is done away with, but this apparently 
great simplification is balanced by the great cost of the Hargreaves 
plant, and by the fact that the whole of the hydrochloric acid is 
mixed with nine or ten times its volume of inert gases. Owing 
to this, it is practically impossible to condense the gaseous 
hydrochloric acid into the commercial acid, although this acid 
may be obtained sufficiently strong to be worked up in the 
Weldon chlorine process (see below, 3). Therefore the Hargreaves 
process has been introduced only in a few places. 

Although the consumption of salt-cake for the manufacture of 
alkali is now much less than formerly, since the Leblanc alkali 
process has been greatly restricted, yet it is largely made and 
will continue to be made for the use of glassmakers, who use it 
for the ordinary description of glass in the place of soda-ash. 
Nor must it be overlooked that salt-cake must be made as long 




FIG. 3. Mechanical Salt-cake Furnace. (Sectional Elevation.) Scale 



as there is a sale for hydrochloric acid, or a consumption of the 
latter for the manufacture of chlorine. 

i. Manufacture oj Hydrochloric Acid (commercially also known 
as " muriatic acid "). This unavoidable gaseous bye-product of 
the manufacture of salt-cake was, during the first part of the igth 
century, simply sent into the air. When its deleterious effects 
upon vegetation, building materials, &c., became better known, 
and when at the same time an outlet had been found for moderate 
quantities of hydrochloric acid, most factories made more or 
less successful attempts to " condense " the gas by absorption 
in water. But this was hardly anywhere done to the fullest 
possible extent, and in those districts where a number of alkali 
works were located at no great distance from one another, their 
aggregate escapes of hydrochloric and other acids created an 
intolerable nuisance. This was most notably the case in South 
Lancashire, and it led to the passing of Lord Derby's " Alkali 
Act," in 1863, supplemented by further legislation in 1874, 
1 88 1 and later. There is hardly another example in the annals 
of legislative efforts equal to this, in respect of the real 
benefit conferred by it both on the general public and on the 
manufacturers themselves. This is principally the consequence 
of the exemplary way in which the duties of inspector under 
these acts were carried out by Dr R. Angus Smith (1817-1884) 
and his successors, who directed their efforts not merely to their 



primary duty of preventing nuisance, but quite as much to 
showing manufacturers how to make the most of the acid 
formerly wasted in one shape or another. Not merely Great 
Britain but all mankind has been immensely benefited by the 
labours of the British alkali inspectors, which were, of course, 
supplemented by the work of technical men in all the countries 
concerned. The scientific and technical principles of the con- 
densation of hydrochloric acid are now thoroughly well under- 
stood, and it is possible to recover nearly the whole of it in the 
state of strong commercial acid, containing from 32 to 36 % 
of pure hydrochloric acid, although probably the majority of 
the manufacturers .are still content to obtain part of the acid 
in a weaker state, merely to satisfy the requirements of the law 
prescribing the prevention of nuisance. The principles of the 
condensation, that is of converting the gaseous hydrochloric 
acid given off during the decomposition of common salt into a 
strong solution of this gas in water, can be summarized in a few 
words. The hydrochloric acid gas, which is always diluted with 
air, sometimes to a very great extent, must be brought into the 

most intimate contact possible 
with water, which greedily ab- 
sorbs it, forming ordinary 
hydrochloric acid, and this 
process must be carried so far 
that scarcely any hydrochloric 
acid remains in the escaping 
gases. The maximum escape 
allowed by the Alkali Acts, 
viz. 5 % of the total hydro- 
chloric acid, is far above that 
which is now practically at- 
tained. For a proper utiliza- 
tion of the condensed acid it 
nearly always imperative 



is 

that it should be as strong as 
possible, and this forms a 
second important considera- 
tion in the construction of 
the condensing apparatus. 
Since the solubility of hydro- 
chloric acid in water decreases 
with the increase of the 
temperature, it is necessary to 
keep the latter down a task 
which is rendered somewhat 
difficult both by the original 
heat retained by the gases on 
their escape from the decom- 
posing apparatus, and by the heat given off through the reaction 
of hydrochloric , acid upon water. 

Very different methods have been employed to effect all the 
above purposes. In Great Britain Gay-Lussac's coke-towers, 
adapted by W. Gossage to the condensation of hydrochloric 
acid, are still nearly everywhere in use, frequently combined 
with a number of stone tanks through which the gas from the 
furnaces travels before entering the towers, meeting on its way 
the acid condensed in the tower. This process is excellent for 
effecting a complete condensation of the hydrochloric acid as 
prescribed by the Alkali Acts, and for recovering the bulk of 
the acid in a tolerably strong state, but less so for recovering 
nearly the whole of it in the most concentrated state, although 
even this is occasionally attained. On the continent of Europe, 
where the last-named requirement has been for a long time more 
urgent than in Great Britain, another system has been generally 
preferred, namely, passing the gas through a long series of 
stoneware receivers, and ultimately through a small tower 
packed with stoneware or coke, making the acid flow in the 
opposite direction to the gas. Great success has also been 
obtained by " plate-towers " made of stoneware, which allow 
both the coke-towers and most of the stoneware receivers to be 
dispensed with. 
3. Preparation of Chlorine. In this place we speak only of 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



677 



the preparation of chlorine from hydrochloric acid by chemical 
processes; the electrolytic processes will be treated hereafter. 
It is clear that free chlorine must be prepared from hydrochloric 
acid by oxidizing the hydrogen. This can be done most easily 
by " active " oxygen, such as is present in the peroxides, in 
chromic or permanganic acid. Practically the only agent 
employed in this way, and that already by C. W. Scheele, the 
discoverer of chlorine, in 1774, is the peroxide of manganese 
(manganese dioxide), found in considerable quantities in nature 
as " manganese ore " (the purest of which is called pyrolusite), 
and also artificially regenerated from the waste liquors of a former 
operation. Even now, where chlorine is required for immediate 
use in some other chemical operations on a comparatively small 
scale, it is obtained by the action of hydrochloric acid on native 
manganese dioxide, according to the equation: MnC>2+4HCl = 
MnCl 2 -|-Cl 2 4-2H 2 O. This action must be promoted by heating 
the mixture, but even then nothing like all of the hydrochloric 
acid employed is made to act as above, because the attack on 
the manganese ore requires a certain minimum concentration 
of the acid. Formerly, instead of free hydrochloric acid a mixture 
of common salt and sulphuric acid was sometimes employed, 
but this is never done on a manufacturing scale now. Owing 
to the impossibility of employing any metal in contact with the 
acid, the " chlorine stills," where the above reaction is carried 
out, must be made of acid-proof stones or " chemical " stone- 
ware. This process is very costly, as much of the acid and all of 
the manganese is wasted. Moreover it is of a most disagreeable 
kind, as the waste "still-liquor," containing very much free 
hydrochloric acid and even some free chlorine, forms a most 
deleterious impurity when finding its way into drains or water- 
courses, apart from the intolerable nuisance caused by the 
escapes of chlorine from the stills and otherwise, which cannot 
be at all times avoided. 

Many endeavours were made to avoid the loss of the manganese 
in this operation, but with only partial or no success. The 
difficulty was only overcome by the Weldon process, being the in- 
ventions of Walter Weldon from 1866 onwards, and his process 
up to this day furnishes the greater proportion of chlorine 
manufactured in the world. It begins with " still-liquor," 
obtained in the old way from native manganese ore and hydro- 
chloric acid. This liquor is first treated with carbonate of lime 
(ground chalk or limestone) in a " neutralizing-well," made of 
acid-proof material and provided 'with wooden stirring-gear. 
Here the free hydrochloric acid is converted into calcium chloride, 
and at the same time any ferric chloride present is converted 
into insoluble ferric hydroxide: 2FeCl3+3CaCO 3 +3H 2 O = 
2Fe(OH) 3 -r-3CaCl 2 -|-3CO2. The sulphuric acid present is mostly 
precipitated as calcium sulphate. The mud thus formed is 
settled out, and the clear liquor, which is now quite neutral and 
contains both manganese and calcium chlorides, is mixed with 
cream of lime and treated by a strong current of air, produced 
by a blowing-engine. This is done in a tall iron cylinder, say 
9 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, called the " oxidizer." The air-pipe 
goes right to the bottom of the cylinder and there branches 
out into perforated side-pipes, so that the mass is thoroughly 
stirred up all the time. The first action of the lime is to convert 
the manganese chloride into manganous hydrate (Mn(OH)2) and 
calcium chloride; then more lime is added which greatly pro- 
motes and hastens the oxidizing process. The object of the 
latter is to convert the manganous hydroxide by the atmospheric 
oxygen into manganese dioxide, but this would take place much 
too slowly if there was not an excess of lime present ready 
to combine with the manganese dioxide to form a calcium 
manganite. Only so much lime is used that an acid manganite 
is formed corresponding to one molecule of calcium oxide to 
two of manganous oxide. This additional lime, which is called 
the " basis," certainly takes up hydrochloric acid in the next 
stage of the process, but that causes no more waste of acid than 
the incomplete action on native manganese ore, mentioned before. 
The product obtained, called " Weldon mud," is of such fine 
texture that it acts immediately with hydrochloric acid when 
mixed with it in the " Weldon stills " (fig. 4), and that this acid 



can be almost entirely neutralized thereby. The new still- 
liquor formed in this manner is treated as above, so that the 
manganese does its work over and over again. There is only a 
slight mechanical loss, which is reduced in the best managed 
works to about 2 parts of manganese dioxide to 100 of bleaching- 
powder. There are also other advantages of this process which 
explain its wide extension, in spite of the fact that only from 
30 to 35 parts of the hydrochloric acid employed is converted 
into chlorine, the remainder ultimately leaving the factory in 
the shape of a harmless but useless solution of calcium chloride. 

Weldon 's later attempts at superseding his classical process by 
other inventions which utilize a larger proportion of the chlorine, 
introduced as hydrochloric acid, have not been successful in the 
long run, although some of them were aided by the great technical 
skill of A. R. Pechiney. But the Deacon process, the invention 
of Henry Deacon (who was greatly aided by his chemist Dr 
Ferdinand Hurter) , carried out since 1868, has attained to better, 
although nothing like complete, success in that direction. 

The Deacon process, like the Weldon process, effects its 
object by the oxidizing action of atmospheric air, but in a very 
different manner. Weldon retained the principle of the Scheele 




FIG. 4. Weldon Chlorine Still. (Sectional Elevation.) Scale fa. 
C, Stone steam column resting in stone socket K. 

process, by employing the active oxygen of manganese dioxide 
to convert hydrochloric acid into free chlorine, and he employed 
the atmospheric oxygen only indirectly, for the recovery of 
manganese dioxide from the manganese chloride formed. But 
Deacon worked on the direct reaction: 2HC1+O = H 2 O+C1 2 . 
This reaction in ordinary circumstances is so slow as to be 
practically useless. If, however, a " contact-substance " is 
employed and that at the proper temperature, the process goes 
on at an immensely quickened rate and can even be carried out 
as a continuous operation. The only substance which possesses 
sufficiently strong catalytic properties for the reaction is cupric 
chloride. If pieces of porous clay are soaked in a solution of 
this salt and dried and kept at a temperature of 450 C. (in 
practice it is necessary to go to a rather higher temperature), it 
is possible continuously to convert a united stream of hydro- 
chloric acid and atmospheric air, passed through the contact- 
substance in a "decomposer" (fig. 5), to a larger extent into 
chlorine and water, of course mixed with the excess of oxygen 
and all the nitrogen of the air. On a small scale it is possible to 
push the decomposition as far as go % of the hydrochloric acid, 
but on the large scale only at most 60 % is reached. The mixture 
of hydrochloric acid and air is taken directly from the " decom- 
posing-pan " of an ordinary salt-cake furnace, is first cooled down 
in pipes sufficiently to condense most of the moisture present 



6y8 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



(together with about 8% of the hydrochloric acid), and then 
passed through a cast-iron superheater and from this into the 
" decomposer." The gaseous mixture, issuing from the latter, is 
washed with water in the usual condensing apparatus, to remove 
the 40 or 50 parts of hydrochloric acid left unchanged, and can 
then be immediately employed for the manufacture of chlorate 
of potash. 

Where (as is the more usual case) the chlorine has to serve for 
the manufacture of bleaching-powder, it must first be deprived of 
the great amount of moisture which it contains, by means of 



sulphuric acid always contained in the roaster gases soon 
" poisons " the contact-substance and renders it inoperative. 
This acid must, therefore, be condensed in the ordinary way into 
liquid hydrochloric acid and formerly could be worked up only 
by the Weldon process. R. Hasenclever has overcome this 
drawback by running this impure acid into moderately strong 
sulphuric acid (140 Twaddell), blowing in air at the same time. 
This produces a mixed current of pure hydrochloric acid gas and 
air, which is carried into a Deacon decomposer where it acts in 
the usual manner. The sulphuric acid, of which 6 or 7 parts are 
used to one of impure liquid hydrochloric acid, is 
always reserved for use in the same process, by 
driving off the excess of water in a lead pan, 
fired from the top, so that the principal expense 
of the process is that of the fuel required for the 
last operation. 

4. Applications of Chlorine. Some of the 
chlorine manufactured (practically only such as is 
obtained by the electrolysis of chlorides) is con- 
densed by cold and pressure into liquid chlorine. 
If this is anhydrous, as it must be in any case for 
this purpose, it does not act upon the metal of the 
compressors, nor upon the iron bottles in which it 
is sent out. It may even be sent out in tank 
wagons, similar to those which are employed for 
carrying sulphuric acid, holding 10 tons each. 

Sometimes the chlorine is employed directly 
for bleaching purposes, especially for some kinds of 
paper. A number of organic chlorinated products 
are also produced on a large scale. But most of 
the chlorine is utilized for the production of bleach- 
ing-powder, of bleach-liquor, and of chlorate of 
potash. 

Bleaching-powder is a compound obtained by the 
action of free chlorine on hydrated lime, containing 
a slight excess of water at ordinary temperatures 
or slightly above these. Its composition approaches 
the formula CaOCU, and it is regarded as a double 
salt of calcium chloride and hypochlorite, which 
by the action of water splits up into a mixture of 
these salts. It always contains a certain quantity 
of chemically combined water and also an excess 
of lime. Usually this lime is regarded only as me- 
chanically mixed with the bleaching-compound, 
CaOClz, but some chemists adopt formulae in 
which this lime is equally represented. 

For the manufacture of bleaching-powder, lime- 
stone of high degree of purity (especially free from 
magnesia and iron) is carefully burned so as to 
drive out nearly all the carbon dioxide without 
overheating the lime. The quick-lime is then 
slaked with the requisite quantity of water; the 
product is passed through a fine-meshed wire 
sieve and is spread in layers of 2 or 3 in. at the 
bottom of large boxes, the " bleaching-powder 
FIG. 5. Deacon " Decomposer." (Sectional Elevation.) Scale ^5. a,a, Upright chambers," made of lead, or sometimes of cast-iron 
cast-iron cylinders ;b,b, brick jacket ;c,c, flues ;d,e, iron plates arranged like Venetian protected by paint of slate or even of tarred 
blinds, between which the contact-substance is contained ;/, charging hole;g, dis- , C j.i or i ne generated in an ordinary or a 

charging hole; h, entrance pipe for gas; i, exit pipe for gas. a - *"., ne > gen 

Weldon still, is passed in and is rapidly absorbed. 




coke-towers fed with moderately strong sulphuric acid. As the 
gas issuing from these contains only about 5 volumes % of 
hydrochloric acid, it cannot be made to act upon lime in the 
ordinary bleaching-powder chambers, but specially constructed 
chambers must be provided (see fig. 4). The movement of the 
gases through all this complicated set of apparatus is produced 
by a Root's blower placed at the end of it all. 

The Deacon process makes cheaper chlorine than the Weldon 
process, but the plant is complicated and costly and the working 
requires a great deal of attention. In skilled hands it has been 
proved to yield excellent results. 

The hydrochloric acid from the calcining-f urnaces or "roasters" 
cannot be employed immediately for the Deacon process, as the 



When the absorption becomes slow, the gas is cut off and the 
chamber is left to itself for twelve hours or more, when it will be 
found that all the chlorine has been taken up. Now the door of 
the chamber is opened, the powder lying at the bottom is turned 
over and the treatment with gas is repeated. Sometimes a third 
treatment is necessary in order to get the product up to the 
strength required in commerce, viz. 35% of " available " 
chlorine. The finished product is packed into wooden casks 
lined with brown paper. The work of packing is a most dis- 
agreeable and unhealthy operation which is best relieved by 
erecting the chambers at a higher level and placing the casks 
underneath, communication being made by means of traps in 
the chamber-bottom, so that the packers can do their work 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



outside the chambers. The bleaching-powder casks must be 
kept in a dry place, as cool as possible, and never exposed to the 
direct rays of the sun, in order to prevent a decomposition which 
now and then has even led to explosions. 

The weak chlorine from the Deacon process cannot be treated 
in this manner, as chambers of impossibly large dimensions 
would be required. Originally the absorption of the Deacon 
chlorine took place in a set of chambers, constructed of large 
slabs of stone, containing a great many horizontal shelves 
superposed over one another. About sixteen such chambers 
were combined in such manner that the fresh gas passed into that 
chamber which had been the longest time at work and in which 
the bleaching-powder was nearly finished, and so forth until the 
gas, now all but entirely exhausted, reached the last-filled 
chamber in which it met with fresh lime and there gave up the 
last of the chlorine. These " Deacon chambers " occupied a 
large space, besides being expensive to build and difficult to keep 
in repair. 

They are now mostly replaced by,an apparatus, the invention 
of R. Hasenclever, consisting of four horizontal cast-iron cylinders 
with internal stirring-gear. The fresh lime is continually charged 
into the top cylinder, is gradually moved towards the other end, 
falls down into the next lower cylinder and thus gradually 
makes its way to the lowest cylinder. The weak chlorine gas 
from the Deacon apparatus travels precisely the opposite way, 
from the bottom upwards, the result being that finished bleaching- 
powder is continually discharged at the bottom and air free from 
chlorine leaves the apparatus at the top. 

Bleaching-powder is manufactured to the extent of several 
hundred thousands of tons annually, almost entirely for the use 
of papermakers and cotton bleachers. Smaller quantities are 
used for disinfection and other purposes. It is usually sold in 
" tierces," that is, casks containing about 10 cwt. 

Bleach-liquors. If the chlorine is made to act on cream of 
lime, care being taken that the temperature does not rise above 
35 and that the chlorine is not in excess, a solution is obtained 
containing a mixture of. calcium chloride and hypochlorite which 
is a very convenient agent for bleachers, but which does not bear 
the expense of carriage over long distances. Similar liquids are 
obtained with a basis of sodium (" eau de Javel "), by passing 
chlorine into solutions of sodium carbonate. The former kind 
of bleach-liquor is mostly used in the industry of cotton, the latter 
in that of linen. 

Chlorate of Potash. Formerly all chlorate of potash, as some 
is still, was obtained by passing chlorine into milk of lime, 
allowing the temperature to rise almost to the boiling-point, and 
continuing until the bleaching-solution, originally formed, is 
converted into a mixture of calcium chlorate and chloride, the 
final reaction being 6Ca(OH)2+6Cl 2 =5CaCl2+Ca(ClO3)2+6H 2 O. 
On adding to this solution, after settling out the mud, a quantity 
of potassium chloride equivalent to the calcium chlorate, the 
reaction Ca(Ciq 3 )2+2KCl = CaCl2+2KC10 3 is produced, the 
ultimate proportions thus being theoretically SKClOa to OCaCU, 
though in reality there is rather more calcium chloride present. 
When this solution is concentrated by evaporation and cooled 
down, about five-sixths of the chlorate of potash crystallizes out. 
It is purified by redissolving and crystallization, and is sold 
either in the state of crystals or finely ground. During these 
operations care must be taken lest a spark should produce the 
inflammation of the chlorate on contact with any organic sub- 
stance. Large quantities of potassium chlorate exposed to 
strong heat in contact with the wood of casks or the timber 
of a roof have produced violent explosions. 

Most of the chlorate of potash is now prepared by electrolysis 
of potassium chloride (see below). It is employed for fire- works, 
for some descriptions of explosives, for safety matches and as an 
oxidizer in some operations, especially in dyeing and tissue 
printing. For the last-named purpose it is sometimes replaced by 
sodium chlorate. The chlorates are usually sold in wooden kegs 
containing icwt. each. 

5. The Manufacture of Soda-ash from Salt-cake by the Leblanc 
process. This process consists in heating a mixture ofcommercial 




FIG. 6. Black-ash Furnace and Boiling-down Pan. Scale 



68o 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



sulphate of soda (salt-cake) with about the same weight of crushed 
limestone and half its weight of coal, until the materials are 
fluxed and a reaction has taken place, the principal phase of 
which is expressed by the equation Na2S04+CaCOs+2C = 
2CO2+Na2COs+CaS. A number of secondary reactions, how- 
ever, occur, owing partly to the excess of calcium carbonate and 
coal and partly to the impurities present, so that the solid product 
of the process, which is called " black-ash," has a somewhat 
complicated composition. Its principal constituents are always 
sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide, which are separated 
by the action of water, the former being soluble and the latter 
insoluble. 

The furnace in which the reaction takes place is shown in 
fig. 6 in a sectional plan. It is called a " black-ash " furnace, 
and belongs to the class of reverberatory furnaces. A large 
fire-grate (ab), having a cave (c) to facilitate stoking and stepped 
back at (d) , is bounded on one side by a fire-bridge(e) ; on the other 
side of this, separated by an air-channel (g) , there is first the proper 
fluxing bed (A), and behind this the " back-bed "(i) for pre-heating 
the charge. The flame issuing from the furnace by (o) is always 
further utilized for boiling down the liquors obtained in a later 
stage, either in a pan (p) fired from the top and supported on 
pillars (qq) as shown in the drawing, or in pans heated from below. 
The charge of salt-cake (generally 3 cwt.), limestone and coal 
is roughly mixed and put upon the back-bed; when the front- 



bed has become empty it is drawn forward and exposed to the 
full heat of the fire, with frequent stirring. After about three- 
quarters of an hour the substances are so far fluxed or softened 
that the reaction now sets in fully, as shown by the copious 
escape of gas. This is at first colourless carbon dioxide, but later 
on inflammable gases come out of the mass, which at this stage 
has turned into a thicker, pasty condition, showing that the end 
of the reaction is near. The inflammable gas is carbon monoxide, 
which, however, does not burn with its proper purple flame, but 
with a flame tinged bright yellow by the sodium present. This 
carbon monoxide is formed by the action of coal on the lime, 
formed at this stage from the original limestone. When the 
" candles " of carbon monoxide appear, the pasty mass is quickly 
drawn out of the furnace into iron " bogies," where it solidifies 
into a grey, porous mass, the " black-ash." Care must be taken 
to heat it no longer than necessary, as it otherwise turns red and 
yields bad soda. 

The hand-wrought black-ash furnace has been mostly super- 
seded in the large factories by the revolving black-ash furnace, 
shown in fig. 7. These furnaces possess a large cylindrical shell 
(e) , lined with fire-bricks, and made to revolve round its horizontal 
axis by means of a toothed wheel fixed on its exterior; (ff) are 
tire-seats holding tires (gg) , which work in friction rollers (h) . The 
flame of a fixed fireplace (a) enters through an " eye " (b) in the 
centre of the front end of the cylinder and issues in the centre of 




FIG. 7. Revolving Black-ash Furnace. (Elevation.) Scale 



the back end, first into a large dust-chamber (m), and then over 
or under boiling-down pans (/>). These mechanical furnaces do 
the work of from four to ten ordinary furnaces according to their 
size, with comparatively very little expense for labour, but they 
must be very carefully managed and the black-ash from them 
is more difficult to lixiviate than that from hand-wrought 
furnaces, because it is less porous. The lixiviation of the black- 
ash requires great care, as the calcium sulphide is liable to be 
changed into soluble calcium compounds, which immediately 
react with sodium carbonate and destroy a corresponding 
quantity of the latter, rendering the soda weaker and impure. 
This change of the calcium sulphide may be brought about either 
by the oxidizing action of the air or by " hydrolysis," produced 
by prolonged contact with hot water, the use of which, on the 
other hand, cannot be avoided in order to extract the sodium 
carbonate itself. The apparatus which has been found most 
suitable for the purpose was devised by Professor H. Buff of 
Giessen, and first practically carried out by Charles Dunlop at 
St Rollox. It consists of a number of tanks or " vats," placed 
at the same level and connected by pipes which reach nearly to 
the bottom of one tank and open out at the top into the next 
tank. The vats are also provided with false bottoms, outlet cocks, 
steam pipes and so forth. Tepid water is run in at one end of the 
series, where nearly exhausted black-ash is present; the weak 
liquor takes up more soda from the intermediate tanks and at 
last gets up to full strength in the last tank, charged with fresh 
black-ash and kept at a higher temperature, viz. 60 C. When 
the first tank has been quite exhausted, the water is turned on 
to the next, the first tank is emptied by discharging the " alkali- 
waste," and is filled with fresh black-ash, whereupon it becomes 
the last of the series. In spite of all precautions a certain quantity 



of impurities is always formed, but this should be kept down as 
much as possible by strictly watching the temperature in the 
vats and by taking care that the black-ash in the wet state is 
never exposed to the air. The unavoidable contamination with 
muddy particles of vat-waste is removed by allowing the vat- 
liquor to rest for some hours in a separate tank and settling out 
the mud. 

The clear vat-liquor, if allowed to cool down to ordinary 
temperature, would separate out part of the sodium carbonate 
in the shape of decahydrated crystals. As these do not come out 
sufficiently pure, they would not be marketable and therefore 
they are not allowed to be formed, but the liquid, while still hot, 
is either run into the boiling-down pans, or submitted to one of 
the purifying operations to be described below. If it is boiled 
down without further purification, the resulting soda-ash is not 
of the first quality, but it is sufficiently pure for many purposes. 
The boiling down is most economically performed by means of 
large iron pans covered with a brick arch and heated from the top 
by the waste flame issuing from the black-ash furnaces (see figs. 6 
and 7). It is continued until the contents of the pan have been 
converted into a thick paste of small crystals of monohydrated 
sodium carbonate, permeated by a mother-liquor which is re- 
moved by draining on perforated plates or by a centrifugal 
machine, and is always returned to the pans. The drained 
crystals are dried and heated to redness in a reverberatory 
furnace; when " finished," the mass is of an impure white or light 
yellow colour and is sold as ordinary " soda-ash." It is not easy 
to make it stronger than 92% of sodium carbonate, which is 
technically expressed as "52 degrees of available soda " (see 
next page) . If purer and stronger soda-ash is wanted, the boiling 
down must be carried out in pans fired from below, and the 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



681 



crystals of monohydrated sodium carbonate " fished " out 
as they are formed, but this is mostly done after submitting 
the liquor to the purifying operations which we shall now 
describe. 

The dried or " finished " soda-ash is ground to a pretty fine 
powder and is packed into wooden casks or " tierces," holding 
from 10 to about 20 cwt. each, according to the way of filling 
them. 

The principal impurities of crude vat-liquor are sodium 
hydrate and sulphide, the latter of which always leads to the 
formation of soluble double sulphur salts of sodium and iron. 
The other impurities are of minor importance. The sulphides 
can be removed by " oxidizing " them into thiosulphates by 
means of atmospheric air, with or without the assistance of other 
agents, such as manganese peroxide; or by " carbonating " them 
with lime-kiln or other gases containing carbon dioxide; or by 
precipitating them with lead or zinc oxide. The last mentioned 
is the best but costliest method, and is employed only in the 
manufacture of the highest strengths of caustic soda. The most 
usual process, where soda-ash is to be made, is the " carbonating." 
This is usually effected either by forcing lime-kiln gas through 
the liquor, contained in a closed iron vessel, or by passing the 
gases through an iron tower filled with coke or other materials, 
suitable for subdividing the stream of the gases and that of the 
vat-liquor which trickles down in the tower. The same apparatus 
is used for " oxidizing " by means of atmospheric air passed 
through by means of an injector; sometimes both air and 
carbon dioxide are passed in at the same time. The operation 
is finished when all the sodium sulphide has been converted into 
normal sodium carbonate, partly also into acid sodium car- 
bonate (bicarbonate) NaHCOs; at. the same time a precipitate 
is formed, consisting of ferrous sulphide, alumina and silica, 
which is removed by another settling tank, and the clear liquor 
is now ready either for boiling down in a "fishing-pan" for the 
manufacture of white soda-ash, or for the process of causticizing. 

Soda-ash (as well as caustic soda) is sold by degrees of " avail- 
able soda." This means that portion which neutralizes the acid 
employed for testing, and the degrees mean the percentage of 
Na 2 O thus found, whether it be present as Na 2 COs, NaOH, or 
sodium aluminate or silicate. The purest soda-ash, equal to 
100 % NazCOs, would be 585 degrees of available soda. The 
ordinary commercial strength of Leblanc soda-ash is from 
52 to 54 degrees (in former times much was sold in the state of 
48 %)- 

6. Manufacture of Caustic Soda. Most of the Leblanc liquor 
is nowadays converted into caustic soda, as white soda-ash is 
more easily and cheaply made by the ammonia-soda process. 
We shall therefore in this place describe the manufacture of 
caustic soda. This is always made from the carbonate by the 
action of slaked lime: Na 2 C03-r-Ca(OH);;=CaC03-|-2NaOH. 
The calcium carbonate, being insoluble, is easily separated from 
the caustic liquor by filtration. But as this reaction is reversible, 
we must observe the conditions necessary for directing it in the 
right sense. These are: diluting with water so as not to exceed 
10 % of sodium carbonate to 90 % of water; boiling this 
mixture; and keeping it well agitated. At the best about 92 % 
of the sodium carbonate can be converted into caustic soda, 8 % 
remaining unchanged. 

The operation is performed in iron cylinders, provided with 
an agitating arrangement. This may consist of a steam injector 
by means of which air is made to bubble through the liquid, 
which produces both the required agitation and the heating, 
and at the same time oxidizes at least part of the sulphides; 
but this meth,od of agitation causes a great waste of steam and 
at the same time a further dilution of the liquor. Many, there- 
fore, prefer mechanical stirring by means of paddles, fixed either 
to a vertical or to a horizontal shaft, and inject only sufficient 
steam to keep the mass at the proper temperature. Some heat 
is also gained by the slaking of the caustic lime within the 
liquor. After from half an hour to a whole hour the conversion 
of sodium carbonate into sodium hydrate is brought about as 
far as is practicable. The whole mass is now run into the 



filters, which are always constructed on the vacuum principle. 
They are iron boxes, in which a bed is made of bricks, above 
them gravel, and over this sand, covered on the top by iron 
grids. The space below the sieve thus formed is connected by 
means of an outlet tap with a closed tank, and this again com- 
municates with a vacuum pump. By this means the filtration 
is quickened by the atmospheric pressure, and goes on very 
rapidly, as also does the subsequent washing. The filtered 
caustic liquar passes to the concentration plants; the washings 
are employed for diluting fresh vat-liquor for the next operation, 
or for dissolving solid soda-ash for the same purpose. The 
washed-out calcium carbonate, which always contains much 
calcium hydrate and 2 or 3 % of soda in various forms, usually 
goes back to the black-ash furnaces, but it cannot be always 
used up in this way, and what remains is thrown upon a 
heap outside the works. Attempts have been made to use it 
in the manufacture of Portland cement, but without much 
success. 

The clear caustic soda liquor must be concentrated in such a 
way that the caustic soda cannot to any great extent be re- 
converted into sodium carbonate, and that the " salts " which 
it contains, sodium carbonate, sulphate, chloride, &c., can be 
separated during the process. Formerly the most usual con- 
centrating apparatus was the " boat-pan " (fig. 8). This is an 

023>* 2-438 -M3>. 




FIG. 8. Caustic Soda Concentration Boat-pan. (Sectional 
Elevation.) Scale 5^. 

oblong iron pan, the bottom of which slopes from both sides to a 
narrow channel. The latter rests on a brick pillar ; the remaining 
part of the sloping bottom is heated, either by the waste fire 
from a black-ash furnace or by a special fireplace. This arrange- 
ment has the effect that the salts, as they separate out, slide 
down the sloping part and arrive in the central channel, which 
is not exposed to the fire-gases, so that they quietly settle there, 
without caking to the pan, until they are fished out by means of 
perforated ladles. These boat-pans were for many years almost 
everywhere employed, and did their work quite well, but rather 
expensively. At many works they have been replaced by either 
Thelen pans or vacuum pans. 

The " Thelen pan " (thus named from its inventor, a foreman 
at the Rhenania works near Aachen) is a mechanically worked 
fishing-pan, which requires considerably less labour and coal 
than ordinary boat-pans. It is a long trough, of nearly semi- 
circular section, the whole bottom being exposed to the fire- 
gases. A horizontal shaft runs length-ways through the trough, 
and is provided with stirring blades, arranged in such a manner 
that they constantly scrape the bottom, so that the salts cannot 
burn fast upon it, and are at the same time moved forward 
towards one of the ends of the trough where they are auto- 
matically removed by means of a chain of buckets. 

The most efficient evaporating apparatus, as far as economy 
of fuel is concerned, is the vacuum-pan, of which from two to 
five are combined to form a set, but it has the drawback that 
the removal of the salts is much more difficult than with the 



682 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



older pans, described above. In this apparatus only the first of 
the pans is heated directly, usually by means of ordinary boiler- 
steam circulating round a number of pipes, containing the 
liquid to be concentrated. The steam rising from the latter is 
passed into a similar pan, in which it circulates round another 
set of pipes, but as it could not bring the liquid in the latter to 
boil under ordinary conditions, the second pan is connected 
with a vacuum-pump so that the boiling-point of the liquid in 
this pan is lowered. This pan may be followed by- a third pan, 
in which a stronger vacuum is maintained, and so forth. By 
this means the latent heat of the steam, issuing from all pans 
but the last, is utilized for evaporating purposes, and from half 
to three-fourths of the fuel is saved. 

After being concentrated up to a certain point, and after the 
separation of nearly all the salts, the caustic liquor is transferred 
to cast-iron " finishing-pots " (fig. 9), holding from ten to twenty 
tons. Here it is further boiled down until the greater part or 
nearly all of the water has been removed, and until the salts on 
cooling would set to a solid mass. This requires ultimately a 
good red heat. Before the mass has reached that point the 
sulphides still present have been destroyed, either by the addition 
of solid nitrate of soda or by blowing air through the red-hot 
melt. Before finishing, the molten mass must be kept at a quiet 




FIG. 9. Caustic Soda "Finishing-pot." (Sectional Elevation.) 

heat for some hours in order to settle out the ferric oxide which 
it always contains, and which becomes insoluble (through the 
destruction of the sodium ferrite) only at high temperatures. 
When it has completely cleared, the liquid caustic is ladled or 
pumped out into sheet-iron drums, holding about 6 cwt. each, 
where it solidifies and forms the caustic soda known to commerce. 

The best caustic soda tests from 75 to 76 degrees of " available 
soda "; this is only a few per cent removed from the composition 
of pure NaOH, which would be =77-5 degrees Na 2 O. Most of 
the caustic soda is sold at a strength of 70 degrees, sometimes as 
low as 60 degrees. 

Caustic soda is used in very large quantities in the manufacture 
of soap, paper, textile fabrics, alizarin and other colouring 
matters, and for many other purposes. 

7. Soda-Crystals. Another product made in alkali works is 
soda-crystals. Their formula in Na 2 COs, 10H2O, corresponding 
t 37 % of dry sodium carbonate. They are made by dissolving 
ordinary soda-ash in hot water, adding a small quantity of 
chloride of lime for the destruction of colouring matter and the 
oxidation of any ferrous salts present, carefully settling the 
solution, without allowing its temperature to fall below the point 
of maximum solubility (34 C.), and running the clarified liquid 
into cast-iron crystallizers or " cones," where, on cooling down, 
most of the sodium carbonate is separated in large crystals of the 
decahydrated form. This process lasts about a week in winter, 
and up to a fortnight in summer. In France the crystallization 
of soda is performed not in large tanks but in sheet-iron dishes 



holding only about j cwt., and requires only from 27 to 48 hours 
in the cool season; it is not carried on at all in warmer climates 
during the summer months. The mother-liquor, drained from 
the soda-crystals, on boiling down to dryness yields a very white, 
but low-strength soda-ash, as the soluble impurities of the 
original soda -ash are nearly all collected here; it is called 
" mother-alkali." 

Although the soda-crystals contain the alkali conbined with 
such a large quantity of water, they are made in large quanti- 
ties, because their form, together with their complete freedom 
from caustic soda, makes them very suitable for domestic 
purposes. Hence they are best known as " washing-soda." 
Sometimes they are made, not from soda-ash, but from Leblanc 
soda-liquor before " finishing " the ash, or from the crude 
bicarbonate of the ammonia-soda process by prolonged boiling, 
until nearly half of the carbonic acid has been expelled. 

Formerly bicarbonate of soda was made from Leblanc soda- 
crystals by the action of carbonic acid, but this article is now 
almost exclusively made in the ammonia-soda process. 

8. The Recovery of Sulphur from Alkali-waste . For many years 
all the sulphur used in the Leblanc process in the shape of sodium 
sulphate, and originally imported into the manufacture in the 
shape of brimstone or pyrites, was wasted in the crude calcium 
sulphide remaining from the lixiviation of black -ash. 
This " alkali- waste," also called tank-waste or vat- 
waste, was thrown into heaps where the calcium 
sulphide was gradually acted upon by the moisture 
and the oxygen of the air. The sulphur was by these 
converted partly into gaseous sulphuretted hydrogen, 
partly into soluble polysulphides, thiosulphates and 
other soluble compounds, and in all shapes caused a 
nuisance which became more and more intolerable as 
the number and size of alkali works increased. Both 
the air and the water in their neighbourhood were 
contaminated thereby. 

Both this nuisance and the loss of the sulphur (whose 
cost sometimes amounted to more than half of the 
total cost of the soda-ash) led to many attempts at 
extracting the sulphur from the alkali-waste. This 
was first done with a certain amount of success by 
the processes of M. Schaffner (1861) and L. Mond 
10 Met. (1862), but as these required the use of hydrochloric 
acid, and as they only recovered about half of the 
Scale jl . sulphur, they were superseded by another a process 
which had been originally proposed by W. Gossage 
in 1837, but has been made practicable only by the in- 
ventions of C. F. Claus, in 1883, and from 1887 onward by 
the technical skill of Messrs Chance Brothers, of Oldbury. 
The Claus-Chance process, as it is called, comprises the following 
operations. The wet alkali-waste as it comes from the lixiviating 
vats, is transferred into upright iron cylinders in which it is 
systematically treated with lime-kiln gases until the whole of the 
calcium sulphide has been converted into calcium carbonate, 
the carbon dioxide of the lime-kiln gases being entirely exhausted. 
The sulphur issues as sulphuretted hydrogen, mixed with the 
nitrogen of the air. It is mixed with fresh air containing 
sufficient oxygen for the combustion of the hydrogen, and the 
mixture is passed through red-hot iron oxide (burnt pyrites) 
which by its catalytic action causes the reaction HzS+0 = 
H>0+S to take place. By cooling the vapours the sulphur is con- 
densed in a very pure form, and about 85% of the whole of it is 
recovered, the remaining 15% escaping in the shape of sulphur 
dioxide (SOz) and H 2 S. Unfortunately it has been hitherto 
found impossible to deal with these gases in any profitable way. 
It should be noted that this " recovered sulphur," which is 
equal in purity to the " refined brimstone " of commerce, has a 
far higher value than the sulphur contained in the originally 
employed pyrites, so that the recovery is a paying process, in 
spite of the somewhat considerable cost of the plant and of the 
working operations. It has been introduced at most large 
Leblanc alkali works, and has, so to say, given them a new lease 
of life. 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



683 






II. THE AMMONIA-SODA PROCESS 

In spite of the great improvements effected during recent 
times the Leblanc process cannot economically compete with the 
ammonia-soda process, principally for two reasons. The sodium 
in the latter costs next to nothing, being obtained from natural 
or artificial brine in which the sodium chloride possesses an 
extremely slight value. The fuel required is less than half the 
amount used in the Leblanc process. Moreover, the ammonia 
process has been gradually elaborated into a very complicated 
but perfectly regularly working scheme, in which the cost of 
labour and the loss of ammonia are reduced to a minimum. The 
only way in which the Leblanc process could still hold its own 
was by being turned in the direction of making caustic soda, to 
which it lends itself more easily than the ammonia-soda process; 
but the latter has invaded even this field. One advantage, 
however, still remained to the Leblanc process. All endeavours 
to obtain either hydrochloric acid or free chlorine in the ammonia- 
soda process have proved commercial failures, all the chlorine of 
the sodium chloride being ultimately lost in the shape of worthless 
calcium chloride. The Leblanc process thus remained the sole 
purveyor of chlorine in its active forms, and in this way the fact 
is accounted for that, at least in Great Britain, the Leblanc 
process still furnishes nearly half of all the alkali made, though in 
other countries its proportional share is very much less. The 
profit made upon the chlorine produced has to make up for the 
loss on the alkali. 

The ammonia-soda process was first patented in 1838 by 
H. G. Dyar and J. Hemming, who carried it out on an experi- 
mental scale in Whitechapel. Many attempts were soon after 
made in the same direction, both in England and on the continent 
of Europe, the most remarkable of which was the ingenious 
combination of apparatus devised by J. J. T. Schloesing and 
E. Rolland. But a really economical solution of the problem was 
first definitely found in 1872 by Ernest Solvay, as the result of 
investigations begun about ten years previously. The greater 
portion of all the soda-ash of commerce is now made by Solvay's 
apparatus, which alone we shall describe in this place, although 
it should be borne in mind that the principles laid down by Dyar 
and Hemming have been and are still successfully carried out in a 
number of factories by an entirely different kind of apparatus. 

The leading reaction of this process is the mutual decom- 
position of ammonium bicarbonate and sodium chloride: 
NaCl+NH4HCO 3 = NaHCO 3 -r-NH4Cl. It begins, however, not 
with ready-made ammonium bicarbonate, but with the sub- 
stances from which it is formed ammonia, water and carbon 
dioxide which are made to act on sodium chloride. In 
practice the process is carried out as follows. A nearly 
saturated solution of sodium chloride is obtained by purifying 
natural or artificial brine, i.e. an impure solution of common 
salt, especially removing the alkaline earths and so forth by 
addition of sodium or ammonium carbonate and settling out 
the precipitate formed. This solution is saturated with ammonia, 
produced in the recovery plant (see below), in vessels provided 
with mechanical agitators and strongly cooled by coils of pipes 
through which cold water is made to flow. These vessels, as well 
as all others which are used in the process, are not open to the 
air, but communicate with it through washers in which 
fresh salt solution is employed for retaining any escaping vapours 
of ammonia. The ammoniacal salt solution is now saturated 
with carbon dioxide. This is employed in the shape of 
lime-kiln gases, obtained in a comparatively pure and strong 
form (up to 33 % CO 2 ), in very large kilns, charged with lime- 
stone and coke. The kilns are closed at the top, and the 
gases are drawn out by powerful air-pumps, washers being 
interposed between the kilns and the pumps for the purpose of 
purifying and cooling the gas. The heat evolved by the com- 
pression in the air-pumps (which rises to four atmospheres or 
upwards) is again removed by cooling, and the gas is now passed 
upwards in the " Solvay tower " (fig. 10). This is a tall iron 
erection, built up from superposed cylinders, which are separated 
from one another by perforated horizontal diaphragms, con- 





B 



structed in such a way that the gases are over and over again 
subdivided into many smaller streams and are thus thoroughly 
brought into contact with the ammoniacal salt solution with which 
the tower is about two-thirds filled. There the reaction men- 
tioned above takes place, and owing to the concentration of the 
liquid the sodium bicarbonate formed is to a great extent 
precipitated in the shape of small crystals, forming with the 
mother-liquor a thin magma. This takes place with considerable 
evolution of heat which is removed by internal and external 
cooling with water. The temperature must not be allowed 
to rise beyond a certain point, for the reaction NaCl+ 
NH 4 HCO 3 = NaHCO 3 +NH 4 Cl is reversible, and at a tempera- 
ture of about 60 or 
70 C. it is in fact 
practically going the 
wrong way, viz. from 
right to left. On the 
other hand the cooling 
must not be carried 
too far, for in this 
case the crystals of 
sodium bicarbonate 
become so fine that 
the muddy mass is 
very difficult to filter. 
The best temperature 
seems to be about 
3 C. 

Either at certain 
intervals, or continu- 
ously, a portion of the 
contents of the tower 
is withdrawn and 
fresh ammoniacal salt 
solution is introduced 
higher up. The 
muddy liquid running 
out is passed on to the 
vacuum filters (Z, fig. 
10). Here a separa- 
tion takes place be- 
tween the crystals of 
sodium bicarbonate 
and the mother-liquor. 
The former are 
washed with water 
until the chlorides are 
nearly removed, and 
are then carried into 
the drying apparatus. 
This must be con- 
structed in such a 
manner that the bi- 
carbonate, which 
always contains some 



From Thorpe's Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, by 
permission of Longmans, Green & Co. 

FIG. 10. Ammonia- soda Carbonating 
Towers and Filters. (Sectional Elevation.) 
Scale ffaj. A A, Tower; B, ammoniacal 
brine main;E, gas-inlet ; Z, vacuum filter; 
V, pipe to air-pump. 



ammonium salts, is first freed from these by moderate heating (of 
course taking care that the ammonia is completely recovered) , and 
later on, by raising the temperature, it is decomposed into solid 
sodium carbonate and gaseous carbon dioxide. The former 
needs only grinding to constitute the final product, ammonia- 
soda ash; the latter is again employed in the process of treating 
the ammoniacal salt solution with carbon dioxide. Various 
forms of apparatus are employed for this treatment of the crude 
bicarbonate sometimes semi-circular troughs with mechanical 
agitators on the principle of the Thelen pan (see above) all 
acting on the principle that the escaping ammonia and carbon 
dioxide must be fully utilized over again. The soda-ash obtained 
in the end is of a high degree of purity, testing from 98 to 90% 
Na2CO 3 , the remaining i or 2% consisting principally of NaCl. 
A very important part of the process has still to be described, 
viz. the recovery of the ammonia from the mother-liquor coming 
from the vacuum filters and various washing liquors. Unless 



684 



ALKALI MANUFACTURE 



this recovery is carried out in the most efficient manner, the 
process cannot possibly pay; but so much progress has been 
made in this direction that the loss of ammonia is very slight 
indeed, merely a fraction per cent. The ammonia is for the 
major part found in the mother-liquor as ammonium chloride. 
A smaller but still considerable portion exists here and in the 
washings in the shape of ammonium carbonates. These com- 
pounds differ in their behaviour to heat. The ammonium 
carbonates are driven out from their solutions by mere prolonged 
boiling, being thereby decomposed into ammonia, carbon dioxide 
and water, but the ammonium chloride is not volatile under 
these conditions, and must be decomposed by milk of lime: 
2NH4Cl+Ca(OH) 2 = 2NH3-r-CaCl 2 +2H 2 O. The solution of 
calcium chloride is run to waste, the ammonia is re-introduced 
into the process. 

Both these reactions are carried out in tall cylindrical columns 
or " stills," consisting of a number of superposed cylinders, 
having perforated horizontal partitions, and provided with a 
steam-heating arrangement in the enlarged bottom portion. 
The milk of lime is introduced at a certain distance from the 
bottom. The steam causes the action of the lime on the 
ammonium chloride to take place in this lower portion of the 
still, from which the steam, mixed with all the liberated ammonia, 
rises into the upper portion of the column where its heat serves 
to drive out the volatile ammonium carbonate. Just below the 
top there is a cooling arrangement, so that nearly all the water 
is condensed and runs back into the column, while the ammonia, 
with the carbon dioxide formerly combined with part of it, 
passes on first through an outside cooler where the remaining 
water is condensed, and afterwards into the vessels, already 
described, where the ammonia is absorbed by a solution of salt 
and thus again introduced into the process. 

The reversible character of the principal reaction has the 
consequence that a considerable portion of the sodium chloride 
(up to 33 %) is lost, being contained in the waste calcium chloride 
solution which issues from the ammonia stills. This is, however, 
not of much importance, as it had been introduced in the shape 
of a brine where its value is very slight (6d. per ton of Nad). 
It is true that all the chlorine combined with the sodium is lost 
partly as NaCl and partly as CaCl 2 ; none of the innumerable 
attempts at recovering the chlorine from the waste liquor has 
been made to pay, and success is less likely than ever since the 
perfection of the electrolytic processes. (See CHLORINE.) For 
all that, especially in consequence of the small amount of fuel 
required, and the total absence of the necessity of employing 
sulphur compounds as an intermediary, the ammonia-soda 
process has supplanted the Leblanc process almost entirely on 
the continent of Europe and to a great extent in Great 
Britain. 

III. ELECTROLITIC ALKALI MANUFACTURE 
In theory by far the simplest process for making alkalis 
together with free chlorine is the electrolysis of sodium (or 
potassium) chloride. When this takes place in an aqueous 
solution, the alkaline metal at once reacts with the water, so 
that a solution of an alkaline hydrate is formed while hydrogen 
escapes. The reactions are therefore (we shall in this case 
speak only of the sodium compounds): (i) NaCl = Na+Cl, 
(2)Na+H 2 O= NaOU+H. 

The chlorine escapes at the anode, the hydrogen at the cathode. 
If the chlorine and the sodiun hydrate can act upon each other 
within the liquid, bleach-liquors are formed: 2NaOH+Cl 2 = 
NaOCl-f NaCl+H 2 O. The production of these for the use of 
papermakers and bleachers of textile fabrics has become an 
important industry, but does not enter into our province. 

If, however, the action of the chlorine on the sodium hydrate 
is prevented, which can be done in various ways, they can both 
be collected in the isolated state and utilized as has been 
previously described, viz. the chlorine can be used for the manu- 
facture of liquid chlorine, bleaching-powder or other bleaching 
compounds, or chlorates, and the solution of sodium hydrate 
can be sold as such, or converted into solid caustic soda. 



Precisely the same can be done in the electrolysis of potassium 
chloride. 

There is a third way of conducting the action, viz. so that the 
chlorine can act upon the caustic soda or potash at a higher 
concentration and temperature, in which case chlorates are 
directly formed in the liquid: KC1+3H 2 = KC1O3+3H 2 . 
This has indeed become the principal, because it is the cheapest, 
process for the manufacture of potassium and sodium chlorate. 
Perchlorates can also be made in this way. 

In all these cases the chlorine, or the products made from it, 
really play a greater part than the alkali. From 58.5 parts 
by weight of NaCl we "obtain theoretically 23Na = 40NaOH = 
53Na 2 COs, together with 35.5 Cl, or 100 bleaching-powder. As 
the weight of bleaching-powder consumed in the world is at 
most one-fifth of that of alkali, calculated as Na2COs, it follows 
that only about one-tenth of all the alkali required could be 
made by electrolysis, even supposing the Leblanc process to be 
entirely abolished. The remaining nine-tenths of alkali must be 
supplied from other sources, chiefly the ammonia-soda process. * 
As long as the operation of the Leblanc process is continued, it 
will supply a certain share of both kinds of products. Trust- 
worthy statistics on this point cannot be obtained, because 
most firms withhold any information as to the extent of their 
production from the public. 

The first patents for the electrolysis of alkaline chlorides 
were taken out in 1851 and several others later on; but com- 
mercial success was utterly impossible until the invention of 
the dynamo machine allowed the production of the electric 
current at a sufficiently cheap rate. The first application of 
this machine for the present purpose seems to have been made in 
1875 and the number of patents soon rapidly increased; but 
although a large amount of capital was invested and many very 
ingenious inventions made their appearance, it took nearly 
another twenty years before the manufacture of alkali in this 
way was carried out in a continuous way on a large scale and 
with profitable results. A little earlier the manufacture of 
potassium chlorate (on the large scale since 1890) had been 
brought to a definite success by H. Gall and the Vicomte A. de 
Montlaur; a few years later the processes worked out at the 
Griesheim alkali works (near Frankfort) for the manufacture of 
caustic potash and chlorine established definitely the success of 
electrolysis in the field of potash, but even then none of the 
various processes working with sodium chloride had emerged 
from the experimental stage. Only more recently the manu- 
facture of caustic soda by electrolysis has also been established 
as a permanent and paying industry, but as the greatest secrecy 
is maintained in everything belonging to this domain, and as 
neither patent specifications nor the sanguine assertions and 
anticipations of interested persons throw much real light on 
the actual facts of the case, nothing certain can be said either 
in regard to the date at which the profitable manufacture of 
caustic soda was first carried out by electrolysis, or as to what 
extent this is the case at the present moment. 

We shall here give merely an outline of those more important 
processes which are known to be at present working profitably 
on a large scale. 

(i) The Diaphragm process is probably the only one employed 
at present for the decomposition of potassium chloride, and it is 
also used for sodium chloride. A hot, concentrated solution of 
the alkaline chloride is treated by the electric current in large 
iron tanks which at the same time serve as cathodes. The anodes 
are made of retort-carbon or other chlorine-resisting material, 
and they are mounted in cells which serve as diaphragms. The 
material of these cells is usually .cement, mixed with certain 
soluble salts which impart sufficient porosity to the material. The 
electrolysis is carried on until about a quarter of the chloride 
has been transformed; it must be stopped at this stage lest the 
formation of hypochlorite and chlorate should set in. The 
alkaline liquid is now transferred to vacuum pans, constructed 
in such a manner that the unchanged chloride, which " salts 
out " during the concentration, can be removed without dis- 
turbing the vacuum, and here at last a concentrated pure 



ALKALINE EARTHS ALKALOID 



685 






solution of KOH or NaOH is obtained which is sold in this 
state, or " finished " as solid caustic in the manner described 
in the section treating of the Leblanc soda. 

(2) The Castner-Kellner process employs no diaphragm, but 
a mercurial cathode. The electrolysis takes place in the central 
compartment of a tripartite trough which can be made to rock 
slightly either to one side or the other. The bottom of the trough 
is covered with mercury. The sodium as it is formed at the 
cathode at once dissolves in the mercury which protects it 
against the action of the water as long as the percentage of 
sodium in the mercury does not exceed, say, 0-02%. When this 
percentage has been reached, the cell is rocked to the other side, 
so that the amalgam flows into one of the outer compartments 
where the sodium is converted by water into sodium hydrate. 
At the same time fresh mercury, from which the sodium had been 
previously extracted, flows from the other outside compartment 
into the central one. After a certain time the whole is rocked 
towards the other side, and the process is continued until the 
outer compartments contain a strong solution of caustic soda, 
free from chloride and hypochlorite. 

(3) Aussig process. Here the anode is fixed in a bell, mounted 
in a larger iron tank where the cathodes are placed. The whole 
is filled with a solution of common salt. As the electrolysis goes 
on, NaOH is formed at the cathodes and remains at the bottom. 
The intermediate layer of the salt solution, floating over the 
caustic soda solution, plays the part of a diaphragm, by preventing 
the chlorine evolved in the bell from acting on the sodium hydrate 
formed outside, and this solution offers much less resistance to 
the electric current than the ordinary diaphragms. This process 
therefore consumes less power than most others. 

(4) The Acker-Douglas process electrolyses sodium chloride 
in the molten state, employing a cathode consisting of molten 
lead. The latter dissolves the sodium as it is formed and carries 
it to an outer compartment where by the action of water the 
sodium is converted into caustic soda, while the lead returns to 
the inner compartment. This process is carried on at Niagara 
Falls, but it is uncertain to what extent. 

(5) The Har greaves- Bird process avoids certain drawbacks 
attached to other processes, by employing a wire diaphragm and 
converting the caustic soda as it issues on the other side of this, 
by means of carbon dioxide, into a mixture of sodium carbonate 
and bicarbonate, which separates out in the solid state. This 
process is but little used. 

It stands to reason that the electrolytic processes have been 
principally developed in localities where the electric current can 
be produced in the cheapest possible manner by means of water 
power, but this is not the only condition to be considered, as the 
question of freight to a centre of consumption and other circum- 
stances may also play an important part. Where coal is very 
cheap indeed and the other conditions are favourable, it is 
possible to establish such an industry with a prospect of com- 
mercial success, even when the electric current is produced by 
means of steam-engines. 

Natural Soda. This is the term applied to certain deposits of 
alkaline salts, or their solutions, which occur, sometimes in very 
large quantities, in various parts of the world. The oldest and 
best known of these are the Natron lakes in Lower Egypt. The 
largest occurrence of natural soda hitherto known is that in 
Owen's Lake and other salt lakes situated in eastern California. 
The soda in all of these is present as " sesquicarbonate," in 
reality 4/3 carbonate: NaHCOs-NajCOa-zHjO, and is always 
mixed with large quantities of chloride and sulphate, which makes 
its extraction more difficult than would appear from the outset. 
Hence, although for many centuries (up to Leblanc's invention) 
hardly any soda was available except from 'this source, and 
although we now know that millions of tons of it exist, especially 
in the west of the United States, there is as yet very little of it 
practically employed, and that only locally. 

REFERENCES. The principal work on the manufacture of alkali 
is G. Lunge's Sulphuric Acid and Alkali (2nd ed., vols. ii. and Hi., 
1895-1896). This work has also appeared in a German and a French 
edition. The same author wrote the articles on the manufacture 



of sodium and potassium compounds and on chlorine in Thorpe's 
Dictionary of Applied Chemistry (3 vols., 1890-1893). The subject is 
also^treated, very much more briefly, in Sorel's Industrie chimique 
minerale (1902), and of course in every other general treatise on 
chemical technology. A special treatise on the manufacture of 
ammonia soda ash has been published in German by H. Schreib. 
Consult also the official A nmtal Reports on Alkali, &c., and, from 1864 
onwards, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Fischers Jahres- 
berichte der chemischen Technologie, and Zeitschnft fur angewandte 
Chemie. (G. L.) 

ALKALINE EARTHS. The so-called alkaline earth-metals 
are the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium 
and barium. By the early chemists, the term earth was used to 
denote those non-metallic substances which were insoluble in 
water and were unaffected by strong heating; and as some of 
these substances (e.g. lime) were found to be very similar in 
properties to those of the alkalis, they were called alkaline 
earths. The alkaline earths were assumed to be elements until 
1807, when Sir H. Davy showed that they were oxides of various 
metals. The metals comprising this group are never found in 
the uncombined condition, but occur most often in the form of 
carbonates and sulphates; they form oxides of the type RO, 
and in the case of calcium, strontium and barium, of the type 
R02. The oxides of type RO are soluble in water, the solution 
possessing a strongly alkaline reaction and rapidly absorbing 
carbon dioxide on exposure; they are basic in character and 
dissolve readily in acids with the formation of the corresponding 
salts. As the atomic weight of the element increases, it is found 
that the solubility of the sulphates in water decreases. 

Beryllium to a certain extent stands alone in many of its 
chemical properties, resembh'ng to some extent the metal 
aluminium. Beryllium and magnesium are permanent in dry 
air; calcium, strontium and barium, however, oxidize rapidly 
on exposure. The salts of all the metals of this group usually 
crystallize well, the chlorides and nitrates dissolve readily in 
water, whilst the carbonates, phosphates and sulphates are either 
very sparingly soluble or are insoluble in water. 

ALKALOID, in chemistry, a term originally applied to any 
organic base, i.e. a nitrogenous substance which forms salts 
with acids; now, however, it is usual to restrict the term to bases 
of vegetable origin and characterized by remarkable toxico- 
logical effects. Such bases occur almost exclusively in the 
dicotyledons, generally in combination with malic, citric, tartaric 
or similar plant-acids. They may be extracted by exhausting 
the plant-tissues with a dilute acid, and precipitating the 
bases with potash, soda, lime or magnesia. The separation of 
the mixed bases so obtained is effected by repeated fractional 
crystallization, or by taking advantage of certain properties of 
the constituents. 

A chemical classification of alkaloids is difficult on account 
of their complex constitution. I. A. Wyschnegradsky, and after- 
wards W. Konigs, expressed the opinion that the alkaloids were 
derivatives of pyridine or quinoline. This view has been fairly 
well supported by later discoveries; but, in addition to pyridine 
and quinoline nuclei, alkaloids derived from isoquinoline are 
known. The purely chemical literature on the alkaloids is 
especially voluminous; and from the assiduity with which the 
constitutions of these substances have been and are still being 
attacked, we may conclude that their synthesis is but a question 
of time. Piperine, conine, atropine, belladonine, cocaine, 
hyoscyamine and nicotine have been already synthesized; the 
constitution of several others requires confirmation, while there 
remain many important alkaloids quinine, morphine, strych- 
nine, &c. whose constitution remains unknown. 

The following classification is simple and convenient; the 
list of alkaloids makes no pretence at being exhaustive. 

(1) Pyridine group. Piperine; conine; trigonelline; arecai- 
dine; guvacine; pilocarpine; cytisine; nicotine; 
sparteine. 

(2) Tropine group. Alkaloids characterized by containing 
the tropine (q.v.) nucleus. Atropine; cocaine; hygrine; 
ecgonine; pelletierine. 

(3) Quinoline group. The alkaloids of the quina-barks: 



686 



ALKAN ALLAH 



quinine, &c.; the strychnos bases: strychnine, brucine; 
and the veratrum alkaloids: verattine, cevadine, &c. 

(4) Isoquinoline group. |The opium alkaloids: morphine, 
codeine, thebaine, papaverine, narcotine, narceine, &c.; 
and the complicated substances hydrastine and berberine. 

In addition to the above series there are a considerable number 
of compounds derived from purin which are by some writers 
classed with the alkaloids. These are treated in the article PURIN. 
There are also reasons for including such compounds as muscarine, 
choline, neurine and betaine in this group. 

The greater number of these substances are of considerable 
medicinal value; this aspect is treated generally in the article 
PHARMACOLOGY. Reference should also be made to the articles 
on the individual alkaloids for further details as to their medicinal 
and chemical properties. 

The chemistry of the alkaloids is treated in detail by Ame Pictet 
in his La Constitution chimique des alcaloidea vegetaux (Paris, 1897); 
enlarged and translated by H. C. Biddle with the title The Vegetable 
Alkaloids (New York, 1904); and by J. W. Bruhl, E. Hjelt, and 
O. Aschan: Die Pflanzen-Alkaloide (1900). A pamphlet, Die 
Alkaloidchemie in den Jahren 1900-1904, by Julius Schmidt, may 
also be consulted. 

ALKAN, CHARLES HENRI VALENTIN MORHANGE (1813- 
1888), French musical composer, was born and died in Paris. 
Alkan was his nom de guerre. Admitted to the Conservatoire of 
Paris in his sixth year, he had a distinguished career there until 
1830. He visited London in 1833, after which he settled in 
Paris as a pianoforte teacher till his death. He is important as 
the composer of a large number of pianoforte etudes, embodying 
the most extravagant technical difficulties. His invention was 
not modern enough to secure for these works that attention 
which they deserve as representing a pianoforte technique and 
sense of effect in some respects more advanced even than that of 
Liszt, though lacking Liszt's economy and tact. 

ALKANET (dim. from Span, alcana, Arab. al-henna = henna, 
Egyptian privet, or Lawsonia inermis), a plant, Alkanna or 
Anchusa tinctoria, of the order Boraginaceae, also known as 
orchanet, dyer's bugloss, Spanish bugloss or bugloss of Languedoc, 
which is grown in the south of France and on the shores of the 
Levant. Its root yields a fine red colouring matter which has 
been used to tint tinctures, oils, wines, varnishes, &c. 

AL KASR AL KEBIR (" the great castle," in Span. ALCAZAR 
KEBIR, in Port. ALCACER QUIBIR), a town of Morocco, on the 
river Lekkus, 80 m. N.W. of Fez. Pop. about 10,000. Its mud 
and pantile dwellings are here and there relieved by a mosque 
tower, but the aspect of the town is far from inviting. It is 
frequently flooded in winter and in consequence fever is prevalent. 
The weekly market, held on Sundays in the centre of the town, 
gives to the place 'an appearance of bustle. A vice-governor is 
appointed for the town by the basha of Laraiche, one for the 
country round by the sultan of Morocco, a condition which causes 
much confusion on market-days. Al Kasr al Kebir was built, 
according to Leo Africanus, by Yakub el Mansur (1184-1199). 
Not far from the town, by the banks of the river Makhazan, 
is the site of the battle fought in 1578 between Dom Sebastian, 
king of Portugal, and the Moors under Abd el Malek, in which the 
Moors were victorious, though both kings perished, as well as the 
deposed Mahommed XL, who had called in the Portuguese to his 
aid against Abd el Malek. 

ALKMAAR, a town in the province of North Holland, kingdom 
of Holland, 24! m. by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam, connected by 
steam-tramway with Haarlem and Amsterdam, and on the 
North Holland canal. Pop. (1900) 18,373. Alkmaar is a 
typical North Holland town, with tree-lined canals and brightly 
coloured 17th-century houses. The old city walls have been 
replaced by pleasant gardens and walks, and there is a park in 
which stands a fine monument (1876) by J. T. Strack6 (1817- 
1891), symbolizing Alcmaria viclrix, to commemorate the siege 
by the Spaniards in 1573. The Groote Kerk (1470-1498), 
dedicated to St Lawrence, is a handsome building and contains 
the tomb of Floris V., count of Holland (d. 1296), a brass of 1546, 
and some paintings (1507). In the town hall (1507) are the 
library and a small museum with two pictures by the 17th- 



century artist Caesar van Everdingen, who with his more 
celebrated brother Allart van Everdingen (q.v.) was a native of 
the town. The weigh-house (1582) is a picturesque building with 
quaint gable and tower. Just outside the town lies the Alkmaar 
wood, at the entrance to which stands the military cadet school 
whichservesasapreparatoryschool for the royal militaryacademy 
at Breda. Alkmaar derives its chief importance from being the 
centre of the nourishing butter and cheese trade of this region of 
Holland. It is also a considerable market for horses, cattle and 
grain, and there is a little boat-building and salt and sail-cloth 
manufacture. Tramways connect Alkmaar with Egmond and 
with the pretty summer resort of Bergen, which lies sheltered by 
woods and dunes. 

The name of Alkmaar, which means " all sea," first occurs in the 
loth century, and recalls its former situation in the midst of marsh- 
lands and lakes. It was probably originally a fishing-village, but 
with the reclamation of the surrounding morasses, e.g. that of the 
Schermer in 1685, and their conversion into rich meadow land, 
Alkmaar gradually acquired an important trade. In 1254 >t re- 
ceived a charter from William II., count of Holland, similar to that 
of Haarlem, but in the isth century duke Philip the Good of Bur- 
gundy made the impoverishment of the town, due to ill-government, 
the excuse for establishing an oligarchical regime, by charters of 
1436 and 1437. As the capital of the ancient district of Kennemer- 
land between den Helder and Haarlem, Alkmaar frequently suffered 
in the early wars between the Hollanders and the Frisians, and in 
1517 was captured by the united Gelderlanders and Frisians. In 
'573 it successfully sustained a seven-weeks' siege by 16,000 Spaniards 
under the duke of Alva. In 1799 Alkmaar gave its name to a con- 
vention signed by the duke of York and the French general Brune, 
in accordance with which the Russo-British army of 23,000 men, 
which was defeated at Bergen, evacuated Holland. A monument 
was erected in 1901 to commemorate the Russians who fell. 

ALLACCI, LEONE [LEO ALLATITJS] (1586-1669), Greek scholar 
and theologian, was born in the island of Chios. His early years 
were passed in Calabria and at Rome, where he finally settled as 
teacher of Greek at the Greek college, at the same time devoting 
himself to the study of classics and theology. In 1622, after the 
capture of Heidelberg by Tilly, the elector Maximilian of Bavaria 
presented its splendid library composed of 196 cases of MSS. 
(bibliotheca Palalina) to Pope Gregory XV. Allacci was sent to 
superintend its removal to Rome, where it was incorporated 
with the Vatican library. On the death of Gregory, Allacci 
became librarian to Cardinal Berberini, and subsequently (1661) 
librarian of the Vatican, which post he held till his death on the 
i8th (or igth) of January 1669. It is noteworthy that, although 
a Greek by birth, he became an ardent Roman Catholic and the 
bitter enemy of all heretics, including his own countrymen. 
Allacci was a very industrious and voluminous writer, but his 
works, although they bear ample testimony to his immense 
learning, show an absence of the true critical faculty, and are full 
of intolerance, especially on religious subjects. For a list of these, 
J. A. Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca (xi. 437) should be consulted, 
where they are divided into four classes: editions, translations 
and commentaries on ancient authors; works relating to the 
dogmas and institutions of the Greek and Roman Churches; 
historical works; miscellaneous works. The number of his 
unpublished writings is also very large; the majority of them are 
included in the MSS. of the Vallicellian library. 

The main source of our knowledge of Allatius is the incomplete 
life Jby Stephanus Gradi, Leonis Allatii vita, published by Cardinal 
Mai, in Nova Bibliotheca Patrum. A complete enumeration of his 
works is contained in E. Legrand, Bibliographic hellenique du 
XVII"" siecle (Paris, 1895, iii. 435-471). The accounts of C. N. 
Sathas in NoeX\7)w<o> (1X0X07(0 (Athens, 1868), and of the pseudo- 
prince Demetrius Rhodokanakis, Leonis Allatii Hellas (Athens, 
1872), are inaccurate and untrustworthy. For a special account 
of his share in the foundation of the Vatican Library, see Curzio 
Mazzi, Leone Allacci e la Palatina di Heidelberg (Bologna, 1893). 
The theological aspect of his works is best treated by the Assumrj- 
tionist Father L. Petit in A. Vacant's Dictionnatre de theologie 
(Paris, 1900, cols. 830-833). 

ALLAH, the Arabic name used by Moslems of all nationalities 
for the one true God. It is compounded of al, the definite article, 
and ilah, meaning a god. The same word is found in Hebrew and 
Aramaic as well as in ancient Arabic (Sabaean) . The meaning of 
the root from which it is derived is very doubtful; cf. Lane's 



ALLAHABAD ALLAN 



687 



Arabic-English Lexicon, p. 82, and the Oxford Hebrew and 
English Lexicon, pp. 61 ff. 

ALLAHABAD, a city of British India, the capital of the 
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, giving its name to a district 
and a division. The city is situated at the confluence of the 
Ganges and the Jumna in 2526' N. lat. and 8i5o' E. long., 564 
m. from Calcutta by rail. Its most conspicuous feature is the 
fort, which rises directly from the banks of the confluent rivers 
and completely commands the navigation of both streams. 
Within the fort are the remains of a splendid palace, erected by 
the Emperor Akbar, and once a favourite residence of his. A 
great portion of it has been destroyed, and its hall is converted 
into an arsenal. Outside the fort the places of most importance 
are the sarai and gardens of Khasru, the son of the Emperor 
Jehangir, and the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque. When the 
town first came into the hands of the English this mosque was 
used as a residence by the military officer commanding the 
station, and afterwards as an assembly room. Ultimately it 
was returned to its former owners, but the Mahommedans con- 
sidered it desecrated, and it has never since been used as a place 
of worship. Allahabad (Illahabad) was the name given to the 
city when Akbar built the great fort. To the Hindus it is still 
known by its ancient name of Prag or Prayag (" place of sacri- 
fice "), and it remains one of the most noted resorts of Hindu 
pilgrimage. It owes its sanctity to its being the reputed 
confluence of three sacred streams the Ganges, the Jumna 
and the Saraswati. This last stream, however, actually 
loses itself in the sands of Sirhind, 400 m. north-west of 
Allahabad. The Hindus assert that the stream joins the other 
two rivers underground, and in a subterraneous temple below 
the fort a little moisture trickling from the rocky walls is pointed 
out as the waters of the Saraswati. An annual fair is held at 
Allahabad at the confluence of the streams on the occasion of 
the great bathing festival at the full moon of the Hindu month 
of Magh. It is known as the Magh-mela, lasts for a whole month, 
and is attended by as many as 250,000 persons in ordinary years, 
either for religious or commercial purposes. Every twelfth year 
there is a special occasion called the Kumbh-mela, which is 
attended by a million of devotees at one time. Allahabad was 
taken by the British in 1765 from the wazir of Oudh, and assigned 
as a residence to Shah Alam, the titular emperor of Delhi. Upon 
that prince throwing himself into the hands of the Mahrattas, 
the place was resumed by the British in 1771 and again trans- 
ferred to the nawab of Oudh, by whom it was finally ceded 
together with the district to the British in 1801, in commutation 
of the subsidy which the wazir had agreed to pay for British 
protection. During the Mutiny of 1857, Allahabad became the 
scene of one of the most serious outbreaks and massacres which 
occurred in the North- Western Provinces. The fort was held 
by a little garrison of Europeans and loyal Sikhs, until it was 
relieved by General Neill on June nth of that year. 

The modern buildings of Allahabad include Government House, 
the High Court, the Mayo memorial and town hall, the Muir 
central college, the Thornhill and Mayne memorial library and 
museum, the Naini central jail, and the Anglican and Roman 
Catholic cathedrals. The Jumna is crossed by a railway bridge 
and there are two bridges of boats over the Ganges. The 
military cantonments contain accommodation for all three 
arms and are the headquarters of a brigade in the 8th division 
of the eastern army corps. At Allahabad is published the Pioneer, 
perhaps the best known English paper in India. There is an 
American mission college. Here is the junction of the great 
railway system which unites Bengal with Central India and 
Bombay, and is developing into a great centre of inland and 
export trade. The population in 1901 was 172,032. 

The DISTRICT or ALLAHABAD has an area of 2811 sq. m. In 
shape it is an irregular oblong, and it is very difficult to define 
its boundaries, as at one extremity it wanders into Oudh, while on 
the south the villages of the state of Rewa and those of this 
district are hopelessly intermingled. The Jumna and the Ganges 
enclose within their angle a fertile tract well irrigated with tanks 
and wells. The East Indian railway and the Grand Trunk road 



afford the principal means of land communication. In 1901 the 
population was 1,489,358, showing a decrease of 4% in the 
decade due to famine. 

The division of Allahabad has an area of 17,270 sq. m. The 
population in 1901 was 5,540,702, showing a decrease of 4% 
in the decade due to the famine of 1896-1897, which was severely 
felt throughout the division. It comprises the seven districts 
of Cawnpore, Fatehpur, Banda, Hamirpur, Allahabad, Jhansi 
and Jalaun. 

ALLAMANDA, named after J. N. S. Allamand (1713-1787), of 
Leiden, a genus of shrubby, evergreen climbers, belonging to the 
natural order Apocynaceae, and a native of tropical America. 
Severalspeciesaregrowninhot-housesforthebeautyoftheirfoliage 
and flowers; the latter, borne in many-flowered panicles, have 
a funnel-shaped corolla with a narrow tube, and often yellow in 
colour. The plants are of comparatively easy culture, and very 
effective when trained to wires beneath the roof of the house. 

ALLAN, DAVID (1744-1796), Scottish historical painter, was 
born at Alloa. On leaving Foulis's academy of painting at 
Glasgow (1762), after seven years'successful study, he obtained 
the patronage of Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of Mar, on 
whose estate he had been born. The latter furnished him with 
the means of proceeding to Rome (1764), where he remained 
for a number of years engaged principally in copying the old 
masters. Among the original works which he then painted 
was the " Origin of Portraiture " representing a Corinthian 
maid drawing her lover's shadow well known through Domenico 
Cunego's excellent engraving. This gained for him the gold 
medal given by the Academy of St Luke in the year 1773 for the 
best specimen of historical composition. Returning from Rome 
in 1777, he resided for a time in London, and occupied himself 
in portrait-painting. In 1780 he removed to Edinburgh, where, 
on the death of Alexander Runciman in 1 786, he was appointed 
director and master of the Academy of Arts. There he painted 
and etched in aquatint a variety of works, those by which he is 
best known as the " Scotch Wedding," the "Highland Dance," 
the " Repentance Stool," and his " Illustrations of the Gentle 
Shepherd " being remarkable for their comic humour. He 
was called the " Scottish Hogarth "; but his drolleries hardly 
entitle him to this comparison. Allan died at Edinburgh on 
the 6th of August 1796. 

ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810-1882), Canadian financier, was 
born on the 2gth of September 1810, at Saltcoats, Ayrshire, 
Scotland, the son of Captain Alexander Allan, a shipmaster. 
He emigrated to Canada in 1826, and in 1831 entered the employ 
of the chief shipbuilding and grain-shipping firm of Montreal, 
of which he became a junior partner in 1835. In 1853 ne organ- 
ized the Allan Line of steamships, plying between Montreal, 
Liverpool and Glasgow; till his death he was closely associated 
with the commercial growth and prosperity of Canada, and 
in 1871 was knighted in recognition of his services. In 1872- 
1873 he obtained from the Canadian government a charter for 
building the Canadian Pacific railway, but the disclosures made 
with reference to his contributions to the funds of the Conserva- 
tive party led to the Pacific scandal* (see CANADA, History), 
and that company was soon afterwards dissolved. He died in 
Edinburgh on the 9th of December 1882. 

See J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery (1881). 

ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782-1850), Scottish painter, was 
born at Edinburgh, and at an early age entered as a pupil in 
the School of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of 
Trustees for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as companions, 
John Wilkie, John Burnet the engraver, and others who afterward 
distinguished themselves as artists. Here Allan and Wilkie were 
placed at the same table, studied the same designs, and con- 
tracted a lifelong friendship. Allan continued his studies for 
some time in London; but his attempt to establish himself there 
was unsuccessful, and after exhibiting at the Royal Academy 
(1805) his first picture, " A Gipsy Boy and Ass," an imitation 
in style of Opie, he determined, in spite of his scanty resources, 
to seek his fortune abroad. He accordingly set out the same 
year for Russia, but was carried by stress-of weather to Memel, 



688 



ALLAN-DESPREAUX ALLEGHENY 



where he remained for some time, supporting himself by his 
pencil. At last, however, he reached St Petersburg, where the 
kindness of Sir Alexander Crichton, the court physician, and other 
friends procured him abundant employment. By excursions 
into southern Russia, Turkey, the Crimea and Circassia, he filled 
his portfolio with vivid sketches, of which he made admirable 
use in his subsequent pictures. In 1814 he returned to Edinburgh, 
and in the two following years exhibited at the Royal Academy 
" The Circassian Captives " and " Bashkirs conducting Convicts 
to Siberia." The former picture remained so long unsold, that, 
thoroughly disheartened, he threatened to retire to Circassia 
when, through the kindness of Sir Walter Scott, a subscription 
of looo guineas was obtained for the picture, which fell by lot 
into the possession of the earl of Wemyss. About the same time 
the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards tsar of Russia, visited 
Edinburgh, and purchased his "Siberian Exiles" and "Haslan 
Gheray crossing the River Kuban," giving a very favourable turn 
to the fortunes of the painter, whose pictures were now sought 
for by collectors. From this time to 1834 he achieved his greatest 
success and firmly established his fame by the illustration of 
Scottish history. His most important works of this class were 
" Archbishop Sharpe on Magus Moor "; " John Knox admonish- 
ing Mary Queen of Scots " (1823), engraved by Burnet; " Mary 
Queen of Scots signing her Abdication " (1824); and " Regent 
Murray shot by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh." The last procured 
his election as an associate of the Royal Academy (1825). Later 
Scottish subjects were " Lord Byron " (1831), portraits of Scott 
and " The Orphan " (1834), which represented Anne Scott seated 
near the chair of her deceased father. In 1830 he was compelled, 
on account of an attack of ophthalmia, to seek a milder climate, 
and visited Rome, Naples and Constantinople. He returned 
with a rich store of materials, of which he made excellent use 
in his " Constantinople Slave Market " and other productions. 
In 1834 he visited Spain and Morocco, and in 1841 went again to 
St Petersburg, when he undertook, at the request of the tsar, 
his " Peter the Great teaching his Subjects the Art of Ship- 
building," exhibited in London in 1845, and now in the Winter 
Palace of St Petersburg. His " Polish Exiles " and " Moorish 
Love-letter," &c., had secured his election as a Royal Acade- 
mician in 1835; he was appointed president of the Royal Scottish 
Academy (1838), and royal limner for Scotland, after Wilkie's 
death (1841); and in 1842 received the honour of knighthood. 
His later years were occupied with battle-pieces, the last he 
finished being the second of his two companion pictures of the 
" Battle of Waterloo." He died on the 22nd of February 1850, 
leaving a large unfinished picture " Bruce at Bannockburn." 

ALLAN-DESPREAUX, LOUISE ROSALIE (1810-1856), French 
actress, was " discovered " by Talma at Brussels in 1820, when 
she played Joas with him in Athalie. At his suggestion she 
changed her surname, Ross, for her mother's maiden name, and, 
as Mile. Despreaux, was engaged for children's parts at the 
Com6die Francaise. At the same time she studied at the Con- 
servatoire. By 1825 she had taken the second prize for comedy, 
and was engaged to play ingenue parts at the Comedie Franjaise, 
where her first appearance in this capacity was as Jenny in 
L' Argent on the 8th of December 1826. In 1831 the director of 
the Gymnase succeeded in persuading her to join his company. 
Her six years at this theatre, during which she married Allan, 
an actor in the company, were a succession of triumphs. She 
was then engaged at the French theatre at St Petersburg. Re- 
turning to Paris, she brought with her, as Legouve says, a thing 
she had unearthed, through a Russian translation, a little comedy 
never acted till she took it up, a production half-forgotten, and 
, esteemed by those who knew it as a pleasing piece of work in the 
Marivaux style Un Caprice by Alfred de Musset, which she had 
played with success in St Petersburg. Her selection of this piece 
for her reappearance at the Theatre Francaise (1847) laid the 
corner-stone of Mussel's lasting fame as a dramatist. In the 
following year his comedy II nefautjurer de rien was acted at the 
same theatre, and thus led to the production of his finer plays. 
Among plays by other authors in which Mme. Allan won special 
laurels at the Th6atre Francaise, were Par droit de conquete, 



Peril en la demeure, Lajoiefait peur, and Lady Tartuffe. In the 
last, with a part of only fifty lines, and playing by the very side 
of the great Rachel, she yet held her own as an actress of the first 
rank. Mme. Allan died in Paris, in the height of her popularity, 
in March 1856. /NH-CH-NH-CO-NH, 

ALLANTOIN, C 4 H,N 4 O, or CO< | , the 

\NH-CO 

diureide of glyoxylic acid. It is found in the allantoic liquid of 
the cow, and in the urine of sucking calves. It can be obtained 
by the oxidation of uric acid by means of lead dioxide, manganese 
dioxide, ozone or potassium permanganate: 

C 6 H4N 4 O 3 + H 2 O + O = C 4 H6N 4 O3 + CO 2 . 

It has been synthesized by E. Grimaux by heating one part of 
glyoxylic acid with two parts of urea for ten hours at 100 C.: 
2CO(NH 2 ) 2 + CH(OH) 2 COOH = 3H 2 O + C 4 H 6 N 4 O 3 . It forms 
glancing prisms of neutral reaction slightly soluble in water. 
On standing with concentrated potassium hydroxide solution 
it gives potassium allantoate C 4 H 7 N 4 O 4 K. On heating with 
water it undergoes hydrolysis into urea and allanturic acid 
. It is reduced by sodium amalgam to glycouril 
, whilst with hydriodic acid it yields urea and hydantoin 
Hot concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes 
allantoin, with production of ammonia, and carbon monoxide 
and dioxide. By dry distillation it gives ammonium cyanide. 

ALLEGHANY, or THE ALLEGHANIES (a spelling now more 
common than Allegheny), a name formerly used of all the 
Appalachian Mountains (?..), U.S.A., and now sometimes of 
all that system lying W. and S. of the Hudson river, being steep 
and narrow-crested in Pennsylvania (1500-1800 ft.), and in 
Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia higher (3000 ft.-4473 ft), 
and with broader crests. Another usage applies to the ridges ("the 
Alleghany Ridges") parallel to the Blue Ridge; the north-western 
part of this region is sometimes called the Alleghany Front or 
the Front of the Alleghany Plateau. The Alleghany Plateau is 
the north- westernmost division of the Appalachian system ; it is 
an eroded mass of sedimentary rock sloping north-westward to 
the Prairie and Lake Plains and reaching south-west from the 
south-western part of New York state through Tennessee and 
into Alabama. 

ALLEGHENY, formerly a city of Allegheny county, Pennsyl- 
vania, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers, 
opposite Pittsburg; since 1907 a part of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 
105,287; (1900) 129,896, of whom 30,216 were foreign-born 
and 3315 were negroes; of the foreign-born 12,022 were from 
Germany, 5070 from Ireland, 3929 from Austria, and 2177 from 
England; (1906, estimate) 145,240. Allegheny is served by the 
Baltimore & Ohio and the Pittsburg & Western railways, by 
the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago, the Western Pennsylvania, 
the Buffalo & Allegheny Valley, the Cleveland & Pittsburg, the 
Erie & Pittsburg, the Pittsburg, Youngstown & Ashtabula, 
and the Chautauqua divisions of the Pennsylvania railway 
system, and by Ohio river freight and passenger boats. Extend- 
ing along the river fronts for about 6$ m. are numerous large 
manufactories and the headquarters of the shipping interests; 
farther back are the mercantile quarters and public buildings; 
and on the hills beyond are the residence districts, commanding 
extensive views of the valley. Two of the principal thorough- 
fares, Federal and Ohio streets, intersect at a central square, in 
which are the city hall, public library, post office and the market- 
place; and surrounding the main business section on the E., N. 
and W. is City Park of 100 acres, with lakes and fountains, and 
monuments to the memory of Alexander von Humboldt, George 
Washington and T. A. Armstrong. Farther out is Riverview 
Park (219 acres), in which is the Allegheny Astronomical 
Observatory, and elsewhere are a soldiers' monument and a 
monument (erected by Andrew Carnegie) in memory of Colonel 
Johnes Anderson. In Allegheny are the following institutions 
of higher learning: the Allegheny Theological Seminary (United 
Presbyterian), opened in 1825; the Western Theological Seminary 
of the Presbyterian Church, opened in 1827; and the Theological 
Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterians, opened in 1856. 
There is a fine Carnegie library with a music-hall. Among penal 



ALLEGIANCE ALLEGORY 



689 



and charitable institutions are the Riverside State Penitentiary, 
three hospitals, three homes for orphans, a home for the friendless 
and an industrial school. Six bridges spanning the river and 
electric lines crossing them have brought Allegheny into close 
industrial and social relations with the main part of Pittsburg, 
and on the hills of Allegheny are beautiful homes of wealthy men. 
As a manufacturing centre Allegheny was outranked in 1905 by 
only two cities in the state Philadelphia and Pittsburg; among 
the more important of its large variety of manufactures are the 
products of slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, iron 
and steel rolling mills, the products of foundries and machine- 
shops, pickles, preserves and sauces, the products of railway- 
construction and repair shops, locomotives, structural iron and 
plumbers' supplies. In 1905 the total value of Allegheny's 
factory products was $45,830,272; this showed an apparent 
decrease (exceeded by one city only) of $7,365,106, from the 
product-value of 1900, but the decrease was partly due to the 
more careful census of 1905, in which there were not the duplica- 
tions of certain items which occurred in the 1900 census. But in 
the five years there was a decrease of 3865 in the average number 
of wage-earners, and the iron and steel output was much less. In 
1905 Allegheny ranked first among the cities of the United States 
in the manufacture of pickles, preserves and sauces, the product 
($6,216,778) being 20-9% of that for the whole country. An 
important industry is the shipment of coal, especially on barges 
down the Ohio. 

Allegheny was laid out in 1 788 on a portion of a tract which the 
state had previously reserved opposite Pittsburg, with a view to 
bringing some valuable land into the market for the payment of 
its soldiers' claims. When ordered by the state to be laid out, it 
was also named as the site of the county-seat of the newly erected 
county of Allegheny, but the opposition of Pittsburg was so 
strong that by a supplementary act in the following year that 
town was made the county-seat. In 1828 Allegheny was incor- 
porated as a borough and in 1840 it was chartered as a city. The 
city suffered severely in 1874 from a fire started by a fire-cracker 
on the 4th of July and from a flood caused by a great rain-storm 
on the 26th of the same month, bat these calamities were followed 
by years of great prosperity and rapid growth. In 1906 the 
question of uniting Allegheny with Pittsburg under one municipal 
government was submitted to a joint vote of the electorate of the 
two cities, in accordance with an act of the state legislature, 
which had been passed in February of that year, and a large 
majority voted for the union; but there was determined opposi- 
tion in Allegheny, every ward of the city voting in the negative ; 
the constitutionality of the act. was challenged; the supreme 
court of the state on the nth of March 1907 declared the act 
valid, and on the i8th of November 1907 this decision was 
affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States. 

See J. E. Parke, Recollections of Seventy Years and Historical 
Gleanings of Allegheny, Pennsylvania (Boston, 1886). 

ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. llgeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; 
the al- was probably added through confusion with another 
legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes 
from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of 
which the derivation is given under that heading; the con- 
nexion with Lat. ligare, to bind, is erroneous), the duty which a 
subject or a citizen owes to the state or to the sovereign of the 
state to which he belongs. It is often used by English legal 
commentators in a larger sense, divided by them into natural and 
local, the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner 
must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to 
live; but it is in its proper sense, in which it indicates national 
character and the subjection due to that character, that the word 
is important. In that sense it represents the feudal liege homage, 
which could be due only to one lord, while simple homage might, 
be due to every lord under whom the person in question held 
land. The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in 
the United States, asserted that allegiance was indelible: 
Nemo palest exuere palriam. Accordingly, as the law stood before 
1870, every person who by birth or naturalization satisfied the 
conditions described in the article ALIEN, though he should be 



removed in infancy to another country where his family resided, 
owed an allegiance to the British crown which he could never 
resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition 
of the independence or the cession of the portion of British 
territory in which he resided. By the Naturalization Act 1870, 
it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their 
nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality 
is lost are defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized 
in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such 
naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before 
the passing of the act, they have declared their desire to remain 
British subjects within two years from the passing of the act. 
Persons who from having been born within British territory 
are British subjects, but who at birth became under the law of 
any foreign state subjects of such state, and also persons who 
though born abroad are British subjects by reason of parentage, 
may by declarations of alienage get rid of British nationality. 
Emigration to an uncivilized country leaves British nationality 
unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with 
their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual 
and recognized means of colonial expansion. 

The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance 
without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the 
United States, and in 1868 congress declared that " the right of 
expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, in- 
dispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the 
pursuit of happiness," and one of " the fundamental principles of 
the republic " (United States Revised Statutes, sec. 1999). Every 
citizen of a foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one 
to it and one to the United States. He may be guilty of treason 
against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns 
upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the 
United States have the paramount authority in American law. 

The oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign 
taken by all persons holding important public office and as a 
condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might be 
required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was 
repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In England it was 
first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth (1558) and its 
form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of 
the revolution the promise was, "to be true and faithful to the 
king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and 
terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or damage 
intended him without defending him therefrom." This was 
thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and 
accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has 
been in use since that time " I do sincerely promise and swear 
that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty 
. . ." (see OATH). 

See also the articles CITIZEN, NATURALIZATION : and Salmond on 
" Citizenship and Allegiance," in the Law Quarterly Review (July 
1901, January 1902). QNO. W.) 

ALLEGORY (aXXos, other, and ayopeveiv, to speak), a figurative 
representation conveying a meaning other than and in addition 
to the literal. It is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, 
but the medium of representation is not necessarily language. 
An allegory may be addressed to the eye, and is often embodied 
in painting, sculpture or some form of mimetic art. The 
etymological meaning of the word is wider than that which it 
bears in actual use. An allegory is distinguished from a metaphor 
by being longer sustained and more fully carried out in its details, 
'and from an analogy by the fact that the one appeals to the 
imagination and the other to the reason. The fable or parable 
is a short allegory with one definite moral. The allegory has 
been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation. 
The Hebrew scriptures present frequent instances of it, one of 
the most beautiful being the comparison of the history of Israel 
to the growth of a vine in the 8oth psalm. In classical literature 
one of the best known allegories is the story of the stomach and 
its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32); 
and several occur in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Perhaps the most 
elaborate and the most successful specimens of allegory are to 



690 



ALLEGRI ALLEINE 



be found in the works of English authors. Spenser's Faerie 
Queene, Swift's Tale of a Tub, Addison's Vision of Mirza, and, 
above all, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, are examples that it 
would be impossible to match in elaboration, beauty and fitness, 
from the literature of any other nation. 

ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, Italian priest and musical composer, 
probably of the Correggio family, was born at Rome either in 
1560 or in 1585. He studied music under G. Maria Nanini, the 
intimate friend of Palestrina. Being intended for the church, 
he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of Fermo. Here he 
composed a large number of motets and sacred pieces, which, 
being brought under the notice of Pope Urban VIII., obtained 
for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine Chapel at 
Rome. He held this from December 1629 till his death on the 
i8th of February 1652. His character seems to have been 
singularly pure and benevolent. Among the musical composi- 
tions of Allegri were two volumes of concert!, published in 1618 
and 1619; two volumes of motets, published in 1620 and 1621; 
besides a number of works still in manuscript. He was one of 
the earliest composers for stringed instruments, and Kircher has 
given one specimen of this class of his works in the Musurgia. 
But the most celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere, 
still annually performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome. It is 
written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four 
voices, and has obtained a celebrity which, if not entirely 
factitious, is certainly not due to its intrinsic merits alone. 
The mystery in which the composition was long enshrouded, 
no single copy being allowed to reach the public, the place and 
circumstances of the performance, and the added embellishments 
of the singers, account to a great degree for much of the impres- 
sive effect of which all who have heard the music speak. This 
view is confirmed by the fact that, when the music was performed 
at Venice by permission of the pope, it produced so little effect 
that the emperor Leopold I., at whose request the manuscript 
had been sent, thought that something else had been substituted. 
In spite of the precautions of the popes, the Miserere has long 
been public property. In 1769 Mozart (q.v.) heard it and wrote 
it down, and in 1771 a copy was procured and published in 
England by Dr Burney. The entire music performed at Rome 
in Holy Week, Allegri's Miserere included, has been issued at 
Leipzig by Breitkopf and Hartel. Interesting accounts of the 
impression produced by the performance at Rome may be found 
in the first volume of Mendelssohn's letters and in Miss Taylor's 
Letters from Italy. 

ALLEGRO (an Italian word, meaning " cheerful," as in 
Milton's poem), a term in music to indicate quick or lively 
time, coming between andante and presto; it is frequently 
modified by the addition of qualifying words. It is also used 
of a separate piece of music, or of a movement in a sonata, 
symphony, &c. 

ALLEINE, JOSEPH (1634-1668), English Nonconformist 
divine, belonged to a family originally settled in Suffolk. As 
early as 1430 some of them sprung of Alan, lord of Buckenhall 
settled in the neighbourhood of Calne and Devizes, whence 
descended the immediate ancestors of " worthy Mr Tobie 
Alleine of Devizes," father of Joseph, who, the fourth of a large 
family, was born at Devizes early in 1634. 1645 is marked in 
the title-page of a quaint old tractate, by an eye-witness, as the 
year of his setting forth in the Christian race. His elder brother 
Edward had been a clergyman, but in this year died; and Joseph 
entreated his father that he might be educated to succeed his 
brother in the ministry. In April 1649 he entered Lincoln 
College, Oxford, and on the 3rd of November 1651 he became 
scholar of Corpus Christi College. On the 6th of July 1653 he 
took the degree of B.D., and became a tutor and chaplain of 
Corpus Christi, preferring this to a fellowship. In 1654 he had 
offers of high preferment in the state, which he declined; but in 
1655 George Newton, of the great church of St Mary Magdalene, 
Taunton, sought him for assistant and Alleine accepted the 
invitation. Almost coincident with his ordination as associate 
pastor came his marriage with Theodosia Alleine, daughter of 
Richard Alleine. Friendships among " gentle and simple " 



of the former, with Lady Farewell, grand-daughter of the 
protector Somerset bear witness to the attraction of Alleine's 
private life. His public life was a model of pastoral devotion. 
This is all the more remarkable as he found time to con- 
tinue his studies, one monument of which was his Theologia 
Philosophica (a lost MS.), a learned attempt to harmonize 
revelation and nature, which drew forth the wonder of Baxter. 
Alleine was no mere scholar or divine, but a man who associated 
on equal terms with the founders of the Royal Society. These 
scientific studies were, however, kept in subordination to his 
proper work. The extent of his influence was, in so young a 
man, unique, resting on the earnestness and force of his nature. 
The year 1662 found senior and junior pastors like-minded, 
and both were among the two thousand ejected ministers. 
Alleine, with John Wesley (grandfather of the celebrated John 
Wesley), also ejected, then travelled about, preaching wherever 
opportunity was found. For this he was cast into prison, 
indicted at sessions, bullied and fined. His Letters from Prison 
were an earlier Cardiphonia than John Newton's. He was re- 
leased on the 26th of May 1664; and in spite of the Conventicle, 
or Five Mile Act, he resumed his preaching. He found himself 
again in prison, and again and again a sufferer. His remaining 
years were full of troubles and persecutions nobly borne, till at 
last, worn out by them, he died on the 1 7th of November 1668; 
and the mourners, remembering their beloved minister's words 
while yet with them, " If I should die fifty miles away, let me 
be buried at Taunton," found a grave for him in St Mary's 
chancel. No Puritan nonconformist name is so affectionately 
cherished as is that of Joseph Alleine. His chief literary work 
was An Alarm to the Unconverted (1672), otherwise known as 
The Sure Guide to Heaven, which had an enormous circulation. 
His Remains appeared in 1674. 

See Life, edited by Baxter; Joseph Alleine: his Companions 
and Times, by Charles Stanford (1861); Wood's Athenae, lii. 819; 
Palmer's None. Mem. iii. 208. 

ALLEINE, RICHARD (i6n-i68r), English Puritan divine, 
was born at Ditcheat, Somerset, where his father was rector. 
He was a younger brother of William Alleine, the saintly vicar of 
Blandford. Richard was educated at St Alban's Hall, Oxford, 
where he was entered commoner in 1627, and whence, having 
taken the degree of B.A., he transferred himself to New Inn, 
continuing there until he proceeded M.A. On being ordained he 
became assistant to his father, and immediately stirred the entire 
county by his burning eloquence. In March 1641 he succeeded 
the many-sided Richard Bernard as rector of Batcomb (Somerset) . 
He declared himself on the side of the Puritans by subscribing 
" The testimony of the ministers in Somersetshire to the truth of 
Jesus Christ " and " The Solemn League and Covenant," and 
assisted the commissioners of the parliament in their work of 
ejecting unsatisfactory ministers. Alleine continued for twenty 
years rector of Batcomb and was one of the two thousand 
ministers ejected in 1662. The Five Mile Act drove him to Frome 
Selwood, and in that neighbourhood he preached until his death 
on the 22nd of December 1681. His works are all of a deeply 
spiritual character. His Vindiciae Pielalis (which first appeared 
in 1660) was refused licence by Archbishop Sheldon, and was 
published, in common with other nonconformist books, without 
it. It was rapidly bought up and " did much to mend this bad 
world." Roger Norton, the king's printer, caused a large part of 
the first impression to be seized on the ground of its not being 
licensed and to be sent to the royal kitchen. Glancing over its 
pages, however, it seemed to him a sin that a book so holy and 
so saleable should be destroyed. He therefore bought back the 
sheets, says Calamy, for an old song, bound them and sold them 
in his own shop. This in turn was complained of, and he had 
to beg pardon on his knees before the council-table; and the 
remaining copies were sentenced to be " bisked," or rubbed over 
with an inky brush, and sent back to the kitchen for lighting 
fires. Such " bisked " copies occasionally occur still. The book 
was not killed. It was often reissued with additions, The Godly 
Man's Portion in 1663, Heaven Opened in 1666, The World 
Conquered in 1668. He also published a book of sermons, 



ALLEMANDE ALLEN 



691 



Godly Fear, in 1664, and other less noticeable devotional 
compilations. 

See Calamy, s.v. ; Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. Hi. 167-168; C. Stan- 
ford's Joseph Alleine; Researches at Batcomb and Frame Selwood; 
Wood's Athenae (Bliss), iv. 13. 

ALLEMANDE (Fr. for danse allemande, or German dance), a 
name for two kinds of dance, one a German national dance, in 2-4 
time, the other somewhat resembling a waltz. The movement in 
a suite following the prelude, and preceding the courante (q.v.) , with 
which it is contrasted in rhythm, is also called an allemande, but 
has no connexion with the dance. The name, however, is given 
to pieces of music based on the dance movement, examples of 
which are found in Beethoven's German dances for the orchestra. 

ALLEN, ETHAN (1730-1789), American soldier, was born at 
Litchfield, Connecticut, on the loth of January 1739. He 
removed, probably in 1769, to the " New Hampshire Grants," 
where he took up lands, and eventually became a leader of those 
who refused to recognize the jurisdiction of New York, and 
contended for the organization of the " Grants " into a separate 
province. About 1771 he was placed at the head of the " Green 
Mountain Boys," an irregular force organized for resistance to 
the " Yorkers." On the loth of May 1775, soon after the out- 
break of the War of American Independence, in command of a 
force, which he had assisted some members of the Connecticut 
assembly to raise for the purpose, he captured Ticonderoga 
from its British garrison, calling upon its commanding officer 
according to the unverified account of Allen himself to surrender 
" in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." 
Seth Warner being elected colonel of the " Green Mountain 
Boys " in July 1775, Allen, piqued, joined General Philip 
Schuyler, and later with a small command, but without rank, 
accompanied General Richard Montgomery's expedition against 
Canada. On the 2$th of September 1775 near Montreal he was 
captured by the British, and until exchanged on the 6th of May 
1778 remained a prisoner at Falmouth, England, at Halifax, 
Nova Scotia, and in New York. Upon his release he was 
brevetted colonel by the Continental Congress. He then, as 
brigadier-general of the militia of Vermont, resumed his opposi- 
tion to'New York, and from 1779 to 1783, acting with his brother. 
Ira Allen, and several others, carried on negotiations, indirectly, 
with Governor Frederick Haldimand of Canada, who hoped to 
win the Vermonters over to the British cause. He seems to have 
assured Haldimand's agent that " I shall do everything in my 
power to make this state a British province." In March 1781 he 
wrote to Congress, with characteristic bluster, " I am as resolutely 
determined to defend the independence of Vermont as congress 
that of the United States, and rather than fail will retire with the 
hardy Green Mountain Boys into the desolate caverns of the 
mountains and wage war with human nature at large." He 
removed to Burlington, Vermont, in 1787, and died there on 
the nth of February 1789. He was, says Tyler, "a blustering 
frontier hero an able-minded ignoramus of rough and ready 
humour, of boundless self-confidence, and of a shrewdness in 
thought and action equal to almost any emergency." Allen 
wrote a Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity (1779), the 
most celebrated book in the " prison literature " of the American 
revolution; A Vindication of the Inhabitants of Vermont to the 
Government of New York and their Right to form an Independent 
State (1779); and Reason, the Only Oracle of Man; or A Com- 
pendious System of Natural Religion, Alternately adorned with 
Confutations of a Variety of Doctrines incompatible with it (1784). 

Ethan's youngest brother, IRA ALLEN (1751-1814), born on the 
2ist of April 1751 at Cornwall, Connecticut, also removed to 
the New Hampshire Grants, where he became one of the most 
influential political leaders. In 1775 he took part in the capture 
of Ticonderoga and the invasion of Canada. He was a member 
of the convention which met at Winchester, Vermont, and in 
January 1777 declared the independence of the New Hampshire 
Grants; served (1776-1786) as a member of the Vermont council 
of safety; conducted negotiations, on behalf of Vermont, for a 
truce with the British and for an exchange of prisoners, in 1781; 
served for eight terms in the general assembly, and was state 



treasurer from 1778 to 1786 and surveyor-general from 1778 
to 1787. In 1789, by a gift of 4000, he made possible the 
establishment of the university of Vermont, of which institution, 
chartered in 1791 and built at Burlington in deference to his 
wishes, he was thus virtually the founder. In 1795, on behalf of 
the state, he purchased from the French government arms for 
the Vermont militia, of which he was then the ranking major- 
general, but he was captured by a British cruiser west of Ireland 
on his return journey, was charged with attempting to furnish 
insurrectionary Irish with arms, and after prolonged litigation in 
the British courts, the case not being finally decided until 1804, 
returned to Vermont in 1801. During his absence he had been 
dispossessed of his large holdings of land through the operation 
of tax laws, and to escape imprisonment for debt, he removed to 
Philadelphia, where on the 4th of January 1814 he died. He 
published a dull and biassed, but useful Natural and Political 
History of Vermont (1798), reissued (1870) in vol. i. of the 
Collections of the Vermont Historical Society. 

There is no adequate biography of Ethan Allen, but Henry Hall's 
Ethan Allen (New York, 1892) may be consulted. The best literary 
estimate may be found in M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the 
American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897). 

ALLEN, GRANT [CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIE], (1848-1899), 
English author, son of a clergyman of Irish descent, was born 
at Kingston, Ontario, Canada, on the 24th of February 1848. 
He was educated partly in America and France, and in England 
at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and afterwards at Merton, 
Oxford. He was for a few years a schoolmaster in Jamaica, 
but then made his home in England, where he became prominent 
as a writer. He died at his house on Hindhead, Haslemere, 
on the 24th of October 1899. Grant Allen was a voluminous 
author. He was full of interesting scientific knowledge and had a 
gift for expression both in biological exposition and in fiction. 
His more purely scientific books (such as Physiological Aesthetics, 
1877; The Evolutionist at Large, 1881; The Evolution of the Idea 
of God, 1897) contain much original matter, popularly expressed, 
and he was a cultured exponent of the evolutionary idea in 
various aspects of biology and anthropology. He first attracted 
attention as a novelist with a sensational story, The Devil's Die 
(1888), though this was by no means his first attempt at fiction; 
and The Woman who Did (1895), which had a succes de scandale 
on account of its treatment of the sexual problem, had for the 
moment a number of cheap imitators. Other volumes flowed 
from his pen, and his name became well known in contemporary 
literature. But his reputation was essentially contemporary 
and characteristic of the vogue peculiar to the journalistic type. 

ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850- ), American novelist, was 
born near Lexington, Kentucky, on the 2ist of December 1850. 
He graduated at Kentucky University, Lexington, in 1872, 
taught at Fort Spring, Kentucky, at Richmond and at Lexington, 
Missouri, and from 1877 to 1879 at the academy of Kentucky 
University, where he was prinpipal and taught modern languages; 
in 1880 he was professor of Latin and English at Bethany College, 
Bethany, West Virginia; and then became head of a private 
school at Lexington, Kentucky. Subsequently he gave up teach- 
ing, went to New York City, where he secured commissions for 
sketches of the " Blue Grass " region, and thereafter devoted 
himself to literature. His Choir Invisible, coming after other 
successful stories, made his name well known in England as well 
as America. His published works include: With Flute and 
Violin (1891), The Blue Grass Region (1892), John Gray (1893), 
A Kentucky Cardinal (1894), Aftermath (1895), A Summer in 
Arcady (1896), The Choir Invisible (i8gj),The ReignofLaw (1900), 
TheMettleo}thePaslure(igo3),a.ndTheBrideoftheMistletoe(igog.) 

ALLEN, JOHN (1476-1534), English divine, after studying 
at both Oxford and Cambridge, was sent by Archbishop Warham 
on an ecclesiastical mission to Rome. On his return he held a 
number of livings in succession, and in 1516 was rector of South 
Ockenden, Essex, and prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. In 
the suppression of the minor monasteries in 15241-1525 he gave 
Wolsey much assistance, and became prebendary of Nottingham 
in 1526 and of St Paul's, London, in 1527. These prebends he 
resigned in 1528 on his election as archbishop of Dublin. For 



692 



ALLEN 



four years he was chancellor of Ireland but his career was full 
of trouble. In 1531 he was fined under the Statutes of Provisors 
and Praemunire, and in 1534 met a violent death at the hands 
of Lord Thomas Fitzgerald's followers. 

ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632), English mathe- 
matician, was born at Uttoxeter in Staffordshire on the 2ist of 
December 1542. He was admitted scholar of Trinity College, 
Oxford, in 1561; and graduated as M.A. in 1567. In 1580 he 
quitted his college and fellowship, retired to Gloucester Hall, 
and became famous for his knowledge of antiquity, philosophy 
and mathematics. Having received an invitation from Henry 
Percy, earl of Northumberland, a great friend and patron of men 
of science, he spent some time at the earl's house, where he became 
acquainted with Thomas Harriot, John Dee and other famous 
mathematicians. He was also intimate with Sir Robert Cotton, 
William Camden, and their antiquarian associates. Robert 
Dudley, earl of Leicester, had a particular esteem for Allen, 
and would have conferred a bishopric upon him, but his love of 
solitude made him decline the offer. His great skill in mathe- 
matics and astrology earned him the credit of being a magician; 
and the author of Leicester's Commonwealth accuses him of 
employing the art of " figuring " to further the earl of Leicester's 
unlawful designs, and of endeavouring by the black art to bring 
about a match between his patron and Queen Elizabeth. Allen 
was indefatigable in collecting scattered manuscripts relating 
to history, antiquity, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics. 
A considerable part of his collection was presented to the Bodleian 
library by Sir Kenelm Digby. He died on the 3oth of September 
1632 at Gloucester Hall. He published in Latin the second and 
third books of Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, Concerning the 
Judgment of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the Quadri- 
partite Construction, with an Exposition. He also wrote notes on 
John Bale's De Scriptoribus M. Britanniae. 

ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594), English cardinal, born at 
Rossall, Lancashire, went in 1547 to Oriel College, Oxford, and in 
1556 became principal of St Mary Hall and proctor. According 
to Anthony Wood, he was appointed to a canonry at York in or 
about 1558; he therefore had already entered the clerical state 
by receiving the tonsure. On the accession of Elizabeth, he was 
deprived upon refusing the oath of supremacy, but remained in 
the university until 1561. His known opposition to the new 
learning in religion giving much offence, he escaped from 
England and went to Louvain, where were gathered many 
students who had left the English universities for conscience' 
sake. Here he continued his theological studies and began to 
write controversial treatises. In 1562, on account of health, he 
returned secretly to Lancashire and did much, by exhortation and 
private meetings, to restrain those Catholics who attended the 
new services in order to save their property from confiscation. 
His presence being known to the government, he left Lancashire 
and ictired to the neighbourhood of Oxford, which he frequently 
visited, and where he influenced many of the students. After 
writing a treatise in defence of the priestly power to remit sins, 
he was obliged to leave and retired to Norfolk, leaving England 
soon after in 1565. He returned to Flanders, was ordained at 
Malines, and began to lecture in theology at the Benedictine 
college in that city. In 1567 he went to Rome for the first time, 
and there began his plan for establishing a college where English 
students could live together and finish their theological course. 
The idea subsequently developed into the establishing of a 
missionary college, or seminary, to keep up a supply of priests for 
England as long as the country remained separated from the 
Holy See. With the help of friends, and notably of the Bene- 
dictine abbots of the neighbouring monasteries, a college was 
established at Douai (September 29, 1568); and here Allen 
was joined by many of the English exiles. This college, the first 
of the seminaries ordered by the council of Trent, received the 
papal approval shortly after its establishment; the king of Spain 
took it under his protection and assigned it an annual grant. 
Allen continued his own theological studies and, after taking his 
doctorate, became regius professor at the university. Gregory 
XIII. in 1575 granted him a monthly pension of 100 golden 



crowns, and, as the number of students had now risen to one 
hundred and twenty, summoned him to Rome to undertake the 
establishing of a similar college in the papal city. By Allen's 
advice, the old English hospice was turned into a seminary and 
Jesuits were placed there to help Dr Maurice Clennock, the rector. 
The pope appointed Allen to a canonry in Courtrai and sent him 
back to Douai (July 1576); but here he had to face a new 
difficulty. Besides the reported plots to assassinate him by 
agents of the English government, the insurgents against Spain, 
urged on by Elizabeth's emissaries, expelled the students from 
Douai as being partisans of the enemy (March 1578). Allen 
moved his establishment to Reims under the protection of the 
house of Guise; and it was here that the English translation of 
the Scriptures, known as the Douai Version, was begun under his 
direction (see BIBLE, ENGLISH). In 1577 he began a correspond- 
ence with Robert Parsons (q.v.), the Jesuit, an intimacy that was 
fraught with disaster. He was summoned again to Rome in 
1579 to quell the first of the many disturbances that befell the 
English college under the Jesuit influence. Brought now into 
personal contact with Parsons, Allen fell completely under the 
dominating personality of the redoubtable Jesuit, and gave 
himself up entirely to his influence. He arranged that the 
Society should take over the English college at Rome and should 
begin the Jesuit mission to England (1580). This short-sighted 
policy was the cause of much grave trouble in the near future. 
Returning to Reims he began to take a part in all the political 
intrigues which Parsons' fertile brain had hatched for the pro- 
motion of the Spanish interest in England. Allen's political 
career dates from this period. Parsons had already intended to 
remove Allen from the seminary at Reims, and for this purpose, 
as far back as the 6th of April 1581, had recommended him to 
Philip II. to be promoted to the cardinalate. In furtherance of 
the intrigues, Allen and Parsons went to Rome again in 1585 and 
there Allen was kept for the rest of his life. In 1 587, during the 
time that he was being skilfully played with by Philip's agents, 
he wrote, helped by Parsons, a shameless defence of a shameful 
deed. Sir William Stanley, an English officer, had surrendered 
Deventer to the Spaniards; and Allen wrote a book in defence of 
Stanley, saying that all Englishmen were bound, under pain of 
damnation, to follow the traitorous example, as Elizabeth was no 
lawful queen. He shared in all the projects for the invasion of 
England, and was to have been archbishop of Canterbury and 
lord chancellor had they succeeded. Representing in reality 
only his own party, Allen had on the continent the position of the 
head of the Roman Catholics of England; and as such, just after 
the death of Mary, queen of Scots, he wrote to Philip II. (March 
19, 1587) to exhort him to undertake the enterprise against 
England, and declared that the Catholics there were clamour- 
ing for the king to come and punish " this woman, hated by God 
and man." After much negotiation, he was made cardinal by 
Sixtus V. on the 7th of August 1587, nominally to supply the loss 
of the queen of Scotland, but in reality to ensure the success of 
the Armada. On his promotion Allen wrote to Reims that he 
owed the hat, under God, to Parsons. One of his first acts was 
to issue, under his own name, two violent works for the purpose 
of inciting the Catholics of England to rise against Elizabeth: 
" The Declaration of the Sentence of Sixtus V." a broadside, 
and a book, An Admonition to the nobility and people of England 
(Antwerp, 1 588) . On the failure of the Armada, Philip, to get rid 
of the burthen of supporting Allen as a cardinal, nominated him 
to the archbishopric of Malines, but the canonical appointment 
was never made. Gregory XIV. made him librarian at the 
Vatican; and he served on the commission for the revision of the 
Vulgate. He took part in four conclaves, but never had any 
real influence after the failure of the Armada. Before his death, 
which took place in Rome on the i6th of October 1594, he found 
reasons to change his mind concerning the wisdom of the Jesuit 
politics in Rome and England, and would have tried to curb their 
activities, had he been spared. The rift became so great that ten 
years after his death, Agazzari could write to Pargons: " So long 
as Allen walked in this matter (the scheme for England) in union 
with and fidelity to the Company, as he used to do, God preserved 



ALLEN ALLESTREE 



693 



him, prospered and exalted him; but when he began to leave 
this path, in a manner, the threads of his plans and life were cut 
short together." As a cardinal Allen had lived in poverty and 
he died in debt. 

While we cannot withhold a tribute of respect from Allen for his 
zeal and earnestness, and recognize that his foundation at Douai 
survives to-day in the two Catholic colleges at Ushaw and Ware, 
it is impossible to deny that he injured the work with which his 
name will ever be associated, by his disastrous intercourse with 
Father Parsons. Known as a sharer in that plotter's schemes, 
he gave a reasonable pretext to Elizabeth's government for 
regarding the seminaries as hotbeds of sedition. That they were 
not so is abundantly proved. The superiors kept their political 
actions secret from the students, and would not allow such matters 
even to be talked about or treated as theoretical abstractions in 
the schools. Dr Barrett, writing (April 14, 1583) to Parsons, 
makes open complaint of Allen's secrecy and refusal to com- 
municate. How far Allen was really admitted to the full con- 
fidence of Parsons is a question; and his later attitude to the 
Society goes to prove that he at last realized that he had been 
tricked. Like James II. with Fr. Petre, Allen had been " be- 
witched " for a time and only recovered himself when too late. 

AUTHORITIES. T. F. Knox, Letters and Memorials of Cardinal 
Allen (London, 1882); A. Bellesheim, Wilhelm Cardinal Allen und 
die englischen Seminare auf dem Festlande (Mainz, 1885); First and 
Second Diaries of the English College, Douai (London, 1878) ; 
Nicholas Fitzherbert, De Antiquitate et contimtatione religionis in 
Anglia et de Alani Cardinalis vita libellus (Rome, 1608) ; E. Taunton, 
History of the Jesuits in England (London, 1901); Teulet, vol. v. ; 
the Spanish State Papers (Simancas), vols. lii. and iv. ; a list of 
Allen's works is given in J. Gillow, Biographical Dictionary of 
English Catholics, vol. i., under his name. (E. TN.) 

ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183(5-1889), American classical 
.scholar, was born at Northborough, Massachusetts, on the sth of 
September 1830. He graduated at Harvard College in 1851 and 
subsequently devoted himself almost entirely to literary work 
and teaching. In 1867 he became professor of ancient languages 
and history (afterwards Latin language and Roman history) in 
the university of Wisconsin. He died in December 1889. His 
contributions to classical literature chiefly consist of schoolbooks 
published in the Allen (his brother) and Greenough series. The 
Collection of Slave Songs (1867), of which he was joint-editor, was 
the first work of the kind ever published. 

ALLEN, BOG OF, the name given to a congeries of morasses 
in Kildare, King's County, Queen's County and Westmeath, 
Ireland. Clane Bog, the eastern extremity, is within 17 m. of 
Dublin, and the morasses extend westward almost to the Shannon. 
Their total area is about 238,500 acres. They do not form one 
continuous bog, the tract of the country to which the name is 
given being intersected by strips of dry cultivated land. The 
rivers Brosna, Barrow and Boyne take their rise in these 
morasses, and the Grand and Royal canals cross them. The 
Bog of Allen has a general elevation of 250 ft. above sea level, 
and the average thickness of the peat of which it consists is 
25 ft. It rests on a subsoil of clay and marl. 

ALLENSTEIN, a garrison town of Germany, in the province of 
East Prussia, on the river Alle, too m. by rail N.E. from Thorn, 
and 30 m. from the Russian frontier. Pop. (1900) 24,295. It 
has a medieval castle, several churches, a synagogue and various 
industries iron-foundries, saw-mills, brick-works, and breweries; 
also an extensive trade in cereals and timber. 

ALLENTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Lehigh county, 
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lehigh river, about 62 m. N.N.W. 
of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 25,228; (1900) 35,416, of whom 
2994 were foreign-born, 1065 being of German birth; (1910) 
51,913. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the 
Lehigh Valley, the Perkiomen (of the Reading system) 
and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. The city is situated 
on high ground sloping gently towards the river and commanding 
diversified views of the surrounding country. Hamilton Street, 
the principal business thoroughfare, extends over 2 m. from E. 
to W., and in what was once the centre of the city is Centre Square, 
in which there is a monument to the memory of the soldiers and 
sailors who fell in the Civil War. Allentown is the seat of a state 



homoeopathic hospital for the insane, of the Allentown College for 
Women (Reformed Church, 1867), and of Muhlenberg College 
(1867), an Evangelical Lutheran institution which grew out of the 
Allentown Seminary (established in 1848 and incorporated as 
the " Allentown Collegiate Institute and Military Academy " in 
1864); in 1907 the college had 191 students, of whom 109 were 
in the Allentown Preparatory School (1004), formerly the 
academic department of the college and still closely affiliated 
with it. The surrounding country is well adapted to agriculture, 
and slate, iron ore, cement rock and limestone are found in the 
vicinity. Allentown is an important manufacturing centre, 
and the value of its manufactured products increased 90-9 % 
from 1890 to 1900, and of its factory product 13-2 % between 
1900 and 1905. In 1905 the city ranked sixth among the cities 
of the country in the manufacture of silk and silk goods, its most 
important industry. Other important manufactures are iron 
and steel, slaughtering and meat-packing products, boots and 
shoes, cigars, furniture, men's clothing, hosiery and knit goods, 
jute and jute goods, linen-thread, malt liquors, brick, cement, 
barbed wire, wire nails and planing-mill products. Allentown's 
total factory product in 1905 was valued at $16,966,550, of 
which $3,901,249, or 23 %, was the value of silk and silk goods. 
The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Allentown 
was first settled in 1751; in 1762 it was laid out as a town by 
James Allen, the son of a chief-justice of the province, in honour 
of whose family the city is named; in 1811 it was incorporated 
as a borough and its name was changed to Northampton; in 
1812 it was made the county-seat; in 1838 the present name 
was again adopted; and in 1867 the first city charter was secured. 
The silk industry was introduced in 1881. 

ALLEPPI, or AULAPALAY, a seaport of southern India, in the 
state of Travancore, 33 m. south of Cochin, situated on a strip 
of coast between the sea and one of those backwaters that here 
form the chief means of inland communication. Pop. (1901) 
24,918. There is a lighthouse, 85 ft. high, with a revolving white 
light visible 18 m. out at sea. Though the third town in the 
state in point of population, Alleppi is the first in commercial 
importance. It commands a fine harbour, affording safe anchorage 
for the greater part of the year. It was opened to foreign trade 
towards the latter end of the i8th century. The exports con- 
sist of coffee, pepper, cardamoms and coco-nuts. There are 
factories for coir-matting. The raja has a palace, and Protestant 
missionaries have a church. 

ALLESTREE, or ALLESTRY, RICHARD (1619-1681), royalist 
divine and provost of Eton College, son of Robert Allestree, 
and a descendant of an ancient Derbyshire family, was born at 
Uppington in Shropshire. He was educated at Coventry and 
later at Christ Church, Oxford, under Richard Busby. He 
entered as a commoner in 1636, was made student shortly after- 
wards, and took the degree of B.A. in 1640 and of M.A. in 1643. 
In 1642 he took up arms for the king under Sir John Biron. On 
the arrival of the parliamentary forces soon afterwards in Oxford 
he secreted the Christ Church valuables, and the soldiers found 
nothing in the treasury " except a single groat and a halter in the 
bottom of a large iron chest." He escaped severe punishment 
only by the hasty retirement of the army from the town. He 
was present at the battle of Edgehill in October 1642, after which, 
while hastening to Oxford to prepare for the king's visit to Christ 
Church, he was captured by a troop of Lord Say's soldiers from 
Broughton House, being soon afterwards set free on the surrender 
of the place to the king's forces. In 1643 he was again under 
arms, performing " all duties of a common soldier " and " fre- 
quently holding his musket in one hand and his book in the other." 
At the close of the Civil War, he returned to his studies, took 
holy orders, was made censor and became a " noted tutor." 
But he still remained an ardent royalist. He voted for the 
university decree against the Covenant, and, refusing submission 
to the parliamentary visitors in 1648, he was expelled. He found 
a retreat as chaplain in the house of the Hon. Francis Newport, 
afterwards Viscount Newport, in whose interests he undertook 
a journey to France. On his return he joined two of his friends, 
Dolben and Fell, afterwards respectively archbishop of York 



694 



ALLEY ALL FOURS 



and bishop of Oxford, then resident at Oxford, and later joined 
the household of Sir Antony Cope of Hanwell, near Banbury. 
He was now frequently employed in carrying despatches between 
the king and the royalists in England. In May 1659 he brought 
a command from Charles in Brussels, directing the bishop of 
Salisbury to summon all those bishops, who were then alive, to 
consecrate clergymen to various sees " to secure a continuation 
of the order in the Church of England," then in danger of becom- 
ing extinct. 1 While returning from one of these missions, in 
the winter before the Restoration, he was arrested at Dover 
and committed a prisoner to Lambeth Palace, then used as a 
gaol for apprehended royalists, but was liberated after confine- 
ment of a few weeks at the instance, among others, of Lord 
Shaftesbury. At the Restoration he became canon of Christ 
Church, D.D. and city lecturer at Oxford. In 1663 he was made 
chaplain to the king and regius professor of divinity. In 1665 
he was appointed provost of Eton College, and proved himself 
a capable administrator. He introduced order into the dis- 
organized finances of the college and procured the confirmation 
of Laud's decree, which reserved five of the Eton fellowships 
for members of King's College. His additions to the college 
buildings were less successful; for the " Upper School," con- 
structed by him at his own expense, was falling into ruin almost 
in his lifetime, and was replaced by the present structure in 
1689. Allestree died on the 28th of January 1681, and was 
buried in the chapel at Eton College, where there is a Latin 
inscription to his memory. His writings are: The Privileges of 
the University of Oxford in point of Visitation (1647) a tract 
answered by Prynne in the University of Oxford's Plea Rejected; 
18 sermons whereof 15 preached before the king . . . (1669); 40 
sermons whereof 21 are now first published ... (2 vols., 1684); 
sermons published separately including A Sermon on Acts xiii. 2, 
(1660); A Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the Epistles of 
St Paul (joint author with Abraham Woodhead and Obadiah 
Walker, 1675, see edition of 1853 and preface by W. Jacobscn). 
In the Cases of Conscience by J. Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (1692), 
Allestree's judgment on Mr Cottington's Case of Divorce is in- 
cluded. A share in the composition, if not the sole authorship, 
of the books published under the name of the author of the 
Whole Duly of Man has been attributed to Allestree (Nichols's 
Anecdotes, ii. 603), and the tendency of modern criticism is to 
regard him as the author. His lectures, with which he was 
dissatisfied, were not published. Allestree was a man of extensive 
learning, of moderate views and a fine preacher. He was generous 
and charitable, of " a solid and masculine kindness," and of a 
temper hot, but completely under control. 

AUTHORITIES. Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (edited by Bliss), iii. 
1269; Wood's Fasti, i. 480, 514, ii. 57, 241, 370; Richard Allestree, 
40 sermons, with biographical preface by Dr John Fell (2 vols., 1684) ; 
Sufferings of the Clergy, by John Walker; Architectural History of 
Eton and Cambridge, by R. Willis, i. 420 ; Hist, of Eton College, by 
Sir H. C. MaxwelULyte; Hist, of Eton College, by Lionel Cust (1899) ; 
Eeerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b. For Allestree's authorship 
of the Whole Duty of Man, see Rev. F. Barham, Journal of Sacred 
Literature, July 1864, and C. E. Doble's articles in the Academy, 
November 1884. (P. C. Y.) 

ALLEY (from the Fr. altte, a walk), a narrow passage- 
way between two buildings available only for foot passengers 
or hand-carts, sometimes entered only at one end and known 
as a " blind alley," or cul-de-sac. The name is also given to 
the long narrow enclosures where bowls or skittles are played. 

ALLEYN, EDWARD (1566-1626), English actor and founder 
of Dulwich College, was born in London on theistof September 
1 566, the son of an innkeeper. It is not known at what date he 
began to act, but he certainly gained distinction in his calling 
while a young man, for in 1586 his name was on the list of the 
earl of Worcester's players, and he was eventually rated by 
common consent as the foremost actor of his time. Ben Jonson, 
a critic little prone to exalt the merits of men of mark among 
his contemporaries, bestowed unstinted praise on Alleyn's 
acting (Epigrams, No. 89). Nash expresses in prose, in Pierce 
Penniless, his admiration of him, while Heywood calls him 

1 Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b; Life of Dr John 
Barwick, ed. by G. F. Barwick (1903), pp. 107, 129, 134. 



" inimitable," " the best of actors," " Proteus for shapes and 
Roscius for a tongue." Alleyn inherited house property in 
Bishopsgate from his father. His marriage on the 22nd of 
October 1592 with Joan Woodward, stepdaughter of Philip 
Henslowe, brought him eventually more wealth. He became 
part owner in Henslowe's ventures, and in the end sole pro- 
prietor of several play-houses and other profitable pleasure 
resorts. Among these were the Rose Theatre at Bankside, 
the Paris Garden and the Fortune Theatre in St Luke's the 
latter occupied by the earl of Nottingham's company, of which 
Alleyn was the head. He filled, too, in conjunction with 
Henslowe, the post of " master of the king's games of bears, 
bulls and dogs." On some occasions he directed the sport in 
person, and Stow in his Chronicles gives an account of how 
Alleyn baited a lion before James I. at the Tower. 

Alleyn's connexion with Dulwich began in 1605, when he 
bought the manor of Dulwich from Sir Francis Calton. The 
landed property, of which the entire estate had not passed into 
Alleyn's hands earlier than 1614, stretched from the crest of 
that range of Surrey hills on whose summit now stands the 
Crystal Palace, to the crest of the parallel ridge, three miles 
nearer London, known in its several portions as Herne Hill, 
Denmark Hill and Champion Hill. Alleyn acquired this large 
property for little more than 10,000. He had barely got full 
possession, however, before the question how to dispose of it 
began to occupy him. He was still childless, after twenty years 
of wedded life. Then it was that the prosperous player the 
man " so acting to the life that he made any part to become 
him " (Fuller, Worthies) began the task of building and endow- 
ing in his own lifetime the College of God's Gift at Dulwich. 
All was completed in 1617 except the charter or deed of in- 
corporation for setting lu's lands in mortmain. Tedious delays 
occurred in the Star Chamber, where Lord Chancellor Bacon 
was scheming to bring the pressure of kingly authority to bear 
on Alleyn with the aim of securing a large portion of the proposed 
endowment for the maintenance of lectureships at Oxford and 
Cambridge. Alleyn finally carried his point and the College of 
God's Gift at Dulwich was founded, and endowed under letters 
patent of James I., dated the 2ist of June 1619. The building 
had been already begun in 1613 (see DULWICH). Alleyn was 
never a member of his own foundation, but he continued to the 
close of his life to guide and control its affairs under powers 
reserved to himself in the letters patent. His diary shows that 
he mixed much and intimately in the life of the college. Many 
of the jottings in that curious record of daily doings and incidents 
favour the inference that he was a genial, kind, amiable and 
religious man. His fondness for his old profession is indicated 
by the fact that he engaged the boys in occasional theatrical 
performances. At a festive gathering on the 6th of January 
1622 " the boyes play'd a playe." 

Alleyn's first wife died in 1623. The same year he married 
Constance, daughter of John Donne, the poet and dean of St 
Paul's. Alleyn died in November 1626 and was buried in the 
chapel of the college which he had founded. His gravestone 
fixes the day of his death as the 2ist, but there are grounds for 
the belief that it was the 25th. A portrait of the actor is preserved 
at Dulwich. Alleyn was a member of the corporation of wardens 
of St Saviour's, Southwark, in 1610, and there is a memorial 
window to him in the cathedral. 

ALL FOURS, a card game (known also in America as Seven 
Up, Old Sledge or High-Low-Jack) usually played by two 
players, though four may play. A full pack is used and each 
player receives seven counters. Four points can be scored, 
one each for high, the highest trump out, for low, the lowest 
trump dealt, for Jack, the knave of trumps, and for game, the 
majority of pips in the cards of the tricks that a player has won. 
Ace counts 4, King 3, Queen 2, Knave i, and ten 10 points. 
Low is scored by the person to whom it is dealt; High of course 
wins a trick; Jack is scored by the player who finally has it 
among his tricks. If Jack is turned up the dealer scores the 
point. A player who plays a high or low trump is entitled to 
ask if they are High or Low. The game is 10 or 1 1 points. Six 



ALLIA ALLIER 



695 



cards are dealt to each, the thirteenth being turned up for trumps. 
The non-dealer may propose or beg if he does not like his hand. 
If the dealer refuses the elder hand scores a point; if he con- 
sents he gives and takes three more cards, the seventh being 
turned up for trumps, which must be of a different suit from the 
original trump card; otherwise six more cards are dealt out, 
and so on till a fresh trump suit appears. The non-dealer then 
leads; the other must trump or follow suit, or forfeit a point. 
Jack may be played to any trick. Each pair of cards is a trick, 
and is collected by the winner. A fresh deal may be claimed if 
the dealer exposes one of his adversary's cards, or if he gives 
himself or his adversary too few or too many. In that case the 
error must be discovered before a card is played (see also 
AUCTION PITCH). 

ALLIA (mod. Fosso Bettina), a small tributary of the river 
Tiber, joining it on the left (east) bank, about 1 1 m. N. of Rome. 
It gave its name to the terrible defeat which the Romans suffered 
at the hands of the Gauls on the i8th of July 390 B.C. Livy 
(v. 37) and Diodorus (v. 114) differ with regard to the site of 
the battle, the former putting it on the left, the latter on the 
right bank of the Tiber. Mommsen and others support Diodorus, 
but the question still remains open. 

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 24. 

ALLIANCE, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U. S. A., on the 
Mahoning river, about 57 m. S.E. of Cleveland, about 1080 ft. 
above the sea, and about 505 ft. above the level of Lake Erie. 
Pop. (1890) 7607; (1900) 8974, of whom 1029 were foreign- 
born; (1910, census) 15,083. It is served by the Pennsylvania 
and the Lake Erie, Alliance & Wheeling railways, and by an 
electric line connecting with Canton and Salem. The city is the 
seat of Mount Union College (Methodist Episcopal), opened in 
1846 as a preparatory school and having in 1907 a library of 
about 10,000 volumes, a collegiate department (opened in 1858), 
a normal department (1858), a school of music (1855), a com- 
mercial school (1868), a faculty of 29 teachers, and an enrolment 
of 524 students, of whom 274 were women. Among the manu- 
factures of Alliance are structural iron, steel castings, pressed 
sheet steel, gun carriages, boilers, travelling cranes, pipe organs, 
street-car indicators, sashes and doors, and account registers and 
other material for file and cabinet-bookkeeping. The municipality 
owns and operates its water-works. Alliance was first settled in 
1838, when it was laid out as a town and was named Freedom; 
it was named Alliance in 1851, was incorporated as a village in 
1854, and became a city of the second class in 1888. 

ALLIANCE, in international law, a league between independent 
states, defined by treaty, for the purpose of combined action, 
defensive or offensive, or both. Alliances have usually been 
directed to specific objects carefully defined in the treaties. 
Thus the Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great Britain, Sweden 
and the Netherlands, and the Grand Alliance of 1689 between 
the emperor, Holland, England, Spain and Saxony, were both 
directed against the power of Louis XIV. The Quadruple or 
Grand Alliance of 1814, defined in the treaty of Chaumont, 
between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, had for its 
object the overthrow of Napoleon and his dynasty, and the 
confining of France within her traditional boundaries. The 
Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany, Austria and Italy was 
ostensibly directed to the preservation of European peace against 
any possible aggressive action of France or Russia; and this led 
in turn, some ten years later, to the Dual Alliance between 
Russia and France, for mutual support in case of any hostile 
action of the other powers. Occasionally, however, attempts 
have been made to give alliances a more general character. 
Thus the " Holy Alliance " (?..) of the 26th of September 1815 
was an attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the emperor 
Alexander I. of Russia, to find in the " sacred precepts of the 
Gospel " a common basis for a general league of the European 
governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of 
peace. So, too, by Article VI. of the Quadruple Treaty signed at 
Paris on the 2oth of November 1815 which renewed that of 
Chaumont and was again renewed, in 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle 
the scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to objects of 



common interest not specifically defined in the treaties. The 
article runs: "In order to consolidate the intimate tie which 
unites the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the 
High Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals, 
either under their own auspices or by their respective ministers, 
meetings consecrated to great common objects and to the 
examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs 
shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of 
the nations and the maintenance of the tranquillity of Europe." 

It was this article of the treaty of the zoth of November 1815, 
rather than the ".Holy Alliance," that formed the basis of the 
serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815 and 1822, 
to govern Europe in concert, which will be found outlined in 
the article on the history of Europe. In general it proved that 
an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly defined as to its 
objects, and that in the long run the treaty in which these objects 
are defined must to quote Bismarck's somewhat cynical dictum 
" be reinforced by the interests " of the parties concerned. 
Yet the " moral alliance " of Europe, as Count Nesselrode called 
it, though it failed to secure the permanent harmony of the 
powers, was an effective instrument for peace during the years 
immediately following the downfall of Napoleon; and it set the 
precedent for those periodical meetings of the representatives of 
the powers, for the discussion and settlement of questions of 
international importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient 
for constructive work, have contributed much to the preservation 
of the general peace (see EUROPE: History). (W. A. P.) 

ALLIARIA OFFICINALIS, also known botanically as Sisym- 
brium Alliaria, and popularly as garlic-mustard, Jack-by-the- 
hedge, or sauce-alone, a common hedge-bank plant belonging to 
the natural order Cruciferae. It is a rankly scented herb, 2 to 3 
ft. high, with long-stalked, coarsely-toothed leaves, and small 
white flowers which are succeeded by stout long four-sided pods. 
It is widely spread through the north temperate region of the 
Old World. 

ALLIBONE, SAMUEL AUSTIN (1816-1889), American author 
and bibliographer, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on 
the 1 7th of April 1816, of French Huguenot and Quaker ancestry. 
He was privately educated and for many years was engaged in 
mercantile business in his native city. He, however, devoted 
himself chiefly to reading and to bibliographical research; 
acquired a very unusual knowledge of English and American 
literature, and is remembered as the compiler of the well-known 
Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American 
Authors (3 vols.: vol. i. 1854, vols. ii. and iii. 1871). To this, 
two supplementary volumes, edited by John Foster Kirk, were 
added in 1891. From 1867 to 1873, and again in 1877-1879, 
Allibone was book editor and corresponding secretary of the 
American Sunday School Union; and from 1879 to 1888 he was 
librarian of the Lenox Library, New York City. He died at 
Lucerne, Switzerland, on the 2nd of September 1889. In addition 
to his Critical Dictionary he published three large anthologies 
and several religious tracts. 

See the " Memoir " by S. D. M'Connell, an address delivered before 
the Historical Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1890). 

ALLIER (anc. Elaver), a river of central France flowing into 
the Loire. It rises in the department of Lozere, among the 
Margeride mountains, a few miles east of the town of Mende. 
The upper course of the Allier separates the mountains of the 
Margeride from those of the Velay and lies for the most part 
through deep gorges. The river then traverses the plains of 
Langeac and Brioude, and receives the waters of the Alagnon 
some miles above the town of Issoire. Swelled by torrents from 
the mountains of Dore and D6me, it unites with the river Dore at 
its entrance to the department to which it gives its name. It 
then flows through a wide but shallow channel, joining the 
Sioule some distance above Moulins, the chief town on its banks. 
It soon after becomes the boundary line between the departments 
of Cher and Nievre, and reaches the Loire 4 m. west of Nevers, 
after a course of 269 m. Its basin has an area of 6755 sq. m. 
The Allier is classed as navigable for the last 154 m. of its course, 
but there is little traffic on it. 



6 9 6 



ALLIER ALLISON 



ALLIER, a department of central France, formed in 1790 
from the old province of Bourbonnais. Pop. (1906) 417,961. 
Area, 2849 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Nievre, 
E. by Sa6ne-et-Loire,from which it is divided by the river Loire, 
S.E. by Loire, S. by Puy-de-D&me, S.W. by Creuse and N.W. 
by Cher. Situated on the northern border of the Central Plateau, 
the department slopes from south to north. Its highest altitudes 
are found in the south-east, in the Bois-Noirs, where one point 
reaches 4239 ft., and in the Monts de la Madeleine. Plains 
alternating with forests occupy the northern zone of the depart- 
ment, while the central and western regions form an undulating 
and well-watered plateau. Entering the department in the south, 
and, like the other chief rivers, flowing almost due north, the 
Allier drains the central district, receiving on its left the Sioule. 
East of the Allier is the Bebre, which joins the Loire within the 
limits of the department; and on the west the Cher, with its 
tributary the Aumance. Rigorous and rainy in the south-east, 
the climate elsewhere is milder though subject to sudden varia- 
tions. Agriculturally the department is flourishing, the valleys 
of the Allier and the Sioule known as the Limagne Bourbonnaise 
comprising its most fertile portion. Wheat, oats, barley and 
other cereals are grown and exported, and owing to the abundance 
of pasture and forage, sheep and cattle-rearing are actively 
carried on. Potatoes and mangels yield good crops. Wines of 
fair quality are grown in the valley of the Sioule; walnuts, 
chestnuts, plums, apples and pears are principal fruits. Goats, 
from the milk of which choice cheese is made, and pigs are plenti- 
ful. A large area is under forests, the oak, beech, fir, birch and 
hornbeam being the principal trees. The mineral waters at 
Vichy (q.v.), N6ris, Theneuille, Cusset and Bourbon 1'Archam- 
bault are in much repute. The mineral wealth of the department 
is considerable, including coal as well as manganese and bitu- 
minous schist; plaster, building stone and hydraulic lime are 
also produced. Manufactories of porcelain, glass and earthen- 
ware are numerous. Montlucon and Commentry are iron- 
working centres. There are flour mills, breweries and saw-mills; 
and paper, chemicals, wooden shoes, wool and woollen goods are 
produced. Besides the products of the soil Allier exports coal, 
mineral waters and cattle for the Paris market. Building 
materials, brandy and coal are among the imports. The railways 
belong chiefly to the Orleans and Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean 
companies. The lateral canal of the Loire, the Berry Canal and 
the canal from Roanne to Digoin together traverse about 57 m. 
in the department. Allier is divided into the arrondissements of 
Moulins, Gannat, Lapalisse and Montlucon (29 cantons, 321 
communes). It forms the diocese of Moulins and part of the 
ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and falls within the academic 
(educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand and the region of 
the XIII. army-corps. Its court of appeal is at Riom. Moulins, 
the capital, Montlucon and Vichy, are the principal towns. 
Souvigny possesses the church of a famous Cluniac priory dating 
from the nth-i2th and isth centuries, and containing the 
splendid tombs (isth century) of Louis II. and Charles I. of 
Bourbon. At St Menoux, Ebreuil and Gannat there are fine 
Romanesque churches. Huriel has a church of the nth century 
and a well-preserved keep, the chief survival of a medieval castle. 
St Pourcain-sur-Sioule has a large church, dating from the nth 
to the 1 8th centuries. The castle of Bourbon 1'Archambault, 
which belonged to the dukes of Bourbon, dates from the I3th 
and isth centuries. The Romanesque churches of Veauce and 
Ygrande, and the chateaus of Veauce and Lapalisse, are also of 
interest, the latter belonging to the family of Chabannes. 

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903), English historical 
writer, was born at Midsomer Norton, near Bristol, on the I2th 
of February 1813. He was educated at Eton and at Wadham 
College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1833. In 1840 
Bishop Blomfield of London appointed him his examining chaplain 
and presented him to the rectory of Launton, Oxfordshire, which 
he resigned in 1850 on becoming a Roman Catholic. Allies was 
appointed secretary to the Catholic poor school committee 
in 1853, a position which he occupied till 1890. He died in 
London on the i7th of June 1903. Allies was one of the ables 



of the English churchmen who joined the Church of Rome in the 
early period of the Oxford movement, his chief work, The Forma- 
ion of Christendom (London, 8 vols., 1865-1895) showing much 
originality of thought and historical knowledge. His other 
writings: St Peter, his Name and Office (1852); The See of St 
Peter, the Rock of the Church (1850); Per Crucem ad Lucem 
2 vols., 1879), have gone through many editions and been trans- 
ated into several languages. 

See his autobiography, A Life's Decision (1880) ; and the study by 
his daughter, Mary H. Allies, Thomas Allies, the Story oj a Mind 
'London, 1906), which contains a full bibliography of his works. 

ALLIFAE (mod. Alife), a town of the Samnites, 15 m. N.W. 
of Telesia, and 17 m. E.N.E. of Teanum. The site of the Samnite 
city, which in the 4th century B.C. had a coinage of its own, is 
not known; the Roman town lay in the valley of the Vulturnus, 
and its walls (4th century) enclose a circuit of i m., in which are 
^reserved remains of large baths ( Thermae Herculis) and a theatre. 
ALLIGATOR (Spanish el lagarto, " the lizard "), an animal so 
closely allied to the crocodile that some naturalists have classed 
them together as forming one genus. It differs from the true 
crocodile principally in having the head broader and shorter, 
and the snout more obtuse; in having the fourth, enlarged 
tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, 
but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in wanting a 
jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the 
crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet webbed not 
more than half way to the tips. Alligators proper occur in the 
fluviatile deposits of the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, 
where they did not die out until the Pliocene age; they are now 
restricted to two species, A. mississippiensis or lucius in the 
southern states of North America up to 12 ft. in length, 
and the small A . sinensis in the Yang-tse-kiang. In Central and 
South America alligators are represented by five species of the 
genus Caiman, which differs from Alligator by the absence of a 
bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is 
composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed 
of two parts united by a suture. C. sclerops, the spectacled 
alligator, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico 
to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a bulky size. 
The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of 
20 ft., is the C. niger, the jacare-assu or large caiman of the 
Amazons. The names " alligator " and " crocodile " are often 
confounded in popular speech; and the structure and habits 
of the two animals are so similar that both are most conveniently 
considered under the heading CROCODILE. 

ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889), Irish man of letters 
and poet, was born at Ballyshannon, Donegal, on the igth of 
March 1824 (or 1828, according to some authorities), and was 
the son of the manager of a local bank. He obtained a post in 
the custom-house of his native town and filled several similar 
situations in Ireland and England until 1870, when he had 
retired from the service, and became sub-editor of Fraser's 
Magazine, which he edited from 1874 to 1879. He had published 
a volume of Poems in 1850, followed by Day and Night Songs, 
a volume containing many charming lyrics, in 1855. Allingham 
was on terms of close friendship with D. G. Rossetti, who contri- 
buted to the illustration of the Songs. His Letters to Allingham 
(1854-1870) were edited by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 1897. Lawrence 
Bloomfield, a narrative poem illustrative of Irish social questions, 
appeared in 1864. Allingham married in 1874 Helen Paterson, 
known under her married name as a water-colour painter. He 
died at Hampstead on the i8th of November 1889. Though 
working on an unostentatious scale, Allingham produced much 
excellent lyrical and descriptive poetry, and the best of his 
pieces are thoroughly, national in spirit and local colouring. 

William Allingham: a Diary (1907), edited by Mrs Allingham 
and D. Radford, contains many interesting reminiscences of Tenny- 
son, Carlyle and other famous contemporaries. 

ALLISON, WILLIAM BOYD (1820-1908), American legislator, 
was born at Perry, Ohio, on the 2nd of March 1829. Educated 
at Allegheny and Western Reserve Colleges, he studied law, and 
practised in Ohio until 1857. In that year he settled in Dubuque, 
Iowa, where he took a prominent part in Republican politics; 



ALLITERATION ALLIX 



697 



and in 1860 he was a delegate to the national convention at 
Chicago which nominated Abraham Lincoln for the presidency. 
In 1861 he was appointed a member of the staff of Governor 
Samuel J. Kirkwood (1813-1894), and was of great service in 
the work of equipping and organizing the Iowa volunteers. 
From 1863 until 1871 he served with distinction in the House of 
Representatives; in 1873 he was elected to the United States 
Senate, and re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896 and 1902. 
Here he became one of the highest authorities on questions 
connected with finance, and from 1877 he was a member of the 
Senate committee on finance. In 1881-1893, and again from 1895, 
he was chairman of the committee on appropriations, in which 
position he had great influence. He declined offers of the 
secretaryship of the treasury made to him by Presidents Garfield 
and Harrison. He was a prominent candidate for the presidential 
nomination in the Republican national conventions of 1888 and 
1896. In 1892 he was chairman of the American delegation to 
the International Monetary Conference at Brussels. He died 
at Dubuque, Iowa, on the 4th of August 1908. 

ALLITERATION (from Lat. ad, 'to, and Kttera, letter), the 
commencing of two or more words, in close juxtaposition, with 
the same sound. As Milton defined rhyme to be " the jingling 
sound of like endings," so alliteration is the jingle of like begin- 
nings. All language has a tendency to jingle in both ways, even 
in prose. Thus in prose we speak of " near and dear," " high 
and dry," " health and wealth." But the initial form of jingle 
is much more common " safe and sound," " thick and thin," 
" weal or woe," " fair or foul," " spick and span," " fish, flesh, 
or fowl," " kith and kin." The poets of nearly all times and 
tongues have not been slow to seize upon the emphasis which 
could thus be produced. 

Although mainly Germanic in its character, alliteration was 
known to the Latins, especially in early times, and Cicero 
blames Ennius for writing " O Tite tute, Tati, tibi tanta, tyranne, 
tulisti." Lucretius did not disdain to employ it as an ornament. 
We read in Shakespeare: 

" Full fathom five thy father lies : 

Of his bones are corals made." 
In Pope: 

" Here files of pins extend their shining rows, 
Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux." 
In Gray: 

" Weave the warp and weave the woof, 
The winding-sheet of Edward's race.'" 

In Coleridge: 

" The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, 

The furrow followed free; 
We were the first that ever burst 
Into that silent sea." 

Churchill describes himself, in his Prophecy of Famine, as one 
" Who often, but without success, had prayed 
For apt alliteration's artful aid,"- 

an example which is itself a proof of his failure; for alliteration 
is never effective unless it runs upon consonants. 

As thus far considered, alliteration is a device wholly dependent 
on the poet's fancy. He may use it or not, or use it much or 
little, at his pleasure. But there is an extensive range of Teutonic 
poetry whose metrical laws are entirely based on alliteration. 
This, for example, is the principle on which Icelandic verse is 
founded; and we have a yet nearer interest in it, because it 
furnishes the key to Anglo-Saxon and a large portion of early 
English verse. For a specimen take the following lines, the 
spelling modernized, from the beginning of Piers the Plowman: 
" But in a .May morning I on Ifalvern hills, 

Me be/el a jferly | of /airy methought ; 

I was weary of wandering I and went me to rest 

Under a ftroad 6ank | by a fturn-side ; 

And as I fay and teaned I and tooked on the waters, 

I slumbered in a sleeping I it founded so merry." 

The rule of this verse is indifferent as to the number of syllables 
it may contain, but imperative as to the number of accented 
ones. The line is divided in the middle by a pause, and each 
half ought to contain two accented syllables. Of the four 
accented syllables, the first three should begin with the same 



letter; the fourth is free and may start with any letter. Those 
who wish for a more minute analysis of the laws of alliterative 
verse, as practised by the Anglo-Saxon and early English poets, 
may consult an exhaustive essay on the subject by Professor 
W. W. Skeat, prefixed to vol. iii. of Bishop Percy's Folio Manu- 
script; only the reader must be on his guard against an error 
which pervades it, and which this able writer seems to have 
derived from Rask. The question arises What is the nature of 
the cadence in alliterative verse ? Now all metrical movement 
is of two kinds, according as the beat or emphasis begins the 
movement or ends it. If the beat is initial, we say in classical 
language that the movement is trochaic or dactylic, according 
to the number of its syllables; and if the beat is final, we in 
like manner say that the movement is iambic or anapaestic. 
Skeat and many others object with some reason to use the 
classical terms, and therefore brushing them aside, let us put the 
question in the simplest form Has the movement of alliterative 
verse got the initial or the final beat ? In the middle of the i8th 
century Bishop Percy decided this question with sufficient 
accuracy, though he mixed up his statement with a blunder 
which it is not easy to account for. He points out how the 
poets began to introduce rhyme into alliterative verse, until at 
length rhyme came to predominate over alliteration, and " thus 
was this kind of metre at length swallowed up and lost in the 
common burlesque Alexandrine or anapaestic verse, as 
" A cobbler there was, and he lived in a stall." 
Percy made a serious mistake when he gave the name of Alex- 
andrine to anapaestic verse; but he is quite right in his general 
statement that alliterative verse became lost in a measure the 
movement of which had the final beat. Conybeare has stated 
the fact still more accurately. " In the Saxon poetry a trochaic 
character is predominant. In Piers the Plowman there is a 
prevailing tendency to an anapaestic cadence." It is the result 
of a change in the language the loss of inflexion. Take the 
word man. The genitive in Saxon would be mannes, a trochee; 
in English, of man, an iambus. The tendency of the language 
was thus to pass from a metrical movement, in which the beat 
was initial, to one in which it was final. It may therefore be 
quite right to speak of Anglo-Saxon alliterative poetry as 
trochaic or dactylic, and quite wrong to apply the same terms 
to the cadence of our later alliterative verse. And this is precisely 
the error into which Skeat has fallen. He says " Lines do not 
always begin with a loud syllable, but often one or two and 
sometimes (in early English especially) even three soft syllables 
precede it. These syllables are necessary to the sense, but not 
to the scansion of the line." That is just the point at issue. 
By leaving out of account the light syllable or syllables at the 
beginning of a line, and taking his start from the first syllable 
that has the alliterative beat, Skeat may certainly prove that all 
the later alliterative poetry has a movement of initial beat. 
But English ears will not submit to this rule. It is those light 
syllables of no account which have altered the rhythm of English 
descent from one of initial to one of final beat. 

ALLIUM (Lat. for " garlic "), a genus of plants, natural order 
Liliaceae, with about 250 species (seven of which occur in 
Britain), found in Central and South Europe, North Africa, the 
dry country of West and Central Asia, and North and Central 
America. The plants are bulbous herbs, with flat or rounded 
radical leaves, and a central naked or leafy stem, bearing a head 
or umbel of small flowers, with a spreading or bell-shaped white, 
pink, red, yellow or blue perianth. Several species afford useful 
foods, such as onion (Allium Cepa), leek (A. Porrum), shallot or 
eschallot (A. ascalonicum) , garlic (A. sativum), and chives 
(A. schoenoprasum) . A few species are cultivated as border 
plants; such are A. Moly, an old garden plant with bright 
yellow flowers, and A. neapolitanum, the well-known white- 
flowered species, both natives of southern Europe. 

ALLIX, PIERRE (1641-1717), French Protestant divine, 
was born at Alencon. He was pastor first at St Agobile in 
Champagne, and then at Charenton, near Paris. The revocation 
of the edict of Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in 
London, where, under the sanction of James II., he opened a 



6 9 8 



ALLMAN ALLON 



church for the French exiles. His reputation for learning was 
such as to obtain for him, soon after his arrival, the degree of 
doctor of divinity from both universities, and in 1690 he received 
from Bishop Burnet the more substantial honour of the treasurer- 
ship and a canonry in Salisbury Cathedral. He died at London 
in March 1717. The works of Allix, which are numerous, are 
chiefly of a controversial and apologetic character, and must be 
used with caution. In opposition to Bossuet he published Some 
Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches 
of Piedmont (1690), and Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History 
of the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses (1692), with the idea 
of showing that the Albigenses were not Manichaeans, but 
historically identical with the Waldenses. 

ALLMAN, GEORGE JAMES (1812-1898), British biologist, 
was born in Cork, Ireland, in 1812, and received his early educa- 
tion at the Royal Academical Institution, Belfast. For some 
time he studied for the Irish bar, but ultimately gave up law in 
favour of natural science. In 1843 he graduated in medicine at 
Dublin, and in the following year was appointed professor of 
botany in that university, succeeding his namesake, William 
Allman (1776-1846). This position he held for about twelve 
years until he removed to Edinburgh as regius professor of 
natural history. There he remained till 1870, when considera- 
tions of health induced him to resign his professorship and retire 
to Dorsetshire, where he devoted himself to his favourite pastime 
of horticulture. The scientific papers which came from his pen 
are very numerous. His most important work was upon the 
gymnoblastic hydrozoa, on which he published in 1871-1872, 
through the Ray Society, an exhaustive monograph, based 
largely on his own researches and illustrated with drawings of 
remarkable excellence from his own hand. Biological science is 
also indebted to him for several convenient terms which have 
come into daily use, e.g. endoderm and ectoderm for the two 
cellular layers of the body-wall in Coelenterata. He became a 
fellow of the Royal Society in 1854, and received a Royal medal 
in 1873. For several years he occupied the presidential chair of 
the Linnaean society, and in 1879 he presided over the Sheffield 
meeting of the British Association. He died on the 24th of 
November 1898 at Parkstone, Dorsetshire. 

ALLOA, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Clack- 
mannanshire, Scotland. It is situated on the north bank of the 
Forth, 32 m. from Edinburgh by the North British railway 
via the Forth Bridge, and 28 m. from Leith by steamer. Pop. 
(1891) 12,643; (1901) 14,458. The Caledonian railway enters the 
town from the south-west by a bridge across the river, and also 
owns a ferry to South Alloa, on the opposite shore, in Stirling- 
shire. Between Alloa and Stirling the stream forms the famous 
" links," the course being so sinuous that whereas by road the 
two towns are but 65 m. apart, the distance between them by 
river is nearly 12 m. 

For its size and population the town enjoys unusual prosperity, 
in consequence of its several flourishing industries. Its manu- 
factures of yarn are on the largest scale, the spinning mills often 
working night and day for many months together. There are 
also numerous breweries, and Alloa ale has always been famous. 
The great distillery at Carsebridge yields an immense supply of 
yeast as well as whisky. Other thriving trades include the 
glass-works on the shore, pottery-works in the " auld toon," 
dye-works and a factory for the making of electrical appliances. 
There is a good deal of shipbuilding, some ironfounding and a 
brass foundry. The chief article of export is coal from the 
neighbouring collieries, the other leading exports being ale, 
whisky, glass and manufactured goods. The imports comprise 
timber, grain, iron, linseed and flax. The docks, accessible only 
at high water, include a wet basin and a dry dock. Amongst the 
principal buildings are the fine Gothic parish church, with a 
spire 200 ft. high; the town hall, including the free public library, 
from designs by Alfred Waterhouse, R.A., the gift of Mr J. 
Thomson Paton; the county and municipal buildings; hand- 
some public baths and gymnasium, presented to the town by 
Mr David Thomson; the accident hospital; the fever hospital; 
the museum of the Natural Science and Archaeological Society; 



the academy, the burgh school and a secondary school with the 
finest technical equipment in Scotland, given by Mr A. Forrester 
Paton. There is a public park, besides bowling-greens and 
cricket and football fields. The old burying-ground was the 
kirkyard of the former parish church, the tower of which still 
exists, but a modern cemetery has been formed in Sunnyside. 
The town owns the water-supply, gas-works and electric-lighting. 

Alloa Park, the seat of the earl of Mar and Kellie, is in the 
immediate vicinity, and in its grounds stand the ruins of Alloa 
Tower, an ancient structure 89 ft. high, with walls n ft. thick, 
which was built about 1315, and was once the residence of the 
powerful family of Erskine, descendants of the earl of Mar. The 
earl who promoted the Jacobite rising in 1715 was born here. 
Many of the Scots princes received their education as wards of 
the Lords Erskine and the earls of Mar, the last to be thus 
educated being Henry, the eldest son of James VI. 

ALLOBROGES (in Gr. usually 'AXX6|3pt7es), a Celtic tribe 
in the north of Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting the low ground 
called the "island" between the Rhodanus, the Isara and the 
Graian Alps, corresponding to the modern Dauphine and Savoy. 
If the name is rightly interpreted as meaning " aliens," they 
would seem to have driven out the original inhabitants. Their 
chief towns were Vienna (Vienne), Genava (Geneva) and Cularo 
(afterwards Gratianopolis, whence Grenoble). The Allobroges 
first occur in history as taking part with Hannibal in the invasion 
of Italy. After the subjugation of the Salluvii (Salyes) by the 
Romans in 123 B.C., having given shelter to their king Tuto- 
motulus and refused to surrender him, the Allobroges were 
attacked and finally defeated (August 8, 121) at the junction 
of the Rhodanus and Isara by Q. Fabius Maximus (afterwards 
Allobrogicus). But they still remained hostile to Rome, as is 
shown by the conduct of their ambassadors in the Catilinarian 
conspiracy (63; see CATILINE); two years later a revolt under 
Catugnatus was put down by Gaius Pomptinus at Solonium. 
Under Augustus they were included in Gallia Narbonensis; later, 
in the Viennensis. 

See A. Desjardins, Geographic historique de la Gaule romaine, ii. 
(1876-1893); E. Herzog, Galliae Narbonensis Historia (Leipzig, 
1864); Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. iii. ch. 4, iv. 
ch. 5; T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899); G. Long 
in Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Geography; M. Ihm in Pauly- 
Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, i. 2 (1894); A. Holder, Alt-celtischer 
Sprachschatz; and bibliography in La grande encyclopedic (s.v.). 

ALLOCATUR (from med. Lat. allocatur, it is allowed), in 
law, a certificate given by a taxing master, at the termination 
of an action, for the allowance of costs. 

ALLOCUTION (Lat. allocutio, an address), a name given to 
the formal addresses made by the pope to the College of 
Cardinals and through them to the church generally. They are 
usually called forth by ecclesiastical or political circumstances, 
and aim at safeguarding papal principles and claims. They are 
published by being affixed to the door of St Peter's Church. 

ALLODIUM, or ALODIUM, a legal term for lands which are the 
absolute property of their owner, and not subject to any service 
or acknowledgment to a superior. It is thus the opposite of 
fe-odum or fief. The proper derivation of the word has been 
much discussed and is still doubtful, though it is probably 
compounded of all, whole or entire, and odh, property. Allodial 
tenure seems to have been common throughout northern Europe. 
It exists in Orkney and Shetland, but is unknown in England, 
the feudal system having been made universal by William the 
Conqueror. 

ALLOMEROUS (Gr. aXXos, other n^pos, part), the quality 
of bodies (e.g. mineral) by virtue of which they can change their 
elements and proportions while preserving their form. 

ALLON, HENRY (1818-1892), English Nonconformist divine, 
was born on the I3th of October 1818 at Welton near Hull in 
Yorkshire. Under Methodist influence he decided to enter the 
ministry, but, developing Congregational ideas, was trained at 
Cheshunt College. In 1844 he became co-pastor with the Rev. 
Thomas Lewis of Union Chapel, Islington. In 1852, on the death 
of Lewis, Allon became sole pastor, and this position he held 
with increasing influence till his death in 1892. Union Chapel, 



ALLONGE ALLOTMENTS 



699 



originally founded by evangelical members of the Church of 
England and Nonconformists acting in harmony, became during 
Allon's co-pastorate definitely Congregational in principle and 
fellowship, and exercised an ever-expanding influence. His chief 
service to Nonconformity was in connexion with the improve- 
ment of congregational worship, and especially the service of 
praise. In 1852 Dr. H. J. Gauntlett became organist at Union 
Chapel and conductor of a psalmody class. To mteet the wants 
of this class, Allon published the original edition of his well- 
known Congregational Psalmist. For many years his collection 
of hymns, chants and anthems was used in hundreds of churches 
throughout England. In 1860 Allon began to write, at first 
chiefly for the Patriot, then under the editorship of T. C. 
Turbeville. In 1864, at the age of forty-five, he was elected 
chairman of the Congregational Union, and in 1866 he under- 
took the editorship of the British Quarterly Review with H. R. 
Reynolds, the principal of Cheshunt. In 1877 he became sole 
editor, and in that capacity came into touch with such men as 
W. E. Gladstone, Matthew Arnold, F. D. Maurice and Dean 
Stanley. The magazine was discontinued in 1886. In 1871 he 
received the degree of D.D. from the university of Yale, U.S.A. 
In 1874 the congregation at Islington decided to erect new 
buildings. The church, which was built at a cost of 50,000, 
was specially adapted for congregational worship and was 
mentioned by an architectural journal as one of the hundred 
remarkable buildings of the century. The church had in its 
various departments about 300 teachers in charge of more than 
3000 children, and was in its organization one of the earliest 
instances of the type known as the institutional church. In 
1881, on the occasion of the jubilee of the Congregational Union 
of England and Wales, Allon was again elected chairman. In 
March 1892 he died suddenly from heart failure. His books 
were A Memoir of James Sherman (1863); the Sermons of 
Thomas Binney, with a biographical and critical sketch (1869); 
The Vision of God and other sermons (1876); The Indwelling 
Christ (1892). Allon was a man of sound judgment, strong will, 
great moral courage and personal kindness. His acquaintance 
with literature was wide, his own style lucid and decisive. In 
social and political affairs he was a convinced individualist. 
Both as leader of Union Chapel and in denominational affairs his 
courage and discretion, his simple faith, combined with a broad- 
minded sympathy with the intellectual movements of the time, 
made his ministry a widespread influence for good. (D. MN.) 

ALLONGE (from Fr. allonger, to draw out), a slip of paper 
affixed to a negotiable instrument, as a bill of exchange, for the 
purpose of receiving additional indorsements for which there 
may not be sufficient space on the bill itself. An indorsement 
written on the allonge is deemed to be written on the bill itself. 
An allonge is more usually met with in those countries where 
the Code Napoleon is in force, as the code requires every indorse- 
ment to express the consideration. Under English law, as the 
simple signature of the indorser on the bill, without additional 
words, is sufficient to operate as a negotiation, an allonge is 
seldom necessary. 

ALLOPHANE, one of the few minerals known only in the 
amorphous state. It is a glassy substance, usually occurring 
as thin encrustations with a mammillary surface; occasionally, 
however, it is earthy and pulverulent. The colour varies con- 
siderably, from colourless to yellow, brown, blue or green. 
Specimens of a brilliant sky-blue colour, such as those found 
formerly in Wheal Hamblyn, near Bridestowe in Devonshire, and 
in Sardinia, are specially attractive in appearance; the colour 
is here due to the presence of the copper mineral chrysocolla. 
The hardness is 3, and the specific gravity 1-9. Chemically, it 
is a hydrous aluminium silicate, Al 2 SiO 5 . 5H 2 O. Allophane is 
always of secondary origin, resulting from the decomposition of 
various aluminous silicates, such as felspar. It is often found 
encrusting fissures and cavities in mines, especially those of 
copper and iron. It was first observed in 1809 in marl at 
Grafenthal, near Saalfield in Thuringia; and has been found in 
some quantity in the chalk pits at Charlton in Kent, where it 
lines fissures and funnel-shaped cavities. The name allophane 



was given by F. Stromeyer in 1816, from the Gr. 
another, .and <j>alvu, to appear, in allusion to the fact 
that the mineral crumbles and changes in appearance when 
heated before the blowpipe. Other names for the species are 
riemannite and elhuyarite, whilst closely allied minerals are 
carolathine, samoite and schrotterite (opal-allophane). 

ALLORI, ALESSANDRO (1535-1607), Italian painter of the 
Florentine school, was brought up and trained in art by his uncle, 
Angelo Bronzino (q.v.) whose name he sometimes assumed in 
his pictures. Visiting Rome in his nineteenth year, he carefully 
studied the works of Michelangelo; but the influence of that 
great master can only be traced in the anatomical correctness 
of his drawing of nude figures. He was successful as a portrait 
painter. His son CRISTOFANO ALLORI (1577-1621), born at 
Florence, received his first lessons in painting from his father, 
but becoming dissatisfied with the hard anatomical drawing and 
cold colouring of the latter, he entered the studio of Gregorio 
Pagani (1558-1605) who was one of the leaders of that later 
Florentine school which endeavoured to unite the rich colouring 
of the Venetians with the correct drawing of Michelangelo's 
disciples. Allori became one of the foremost of this school. 
His pictures are distinguished by their close adherence to nature 
and the delicacy and technical perfection of their execution. 
His technical skill is proved by the fact that several copies he 
made after Correggio have been taken to be duplicates by 
Correggio himself. His extreme fastidiousness limited his power 
of production, though the number of his works is not so small 
as is sometimes asserted. Several specimens are to be seen at 
Florence and elsewhere. The finest of all his works is his " Judith 
and Holofernes," in the Pitti Palace. The model for the Judith 
was his mistress, the beautiful Mazzafirra, who is also represented 
in his Magdalene; and the head of Holofernes is generally 
supposed to represent himself. 

ALLOTMENT (from O. Fr. a and later, to divide by lot), the 
act of allotting; a share or portion assigned. In England, the 
term denotes a portion of land assigned on partition or under an 
inclosure award (see COMMONS); also a division of land into 
small portions for cultivation by a labourer or artisan at a small 
rent (see ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS). In company 
law, " allotment " is the appropriation to an applicant by a reso- 
lution of the directors of a certain number of shares in response 
to an application. The document sent to such an applicant, 
which announces the number of shares assigned and concludes 
the contract, is called a letter of allotment or allotment certificate. 
A letter of allotment in England requires a sixpenny stamp if 
the value of the shares amounts to 5 or over, and a penny 
stamp if less than 5. (See COMPANY.) 

Allotment note isa writingby aseaman authorizing his employers 
to make an allotment of part of his wages, while he is on a voyage, 
in favour either of a " near " relative (wife, father, mother, 
grandfather, grandmother, child, grandchild, brother or sister 
of the seaman), or of a savings bank. Every allotment note 
must be in a form sanctioned by the Board of Trade. 

ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS. As the meaning 
of these terms in agricultural tenure varies in different localities, 
it may be as well to say at once that for the present purpose they 
are definable as pieces of land detached from cottages, and hired 
or owned by labouring men to supplement their main income. 
We do not include any farm, however small, from which the 
occupier derives his entiresupport bydairying.market-gardening, 
or other form of la petite culture. So, also, no account is taken of 
the tiny garden plot, used for growing vegetables for the table 
and simple flowers, which is properly an appurtenance of the 
cottage. Clearing away what is extraneous, the essential point 
round which much controversy has raged is the labourer's share 
in the land. The claim advanced depends upon tradition. In 
agriculture, the oldest of all industries, a cash payment is not 
even now regarded as discharging the obligations between master 
and servant. Mr Wilson Fox, in reporting to the Board of Trade 
on the earnings of agricultural labourers in Great Britain, gives, 
as a typical survival of an old custom, the case of a shepherd 
whose total income was calculated at 60 a year, but who got 



yoo 



ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS 



only 16 in money, the rest being made up by rights of grazing 
live-stock, growing crops on his master's land, and kindred 
privileges. That is exactly in the spirit that used to pervade 
agriculture, and doubtless had its origin in the manorial system. 
If we turn back to the I3th century, from Walter of Henley's 
Husbandry it will be seen that practically there were only two 
classes engaged in agriculture, and corresponding with them 
were two kinds of land. There were, on the one hand, the 
employer, the lord, and his demesne land; on the other, the 
villeins and the land held in villenage. Putting aside for the 
moment any discussion of the exact degree of servitude, it will 
be seen that the essence of the bargain was that the villein should 
be permitted to cultivate a virgate of land for his own use in 
return for service rendered on the home farm. This is not altered 
by the fact that the conditions approached those of slavery, that 
the villeins were adscripti glebae, that in some cases their wives 
and sons were bequeathed by deed to the service of religious 
houses, and that in many other respects their freedom was 
limited. Out of this, in the course of centuries, was developed 
the system prevailing to-day. Lammas lands are indeed a sur- 
vival from it. There are in the valley of the Lea, and close to 
London, to take one example, lands allotted annually in little 
strips till the crops are carried, when, the day being fixed by 
a reeve, the land becomes a common pasture till the spring closing 
takes place once morie. Perhaps the feature of this old system 
that bears most directly on the question of allotments was the 
treatment of the waste of the manor. The lord, like his tenants, 
was limited by custom as regards the number of beasts he could 
graze on it. After the havoc of the Black Death in 1349, many 
changes were necessitated by the scarcity and dearness of labour. 
It became less unusual for land to be let and for money payment 
to be accepted instead of services. There was a great demand 
for wool, and to conduct sheep-farming on a large scale necessi- 
tated a re-arrangement of the manor and the enclosure of many 
common fields under the statute of Merton and the statute of 
Westminster the Second. Nevertheless, up to the i8th century, 
a vast proportion of agricultural land was technically waste, on 
which rights of common were exercised by yeomen, some of whom 
had acquired holdings by the ordinary methods of purchase or 
inheritance, while others had merely squatted and built a house 
on the waste. It is to this period that belongs a certain injustice 
to which the peasantry were subject. No reasonable doubt can 
be entertained of the necessity of enclosure. Husbandry, after 
long stagnation, was making great advance; and among others, 
Arthur Young raised his voice against the clumsy inconvenient 
common fields that were the first to be enclosed. Between 1709 
and 1797 no fewer than 3110 acts, affecting, as far as can be 
calculated, about 3,000,000 acres, were put into operation. 
They seem mostly to have been directed to the common fields. 
In the first half of the igth century the movement went on apace. 
In a single year, 1801, no fewer than 119 acts were passed; and 
between 1801 and 1842 close on 2000 acts were passed many of 
them expressly directed to the enclosure of wastes and commons. 
The same thing continued till 1869. It touched the peasant 
directly and indirectly. The enclosure of the common fields 
proved most hurtful to the small farmer; the enclosure of the 
waste injured the labourer by depriving him, without adequate 
compensation, of such useful privileges as the right to graze a 
cow, a pig, geese or other small animals. It also discouraged him 
by tending to the extinction of small tenancies and freeholds 
that were no longer workable at a profit when common rights 
ceased to go with them. The industrious labourer could pre- 
viously nourish a hope of bettering his condition by obtaining a 
small holding. Yet though the labourer suffered, impartial study 
does not show any intentional injustice. He held a very weak 
position when those interested in a common affixed to the church 
door a notice that they intended to petition. As Mr Cowper 
(afterwards Lord Mount Temple) said in the House of Commons 
on the i3th of March 1844, " the course adopted had been to 
compensate the owner of the cottage to whom the common right 
belonged, forgetting the claims of the occupier by whom they 
were enjoyed "; and in the same debate Sir Robert Peel pointed 



out that not only the rights of the tenant, but those of his 
successors ought to have been studied. The course adopted 
divorced the labourer from the soil. 

Parliament, as a matter of fact, had from a very early period 
recognized the wisdom of contenting the peasant. In the i4th 
century the labourer lived in rude abundance. Next century a 
rural exodus began, owing to the practice of enclosing the 
holdings and* turning them into sheep walks. In 1487 an act 
was passed enjoining landlords to " keep up houses of husbandry," 
and attach convenient land to them. Within the next hundred 
years a number of similar attempts were made to control what 
we may call the sheep fever of the time. Then we arrive at the 
reign of Elizabeth and the famous Small Holdings Act passed 
in 1597 an anticipation of the three-acres-and-a-cow policy 
advocated towards the end of the igth century. It required 
that no person shall " build, convert or ordain any cottage for 
habitation or dwelling for persons engaged in husbandry" 
unless the owner " do assign or lay to the same cottage or 
building four acres of ground at the least." It also provided 
against any " inmate or under-sitter " being admitted to what 
was sacred to one family. This measure was not conceived in 
the spirit of modern political economy, but it had the effect of 
staying the rural exodus. It was repealed in 1775 on the ground 
that it restricted the building of cottages. By that time the 
modern feeling in favour of allotments had begun to ripen, and it 
was contended that some compensation should be made to the 
labourers for depriving them of the advantages of the waste. 
Up to then the English labouring rustic had been very well off. 
Food was abundant and cheap, so were clothes and boots; he 
could graze his cow or pig on the common, and also obtain fuel 
from it. Now he fell on evil days. Prices rose, wages fell, 
privileges were lost, and in many cases he had to sell the patch of 
land whose possession made all the difference between hardship 
and comfort. All this was seen plainly enough both by statesmen 
and private philanthropists. One of the first experiments was 
described by Sir John Sinclair in a note to the report of a select 
committee of the House of Commons on waste lands in 1795. 
About 1772 the lord of the manor of some commonable lands 
near Tewkesbury had with great success set out 25 acres in 
allotments for the use of some of the poor. Sir John was very 
much struck with the result, and so heartily applauded the 
idea that the committee recommended that any general enclosure 
bill should have a clause in it providing for "the 'accommodation 
of land." Sir Thomas Bernard and W. Wilberforce took an 
active part in advocating the principle of allotments, on the 
ground, to summarize their argument in language employed later 
by a witness before the House of Commons, that " it keeps the 
cottagers buoyant and makes them industrious." In 1806, at 
the suggestion of the rector, a clause assigning an allotment of 
half an acre to every cottage was inserted in an enclosure bill 
then under consideration for the parish of Broad Somerford in 
Wiltshire. This was done, " and the example was followed by 
nearly every adjoining parish in that part of Wiltshire." Passing 
over several praiseworthy establishments of allotments by private 
persons, we come to 1819, when parliament passed an act akin in 
spirit to several that came into existence during the later portion 
of the Victorian era. It empowered the churchwardens and 
overseers of any parish, with the consent of the vestry, to pur- 
chase or hire land not exceeding 25 acres, and to let it in portions 
to " any poor and industrious inhabitant of the parish." This 
was amended in 1831 by an act extending the quantity of land 
to 50 acres, and also conveying an important new power to 
enable the same authorities to enclose from any waste or common, 
land not exceeding 50 acres to be devoted to the same purpose. 
This was followed next year by an act relating to fuel, and in 
1834 the Poor Law Commissioners reported favourably on the 
principle of granting allotments. In 1843 an important inquiry 
into the subject was made by a committee of the House of 
Commons, which produced a number of valuable suggestions. 
One consequence was the bill of 1845, brought into parliament 
by Mr Cowper. It passed the House of Commons; and there 
Mr Bright made a remark that probably summarized a general 



ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS 



701 



opinion, since it never came to a third reading in the House of 
Lords. He said that " the voluntary system of arrangement 
would do all the good that was expected to accrue from the 
allotment system." 

At this point in the history of the movement it may be as well 
to pause and ask what was the net result of so much legislation 
and benevolent action. Messrs Tremenheere and Tufnall, who 
prefixed an admirable epitome of what had been done to the 
report of the commission " appointed to inquire into the employ- 
ment of women, young persons and children in agriculture " 
(1867), expressed considerable disappointment. Between 1710 
and 1867, 7,660,413 statute acres were added to the cultivated 
area of England and Wales, or about one-third of the area in 
cultivation at the latter date; and of this total, 484,893 acres 
were enclosed between 1845 an d 1867. Of the latter, only 2119 
acres were assigned as public allotments for gardens to the 
labouring poor. It was found to be the case, as it is now, that 
land was taken up more readily when offered privately and 
voluntarily than when it came through official sources. Mean- 
while competent and thoughtful men saw well that the sullen 
discontent of the peasantry continued, in Lord Bacon's phrase, 
to threaten " the might and manhood of the kingdom." It had 
existed since the beginning of the Napoleonic wars, and had 
become more articulate with the spread of education. We shall 
see a consciousness of its presence reflected in the minds of 
statesmen and politicians as we briefly examine the later phase 
of the movement. This found expression in the clauses against 
enclosure introduced by Lord Beaconsfield in 1876, and gave 
force to the three-acres-and-a-cow agitation, of which the more 
prominent leaders were Joseph Arch and Jesse Ceilings. In 
1882 the Allotments Extension Act was passed, the object of 
which was to let the parishioners have charity land in allotments, 
provided it or the revenue from it was not used for apprentice- 
ship, ecclesiastical or educational purposes. A committee of the 
House of Commons, appointed in 1885 to inquire into the housing 
of the working classes, reported strongly in favour of allotments, 
and this was followed in 1887 by the Allotments Act the first 
measure in which the principle of compulsory acquisition was 
admitted in regard to other than charity lands. Its administra- 
tion was first given to the sanitary authority, but passed to the 
district councils when these bodies were established in 1894. 
The local body is empowered to hire or purchase suitable land, 
and if they do not find any in the market they are to petition 
the county council, which after due inquiry may issue a pro- 
visional order compelling owners to sell land, and the Local 
Government Board may introduce a bill into parliament to 
confirm the order. It was found that the sanitary authority 
did not carry out the scheme, and in 1890 another act was passed 
for the purpose of allowing applicants for allotments, when the 
sanitary authority failed to provide land, to appeal to the county 
council. Judging from the evidence laid before the commission 
on agricultural depression (1894), the act of 1887 was not a 
conspicuous success. Most of the witnesses reported in such 
terms as these " the Allotments Act has been quite inoperative 
in Cornwall " ; " the act has been a dead letter in the district 
(Wigtownshire) " ; " the Allotments Act has not been in opera- 
tion in Flintshire " ; " nothing has been done in the district of 
Pembrokeshire under the act." No evidence whatever was 
adduced to show that in a single district a different state of 
things had to be recorded. From a return presented by the 
Local Government Board to parliament in 1896 we learn that 
eighty-three rural sanitary authorities had acquired 
land for allotment prior to the 28th of December 1894, 
the date at which these authorities ceased to exist 
under the provisions of the Local Government Act 
1894. Land was acquired by compulsory purchase 
in only one parish; by purchase or agreement in 
eighteen parishes; by hire by agreement in 132 
parishes. The total acreage dealt with was 1836 
acres i rood 34 poles, and the total number of 
tenants 4711. The number of county councils that 
up to the same date had acquired land was twelve, 



and they had done so by compulsory purchase in one parish, by 
purchase or agreement in five parishes, by hire by agreement 
in twenty-four parishes. The total area dealt with was only 
413 acres i rood 5 poles, and the total number of tenants 
825. The complete totals affected at the date of the return 
(August 21, 1895) by the acts, therefore, were 2249 acres 
2 roods 29 poles, and 5536 tenants. A considerable extension 
has taken place since. 

The Small Holdings Act introduced by Mr Henry Chaplin, 
and passed by parliament in 1892 was an attempt to appease 
the rural discontent that had been seething for some time past 
and was silently but most eloquently expressed in a steady 
migration from the villages. The object of this measure was to 
help the deserving labouring man to acquire a small holding, 
that is to say, a portion of land not less than one acre or more 
than fifty acres in extent and of an annual value not exceeding 
50. It is not necessary here to describe the legal steps by 
which this was to be accomplished. The essence of the bargain 
was that a fifth of the purchase money should be paid down, 
and the remainder in half-yearly instalments spread over a 
period not exceeding fifty years. But if the local authority 
thought fit a portion of the purchase money, not exceeding one- 
fourth, might remain unpaid, and be secured by a perpetual rent 
charge upon the holding. It cannot be said that this act has 
attained the object for which it was drawn up. From a return 
made to the House of Commons in 1895 it was shown that eight 
county councils had acquired land under the Small Holdings 
Act, which amounted in the aggregate to 483 acres. A further 
return was made in 1903, which showed that the total quantity 
of land acquired from the commencement of the act up to the 
end of 1902 was only 652 acres. 

It is, however, an English characteristic to prefer private to 
public arrangements, and probably a very great majority of the 
allotments and small holdings cultivated in 1907 were due to 
individual initiative. There are no means of arriving at the 
exact figures, but data exist whereby it is at least possible to 
form some rough idea of them. It is not the custom to give in 
the annual agricultural returns any statement of the manner 
in which land is held, and the information is to be found in the 
returns presented to parliament from time to time. From the 
following table, which includes both the holdings owned and 
tenanted, it will be seen that between 1895 and 1904 the tendency 
was for the holdings to decrease in number; while the holdings 
of from 50 to 300 acres slightly increased, those from 5 to 50 acres 
were almost stationary, and there was a decrease in those between 
i and 5 acres. 





1895. 


1904. 


i to 5 acres 
5 to 50 
50 to 300 
Above 300 


Number. 
117,968 
235.481 
147,870 
18,787 


Per cent. 

22-68 

45-28 
28-43 
3-6i 


Number. 
110,974 
232-476 
150,050 
18,084 


Per cent. 
21-69 
45-44 
29-33 

3-54 


Total . 


520,106 


100 


5".S84 


IOO 



These figures become doubly instructive when considered in 
connexion with the decline of the strictly rural population. 
It will, therefore, be useful to place beside them a summary 
published in a report on the decline of rural population in 
Great Britain issued by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries 
in 1906. 











Increase (+) or 


Class. 


1881. 


1891. 


1901. 


Decrease ( ). 










1881-1891. 


1891-1901. 




No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


Farmers and 












Graziers 


279,126 


277,943 


277,694 


-1,183 


-249 


Farm Bailiffs 












and Foremen 


22,895 


21,453 


27.317 


-1,442 


+5,86 4 


Shepherds 
Agricultural La- 


33,125 


31,686 


35,022 


-1,439 


+3.336 


bourers 


983,919 


866,543 


689,292 


-"7,376 


-177,251 



702 



ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS 



These figures must of course be approximate. The effect of 
recent development in methods of travelling and the growing 
custom for townsmen either to live wholly in the country or to 
take week-end cottages, has made it impossible to draw a strict 
line of demarcation between rural and urban populations. Still 
they are near enough for practical purposes, and they amply 
justify the efforts of those who are trying to stay the rural exodus. 

While legislation had not, up to 1908, achieved any noteworthy 
result in the creation of small holdings, and still left doubts as 
to the practicability of re-creating the English yeoman by act 
of parliament, many successful efforts have been made by 
individuals. One of the most interesting is that of the earl of 
Carrington at Sleaford in Lincolnshire. In this case the most 
noteworthy feature is that between the landlord and the tenants 
there is a body called the South Lincolnshire Small Holdings 
Association, which took 650 acres from Lord Carrington on a 
twenty years' lease. These acres used to be let to four or five 
tenants. They were in 1905 divided among one hundred and 
seventy tenants. The Small Holders' Association guaranteed the 
rent, which works out at about 335. per acre, to Lord Carring- 
ton. They let the men on yearly tenancy have it at about 
405. an acre, the difference being used to meet the expenses of 
dividing the lands into small holdings, maintaining drains, fences 
and roads connected with them, and other unavoidable outlays. 
In this way the landlord is assured of his rent, and the association 
has lost nothing, as the men were very punctual in their payments. 
But very great care was bestowed in choosing the men for the 
holdings. They were in a sense picked men, but men must be 
picked to work the business satisfactorily. Lincolnshire is pre- 
eminently a county of small holdings, and the labouring residents 
in it have been accustomed to the management of them from 
their infancy onwards. Here as elsewhere the provision of suit- 
able houses formed a difficulty, some of the tenants having to 
walk several miles to their holdings. Lord Carrington availed 
himself as much as possible of "the buildings that existed, dividing 
the old farm houses so as to make them suitable for the small 
tenants. At Cowbit farm, many of the ordinary labourers' 
cottages, which were put up at a cost of about 300 a pair, have 
by the addition of little dairies and other alterations been made 
suitable for the tenants. From facts collected on the spot we 
have come to the conclusion that on the small holdings a good 
tenant makes an average profit of about 4 an acre, but on an 
allotment cultivated by means of the spade it would probably 
be at the rate of over 6 an acre. Lord Carrington was also 
successful in establishing small holdings on the Humberston 
estate in North Lincolnshire and on his Buckinghamshire estate, 
near Aylesbury. At Newport Pagnell the attempt failed because 
the demand was artificial, the ground arable, and the men not 
capable of dealing with it. 

Other examples of the establishment of small holdings can only 
receive brief reference. The Norfolk Small Holdings Association 
acquired three farms at Whissonsett, Watton and Swaffham, 
which are broken up into small lots and let mostly to the village 
tradespeople. Sir Pearce Edgecumbe established small holdings 
at Rew, some of which have been purchased by the occupiers, and 
Mr A. B. Markham created similar ownerships at Twyford 
(Leicestershire) . At Cud worth in Surrey a group was formed, but 
the owners were actuated more by the desire to lead a simple 
life than to prove the remunerative value of small holdings. 
Mr W. J. Harris created small holdings in Devon, each of which 
is let on a life tenancy. There the rural exodus has been more 
than arrested. Mr James Tomkinson established in Cheshire a 
number of graduated holdings, so contrived as to offer the suc- 
cessful holders a chance of stepping upwards. 

The earl of Harrowby made an interesting experiment on his 
Sandon estate in Staffordshire in the midst of a pretty, broken 
and undulating country. The estate consists of about 6000 acres, 
one-third of which is laid out in small holdings. These fall 
naturally into three divisions. First, there are those which belong 
to men who have regular employment, and would therefore find 
it impossible to cultivate any great quantity of land. Many of 
that class are anxious to have a holding of some sort, as it lends 



a certain elasticity to their incomes and provides them with a 
never-failing interest. One who may be taken as typical hired 
six acres with a good cottage and a large garden, paying a rent of 
20 a year. When this holding was created it had already a 
suitable cottage, but 100 was needed to provide outbuildings, 
and Lord Harrowby's custom is to charge 5 % on outlay of this 
kind. This 5, however, is included in the total rent of 20 paid 
for cottage, land and garden. The man was not only content, 
but wished to get some more land. The next class consists of 
those who have not enough land to live on but eke out their 
livelihood by casual labour. Usually a man of this sort requires 
from 35 to 50 acres of land mostly pasture. He can attend to it 
and yet give a certain number of days to estate work. The third 
class is that of the small farmer who gains his entire livelihood 
from the land. The obstacle to breaking up large farms into 
small lies of course in the expense of providing the necessary 
equipment. It has been found here that a cottage suitable for 
a small farmer costs about 400 to build in a substantial manner, 
and the outbuildings about 200. This makes an addition 
therefore of about 30 to the rent of the land. The ardour with 
which these tenancies were sought when vacant formed the best 
testimony to the soundness of the principle applied by Lord 
Harrowby. 

A nest of small holdings was created at Winterslow, near 
Salisbury, by Major R. M. Poore. The holders completed the 
purchase by 1906, and the work may be pronounced a complete 
success. Major Poore originally conceived the idea when land 
was cheap in 1892, owing to the depression in agriculture. He 
purchased an estate that came into the market at the time. The 
price came to an average of 10 an acre, and the men themselves 
made the average for selling it out again 15 on a principle of 
instalments. His object was not to make any profit from the 
transaction, and he formed what is termed a Landholders' Court, 
formed of the men themselves, every ten choosing one to represent 
them. This court was found to act well. It collected the instal- 
ments, which are paid in advance; and of course the members 
of it, down to the minutest detail, knew not only the circumstances 
but the character of every applicant for land. The result speaks 
for itself. The owners are, in the true sense of the word, peasants. 
They do not depend on the land for a living, but work in various 
callings many being woodmen for wages that average about 
1 53. a week. The holdings vary in size from less than an acre to 
ten acres, and are technically_held on a lease of 1999 years, 
practically freehold, though by the adoption of a leasehold form 
a saving was effected in the cost of transfer. On the holdings 
most of the men have erected houses, using for the purpose chalk 
dug up from their gardens, it lying only a few inches below the 
surface. It is not rock, but soft chalk, so that they are practically 
mud walls; but being as a rule at least 18 inches thick, the 
houses are very cool in summer and warm in winter. Major 
Poore calculated that in seven years these poor people there are 
not thirty of them altogether managed to produce for their 
houses and land a gross sum of not less than 5000. This he 
attributed to the loyal manner in which even distant members of 
the family have helped. 

The class of holding which owes its existence to the act of 1892 
may be illustrated by the history of the Worcestershire small 
holdings. The inception of the scheme was due to the decline 
of the nail-making business, which caused a number of the 
inhabitants to be without occupation. Two candidates for 
election to the county council looking out for a popular cry found 
it in the demand for land. They promised to do their best in this 
direction, and thanks to the energetic action of Mr Willis Bund, 
the chairman, the act was put in force. Woodrow Farm, 
adjoining the village of Catshill in the neighbourhood of 
Birmingham, was purchased on terms that enabled the land 
to be sold to the peasant cultivator at 40 an acre. They were 
paying this back at the rate of 4 % on the purchase money, a rate 
that included both interest and sinking fund, so that at the 
end of forty years they would own the small estates free from 
encumbrance. The huge population of Birmingham is close 
to the properties. The men turned their attention mostly to 



ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS 



703 



strawberries, to which many acres were devoted. Costermongers 
would come out from Birmingham and buy the fruit on the spot, 
selling part of it to the villas on the way back, and part in the 
Birmingham market. The experience gained in working the act 
enabled the committee on small holdings to make a number of 
practical suggestions for future legislation. 

It remains to note the passing in 1907 of a new English Small 
Holdings and Allotments Act, experience of which is too recent 
for its provisions to be more than indicated here. The act 
transferred to the Board of Agriculture the duties generally of 
the Local Government Board, and transferred to parish councils 
or parish meetings the powers and duties of rural district councils ; 
it required county councils to ascertain the demand for land 
without previous representation to them, and gave power for 
its compulsory acquisition; and the maximum holding of an 
allotment was raised from one acre to five. Both compulsory 
purchase and compulsory hiring (for not less than 14 nor more 
th#n 35 years) were authorized, value and compensation being 
decided by a single arbitrator. A coercive authority was applied 
to the county councils in the form .of commissioners appointed 
by the Board of Agriculture, who were to hold inquiries inde- 
pendently and to take action themselves in case of a defaulting 
county council. They were to ascertain the local demand for 
small holdings, and to report to the Board, who might then 
require a county council to prepare a scheme, which, when 
approved, it was to carry out, the commissioners being em- 
powered to do so in the alternative. 

Foreign Countries. It remains to give a brief outline of what 
small holdings are like outside Great Britain. From the results 
of the Belgian Agricultural Inquiry of 1895 the following table 
has been compiled, assuming that one hectare = 2^ acres: 



Size of Holding. 


Occupied by 
Owner. 


Occupied by 
Tenant. 


Total. 


Whole. 


More 
than 
half. 


More 
than 
half. 


Whole. 


i J acres and under 
1 1 acres and under 
5 acres 
5 acres and under 
10 acres . 
10 acres and under 
50 acres . 
50 or loo acres 
Over loo 


No. 
109,169 

27-395 
12,089 

16,690 
2,021 
93 


No. 
8,759 

19,544 
13,873 

18,909 
1,497 
470 


No. 
34,779 

58,829 
30,340 

33,443 
3,315 
I.4I7 


No. 
305,413 

70,465 
25,006 

28,387 
4,517 
2,395 


No. 
458,120 

176,233 
81,308 

97,429 
11,350 
5,185 


Total 


168,267 


63,052 


162,123 


436,183 


829,625 



It will be seen from this table that Belgium is pre-eminently a 
country of small holdings, more than half of the total number 
being under 50 acres in extent. Of course it is largely a country 
of market gardens; but as the holdings are most numerous 
in Brabant, East and West Flanders and Hainault, the pro- 
vinces showing the largest number of milch cows, it would 
seem that dairying and la petite culture go together. 

There is a slight tendency for the holdings to 
decrease in number. In Germany the number 
of small holdings is proportionately much larger 
than in Great Britain. The returns collected in 
1895 showed that there were 3,235,169, or 
58-22 % of the total number of holdings under 
5 acres in area; and of these no fewer than 
ii % are held by servants as part of their 
wages. The table below compiled for the Journal 
of the Board of Agriculture enables us to compare 
the other holdings with those of Great Britain. 
Great Britain, it will be seen, has over 40 % of 
large farms of between 50 and 500 acres as 
compared with Germany's 12-6, while the latter has 86-8 of 
small holdings, compared with England's 58-6. 

France also has a far larger proportion of small holdings than 
Great Britain; its cultivated area of 85,759,000 acres being 



divided into 5,618,000 separate holdings, of which the size 
averages a little over 15 acres as against 63 in Great Britain. 
Of the whole number, 4,190,795 are farmed by the owners, 
934,338 are in m6tayage, and 1,078,184 by tenants. The leading 
feature is the peasant proprietary. Half of the arable, more than 
half of the pasture, six-sevenths of the vineyards and two-thirds 
of the garden lands are farmed by their owners. Comparison 
with Great Britain is difficult; but it would appear that, whereas 
only ii % of British 520,000 agricultural holdings are farmed by 
the owners, the proportion in France is 75%. A further point 
to be noted is that the average agricultural tenancy in France 
is just one-fourth of what it is in Great Britain, and the average 
owner-farmed estate only one-sixth. 



Size of Holdings. 


Germany. 


Great Britain. 


Number. 


Per cent. 


Number. 


Per cent. 


5 to 50 acres 
50 to 500 
Over 500 


2,014,940 
292,982 
13,809 


86-8 

12-6 

0-6 


235,481 
161,438 
5,219 


58-6 
40-1 
i-3 


Total 


2,321,731 


100 


402,138 


IOO 



In France the tendency is for the very small holdings to 
increase in number owing to subdivision, with a consequent 
decrease of the size of the average holding. Between the years 
1882 and 1892 there was a decrease of 138,237 in the total 
number of proprietors, the larger properties moving towards 
consolidation and those of the peasant proprietors towards 
subdivision. 

Those interested in the formation of small holdings in Great 
Britain will find much to interest them in the history of Danish 
legislation. British policy for many generations was to preserve 
demesne land, and there are many devices for insuring that a 
spendthrift life-owner shall not be able to scatter the family 
inheritance; but as long ago as 1769 the Danish legislators set 
an exactly opposite example. They enacted that peasant land 
should not be incorporated or worked with estate land; it must 
always remain in the ownership and occupation of peasants. 
In this spirit all subsequent legislation was conceived, and the 
allotment law that came into force in October 1899 bears some 
resemblance to the English Small Holdings Act of 1892. It 
provides that labourers able to satisfy certain conditions as to 
character may obtain from the state a loan equal to nine-tenths 
of the purchase money of the land they wish to acquire. This 
land should be from 5 to 7 acres in extent and of medium quality, 
but the limits are from i\ to lof acres in the case of better or 
poorer land. The total value should not exceed 4000 kr. (222). 
The interest payable on the loan received from the state is 3 %. 
The loan itself is repayable after the first five years by annual 
instalments of 4 % until half is paid off; the remainder by 
instalments of 3^ %, including interest. Provision is, however, 
made for cases where the borrower desired to pay off the loan in 
larger sums. Regulations are laid down regarding the transfer 
of such properties and also their testamentary disposition. The 
Treasury was empowered to devote a sum of 2,000,000 kr. 

Number and Size of Holdings in Denmark in 1901. 



Groups. 


Number. 


Percentage 
of 
Number. 


Acreage. 


Percentage 
of 
Area. 


Average 
size in 
Acres. 


Tondeland. 


Acres. 


Under I 
1-3 
3-27 
27-108 
108216 
Over 216 


Under 1-36 
1-36-4 
4-36-7 
36-7-I47 
147-294 
Over 294 


68,380 

18,777 
93,060 
60,872 
6,502 
2,392 


27-3 
7-5 
37-2 
24-4 

2-6 
I-O 


23.455 
58,553 
1,408,549 

4.459,077 
1,272,398 
1,674,730 


3 

15-8 
50-1 
H-3 
18-8 


34 
3-12 

I5-H 
73-25 
195.69 
700-14 




Total. 


249,983 


IOO-O 


8,896,762 


100-0 


35-59 



(111,000) to this purpose for five years; after that the land is 
subject to revision. 

Even before this law was passed Denmark was a country of 
small holdings, the peasant farms amounting to 66 % of the 



74 



ALLOTROPY ALLOYS 



whole, and the number is bound to increase, since the incorporation 
of farms is illegal, while there is no obstacle to their division. 
Between 1835 and 1885, the number of small holdings of less than 
one tondekarthorn increased from 24,800 to 92,856. What gives 
point to these remarks is, that Denmark seems in the way to 
arrest its rural exodus, and was one of the first countries to escape 
from the agricultural depression due to the extraordinary fall 
in grain prices. The distribution of land in Denmark may be 
gathered from a glance at the preceding table for the compilation 
of which we are indebted to Major Craigie. 

AUTHORITIES. Walter of Henley's Husbandry; The English 
Village Community, by Frederic Seebohm; Annals of Agriculture, 
by Arthur Young; The Agricultural Labourer, by T. E. Kebbel; 
Report on the Employment of Women and Children in Agriculture, 
1867 (historical sketch by Messrs Tremenheere and Tufnall) ; A 
Study of Small Holdings, by W. E. Bear; The Law and the Labourer, 
by C. W. Stubbs; " Agricultural Holdings in England and Abroad," 
by Major Craigie (Statistical Society's Journal, vol. i.) ; The Return 
to the Land,. by Senator Jules Meline; Land Reform, by the Right 
Hon. Jesse Collings, M.P. ; Report on the Decline in the Agricultural 
Population of Great Britain, issued by the Board of Agriculture 
and Fisheries; Report of the Departmental Committee appointed by 
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to enquire into and report upon 
the subject of Small Holdings in Great Britain. (P. A. G.) 

ALLOTROPY (Gr. oXXos, other, and rp6wos, manner), a name 
applied by J. J. Berzelius to the property possessed by certain 
substances of existing in different modifications. Custom has 
to some extent restricted its use to inorganic chemistry; the 
corresponding property of organic compounds being generally 
termed isomerism (q.v.). Conspicuous examples are afforded by 
oxygen, carbon, boron, silicon, phosphorus, mercuric oxide and 
iodide. 

ALLOWANCE (from "allow," derived through O. Fr. 
alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and 
allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined 
the general idea of "assigning with approval"), the action of 
allowing, or the thing allowed; particularly, a certain limited 
apportionment of money or food and diet (see DIETARY). 

In commercial usage "allowance" signifies the deduction 
made from the gross weight o,f goods to make up for the weight 
of the box or package, waste, breakages, &c. Allowance, which 
is customary in most industries, varies according to the trade, 
district or country; e.g. in the coal trade it is customary for the 
merchant to receive from the pit 21 cwts. of coal for every ton 
purchased by him, the difference of i cwt. being the allowance 
for the purpose of making good the waste caused through tran- 
shipment, screening and cartage (see TARE AND TRET.) 

ALLOXAN, or MESOXALYL UREA, C 4 H 2 N 2 04 or 
CO/ijTj ^;T>CO. an oxidation product of uric acid, being 

obtained from it by the action of cold nitric acid, 
CsH.N.Oa + H 2 O + = C 4 H 2 N 2 O 4 + CO(NH 2 ) 2 . It crystallizes 
from water in colourless- rhombic prisms, containing four 
molecules of water of crystallization, and possesses a very acid 
reaction. It serves as the starting-point for the preparation of 
many related substances. Zinc and hydrochloric acid in 
the cold convert it into alloxantin (q.v.), hydroxylamine gives 
nitroso-barbituric acid, C 4 H 2 N 2 O 3 : NOH, baryta water gives 
alloxanic acid, C 4 H 4 N 2 O5, hot dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to 
parabanic acid (q.v.), hot potassium hydroxide solution hydrolyses 
it to urea and mesoxalic acid (q.v.) and zinc and hot hydrochloric 
acid convert it into dialuric acid, C 4 H 4 N 2 O 4 . M. Nencki has 
shown that alloxan combines with thiourea in alcoholic solu- 
tion, in the presence of sulphur dioxide to form pseudothiouric 
acid, C 6 HeN 4 SO3. Methyl and dimethylalloxans are also known, 
the former being obtained on oxidation of methyl uric acid, and 
the latter on oxidation of caffeine (q.v.). 

ALLOXANTIN, C 8 H 4 N 4 O 7 -3H 2 O, a product obtained by the 
combination of alloxan and dialuric acid, probably possessing 
the constitution 

NH CO CO NH 

CO C(OH) O CH CO 



NH 



A,-: 



NH 



one of the three molecules of water being possibly constitutional. 
It forms small hard prisms which become red on exposure to 
air containing ammonia, owing to the formation of murexide 
(ammonium purpurate),C 8 H 4 (NH 4 )N 6 O6. It may also be obtained 
by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on alloxan. The tetra- 
methyl derivative, amalic acid, C 8 (CH3) 4 N 4 O7, has been prepared 
by oxidizing caffeine (q.v.) with chlorine water, and forms colour- 
less crystals which are only slightly soluble in hot water. The 
formation of murexide is used as a test for the presence of uric 
acid, which on evaporation with dilute nitric acid gives alloxantin, 
and by the addition of ammonia to the residue the purple red 
colour of murexide becomes apparent. 

ALLOYS (through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to 
combine), a term generally applied to the ultimate mixtures 
obtained by melting together two or more metals, and allowing 
the mass to solidify. It may conveniently be extended to 
similar mixtures of sulphur and selenium or tellurium, of bismuth 
and sulphur, of copper and cuprous oxide, and of iron and carbon, 
in fact to all cases in which substances can be made to mix in 
varying proportions without very marked indication of chemical 
action. The term "alloy" does not necessarily imply obedience 
to the laws of definite and multiple proportion or even uniformity 
throughout the material; but some alloys are homogeneous 
and some are chemical compounds. In what follows we shall 
confine our attention principally to metallic alloys. 

If we melt copper and add to it about 30 % of zinc, or 20 % 
of tin, we obtain uniform liquids which when solidified are the 
well-known substances brass and bell-metal. These substances 
are for all practical purposes new metals. The difference in the 
appearance of brass and copper is familiar to everyone; brass is 
also much harder than copper and much more suitable for being 
turned in a lathe. Similarly, bell-metal is harder, more sonorous 
and more brittle than either of its components. It is almost 
impossible by mechanical means to detect the separate in- 
gredients in such an alloy; we may cut or file or polish it without 
discovering any lack of homogeneousness. But it is not per- 
missible to call brass a chemical compound, for we can largely 
alter its percentage composition without the substance losing 
the properties characteristic of brass; the properties change 
more or less continuously, the colour, for example, becoming 
redder with decrease in the percentage of zinc, and a paler 
yellow when there is more zinc. The possibility of continuously 
varying the percentage composition suggests analogy between an 
alloy and a solution, and A. Matthiessen (Phil. Trans., 1860) 
applied the term " solidified solutions " to alloys. Regarded as 
descriptive of the genesis of an alloy from a uniform liquid 
containing two or more metals, the term is not incorrect, and it 
may have acted as a signpost towards profitable methods of 
research. But modern work has shown that, although alloys 
sometimes contain solid solutions, the solid alloy as a whole is 
often far more like a conglomerate rock than a uniform solution. 
In fact the uniformity of brass and bell-metal is only superficial; 
if we adopt the methods described in the article METALLOGRAPHY, 
and if, after polishing a plane face on a bit of gun-metal, we etch 
away the surface layer and examine the new surface with a lens 
or a microscope, we find a complex pattern of at least two 
materials. Fig. i (Plate) is from a photograph of a bronze 
containing 23-3 % by weight of tin. The acid used to etch the 
surface has darkened the parts richest in copper, while* those 
richest in tin remained white. The two ingredients revealed by 
this process are not pure copper and pure tin, but each material 
contains both metals. In this case the white tin-rich portions 
are themselves a complex that can be resolved into two sub- 
stances by a higher magnification. The majority of alloys, 
when examined thus, prove to be complexes of two or more 
materials, and the patterns showing the distribution of these 
materials throughout the alloy are of a most varied character. 
It is certain that the structure existing in the alloy is closely 
connected with the mechanical properties, such as hardness, 
toughness, rigidity, and so on, that make particular alloys 
valuable in the arts, and many efforts have been made to trace 
this connexion. These efforts have, in some cases, been very 



ALLOYS 



PLATE 




ALLOYS. 

FIG. i. (Hcycock & Neville, Phil. Trans.) Bronze 
containing 23-3% of tin. Slowly cooled. Magnified 
18 diameters. Dark parts are rich in copper, light 
parts in tin. 




ALLOYS. 

m FIG. 4. (Heycock & Neville, PHI. Trans.') Copper- 
tin [tin 27-7%] chilled at 731 C. before complete 
solid! Meal ion. Magnified 18 diameters. Blacks rich, 
whites less rich in copper. 




GUN-MAKING. 

FIG. 7. Gun steelj C.=o-3o%. Topof mgot.forgcd 
id annealed, magnified 29 diameters. Whites, ferrite; 
neks, carbide. 



and 

blacks, carbide. 




GUN-MAKING. 

FIG. jo. Gun steel, C. = o-30%. Oil hardened and 
annealed, magnified 50 diameters. 




IRON AND STEEL. 

FIG. 13. (Stoughton.) Meshes of pearlite in a 
network of cementite from hyper-eutectoid steel. 
Magnified 250 diameters. 




ALLOYS. 

FIG. 2. (Ewing & Rosenhain, Phil. Trans.) Lead- 
liu eutectic. Magnified 750 diameters. 




GUN-MAKING. 

FIG. 5. Gun steel, C.=o.3o%. From top of ingot 
as cast, magnified 29 diameters. Whites, ferrite; 
blacks, carbide. 







Fie. 8. Gun steel, .=0.30%. Bottom of ingot, 
forged and annealed, magnified 29 diameters. Whites, 
ferrite; blacks, carbide. 




IRON AND STEEL. 

FIG. ii. (Osmond.) Pearlite, steel (carbon about 
i%) forged and annealed at 800 C. Magnified 1000 
diameters. 




IRON AND STEEL. 

FIG. 14. (Osmond & Cartaud.) Martensite. 
Magnified 250 diameters. 




ALLOYS. 

Fie. 3. (F. Osmond.) Silver-copper [copper= 15%, 
si!ver = 85%] reheated to purple colour. Magnified 
600 diameters. 







GUN-MAKING. 

FIG, 6. Gun steel, C.=o-3o%. From bottom of 
ingot as cast, magnified 29 diameters. Whites, ferrite; 
blacks, carbide. 




GUN-MAKING. 

FIG. 9. Gun steel, C.=o-2o%. Forged and annealed, 
magnified 1000 diameters, showing pearlite. 




IRON AND STEEL. 

FIG. 12. (Stoughton.) Meshes of pearlite in a net- 
work of ferrite, from hypo-eutectoid steel. Magnified 
250 diameters. 




1 



IRON AND STEEL. 



FIG. 15. (Osmond.) Martensite (black) in austen- 
site (white). Steel (carbon about 1-5%) quenched at 
1050 C. in ice-cold water. Magnified. 250 diameters. 



T. 704. 



PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF ALLOYS AND METALS. 

(See Articles METALLOGRAPHY, ALLOYS, GUN-MAKING, IRON and STEEL.) 



ALLOYS 



705 



successful; for example, in the case of steel, which is an alloy of 
iron and carbon, a microscopical examination gives valuable 
information concerning the suitability of a sample of steel for 
special purposes. 

Mixture by fusion is the general method of producing an 
alloy, but it is not the only method possible. It would seem, 
indeed, that any process by which the particles of two metals 
are intimately mingled and brought into close contact, so that 
diffusion of one metal into the other can take place, is likely to 
result in the formation of an alloy. For example, if vapours of 
the volatile metals cadmium, zinc and magnesium are allowed 
to act on platinum or palladium, alloys are produced. The 
methods of manufacture of steel by cementation, case-hardening 
and the Harvey process are important operations which appear 
to depend on the diffusion of the carburetting material into the 
solid metal. When a solution of silver nitrate is poured on to 
metallic mercury, the mercury replaces the silver in the solution, 
forming nitrate of mercury, and the silver is precipitated, it 
does not, however, appear as pure , metallic silver, but in the 
form of crystalline needles of an alloy of silver and mercury. 
F. B. Mylius and O. Fromm have shown that alloys may be 
precipitated from dilute solutions by zinc, cadmium, tin, lead 
and copper. Thus a strip of zinc plunged into a solution of silver 
sulphate, containing not more than 0-03 gramme of silver in 
the litre, becomes covered with a flocculent precipitate which 
is a true alloy ot silver and zinc, and in the same way, when 
copper is precipitated from its sulphate by zinc, the alloy formed 
is brass. They have also formed in this way certain alloys of 
definite composition, such as AuCds, Cu 2 Cd, and, more interesting 
still, Cu 3 Sn. A very similar fact, that brass may be formed by 
electrodeposition from a solution containing zinc and copper, 
has long been known. W. V. Spring has shown that by com- 
pressing a finely divided mixture of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 parts 
of lead, 4 parts of tin and 3 parts of cadmium, an alloy is pro 
duced which melts at 100 C., that is, much below the melting- 
point of any of the four metals. But these methods of forming 
alloys, although they suggest questions of great interest, cannot 
receive further discussion here. 

Our knowledge of the nature of solid alloys has been much 
enlarged by a careful study of the process of solidification. 
Let us suppose that a molten mixture of two substances A and 
B, which at a sufficiently high temperature form a uniform 
liquid, and which do not combine to form definite compounds, is 
slowly cooled until it becomes wholly solid. The phenomena 
which succeed each other are then very similar, whether A and 
B are two metals, such as lead and tin or silver and copper, or 
are a pair of fused salts, or are water and common salt. All 
these mixtures when solidified may fairly be termed alloys. 1 
If a mixture of A and B be melted and then allowed to cool, a 
thermometer immersed in the mixture will indicate a gradually 
falling temperature. But when solidification commences, the 
thermometer will cease to fall, it may even rise slightly, and the 
temperature will remain almost constant for a short time. This 
halt in the cooling, due to the heat evolved in the solidification 
of the first crystals that form in the liquid, is called the freezing- 
point of the mixture; the freezing-point can generally be 
observed with considerable accuracy. In the case of a pure 
substance, and of a certain small class of mixtures, there is no 
further fall in temperature until the substance has become 
completely solid, but, in the case of most mixtures, after the 
freezing-point has been reached the temperature soon begins to 
fall again, and as the amount of solid increases the temperature 
becomes lower and lower. There may be other halts in the 
cooling, both before and after complete solidification, due to 
evolution of heat in the mixture. These halts in temperature 
that occur during the cooling of a mixture should be carefully 
noted, as they give valuable information concerning the physical 
and chemical changes that are taking place. If we determine 
the freezing-points of a number of mixtures varying in composi- 
tion from pure A to pure B, we can plot the freezing-point curve. 

1 The instructive case of the solidification of a solution of common 
salt in water is discussed in the article FUSION. 

I .23 



In such a curve the percentage composition can be plotted 
horizontally and the temperature of the freezing-point vertically, 
as in fig. 5. In such a diagram, a point P defines a particular 
mixture, both as to percentage, composition and temperature; 
a vertical line through P corresponds to the mixture at all 
possible temperatures, the point Q being its freezing-point. In 
the case of two substances which neither form compounds nor 
dissolve each other in the solid state, the complete freezing-point 
curve takes theform shown infig.5. Itconsistsof twobranches AC 
and BC, which meet in a lowest point C. It will be seen that 
as we increase the percentage of B from nothing up to that of 
the mixture C, the freezing-point becomes lower and lower, but 
that if we further increase the percentage of B in the mixture, 
the freezing-point rises. This agrees with the well-known fact 
that the presence of an impurity in a substance depresses its 
melting-point. The mixture C has a lower freezing or melting 
point than that of any other mixture; it is called the eutectic 
mixture. All the mixtures whose composition lies between that 
of A and C deposit crystals of pure A when they begin to solidify, 
while mixtures between C and B in composition deposit crystals 
of pure B. Let us con- 
sider a little more closely 
the solidification of the 
mixture represented by 
the vertical line PQRS. 
As it cools from P to Q A 
the mixture remains 
wholly liquid, but when ao0 ' 
the temperature Q is 
reached there is a halt 
in the cooling, due to 
the formation of crystals iooc. 
of A. The cooling soon 
recommences and these 
crystals continue to 
form, but at lower and c 
lower temperatures be- < 
cause the still liquid 
part is becoming richer 



300 




.- ioo*Ci 



per cent of B 

FIG. 5. 



o'c.' 



in B. This process goes on until the state of the remaining liquid 
is represented by the point C. Now crystals of B begin to form, 
simultaneously with the A crystals, and the composition of the 
remaining liquid does not alter as the solidification progresses. 
Consequently the temperature does not change and there is 
another well-marked halt in the cooling, and this halt lasts until 
the mixture has become wholly solid. The corresponding 
changes in the case of the mixture TUVW are easily understood 
the first halt at U, due to the crystallization of pure B, will 
probably occur at a different temperature, but the second halt, 
due to the simultaneous crystallization of A and B, will always 
occur at the same temperature whatever the composition of the 
mixture. It is evident that every mixture except the eutectic 
mixture C will have two halts in its cooling, and that its solidifica- 
tion will take place in two stages. Moreover, the three solids 
S,D and W will differ in minute structure and therefore, probably, 
in mechanical properties. All mixtures whose temperature lies 
above the line ACB are wholly liquid, hence this line is often 
called the " liquidus "; all mixtures at temperatures below that 
of the horizontal line through C are wholly soh'd, hence this line 
is sometimes called the " solidus," but in more complex cases 
the solidus is often curved. At temperatures between the 
solidus and the liquidus a mixture is partly solid and partly 
liquid. This general case has been discussed at length because 
a careful study of it will much facilitate the comprehension of 
the similar but more complicated cases that occur in the ex- 
amination of alloys. A great many mixtures of metals have 
been examined in the above-mentioned way. 

Fig. 6 gives the freezing-point diagram for alloys of lead and 
tin. We see in it exactly the features described above. The two 
sloping lines cutting at the eutectic point are the freezing-point 
curves of alloys that, when they begin to solidify, deposit crystals 
of lead and tin respectively. The horizontal line through the 



706 



ALLOYS 



Eutectic 



Composition 

FIG. 6. 



eutectic point gives the second halt in cooling, due to the simul- 
taneous formation of lead crystals and tin crystals. In the case 
of this pair of metals, or indeed of any metallic alloy, we cannot 
see the crystals forming, nor can we easily filter them off and 
examine them apart from the liquid, although this has been done 
in a few cases. But if we polish the solid alloys, etch them if 
necessary, and examine them microscopically, we shall find that 
alloys on the lead side of the diagram consist of comparatively 
large crystals of lead embedded in a minute complex, which is 
due to the simultaneous crystallization of the two metals during 
the solidification at the eutectic temperature. If we examine 
alloys on the tin side we shall find large crystals of tin embedded 
in the same complex. The eutectic alloy itself, fig. 2 (Plate), 
shows the minute complex of the tin-lead eutectic, photographed 

by J. A. Ewing and W. Rosen- 
hain, and fig. 3 (Plate), photo- 
graphed by F. Osmond, shows 
the structure of a silver-copper 
alloy containing considerably 
more silver than the eutectic. 
Here, the large dark masses are 
th'e silver or silver-rich substance 
that crystallized above the eutectic 
temperature, and the more minute 
black and white complex represents the eutectic. It is not 
safe to assume that the two ingredients we see are pure silver 
and pure copper; on the contrary, there is reason to think that 
the crystals of silver contain some copper uniformly diffused 
through them, and vice versa. It is, however, not possible to 
detect the copper in the silver by means of the microscope. 
This uniform distribution of a solid substance throughout the 
mass of another, so as to form a homogeneous material, is called 
" solid solution," and we may say that solid silver can dissolve 
copper. Solid solutions are probably very common in alloys, 
so that when an alloy of two metals shows two constituents under 
the microscope it is never safe to infer, without further evidence, 
that these are the two pure metals. Sometimes the whole alloy 
is a uniform solid solution. This is the case with the copper-tin 
alloys containing less than 9% by weight of tin; a microscopic 
examination reveals only one material, a copper-like substance, 
the tin having disappeared, being in solution in the copper. 

Much information as to the nature of an alloy can be obtained 
by placing several small ingots of the same alloy in a furnace 
which is above the melting-point of the alloy, and allowing the 
temperature to fall slowly and uniformly. We then extract 
one ingot after another at successively lower temperatures and 
chill each ingot by dropping it into water or by some other method 
of very rapid cooling. The chilling stereotypes the structure 
existing in the ingot at the moment it was withdrawn from the 
furnace, and we can afterwards study this structure by means 
of the microscope. We thus learn that the bronzes referred to 
above, although chemically uniform when solid, are not so when 
they begin to solidify, but that the liquid deposits crystals 
richer in copper than itself, and therefore that the residual 
liquid becomes richer in tin. Consequently, as the final solid 
is uniform, the crystals formed at first must change in composition 
at a later stage. We learn also that solid solutions which exist at 
high temperatures often break up into two materials as they cool ; 
for example, the bronze of fig. i, which in that figure shows 
two materials so plainly, if chilled at a somewhat higher tempera- 
ture but when it was already solid, is found to consist of only 
one material; it is then a uniform solid solution. The difference 
between softness and hardness in ordinary steel is due to the 
permanence of a solid solution of carbon in iron if the steel has 
been chilled or very rapidly cooled, while if the steel is slowly 
cooled this solid solution breaks up into a minute complex of two 
substances which is called pearlite. The pearlite when highly 
magnified somewhat resembles the lead-tin eutectic of fig. 2 
(Plate). In the case of steel (see IRON AND STEEL) the solid 
solution is very hard, while the pearlite complex is much softer. 
In the case of some bronzes, for example that with about 25% 
of tin, the solid solution is soft, and the complex into which it 



breaks up by slow cooling is much harder, so that the same pro- 
cess of heating and chilling which hardens steel will soften this 
bronze. 

If we melt an alloy and chill it before it has wholly solidified, 
we often get evidence of the crystalline character of the solid 
matter which first forms. Fig: 4 (Plate) is the pattern found 
in a bronze containing 27-7 % of tin when so treated. The dark, 
regularly oriented crystal skeletons were already solid at the 
moment of chilling; they are rich in copper. The lighter part 
surrounding them was liquid before the chill; it is rich in tin. 
This alloy, if allowed to solidify completely before chilling, turns 
into a uniform solid solution, and at still lower temperatures 
the solid solution breaks up into a pearlite complex. The analogy 
between the breaking up of a solid solution on cooling and the 
formation of a eutectic is obvious. Iron and phosphorus unite 
to form a solid solution which breaks up on cooling into a pearlite. 
Other cases could be quoted, but enough has been said to show 
the importance of solid solutions and their influence on the 
mechanical properties of alloys. These uniform solid solutions 
must not be mistaken for chemical compounds; they can, 
within limits, vary in composition like an ordinary liquid 
solution. But the occasional or indeed frequent existence 
of chemical compounds in alloys has now been placed beyond 
doubt. 

We can sometimes obtain definite compounds in a pure state 
by the action of appropriate solvents which dissolve the rest 
of the alloy and do not attack the crystals of the compound. 
Thus, a number of copper-tin alloys when digested with hydro- 
chloric acid leave the same crystalline residue, which on analysis 
proves to be the compound CujSn. The bodies SbNas, BiNas, 
SnNa4, compounds of iron and molybdenum and many other 
substances, have also been isolated in this way. The freezing- 
point curve sometimes indicates the existence of chemical com- 
pounds. The simple type of curve, such as that of lead and tin, 
fig. 6, consisting of two downward sloping branches meeting in 
the eutectic point, and that of thallium and tin, the upper curve 
of fig. 7, certainly give no indication of chemical combination. 
But the curves are not always so simple as the above. The 
lower curve of fig. 7 gives the freezing-point curve of mercury 
and thallium; here A and E are the 
melting-points of pure mercury and 
pure thallium, and the branches AB 
and ED do not cut each other, but 
cut an intermediate rounded branch 
BCD. There are thus two eutectic 
alloys B and D, and the alloys with 
compositions between B and D have 
higher melting-points. The summit 
C of the branch BCD occurs at a 
percentage exactly corresponding to 
the formula Hg 2 Tl. It is probable 
that all the alloys of compositions 
between B and D, when they begin 
to solidify, deposit crystals of the 
compound; the lower eutectic B 




FIG. 7. 



probably corresponds to a solid complex of mercury and the 
compound. The point B is at -60 C., the lowest temperature 
at which any metallic substance is known to exist in the liquid 
state. The higher eutectic D may correspond to a complex of 
solid- thallium and the compound; but the possible existence 
of solid solutions makes further investigation necessary here. 
The curves of fig. 7 were determined by N. S. Kurnakow and 
N. A. Puschin. Sometimes a freezing-point curve contains more 
than one intermediate summit, so that more than one compound 
is indicated. For example, in the curve for gold-aluminium, 
ignoring minor singularities, we find two intermediate summits, 
one at the percentage Au 2 Al, and another at the percentage 
AuAl 2 . Microscopic examination fully confirms the existence 
of these compounds. The substance AuAl 2 is the most remark- 
able compound of two metals that has so far been discovered; 
although it contains so much aluminium its melting-point is 
as high as that of gold. It also possesses a splendid purple 



ALLOYS 



707 



colour, more remarkable than that of any other metal or alloy. 
Many other inter-metallic compounds have been indicated by 
summits in freezing-point curves. For example, the system 
sodium-mercury has a remarkable summit at the composition 
NaHg 2 . This compound melts at 350 C., a temperature far 
above the melting-point of either sodium or mercury. In the 
system potassium-mercury, the compound KHg 2 is similarly 
indicated. In the curve for sodium-cadmium, the compound 
NaCdo is plainly shown. These three examples are taken from 
the work of N. S. Kurnakow. Various compounds of the alkali 
metals with bismuth, antimony, tin and lead have been prepared 
in a pure state. Such are the compounds SbNas, BiNaa, PbNa 2 , 
SnNa4. Of these, the first three are well indicated on the 
freezing-point curves. The intermediate summits occurring 
in the freezing-point curves of alloys are usually rounded; this 
feature is believed to be due to the partial decomposition of the 
compound which takes place when it melts. The formulae of 
the group of substances last mentioned are in harmony with 
the ordinary views of chemists as to valency, but the formulae 
NaHg 2 , NaCd 2 , NaTl 2 , AuAl 2 are more surprising. They indicate 
the great gaps in our present knowledge of the subject of valency. 
We must not take it for granted, when the freezing-point curve 
gives no indication of the compound, that the compound does 
not exist in the solid alloy. For example, the compound CuaSn 
is not indicated in the freezing-point curve, and indeed a liquid 
alloy of this percentage does not begin to solidify by the formation 
of crystals of CusSn; the liquid solidifies completely to a uniform 
solid solution, and only at a lower temperature does this change 
into crystals of the compound, the transformation being accom- 
panied by a considerable evolution of heat. Until recently the 
vast subject of inter-metallic compounds has been an unopened 
book to chemists. But the subject is now being vigorously 
studied, and, apart from its importance as a branch of descriptive 
chemistry, it is throwing light, and promises to throw more, 
on obscure parts of chemical theory. 

The graphical representation of the properties of alloys can be 
extended so as to record all the changes, thermal and chemical, 
which the alloy undergoes after, as well as before, solidification, 
including the formation and breaking up of solid solutions and 
compounds. For an example of such a diagram, see the Bakerian 
Lecture, 1903, Phil. Trans., A. 346. The Phase Rule of Willard 
Gibbs, especially as developed by Bakhuis Roozeboom, is a most 
useful guide in such investigations. 

So far we have been considering alloys containing two metals; 
the phenomena they present are by no means simple. But when 
three or more metals are present, as is often the case in useful 
alloys, the phenomena are much more complicated. With three 
component metals the complete diagram giving the variations in 
any property must be in three dimensions, although by the use of 
contour lines the essential facts can be represented in a plane 
diagram. The following method, depend- 
ing on the constancy of the sum of the 
perpendiculars from any point on to the 
sides of an equilateral triangle, can be 
adopted: Let ABC (fig. 8) be an equi- 
lateral triangle, the angular points corre- 
sponding to the three pure metals A, B, C. 
~C Then the composition of any alloy can be 
represented by a point P, so chosen that 
the perpendicular Pa on to the side BC 
gives the percentage of A in the alloy, and the perpendiculars 
Pb and PC give the percentages of B and C respectively. 
Points on the side AB will correspond to binary alloys 
containing only A and B, and so on. If now we wish to 
represent the variations in some property, such as fusibility, 
we determine the freezing-points of a number of alloys dis- 
tributed fairly uniformly over the area of the triangle, and, 
at each point corresponding to an alloy, we erect an ordinate 
at right angles to the plane of the paper and proportional 
in length to the freezing temperature of that alloy. We can 
then draw a continuous surface through the summits of all 
these ordinates, and so obtain a freezing-point surface, or 
liquidus; points above this surface will correspond to wholly 




liquid alloys. The ternary alloys containing bismuth, tin and 
lead have been studied in this way by F. Charpy and by E. S. 
Shepherd. We have here a comparatively simple case, as the 
metals do not form compounds. The solid alloy consists of 
crystals of pure tin in juxtaposition with crystals of almost pure 
lead and bismuth, these two metals dissolving each other in solid 
solution to the extent of a few per cent only. If now we cut the 
freezing-point surface by planes parallel to the base ABC we get 
curves giving us all the alloys whose freezing-point is the same; 
these isothermals can be projected on to the plane of the triangle 
and are seen as dotted lines in fig. 9. The freezing surface, in 
this case, consists of three sheets each starting from an angular 
point of the surface, that is, from the freezing-point of a pure 
metal. The sheets meet in pairs along three lines which them- 
selves meet in a point. In fig. 9, due to F. Charpy, these lines are 




projected on to the plane of the triangle as Ee, E'e and E'e. 
The area of the triangle is thus divided into three regions. The 
region PbEeE' contains all the alloys that commence their 
solidification by the crystallization of lead; similarly, the other 
two regions correspond to the initial crystallization of bismuth 
and tin respectively; these areas are the projections of the three 
sheets of the freezing-point surface. The points E, E', E" are 
the eutectics of binary alloys. Alloys represented by points on 
Ee, when they begin to solidify, deposit crystals of lead and 
bismuth simultaneously; Ee is a eutectic line, as also are E'e and 
E'e. The alloy of the point e is the ternary eutectic; it deposits 
the three metals simultaneously during the whole period of its 
solidfication and solidifies at a constant temperature. As the 
lines of the surface which correspond to Ee, &c., slope downwards 
to their common intersection it follows that the alloy e has the 
lowest freezing-point of any mixture of the three metals; this 
freezing-point is 96 C., and the alloy e contains about 32% of 
lead, 15-5% of tin and 52-5% of bismuth. 

It is evident that any other property can be represented by 
similar diagrams. For example, we can construct the curve of 
conductivity of alloys of two metals or the surface of 
conductivity of ternary alloys, and so on for any measurable 
property. 

The electrical conductivity of a metal is often very much 
decreased by alloying with it even small quantities of another 
metal. This is so when gold and silver are alloyed with each 
other, and is true in the case of alloys of copper. When a pure 
metal is cooled to a very low temperature its electrical con- 
ductivity is greatly increased, but this is not the case with an 
alloy. Lord Rayleigh has pointed out that the difference may 
arise from the heterogeneity of alloys. When a current is passed 
through a solid alloy, a series of Peltier effects, proportional to 
the current, are set up between the particles of the different 
metals, and these create an opposing electromotive force which 
is indistinguishable experimentally from a resistance. If the 
alloy were a true chemical compound the counteracting electro- 
motive force should not occur; experiments in this direction are 
much needed. 



yo8 



ALLPORT 



Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen has shown that in the 
case of molten alloys the conduction of electricity is apparently 
metallic, no transfer of matter attending the passage of the 
current. A group of bodies may, however, be yet discovered 
between alloys and electrolytes in which evidence may be found 
of some gradual change from wholly metallic to electrolytic 
conduction. A. P. Laurie has determined the electromotive 
force of a series of copper-zinc, copper-tin and gold-tin alloys, 
and as the result of his experiments he points to the existence of 
definite compounds. Explosive alloys have been formed by 
H. St Claire Deville and H. J. Debray in the case of rhodium, 
iridium and ruthenium, which evolve heat when they are 
dissolved in zinc. When the solution of the rhodium-zinc alloy 
is treated with hydrochloric acid, a residue is left which under- 
goes a change with explosive violence if it be heated in vacua to 
400. The alloy is then insoluble in " aqua regia." The metals 
have therefore passed into an insoluble form by a comparatively 
slight elevation of temperature. 

Metals do not appear to have been studied from the point of 
view of surfusion until 1880, when A. D. van Riemsdijk showed 
Surfusioa ^ a t gold and silver would both pass below their actual 
freezing-points without becoming solid. Roberts- Austen 
pointed out that surfusion might be easily measured in metals 
and in alloys by the sensitive method of recording pyrometry 
perfected by him. He also showed that the crossing of curves 
of solubility, which had already been observed by H. le Chatelier 
and by A. C. A. Dahms in the case of salts, could be measured 
in the lead-tin alloys. The investigation of the mutual relations 
of partially miscible liquids, due to P. Alexejew, D. P. Konovalow, 
and to P. E. Duclaux, was extended to alloys by Alder Wright. 
The addition of a third metal will sometimes render the mixture 
of two other metals homogeneous. C. T. Heycock and F. H. 
Neville proved that when one metal is alloyed with a small 
quantity of some other metal, the solidification obeys the 
law of F. M. Raoult. Their experiments, although not con- 
clusive, appear to indicate that the molecule of a metal when 
in dilute solution often consists of one atom. There are, however, 
numerous exceptions to this rule. In the cases of aluminium 
dissolved in tin and of mercury or bismuth in lead, it is at least 
probable that the molecules in solution are Alj, Hg 2 and Bi2 
respectively, while tin in lead appears to form a molecule of the 
type Sri). 

Since 1875 increased attention has been devoted to the 
applications of the rarer metals. Thus nickel, which was formerly 
used in the manufacture of " German silver " as a 
substitute for silver, is now widely employed in naval 
tioos. construction and in the manufacture of steel armour- 
plate and projectiles. Alloyed with copper, it is used 
for the envelopes of bullets. A nickel steel containing 36 % of 
nickel has the property of retaining an almost constant volume 
when heated or cooled through a considerable range of tempera- 
ture; it is therefore useful for the construction of pendulums 
and for measures of length. Another steel containing 45 % of 
nickel has, like platinum, the same coefficient of expansion as 
glass. It can therefore be employed, instead of that costly 
metal, in the construction of incandescent lamps where a wire 
has to be fused into the glass to establish electric connexion 
between the inside and the outside of the bulb. Manganese not 
only forms with iron several alloys of great interest, but alloyed 
with copper it is used for electrical purposes, as an alloy can thus 
be obtained with an electrical resistance that does not alter with 
change of temperature; this alloy, called manganin, is used in 
the construction of resistance-boxes. Chromium also, in com- 
paratively small quantities, is taking its place as a constituent 
of steel axles and tires, and in the manufacture of tool-steel. 
Steels containing as much as 1 2 % of tungsten are now used as a 
material for tools intended for turning and planing iron and steel. 
The peculiarity of these steels is that no quenching or tempering 
is required. They are normally hard and remain so, even at a faint 
red heat; much deeper cuts can therefore be taken at a high 
speed without blunting the tool. Vanadium, molybdenum and 
titanium may be expected soon to play an important part in the 



constitution of steel. Titanium is alloyed in small quantities 
with aluminium for use in naval architecture. Aluminium, when 
alloyed with a few per cent of magnesium, gains greatly in 
rigidity while remaining very light; this alloy, under the name 
of magnalium, is coming into use for small articles in which 
lightness and rigidity have to be combined. One of the most 
interesting amongst recent alloys is Conrad Heusler's alloy of 
copper, aluminium and manganese, which possesses magnetic 
properties far in excess of those of the constituent metals. 

The importance is now widely recognized of considering 
the mechanical properties of alloys in connexion with the 
freezing-point curves to which reference has already been made, 
but the subject is a very complicated one, and all that need be 
said here, is that when considered in relation to their melting- 
points the pure metals are consistently weaker than alloys. The 
presence in an alloy of a eutectic which solidifies at a much lower 
temperature than the main mass, implies a great reduction in 
tenacity, especially if it is to be used above the ordinary tem- 
perature as in the case of pipes conveying super-heated steam. 
It has also been stated that alloys of metals with similar melting- 
points have higher tenacity when the atomic volumes of the 
constituent metals differ than when they are nearly the same. 

REFERENCES. Alloys have formed a subject of reports to several 
scientific societies. Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen's six Reports (1891 to 
1904) to the Alloys Research Committee of the Institution of 
Mechanical Engineers, London, the last report being concluded by 
William Gowland; the Cantor Lectures on Alloys delivered at the 
Society of Arts and the Contribution a I'etude des alliages (1901), 
published by the Societe d' encouragement pour I'industrie nationals 
under the direction of the Commission des alliages (1896-1900), 
should be consulted. The theoretical aspect is discussed in Leon 
Guillet's Etude theorique des alliages metalligues (1904). W. T. 
Brannt's The Metallic Alloys (1896) ; Roberts-Austen's Introduction 
to the Study of Metallurgy (1902) ; and R. G. Thurston's Materials 
of Engineering, should be consulted for the more practical details. 

Recent progress is reported in the scientific periodicals, especially 
in The Iron and Steel Metallurgist, formerly The Metattographist 
(Boston, Mass.), and Metallurgie (Halle). Important memoirs by 
Ewing and Rosenhain, and by C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville in the 
Philosophical Transactions, by N. S. Kurnakow in the Zeitschrift fur 
anorganische Chemie, and by E. S. Shepherd in the Journal of Physical 
Chemistry, may also be consulted. (W. C. R.-A. ; F. H. NE.) 

ALLPORT, SIR JAMES JOSEPH (1811-1892), English railway 
manager, born on the 2 7th of February 181 1, was a son of William 
Allport, of Birmingham, and was associated with railways from 
an early period of his life. In 1843 he became general manager 
of the Birmingham and Derby railway, and in the following year 
succeeded to the same position on the Newcastle and Darlington 
line. Six years later he assumed the charge of the Manchester, 
Sheffield and Lincolnshire (now the Great Central) railway, and 
finally, in 1853, was appointed to the general managership of the 
Midland railway an office which he held continuously, with 
the exception of a few years between 1857 and 1860, when he was 
managing director to Palmer's Shipbuilding Company at Jarrow, 
until his retirement in 1880, when he became a director. During 
these twenty-seven years the Midland grew to be one of the most 
important railway systems in England, partly by the absorption 
of smaller lines and partly by the construction of two main 
extensions on the south to London and on the north to Carlisle 
whereby it obtained an independent through-route between 
the metropolis and the north. In the railway world Sir James 
Allport was known as a keen tactician and a vigorous fighter, and 
he should be remembered as the pioneer of cheap and comfortable 
railway travelling. He was the first to appreciate the importance 
of the third-class passenger as a source of revenue, and accord- 
ingly, in 1872, he inaugurated the policy subsequently adopted 
more or less completely by all the railways of Great Britain 
cf carrying third-class passengers in well-fitted carriages at the 
uniform rate of one penny a mile on all trains. The diminution 
in the receipts from second-class passengers, which was one of 
the results, was regarded by some authorities as a sign of the 
unwisdom of his action, but to him it appeared a sufficient 
reason for the abolition of second-class carriages, which there- 
fore disappeared from the Midland system in 1875, the first- 
class fares being at the same time substantially reduced. 



ALLPORT ALLSTON 



709 



He was also the first to introduce the Pullman car on British 
railways. Allport received the honour of knighthood in 1884. 
He died in London on the 25th of April 1892. 

ALLPORT, SAMUEL (1816-1897), English petrologist, brother 
of the above, was born in Birmingham on the 23rd of January 
1816, and educated in that city. Although occupied in business 
during Ihe greater portion of his life, his leisure was given to 
geological studies, and when residing for a short period in Bahia, 
S. America, he made observations on the geology, published by 
the Geological Society in 1860. His chief work was in microscopic 
petrology, to the study of which he was attracted by the investiga- 
tions of Dr H. C. Sorby; and he became one of the pioneers of 
this branch of geology, preparing his own rock-sections with 
remarkable skill. The basalts of S. Staffordshire, the diorites of 
Warwickshire, the phonolite of the Wolf Rock (to which he first 
directed attention), the pitchstones of Arran and the altered 
igneous rocks near the Land's End were investigated and described 
by him during the years 1869-1879 in the Quarterly Journal of 
the Geological Society and in the Geological Magazine. In 1880 
he was appointed librarian in Mason College, a post which he 
relinquished on account of ill-health in 1887. In that year the 
Lyell medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society. A 
few years later he retired to Cheltenham, where he died on the 
7th of July 1897. 

ALL-ROUND ATHLETICS. Specialization in athletic sports, 
although always existent, is to a great extent a modern product. 
In ancient times athletes were encouraged to excel in several 
branches of sport, often quite opposite in character. Thus the 
athlete held in highest honour at the Olympic Games (see 
GAMES, CLASSICAL) was the winner of the pentathlon, which 
consisted of running, jumping, throwing the javelin and the 
discus, and wrestling. All-round championships have existed for 
many years both in Scotland and Ireland, and in America there 
are both national and sectional championships. The American 
national championship was instituted in 1884, the winner being 
the athlete who succeeds in obtaining the highest marks in the 
following eleven events; 100 yards run; putting 16 Ib shot; 
running high jump; half-mile walk; throwing 16 Ib hammer; 
120 yards hurdle race; pole vault; throwing 56 Ib weight; 
one mile run; running broad jump; quarter-mile run. In each 
event 1000 points are allowed for equalling the " record," and 
an increasing number of points is taken off for performances 
below " record," down to a certain "standard," below which 
the competitor scores nothing. For example, in the 100 yards 
run the time of 9$ seconds represents 1000 points; that of 10 
seconds scores 958, or 42 points less; 10^ seconds scores 916, 
&c. ; and below 14^ seconds the competitor scores nothing. 
Should the record be broken 42 points are added for each 
^second. (See also ATHLETIC SPORTS.) 

ALL SAINTS, FESTIVAL OF (Festum omnium sanctorum], 
also formerly known as ALL HALLOWS, or HALLOWMAS, a feast 
of the Catholic Church celebrated on the ist of November in 
honour of all the saints, known or unknown. In the Roman 
Catholic Church it is a festival of the first rank, with a vigil and 
an octave. Common commemorations, by several churches, of 
the deaths of martyrs began to be celebrated in the 4th century. 
The first trace of a general celebration is in Antioch on the 
Sunday after Pentecost, and this custom is also referred to in 
the 74th homily of St Chrysostom (407). The origin of the 
festival of All Saints as celebrated in the West is, however, 
somewhat doubtful. In 609 or 610 Pope Boniface IV. conse- 
crated the Pantheon at Rome to the Blessed Virgin and all the 
martyrs, and the feast of the dedicatio Sanclae Mariae ad Martyres 
has been celebrated at Rome ever since on the I3th of May. 
The idea, based on the medieval liturgiologists, that this festival 
was the origin of that of All Saints has now been abandoned. 
The latter is possibly traceable to the foundation by Gregory III. 
(731-741) of an oratory in St Peter's for the relics " of the holy 
apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors, of all the just 
made perfect who are at rest throughout the world." So far as 
the Western Church generally is concerned, though the festival 
was already widely celebrated in the days of Charlemagne, it 



was only made of obligation throughout the Prankish empire 
in 835 by a decree of Louis the Pious issued " at the instance of 
Pope Gregory IV. and with the assent of all the bishops," which 
fixed its celebration on the ist of November. The festival was 
retained at the Reformation in the calendar of the Church of 
England, and also in that of many of the Lutheran churches. 
In the latter, in spite of attempts at revival, it has fallen into 
complete disuse. 

ALL SOULS' DAY (Commemoralio omnium fidelium defunc- 
torum), the day set apart in the Roman Catholic Church for the 
commemoration of the faithful departed. The celebration is 
based on the doctrine that the souls of the faithful which at death 
have not been cleansed from venial sins, or have not atoned for 
past transgressions, cannot attain the Beatific Vision, and that 
they may be helped to do so by prayer and by the sacrifice of 
the mass. The feast falls on the 2nd of November; or on the 
3rd if the 2nd is a Sunday or a festival of the first class. The 
practice of setting apart a special day for intercession for certain 
of the faithful departed is of great antiquity; but the establish- 
ment of a feast of general intercession was in the first instance 
due to Odilo, abbot of Cluny (d. 1048). The legend connected 
with its foundation is given by Peter Damiani in his Life of Si 
Odilo. According to this, a pilgrim returning from the Holy 
Land was cast by a storm on a desolate island where dwelt a 
hermit. From him he learned that amid the rocks was a chasm 
communicating with purgatory, from which rose perpetually 
the groans of tortured souls, the hermit asserting that he had 
also heard the demons complaining of the efficacy of the prayers 
of the faithful, and especially of the monks of Cluny, in rescuing 
their victims. On returning home the pilgrim hastened to inform 
the abbot of Cluny, who forthwith set apart the 2nd of November 
as a day of intercession on the part of his community for all 
the souls in purgatory. The decree ordaining the celebration is 
printed in the Bollandist Ada Sanctorum (Saec. VI., pt. i. p. 585). 
From Cluny the custom spread to the other houses of the Cluniac 
order, was soon adopted in several dioceses in France, and spread 
thence throughout the Western Church. At the Reformation 
the celebration of All Souls' Day was abolished in the Church of 
England, though it has been renewed in certain churches in 
connexion with the " Catholic revival." Among continental 
Protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. 
Even Luther's influence was not sufficient to abolish its celebra- 
tion in Saxony during his lifetime; and, though its ecclesiastical 
sanction lapsed before long even in the Lutheran Church, its 
memory survives strongly in popular custom. Just as it is the 
custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the 
graves of their dead on the jour des morls,so in Germany the people 
stream to the grave-yards once a year with offerings of flowers. 

Certain popular beliefs connected with All Souls' Day are of 
pagan origin and immemorial antiquity. Thus the dead arc 
believed by the peasantry of many Catholic countries to return 
to their former homes on All Souls' night and partake of the food 
of the living. In Tirol cakes are left for them on the table and 
the room kept warm for their comfort. In Brittany the people 
flock into the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel bare-headed at the 
graves of their loved ones, and to fill the hollow of the tombstone 
with holy water or to pour libations of milk upon it, and at 
bedtime the supper is left on the table for the soul's refreshment. 

ALLSTON, WASHINGTON (1779-1843), American historical 
painter and poet, was born on the 5th of November 1779 at 
Waccamaw, South Carolina, where his father was a planter. He 
graduated at Harvard in 1800, and for a short time pursued his 
artistic studies at Charleston with Edward Greene Malbone 
(1777-1807) the miniature painter, and Charles Fraser (1782- 
1860). With the former, in 1801, he went to London, and 
entered the Royal Academy as a student of Benjamin West, 
with whom he formed a lifelong friendship. In 1804 he went 
to Paris, and, after a few months' residence there, to Rome, 
where he spent the greater part of the next four years. During 
this period he became intimate with Coleridge and Thorwaldsen. 
From 1809 to 1811 he resided in his native country, and from 
1811 to 1817 he painted in England. After visiting Paris a 



710 



ALLUVION ALMA 



second time, he returned to the United States, and practised 
his profession at Boston (1818-1830), and afterwards at Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts, where he died on the pth of July 1843. 
He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1819. In 
colour and the management of light and shade Allston closely 
imitated the Venetian school, and he has hence been styled the 
"American Titian." Many of his pictures have Biblical subjects, 
and Allston himself had a profoundly religious nature. His 
first considerable painting, " The Dead Man Revived," executed 
shortly after his second visit to England, and now at the Pennsyl- 
vania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, gained a prize of 
200 guineas. In England he also painted his " St Peter Liberated 
by the Angel," " Uriel in the Sun " (at Stafford House), " Jacob's 
Dream " (at Petworth) and " Elijah in the Wilderness." To 
the period of his residence in America belong " The Prophet 
Jeremiah " (at Yale), " Saul and the Witch of Endor," "Miriam," 
" Beatrice," "Rosalie," " Spalatro's Vision of the Bloody Hand," 
and the vast but unfinished " Belshazzar's Feast " (in the Boston 
Athenaeum), at which he was working at the time of his death. 
As a writer, Allston shows great facility of expression and 
imaginative power. His friend Coleridge (a portrait of whom 
by Allston is in the National Gallery) said of him that he was 
surpassed by no man of his age in artistic and poetic genius. 
His literary works are The Sylphs of the Seasons and other 
Poems (1813), where he displays true sympathy with nature and 
deep knowledge of the human heart; Monaldi (1841), a tragical 
romance, the scene of which is laid in Italy; and Lectures on 
Art, edited by his brother-in-law, R. H. Dana the novelist (1850). 

See J. B. Flagg's Life and Letters of Washington Allston (New 
York, 1892), 

ALLUVION (Lat. alluvia, washing against), a word taken from 
Roman law, in which it was one of the examples of accessio, that 
is, acquisition of property without any act being done by the 
acquirer. It signifies the gradual accretion of land or formation 
of an island by imperceptible degrees. If the accretion or forma- 
tion be by a torrent or flood, the property in the severed portion 
or new island continues with the original owner until the trees, 
if any, swept away with it take root in the ground. Alluvion 
never attached at all in the case of agri limilati, that is, lands 
belonging to the state and leased or sold in plots. Dig. xli. 1,7, 
is the main authority. English law is in general agreement 
(except as to agri limitati) with Roman, as appears from the 
judgment in Foster v. Wright, 1878, 4 C.P.D. 438. The Scottish 
law, as laid down by the House of Lords in Earl of Zetland v. 
Glover Incorporation, 1872, L.R. 2 H.L., Sc., 70, is in accordance 
with the English. (See WATER RIGHTS.) 

ALLUVIUM, soil or land deposited by running water. All 
streams, from the tiniest rill to the greatest river, are continually 
engaged in transporting downstream solid particles of rock, the 
product of weathering agencies in the area which they drain. 
Since the capacity of a stream to carry matter in suspension is 
proportional to its velocity, it follows that any circumstance 
tending to retard the rate of flow will induce deposition. Thus 
a fall in the gradient at any point in the course of a stream; any 
snag, projection or dam, impeding the current; the reduced 
velocity caused by the overflowing of streams in flood and the 
dissipation of their energy where they enter a lake or the sea, are 
all contributing causes to alluviation, or the deposition of stream- 
borne sediment. It is evident from the foregoing remarks, that 
while even the smallest stream may make deposits of alluvial 
character it is in the flood-plains and deltas of large rivers that 
the great alluvial deposits are to be found. The finer material 
constituting alluvium, often described as " silt," is sand and mud. 
Although it may be exceedingly fine-grained, there is usually 
very little clay in alluvium. The larger materials include gravel 
of all degrees of coarseness; carbonaceous matter is often an 
important element. The amount of solid matter borne by large 
streams is enormous; many rivers derive their names from the 
colour thereby imparted to the water, e.g. Hwang Ho = Yellow 
river, Missouri = Big Muddy, the Red river, &c. It has been 
estimated that the Mississippi annually carries 406^ million tons 
of sediment to the sea; the Hwang Ho 796 million tons; the Po 



67 million tons. Many shallow lakes have been completely filled 
with alluvium and their sites are now occupied by fertile plains; 
this process may be seen in operation almost anywhere; a good 
illustration is the delta of the Rhone in Lake Geneva. Alluvial 
deposits may be of great size. The flood-plain of the Mississippi 
has an area of 50,000 sq. m. ; the great delta of the Ganges and 
Brahmaputra has an area of about 60,000 sq. m.; that of the 
Hwang Ho reaches out 300 m. into the sea and has a coastal 
border of about 400 m. Old alluvial deposits are left high 
above the existing level of many rivers, in the form of " terraces " 
of gravel and loam, the streams to which these owe their 
existence having modified their courses and cut deeper channels; 
such are the alluvial gravels and brick-earths upon which much of 
" greater London " is built. In some regions alluvial deposits 
are the resting places of gemstones and gold, platinum, &c.; it if 
from these deposits that the largest nuggets of gold have been 
obtained. Alluvial soils are almost invariably of great fertility; 
it is due to the alluvial mud annually deposited by the Nile that 
the dwellers in Egypt have been able to grow their crops for over 
4000 years without artificial fertilization. 

ALLYL ALCOHOL, CsHsOH or CH 2 :CH.CH 2 OH, a compound 
which occurs in very small quantities in wood spirit. It may be 
prepared from allyl iodide by the action of moist silver oxide: 
by the reduction of acrolein; or by heating glycerin with oxalic 
acid and a little ammonium chloride to 260 C. In this last 
reaction glycerol monoformin is produced as an intermediate 
product, but is decomposed as the temperature rises: 



glycerol monoformin 



C 8 H 6 (OH) 2 -O-CHO = 

It is a colourless mobile liquid of pungent smell, boiling at 97 C. 
Being an unsaturated compound it combines readily with the 
halogens. Oxidation by strong oxidizing agents converts it 
successively into its aldehyde, acrolein, and into acrylic acid. 
By gentle oxidation with potassium permanganate it may be 
converted into glycerin. 

ALMA, a river of Russia, in the S. W. of the Crimea, entering the 
Black Sea 17 m. N. of Sevastopol. It gives its name to a famous 
victory gained over the Russians, on the 2oth of September 
1854, by the allied armies in the Crimean War (q.v.). The south 
bank of the river is bordered by a long ridge, which becomes 
steeper as it approaches the sea, and upon this the Russians, 
under Prince Menshikov, were drawn up, to bar the Sevastopol 
road to the allies, who under General Lord Raglan and Marshal 
St Arnaud approached from the north over an open plain. The 
Russian commander massed his troops in heavy columns after 
the fashion of 1813, and drew in his left wing so that it should 
as far as possible be out of range of the allied men-of-war, which 
were sailing down the coast in line with their land forces. The 
allied generals decided that the French (right wing) and the 
Turks should attack Menshikov's left, while the British, further 
inland, were. to assault the front of the Russian position. The 
forces engaged are stated by Hamley (War in the Crimea) as, 
French and Turks, 35,000 infantry, with 68 guns; British, 
23,000 infantry, 1000 cavalry and 60 guns; Russians, 33,000 
infantry, 3800 cavalry and 120 guns; by the Austrian writer 
Berndt (Zahl im Kriege) the allied forces are reckoned at 57,000 
men with 108 guns, and the Russians at 33,600 men with 96 guns. 
The French advance met at first with little opposition, and 
several divisions scaled the cliffs of the lower Alma without 
difficulty. Menshikov relied apparently on being able to detach 
his reserves to cope with them, but the assailants moved with a 
rapidity which he had not counted upon, and the Russians only 
came into action piecemeal in this quarter. Opposite the British, 
who as usual deployed at a distance and then advanced in long 
continuous lines, the Russians were posted on the crest of a long 
glacis-like slope, which offered but little dead ground to an 
assailant. The village of Burliuk, and the vineyards which 
bordered the river, were quickly cleared by the British skir- 
mishers, and the line of battle behind them crossed, though with 
some difficulty. On emerging from the cover afforded by the 
river-bed the British divisions, now crowded together, but still 



ALMACANTAR ALMANAC 



711 



preserving their general line, came under a terrible fire from 
heavy guns and musketry. The enemy's artillery was three 
hundred yards away, yet the British pressed on in spite of their 
losses, and as some of the Light Division troops reached the 
"Great Battery" the Russians hurried their guns away to 
safety. In the meantime, on both sides of this battery, the 
assailants had come to close quarters with the Russian columns, 
which were aided by their field guns. A brave counter-attack 
was made by the Russian Vladimir regiment, 3000 strong, 
against the troops which had stormed the great battery, and for 
want of support .the British were driven out again. But they 
soon rallied, and now the second line had crossed and formed for 
attack. The Guards brigade attacked the Vladimir regiment, 
and on the left the Highland brigade and the cavalry moved 
forward also. Some of the field artillery, which had now crossed 
the Alma, fired steadily into the closed masses of the Russian 
reserve, and the Vladimir regiment lost half of its numbers under 
the volleys of the Guards. The French were now severely 
pressing the Russian left, and one-third of Menshikov's forces 
was drawn into the fight in that quarter. The success of the 
frontal assault had dispirited the remainder of the defenders, and 
Menshikov drew off his forces southwards. He had lost 5700 men 
(Berndt and Hamley). The British had about 2000 killed and 
wounded; the French stated their losses at 1340 men. 

ALMACANTAR(from the Arabic for a sun-dial), an astronomical 
term for a small circle of the sphere parallel to the horizon ; when 
two stars are in the same almacantar they have the same altitude. 
The term was also given ( 1 880) to an instrument invented by S. C. 
Chandler to determine the latitude or correct the timepiece, of 
great value because of its freedom from instrumental errors. 

ALMACK'S, formerly the name of a famous London club and 
assembly rooms. The founder, known as William Almack, is 
usually said to have been one Macall, or McCaul, of which name 
Almack is an anagram. In 1764 he founded a gentlemen's club 
in Pall Mall, where the present Marlborough Club stands. It 
was famous for its high play. In 1778 it was taken over by one 
Brooks, and established as Brooks's Club in St James's Street, 
where it still exists. In 1765 Almack built a suite of assembly 
rooms in King's Street, St James's. Here for a ten-guinea 
subscription a series of weekly balls was given for twelve weeks. 
They were managed by a committee of ladies of rank, and 
admission was exceedingly difficult. At Almack's death in 1781 
they were left to his niece Mrs Willis. As " Willis's Rooms " 
they lasted till 1890, when they became a restaurant, but as 
"Almack's" they ceased in 1863. Several clubs, including a 
mixed club for ladies and gentlemen, held meetings at Almack's 
during the iSthandbeginningof the 1 9th centuries. Anew London 
social club (1904) has also adopted the name of Almack's. 

ALMAD&N, or ALMADEN DEL AZOGUE, a town of Spain, in the 
province of Ciudad Real; situated in mountainous country 
55 m. W.S.W. of the city of Ciudad Real. Pop. (1900) 7375. 
Almaden, the Sisapon of the Romans, is celebrated for its 
mercury mines, which were extensively wrought by the Romans 
and Moors, and are still productive, the ore increasing in richness 
with the depth of the descent. The mines ranked with those of 
Adria, in South Austria, as the most valuable in the world, until 
the great development of the mercury deposits at New Almaden, 
in California, U.S.A., between 1853 and 1857. They were long 
worked by convict labour, owing to their unhealthy atmosphere; 
and ^xemption from military service is granted to miners 
who have worked at Almaden for two years. The annual 
yield is about 1,400,000 Ib. Lead and sulphur are obtained 
in the neighbourhood. The nearest railway station is that of 
Chill6n, 3 m. S. on the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon line. 

ALMAGRO, DIEGO DE (1475-1538), Spanish commander, the 
companion and rival of Pizarro (q.v.), was born at Aldea del Rey 
in 1475. According to another account he was a foundling in 
the village from which he derived his name. In 1525 he joined 
Pizarro and Hernando de Luque at Panama in a scheme for the 
conquest of Peru (see PERU: History). He was executed by 
order of Pizarro in 1 538 in consequence of a dispute as to their 
respective territories. 



ALMANAC, a book or table containing a calendar of the days, 
weeks and months of the year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals 
and saints' days, and a record of various astronomical phenomena 
&c. The derivation of the word is doubtful. The word almanac 
was used by Roger Bacon (Opus Majus, 1267) for tables of the 
apparent motions of the heavenly bodies. The Italian form is 
almanacco, French almanack, and the Spanish is almanaque; all 
of which, according to the New English Dictionary, are probably 
connected with the Arabic al-manakh, a combination of the 
definite article al, and manakh, a word of uncertain origin. An 
Arabic-Castilian vocabulary (1505) gives manakh, a calendar, 
and manah, a sun-dial; manakh has also been connected with 
the Latin manacus, a sun-dial. 

The attention given to astronomy by Eastern nations probably 
led to the early construction of such tables as are comprised in 
our almanacs; of these we know little or nothing. The fasti 
(q.v.) of the Romans are far better known and were similar to 
modern almanacs. Almanacs of a rude kind, known as clogg 
almanacs, consisting of square blocks of hard wood, about 8 
in. in length, with notches along the four angles corresponding 
to the days of the year, were in use in some parts of England as 
late as the end of the I7th century. Dr Robert Plot (1640- 
1696), keeper of the Ashmolean Museum and professor of chem- 
istry at Oxford, describes one of these in his Natural History of 
Staffordshire (Oxford, 1686); and another is represented in 
Cough's edition of Camden's Britannia (1806, vol. ii. p. 499). 

The earliest almanac regarding which J. J. L. de Lalande 
(Bibliographic astronomique, Paris, 1803) could obtain any 
definite information belongs to the i2th century. Manuscript 
almanacs of considerable antiquity are preserved in the British 
Museum and in the libraries of Oxford and Cambridge. Of these 
the most remarkable are a calendar ascribed to Roger Bacon 
(1292), and those of Peter de Dacia (about 1300), Walter de 
Elvendene (1327) and John Somers (1380). It is to be remem- 
bered that early calendars (such as the Kalendarium Lincolniense 
of Bishop Robert Grosseteste) frequently bear the names, not 
of their compilers, but of the writers of the treatises on ecclesi- 
astical computation on which the calendars are based. The 
earliest English calendar in the British Museum is one for the 
year 1431. The first printed almanac known was compiled by 
Piirbach, and appeared between the years 1450 and 1461; the 
first of importance is that of Regiomontanus, which appears to 
have been printed at Nuremberg in 1472. In this work the 
almanacs for the different months embrace three Metonic cycles, 
or the 57 years from 1475 to 1531 inclusive. The earliest almanac 
printed in England was The Kalendar of Shepardes, a translation 
from the French, printed by Richard Pynson about 1497. 

Early almanacs had commonly the name of " prognostica- 
tions " in addition, and what they professed to show may be 
gathered from titles like the following, which is quoted by J. O. 
Halliwell: " Pronostycacyon of Mayster John Thybault, 
medycyner and astronomer of the Emperyall Majestic, of the 
year of our Lorde God MCCCCCXXXIJ., comprehending the 
iiij. partes of this yere, and of the influence of the mone, of peas 
and warre, and of the sykenesses of this yere, with the con- 
stellacions of them that be under the vij. pianettes, and the 
revolucions of kynges and princes, and of the eclipses and 
comets." Among almanacs of this class published in England, 
and principally by the Stationers' Company, are Leonard 
Digges's Prognostication Everlasting of Right Good Effect, for 
1553, 1555; &c.; William Lilly's Merlinus Anglicus Junior for 
1644, &c., and other almanacs and "prognostications"; John 
Booker's Bloody Almanac and Bloody Irish Almanac for 1643, 
1647, & c - the last attributed erroneously to Richard Napier; 
John Partridge's Mercurius Coeleslis for 1681, Merlinus Redivivus, 
&c. The name of Partridge has been immortalized in Pope's 
Rape of the Lock; and his almanacs were very cleverly burlesqued 
by Swift, who predicted Partridge's own death, in genuine 
prognosticator's style. The most famous of all the Stationers' 
Company's predicting almanacs was the Vox Stellarum of 
Francis Moore (1657-1715?), the first number of which was 
completed in July 1700, and contained predictions for 1701. 



712 



ALMANDINE ALMA-TADEMA 



Its publication has been continued under the title of Old Moore's 
Almanac. Of a different but not a better sort was Poor Robin, 
dating from 1663, and published by the company down to 1828, 
which abounded in coarse, sometimes extremely coarse, humour. 

The exclusive right to sell "almanacs and prognostications" 
in England, enjoyed in the time of Elizabeth by two members 
of the Company of Stationers, was extended by James I. to the 
two universities and the Stationers' Company jointly; but the 
universities commuted their privilege for an annuity from the 
company. This monopoly was challenged by Thomas Carnan, 
a bookseller, who published an almanac for three successive 
years, after having been thrice imprisoned on that account by 
the company. The case came, in 1775, before the court of 
common pleas, and was decided in Carnan's favour, the question 
argued being, " Whether almanacs were such public ordinances, 
such matters of state, as belonged to the king by his prerogative, 
so as to enable him to communicate an exclusive right of printing 
them to a grantee of the crown?" In 1779 Lord North attempted 
to reverse this decision by a parliamentary enactment, but the 
bill was thrown out. In consequence of this the universities 
lost their title to their annuity, and in lieu of it they received a 
parliamentary grant. The company, however, virtually retained 
its monopoly for many years, by buying up as much as possible 
all the almanacs issued by other publishers, but in more recent 
times this power has altogether ceased, although a considerable 
proportion of the almanacs published in England still issue from 
the hall of the Stationers' Company. A description of " Almanac 
Day " at Stationers' Hall will be found in Knight's Cyclopaedia 
of London (1851), p. 588. 

On the ist of January 1828 the Society for the Diffusion of 
Useful Knowledge issued the British Almanac for that year 
a publication greatly superior in every way to the almanacs of 
the time. The success of the British Almanac, with its valuable 
supplement, the Companion to the Almanac, led to a great 
improvement in this class of publications. The Stationers' 
Company issued the Englishman's Almanac, a work of a similar 
kind. The entire repeal in 1834, by the 3rd and 4th Will.IV. c-57, 
of the heavy stamp duty, first imposed in 1710, on all almanacs 
of fifteenpence per copy, gave an additional stimulus to the 
publication of almanacs of a better class, and from that time the 
number has greatly increased. Since 1870, the British Almanac 
and Companion have been the principal almanacs published by 
the Stationers' Company. Whitaker's Almanac, commenced in 
1868 by Joseph Whitaker (1820-1895), is perhaps the best known 
of modern almanacs. 

In Scotland, almanacs containing much astrological matter 
appeared to have been published at about the beginning of 
the i6th century; and about a century later those published 
at Aberdeen enjoyed considerable reputation. In 1683, the 
Edinburgh's True Almanack, or a New Prognostication, appeared; 
a publication which improved with years and was issued after 
1837 as Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac, a standard 
book of reference for Scottish affairs. Thorn's Irish Almanac 
(since 1843) deals mainly with Ireland. 

The earliest alm'anac published in the United States is probably 
to be ascribed to Bradford's press in Philadelphia, for the year 
1687. Poor Richard's Almanac, commenced in 1732 by Benjamin 
Franklin under the pseudonym of " Richard Saunders," and 
continued by him for twenty-five years, gained a high reputa- 
tion for its wise and witty sayings; it may have been suggested 
by a somewhat similar publication by Thomas, of Dedham, 
Massachusetts. The American Almanac and Repository of 
Useful Knowledge was published at Boston from 1828 to 1861; 
a continuation, The National Almanac, was published only 
twice, for 1863 and 1864. The Old Farmer's Almanac enjoys 
considerable popularity and has been published for many years. 
At the present time nearly every religious denomination, trade 
and newspaper have almanacs or year-books. 

In France prophetic almanacs circulated very freely among 
the poorer and rural classes, although an ordonnance of Charles 
IX. required the seal of a diocesan bishop on all almanacs. 
In 1579 Henry III. prohibited the publication of predictions 



relating to political events, a prohibition renewed by Louis XIII. 
Of such almanacs, the most famous was the Almanack Liigeois 
first published in 1625 at Liege by Matthieu Laensbergh, a 
person of very problematic existence. Publications of this class 
subsequently increased in number to such an extent that, in 
1852, their circulation was forcibly checked by the government. 
The most important French almanac is the Almanack Royal, 
afterwards Imperial, and now National, first published in 1679. 

A number of publications, issued in Germany, from the middle 
of the i8th to the middle of the igth century, under such titles 
as Musenalmanach, modelled on the Almanack des Muses, a 
contemporary almanac published at Paris, contain some of the 
best works of some of the most celebrated German poets. The 
Almanack de Gotha, which has existed since 1763, published since 
1871 both in French and German, gives a particular account of 
all the royal and princely families of Europe, and ample details 
concerning the administration and the statistics of the different 
states of the world. 

For the Nautical Almanac and similar publications, see EPHEMERIS. 

ALMANDINE, or ALMANDITE, a name applied to certain 
kinds of precious garnet, being apparently a corruption of 
alabandicus, which is the name applied by Pliny to a stone found 
or worked at Alabanda, a town in Caria in Asia Minor. Almandine 
is an iron alumina garnet, of deep red colour inclining to purple. 
It is frequently cut with a convex face, or en cabochon, and is 
then known as carbuncle. Viewed through the spectroscope 
in a strong light, it generally shows three characteristic absorp- 
tion bands, as first pointed out by Prof. A. H. Church. 

Almandine occurs rather abundantly in the gem-gravels of 
Ceylon, whence it has sometimes been called Ceylon-ruby. 
When the colour inclines to a violet tint, the stone is often called 
Syrian garnet, a name said to be taken from Syriam, an ancient 
town of Pegu. Large deposits of fine almandine-garnets were 
found, some years ago, in the Northern Territory of South 
Australia, and were at first taken for rubies, whence they were 
known in trade for some time afterwards as Australian rubies. 

Almandine is widely distributed. Fine rhombic dodecahedra 
occur in the schistose rocks of the Zillerthal, in Tyrol, and are 
sometimes cut and polished. An almandine in which the fer- 
rous oxide is replaced partly by magnesia is found at Luisenfeld 
in German East Africa. In the United States there are many 
localities which yield almandine. Dr G. F. Kunz has figured a 
crystal of coarse almandine weighing 95 Ib. from New York city. 
Fine crystals of almandine embedded in mica-schist occur near 
Fort Wrangell in Alaska. The coarse varieties of almandine are 
often crushed for use as an abrasive agent. (See GARNET.) 

ALMANSA, or ALMANZA, a town of eastern Spain, in the 
province of Albacete; 35 m. E.S.E. of Albacete, on the Madrid- 
Alicante railway. Pop. (1900) 11,180. Almansa is built at the 
foot of a white limestone crag, which is surmounted by a Moorish 
castle, and rises abruptly in the midst of a fertile and irri- 
gated plain. About i m. S. stands an obelisk commemorating 
the battle fought here on the 25th of April 1707, in which the 
French under the duke of Berwick, a natural son of James II. of 
Great Britain, routed the allied British, Portuguese and Spanish 
troops. (See SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.) 

ALMA-TADEMA, SIR LAURENCE (LAURENS) (1836- ), 
British artist, was born on the 8th of January 1836, at Dronrijp, 
a Frisian village near Leeuwarden, the son of Pieter Tadema, 
a notary, who died when he was four years old. Alma was the 
name of his godfather. His mother (d. 1863) was his father's 
second wife, and was left with a large family. It was designed 
that the boy should follow his father's profession; but he had 
so great a leaning towards art that he was eventually sent to 
Antwerp, where in 1852 he entered the academy under Gustav 
Wappers. Thence he passed to the atelier of Henri (afterwards 
Baron) Leys. In 1859 he assisted Leys in the latter's frescoes 
in the hall of the h6tel de ville at Antwerp. In the exhibition 
of Alma-Tadema's collected works at the Grosvenor Gallery in 
London in the winter of 1882-1883 were two pictures which may 
be said to mark the beginning and end of his first period. These 
were a portrait of himself, dated 1852, and "A Bargain," painted 



ALME ALMEIDA 



in 1860. His first great success was a picture of " The Education 
of the Children of Clovis " (1861), which was exhibited at 
Antwerp. In the following year he received his first gold medal 
at Amsterdam. The " Education of the Children of Clovis " 
(three young children of Clovis and Clotilde practising the art 
of hurling the axe in the presence of their widowed mother, 
who is training them to avenge the murder of their own parent) 
was one of a series of Merovingian pictures, of which the finest 
was the " Fredegonda " of 1878 (exhibited in 1880), where the 
dejected wife or mistress is watching from behind her curtain 
window the marriage of Chilperic I. with Galeswintha. It is 
perhaps in this series that we find the painter moved by the 
deepest feeling and the strongest spirit of romance. One of the 
most passionate of all is " Fredegonda at the Death-bed of 
Praetextatus," in which the bishop, stabbed by order of the 
queen, is cursing her from his dying bed. Another distinct series 
is designed to reproduce the life of ancient Egypt. One of the 
first of this series, " Egyptians 3000 Years Ago," was painted 
in 1863. A profound depth of pathos is sounded in " The Death 
of the Firstborn," painted in 1873. Among Alma-Tadema's 
other notable Egyptian pictures are " An Egyptian at his Door- 
way " (1865), " The Mummy " (1867), " The Chamberlain of 
Sesostris " (1869), " A Widow " (1873), and " Joseph, Overseer 
of Pharaoh's Granaries " (1874). On these scenes from Prankish 
and Egyptian life Alma-Tadema spent great energy and research ; 
but his strongest art-impulse was towards the presentation of 
the life of ancient Greece and Rome, especially the latter. 
Amongst the best known of his earlier pictures of scenes from 
classical times are " Tarquinius Superbus " (1867), "Phidias 
and the Elgin Marbles " (1868), and " The Pyrrhic Dance " and 
" The Wine Shop " (1869). " The Pyrrhic Dance," though one 
of the simplest of his compositions, stands out distinctly from 
them all by reason of its striking movement. " Phidias and the 
Elgin Marbles " is the first of those glimpses of the art-life of 
classical times, of which " Hadrian in England," " The Sculpture 
Gallery," and " The Picture Gallery " are later examples. "The 
Wine Shop " is one of his many pictures of historical genre, but 
marked with a more robust humour than usual. In 1863 Alma- 
Tadema married a French lady, and lived at Brussels till 1869, 
when she died, leaving him a widower with two daughters, 
Laurence and Anna, both of whom afterwards made reputations 
the former in h'terature, the latter in art. In 1869 he sent 
from Brussels to the Royal Academy two pictures, " Un Amateur 
romain " and " Une Danse pyrrhique," which were followed 
by three pictures, including " Un Jongleur," in 1870, when he 
came to London. By this time, besides his Dutch and Belgian 
distinctions, he had been awarded medals at the Paris Salon of 
1 864 and the Exposition Universelle of 1867. In 1 8 7 1 he married 
Miss Laura Epps, an English lady of a talented family, who, 
under her married name, also won a high reputation as an artist. 
After his arrival in England Alma-Tadema's career was one of 
continued success. Amongst the most important of his pictures 
during this period were " The Vintage Festival " (1870), " The 
Picture Gallery " and " The Sculpture Gallery " (1875), " An 
Audience at Agrippa's " (1876), "The Seasons" (1877), 
"Sappho" (1881), "The Way to the Temple" (1883), his 
diploma work, " Hadrian in Britain" (1884), " The Apodyterium 
(1886), " The Woman of Amphissa " (1887), " The Roses of 
Heliogabalus " (1888), "An Earthly Paradise" (1891), and 
" Spring " (1895). Most of his other pictures have been small 
canvasses of exquisite finish, like the " Gold-fish " of 1900. 
These, as well as all his works, are remarkable for the way in 
which flowers, textures and hard reflecting substances, like 
metals, pottery, and especially marble, are painted. His work 
shows much of the fine execution and brilliant colour of the old 
Dutch masters. By the human interest with which he imbues 
all his scenes from ancient life he brings them within the scope 
of modern feeling, and charms us with gentle sentiment and 
playful humour. He also painted some fine portraits. Alma- 
Tadema became a naturalized British subject in 1873, and was 
knighted on the occasion of Queen Victoria's eighty-first birthday, 
1899. H e was made an associate of the Royal Academy in 1876, 



and a Royal Academician in 1879. In 1907 he was included in 
theOrder of Merit. He became a knight of the order Pour le Me'rite 
of Germany (Arts and Science Division); of Leopold, Belgium; 
of the Dutch Lion; of St Michael of Bavaria; of the Golden 
Lion of Nassau; and of the Crown of Prussia; an officer of the 
Legion of Honour, France; a member of the Royal Academies 
of Munich, Berlin, Madrid and Vienna. He received a goid 
medal at Berlin in 1872 and a grand, medal at Berlin in 1874; 
a first class medal at the Paris International Exhibitions of 1889 
and 1900. He also became a member of the Royal Society of 
Water-colours. 

See also Georg Ebers, " Lorenz Alma-Tadema," Westermanri 's 
Monatshefte, November and December 1885, since republished in 
volume form; Helen Zimmern, " L. Alma-Tadema, his Life and 
Work," Art Annual, 1886; C. Monkhouse, British Contemporary 
Artists (London, 1899). 

ALME or ALMAI (from dlint, wise, learned), the name of a 
class of singing girls in Egypt who are present at festivals and 
entertainments, and act as hired mourners at funerals. They 
are to be distinguished from the ghawazee, or dancing girls, 
who perform in the public streets and are of a lower order. 

ALMEIDA, DOM FRANCISCO DE (c. 1450-1510), the first 
viceroy of Portuguese India, was born at Lisbon about the 
middle of the isth century. He was the seventh son of the 
second count of Abrantes, and thus belonged to one of the most 
distinguished families in Portugal. In his youth he took part 
under Ferdinand of Aragon in the wars against the Moors (1485- 
1492). In March 1505, having received from Emmanuel I. the 
appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered territory in 
India, he set sail from Lisbon in command of a large and powerful 
fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa (Kilwa), which yielded to 
him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance 
was offered by the Moors of Mombasa, but the town was taken 
and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the 
resources of Almeida. At other places on his way, such as the 
island of Angediva, near Goa, and Cannanore, he built forts, 
and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy. 
On his arrival in India he took up his residence at Cochin, where 
a Portuguese fort had been built by Alphonso d'Albuquerque 
in 1503. The most important events of Almeida's brief but 
vigorous administration were the conclusion of a commercial 
treaty with Malacca, and the discoveries made by his son 
Lorenzo, who acted as his lieutenant. Lorenzo was probably 
the first Portuguese who visited Ceylon, where he established a 
settlement, and Fernando Scares, a captain commanding a 
squadron of his fleet, appears to have been the first European 
to sight Madagascar. In 1 508 he was killed at Dabul in a naval 
engagement with the Egyptians, who at this time endeavoured 
to dispute Portuguese supremacy in the Indian Ocean. His 
father was preparing to avenge his death when Albuquerque 
(q.v.) arrived in Cochin, and presented a commission empowering 
him to supersede Almeida in the government. It was probably 
Almeida's unwillingness to be thwarted in his scheme of vengeance 
that chiefly induced him to refuse to recognize Albuquerque's 
commission, and to cast him into prison. The punishment he 
inflicted on the Arabs and their Egyptian allies was speedy and 
terrible. Sailing along the coast he pillaged and burned various 
ports, including Goa and Dabul, and finally, encountering the 
enemy's combined fleet off Diu in February 1509, he completely 
destroyed it. Returning immediately to Cochin, he held out for 
a few months against the claims of Albuquerque, but in November 
1509 he was compelled to yield. On the ist of December he set 
sail for Europe with an escort of three vessels. On the voyage 
the fleet called at Table Bay, then known as Saldanha Bajc, to 
procure water, and here Almeida was killed (on the ist of March 
1510) in an attack upon the Hottentot natives, during which he 
showed great personal courage. In this fight, which took place 
on the site of Cape Town, 65 Portuguese perished, including 12 
captains. Almeida's body was recovered on the following day 
and buried on the spot where he fell. 

ALMEIDA, a town of north-eastern Portugal, in the district 
of Guarda and formerly included in the province of Beira; 
situated in hilly country between the river Cda, a tributary of 



ALMELO ALMOGAVARES 



the Douro, and the river Turones, a branch of the Agueda. 
Pop. (1900) 2330. Almeida was long one of the principal frontier 
fortresses of Portugal. It was captured by the Spaniards in 
1762. During the Peninsular War (q.v.), the country between 
the Coa and the Spanish fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, 25 m. E.S.E., 
was the scene of hard fighting. Almeida was taken by the French 
in 1810, and its recapture, by the allied British and Portuguese 
forces under Lord Wellington, was only effected after a relieving 
force under Marshal Massena had been defeated at Fuentes 
d'Onor (or Fuentes de Onoro), 13 m. S.S.E. The battle was 
fought on the sth of May 1811 and the fortress fell five days 
later. 

ALMELO, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, 12 m. 
by rail N.W. of Hengelo, at the junction of the Overysel and 
Almelo canals. Pop. (1000) 9957. It is a place of considerable 
antiquity, having been the seat of an independent lordship 
before the i4th century. But it first rose into importance in the 
second half of the igth century owing to its share in the extra- 
ordinary industrial development of the Twente district, and now 
possesses numerous cotton and damask factories. Among the 
public buildings are a town hall, court house, corn exchange, 
and churches of various denominations, as well as a synagogue. 

The lordship of Almelo belonged to the lords of Heeckeren, 
who acquired the barony of Rechteren by marriage in 1350 and 
the countship of Limpourg in 1711. The elder branch of the 
mediatized house of Rechteren-Limpourg is still established at 
Almelo; the younger, German branch, at Markt Einersheim in 
Bavaria. 

ALMENDRALEJO, a town of western Spain, in the province 
of Badajoz; situated 27 m. E.S.E. of Badajoz, on the Merida- 
Seville railway. Pop. (1900) 12,587. Almendralejo is a thriving 
town, with broad streets and good modern houses; including 
the palace of the marquesses of Monsalud, which contains a 
museum of Roman antiquities discovered in the neighbourhood. 
Local prosperity was greatly enhanced during the period 1875- 
1905 by the improvement of communications, which enabled the 
grain, fruit and wine of the Guadiana valley, on the north, and 
of the upland known as the Tierra de Barros, on the south, to 
be readily exported by the Merida-Seville railway. Brandy is 
produced in large quantities. 

ALMERIA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed in 
1833, an d comprehending the eastern territories of the ancient 
kingdom of Granada. Pop. (1900) 359,013; area, 3360 sq. m. 
Almeria is bounded on the N. by Granada and Murcia, E. and S. 
by Murcia and the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Granada. It 
is traversed by mountain ridges, with peaks of 6000 to 8000 ft. 
in altitude; and it is seamed with valleys of great fertility. The 
chief sierras, or ranges, are those of Maria, in the north; 
Estancias and Oria, north of the Almanzora river; Filabres, in 
the middle of the province; Cabrera and Gata, along the south- 
east coast; Alhamilla, east of the city of Almeria; Gador in the 
south-west; and, in the west, some outlying ridges of the Sierra 
Nevada. Three small rivers, the Adra, or Rio Grande de Adra, 
in the west, the Almeria in the centre, and the Almanzora in the 
north and east, flow down from the mountains to the sea. On 
the south coast is the Gulf of Almerfa, 25 m. wide at its entrance, 
and terminating, on the east, in the Cabo de Gata, the southern- 
most point of eastern Spain. The climate is mild, except among 
the higher mountains. The valleys near the sea are well adapted 
for agriculture; oranges, lemons, almonds and other fruit trees 
thrive; silk is produced in the west; and the vine is extensively 
cultivated, less for the production of wine than to meet the 
foceign demand for white Almeria grapes. Although the cost of 
transport is very heavy, the exportation of grapes is a flourishing 
industry, and more than 2,000,000 barrels are annually sent 
abroad. The cattle of the central districts are celebrated for 
size and quality. Almeria is rich in minerals, especially iron and 
lead; silver, copper, mercury, zinc and sulphur are also obtained. 
At the beginning of the 2oth century the mines at work numbered 
more than two hundred, and proved very attractive to foreign as 
well as native capitalists. Garnets are found in the Sierra de Gata 
and in the Sierra Nevada fine marble is quarried. The development 



of mining was facilitated by the extension of the railway system 
between 1895 and 1905. The main line from Madrid to Almeria 
conveys much ore from Granada and Jaen to the sea; while the 
railway from Baza to Lorca skirts the Almanzora valley and 
transports the mineral products of eastern Almeria by a branch 
line from Huercal-Overa to the Murcian port of Aguilas. Light 
railways and aerial cables among the mountains supplement these 
lines. The chief imports comprise coal, timber, especially oak 
staves, and various manufactured goods. The exports are 
minerals, esparto, oil, grain, grapes and farm produce generally. 
The principal seaports are Almeria, the capital,pop. (1900)47,326, 
Adra (11,188), and Garrucha (4661), which, with Berja (13,224), 
Cuevas de Vera (20,562), Huercal-Overa (15,763) and Nijar 
(12,497), are described in separate articles. Other towns, 
important as mining or agricultural centres, are Albox (10,049), 
Dallas (7136), Lubrin (6593), Sorbas (7306), Tabernas (7629), 
Velez Blanco (6825), Velez Rubio (10,109) an d Vera (8446). 
Education is backward and the standard of comfort low. A 
constant annual loss of 2000 or 3000 emigrants to Algeria and 
elsewhere prevents any rapid increase of population, despite the 
high birth-rate and low mortality. 

ALMERIA, the capital of the province of Almeria, and one of 
the principal seaports on the Mediterranean coast of southern 
Spain; in 36 5' N. and 2 32' W., on the river Almeria, at its 
outflow into the Gulf of Almeria, and at the terminus of a railway 
from Madrid. Pop. (1900) 47,326. The city occupies part of a 
rich alluvial valley enclosed by hills. It is an episcopal see, and 
possesses a Gothic cathedral, dating from 1524, and constructed 
with massive embattled walls and belfry so as to resemble a 
fortress. A dismantled castle, the Castillo de San Cristobal, 
overlooks the city, which contains four Moorish towers rising 
conspicuously above its modern streets. Two long piers shelter 
the harbour, and vessels drawing 25 ft. can lie against the quays. 
About 1400 ships, of nearly 1,000,000 tons, enter the port every 
year, bringing fuel and timber, and taking cargoes of iron, lead, 
esparto and fruit. White grapes are exported in very large 
quantities. 

Under its ancient name of Urci, Almeria was one of the chief 
Spanish harbours after the final conquest of Spain by the Romans 
in 19 B.C. It reached the summit of its prosperity in the middle 
ages, as the foremost seaport of the Moorish kingdom of Granada. 
At this time its population numbered 150,000; its cruisers 
preyed upon the fleets of the neighbouring Christian states; 
and its merchant ships traded with countries as distant as 
Egypt and Syria. Almeria was captured in 1147 by King 
Alphonso VII. of Castile and his Genoese troops, but speedily 
retaken and held by the Moors until 1489, when it was finally 
secured by the Spaniards. 

See D. F. Margall, Almeria, (Barcelona, 1886). 

ALMERY, AUMERY, AUMBRIE, or AMBRY (from the medieval 
form almarium, cf. Lat. armarium, a place for keeping tools; 
cf. O. Fr. aumoire and mod. armoire), in architecture, a recess 
in the wall of a church, sometimes square-headed, and sometimes 
arched over, and closed with a door like a cupboard used to 
contain the chalices, basins, cruets, &c., for the use of the priest;* 
many of them have stone shelves. They are sometimes near the 
piscina, but more often on the opposite side. The word also 
seems in medieval times to be used commonly for any closed 
cupboard and even bookcase. 

ALMODOVAR DEL CAMPO, or ALMODOVAR, a town of 
Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, 18 m. S.S.W. of Ciudad 
Real, on the northern side of the Sierra de Alcudia. Pop. (1900) 
12,525. Almod6var was a Moorish fortress in the middle ages, 
but contains little of antiquarian interest. It owes its modern 
prosperity to the nearness of the valuable Puertollano coal-field, 
3 m. S. by a branch of the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon railway. Its 
manufactures are lace and linen and it has a brisk trade in 
live-stock, oil and wine. South of the Sierra lies the Alcudia 
valley, owned by the crown, and used as pasture for immense 
flocks of sheep. 

ALMOGAVARES (from the Arab. Al-Mugavari, a scout), the 
name of a class of Spanish soldiers, well known during the 



ALMOHADES ALMON 



7-15 



Christian reconquest of Spain, and much employed as mercenaries 
in Italy and the Levant, during the i3th and i4th centuries. 
The Almogavares (the plural of Almogavar) came originally 
from the Pyrenees, and were in later times recruited mainly in 
Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia. They were frontiersmen and 
foot-soldiers who wore no armour, dressed in skins, were shod 
with brogues (abarcas), and carried the same arms as the Roman 
legionaries two heavy javelins (Spanish azagaya, the Roman 
pilum), a short stabbing sword and a shield. They served the 
king, the nobles, the church or the towns for pay, and were 
professional soldiers. When Peter III. of Aragon made war on 
Charles of Anjou after the Sicilian Vespers 3oth of March 1 282 
for the possession of Naples and Sicily, the Almogavares formed 
the most effective element of his army. Their discipline and 
ferocity, the force with which they hurled their javelins, and their 
activity, made them very formidable to the heavy cavalry of the 
Angevin armies. When the peace of Calatabellota in 1302 
ended the war in southern Italy, the Almogavares followed Roger 
di Flor (Roger Blum) the unfrocked Templar, who entered the 
service of the emperor of the East, Andronicus, as condottieri 
to fight against the Turks. Their campaign in Asia Minor, 1303 
and 1304, was a series of romantic victories, but their greed and 
violence made them intolerable to the Christian population. 
When Roger di Flor was assassinated by his Greek employer in 
1305, they turned on the emperor, held Gallipoli and ravaged 
the neighbourhood of Constantinople. In 1310 they marched 
against the duke of Athens, of the French house of Brienne. 
Walter of Brienne was defeated and slain by them with all his 
knights at the battle of Cephissus, or Orchomenus, in Boeotia in 
March. They then divided the wives and possessions of the 
Frenchmen by lot and summoned a prince of the house of Aragon 
to rule over them. The foundation of the Aragonese duchy of 
Athens was the culmination of the achievements of the Almo- 
gavares. In the i6th century the name died out. It was, 
however, revived for a short time as a party nickname in the 
civil wars of the reign of Ferdinand VII. 

AUTHORITIES. The Almogavares are admirably described by 
one who fought with them, Ramon de Muntaner, whose Chronicle 
has been translated into French by J. A. Buchon, Chroniques 
etrangeres (Paris, 1860). The original test was reprinted and edited 
by K. Lanz at Stuttgart, 1844. See also the Expedition des "Almu- 
gdvares" ou rentiers Catalans en orient, de Van 1302 a Van IJII, by 
G. Schlumberger (Paris, 1902). (D. H.) 

ALMOHADES (properly Muwahhadis, i.e. " Unitarians," the 
name being corrupted through the Spanish), a Mahommedan 
religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 
1 2th century, and conquered all northern Africa as far as Egypt, 
together with Moslem Spain. It originated with Mahommed ibn 
Tumart, a member of the Masmuda, a Berber tribe of the Atlas. 
Ibn Tumart was the son of a lamplighter in a mosque and had 
been noted for his piety from his youth; he was small, ugly, and 
misshapen and lived the life of a devotee-beggar. As a youth 
he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca, whence he was expelled 
on account of his severe strictures on the laxity of others, and 
thence wandered to Bagdad, where he attached himself to the 
school of the orthodox doctor al Ashari. But he made a system 
of his own by combining the teaching of his master with parts of 
the doctrines of others, and with mysticism imbibed from the 
great teacher Ghazali. His main principle was a rigid unita- 
riariism which denied the independent existence of the attributes 
of God, as being incompatible with his unity, and therefore a 
polytheistic idea. Mahommed in fact represented a revolt 
against the anthropomorphism of commonplace Mahommedan 
orthodoxy, but he was a rigid predestinarian and a strict observer 
of the law. After his return to Morocco at the age' of twenty- 
eight, he began preaching and agitating, heading riotous attacks 
on wine-shops and on other manifestations of laxity. He even 
went so far as to assault the sister of the Murabtf (Almoravide) 
amir'Ali III., in the streets of Fez, because she was going about 
unveiled after the manner of Berber women. 'AH, who was very 
deferential to any exhibition of piety, allowed him to escape 
unpunished. 

Ibn Tumart, who had been driven from several other towns for 



exhibitions of reforming zeal, now took refuge among his own 
people, the Masmuda, in the Atlas. It is highly probable that 
his influence would not have outlived him, if he had not found 
a lieutenant in 'Abd-el-Mumin el Kumi, another Berber, from 
Algeria, who was undoubtedly a soldier and statesman of a high 
order. When Ibn Tumart died in 1128 at the monastery or 
ribat which he had founded in the Atlas at Tinmal, after suffering 
a severe defeat by the Murabtfs, 'Abd-el-Mumin kept his death 
secret for two years, till his own influence was established. He 
then came forward as the lieutenant of the Mahdi Ibn Tumart. 
Between 1130 and his death in 1163, 'Abd-el-Mumin not only 
rooted out the Murabtis, but extended his power over all northern 
Africa as far as Egypt, becoming amir of Morocco in 1149. 
Mahommedan Spain followed the fate of Africa, and in 1170 the 
Muwahhadis transferred their capital to Seville, a step followed 
by the founding of the great mosque, now superseded by the 
cathedral, the tower of which they erected in 1184 to mark the 
accession of Ya'kub el Mansur. From the time of Yusef II., 
however, they governed their co-religionists in Spain and Central 
North Africa through lieutenants, their dominions outside 
Morocco being treated as provinces. When their amirs crossed 
the Straits it was to lead a jehad against the Christians and to 
return to their capital, Marrakesh. 

The Muwahhadi princes had a longer and a more distinguished 
career than the Murab(is or " Almoravides " (<?..). Yusef II. or 
" Abu Ya'kub " (1163-1184), and Ya'kub I. or " El Mansur " 
(1184-1190), the successors of Abd-el-Mumin, were both able 
men. They were fanatical, and their tyranny drove numbers of 
their Jewish and Christian subjects to take refuge in the growing 
Christian states of Portugal, Castile and Aragon. But in the end 
they became less fanatical than the Murabtis, and Ya'kub el 
Mansur was a highly accomplished man, who wrote a good Arabic 
style and who protected the philosopher Averroes. His title 
of El Mansur, " The Victorious," was earned by the defeat he 
inflicted on Alphonso VIII. of Castile at Alarcos in 1195. But 
the Christian states in Spain were becoming too well organized 
to be overrun by the Mahommedans, and the Muwahhadis made 
no permanent advance against them. In 1212 Mahommed III., 
" En-Nasir " (1199-1214), the successor of El Mansur, was 
utterly defeated by the allied five Christian princes of Spain, 
Navarre and Portugal, at Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra 
Morena. All the Moorish dominions in Spain were lost in the 
next few years, partly by the Christian conquest of Andalusia, 
and partly by the revolt of the Mahommedans of Granada, who 
put themselves under the protection of the Christian kings and 
became their vassals. 

The fanaticism of the Muwahhadis did not prevent them from 
encouraging the establishment of Christians even in Fez, and 
after the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa they occasionally entered 
into alliances with the kings of Castile. In Africa they were 
successful in expelling the garrisons placed in some of the coast 
towns by the Norman kings of Sicily. The history of their 
decline differs from that of the Murabtis, whom they had dis- 
placed. They were not assailed by a great religious movement, 
but destroyed piecemeal by the revolt of tribes and districts. 
Their most effective enemies were the Beni Marin (" Merinides ") 
who founded the next Moroccan dynasty, the sixth. The last 
representative of the line, Idris IV., " El Wathik," was reduced to 
the possession of Marrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave 
in 1269. 

The amirs of the Muwahhadi Dynasty were as follows: 
'Abd-el-Mumin (1145); Yusef II., "Abu Ya'kub" (1163); 
Ya'kub I., " Abu Yusef el Mansur " (1184); Mahommed III., 
" En-Nasir " (1199); Yusef III., " Abu Ya'kub el Mustansir " 
(1214); 'Abd-el- Wahid, "El Makhluwi" (1223); 'Abd-Allah 
II., "Abu Mahommed" (1224); Yahya V., "El Mu'tasim " 
(1226); Idris III., " El Mamun " (1229); Rashld I., " 'Abd-el- 
Wahid II." (1232); 'Ali IV., " Es-Sa'id el Mu tadid " (1242); 
Omar I., "El Mortada " (1248); Idris IV., "El Wathik" 
(1266-1269). (B. M.*; D. H.) 

ALMON, JOHN (1737-1805), English political pamphleteer 
and publisher, was born at Liverpool on the i7th of December 



ALMOND ALMONER 



1737. In early life he was apprenticed to a printer in his native 
town, and he also spent two years at sea. He came to London in 
1758 and at once began a career which, if not important in itself, 
had a very important mfluence on the political history of the 
country. The Whig opposition, hampered and harassed by the 
Government to an extent that threatened the total suppression 
of independent opinion, were in great need of a channel of 
communication with the public, and they found what they 
wanted in Almon. He had become personally known to the 
leaders through various publications of his own which had a 
great though transient popularity; the more important of these 
being The Conduct of a late Noble Commander [Lord George 
Sackville] Examined (1759); a Review of his late Majesty's 
Reign (1760); a Review of Mr Pitt's Administration (1761); 
and a number of letters on political subjects. The review of 
Pitt's administration passed through four editions, and secured 
for its author the friendship of Earl Temple, to whom it was 
dedicated. Brought thus into the counsels of the Whig party, 
he was persuaded in 1 763 to open a bookseller's shop in Piccadilly, 
chiefly for the publication and sale of political pamphlets. This 
involved considerable personal risk, and though he generally 
received with every pamphlet a sum sufficient to secure him 
against all contingencies, he deserves the credit of having done 
much to secure the freedom of the press. The government 
strengthened his influence by their repressive measures. In 
1765 the attorney-general moved to have him tried for the 
publication of the pamphlet entitled Juries and Libels, but the 
prosecution failed; and in 1770, for merely selling a copy of the 
London Museum containing Junius's celebrated " Letter to the 
King," he was sentenced by Lord Mansfield to pay a fine of ten 
marks and give security for his good behaviour. It was this 
trial that called forth the letter to Lord Mansfield, one of the 
bitterest of the Junius series. Almon himself published an 
account of the trial, and of course did not let slip the opportunity 
of reprinting the matter that had been the ground of indictment; 
but no further proceedings were taken against him. In 1774 
Almon commenced the publication of his Parliamentary Register, 
a monthly report of the debates in parliament, and he also issued 
an abstract of the debates from 1742, when Richard Chandler's 
Reports ceased, to 1774. About the same time, having earned 
a competency, he retired to Boxmoor in Hertfordshire, though he 
still continued to write on political subjects. He became pro- 
prietor in 1784 of the General Advertiser, in the management of 
which he lost his fortune and was declared insolvent. To these 
calamities was added an imprisonment for libel. The claims 
of his creditors compelled him to leave the country, but after 
some years in France he was enabled to return to Boxmoor, 
where he continued a career of undiminished literary activity, 
publishing among other works an edition of Junius. His last 
work was an edition of Wilkes's correspondence, with a memoir 
(1805). He died on the 1 2th of December 1 805. Almon's works, 
most of which appeared anonymously, have no great literary 
merit, but they are of very considerable value to the student 
of the political history of the period. 

ALMOND (from the O. Fr. almande or akmande, late Lat. 
amandola, derived through a form amingdola from the Gr. 
&nvyd&\ii, an almond; the al- for a- is probably due to a 
confusion with the Arabic article al, the word having first dropped 
the a- as in the Italian form mandola; the English pronunciation 
a-mond and the modem French amande show the true form of 
the word). The almond is the fruit of Amygdalus communis, 
a plant belonging to the tribe Pruneae of the natural order 
Rosaceae. The genus A mygdalus is very closely allied to Prunus 
(Plum, Cherry), in which it is sometimes merged; the distinction 
lies in the fruit, the soft pulp attached to the stone in the plum 
being replaced by a leathery separable coat in the almond. 
The tree appears to be a native of western Asia, Barbary and 
Morocco; but it has been extensively distributed over the warm- 
temperate region of the Old World. It ripens its fruit in the 
south of England. It is a tree of moderate size; the leaves are 
lanceolate, and serrated at the edges; and it flowers early in 
spring. The fruit is a drupe, having a downy outer coat, called 



the epicarp, which encloses the reticulated hard stony shell or 
endocarp. The seed is the kernel which is contained within 
these coverings. The shell-almonds of trade consist of the 
endocarps enclosing the seeds. The tree grows in Syria and 
Palestine; and is referred to in the Bible under the name of 
Shaked, meaning " hasten." The word Luz, which occurs in 
Genesis xxx. 37, and which has been translated hazel, is supposed 
to be another name for the almond. In Palestine the tree flowers 
in January, and this hastening of the period of flowering seems 
to be alluded to in Jeremiah i. n, 12, where the Lord asks the 
prophet, " What seest thou?" and he replies, " The rod of an 
almond-tree "; and the Lord says, " Thou hast well seen, for I 
will hasten my word to perform it." In Ecclesiastes xii. 5 it 
is said the " almond-tree shall flourish." This has often been 
supposed to refer to the resemblance of the hoary locks of age to 
the flowers of the almond; but this exposition is not borne out 
by the facts of the case, inasmuch as the flowers of the almond 
are not white but pink. The passage is more probably intended 
to allude to the hastening or rapid approach of old age. The 
application of Shaked or hasten to the almond is similar to the 
use of the name " May " for the hawthorn, which usually flowers 
in that month in Britain. The rod of Aaron, mentioned in 
Numbers xvii., was taken from an almond-tree; and the Jews 
still carry rods of almond-blossom to the synagogues on great 
festival days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model for 
certain kinds of ornamental carved work (Exodus xxv. 33, 34; 
xxxvii. 19, 20). 

There are two forms of the plant, the one (with pink flowers) 
producing sweet, the other (with white flowers) bitter almonds. 
The kernel of the former contains a fixed oil and emulsin. It is 
used internally in medicine, and must not be adulterated with 
the bitter almond. The Pulvis Amygdalae Compositus of the 
British Pharmacopoeia consists of sweet almonds, sugar and 
gum acacia. It may be given in any dose. The Mistura 
Amygdalae contains one part of the above to eight of water; 
the dose is J to i oz. 

The bitter almond is rather broader and shorter than the 
sweet almond and has a bitter taste. It contains about 50% 
of the fixed oil which also occurs in sweet almonds. It also 
contains a ferment emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts 
on a soluble glucoside, amygdalin, yielding glucose, prussic acid 
and the essential oil of bitter almonds or benzaldehyde (?..), 
which is not used in medicine. Bitter almonds may yield from 
6 to 8% of prussic acid. 

Oleum Amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from either 
variety of almond. If intended for internal use, it must, how- 
ever, be prepared only from sweet almonds. It is a glyceryl 
oleate, with slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble 
in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. It may be 
used as a pleasant substitute for olive oil. The pharmacopoeia! 
preparations of the sweet almond are used only as vehicles for 
other drugs. The sweet almond itself, however, has a special 
dietetic value. It contains practically no starch and may 
therefore be made into flour for cakes and biscuits for patients 
suffering from diabetes mellitus or any other form of glycosuria. 
It is a nutritious and very pleasant food. 

There are numerous commercial varieties of sweet almond, 
of which the most esteemed is the Jordan almond, imported 
from Malaga. Valentia almonds are also valued. Fresh sweet 
almonds are nutritive and demulcent, but as the outer brown 
skin sometimes causes irritation of the alimentary canal, they 
are blanched by removal of this skin when used at dessert. 

ALMONER (from Lat. cleemosynarius, through med. Lat. 
almosynarius, almonarius, and Fr. almosnicr, aumosnier, &c., 
mod. Fr. aumdnier), in the primitive sense, an officer in religious 
houses to whom belonged the management and distribution of 
the alms of the house. By the ancient canons all monasteries 
were to spend at least a tenth part of their income in alms to 
the poor, and all bishops were required to keep almoners. 
Almoners, as distinct from chaplains, appear early as attached 
to the court of the kings of France; but the title of grand 
almoner of France first appears in the reign of Charles VIII. 



ALMONRY ALMORAVIDES 



717 



He was an important court official whose duties comprised the 
superintendence of the Chapel Royal and all the religious 
ceremonies of the court. He was a director of the great hospital 
for the blind (Quinze-Vingts), and nominated the regius pro- 
fessors and readers in the College de France. The office was 
revived by Napoleon I., was abolished in 1830, and again created 
by Napoleon III.; it existed till 1870. In England, the royal 
almonry still forms a part of the sovereign's household, the 
officers being the hereditary grand almoner (the marquess of 
Exeter) , the lord high almoner, the sub-almoner, and the secretary 
to the lord high almoner. The office of hereditary grand almoner 
is now merely titular. The lord high almoner is an ecclesiastical 
officer, usually a bishop, who had the rights to the forfeiture of 
all deodands (q.v.) and the goods of a felo de se, for distribution 
among the poor. He had also, by virtue of an ancient custom, 
the power of giving the first dish from the king's table to whatever 
poor person he pleased, or, instead of it, alms in money, which 
custom is kept up by the lord high almoner distributing as many 
silver pennies as the sovereign has years of age to poor men and 
women on Maundy Thursday (<?..). 

ALMONRY (Lat. eleemosynarium, Fr. aumonerie, Ger. Almo- 
senhaus), the name for the place or chamber where alms were 
distributed to the poor in churches or other ecclesiastical 
buildings. At Bishopstone church, Wiltshire, it is a sort of 
covered porch attached to the south transept, but not com- 
municating with the interior of the church. At Worcester 
Cathedral the alms are said to have been distributed on stone 
tables, on each side, within the great porch. In large monastic 
establishments, as at Westminster, it seems to have been a 
separate building of some importance, either joining the gatehouse 
or near it, that the establishment might be disturbed as little as 
possible. 

ALMORA, a town and district of British India, the chief town 
and administrative headquarters of the Kumaon division of 
the United Provinces, situated on a mountain-ridge of the 
Himalayas 5494 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901) 8596. The 
town has a college called after Sir Henry Ramsay; a government 
high school; a Christian girls' school; and a large cantonment. 
The town was captured by the Gurkhas in 1790, who constructed 
a fort on the eastern extremity of the ridge. Another citadel, 
Fort Moira, is situated on the other extremity of the ridge. 
Almora is also celebrated as the scene of the British victory 
which terminated the war with Nepal in April 1815, and which 
resulted in the evacuation of Kumaon by the Gurkhas and the 
annexation of the province by the British. 

The DISTRICT or ALMORA was constituted in 1891, together 
with Naini Tal, by a redistribution of the two former districts of 
Kumaon and the Tarai. It lies among the mountains of Kumaon, 
between the upper waters of the Ganges and the Gogra, here 
called the Kali. Area, 5419 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 465,893, showing 
an increase of 13% during the decade. Tea is grown in the 
district, which includes the military sanatorium of Ranikhet. 
The nearest railway via Naini Tal is the extension of the Oudh 
and Rohilkhand line from near Bareilly to Kathgodam. 

ALMORAVIDES (properly Murdbtis, the name being corrupted 
through the Spanish), a Berber horde from the Sahara which, 
in the nth century, founded the fourth dynasty hi Morocco. 
By this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over Tlemcen 
and a great part of Spain and Portugal. The name is derived 
from the Arab. Murabit, a religious ascetic (see MARABOUT). 
The most powerful of the invading tribes was the Lam^una 
(" veiled men ") from the upper Niger, whose best-known 
representatives now are the Tuareg. They had been converted 
to Mahommedanism in the early times of the Arab conquest, 
but their knowledge of Islam did not go much beyond the 
formula of the creed " there is no god but God, and Mahomet is 
the apostle of God," and they were ignorant of the law. About 
the year 1040 or a little earlier, one of their chiefs, Yahya ibn 
Ibrahim, made the pilgrimage to Mecca. On his way home he 
attended the teachers of the mosque at Kairawan, in Tunisia, 
who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the 
religion they were supposed to profess, and that though his 



will was good, his own ignorance was great. By the good offices 
of the theologians of Jairawan, one of whom was from Fez, 
Yahya was provided with a missionary, 'Abd-Allah ibn Yazin, a 
zealous partisan of the Malekis, one of the four orthodox sects 
of Islam. His preaching was for long rejected by the Lamtunas, 
so on the advice of his patron Yahya, who accompanied him, 
he retired to an island in the Niger, where he founded a ribat or 
Moslem monastery, from which as a centre his influence spread. 
There was no element of heresy in his creed, which was mainly 
distinguished by a rigid formalism and strict obedience to the 
letter of the Koran and the orthodox tradition or Sunna. 'Abd- 
Allah imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purifica- 
tion, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach 
of the law, even on the chiefs. Under such directions the 
Murabtis were brought to excellent order. Their first military 
leader, Yahya ibn Omar, gave them a good military organization. 
Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front 
ranks and pikes, behind, formed into a phalanx and supported 
by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks. From the year 1053 
the Murab^is began to impose their orthodox and puritanical 
religion on the Berber tribes of the desert, and on the pagan 
negroes. Yahya was killed in battle in 1056, but 'Abd-Allah, 
whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount, named 
his brother Abu Bakr as chief. Under him the Murabtis soon 
began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected 
the tribes of the Atlas. They then came in contact with the 
Berghwata, a Berber people of central Morocco, who followed 
a heresy founded by Salah ibn Tarif 300 years previously. 
The Berghwata made a fierce resistance, and it was in battle 
with them that 'Abd-Allah ibn Yazin won the crown of 
martyrdom. They were, however, completely conquered by 
Abu Bakr, who espoused the defeated chief's widow, Zainab. 

In 1061 Abu Bakr made a division of the power he had estab- 
lished, handing over the more settled parts to his cousin Yusef 
ibn Tashfin, as viceroy, resigning to him also his favourite wife 
Zainab, who had the reputation of a sorceress. For himself he 
reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken 
out in the desert, but when he returned to resume control he 
found his cousin too powerful to be superseded, so he had to go 
back to the Sahara, where in 1087 he too attained martyrdom, 
having been wounded with a poisoned arrow in battle with the 
pagan negroes. 

Ibn Tashfin, who was largely guided by Zainab, had in the 
meantime brought what is now known as Morocco to complete 
subjection, and in 1062 had founded . the city of Marrakesh 
("Morocco City"). He is distinguished as Yusef I. In 1080 he 
conquered the kingdom of Tlemcen and founded the present city 
of that name, his rule extending as far east as Oran. In 1086 
he was invited by the Mahommedan princes in Spain to defend 
them against Alphonso VI., king of Castile and Leon. In that 
year Yusef passed the straits to Algeciras, and on the 23rd of 
October inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at Sacralias, 
or in Arabic, Zallaka, near Badajoz. He was debarred from 
following up his victory by trouble in Africa which he had to settle 
in person. When he returned to Spain in 1090 it was avowedly 
for the purpose of deposing the Mahommedan princes and annex- 
ing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, 
who were worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their 
spendthrift rulers. Their religious teachers detested the native 
Mahommedan princes for their religious indifference, and gave 
Yusef a fetwa or legal opinion to the effect that he had 
good moral and religious right to dethrone the heterodox rulers 
who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians whose bad 
habits they had adopted. By 1094 he had removed them all, 
and though he regained little from the Christians except Valencia, 
he reunited the Mahommedan power and gave a check to the 
reconquest of the country by the Christians. After friendly 
correspondence with the caliph at Bagdad, whom he acknow- 
ledged as Amir el Muminln, " Prince of the Faithful," Yusef 
in 1097 assumed the title of " Prince of the Resigned " Amir 
el Muslimin. He died in 1106, when he was reputed to have 
reached the age of 100. 



718 



ALMQVIST ALMUCE 



The Murabti power was at its height at Yusef's death, and 
the Moorish empire then included all North- West Africa as far 
as Algiers, and all Spain south of the Tagus, with the east coast 
as far as the mouth of the Ebro, and the Balearic Islands. 
Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, 'Ali III. 
of Morocco, Madrid, Lisbon and Oporto were added, and Spain 
was again invaded in 1119 and 1121, but the tide had turned, 
the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover Sara- 
gossa. Inii38'AliIII.wasdefeatedbyAlphonsoVH.ofCastileand 
Leon, and in 1139 by Alphonso I. of Portugal, who thereby won 
his crown, and Lisbon was recovered by the Portuguese in 1147. 
'Ali III. was a pious nonentity, who fasted and prayed while 
his empire fell to pieces under the combined action of his Christian 
foes in Spain and the agitation of the Muwahhadis or " Almo- 
hades " (q.v.) in Morocco. After 'Ali's death in 1142, his son 
Tashfin lost ground rapidly before the Muwahhadis, and in 
1 145 he was killed by a fall from a precipice while endeavouring 
to escape after a defeat near Oran. His two successors Ibrahim 
and Ishak are mere names. The conquest of the city of Marra- 
kesh by the Muwahhadis in 1147 marked the fall of the dynasty, 
though fragments of the Murabtis continued to struggle in the 
Balearic Islands, and finally in Tunisia. 

The amirs of the Murabti dynasty were as follows: Yusef I., 
bin Tashfin (1061); 'Ali III. (1106); Tashfin I. (1143); Ibrahim II. 
(1145); Ishak (1146). 

See Budgett Meakin, The Moorish Empire (London, 1899); the 
anonymous Rao4 el Karfas. (.Fez. 1326) .translated by Bay mier as Roudh 
el-Kartas (Paris, 1860) ; Ibn Khaldun, Kitab el 'Aibr . . . fi Aiyam el 
Maghrib, &fc. (dr. 1405), partly translated by de Slane as Histoire 
des Berbers, vol. ii. (Algiers, 1852-1856) ; Makkari, History of the 
Mahommedan Dynasties in Spain, translated by Gayangos (London, 
1840); Histoire des Mussulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy, vol. iv. 
(Leiden, 1861). (B. M.*; D. H.) 

ALMQVIST, KARL JONAS LUDWIG (1793-1866), Swedish 
writer, was born at Stockholm in 1793. He became a student 
at Upsala, where his father was professor of theology, in 1808, 
and took his degree in 1815. He began life under highly favour- 
able auspices; but becoming tired of a university career, in 
1823 he threw up the position he held in the capital to lead a 
colony of friends to the wilds of Wermland. This ideal Scandi- 
navian life soon proved a failure; Almqvist found the pen easier 
to wield than the plough, and in 1828 he returned to Stockholm 
as a teacher in the new Elementary School there, of which he 
became rector in 1829. Now began his literary life; and after 
bringing out several educational works, he made himself suddenly 
famous by the publication of his great series of novels, called 
The Book of the Thorn-Rose (1832-1835). The career so begun 
developed with extraordinary rapidity ; few writers have 
equalled Almqvist in productiveness and versatility; lyrical, 
epic and dramatic poems; romances; lectures; philosophical, 
aesthetical, moral, political and educational treatises; works 
of religious edification, studies in lexicography and history, in 
mathematics and philology, form the most prominent of his 
countless contributions to modern Swedish literature. So 
excellent was his style, that in this respect he has been con- 
sidered the first of Swedish writers. His life was as varied as 
his work. Unsettled, unstable in all his doings, he passed from 
one lucrative post to another, at last subsisting entirely on the 
proceeds of literary and journalistic labour. More and more 
vehemently he espoused the cause of socialism in his brilliant 
novels and pamphlets; friends were beginning to leave him, 
foes beginning to triumph, when suddenly all minor criticism 
was silenced by the astounding news that Almqvist, convicted 
of forgery and charged with murder, had fled from Sweden. 
This occurred in 1851. For many years no more was heard of 
him; but it is now known that he went over to America and 
settled in St Louis. During a journey through Texas he was 
robbed of all his manuscripts, among which are believed to have 
been several unprinted novels. He is said to have appealed in 
person to President Lincoln, but the robbers could not be traced. 
The American adventures of Almqvist remain exceedingly 
obscure, and some of the most remarkable have been proved to 
be fabulous. In 1865 he returned to Europe, and his strange 



and sinister existence came to a close at Bremen on the 26th 
of September 1866. It is by his romances, undoubtedly the 
best in Swedish, that his literary fame will mainly be supported; 
but his singular history will always point him out as a remarkable 
figure even when his works are no longer read. He was another 
Eugene Aram, but of greater genius, and so far more successful 
that he escaped the judicial penalty of his crimes. (E. G.) 

ALMS, the giving of relief, and the relief given, whether in 
goods or money, to the poor, particularly applied to the charity 
bestowed under a sense of religious obligation (see CHARITY 
AND CHARITIES). The word in O. Eng. was aelmysse, and is 
derived through the Teutonic adaptation (cf. the modern 
Ger. almosen ) of the Latinized form of the Gr. tXtij/jaffwrj, 
compassion or mercy, from eXeos, pity. The English word 
" eleemosynary," that which is given in the way of alms, charit- 
able, gratuitous, derives direct from the Greek. " Alms " is 
often, like " riches," wrongly taken as a plural word. 

ALMSHOUSE, a house built and endowed by private charity 
for the residence of poor and usually aged people. The greater 
portion were built after the Reformation. Two interesting 
examples are the Hospital of St Cross, near Winchester, 
founded in 1136, and Coningsby Hospital at Hereford, 
founded in 1614. . 

ALMUCE, or AMICE (O. Fr. aumuce, O. Eng. aumuce, amys, 
amess, &c., from late Lat. almucia, almucium, armucia, &c.), a 
hooded cape of fur, or fur-lined, worn as a choir vestment by 
certain dignitaries of the Western Church. The origin of the 
word almucium is a philological mystery. The al- is probably 
the Arabic article, since the word originated in the south (Sicilian 
almuziu, Prov. almussa, Span, almucio, &c.), but the derivation 
of the second part of the word from a supposed old Teutonic 
term for cap Ger. Mutze, Dutch Mutsche, Scot, mutch 
(New Eng. Diet. s. " Amice "; Diez, Worterbuch der rom. Sprachen) 
is the exact reverse of the truth. The almuce was originally a 
head-covering only, worn by the clergy, but adopted also by the 
laity, and the German word Mutze, " cap," is later than the 
introduction of the almuce in church, and is derived from it 
(M. H. G., I3th century, almutz; I4th century, armuz, aremuz, 
&c. ; 15th century, mutz, millze, &c.). The word mutzen, to 
dock, cut off, which first appears in the I4th century, does not 
help much, though the name of another vestment akin to the 
almuce the mozzelta has been by some traced to it through 
the Ital. mozzare and mozzo (but see below). 

In numerous documents from the I2th to the isth century 
the almucium is mentioned, occasionally as identical with the 
hood, but more often as a sort of cap distinct from it, e.g. in the 
decrees of the council of Sens (1485) non caputia, sed almucia 
vel bireta tenentes in capite. By the I4th century two types of 
almucium were distinguished: (i) a cap coming down just over 
the ears; (2) a hood-like cap falling over the back and shoulders. 
This latter was reserved for the more important canbns, and was 
worn over surplice or rochet in choir. The introduction of the 
biretta (q.ii.) in the isth century tended to replace the use of the 
almuce as a head-covering, and the hood now became smaller, 
while the cape was enlarged till in some cases it fell below the 
elbows. Another form of almuce at this period covered the back, 
but was cut away at the shoulders so as to leave the arms free, 
while in front it was elongated into two stole-like ends. Almuces 
were occasionally made of silk or wool, but from the i3th century 
onward usually of fur, the hem being sometimes fringed with 
tails. Hence they were known in England as " grey amices " 
(from the ordinary colour of the fur), to distinguish them from 
the liturgical amice (<?..) By the i6th century the almuce had 
become definitely established as the distinctive choir vestment 
of canons; but it had ceased to have any practical use, and was 
often only carried over the left arm as a symbol of office. The 
almuce has now been almost entirely superseded by the mozzetta, 
but it is still worn at some cathedrals in France, e.g. Amiens and 
Chartres, at three churches in Rome, and in certain cathedrals 
elsewhere in Italy. The "grey amice" of the canons of St 
Paul's at London was put down in 1549, the academic hood 
being substituted. It was again put down in 1559, and was 



ALNAGE ALOE 



719 



finally forbidden to the clergy of the English Church by the 
unratified canons of 1571 (Report of the sub-committee of 
Convocation, 1008). 

See du Cange, Glossarium, s. "Almucia"; Joseph Braun, Die 
liturgische Gewandung, p. 359, &c. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907); 
also the bibliography to the article VESTMENTS. 

ALNAGE, or AULNAGE (from Fr. aune, ell), the official super- 
vision of the shape and quality of manufactured woollen cloth. 
It was first ordered in the reign of Richard I. that " woollen 
cloths, wherever they are made, shall be of the same width, to 
wit, of two ells within the lists, and of the same goodness in the 
middle and sides." This ordinance is usually known as the 
Assize of Measures or the Assize of Cloth. Article 35 of Magna 
Carta re-enacted the Assize of Cloth, and in the reign of Edward I. 
an official called an " alnager " was appointed to enforce it. 
His duty was to measure each piece of cloth, and to affix a stamp 
to show that it was of the necessary size and quality. As, how- 
ever, the diversity of the wool and the importation of cloths of 
various sizes from abroad made it impossible to maintain any 
specific standard of width, the rules as to size were repealed in 
1353. The increased growth of the woollen trade, and the 
introduction of new and lighter drapery in the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth, compelled a revision of the old standards. A statute 
was passed in 1665 creating the office of alnager of the new 
drapery, and defining the sizes to which cloth should be woven. 
The object of the statute was to prevent people being deceived 
by buying spurious woollen cloth, and to provide against fraud 
and imposition. Owing to the introduction of the alternative 
standard, a distinction arose between " broadcloth " (cloth of 
two yards) and " streit " or "strait " (narrow cloth of one yard). 
The meaning now attached to broadcloth, however, is merely 
that of material of superior quality. Alnage duties and the office 
of alnager were abolished in 1699. 

See W. J. Ashley, Economic History; and W. Cunningham, 
Growth of English Industry and Commerce. 

ALNWICK, a market-town and the county-town of Northum- 
berland, England, in the Berwick-upon-Tweed parliamentary 
division, 309 m. N. by W. from London, on a branch of the 
North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6716. 
It is beautifully situated on the small river Aln, in a hilly district. 
Its history has left many marks. Dominating the town from 
an eminence above the south bank of the river stands the castle, 
held by the Percys since 1309, and long before this an important 
border stronghold. A gateway of c. 1350, a fine Norman arch 
of the middle of the I2th century, and the ancient well in the 
keep, are among noteworthy ancient portions; but the castle 
was extensively renovated and altered in the second half of the 
iSth century, while in 1854, when the lofty Prudhoe tower was 
built, a scheme of decoration in Italian style was adopted in the 
interior; so that the castle, though magnificent, has largely 
lost its historic character. It contains numerous fine examples 
of the works of Italian and other artists, and collections of British 
and Roman and Egyptian antiquities. In the beautiful park are 
a monument commemorating the capture of William the Lion 
of Scotland when besieging the town in 1174, two memorial 
towers, and a British stone chamber. Remains of the wall which 
formerly surrounded Alnwick are visible, and one of the four 
gates, the Bondgate, stands, dating from the early part of the 
1 5th century. The church of St Michael has Norman remains, 
but is principally Perpendicular; it contains several ancient 
monuments and incised slabs. The modern church of St Paul 
has a fine east window of German stained glass. Within the 
confines of the park are ruins of two abbeys. Alnwick Abbey 
was a Premonstratensian foundation of 1147; only a gateway 
tower stands, but the ground-plan was excavated in 1884 and 
is outlined on the surface. At 3 m. from the town are more 
extensive remains of Hulne Abbey (1240), an early Carmelite 
monastery. The long narrow church remains unroofed; there 
are also a gateway tower, and portions of the chapter-house and 
cloisters. The Norman chapel of the hospital of St Leonard, 
which, as well as Alnwick Abbey, was founded by Eustace 
Fitz John, completes the series of antiquities in Alnwick. In this 



interesting locality, however, there must be mentioned the 
mansion of Howick, built in the i8th century, in a fine situation 
near the coast to the N.E. Not far from this, overlooking the 
sea from a rocky cliff pierced by deep gullies, are the ruins of 
Dunstanborough Castle; it dates from the i4th century, though 
the site was probably occupied as a stronghold from earlier 
times. 

The chief industries are brewing, tobacco, snuff and fishing- 
tackle making, and corn milling. Alnwick is under an urban 
district council, but is a borough by prescription, and its freemen 
form a body corporate without authority over the affairs of the 
town. It is, however, required to pay, under an act of 1882, 
a sum not less than 500 out of the corporate property towards 
the upkeep of corporation schools. An ancient peculiar ceremony 
was attached until modern times to the making of freemen; those 
elected were required to ride in procession to a large pool called 
Freemen's Well and there rush through the water According 
to tradition the observance of this custom was enjoined by King 
John to punish the inhabitants, the king having lost his way and 
fallen into a bog owing to the neglected condition of the roads 
in the neighbourhood. 

According to the Chronicle of Alnwick Abbey, the barony of 
Alnwick belonged before the Conquest to Gilbert Tyson, whose 
son and heir William was killed at Hastings, and whose estates 
with his daughter were granted by the king to Ivo de Vescy, 
although this theory does not seem probable since Gilbert 
Tyson was certainly not a Saxon. In 1297 William de Vescy, a 
descendant of Ivo, dying without issue, left the barony to the 
bishop of Durham, who in 1309 sold it to Sir Henry Percy, in 
whose family it still continues. The town evidently grew up 
round the castle, which is said to have been built by Eustace 
Fitz John about 1140. Tradition states that it received its 
borough charter from King John. However, Alnwick is first 
definitely mentioned as a borough in a charter given by William 
de Vescy in the reign of Henry II., by which the burgesses were 
to have common of pasture on Haydon Moor and to hold of him 
" as freely and quietly as the burgesses of Newcastle hold of the 
king." This charter was confirmed by his grandson, William 
de Vescy, in an undated charter, and again by William, son of 
the latter William, in 1290. According to an inquiry of 1291 a 
market and fair were held in Alnwick from time immemorial. 
In 1297 Edward I., in addition, granted the bishop of Durham 
a market on Saturday, and a fair on the I7th of March and six 
following days. By charters of Henry VI. the burgesses received 
licence to enclose their town with a wall, to have a free port at 
Alnmouth, a market on Wednesday as well as Saturday, and 
two new fairs on the feasts of SS Philip and James and St Lucy, 
and eight days following each. Tanning and weaving were 
formerly the principal industries carried on in Alnwick, and in 
1646 there were twenty- two tanneries there. Alnwick has never 
been represented in parliament. 

See George Tate, The History of the Borough, Castle, and Barony 
of Alnwick, 2 vols. (Alnwick, 1866-1869); Victoria County History, 
Northumberland. 

ALOE, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order 
Liliaceae, with about 90 species growing in the dry parts of Africa, 
especially Cape Colony, and in the mountains of tropical Africa. 
Members of the closely allied genera Gasleria and Haworlhia, 
with a similar mode of growth, are also cultivated and popularly 
known as aloes. The plants are apparently stemless, bearing 
a rosette of large, thick, fleshy leaves, or have a shorter or longer 
(sometimes branched) stem, along which, or towards the end of 
which and its branches, the generally fleshy leaves are borne. 
They are much cultivated as ornamental plants, especially in 
public buildings and gardens, for their stiff, rugged habit. The 
leaves are generally lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny 
margin; but vary in colour from grey to bright green, and are 
sometimes striped or 'mottled. The rather small tubular yellow 
or red flowers are borne on simple or branched leafless stems 
and are generally densely clustered. The juice of the leaves of 
certain species yields aloes (see below). In some cases, as in 
Aloe venenosa, the juice is poisonous. The plant called American 



720 



ALOIDAE ALOST 



aloe, Agave americana (q.v.), belongs to a different order, viz. 
Amaryllidaceae: 

Aloes is a medicinal substance used as a purgative and pro- 
duced from various species of aloe, such as A. vera, vulgaris, 
socotrina, chinensis, and Perryi. Several kinds of aloes are 
distinguished in commerce Barbadoes, Socotrine, hepatic, 
Indian, and Cape aloes. The first two are those commonly used 
foi medicinal purposes. Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves 
of the plant. When the leaves are cut the juice flows out, and is 
collected and evaporated. After the juice has been obtained, 
the leaves are sometimes boiled, so as to yield an inferior kind of 
aloes. 

From these plants active principles termed aloins are extracted 
by water. According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes are to be 
recognized: (i) Nataloins, which yield picric and oxalic acids 
with nitric acid, and do not give a red coloration with nitric 
acid; and (2) Barbaloins, which yield aloetic acid, CyH^^Os, 
chrysammic acid, C7H 2 N 2 O 6 , picric and oxalic acids with nitric 
acid, being reddened by this reagent. This second group may 
be divided into a-Barbaloins, obtained from Barbadoes aloes, and 
reddened in the cold, and /3-Barbaloins, obtained from Socotrine 
and Zanzibar aloes, reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when 
warmed, or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin, 2Ci7Hi 8 O7'H 2 O, 
forms bright yellow scales, melting at 2i2-222; barbaloin, 
CnHigO?, forms yellow prismatic crystals. Aloes also contain a 
trace of volatile oil, to which its odour is due. 

The dose is 2 to 5 grains, that of aloin being j to 2 grains. Aloes 
can be absorbed from a broken surface and will then cause 
purging. When given internally it increases the actual amount 
as well as the rate of flow of the bile. It hardly affects the small 
intestine, but markedly stimulates the muscular coat of the 
large intestine, causing purging in about fifteen hours. There 
is hardly any increase in the intestinal secretion, the drug being 
emphatically not a hydragogue cathartic. There is no doubt 
that its habitual use may be a factor in the formation of haemor- 
rhoids; as in the case of all drugs that act powerfully on the 
lower part of the intestine, without simultaneously lowering 
the venous pressure by causing increase of secretion from the 
bowel. Aloes also tends to increase the menstrual flow and 
therefore belongs to the group of emmenagogues. Aloin is 
preferable to aloes for therapeutic purposes, as it causes less, if 
any, pain. It is a valuable drug in many forms of constipation, 
as its continual use does not, as a rule, lead to the necessity of 
enlarging the dose. Its combined action on the bowel and the 
uterus is of especial value in chlorosis, of which amenorrhoea is 
an almost constant symptom. The drug is obviously contra- 
indicated in pregnancy and when haemorrhoids are already 
present. Many well-known patent medicines consist essentially 
of aloes. 

The lign-aloes is quite different from the medicinal aloes. 
The word is used in the Bible (Numb. xxiv. 6), but as the trees 
usually supposed to be meant by this word are not native in 
Syria, it has been suggested that the LXX. reading in which 
the word does not occur is to be preferred. Lign-aloe is a corrup- 
tion of the Lat. Ugnum-aloe, a wood, not a resin. Dioscorides 
refers to it as agallochon, a wood brought from Arabia or India, 
which was odoriferous but with an astringent and bitter taste. 
This may be Aquilaria agallochum, a native of East India and 
China, which supplies the so-called eagle-wood or aloes-wood, 
which contains much resin and oil. 

ALOfDAE, or AL&ADAE, i.e. Otus and Ephialtes, in ancient 
Greek legend, the twin-sons of Poseidon by Iphimedeia, wife of 
Aloeus. They were celebrated for their extraordinary stature 
and strength. According to Homer (Od. xi. 305), they made war 
upon the Olympian gods and endeavoured to pile Pelion upon 
Ossa in order to storm heaven itself; had they reached the age 
of manhood, their attempt would have been successful , but Apollo 
destroyed them before their beards began to grow. In the Iliad 
(v. 365) Ares is imprisoned by them, but delivered by Hermes. 
Apollodorus says that they succeeded in piling Pelion upon Ossa. 
Another story is that they were presumptuous enough to seek 
Artemis and Hera in marriage, and that Artemis caused them 



to slay each other unintentionally on the island of Naxos, where 
they were afterwards worshipped as heroes. In punishment for 
their offences they were bound back to back with snakes to a 
pillar in the lower world (Hyginus, Fab. 28). The'Aloidae (here 
connected with a\o>fi, threshing-floor) represent the spirits of the 
fertile earth and agriculture, conceived of by the Greeks as 
engaged in combat with the Olympian gods. In contrast to 
these legends, Pausanias tells us that they were regarded as the 
first to worship the Muses on Mt. Helicon, while Diodorus repre- 
sents them as historical personages, princes of Thessaly, who 
defeated the Thracians in Strongyle, i.e. Naxos, where they 
made themselves rulers, and subsequently slew one another in a 
quarrel. 

ALOMPRA, ALOUNG P'HOURA (1711-1760), founder of the 
last Burmese dynasty, was born in 1711 at Motshobo, a small 
village 50 m. north-west of Ava. Of humble origin, he had 
risen to be chief of his native village when the invasion of Burma 
by the king of Pegu in 1752 gave him the opportunity of attain- 
ing to the highest distinction. The whole country had tamely 
submitted to the invader, and the leading chiefs had taken the 
oaths of allegiance. Alompra, however, with a more independent 
spirit, not only contrived to regain possession of his village, but 
was able to defeat a body of Peguan troops that had been sent 
to punish him. Upon this the Burmese, to the number of a 
thousand, rallied to his standard and marched with him upon 
Ava, which was recovered from the invaders before the close of 
1753. For several years he prosecuted the war with uniform 
success. In 1754 the Peguans, to avenge themselves for a severe 
defeat at Keoum-nuoum, slew the king of Burma, who was 
their prisoner. The son of the latter claimed the throne, and was 
supported by the tribe of Quois; but Alompra resisted, being 
determined to maintain his own supremacy. In 1755 Alompra 
founded the city of Rangoon. In 1757 he had established his 
position as one of the most powerful monarchs of the East by 
the invasion and conquest of Pegu. Before a year elapsed the 
Peguans revolted; but Alompra, with his usual promptitude, 
at once quelled the insurrection. The Europeans were suspected 
of having instigated the rising, and the massacre of the English 
at Negrais in October 1759 is supposed to have been approved by 
Alompra after the event, though there is no evidence that he 
ordered it. Against the Siamese, who were also suspected of 
having abetted the Peguan rebels, he proceeded more openly 
and severely. Entering their territory, he was just about to 
invest the capital when he was seized with an illness which 
proved fatal on the 15th of May 1760. Alompra is one of the 
most remarkable figures in modern Oriental history. To un- 
doubted military genius he added considerable political sagacity, 
and he deserves particular credit for his efforts to improve the 
administration of justice. His cruelty and deceitfulness were 
faults common to all Eastern despots. 

ALONE. This adjective or adverb requires no definition for 
its meaning of " by oneself " or " solitary "; but its etymological 
history, as simply a combination of the words " all " and " one " 
is rather curious (compare the Ger. allein). " Lone " is merely 
a clipped form of the word, and so " lonely." The New English 
Dictionary traces the English word back to the year 1300. 

ALORA, a town of southern Spain in the province of Malaga; 
17 m. W.N.W. of Milaga, on the right bank of the river Guadal- 
horce, and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (1900) 10,525. 
Alora, which is an ancient and picturesque town, with several 
Moorish ruins, occupies an outlying hill of the Sierra de Tolox, 
and overlooks a fertile valley where maize, sugar-cane and date- 
palms are cultivated. There are hot sulphurous springs in the 
town, which has also a fine climate; and many of the wealthy 
families from Malaga reside here in summer. Brandy distilling 
is, after agriculture, the chief local industry. 

ALOST (Flem. Aalst), a town of Belgium, in the province 
of East Flanders, situated on the left bank of the Bender; the 
ancient capital of what was called Imperial Flanders. Pop. 
(1897) 28,771; (1904) 31,655. Flanders in the feudal period 
was a fief of the king of France the count of Flanders being the 
first of the twelve peers of France; but there was a small strip 



ALP ALPACA 



721 



extending from Alost to the isles of Zeeland, designated Imperial 
Flanders, of which the count was the vassal of the Holy Roman 
emperor. Attached to the h&tel de ville is a fine belfry of the 
15th century, but unfortunately it was seriously damaged by 
fire in 1879. In the church of St Martin, dating from 1498 but 
unfinished, is a fine Rubens. The subject is St Roch, the patron 
saint of lepers, and the colouring of the scaly skin of the leper 
in the forefront of the picture is generally regarded as one of the 
master's most striking effects. The work was painted to the 
order of the Brewers' Gild in (it is said) eight days. It was 
outside Alost that William Clito, grandson of William the 
Conqueror, who was then endeavouring to establish his claims 
as count of Flanders, was mortally wounded in 1128. Of all 
the claims Alost possesses to fame perhaps the most remarkable 
is that Thierry Maartens (c. 1474) set up there one of the first 
printing presses in Europe. Alost is famous to-day for its hop 
gardens and linen-bleaching establishments. The meadows 
south of Alost are often covered with the linen undergoing the 
process of bleaching, which makes them assume the aspect of 
a whitish-blue carpet. 

ALP. To the Swiss dwellers in the plains the term " the 
Alps " (q.v.) signifies the high snowy mountains which they see 
on the horizon, but to the dwellers in the valleys which nature 
has carved in the sides of those high mountains, the word alp 
means exclusively the summer pastures situated on the slopes 
above the valley, though below the snow-line. In fact such 
pastures are essential to the inhabitants of pastoral alpine 
districts, for the fodder to be obtained in the valley itself would 
not suffice to support the number of cattle which are required 
to afford sustenance to the inhabitants. Such mountain pastures, 
made use of only during the summer months, are of almost 
immemorial antiquity, cases occurring in 739, 868 and 999, 
while they are found in all parts of the Alpine chain. In 
France and Italy the system is badly managed, as also in Tirol 
(where the local name is Almen), where, too, these pastures have 
in the course of years been largely alienated by the valley in- 
habitants, and belong to large villages or small towns almost 
in the plains. But in Switzerland, and especially in the German- 
speaking mountain districts, the alps are the centre round 
which the entire pastoral life of the inhabitants turns. It is 
reckoned that in that country there are now about 4778 alps 
in all, the capital value of which is put at rather over 3,000,000. 
Of these alps about 45% are owned by the communes 
(exclusively or jointly) and 54 % by individuals, the remaining 
i % being the property of the state or a few great monasteries. 
In the case of the alps belonging to the Swiss communes, it must 
be borne in mind that " commune " here does not signify either 
Eimvohnergemeinden or Burger gemeinden, but a special class 
called Alpgemeinden (for instance in the well-known valley of 
Grindelwald there is one Einwohnergemeinde, but seven Alpge- 
meinden). These Alpgemeinden are composed of the persons who 
have a right to send cattle up to any particular alp in summer, 
this right being attached (in different places) either to certain 
plots of ground in the valley or certain houses in the village, 
or to certain persons. In any case the owners of an alp 
fix the greatest number of cows which it can support during 
the summer without being permanently damaged. The plot 
of ground which can support a single cow (or 2 heifers, 3 calves 
or sheep, 4 pigs or 8 goats) is called a Kuhstoss (of which there 
are 270,389 in Switzerland), and it is in these terms that the 
productiveness of the alp is reckoned. Sometimes a par- 
ticular alp, or a portion of it, is reserved exclusively to 
heifers and calves, or to goats (in this case it is the loftier 
portion). On each alp there are several sets of huts wherein 
live the cow-herds and cheese-makers (the latter are called 
Sennen or Fruitier s), the cattle being generally left in the open. 
The cattle, with their attendants, shift from one to the other of 
these sets of huts, between the end of June and the end of 
September, making but one sojourn at the highest huts, but 
two at the lower. The proper name for these nuts is Sennhiltten 
or chalets, but the latter term is incorrectly applied also to 
houses in the village below. The milk given each day by each 



cow is entered in a book, and then made into butter and cheese, 
the cow-herds and cheese-makers having the right to a certain 
proportion of milk, butter and cheese for their own sustenance, 
and receiving a small sum per head of cattle for looking after them. 
At the end of the season the net amount of cheese produced by milk 
from each cow is handed over to the owner of that particular 
cow, and is carried down by him to his home in the valley from 
the hut (a small building on four stone legs to secure the contents 
from mice) wherein the cheeses have been stored since they were 
made this hut is called a Speicher. As the owners of Kuhstossen 
may exchange them provisionally for others on another alp, 
or may hire them out (they can only sell them with the plot or 
house to which they are attached), the persons who in any given 
summer actually send cows up to an alp (these form the 
Besetzerschaft) need not necessarily be absolutely identical with 
the true owners of these rights or Besitzerschaft. Hay is never 
mown on the true alps save in spots which are not easily 
accessible to cattle (in very high spots it belongs to the mower, 
and is then called Wildheu), but hay-crops are made on the 
Mayens or Voralpen, the lowest pastures, situated between the 
homesteads and the true alps; these Voralpen are individual 
(not communal) property, though probably in olden days cut 
out of the true Alpen. In the winter the cattle consume the hay 
mown on these Voralpen (which, to a certain extent, are grazed 
in late spring and early autumn, that is, before and after the 
summer sojourn on the alps), either living in the huts on the 
Voralpen while they consume it, or in the stable attached to the 
dwelling-houses in the village; in the barn is stored the hay 
mown on the homestead and on the meadows near the village, 
which may belong to the owner of the cattle. The whole system 
is weil organized and is well understood by the natives, though 
not always by strangers who visit the Alps in summer. 

See John Ball, Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (article x., 
especially pp. Ivii.-lxv.); new edition, London, 1899; Felix 
Anderegg, Illustriertes Lehrbuch fur die eesamte schweiz. Alpwirt- 
schaft (Bern, 1897-1898); the Schweiz-Alpstatistik (each volume 
devoted to the alps of a single Swiss canton) ; and A. v. 
Miaskowski's two books, Die schweiz. Allmend (Leipzig, 1879), and 
Die Verfassung der Land-, Alpen- und Forstwirtschaft der Schweiz 
(Basel, 1878). (W. A. B. C.) 

ALPACA, one of two domesticated breeds of South American 
camel-like ungulates, derived from the wild huanaco or guanaco. 
Alpacas are kept in large flocks which graze on the level heights 
of the Andes of southern Peru and northern Bolivia, at an eleva- 
tion of from 14,000 to 16,000 ft. above the sea-level, throughout 
the year. They are not used as beasts of burden like llamas, 
but are valued only for their wool, of which the Indian blankets 
and ponchos are made. The colour is usually dark brown or 
black and the coat of great length, reaching nearly to the ground. 
In stature the alpaca (Lama huanacos pacos) is considerably 
inferior to the llama, but has the same unpleasant habit of 
spitting. 

In the textile industries " alpaca " is a name given to two 
distinct things. It is primarily a term applied to the wool, or 
rather hair, obtained from the Peruvian alpaca. It is, however, 
more broadly applied to a style of fabric originally made from 
the alpaca wool but now frequently made from an allied type 
of wool, viz. mohair, Iceland, or even from lustrous English 
wool. In the trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and 
the several styles of mohairs and lustres, but so far as the general 
purchaser is concerned little or no distinction is made. 

The four species of indigenous South American wool-bearing 
animals are the llama, the alpaca, the guanaco and the vicuna. 
The llama and the alpaca are domesticated; the guanaco and 
the vicuna run wild. Of the four the alpaca and the vicuna are 
the most valuable wool-bearing animals: the alpaca on account 
of the quality and quantity, the vicuna on account of the softness, 
fineness and quality of its wool. In the early days of the igth 
century, the usual length of alpaca staples appears to have 
been about 12 in., this being a three years' growth; but 
to-day the length is little more than about half this, i.e. a one to 
two years' growth, although from time to time longer staples 
are to be found. The fleeces are sorted for colour and quality 



722 



ALP ARSLAN ALPENA 



by skilled native women. The colour of the greater proportion 
of alpaca imported into the United Kingdom is black and brown, 
but there is also a fair proportion of white, grey and fawn. It is 
customary to mix these colours together, thus producing a curious 
ginger-coloured yarn, which upon being dyed black in the piece 
takes a fuller and deeper shade than can be obtained by piece- 
dyeing a solid-coloured wool. In physical structure alpaca is 
somewhat akin to hair, being very glossy, but its softness and 
fineness enable the spinner to produce satisfactory yarns with 
comparative ease. 

The history of the manufacture of this wool into cloth is one 
of the romances of commerce. Undoubtedly the Indians of 
Peru employed this fibre in the manufacture of many styles of 
fabrics for centuries before its introduction into Europe as a 
commercial product. The first European importations would 
naturally be into Spain. Spain, however, transferred the fibre 
to Germany and France. Apparently alpaca yarn was spun in 
England for the first time about the year 1808. It does not 
appear to have made any headway, however, and alpaca wool 
was condemned as an unworkable material. In 1830 Benjamin 
Outram, of Greetland, near Halifax, appears to have again 
attempted the spinning of this fibre, and for the second time 
alpaca was condemned. These two attempts to use alpaca were 
failures owing to the style of fabric into which the yarn was 
woven a species of camlet. It was not until the introduction 
of cotton warps into the Bradford trade about 1836 that the true 
qualities of alpaca could be developed in the fabric. Where the 
cotton warp and mohair or alpaca weft plain-cloth came from is 
not known, but it was this simple yet ingenious structure which 
enabled Titus Salt (q.v.), then a young Bradford manufacturer, 
to utilize alpaca successfully. Bradford is still the great spinning 
and manufacturing centre for alpacas, large quantities of yarns 
and cloths being exported annually to the continent and to the 
United States, although the quantities naturally vary in accord- 
ance with the fashions in vogue, the typical " alpaca-fabric " 
being a very characteristic " dress-fabric." 

The following statistics, taken from Hooper's Statistics of the 
Woollen and Worsted Trades of the United Kingdom, give an idea 
of the extent of the trade in yarns and fabrics of the alpaca 
type; unfortunately statistics for alpaca alone are not published. 

Alpaca, Vicuna, and Llama Wool imported into the 
United Kingdom. 



Year. 


Peru. 


Chile. 1 




ft 


i 


n> 





1854 


1,247,015 


124,946 


15-573 


1,557 


i860 


2,334,048 


263,635 


520,402 


58,443 


1870 


3,324,454 


388,969 


563,782 


65,996 


1880 


1,412,365 


98,644 


890,627 


64,621 


1890 


3,"4,336 


190,703 


564,606 


30,694 


1900 


4,236,566 


205,839 


1,148,694 


51,116 


1902 


5,038,998 


259,927 


1,028,171 


47,610 


1905 


2,301,522 


119,321 


2,302,650 


112,367 



Note. In 1840 the imports into, exports from, and consumed in 
the United Kingdom of mohair, alpaca, vicuna, &c., amounted to 
50,000. 

Exports of Mohair and Alpaca Yarns for 1905. 
Russia . . . 1,288,800 Ib . 168,596 

Germany . . . 9,851,200 . 1,145, 795 

Belgium . 316,400 . 40,409 

France . . . 2,006,700 . 223,605 

Exports of Alpaca from the United Kingdom to the 

United States. 

i88j . . 1,256 1900 . . 30,631 

1800 . 1905 . 4,954 

Owing to the success in the manufacture of the various styles 
of alpaca cloths attained by Sir Titus Salt and other Bradford 
manufacturers, a great demand for alpaca wool arose, and this 
demand could not be met by the native product, for there never 
seems to have been any appreciable increase in the number of 
alpacas available. Unsuccessful attempts were made to acclima- 
tize the alpaca goat in England, on the European continent and 
in Australia, and even to cross certain English breeds of sheep 

1 Grown in Peru but shipped from Valparaiso. 



with the alpaca. There is, however, a cross between the alpaca 
and the llama a true hybrid in every sense producing a 
material placed upon the Liverpool market under the name 
" Huarizo." Crosses between the alpaca and vicuna have not 
proved satisfactory. 

The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and finishing of 
alpacas and mohairs are dealt with under WOOL. (A. F. B.) 

ALP ARSLAN, or AXAN, MAHOMMED BEN DA'UD (1020- 
1072), the second sultan of th'e dynasty of Seljuk, in Persia, and 
great-grandson of Seljuk, the founder of the dynasty, was born 
in the year A.D. 1029 (421 of the Hegira). He assumed the name 
of Mahommed when he embraced the Mussulman faith; and on 
account of his military prowess he obtained the surname Alp 
Arslan, which signifies " a valiant lion." He succeeded his 
father Da'ud as ruler of Khorasan in 1059, and his uncle Togrul 
Bey as sultan of Oran in 1063, and thus became sole monarch of 
Persia from the river Oxus to the Tigris. In consolidating his 
empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted 
by Nizam ul-Mulk, his vizier, one of the most eminent statesmen 
in early Mahommedart history. Peace and security being estab- 
lished in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states 
and declared his son Malik Shah his heir and successor. With 
the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of St 
Basil in Caesarea, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself 
at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the Euphrates and 
entered and plundered that city. He then marched into Armenia 
and Georgia, which, in 1064, he finally subdued. In 1068 Alp 
Arslan invaded the Roman empire. The emperor Romanus 
Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the invaders 
in Cilicia. In three arduous campaigns, the two first of which 
were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was 
directed by Manuel Comnenus, the Turks were defeated in 
detail and finally (1070) driven across the Euphrates. In 1071 
Romanus again took the field and advanced with 100,000 men, 
including a contingent of the Turkish tribe of the Uzes and of 
the French and Normans, under Ursel of Baliol, into Armenia. 
At Manzikert, on the Murad Tchai, north of Lake Van, he was 
met by Alp Arslan; and the sultan having proposed terms of 
peace, which were scornfully rejected by the emperor, a battle 
took place in which the Greeks, after a terrible slaughter, were 
totally routed, a result due mainly to the rapid tactics of the 
Turkish cavalry. Romanus was taken prisoner and conducted 
into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generosity, 
and terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him, loaded 
with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. 
The dominion of Alp Arslan now extended over the fairest part 
of Asia; 1200 princes or sons of princes surrounded his throne 
and 200,000 warriors were at his command. He now prepared 
to march to the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his 
ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the banks of 
the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety it was 
necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for 
several days vigorously defended by the governor, Yussuf 
Kothual, a Kharizmian. He was, however, obliged to surrender 
and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned 
him to a cruel death. Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger 
and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan, the most skilful archer 
of his day, motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew 
his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and he 
received the assassin's dagger in his breast. The wound proved 
mortal, and Alp Arslan expired a few hours after he received it, 
on the i $th of December 1072. 

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by 
J. B. Bury (1898), vi. pp. 235 et seq., and authorities there cited. 

ALPENA, a city and the county seat of Alpena county, 
Michigan, U.S.A., on Thunder Bay, a small arm of Lake Huron, 
at the mouth of Thunder Bay river, in the N.E. part of the lower 
peninsula. Pop. (1890) 11,283; (190) 11,802, of whom 4193 
were foreign-born; (IQIO census) 12,706. It is served by the 
Detroit & Mackinac railway and by steamboat lines to Detroit 
and other ports. The city is built on sandy ground on both sides 
of the river and has a good harbour, which has been considerably 



ALPENHORN ALPHABET 



723 



improved by the Federal government; in 1907 the maximum 
draft that could be carried over the shallowest part of the channel 
was 14 ft. There is good farming land in the vicinity and 
Alpena has lumber and shingle mills, pulp works, Portland 
cement manufactories and tanneries; in 1905 the city's factory 
products were valued at $2,905,263. In 1906 the commerce of 
the port, chiefly in lumber, cement, coal, cedar posts and ties, 
fodder and general merchandise, was valued at $3,018,894. 
Alpena occupies the site of an Indian burying-ground. A trading- 
post was established here in 1835, but the permanent settlement 
dates from 1858; in 1871 Alpena was chartered as a city. 

ALPENHORN, ALPHORN, a musical instrument, consisting 
of a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup-shaped 
mouthpiece, used by mountaineers in Switzerland and elsewhere. 
The tube is made of thin strips of birchwood soaked in water 
until they have become quite pliable; they are then wound into 
a tube of conical form from 4 to 8 ft. long, and neatly 
covered with bark. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a 
block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete. 
The alpenhorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure 
natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The harmonics are 
the more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the 
bore in relation to the length. An alpenhorn made at Rigi-Kulm, 
Schwytz, and now in the South Kensington Museum, measures 
8 ft. in length and has a straight tube. The well-known 
Ranz des V aches is the traditional melody of the alpenhorn, 
which has been immortalized by Beethoven in the finale of the 
Pastoral Symphony, where the music is generally rendered by a 
cor anglais (q.v.). Rossini has introduced the melody into his 
opera William Tell. Wagner, in the third act of Tristan and 
Isolde, was not entirely satisfied with the tone quality of the cor 
anglais for representing the natural pipe of the peasant. Having 
in his mind the timbre of the alpenhorn, he had a wooden horn 
made for him with one valve only and a small pear-shaped bell, 
which is used at Bayreuth (see HOLZTROMPETE). The Swiss 
alpenhorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved 
near the bell in the Bernese Oberland. Michael Praetorius 
mentions the alpenhorn under the name of holzern trummet in 
Syntagma Musician (Wittenberg, 1615-1619). (K. S.) 

ALPES MARITIMES, a department in the S.E. of France, 
formed in 1860 out of the county of Nice, to which were added 
the districts of Grasse (formerly in the department of the Var) 
and of Mentone (purchased from the prince of Monaco). Pop. 
(1906) 334,007. It is bounded N.E. and E. by Italy, S. by the 
Mediterranean Sea, and W. by the departments of the Var and 
the Basses Alpes, while its northern extremity forms a sharp 
angle between France and Italy. Its area is 1444 sq. m., its 
greatest length is 59 m. and its greatest breadth 485 m. It is 
composed of the valley of the Var river (which is all but com- 
pletely within this department), together with those of its chief 
affluents, the Tinee and the Vesubie. The region of Grasse is 
hilly, but the rest of the department is mountainous, its loftiest 
point being the Mont Tinibras (9948 ft.) at the head of the Tinee 
valley. Two singular features of the frontier of the department 
towards the east are only to be explained by historical reasons. 
One is that the central bit of the Roja valley is French, while the 
upper and lower bits of this valley are Italian; the reason is that 
those bits which are now Italian formed part of the county of 
Ventimiglia, and the central bit part of the county of Nice, which 
alone became French in 1860. The result is that the Italians are 
now unable to build a railway from Cuneo by the Col de Tenda 
and down the Roja valley direct to Ventimiglia. The other 
strange feature is that from near Isola in the upper Tinee valley 
southwards the political frontier does not coincide with the 
physical frontier, or the main watershed of the Alpine chain; 
the reason (it is said) is that in 1860 all the higher valleys of the 
Maritime Alps (on both sides of the watershed) were expressly 
excepted from the treaty of cession, in order that Victor 
Emmanuel II. might retain his right of chamois hunting in these 
parts. The department is divided into three arrondissements 
(Nice, Grasse and Puget Theniers), 27 cantonsand isscommunes. 
It forms the bishopric of Nice (the first bishop certainly known 



is mentioned at the end of the 4th century), which till 1792 was 
in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, then (1802) in that of 
Aix en Provence, next in that of Genoa (1814), and finally (1860) 
in that of Aix again. Its chief town is Nice. The broad-gauge 
railways in the department cover 56 m., including the line along 
the coast, while there are also 82 m. of narrow-gauge railways. 
The chief industries are distilleries for perfumes and manufacture 
of olive oil, of pottery and of tiles, besides a great commerce 
in cut flowers. To foreigners the department is best known 
for its health resorts, Nice, Cannes, Mentone, Antibes and 
Beaulieu, while other important towns are Grasse and Puget 
Theniers. (W. A. B. C.) 

ALPHA and OMEGA (A and Q), the first and last letters of 
the Greek alphabet, corresponding to the Aleph and Taw of the 
Hebrew. They are used as a designation of Himself by the 
speakerinRev. i. 8; xxi.6; xxii. 13. The first and last letters of the 
Hebrew alphabet are used in Rabbinic writings in a similar way. 
We find also " the seal of God is-Emeth," Emeth (truth) being 
composed of the first, middle and last letters of the Hebrew 
alphabet. God is thus represented as the beginning, middle and 
end of all things (see the Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v.). 

ALPHABET (see also WRITING). By the word alphabet, 
derived from the Greek names for the first two letters alpha and 
beta of the Greek alphabet, is meant a series of conventional 
symbols each indicating a single sound or combination of sounds. 
The ideal alphabet would indicate one sound by one symbol, 
and not more than one sound by the same symbol. Symbols for 
a combination of sounds are not necessary, though they may be 
convenient as abbreviations. In the writing of some languages, 
e.g. Sanskrit, such abbreviations are carried to an extreme; 
in most Greek MSS. also they are of very frequent occurrence. 
These contractions, however, may prove too great a strain upon 
the eyesight or the memory, and thus become a hindrance instead 
of a help. This was apparently the case in Greek, for though the 
early printers cast types for all the contractions of the Greek 
MSS. these have now with one consent been given up. A con- 
sonant like x can only be regarded as an abbreviation; it ex- 
presses nothing that cannot as well be expressed by ks or gz, 
both of which combinations in different situations it may repre-- 
sent (seeX). No alphabet corresponds exactly to the ideal which 
we have postulated, nor if it did, would it continue long so to 
do, as the sounds of most languages are continually changing. 
Hence in the case of dead languages or past forms of living 
languages, it is often very difficult to define with precision what 
the sounds of the past epoch were. The study of the history of 
English pronunciation occupied the late Dr A. J. Ellis for a large 
part of his life, and the results fill five large volumes. The sounds 
which are most difficult to define exactly are the vowels; a great 
variety may be indicated by the same symbol. In the New 
English Dictionary no fewer than thirteen different nuances of 
vowel sound are distinguished under the symbol A alone. In 
English, moreover, the vowel sounds tend to become diphthongs, 
so that the symbol for the simple sound tends to become the 
symbol for that combination which we call a diphthong. Thus 
the long i in ride, wine, &c., has become the diphthongal, and the 
name of the symbol I is itself so pronounced. In familiar, if 
vulgar, dialects, A tends in the same direction. In the " cockney " 
dialect, really the dialect of Essex but now no less familiar in 
Cambridge and Middlesex, the ai sound of I is represented by oi as 
in toime, " time," while a has become ai in Kale, pane, &c. In 
all southern English o becomes more rounded while it is being 
pronounced, so that it ends with a slight u sound. In the vulgar 
dialect already mentioned, the sound begins as a more open sound 
than in the cultivated pronunciation, so that no is really pro- 
nounced as naou. It is clear, therefore, that the best alphabet 
would not long indicate very precisely the sounds which it was 
intended to represent. See PHONETICS. 

But the history of the alphabet shows that at no time has 
it represented any European language with much precision, 
because it was an importation adapted in a somewhat rough and 
ready fashion to represent sounds different from those which it 
represented outside Europe. Wherever the alphabet may have 



724 



ALPHABET 



originated, there seems no doubt that its first importation in a 
form closely resembling that with which we are familiar in modern 
times was from the Phoenicians to the Greeks. The Phoenicians 
were certainly using it with freedom in the gth century B.C.; 
with so much freedom, indeed, that they must have been in 
possession of it for a considerable time before we can trace it. 
With the materials available up to August 1910 it would be idle 
here to attempt to trace its earlier history. Great discoveries in 
Cappadocia, Assyria and Egypt were then only at their beginning, 
and any statement was liable to be quickly disproved by the appear- 
ance of new evidence. The prevalent theory, universally accepted 
till a few years ago, was that of Vicomte Emmanuel de Rouge, 
first propounded to the Academic des Inscriptions in 1859, but 
unnoticed by the world at large till republished, after de Rouge's 
death, by his son in 1874. According to this view the alphabet 
was borrowed by the Phoenicians from the cursive (hieratic) form 
of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The resemblances between some 
Egyptian symbols and some symbols of the Phoenician alphabet 
are striking; in other cases the differences are no less remarkable. 
As a matter of fact the Egyptians might have passed about 
thirty-five centuries B.C. from the picture writing of hieroglyphs 
to genuine alphabetic signs. 1 They did not, however, profit by 
their discovery, because, amongst the Egyptians, writing was 
clearly a mystery in both senses only possible at that period 
for masters in the craft, and also something, like the writing of 
medical prescriptions at the present day in Latin, which was not 
to be made too easily intelligible to the common people. At 
all periods, moreover, hieroglyphic writing was a branch of 
decorative art, and it may have been that the ancient Egyptian, 
like the modern Turk, resented too much lucidity, and liked his 
literary compositions to be veiled in a certain obscurity. The 
alphabet devised by the Egyptians consisted of twenty-four 
letters. Egyptologists are at variance on the question whether 
this alphabet was the original, or had any influence upon the 
development of the Phoenician alphabet. " With the papyrus 
paper," says Professor Breasted, 2 " the hand customarily 
written upon it in Egypt now made its way into Phoenicia, 
where before the loth century B.C. it developed into an alphabet 
of consonants, which was quickly transmitted to the Ionian 
Greeks and thence to Europe." On the other hand, Professor 
Spiegelberg, 3 writing soon after Professor Breasted, says that 
investigation has not as yet furnished proof that the Phoenician 
alphabet is of Egyptian origin, though he admits that in some 
respects the development of the two alphabets, both without 
vowel signs, is curiously parallel. 

The most recent view is that of Dr A. J. Evans, who argues 
ingeniously that the alphabet was taken over from Crete by the 
" Cherethites and Pelethites " or Philistines, who established for 
themselves settlements on the coast of Palestine. 4 From them 
it passed to the Phoenicians, who were their near neighbours, 
if not their kinsfolk. Symbols like the letters of the alphabet 
have been found in European soil painted upon pebbles belonging 
to a stratum between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic age. 6 This 
was in France at Mas d'Azil on the left bank of the Arize. Else- 
where several series of such symbols resembling inscriptions have 
been found scratched on bones of the same period. 6 For the 
history of writing these may be important, but for the history of 
the alphabet, as we know it, they are not in question. The 
alphabet may have originated as Dr Evans thinks, but at present 
the proof is not conclusive. The Greek names of the letters, 
their forms, and the order of the symbols show that the Greek 
alphabet as we know it must have been imported by or from a 
Semitic people, and there is no evidence to contradict ancient 
tradition that this people was the Phoenicians. The view pro- 

1 Breasted, History of Egypt (1906), p. 45. 

1 Op. cit. p. 484. 

1 Die Schrift und Sprache der alien Agypter (1907), p. 24. 

4 Scripta Minoa, i. (1909), 10, pp. 77 ff. 

6 E. Piette, L'Anlhropologie, vii. (1896) pp. 384 ff. 

E. Piette, L' Anthropologie, xvi. (1905) pp. 8-9. The apparent 
inscriptions of this period are conveniently collected and figured 
together in Dechelette's Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique celtique 
et gatto-romaine, i. (1908) p. 235. 



pounded by Deecke 7 in 1877, that the Phoenician alphabet 
had developed out of the late Assyrian cuneiform, never met with 
much acceptance and has really no evidence in its favour. 

The earliest alphabetic document which can be dated with 
comparative certainty is the famous Moabite stone, which was 
discovered in 1868, and after a controversy between rival 
claimants which led to its being broken in pieces by the Arabs, 
ultimately reached the Louvre, where in a restored form it re- 
mains. The long inscription upon it celebrates the achievements 
of Mesha, king of Moab, who had been a tributary of Ahab, 
king of Israel, and rebelled after his death (i Kings iii. 4, 5). 
Though the chronology of the period is somewhat uncertain, the 
date must be in the first half of the 9th century B.C. It is to be 
remembered, however, that important as this monument is for the 
development of the alphabet, and because it can be dated with 
tolerable accuracy, the dialect and alphabet of Moab are not 
in themselves proof for the Phoenician forms which influenced 
the peoples of the Aegean, and through them Western Europe. 
The fragment of a bronze bowl discovered in Cyprus in 1876, 
which bears round its edge an inscription dedicating it to Baal- 
Lebanon as a gift from a servant of Hiram, king of the Sidonians, 
is probably the oldest Phoenician document which we possess. 
This bowl, though perhaps a littleearlier than the Moabite stone, 
in all probability is not more than a century older, while some 
authorities think it is even later. The earliest alphabet consisted 
of twenty-two letters, and bears a very close resemblance to the 
earliest Greek alphabet from A toT. The symbols in the Greek 
alphabet from Y to fi, or in the numerical alphabet to 3) , are not 
found in the Phoenician alphabet. 

As already mentioned, the twenty-two symbols of the Phoe- 
nician alphabet indicate consonantal sounds only. Greek did not 
possess so many consonants. The Phoenician alphabet possessed 
many more aspirates than were required in Greek, which tended 
more and more to drop all its aspirates. Before history begins it 
had also lost, except sporadically in out-of-the-way dialects, the 
semi-vowel i (approximately English y). It therefore made the 
aspirates A, E, and the semi-vowel I into vowels, and apparently 
converted the semi- vowel Y = w )nto t^ 6 vowel Y = u, which 
it placed at the end of the alphabet and substituted for it as the 
sixth symbol of the alphabet the letter F with the old value of w. 
The superfluous sibilants were also adapted in various ways (see 
below). 

The discovery of a large number of very archaic inscriptions 
in the island of Thera, which was made by Freiherr Hiller von 
Gartringen in 1896, has shown that the earliest Greek /j e / a o on . 
alphabet was even more like the Phoenician than had ship of 
been heretofore believed. The symbol for /3 in Thera Greet to 
(Q) is nearer than any previously known to the ***< 
Semitic letter (^) though, as not infrequently happens 
in the transference of a symbol from one people to another, its 
position is inverted a fate which in this alphabet has befallen 
also X (Semitic U, Thera *!), and possibly <r (Semitic Y^> Thera 
M). The era of excavation initiated by Dr Schliemann on the 
grand scale has increased our knowledge of Greek inscriptions 
beyond anything that was earlier dreamt of. Besides the 
excavations of Athens, Delos, Epidaurus and Delphi, the results 
of which are most important for the 5th century B.C. and later, 
the exploration of the sites ofOlympia, of the Heraeum near 
Argos, of Naucratis in Egypt, and of various Cretan towns 
(above all the ancient Gortyn), has revolutionized our know- 
ledge of the archaic alphabets of Greece. We can now see 
how long and laborious was the process by which the Greeks 
attained to uniformity in writing and in numeration. In no 
field, perhaps, was the centrifugal tendency of the Greeks more 
persistent than in such matters. In numeration, indeed, uni- 
formity was not attained till at least the 2nd century of the 
Christian era. The differentiation of the local alphabets is found 

7 Der Ursprung des alt-semitischen Alphabets aus der neu-assyri- 
schen Keilschrift (ZDMG. xxxi. pp. IO2 ff.). A still more sweeping 
theory of the same nature is propounded by the Rev. C. J. Ball 
in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, xv. (1893) 
pp. 392 ff. 



ALPHABET 



725 



from the very beginning of our records. Unfortunately, as yet 
no record is preserved which can with any probability be dated 
earlier than the 7th century B.C., and the Phoenician influence 
had by then nearly ceased. How long this influence lasted we 
cannot tell. If in Crete a system of writing of an entirely different 
nature had been developed seven or eight centuries before, 
there must have been some very important reason for the entire 
abandonment of the old method and the adoption of a new. In 
Crete, at least, the excavations show that the old civilization 
must have ended in a social and political cataclysm. The magnifi- 
cent palace of Minos there seems no reason to withhold from it 
the name of the great prince whom Thucydides recognized as 
the first to hold the empire of the sea perished by the flames, 
and it evidently had been plundered beforehand of everything 
that a conqueror would regard as valuable. The only force in 
Greek history which we know that could have produced this 
change was that of the Dorian conquest. As everywhere in the 
Peloponnese, except at Argos, there seems to have been a sudden 
break with the earlier civilization, which can have been occasioned 
only by the semi-barbarous Dorian tribes, so the same result 
seems to have followed from the same cause in Thera. The 
Dorians apparently were without an alphabet, and consequently 
when Phoenician traders and pirates occupied the place left 
vacant by the downfall of Minos's empire, the people of the 
island, and of the sea coasts generally, adopted from them the 
Phoenician alphabet. 1 The Greeks who migrated to Cyprus, 
possibly as the result of the Dorian invasion, adopted a 
syllabary, not an alphabet (see Plate; also WRITING). That 
the alphabet was borrowed and adapted independently by 
different places not widely separated, and that the earliest 
Greek alphabets did not spread from one or a few centres 
in Greek lands, seem clear (a) from the different Greek 
sounds for which the Phoenician symbols were utilized; (b) 
from the different symbols which were employed to represent 
sounds which the Phoenicians did not possess, and for which, 
therefore, they had no symbols. The Phoenician alphabet was 
an alphabet of consonants only, but all Greek alphabets as yet 
known agree in employing A, E, I, O, Y as vowels. On the 
other hand, a table of Greek alphabets 2 will show how widely 
different the symbols for the same sound were. Except for a single 
Attic inscription (see Plate), the alphabets of Thera and of Corinth 
are the oldest Greek alphabets which we possess. Yet at Corinth 
alongside ^ ^, which is found for the so-called spurious diph- 
thong a (i.e. the Attic , which does not represent an Indo- 
European , but arises by contraction, as in (^iXeire, or through 
the lengthening of the vowel sound as the result of the loss of a 
consonant, as in ei/jTj/uei'os for FfFpri/jxvos) the short e sound is 
represented by B ; 'is found at Corinth in its oldest form ^ , 
and also as 2 , while in Thera it is $ In Thera the w sound of 
digamma (F) was entirely lost, and therefore is not represented. 
Both Thera and Corinth employ in the earliest inscriptions $ 
for f , not , though in both alphabets the ordinary use as is 
adopted, no doubt through the influence of trade with other 

1 In an excellent summary of the different views held as to the 
origin of the alphabet (Journal of the American Oriental Society, 
vol. xxii., first half, 1901), Dr J. P. Petersagrees (pp. 191 ff.) that 
the best test is the etymology of the names of the letters. He 
shows that " twelve of the letter- names are words with meanings 
[in the northern dialects of Semitic], all of them indicating simple 
objects, six of the twelve being parts of the body. The objects 
denoted by the other six names ox, house, valve of a door, water, 
Tfish and mark or cross clearly do not belong to any people in a 
nomadic state, but to a settled, town-abiding population. . . . 
Six of the letter-names are not words in any known tongue, and 
appear to be syllables only. Four letter-names are triliterals, and 
resemble in their form Semitic words." As n of the 12 which have 
meanings are to be found in the Assyrian-Babylonian syllabaries, 
he suggests a possible Babylonian origin. Different views with 
regard to some of these symbols are expressed by Lidzbarski, 
Ephe merisfur semitische Epigraphik, ii. pp. 1 25 ff. (1906). The earliest 
tradition of the names is discussed by Noldeke in his Beitrdge zur 
semitischen Sprachwissenschaft (1904), pp. 124 ff. 

2 See, for example, the tables at the end of Roberts's Introduction 
to Greek Epigraphy (1887); or Kirchhoff's Studien zur Geschichte des 
griechischen Alphabets (4th ed. 1887); or Larfeld's Handbuch der 
griechischen Epigraphik, vol. i. (1907). 



states. On the other hand, at Cleonae, which is distant not more 
than 8 or 9 m. from Corinth, an ancient inscription written 
f3ov<TTpo<t]dbv has recently been discovered, which shows that 
though Cleonae for B wrote rj~, like the Corinthian J 1 , and, 
as at Corinth, wrote & for a vowel sound, the vowel thus 
represented was not short and long e (e and )j) as at Corinth, 
but TJ only, as in X^A A, /*$ (XPW* A"?)- Here "^ repre- 
sents e, and the spurious diphthong is represented by , as in 
^\ ^( M I ^( ( e 'M* 1 ', Doric infinitive = elvai), a form which shows 
that i has at Cleonae the more modern form I as distinguished 
from the Corinthian ^. 3 

Regarding three other questions controversy still rages. These 
are : (a) how Greek utilized the four sibilants (Shin, Samech, Zain 
and Zade), which it took over from the Phoenician; (b) what was 
the history of development in the symbols for <f>, x, t, "> (the history 
of belongs to both heads) ; (c) the history of the symbol for the 
digamma F. 

In the Phoenician alphabet Zain was the seventh letter, occupying 
the same position and haying the same form approximately (l) 
as the early Greek Z, while in pronunciation it was a 
voiced s-sound; Samech (^) followed the 'symbol for n a " >et 
and was the ordinary i-sound, though, as we have seen, pho^alclua 
it is in different Greek states at the earliest period f as sibilant* 
well as ; after the symbol for p came Zade (fx), which 
was a strong palatal s, though in name it corresponds to the Greek 
fijTa; while lastly Shin (W) follows the symbol for r, and was an 
sh-sound. The Greek name for the sibilant ((rljtio) may simply mean 
the hissing letter and be a derivative from aifa ; many authorities, 
however, hold that it is a corruption of the Phoenician Samech. 
Unfortunately, it is not clear how many sibilants were distinguished 
in Greek pronunciation, nor over what areas a particular pronuncia- 
tion extended. There is, however, considerable evidence in support 
of the view that Greek air representing the sound arising from 
y, xy, ry, &y was pronounced as sh (f), while f representing gy, dy 
was pronounced in some districts zh (z).* 

On an inscription of Halicarnassus, a town which stood in ancient 
Carian territory, the sound of a<r in 'Akixapvaaaiwv is represented 
by T. as it is also in the ,Carian name Panyassis 1 (Han>&Tu>s, geni- 
tive), though the ordinary is also found in the same inscription. 
The same variation occurs at the neighbouring Teos and at Ephesus, 
while the coins of Mesembria in Thrace show regularly MET A and 
METAMBPIANUN, where T represents the sound which 
resulted from the fusion of Oy, and which appears in Homer as aa in 
ni<raos, while in later Greek it becomes /iiiffos. 6 This symbol f is in 
all probability the early form of the letter which was known to the 
Greeks as San (aiu>) and in modern times as Sampi, and which is 
utilized as the numeral for 900 in the shape ~Jf\- According to 
Herodotus (i. 139), San was only the Dorian name for the letter 
which the lonians called Sigma. This would bring it into connexion 
with the Phoenician W (Shin), which, turned through a right angle, 
is possibly the Greek 2 , though some forms of Zade on old Hebrew 
coins and gems ($ 2^.) equally resemble the Greek letter. From 
other forms of Sade, however, the other early form of a, viz. M, is 
probably derived. The confusion is thus extreme: the name Zade 
assimilated in Greek to the names fro. and Orjra. becomes fflro, 
though the form is that of Zain; the name of Samech is possibly 
the origin of Sigma, while the form of Samech is that of 3 which 
has not taken over a Phoenician name. It is probable that the form 
^\ is an abbreviation in writing from right to left of the earlier M, 
and of the four stroke $. That the confusion of the sibilants 
was not confined to the Greeks only, but that pronunciation varied 
within a small area even among the Semitic stock, is shown by the 
difficulty which the Ephraimites found in pronouncing " shibboleth " 
(Judges xii. 6). 

For the history of the additional symbols which are not Phoenician, 
we must begin with Y- There is no Greek alphabet in which the 
symbol is not represented. But the Phoenician form 
corresponding to it is the consonant w, and occupies the 
position of the Greek digamma as sixth in the series. ' 
Whence did the Greeks obtain the digamma? The <"X* ma - 
point is not clear, but probably the Greeks acted here as they did 
in the case of the vowel i and the consonant y, adopting the consonant 
symbol for the vowel sound. As, however, except in Cyprus, 
Pamphylia and Argos, the only y sound which survived in Greek 



* Cp. Frankel, Corpus inscriplionunt Graecarum Peloponnesi, {., 
No. 1607. 

4 See Witton, in American Journal of Philology, xix. pp. 420 ff., 
and Lagercrantz, Zur griechischen Lautgeschichte (Upsala, 1898). 

6 See Foat, " Tsade and Sampi " (Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxv. 
pp. 338 ff., xxvi. p. 286). A number of ingenious points often un- 
:ertain are raised by A. Gercke, " Zur Geschichte des altesten 
griechischen Alphabets " (Hermes, xli., 1906, pp. 540 ff.). 



726 



ALPHABET 



Greek 

aspirates, 

Ac. 



the glide between i and another vowel as in &ua = diya is never 
represented, there was no occasion to use the Phoenician Jod in a 
double function. With Vau it was different; the tt-sound. existed 
in some form in all dialects, the if-sound survived in many far into 
historical times. The Phoenician symbol having been adopted for 
the vowel sound, whence came the new symbol p or C for the 
digamma? Hitherto there have been two views. Most authorities 
have held that the new form was derived from E by dropping the 
lowermost crossbar; some have held that it developed out of the 
old Vau, a view which is not impossible in itself and has the similar 
development in Aramaic (Tema) in its favour. But as Dr Evans 
has found a form like the digamma among his most recent types of 
symbols, and as we have no intermediate forms which will prove the 
development of f? from Y , though the form found at Oaxos in 
Crete, viz. ft, shows a form sufficiently unlike f?, it is necessary to 
suspend judgment. 

The Greek aspirates were not the sounds which we represent by 
ph, th, ch (Scotch), but corresponded rather to the sound of the final 
consonants in such words as lip, bit, lick, the breath being 
audible after the formation of the consonant. It is not 
clear that Greek took over Q with this value, for in one 

Theran inscription g are found combined as equivalent 
to T H, while the regular representation of <j> and x is fl ) and 
K j, or <p (koppa) j^ respectively. In the great Gortyn inscription 
from Crete and occasionally in Thera, |"| (in Crete in the form c) and 
K are used alone for <t> and x, just as conversely even in the 5th 
century the name of Themistocles has been found upon an ostrakon 
spelt Qfvio8oii\rjs. Such confusions show that even to Greek ears 
the distinction between the sounds was very small. To have re- 
corded it in writing at all shows considerable progress in the obser- 
vation of sounds. Such progress is more easily indicated by changes 
in the symbols among a people whose acquaintance with the art is 
not of long standing nor very familiar. English, though possessing 
sounds comparable to the Greek 8, <p, x, has never made any attempt 
to represent them in writing. On the other hand, no doubt Athens 
in 403 B.C. officially adopted the Ionic alphabet and gave up the 
old Attic alphabet. The political situation in Athens, however, at 
this time was as exceptional as the French Revolution, and offered 
an opportunity not likely to recur for the adoption of a system 
in widely extended use which private individuals had been employing 
for a long time. 

The history of the symbols <f> and x is altogether unknown. The 
very numerous theories on the subject have generally been founded 
on a principle which itself is in need of proof, viz. that these symbols 
must have arisen by differentiation from others already existing in 
the alphabet. The explanation is possible, but it is not easy to see 
why, for example, the symbol <J> or <f = Koppa, the Latin Q, should 
have been utilized for a sound so different as p-h; nor, again, why 
the symbol for 8 () by losing its cross stroke should become </>, 
seeing that the sounds of 6 and <t> outside Aeolic (a dialect which is 
not here in question) are never confused. On the other hand, if 
we remember the large number of symbols belonging to the pre- 
historic script, it will seern at least as easy to believe that the persons 
who, by adding new letters to the Phoenician alphabet, attempted 
to bring the symbols more into accordance with the sounds of the 
Greek language, may have borrowed from this older script. It is 
now generally admitted that the improvements of the alphabet 
were made by traders in the interests of commerce, and that these 
improvements began from the great Greek emporia of Asia Minor, 
above all from Miletus. Symbols exactly like <t>, x, and t (, X, S') 
are found in the Carian alphabet, and transliterated by Professor 
Sayce l as v (and u), h and kh respectively. If the Carian alphabet 
goes back to the prehistoric script, why should not Miletus have 
borrowed them from it? We have already seen that, in the earliest 
alphabets of Thera and Corinth, the ordinary symbol for in the 
Ionic alphabet was used for f. This usage brought in its train 
another the use of \Jf , not for \l/ as in Ionic, but for in the name 
AAEH^A I CORA = 'AXtJa-yApo, and similarly in Melos, 
. PAY I l(CVA I ECA\ = npaWeos. 2 This experiment, for 
it was no more, belongs apparently to the latter part of the 6th 

'See especially Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology 
for 1895, p. 40; cf. also Kalinka, Neue Jahrbucher fur Philologie, 
iii. (1899), p. 683. Similar forms are also found in the Safa in- 
scriptions (South Semitic) with similar values, and Praetorius argues 
(Z.D.M.G. Ivi., 1902, pp. 677 ff., and again, Iviii., 1904, pp. 725 f.) 
that these were somehow borrowed by Greek in the 8th century B.C., 
while in Ixii. pp. 283 ff. he argues that the reason why the Greeks 
borrowed 6 for the aspirated / was its form, the cross in being re- 
garded as T and the surrounding circle as a variety of Dan occasional 
form of Q the aspirate. Here also (p. 287) as in his Ursprung des 
kanaanaischen Alphabets, pp. 13 f., he argues that the two forms of the 
digamma F and , and also the South Semitic o> = o>, could all 
have developed from the Cyprian I = we. But proof is impossible 
without evidence of the intermediate steps. 

2 Inscriptions Graecae, xii., fasc. iii. Nos. 811, 1149. 



I century, and was soon given up. As the lonians kept the form 4= 
which the people of Thera used for f, in the same position in their 
alphabet as Samech occupied in the Phoenician alphabet, there 
can be no doubt as to its origin. The symbol + which the Chalcidian 
Greeks used in the 6th century B.C. for { may be derived, according 
to the most widely accepted theory, from a primitive form of Samech 
ffl, which is recorded only in the abecedaria of the Chalcidian colonies 
in Italy. In this case the borrowing of the Greek alphabet must 
long precede any Phoenician record we possess. But it is not 
probable that the Ionic and Phoenician l developed independently 
from the closed form. Kretschmer, however, in several publications 3 
takes a different view. He thinks that the guttural element in | 
was a spirant, and therefore different from x, which 1 is an aspirate. 
He points out that in Naxos, in a 6th-century inscription, 4 { in 
Norton, l&xos and *pAou is represented by Q 5> the nrst element 

in which he regards as a form of = A. As x is found in the 
same inscription (in the form x), the guttural element must have 
been different, else would have been spelt \S- Attica and most of 
the Cyclades kept x for the guttural element in (written X or 
and for x as well. On the west of the Aegean a new symbol 
was invented for the aspirate value, and this spread over the main- 
land and was carried by emigrants to Rhodes, Sicily and Italy. The 
sign x was kept in the western group for the guttural spirant in , 
which was written X; but, as this spirant occurred nowhere else, 
the combination was often abbreviated, and X was used for X 
precisely as in the Italic alphabets we shall find that F =/ develops 
out of a combination FH. 

The development of symbols for the long vowels 17 and u was also 
the work of the lonians. The ft-sound ceased at a very early period 
to exist in Ionic, and by 800 B.C. was ignored in writing. The symbol 
or H was then employed for thelongopene-sound.ause suggested 
by the name of the letter, which, by the loss of the aspirate, had 
passed from Heta to Eta. About the same period, and probably as 
a sequel to this change, the Greeks of Miletus developed fi for the 
long open o-sound, a form which in all probability is differentiated 
out of O. Centuries passed, however, before this symbol was gener- 
ally adopted, Athens using only O for o, <o and ov, the spurious 
diphthong, until the adoption of the whole Ionic alphabet in 403 B.C. 5 

The discoveries of the last quarter of the loth century carried 
back our knowledge of the Latin alphabet by at least two 
centuries, although the monuments of an early age 
which have been discovered are only three, (a) In 1880 
was discovered between the Quirinal and Viminal hills 
a little earthenware pot of a curious shape, being, as it were, 
three vessels radiating from a centre, each with a separate mouth 
at the top. 6 Round the sides of the triangle formed by the three 
vessels and under the mouths runs an inscription of considerable 
length. The use for which the pot was intended and the purport 
of the inscription have been much disputed, there being at least 
as many interpretations as there are words in the inscription. 
The date is probably the early part of the 4th century B.C. 
Though found in Rome, the vessel is small enough to be easily 
portable, and might therefore have been brought from elsewhere 
in Italy. It is equally possible that the potter who 
inscribed the words upon it was not a native of Rome. Ov * nos ,-. 
One or two points in the inscription make it doubtful scription. 
whether the Latin upon it is really the Latin of Rome. 
It is generally known as the Dvenos inscription, from the name 
of the maker who wrote on the vessel from right to left the in- 
scription, part of which is DVENOS MED FECED (= fecit)." 
(b) The second 'of these early records is the inscription on a gold 
fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887. The inscription 
runs from right to left, and is in letters which show more clearly 
than ever that the Roman alphabet is borrowed from the alphabets 
of the Chalcidian Greek colonies in Italy. Its date cannot be later 
than the 5th and is possibly as early as the 6th century B.C. The* 
words are MANIOS MED FHEFHAKED NVMASIOI, 
" Manius made me for Numasius." The symbol for M 
has still five strokes, s has the angular form $, $. The p^ eneste 
inscription is earlier than the Latin change of s between fibula, 
vowels into r, for Numasioi is the dative of the oldei 
form which corresponds to the later Numerius. The verb form 

8 See especially Athenische Mitteilungen, xxi. p. 426. 

4 Figured in Roberts's Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, p. 65. 

6 Details of the history of the individual letters will be found in 
separate articles. 

It is figured most accessibly in Egbert's Introduction to the Study 
of Latin Inscriptions, p. 16. 



ALPHABET 



727 



is remarkable. In the Dvenos inscription the perfect of facio is 
feced; here it is a reduplicated form with the same vowel as the 
present. The spelling also is interesting. The symbol K is still in 
ordinary use, and not merely used for abbreviations as in the 
classical age. But most remarkable is the representation of 
Latin F by FH. The reason for this is clear. The value of F in 
the Greek alphabet is w and not / as in Latin. Greek had no 
sound corresponding to Latin F, consequently an attempt is 
made by combining F and H to indicate the difference of sound. 
Etruscan uses FH in the same way. As Latin, however, made 
the symbol V indicate not only the vowel sound , but also the 
consonant sound 11 (i.e. English w), the sign for the di gamma 
F was left unemployed, and as FH was a cumbrous method of 
representing a sound which did not exist in Greek, the second 
element came to be left out in writing. Thus F came to be the 
representative of the unvoiced labiodental spirant instead of that 
for the bilabial voiced spirant. Whether the form fefaked was 
ever good Latin in Rome may be doubted, for the Romans, 
in spite of the few miles that separate Praeneste from Rome, 
were inclined to sneer at the pronunciation and idiom of the 
Praenestines (cf. Plautus, Trin. 609, True. 691 ; Quintilian 
' Si 56). (c) The last, and in some respects the most important, 
of these records was found in 1899 under an ancient pavement 
in the Comitium at the north-west corner of the Roman Forum. 
It is engraved upon the four sides and one bevelled edge of a 

pillar, the top of which has been broken off. As the 
scription.' writing ]S Povo-rpo<t>ri56v, beginning at the bottom of 

the pillar and running upwards and down again, no 
single line of the inscription is complete. Probably more 
than half the pillar is lost, so that it is not possible to make 
out the sense with certainty. The inscription is probably not 
older than that on the fibula from Praeneste, but has the addi- 
tional interest of being undoubtedly couched in the Latin of 
Rome. The surviving portion of the inscription contains 
examples of all the letters of the early alphabet, though the forms 
of F and B are fragmentary and doubtful. As in the Praenestine 
inscription, the alphabet is still the western (Chalcidian) alphabet. 
K is still in use as an ordinary consonant, and not limited to a 
symbol for abbreviations as in the classical period. The rounded 
form of 7 is found with the value of G in RECE I, which is probably 
the dative oirex. H has still the closed form 0, M has the five- 
stroke form, S is the three-stroke^, tending to become rounded. 
R appears in the Greek form without a tail, and V and Y are both 
found for the same sound. The manner of writing up and down 
instead of backwards and forwards across the stone is obviously 
appropriate to a surface which is of considerable length, but com- 
paratively narrow, a connected sense being thus much easier to 
observe' than in writing across a narrow surface where, as in the 
gravestones of Melos, three lines are required for a single word. 
The form of the monument corresponds to that which we are told 
was given to the revolving wooden pillars on which the laws of 
Solon were painted. That the writing of Solon's laws, which 
was 0ovaTpo(frr]56v, was also vertical is rendered probable by 
the phrase 6 KarwOtv cogues in Demosthenes' speech Against 
Aristocrates, 28, for which Harpocration is unable to supply 
a satisfactory explanation. 

The differentiation of the Roman alphabet from the Greek is 
brought about (a) by utilizing the digamma for the unvoiced labio- 
dental spirant F; (b) by dropping out the aspirates 6, <t>, 
Dlfferen- x (\y m the Chalcidian alphabet, whence the Roman is 
nation ot derived) from the alphabet proper and employing them 
from'o'reeJt only as numerals ' e () bein gradually modified till it 
alphabet. was identified with C as though the initial of centum, 100. 
Similarly Q) became in time identified with M as though the 
initial of mille, 1000, and the side strokes of x in the above form 
were flattened out till it became X, and ultimately L, 50. (c) After 
350 B.C., at latest, there was in Latin no sound corresponding to Z, 
which was therefore dropped. In the Chalcidian alphabet the 
symbol for x was placed after the symbols common to all Greek 
alphabets, a position which X retains in the Latin (and also in the 
Faliscan) alphabet. K in time passed out of use except as an 
abbreviation, its place being taken by C, which, as we have seen, 
is in the earliest inscription still g. Three points here require ex- 
planation: (l) Why K fell into disuse; (2) why C took the place of 



K; (3) why the new symbol G was put in the place of the lost Z. 
It is clear that C must have become an equivalent of K before 
the latter fell out of use. There is some evidence which seems to 
point to a pronunciation of the voiced mutes which, like the South 
German pronunciation of g, d, b, but slightly differentiated them 
from the unvoiced mutes, so that confusion might easily arise. The 
Etruscans, who were separated from the Romans only by the Tiber, 
gradually lost the voiced mutes. But another cause was perhaps more 
potent. C and 1C, as k was frequently written, would easily be con- 
fused in writing, and Professor Hempl (Transactions of the American 
Philological Association for 1899, pp. 24 ff.) shows that the Chalcidian 
form of s" I developed into shapes which might have partaken of 
the confusion. Owing to this confusion, the new symbol G, differ- 
entiated from C, took the place of the useless I. In abbreviations, 
however, C remained as before in the value of G, as in the names 
Gaius and Gnaeus. Y and Z were added in the last century of the 
republic for use in transliterating Greek words containing v and f. 1 

The dialect which was most closely akin to Latin was Faliscan. 
The men of Falerii, however, regularly took the side of the Etrus- 
cans in wars with Rome, and it is clear that the civilization of the 
old Falerii, destroyed for its rebellion in 241 B.C., was Etruscan 
and not Roman in character. Peculiar to this alphabet is the form 
for/ IV Much more important than the scanty remains of Faliscan 
is the Oscan alphabet. The history of this alphabet is different 
from that of Rome. It is certain from the symbols which they 
develop or drop that the people of Campania and Samnium borrowed 
their alphabet from the Etruscans, who held dominion in Campania 
from the 8th to the 5th century B.C. Previous to the Punic wars 
Campania had reached a higher stage of civilization than Rome. 
Unfortunately, the remains of that civilization are very scanty, 
and our knowledge of the official alphabet outside Capua, and at 
a later period Pompeii, is practically confined to two important 
inscriptions, the tabula Agnonensis, now in the British Museum, 
and the Cippus Abellanus, which is now kept in the Episcopal 
Seminary at Nola. Of Etruscan origin also is the Umbrian alphabet, 
represented first and foremost in the bronze tablets from Gubbio 
(the ancient Iguvium). The Etruscan alphabet, like the Latin, 
was of Chalcidian origin. That it was borrowed at an early date 
is shown by the fact that most of its numerous inscriptions run 
from right to left, though some are written 0ovarpo<t>riS6v. That it 
took over the whole Chalcidian alphabet is rendered probable by 
the survival in Umbrian and Oscan, its daughter alphabets, of 
forms which are not found in Etruscan itself! This mysterious 
language, despite the existence of more than 6000 inscriptions, and 
the publication in 1892 of a book written in the language and handed 
down to us by the accident of its use to pack an Egyptian mummy, 
remains as obscure as ever, but apparently it underwent very great 
phonetic changes at an early period, so that the voiced mutes B, 
D, G disappeared. Of the existence of the vowel O there is no 
evidence. If it ever existed in Etruscan, it had been lost before the 
Oscans and Umbrians borrowed their alphabets. On the other 
hand, both of their alphabets preserve B and Umbrian G in the 
form >. Etruscan also retained this symbol in the form 3, and 
utilized it exactly as Latin did to replace }T Oscan, in order to 
represent D, introduced later a form 5J, thus creating confusion 
between the symbols for d and for r. This form was adopted for 
d because Q had already been borrowed from Etruscan as the symbol 
for r, although S is also found on Etruscan inscriptions. For the 
Greek digamma Etruscan used both J and ;j, but the former only 
was borrowed by the other languages. Etruscan, like Latin, used 
Q "^ (from right to left) to represent the sound of Latin F, but, 
unlike Latin, adopted Q not 'Oi as the single symbol. This form it 
then wrote as two lozenges g, whence developed a later sign, 8. 
which is used also in Umbrian and Oscan. As the old digamma 
was kept, this new sign was placed after those borrowed from the 
Chalcidian alphabet. Similarly it used "^ and I for the Chalcidian 
f; Umbrian borrowed the first, Oscan the second form. The form 
for h was still closed H. which Etruscan passed on to Oscan, while 
Umbrian modified it to (J). The form for m has five strokes ; from 
a later form p|^ the Oscan form was borrowed. Of the two sibilants, 
M and ^ or S, Oscan adopted only ^, Umbrian both M and the 
rounded form S. 9 ' s found on Etruscan inscriptions, but not in 
the alphabet series preserved; neither Umbrian nor Oscan has this 
form. T appears in Etruscan as y, /, and X; of these Umbrian 
borrows the first two, while Oscan has a form T like Latin. Etruscan 
took over the three Greek aspirates, 9, <t>, x. in their Chalcidian 
forms; 8 survives in Umbrian as O, the others naturally disappear. 
Both Umbrian and Oscan devised two new symbols. Umbrian 

1 Gardthausen, " Ursprung und Entwickelung der griechisch- 
lateinischen Schrift " (Germanisch-romanischeMonatsschrift, i. (1909)' 
PP- 337 ff-) argues for a " proto-Tyrrhenian " alphabet from which 
Etruscan, Umbrian and Oscan descended as one group, and Faliscan 
and Latin as the other. Evidence in favour of such a position for 
the Latin alphabet is not forthcoming. 



728 



ALPHABET 



took over from Etruscan perhaps the sign CJ, but gave it the new 
value of a spirant which developed out of an earlier d-sound, but 
which is written in the Latin alphabet with rs. The second Umbrian 
symbol was d, which was the representative of an s-sound developed 
by palatalizing an earlier k. In Oscan, which had an o-sound, but 
no symbol for it, a new sign was invented by placing a dot between the 
legs of the symbol for u V- This, however, is found only in the 
best-written documents, and on some materials the dot cannot be 
distinguished. The symbol I- was invented for the open i-sound 
and close e-sound. 1 At a much later epoch it was introduced into 
the Latin alphabet by the emperor Claudius to represent y, and the 
sound which was written as i or u in maximus, maxumus, &c. 

Besides the Italic alphabets already mentioned, which are all 
derived from the alphabet of the Chalcidian Greek colonists in 
Italy, there were at least four other alphabets in use in different 
parts of Italy: (l) the Messapian of the south-east part of the penin- 
sula, in which the inscriptions of the Illyrian dialect in use there 
were written, an alphabet which, according to Pauli (Alt-italische 
Forschungen, iii. chap, ii.) was borrowed from the Locrian alphabet; 
(2) the Sabellic alphabet, derived from that of Corinth and Corcyra, 
and found in a few inscriptions of eastern-central Italy; (3) the 
alphabet of the Veneti of north-east Italy derived from the Elean; 
(4) the alphabet of Sondrio (between Lakes Como and Garda), 
which Pauli, on the insufficient ground that it possesses no symbols 
corresponding to 4> and x. derives from a source at the same stage 
of development as the oldest alphabets of Thera, Melos and Crete. 

From the fact that upon the Galassi vase (unearthed at Cervetri, 
but probably a-product of Caere), which is now in the Gregorian 
Museum of the Vatican, a syllabary is found along with one of the 
most archaic Greek alphabets, and that a similar combination was 
found upon the wall of a tomb at Colle, near Siena, it has been 
argued that syllabic preceded alphabetic writing in Italy. But a 
syllabary where each syllable is made by the combinations of a 
symbol for a consonant with that for a vowel can furnish no proof 
of the existence of a syllabary in the strict sense, where each symbol 
represents a syllable; it is rather evidence against the existence 
of such writing. The syllabary upon the Galassi vase indicates in 
all probability that the vase, which resembles an ink-bottle, be- 
longed to a child, for whose edification the syllables pa, pi, pe, pu 
and the rest were intended. The evidence adduced from the Latin 
grammarians, and from abbreviations on Latin inscriptions like 
lubs for lubens, is not sufficient to establish the theory. 

It has been argued that the runes of the Teutonic peoples 
have been derived from a form of the Etruscan alphabet, in- 
Trf ni scr 'P tIons i n which are spread over a great part of 
runes"' northern Italy, but of which the most characteristic 
are found in the neighbourhood of Lugano, and in Tirol 
near Innsbruck, Botzen and Trent. The Danish scholar L. F. A. 
Wimmer, in his great work Die Runenschrifl (Berlin, 1887), 
contends that the resemblance, though striking, is superficial. 
Wimmer's own view is that the runes were developed from the 
Latin alphabet in use at the end of the 2nd century A.D. Wimmer 
supports his thesis with great learning and ingenuity, and when 
allowance is made for the fact that a script to be written upon 
wood, as the runes were, of necessity avoids horizontal lines 
which run along the fibres of the wood, and would therefore be 
indistinct, most of the runic signs thus receive a plausible 
explanation. The strongest argument for the derivation from 
the Latin alphabet is undoubtedly the value of /attaching to (^ ; 
for, as we have seen, the Greek value of this symbol is w, and its 
value as /arises only by abbreviation from FH. On the other 
hand, several of Wimmer's equations are undoubtedly forced. 
Even if we grant that the Latin symbols were inverted or set at 
an angle (a proceeding which is paralleled by the treatment of 
the Phoenician signs in Greek hands), so that fl represents 
Latin V, M Latin E, N Latin V, and j> Latin D; while the 
symbol for the voiced spirant S is J> doubled, ^, [X], it is diffi- 
cult to believe that the symbol for the spirant g, viz. X, repre- 
sents a Latin K (which was of rare occurrence), or again ""(<., 5< 
a Latin N,orthatthesymbolforng, ^, represents < = c doubled. 
Moreover, the date of the borrowing seems too late. The runes 
are found in all Teutonic countries, and the Romans were inclose 
contact with the Germans on the Rhine before the beginning 

1 For further details of these alphabets, see Cpnway, The Italic 
Dialects, ii. pp. 458 ff. The recent discovery by Keil and Premerstein 
(Denkschriften der Wiener A kademie, liii., 1908) of Lydian inscriptions 
containing the symbol e suggests that the old derivation of the 
Etruscans from Lydia may be true and that they brought this 
symbol with them (see article on F). But the inscriptions are not yet 
deciphered, so that conclusive proof is still wanting. 



of the Christian era. We hear of correspondence between the 
Romans and German chieftains in the early days of the empire. 
It is strange, therefore, if the Roman alphabet, which formed the 
model for the runes, was that of two whole centuries later, and 
even then the formal alphabet of inscriptions. By that time 
the Teutons were likely to have more convenient materials than 
wood whereon to write, so that the adaptation of the forms 
would not have been necessary. That the Germans were familiar 
with some sort of marks on wood at a much earlier period is shown 
by Tacitus's Germania, chap. x. There we are told that for pur- 
poses of divination certain signs were scratched on slips of wood 
from a fruit-bearing tree (including, no doubt, the beech; cp. 
book, German Buck, and Buchstabe, a letter of the alphabet) ; the 
slips were thrown down promiscuously on a white cloth, whence 
the expert picked them up at random and by them interpreted 
fate. In these slips we have the origin of the Norse kefli, the 
Scots kaivel, which were and are still used as lots. The fisher- 
men of north-east Scotland, when they return after a successful 
haul, divide the spoil into as many shares as there are men in 
the boat, with one share more for the boat. Each man then pro- 
cures a piece of wood or stone, on which he puts a private mark. 
These lots are put in a heap, and an outsider is called in who 
throws one lot or kaivel upon each heap of fish. Each fisherman 
then finds his kaivel, and the heap on which it lies is his. This 
system of " casting kaivels," as it is called, is certainly of great 
antiquity. But its existence will not help to prove an early 
knowledge of reading or writing, for in order that everything may 
be fair, it is clear that the umpire should not be able to identify 
the lot as belonging to a particular individual. It has, however, 
been contended that a system of primitive runes existed whence 
some at least of the later runes were borrowed, and the ownership 
marks of the Lapps, who have no knowledge of reading and 
writing, have been regarded as borrowed from these early 
Teutonic runes. 2 Be this as it may, the resemblances between 
the runic and the Mediterranean alphabets are too great to admit 
of denial that it is from a Greek alphabet, whether directly or 
indirectly, that the runes are derived. That Wimmer postdates 
the introduction of the runic alphabet seems clear from the 
archaic forms and method of writing. It is very unlikely that a 
people borrowing an alphabet which was uniformly written from 
left to right should have used it in order to write from right to 
left, or povcrTpo<t>r)56v. Hence Hempl contends 3 that Wimmer's 
view must be discarded, and that the runes were derived about 
600 B.C. from a western Greek alphabet which closely resembled 
the Formello alphabet (one of the ancient Chalcidian abecedaria) 
and the Sabellic and North Etruscan alphabets. He thus fixes 
the date at the same period as Isaac Taylor had done in his 
Greeks and Goths and The Alphabet. Taylor, however,, derived 
the runes from the alphabet of a Greek colony on the Black Sea. 
Hempl's initiative was followed by Professor Gundermann of 
Giessen, who announced in November 1897 4 that he had dis- 
covered the source of the runic alphabet, the introduction of 
which he declares preceded the first of the phonetic changes 
known as the "Teutonic sound-shifting," since < = gisused for k, 
X = x for g, a Theta-like symbol for d, while zd is used for si. 
If this view (which is identical with Taylor's) be true, we have 
a parallel in the Armenian alphabet, which is similarly used for 
a new value of the sounds. Hempl, on the other hand, contends 
that the sound-shifting had already taken place, and, arguing 
that several of the symbols have changed places (e.g. \ f and 
^ a, O u and 9 b, because at this time b was a bilabial spirant 
and not a stop), ultimately obtains an order abdefz kgw 
h i J 4\r prstulmnSo. As neither Gundermann nor Hempl 
has published the full evidence for his view, no definite conclusion 
at the moment is possible. 

1 R. M. Meyer, Paul Braune und Sievers' Beitrage, xxi. (1896), 
pp. 162 ff. 

3 In a paper published in the volume of Philologische Sludien, pre- 
sented as a " Festgabe " to Professor Sievers in 1896, and in a second 
paper in the Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. (1899), pp. 370 ff. 

4 See Literaturblatt fur germanische und romanische Philologie for 
1897, col. 429 f. 



ALPHABET 



PLATE 





4* 





Inscribed Pebbles from Mas d'Azil. 








Gold Fibula from Praeneste, with Early Latin Inscription. 
Right to left. 




Vadstena Pendant, with Runic Alphabet; 
about A.D. 600. 



Prehistoric Linear Script from Crete. 



.* 2. A-p tfc 



S o 



oK I OF o\ M 



Cyprian Inscription (4th century B.C.) from Curium (British Afuseum Excavations, p. 64). Below are (i) the transliteration of the 
symbols; (2) the Greek words, both like the Cyprian reading from right to left. 




Oldest Attic Inscription. From a Dipylon Vase probably of 8th century B.C. Right to left. 





Inscription on Buddha Vase, perhaps 4th century B.C. 



I. 728. 



ALPHABET 



729 



In one of the earliest runic records which we possess, the pendant 
found at Vadstena in Sweden in 1774. and dating from about 
Ogam A "? 6 (^ ee Pl ate ). the signs are divided up into three 

writing. series of eight (the twenty fourth, &fl, being omitted 
for want of room). Upon the basis of this division a 
system of cryptography (in the sense that the symbols are unintel- 
ligible without knowledge of the runic alphabet) was developed, 
wherein the series and the position within the series of the letter 
indicated, were each represented by straight strokes, the strokes 
for the series being shorter than those for the runes, or the series 
being represented by strokes to the left, the runes by strokes to the 
right, of a medial line. 1 From this system probably developed the 
ogam writing employed among the Celtic peoples of Britain and 
Ireland. The ogam inscriptions in Wales are frequently accom- 
panied by Latin legends, and they date probably as far back as the 
5th and 6th centuries A D. Hence the connexion between Celt and 
Teuton as regards writing must go back to a period preceding the 
Viking inroads of the 8th century. Taylor, however, conjectures 
(The Alphabet, ii. p 227) that the ogams originated in Pembroke, 
" where there was a very ancient Teutonic settlement, possibly of 
Jutes, who. as is indicated by the evidence of runic inscriptions 
found in Kent, seem to have been the only Teutonic people of southern 
Britain who were acquainted with the Gothic Futhoro." However 
this may be, the ogam alphabet shows some knowledge of phonetics 
and some attempt to classify the sounds accordingly. The symbols 
are as follows 8 : 



much discussion authorities on Slavonic seem generally agreed that 
it was the Glagolitic (the name is derived from the Old Bulgarian, 
i.e old ecclesiastical Slavonic glagolu, " word "). According to 
Professor Leskien (Grammatik der altbulgarischen (altkirchenslavi- 
schen) Sprache, Heidelberg, 1909, p. xxi.), Cyril had probably made 
a prolonged and careful study of Slavonic before proceeding on his 
missionary journey, and probably in the first instance with a view 
to preaching the Gospel to the Slavs of Macedonia and Bulgaria, 
who were much nearer his own home, Thessalonica, than were those 
of Moravia. The Glagolitic was founded upon the ordinary Greek 
minuscule writing of the period, as was shown by Dr Isaac Taylor,* 
though the writing of the letters separately without abbreviations 
and an obvious attempt at artistic effect has gradually differentiated 
it from Greek writing. This alphabet, which is much more difficult 
to read than the bolder Cyrillic founded on the Greek uncial, sur- 
vived for ordinary purposes in Croatia and in the islands of the 
Quarnero till the I7th century. The Servians and Russians ap- 
parently always used the Cyrillic, and its advantages gradually 
ousted the Glagolitic elsewhere, though the service book in the old 
ecclesiastical language which is used by the Roman Catholic Croats 
is in Glagolitic. 4 

While the Carian and Lycian were probably independent of the 
Greek in origin, so, too, at the opposite end of the Mediterranean 
was the Iberian. On the other hand, the Phrygian was Phrygian. 
very closely akin to the Greek in alphabet as well as in 
linguistic character. The Greek alphabet, with which it was most 



Symbols of Ogam Alphabet. 



ft d t c 

1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 


, m 

1 1 / 


3 

II 


ng fi.fi) 
III III! 


r 
1 It 1 1 




1 II Ml MM 


i 

till 


1 




1 II III MM Mill / 
b I v * n 


II 


Ill Illl 


711 1 1 


I ii ill i ri i" 


1 1 1 1 


1 



The form of the ojram alphabet made it easy to carve hastily; 
hence in the old sagas, when a hero is killed we find the common 
formula. '' His grave was dug and his stone was raised, and his 
name was written in ogam." According to Sophus Miiller (Nordische 
Altertumskunde, ii. p. 264), jt was from Britain that the use of runes 
upon gravestones was derived, a use which, to judge from the 
number of bilingual inscriptions in Britain, the Celts derived from 
the Romans. 

The special forms of the alphabet the Cyrillic and the Glagolitic 
which have been adopted by certain of the Slavonic peoples are 
both sprung directly frrm the Greek alphabet of the ninth century 
A.D , with the considerable additions rendered necessary by the 
much greater variety of sounds in Slavonic as compared with Greek. 
Apart from other evidence, the use of B with the value of v, of H 
as well as I with the value of i, of * with the value of/, and X with 
that of the Scotch ch, would be proof that the alphabet was not 
borrowed till long after the Greek classical period, for not till later 
did 0, <i>. x become spirants and 17 become identified with i. The 
confusion of /3 with v necessitated the invention of a new symbol 
B in the Cyrillic, Ki in the Glagolitic for 6, while new symbols were 
also required for the sounds or combinations of sounds z (zh), dz, st 
(sht), c (ts), c (ch in church), $ (sh), ii, i, y (u without protrusion of the 
lips), e (a close long e sound), for the combination of o, a and e with 
consonantal I (English y) and for the nasalized vowels e, q, (nasalized 
o in pronunciation) and the combinations j and ja (English ye,, yq). 
In all these matters Glagolitic differs very little from Cyrillic; it 
has only one symbol for ja (ya) and e because both in this dialect 
were pronounced the same. It has also only one symbol for e and 
je (ye) for the phonetic reason that je always appears in the old 
ecclesiastical Slavonic, for which the alphabets were fashioned, at 
the beginning of words and after vowels: cp. the English use of the 
symbol u in unspoken and uniform. Glagolitic has a symbol for 
the palatalized g (3), but it is used only in the transcription of Greek 
words, y having become y early between vowels in the popular 
dialects. 

Such an elaborate alphabet could hardly have been invented 
except by a scholar, and tradition, probably rightly, has attached 
the credit for its invention to Cyril (originally Constantine), who 
along with his brother Methodius proceeded in A.D. 863 to Moravia 
from Constantinople, for the purpose of converting the Slavonic 
inhabitants to Christianity. The only question which concerns us 
here is which of the two alphabets was the earlier in use, and after 

1 A species of cryptography exactly like this, based upon the 
" abjad ' order of the Arabic letters, is still in use among the Eastern 
Persians (E. G. Browne, A Year amongst the Persians, p. 391 f.). 

1 Cf. Rh<>s, Outlines of Manx Phonology, p. 73 (Publications of the 
Manx Society, vol. xxxiij.) ; Rhys and Brynmor Jones, The Welsh 
People, pp 3, 502. An interpretation of the oldest ogam inscrip- 
tions is given by Whitley Stokes in Bezzenberger's Beitrage, xi, (1886), 
p 143 ff Besides the collections of ogams by Brash (1879) _and 
Ferguson (1887), a new collection by Mr R. A. S. Macalister is in 
course of publication (Studies in Irish Epigraphy, 1897, 1902, 1907). 
Professor Rhys, who at one time considered runes and ogam to_be 
connected, now thinks that ogam was the invention of a grammarian 
in South Wales who was familiar -with Latin letters. 



closely connected, was the Western, for the evidence is strongly in 
favour of the form *jf having the value of x< n ot ^, in Phrygian, as 
it certainly has in the Etruscan inscription found on Lemnos in 
1886, which is in an alphabet practically identical. 

To a much later era belongs the Armenian alphabet, which, 
according to tradition, was revealed to Bishop Mesrob in a dream. 
The land might have been Grecized had it not, about Armenian. 
A.D. 387, been divided between Persia and Byzantium, 
the greater part falling to the former, who discouraged Greek and 
favoured Syriac, which the Christian Armenians did not understand. 
As those within Persian territory were forbidden to learn Greek, 
an Armenian Christian literature became a necessity. Taylor 
contends that the alphabet is Iranian in origin, but the cirrum, 
stances justify Gardthausen and Hiibschmann in claiming it for 
Greek. That some symbols are like Persian only shows that 
Mesrob was not able to rid himself of the influences under which 
he lived. 

Of the later development of Phoenician amongst Phoenician 
people little need be said here. It can be traced in the graffiti of 
the mercenaries of Psammetichus at Abu Simbel in Upper Egypt, 
where Greeks, Carians and Phoenicians all cut their names upon 
the legs of the colossal statues. Still later it is found on the stele 
of Byblos, and on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (about 300 B.C.). 
The most numerous inscriptions come from the excavations in 
Carthage, the ancient colony of Sidon. One general feature char- 
acterizes them all, though they differ somewhat in detail. The 
symbols become longer and thinner; infect, cease to be the script 
of monuments and become the script of a busy trading people. 
While the Phoenician alphabet was thus fertile in developing 
daughter alphabets in the West, the progress of writing was no less 
great in the East, first among the Semitic peoples, and through 
them among other peoples still more remote. The carrying of the 
alphabet to the Greeks by the Phoenicians at an early period affords 
no clue to the period when Semitic ingenuity constructed an alphabet 
out of a heterogeneous multitude of signs. If it be possible to assign 
to some of the monuments discovered in Arabia by Glaser a date 
not later than 1500 B.C., the origin of the alphabet and its dissemina- 
tion are carried back to a much earlier period than had hitherto been 
supposed. Next in date amongst Semitic records of the Phoenician 
type to the bowl of Baal-Lebanon and the Moabite stone comes 
the Hebrew inscription found in the tunnel at the Pool of Siloam in 
1881, which possibly dates back to the reign of Hezekiah (700 B.C.). 
The only other early records are seals with Hebrew inscriptions and 
potters' marks upon clay vessels found in Lachish and other towns.* 

8 Archiv fitr slavische Philologie, v. 191 ff., where the Glagolitic 
and the cursive Greek, the Cyrillic and the Greek uncial are set side 
by side in facsimile. 

4 For further details and references to literature see the intro- 
duction to Leskien's Grammatik (not to be confused with his Hand- 
buck), from which this is abbreviated. 

6 These are figured most accessibly in Lidzbarski's article on the 
alphabet in the Jewish Encyclopaedia, vol. i. (1901); see also his 
table of symbols added to the 2yth edition of Gesenius' Hebrdischer 
Grammatik (1902). 



730 



ALPHABET 



Like the Phoenician, these Hebrew signs are distinctly cursive in 
character, but, as the legend on the coins of the Maccabees shows, 
became stereotyped for monumental use, while the Jews after the 
exile gradually adopted the Aramaic writing, whence the square 
Hebrew script is descended. The Samaritans alone stuck fast to 
the old Hebrew as part of their contention that they, and not the 
Jews, were the true Hebrews. 

The oldest records in Aramaic were found at Sindjirli, in the north 
of Syria, in 1890, and date to about 800 B.C. At this epoch the 
Aramaic alphabet, or at any rate the alphabet of these 
Aramaic. recorc j Si j s but little different from that shown upon 
the Moabite stone. Either two sounds are confused under one 
symbol, or these records represent a dialect which, like Hebrew and 
Assyrian, shows sh, z, and f, where the ordinary Aramaic repre- 
sentation is (, d, and t, the Arabic th, dh, and (h. The Aramaic became 
in time by far the most important of the northern Semitic alphabets. 
Even while long and important documents in Assyria were still 
written on clay tablets, in cuneiform, a docket or precis of the 
contents was made upon the side in Aramaic, which thus became 
the alphabet of cursive writing a fact which explains its later 
development. Two changes, the inception of which is early, but 
the completion of which belongs to the Persian period, gave the 
impulse which Aramaic obeyed in all its later developments. These 
were (a) the opening of the heads of letters, so that beth ^, daleth 
^, andresh 4 become respectively ^ , Lj, and ^-J, while O becomes 
first U and ultimately V. In the later development the heads tend 
to be reduced in size, and finally to disappear. (6) As was natural 
in cursive writing, angles tend to become rounded, and the tails of 
the letters, which in Phoenician are very long, are curved round in 
the middle of words so as to join on to the succeeding letter. These 
characteristics were naturally emphasized in the Aramaic writing 
on papyrus which, beginning about 500 B.C., during the Persian 
sovereignty in Egypt, lasted on there till about 200 B.C. The 
gradual development of this script into the square Hebrew, and the 
more ornamental writing of Palmyra, may be traced in the works 
of Berger and Lidzbarski. 1 

In the land of the Nabataeans, a people of Arabian origin, the 
Aramaic alphabet was employed in a form which ultimately de- 
veloped into the modern Arabic alphabet. Probably the 
Arabic. earliest example of the Aramaic script in Arabia is the 
stele of Tema, in north-western Arabia, whereon is commemorated 
the establishment of a worship of an Aramaic divinity. This 
monument, now in the Louvre, is not later than the 5th century 
B.C. In it the writing preserves its ancient form, the heads of the 
closed letters being only very slightly opened. The Nabataean 
inscriptions belong to a different epoch and a different style. They 
were first discovered by Charles Doughty in 18761877, who was 
followed between 1880 and 1884 by Httber and Euting, to whom 
a complete collection of these records is due. The records are 
fortunately dated, and belong to the period from 9 B.C. to A.D. 75. 
A further development can be traced in the graffiti with which pilgrims 
adorned the rocks of Mount Sinai down to the 2nd or 3rd century 
A.D. By the help of these inscriptions it is possible to trace the 
development of the modern Arabic where so many of the forms of 
the letters have become similar that diacritic points are essential 
to distinguish them, the original causes of confusion being the 
continuous development of cursive writing and the adoption of 
ligatures. Arabic writing, as known to us from documents of the 
early Mahommedan period, exhibits two principal types which are 
known respectively as the Cufic. and the nashki. The former soon 
fell into disuse for ordinary purposes and was retained only for 
inscriptions, coins, &c. ; the latter, which is more cursive in char- 
acter, is the parent of the Arabic writing of the present day. Another 
form of the Aramaic alphabet, namely, the so-called Estrangela 
writing which was in use amongst the Christians of northern Syria, 
was carried by Nestorian missionaries into Central Asia and became 
the ancestor of a multitude of alphabets spreading through the 
Turkomans as far east as Manchuria. 

There still remains a branch of the Semitic languages which, 
except for one or two of the languages belonging to it, was practically 
sv <ft unknown till recent years. This is the South Semitic. 
" . . Till the igth century the earliest form known of this 
alphabet was the Ethiopian or Geez, in which Christian 
documents have been preserved from the early centuries of our era, 
and which is still used by the Abyssinians for liturgical purposes. 
The travels of two English naval officers, Wellsted and Cruttenden, 
through Yemen in southern Arabia in 1835, first called attention to 
the earlier monuments of Arabia. Fulgence Fresnel first established 
the importance of the inscriptions discovered by these Englishmen, 
and in 1843, when French consul at Jeddah, obtained through a 
French traveller, Francois Arnaud, information about other monu- 
ments of the same kind. In 1869 Joseph Hatevy brought back 



1 See Berger's Hisloire de Vecriture dans I'antiquM, p. 252 ff . ; 
Lidzbarski, Nordsemitische Epieraphik, p. 186 ff., from whom this 
summary is taken. Lidzbarski s second volume and G. A. Cooke's 
Textbook of North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) contain the 
most convenient collections of Northern Semitic inscriptions for 
the student's purposes. 



nearly seven hundred inscriptions from Yemen, and this number 
has been increased from other quarters by several thousands, through 
the energy of several adventurous scholars, but chiefly by Eduard 
Glaser's repeated journeys. The south Arabian inscriptions to which 
the terms Himyaritic and Sabaean are applied fall into two groups, 
the Sabaean proper and the Minaean. These are distinguished by 
differences in grammar and phraseology rather than in alphabet. 
The relative age of the Minaean and Sabaean monuments is a 
matter of dispute amongst Semitic scholars. Inscriptions in a 
kindred dialect were brought from El-Ola, in the north of the 
Hedjaz, by Professor Euting. To these D. H. Miiller 2 gave the 
title of Lihyanite, from the name of the tribe (Lihjan) to which 
they belong. Their date is supposed to be earlier than that of the 
Sabaean and Minaean. Minaean inscriptions were found at the 
same place, the Minaeans having had a trading station there. In 
1893 J. Theodore Bent copied carefully at Yeha in Abyssinia a 
few inscriptions, some of which had been already copied in 1814 
by the English traveller Salt. These inscriptions are of the greatest 
importance, because they demonstrate, according to D. H. Miiller, 1 
that the Sabaeans had colonized Abyssinia as early as 1000 B.C. 
Other inscriptions copied by Bent at Aksum belong to the 4th 
century A.D. and later. Two of the earliest are written in Sabaean 
characters, but in the language which is known as Geez or Ethiopic. 
From about A.D. 500 Ethiopic was written in an alphabet which 
according to Miiller was no gradual growth but an ingenious device 
of a Greek scholar of this period at the court of Abyssinia. The 
Sabaean, like other Semitic, inscriptions are generally written from 
right to left, but a few are favor po<t>iit>6v; the Ethiopic is written 
from left to right, and makes a marked advance upon the ordinary 
Semitic manner of writing by indicating the vowels. This is done by 
varying the form of the consonant according to the vowel which 
follows it. The Ethiopic system is thus rather a syllabary than an 
alphabet. It is noticeable that the changes thus established were 
made upon the basis of the old Sabaean script, which in its oldest 
form is evidently closely related to the old Phoenician, though it 
would be premature to say that the Sabaean alphabet is derived 
from the Phoenician. It is as likely, considering the date of both, 
that they are equally descendants from an older source. The 
characteristics of the Sabaean are great squareness and boldness in 
outline. It has twenty-nine symbols, whereby it is enabled to 
differentiate certain sounds which are not distinguished from one 
a-nother in the writing of the northern Semites. As we have seen, 
it is a tendency in northern Semitic to open the heads of letters, 
and therefore it is possible that the Sabaean form for Jod <p may 
be older 4 than the Phoenician ^. Similarly if Pe means mouth, 
Hommel is- right in contending that the Sabaean ^ is more like 
the object than the Phoenician J, if we suppose the form, like ^ 
or the Phoenician \A/ and d for the Phoenician \A4 turned through 
an angle of 90. So also if Kaf corresponds to the Babylonian 
Kappu, "hollow-hand," the Sabaean form ft which Hommel 5 
interprets as the outline of the hand with the fingers turned in 
and the thumb raised is a better pictograph than the various mean- 
ingless forms of ( *|, &c.). 

The rock inscriptions in the wild district of Safah near Damascus 
which have been collected by Hal6vy are also written in an Arabic 
dialect, but, owing chiefly to their careless execution, they are to 
a large extent unintelligible. The character appears to be akin to 
the Sabaean. It has been suggested that they were the work of 
Arabs who had wandered thus far from the south. 

There still remain fordiscussion the alphabets of the Indo-European 
peoples of Persia and India from which the other alphabets of the 
Farther East are descended. When Darius in 516 B.C. 
caused the great Behistun inscription to be engraved, it was Persia. 
the cuneiform writing, already long in use for the languages of 
Mesopotamia, that was adopted for this purpose. We have seen that 
at Babylon itself the Aramaic language and character were well 
known. It is probable therefore, a priori, that from the Aramaic 
alphabet the later writing of Persia should be developed. The con- 
clusion is confirmed by the coins, the only records with Iranian script 
which go back so far; but the special form of Aramaic from which 
the Iranian alphabet is derived must at present be left undecided. 
The later developments of the Iranian alphabet are the Pahlavi 
and the Zend, in which the MSS. of the Avesta are written. Of 
these manuscripts none is older than the I3th century A.D. The 
Pahlavi is properly the alphabet of the Sassanid kings who ruled 
in Persia from A.D. 226 till the Arab conquest in the 7th century 
A.D. Under the Sassanids the old Persian worship, which had 
fallen with the Achaemenid dynasty in Alexander's time, and 

2 Miiller, Epigraphische Denkmaler aus Arabien (Vienna, 1889). 

* Epigraphische Denkmaler aus Abessinien (Vienna, 1894). Prae- 
tprius (Z.D.M.G. Iviii. p. 724) holds that the oldest Sabaean inscrip- 
tions may date from about 700 B.C., that the Lihyan inscriptions 
are at earliest of the Hellenistic period and the Safa inscriptions still 
later. 

4 Praetorius (Z.D.M.G. Iviii. p. 461 f.) attempts to trace the de- 
velopment of the Sabaean form from the Phoenician. 

6 Hommel, Sud-arabische Chrestomathie (Munich, 1893), p. 5. 



ALPHABET 



had been neglected by the subsequent Arsacid line, was revived 
and the remains of its liturgical literature collected. The name is, 
however, also applied to the alphabet on the coins of the Parthian 
or Arsacid dynasty, which in its beginnings was clearly under 
Greek influence; while later, when a knowledge of Greek had 
disappeared, the attempts to imitate the old legends are as grotesque 
as those in western Europe to copy the inscriptions on Roman coins. 
The relationship between the Pahlavi and the Aramaic is clearest in 
the records written in the " Chaldaeo-Pahlavi " characters; the 



a conclusion which is not invalidated by the fact that some im- 
portant modifications are found beyond this area, nor by Dr Stein's 
discovery of a great mass of documents in this alphabet at Khotan 
in Turkestan, Tor, according to tradition, the ancient inhabitants 
of Khotan were emigrants banished in the time of King Agoka 
from the area to which Biihler assigns this alphabet (see Stein's 
Preliminary Report, igoj, p. 51). Rapson 2 has pointed out that 
both Kharos^hl and Brahmi letters are found upon Persian silver 
sigloi, which were coined in the Punjab and belong to the period 



TABLE I. 

OLDEST SABHAH NASHKI x TEMA SINDJIRU MOABHt PHOENICIAN f^SCRIP U> Fonm"' 
BRAHMI KHAROSTHI ATHIOPIC IHimyaririci (ARABIC! SOOBC SOOBC Stone (CYPPUSl orTHERA Inscription C LLIC olAaouTIC 



A 


* 


7 


X 


fh 


M 


-i- > 


Y^- 


4 


^ 


/I A 


4/1 A 


a 


f 


B 


00 


<? 


n 


n 


J o 


3> 


5 


$ 


j 


PS 


BO 


!) 


ff i 
Q O 


G 


4 


f 


-i 


T 


* 


/\A 


A 


*11 




i r 


3 


r 


9b 


D 


D 


X 


X 


n iy>i 

" W 


.33 


M ^i 


A 


<\^ 


<\ 


A A 


D 


A 


eft 


E 


L 6- 


? 


Y 


'Y 


^>y 


*A V^ 


^ 


^ 




^ r 


^ f 





3 


F (w> 


Ai 


7 


^ O 


<p 


j 


777 


IV 


V 


V 






>te 


9 


Z 


ce 


* 




^ 


;/ 


^^ 


T 


X 


I 


I-l 




f}:? 


t 


H 


LL 


/) 


*^ 


ii/ VL* W 


& t/ 


.Mh 


* 


tf-tt 


B B 


B 


BH 


HI 


ST 


T-H 





A 


m <T> 


D) % 





e 










@ 




r 


5 


I 


vlvl/ 





T P 


9 


*^r 


^^ 


"\\ 


^=v 


^V 


^ S ^V 


1 


iJ 


M=/ 


K 


t + 


7 


YiT! 


h 


<^e) 


F1 W 


vy 


^ ^ 


^ 


>l 1C 


i| 


K 


*i 


I 


U 


"C "V t/ 


A 


-i 


jj 


/ \ \) 


a 


b^ 


V >^ 


77^ 


J vl 


A 


a 


M 


&* 


5 


Wv-v 


^ 


-o h 


Q^ *i 

3H yO 


)7 


lAy IAJ 


1 


V| (V! 


v^r 


M 


ge 


N 


i 


y 


^ 


*i 


^ a 


i/) 


; ^ 


U ^ 


N 


V| [V 


v\H 


N 


p 


XftH) 


j- 


r/> 


f 1 ! 


rt 




*^ 


^ 


^ $ 


f 


CMJ 


^ 









DO 


y 


V 


Tl 


* 





o b 


O 


Oo 


o 








9 


p 


6 


<; 


4 





^ 


77 


H 


77 




? 


T 


n 


f 


s 


d 4 


7 


AX6 


^B 


^JO 


ffc/v 


V 


tv- 


^ 










a 


11 


T 


<t> t 


f 


^C5 


^ 


^ T 


??? 


<P 


??/> 


9 






R 


\ \ 


"7 


^ 


) 


^vA 


T( 


1 


</ 


^ 


q PR 


^ D 


P 


b 


s 


fcA 




U/ 


) 5 


-\r 


t/ v/ 


lv H 


W IV 


W 


.MM 


5 <) 


c 


2 


T 


kA 




t 


x S 


^- 


/J/ 1 


L 


X 


U 


T 


T 


T 


W 


After Buhler After Euting YK VY Y-U & 


TABLE II. Cyrillic and Glagolitic Symbols not given above. 


Value f(<t>) , x(h) , o, $t, c, c, S, , y, i, e, ju, ja, je, 0'f)> ?i ./?> J? *() #*W. fl 



CYRILLIC 



)f W 



GLAGOUTIC & Jb O 



"V 



LU 




most important of these documents is the liturgical inscription of 
Hadji-abad, where the Arsacid and Sassanian alphabets are found 
side by side. Taylor (The Alphabet, ii. p. 248 f.) regards the former 
as probably derived from the " ancient alphabet of Eastern Iran, a 
sister alphabet of the Aramaean of the satrapies," while the Sassanian 
belongs to a later stage of Aramaic. 

The alphabets of India all spring from two sources: (o) the 

Kharosthi, (6) the Brahmi alphabet. The history of tHfe former is 

India. fairly clear. It was always a local alphabet, and never 

attained the importance of its rival. According to 

Buhler, 1 its range lay between 69 and 73 30' E. and 33 to 35 N., 

1 Buhler, Indian Studies, iii. (and ed., 1898), p. 93. The account 



of the Achaemenid kings of Persia. As Buhler shows in detail, 
the Kharosthi alphabet is derived from the alphabet of the Aramaic 
inscriptions which date from the earlier part of the Achaemenid 
period. The Aramaic alphabet passed into India with the staff 
of subordinate officials by whom Darius organized his conquests 
there. The people of India already possessed their Brahmi alphabet, 

of these alphabets is drawn from this work and from the same 
author's Indische Palaographie in the Grundriss der indo-arischen 
Philologie, to which is attached an atlas of plates (Strassburg, 1896), 
and in which a full bibliography is given. 

2 For a coin and a gild token with inscriptions see Rapson's 
Indian Coins (in Grundriss d. ind.-ar. Phil.), Plate I. 



732 



'AL-PHASI ALPHEUS 



but had this other alphabet forced upon them in their dealings with 
their rulers. The Kharosthi is then the gradual development under 
local conditions of the Aramaic alphabet of the Persian period. 
As Stein's explorations show, both alphabets may be found on 
opposite sides of the same piece of wood. 

The history of the Brahmi alphabet is more difficult. In its 
later forms it is so unlike other alphabets that many scholars have 
regarded it as an invention within India itself. The discovery of 
earlier inscriptions than were hitherto known has, however, caused 
this view to be discarded, and the problem is to decide from which 
form of the Semitic ajphabet it is derived. Taylor (The Alphabet, 
ii. p. 314 ff.), following Weber, argues that it comes from the 
Sabaeans who were carrying on trade with India as early as 1000 
B.C. Even if the alphabet had not reached India till the 6th century 
B.C., there would be time, he contends, for the peculiarities of 
the Indian form of it to develop before the period when records begin. 
The alphabet, according to Taylor, shows no resemblance to any 
northern Semitic script, while its stiff, straight lines and its forms 
seem like the Sabaean. Buhler, on the other hand, shows from 
literary evidence that writing was in common use in India in the 5th, 
possibly in the 6th, century B.C. The oldest alphabet must have 
been the Braknti lipi, which is found all over India. But he rejects 
Taylor's derivation of this alphabet from the Sabaean script, and 
contends that it is borrowed from the North Semitic. To the 
pedantry of the Hindu he attributes its main characteristics, viz. 
(a) letters made as upright as possible, and with few exceptions equal 
in height ; (b) the majority of the letters constructed of vertical lines, 
with appendages attached mostly at the foot, occasionally at the foot 
and at the top, or (rarely) in the middle, but never at the top alone ; 
(c) at the tops of the characters the ends of vertical lines, less fre- 
quently straight horizontal lines, still more rarely curves or the 
points of angles opening downwards, and quite exceptionally, in 
the symbol ma, two lines rising upwards. A remarkable feature 
of the alphabet is that the letters are hung from and do not stand 
upon a line, a characteristic which, as Burner notes (Indian Studies, 
iii. p. 57 .), belongs even to the most ancient MSS., and to the 
Asoka inscriptions of the 3rd century B.C. When these specially 
Indian features have been allowed for, Buhler contends that the 
symbols borrowed from the Semitic alphabet can be carried back to 
the forms of the Phoenician and Moabite alphabets. The proof deals 
with each symbol separately; as might be expected of its author, 
it is both scholarly and ingenious, but, it must be admitted, not very 
convincing. Further evidence as to the early history of this alphabet 
must be discovered before we can definitely decide what its origin 
may be. That such evidence will be forthcoming there is little doubt. 
Even since Buhler wrote, the vase, the top of which is reproduced 
(see Plate), has been discovered on the borders of Nepal in a stupa 
where some of the relics of Buddha were kept. The inscription is of 
the same type as the Asoka inscriptions, but, in Buhler s opinion 
(Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xxx., 1898, p. 389), is older 
than AsoTca's time. It reads as follows: iyam salilanidhane Budhasa 
bhagayate sakiyanam sukitibhatinatn sabhaginikanam saputadalanam. 
" This casket of relics of the blessed Buddha is the pious founda- 
tion (so Pischel, no doubt rightly, Zeilsch. d. deulsch. morg. Cesell. Ivi. 
158) of the Sakyas, their brothers and their sisters, together with 
children and wives." 

How this alphabet was modified locally, and how it spread to other 
Eastern lands, must be sought in the specialist works to which 
reference has already been made. Its extension to new and hitherto 
unknown languages was in 1910 in process of being rapidly demon- 
strated by English and German expeditions in Chinese Turkestan. 

AUTHORITIES. Owing to the rapid increase of materials, all early 
works are out of date. The best general accounts, though already 
somewhat antiquated, are: (l) The Alphabet (2 vols., with references 
to earlier works), by Canon Isaac Taylor (1883), reprinted from the 
stereotyped plates with small necessary corrections (1899); and (2) 
Histoire de I Venture dans I'antiguM, by M. Philippe Berger (Paris, 
1891, 2nd ed. 1892). An excellent popular account is The Story 
of the Alphabet, by E. Clodd (no date, about 1900). Faulmann's 
Illuslrierte Gesckichle der Schrift (1880) is a popular work with good 
illustrations. For the beginnings of the alphabet, Dr A. J. Evans's 
Scripta Minoa (vol. i., 1909) is indispensable, whether his theories 
hold their ground or not. The Semitic alphabet is excellently treated 
by Lidzbarski in the Jewish Encyclopaedia (1901) ; his Nordsemitische 
Epigraphik ( 1 898) has excellent facsimiles and tables of the alphabets, 
and there are many contributions to the history of the alphabet in 
the same writer's Ephemeris fur semitische Epigraphik (Giessen, since 
1900). See also " Writing (by A. A. Bevan) in the Encyclopaedia 
Biblica, and " Alphabet "(by Isaac Taylor) in Hastings' Dictionary of 
the Bible. A very good article, now somewhat antiquated, is Schlott- 
mann's " Schrift und Schriftzeichen " in Riehm's Handworterbuch des 
biblischen Altertums (1884, reprinted 1894). For Greek epigraphy 
the fullest and also most recent work is W. Larf eld's Handbuch der 
grieckischen Epigraphik (vol. ii., 1902; vol. i., 1907) (see especially 
Herkunft und Alter des griechischen Alphabets, i. 330 ff.), For the 
history of the Greek alphabet the fundamental work was A. Kirch- 
hoff's Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets (4th ed., 
1887): his theories were adopted and worked out on a much larger 
scale in E. S. Roberts's Introduction to Creek Epigraphy, pt. i. " The 



Archaic Inscriptions and the Greek Alphabet " (1887), pt. ii. (with 
E. A. Gardner) " The Inscriptions of Attica " (1905). See also 
Salomon Reinach's TraM d' eptgraphie grecque (1885). In Iwan von 
M tiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft important 
articles on both Greek and Latin epigraphy and alphabets have 
appeared (Greek in edition I by G. Heinrichs, 1886; in edition 2 by 
W. Larfeld, 1892; Latin by Emil Hubner). See also " Alphabet, 
by W. Deecke, in Baumeister's Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums 
(1884), and by Szanto (Greek) and Joh. Schmidt (Italic) in Pauly's 
Realencyclopadie edited by Wissowa (1894). Mommsen's Die 
unteritalischen Dialekte (1850) is not without value even now. Other 
literature and references to fuller bibliographies in separate depart- 
ments have been given in the notes. Elsewhere in this edition of 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica the articles on the various languages 
and under the headings INSCRIPTIONS, PALAEOGRAPHY, WRITING, 
&c., should be consulted, while separate articles are given on each 
letter of the English alphabet. The writer is indebted to Dr A. J. 
Evans for a photograph of the Cretan linear script, and to Pro- 
fessors A. A. Bevan and Rapson of Cambridge, and to Mr F. W. 
Thomas, librarian of the India Office, for help in their respective 
departments of Semitic and Indian languages. (P. Gl.) 

'AL-PHASI, ISAAC (1013-1103), Jewish rabbi and codifier, 
known as Riph, was born near Fez in 1013 and died at Lucena in 
1103. 'Al-Phasi means the " man of Fez " (medieval Jews were 
often named after their birthplaces). He was forced to leave 
Fez when an old man of 75, being accused on some unknown 
political charge. He then settled in Spain where he was held in 
much esteem. His magnanimous character was illustrated by 
two incidents. When 'Al-phasi's opponent Isaac 'Albalia died, 
'Al-phasi received 'Albalia's son with the greatest kindness and 
adopted him as a son. When, again, 'Al-phasi was himself on 
the point of death, he recommended as his successor in the 
Lucena rabbinate, not his own son, but his pupil Joseph ibn 
Migash. The latter became the teacher of Maimonides, and thus 
'Al-phasi's teaching as well as his work must have directly 
influenced Maimonides. 'Al-phasi's fame rests on his Talmudical 
Digest called Halakholh or Decisions. The Talmud was condensed 
by him with a special view to practical law. He omitted all the 
homiletical passages, and also excluded those parts of the Talmud 
which deal with religious duties practicable only in Palestine. 
'Al-phasi thus occupies an important place in the development 
of the Spanish method of studying the Talmud. In contra- 
distinction to the French rabbis, the Spanish sought to simplify 
the Talmud and free it from casuistical detail. 'Al-phasi suc- 
ceeded in producing a Digest, which became the object of close 
study, and led in its turn to the great Codes of Maimonides and 
of Joseph Qaro. 

ALPHEGE [^ELFHEAH], SAINT (954-1023), archbishop of 
Canterbury, came of a noble family, but in early life gave up 
everything for religion. Having assumed the monastic habit in 
the monastery of Deerhurst, he pased thence to Bath, where 
he became an anchorite and ultimately abbot, distinguishing 
himself by his piety and the austerity of his life. In 984 he 
was appointed through Dunstan's influence to the bishopric of 
Winchester, and in 1006 he succeeded JS\lr\c as archbishop of 
Canterbury. At the sack of Canterbury by the Danes in ion 
yElfheah was captured and kept in prison for seven months. 
Refusing to pay a ransom he was barbarously murdered at 
Greenwich on the igth of April 1012. He was buried in St 
Paul's, whence his body was removed by Canute to Canterbury 
with all the ceremony of a great act of state in 1023. 

Lives of St. Alphege in prose (which survives) and in verse were 
written by command of Lanfranc by the Canterbury monk Osbern 
(d. c. 1090), who says that his account of the solemn translation to 
Canterbury in 1023 was received from the dean, Godric, one of 
Alphege's own scholars. 

ALPHEOS ('AX<^i6s; mod. Ruphia), the chief river of Pelo- 
ponnesus. Strictly Ruphia is the modern name for the ancient 
Ladon, a tributary which rises in N.E. Elis, but the name has 
been given to the whole river. The Alpheus proper rises near 
Asea; but its passage thither by subterranean channels from 
the Tegean plain and its union with the Eurotas are probably 
mythical (see W. Loring, in Journ. Hell. Studies, xv. p. 67). 
It consists for the most part of a shallow and rapid stream, 
occupying but a small part of its broad, stony bed. It empties 
itself into the Ionian sea. Pliny states that in ancient times it 
was navigable for six Roman miles from its mouth. Alpheus 



ALPHONSE ALPHONSO 



733 



was recognized in cult and myth as the chief or typical river-god 
in the Peloponnesus, as was Achelous in northern Greece. His 
waters were said to pass beneath the sea and rise again in the 
fountain Arethusa at Syracuse; such is the earlier version from 
which later mythologists and poets evolved the familiar myth 
of the loves of Alpheus and Arethusa. 

ALPHONSE I., COUNT OF TOULOUSE (1103-1148), son of 
Count Raymond IV. by his third wife, Elvira of Castile, was born 
in 1 103, in the castle of Mont-Pelerin, Tripoli. He was surnamed 
Jourdain on account of his being baptized in the river Jordan. 
His father died when he was two years old and he remained 
under the guardianship of his cousin, Guillaume Jourdain, 
count of Cerdagne (d. 1109), until he was five. He was then 
taken to Europe and his brother Bertrand gave him the count- 
ship of Rouergue; in his tenth year, upon Bertrand 's death 
(1112), he succeeded to the countshipof Toulouse and marquisate 
of Provence, but Toulouse was taken from him by William IX., 
count of Poitiers, in 1114. He recovered a part in 1119, but 
continued to fight for his possessions until about 1123. When 
at last successful, he was excommunicated by Pope Calixtus II. 
for having expelled the monks of Saint-Gilles, who had aided 
his enemies. He next fought for the sovereignty of Provence 
against Raymond Berenger I., and not till September 1125 did 
the war end in an amicable agreement. Under it Jourdain 
became absolute master of the regions lying between the Pyrenees 
and the Alps, Auvergne and the sea. His ascendancy was an 
unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen 
years art and industry flourished. About 1134 he seized the 
countship of Narbonne, only restoring it to the Viscountess 
Ermengarde (d. 1197) in 1143. Louis VII., for some reason 
which has not appeared, besieged Toulouse in 1141, but without 
result. Next year Jourdain again incurred the displeasure of 
the church by siding with the rebels of Montpellier against their 
lord. A second time he was excommunicated; but in 1146 he 
took the cross at the meeting of Vezelay called by Louis VII., 
and in August 1147 embarked for the East. He lingered on the 
way in Italy and probably in Constantinople; but in 1148 
he had arrived at Acre. Among his companions he had made 
enemies and he was destined to take no share in the crusade he 
had joined. He was poisoned at Caesarea, either the wife of 
Louis or the mother of the king of Jerusalem suggesting the 
draught. 

See the documentary Histoire generate de Languedoc by De Vie 
and Vaissette, vol. iii. (Toulouse, 1872). 

ALPHONSE, COUNT OF TOULOUSE AND OF POITIERS (1220- 
1271), the son of Louis VIII., king of France, and brother of St 
Louis, was born on the nth of November 1220. He joined the 
county of Toulouse to his appanage of Poitou and Auvergne, on 
the death, in September 1249, of Raymond VII., whose daughter 
Jeanne he had married in 1237. He took the cross with his 
brother, St Louis, in 1248 and in 1270. In 1252, on the death 
of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he was joint regent with 
Charles of Anjou until the return of Louis IX., and took a great 
part in the negotiations which led to the treaties of Abbeville and 
of Paris (1258-1259). His main work was on his own estates. 
There he repaired the evils of the Albigensian war and made 
a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing 
the way for union with the crown. The charter known as 
" Alphonsine," granted to the town of Riom, became the code 
of public law for Auvergne. Honest and moderate, protecting 
the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised 
a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic 
character and his continual and pressing need of money. He 
died without heirs on his return from the 8th crusade, in Italy, 
probably at Savona, on the 2ist of August 1271. 

See B. Ledain, Histoire d'Alphonse, frere de S. Louis et du comte 
de Poitou sous son administration (1241-1271) (Poitou, 1869) ; 
E. Boutaric, Saint Louis et Alphonse de Poitiers (Paris, 1870); 
A. Molinier, Elude sur I' administration de S. Louis et d'Alphonse de 
Poitiers (Toulouse, 1880) ; and also his edition of the Correspondence 
administrative d'Alphonse de Poitiers in the Collection de documents 
inedits pour servir a I'histoire de France (Paris, 1894 and 1895). 



ALPHONSO, the common English spelling of Affonso, Alonso 
and Alfonso, which are respectively the Galician, the Leonese 
and the Castilian forms of Ildefonso (Ildefonsus), the name of a 
saint and archbishop of Toledo in the 7th century. The name 
has been borne by a number of Portuguese and Spanish kings, 
who are distinguished collectively below. 

Portuguese Kings. ALPHONSO I. (Affonso Henriques),son of 
Henry of Burgundy, count of Portugal, and Teresa of Castile, 
was born at Guimaraes in 1094. He succeeded his 
father in 1112, and was placed under the tutelage of 
his mother. When he came of age, he was obliged to 
wrest from her by force that power which her vices and incapacity 
had rendered disastrous to the state. Being proclaimed sole 
ruler of Portugal in 1128, he defeated his mother's troops near 
Guimaraes, making her at the same time his prisoner. He also 
vanquished Alphonso Raymond of Castile, his mother's ally, 
and thus freed Portugal from dependence on the crown of Leon. 
Next turning his arms against the Moors, he obtained, on the 
z6th July 1139, the famous victory of Ourique, and immediately 
after was proclaimed king by his soldiers. He assembled the 
Cortes of the kingdom at Lamego, where he received the crown 
from the archbishop of Braganza; the assembly also declaring 
that Portugal was no longer a dependency of Leon. Alphonso 
continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the 
Moors, from whom he wrested Santarem in 1146 and Lisbon in 
1147. Some years later he became involved in a war that had 
broken out among the kings of Spain; and in 1167, being disabled 
during an engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, he 
was made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of Leon, and was 
obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests he 
had made in Galicia. In 1184, in spite of his great age, he had 
still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho, who was besieged 
in Santarem by the Moors. He died shortly after, in 1185. 
Alphonso was a man of gigantic stature, being 7 ft. high according 
to some authors. He is revered as a saint by the Portuguese, 
both on account of his personal character and as the founder of 
their kingdom. 

ALPHONSO II., "the Fat," was born in 1185, and succeeded 
his father, Sancho I., in 1211. He was engaged in war with the 
Moors and gained a victory over them at Alcacer do Sal in 1217. 
He also endeavoured to weaken the power of the clergy and to 
apply a portion of their enormous revenues to purposes of national 
utility. Having been excommunicated for this by the pope 
(Honorius III.), he promised to make amends to the church; 
but he died in 1 2 23 before doing anything to fulfil his engagement. 
He framed a code which introduced several beneficial changes 
into the laws of his kingdom. 

ALPHONSO III., son of Alphonso II., was born in 1210, and 
succeeded his brother, Sancho II., in 1248. Besides making 
war upon the Moors, he was, like his father, frequently embroiled 
with the church. In his reign Algarve became part of Portugal. 
He died in 1279. 

ALPHONSO IV. was born in 1290, and in 1325 succeeded his 
father, Dionis, whose death he had hastened by his intrigues and 
rebellions. Hostilities with the Castilians and with the Moors 
occupied many years of his reign, during which he gained some 
successes; but by consenting to the barbarous murder of Inez 
de Castro, who was secretly espoused to his son Peter, he has 
fixed an indeh'ble stain on his character. Enraged at this 
barbarous act, Peter put himself at the head of an army and 
devastated the whole of the country between the Douro and the 
Minho before he was reconciled to his father. Alphonso died 
almost immediately after, on the 1 2th of May 1357. 

ALPHONSO V., " Africano," was born in 1432, and succeeded his 
father Edward in 1438. During his minority he was placed 
under the regency, first of his mother and latterly of his uncle, 
Dom Pedro. In 1448 he assumed the reins of government and 
at the same time married Isabella, Dom Pedro's daughter. In 
the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered 
to be false representations, he declared Dom Pedro a rebel and 
defeated his army in a battle at Alfarrobeira, in which his uncle 
was slain. In 1458, and with more numerous forces in 1471, 



734 



ALPHONSO 



he invaded the territories of the Moors in Africa and by his 
successes there acquired his surname of " the African." On his 
return to Portugal in 1475 his ambition led him into Castile, 
where two princesses were disputing his succession to the throne. 
Having been affianced to the Princess Juana, Alphonso caused 
himself to be proclaimed king of Castile and Leon; but in the 
following year he was defeated at Toro by Ferdinand, the 
husband of Isabella of Castile. He went to France to obtain 
the assistance of Louis XL, but finding himself deceived by the 
French monarch, he abdicated in favour of his son John. When 
he returned to Portugal, however, he was compelled by his son 
to resume the sceptre, which he continued to wield for two 
years longer. After that he fell into a deep melancholy and 
retired into a monastery at Cintra, where he died in 1481. 

ALPHONSO VI., the second king of the house of Braganza, 
was born in 1643 and succeeded his father in 1656. In 1667 he 
was compelled by his wife and brother to abdicate the throne 
and was banished to the island of Terceira. These acts, which 
the vices of Alphonso had rendered necessary, were sanctioned 
by the Cortes in 1668. He died at Cintra in 1675. 

Spanish Kings. From Alphonso I. (730-757) to Alphonso V. 
(999-1028) the personal history of the Spanish lungs of this 
Kings of name is unknown and their very dates are disputed. 
medieval ALPHONSO I. is said to have married Ormesinda, 
*eros"aia Daughter f Pelayo, who was raised on the shield in 
Asturias as king of the Goths after the Arab conquest. 
He is also said to have been the son of Peter, duke of Can- 
tabria. It is not improbable that he was in fact an hereditary 
chief of the Basques, but no contemporary records exist. His 
title of" the Catholic " itself may very well have been the 
invention of later chronicles. ALPHONSO II. (789-842), his 
reputed grandson, bears the name of " the Chaste." The Arab 
writers who speak of the Spanish kings of the north-west as the 
Beni-Alfons, appear to recognize them as a royal stock derived 
from Alphonso I. The events of his reign are in reality unknown. 
Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret 
marriage of his sister Ximena with Sancho, count of Saldana, 
and the feats of their son Bernardo del Carpio. Bernardo is the 
hero of a cantar de gesla (chanson dc gesle) written to please the 
anarchical spirit of the nobles. 

The first faint glimmerings of medieval Spanish history begin 
with ALPHONSO III. (866-914) surnamed " the Great." Of him 
also nothing is really known except the bare facts of his reign 
and of his comparative success in consolidating the kirigdom 
known as " of Galicia " or " of Oviedo " during the weakness of 
the Omayyad princes of Cordova. ALPHONSO IV. (924-931) 
has a faint personality. He resigned the crown to his brother 
Ramiro and went into a religious house. A certain instability 
of character is revealed by the fact that he took up arms against 
Ramiro, having repented of his renunciation of the world. He 
was defeated, blinded -and sent back to die in the cloister of 
Sahagun. It fell to ALPHONSO V. (999-1028) to begin the work 
of reorganizing the Christian kingdom of the north-west after a 
most disastrous period of civil war and Arab inroads. Enough 
is known of him to justify the belief that he had some of the 
qualities of a soldier and a statesman. His name, and that of 
his wife Geloria (Elvira), are associated with the grant of the 
first franchises of Leon. He was killed by an arrow while 
besieging the town of Viseu in northern Portugal, then held by 
the Mahommedans. (For all these kings see the article SPAIN: 
History.) 

With ALPHONSO VI. (1065-1109) we come to a sovereign of 
strong personal character. Much romance has gathered round 
his name. In the cantar de gesla of the Cid he plays the part 
attributed by medieval poets to the greatest kings, to Charle- 
magne himself. He is alternately the oppressor and the victim 
of heroic and self-willed nobles the idealized types of the patrons 
for whom the jongleurs and troubadours sang. (For the events 
of his reign see the article SPAIN: History.) He is the hero of a 
cantar de gesla which, like all but a very few of the early Spanish 
songs, like the cantar of Bernardo del Carpio and the Infantes 
of Lara, exists now only in the fragments incorporated in the 



chronicle of Alphonso the Wise or in ballad form. His flight 
from the monastery of Sahagun, where Jiis brother Sancho 
endeavoured to imprison him, his chivalrous friendship for his 
host Almamun of Toledo, caballero aunque man, a gentleman 
although a Moor, the passionate loyalty of his vassal Peranzules 
and his brotherly love for his sister Urraca of Zamora, may owe 
something to the poet who took him for hero. They are the 
answer to the poet of the nobles who represented the king as 
having submitted to take a degrading oath at the hands of 
Ruy Diaz of Bivar (the Cid), in the church of Santa Gadea at 
Burgos, and as having then persecuted the brave man who 
defied him. When every allowance is made, Alphonso VI. 
stands .out as a strong man fighting for his own hand, which in 
his case was the hand of the king whose interest was law and 
order and who was the leader of the nation in the reconquest. 
On the Arabs he impressed himself as an enemy very fierce and 
astute, but as a keeper of his word. A story of Mahommedan 
origin, which is probably no more historical than the oath of 
Santa Gadea, tells of how he allowed himself to be tricked by 
Ibn Ammar, the favourite of Al Motamid, the king of Seville. 
They played chess for an extremely beautiful table and set of 
men, belonging to Ibn Ammar. Table and men were to go to 
the king if he won. If Ibn Ammar gained he was to name the 
stake. The latter did win and demanded that the Christian king 
should spare Seville. Alphonso kept his word. Whatever truth 
may lie behind the romantic tales of Christian and Mahommedan, 
we know that Alphonso represented in a remarkable way the 
two great influences then shaping the character and civilization 
of Spain. At the instigation, it is said, of his second wife, 
Constance of Burgundy, he brought the Cistercians into Spain, 
established them in Sahagun, chose a French Cistercian, 
Bernard, as the first archbishop of Toledo after the reconquest 
in 1085, married his daughters, legitimate and illegitimate, 
to French princes, and in every way forwarded the spread of 
French influence then the greatest civilizing force in Europe. 
He also drew Spain nearer to the papacy, and it was his decision 
which established the Roman ritual in place of the old missal 
of Saint Isidore the so-called Mozarabic. On the other hand 
he was very open to Arabic influence. He protected the Mahom- 
medans among his subjects and struck coins with inscriptions 
in Arabic letters. After the death of Constance he perhaps 
married and he certainly lived with Zaida, said to have been 
a daughter of " Benabet " (Al Motamid), Mahommedan king 
of Seville. Zaida, who became a Christian under the name of 
Maria or Isabel, bore him the only son among his many children, 
Sancho, whom Alphonso designed to be his successor, but who 
was slain at the battle of Ucles in 1108. Women play a great 
part in Alphonso's life. 

[ALPHONSO I., king of Aragon, " the Battler," who married 
Urraca, daughter of Alphonso VI. (1104-1134), is sometimes 
counted the VHth in the line of the kings of Leon and Castile. 
A passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles against 
Christian or Moor), he was'married to Urraca, widow of Raymond 
of Burgundy, a very dissolute and passionate woman. The 
marriage had been arranged by Alphonso VI. in 1106 to unite 
the two chief Christian states against the Almoravides, and to 
supply them with a capable military leader. But Urraca was 
tenacious of her right as proprietary queen and had not learnt 
chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Husband 
and wife quarrelled with the brutality 'of the age and came to 
open war. Alphonso had the support of one section of the nobles 
who found their account in the confusion. Being a much 
better soldier than any of his opponents he gained victories at 
Sepulveda and Fuente de la Culebra, but his only trustworthy 
supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous enough 
to keep down Castile and Leon. The marriage of Alphonso and 
Urraca was declared null by the pope, as they were third cousins. 
The king quarrelled with the church, and particularly the 
Cistercians, almost as violently as with his wife. As he beat her, 
so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled the 
monks of Sahagun. He was finally compelled to give way in 
Castile and Leon to his stepson Alphonso, son of Urraca and her 



ALPHONSO 



735 



first husband. The intervention of Pope Calixtus II. brought 
about an arrangement between the old man and the young. 
Alphonso the Battler won his great successes in the middle Ebro, 
where he expelled the Moors from Saragossa; in the great raid 
of 1125, when he carried away a large part of the subject- 
Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France, 
where he had rights as king of Navarre. Three years before his 
death he made a will leaving his kingdom to the Templars, the 
Hospitallers, and the Knights of the Sepulchre, which his subjects 
refused to carry out. He was a fierce, violent man, a soldier 
and nothing else, whose piety was wholly militant. Though he 
died in 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the Moors at 
Braga, he has a great place in the reconquest.] 

ALPHONSO VII., " the Emperor " (1126-1157), is a dignified 
and somewhat enigmatical figure. A vague tradition had always 
assigned the title of emperor to the sovereign who held Leon as 
the most direct representative of the Visigoth kings, who were 
themselves the representatives of the Roman empire. But 
though given in charters, and claimed by Alphonso VI. and the 
Battler, the title had been little more than a flourish of rhetoric. 
Alphonso VII. was crowned emperor in 1135 after the death of 
the Battler. The weakness of Aragon enabled him to make his 
superiority effective. He appears to have striven for the forma- 
tion of a national unity, which Spain had never possessed since 
the fall of the Visigoth kingdom. The elements he had to deal 
with could not be welded together. Alphonso was at once a 
patron of the church, and a protector if not a favourer of the 
Mahommedans, who formed a large part of his subjects. His 
reign ended in an unsuccessful campaign against the rising power 
of the Almohades. Though he was not actually defeated, his 
death in the pass of Muradel in the Sierra Morena, while on his 
way back to Toledo, occurred in circumstances which showed 
that no man could be what he claimed to be " king of the men 
of the two religions." His personal character does not stand out 
with the emphasis of those of Alphonso VI. or the Battler. Yet 
he was a great king, the type and to some extent the victim of 
the confusions of his age Christian in creed and ambition, but 
more than half oriental in his household. 

ALPHONSO VIII. (1158-1214), king of Castile only, and grand- 
son of Alphonso VII., is a great name in Spanish history, for 
he led the coalition of Christian princes and foreign crusaders 
who broke the power of the Almohades at the battle of the 
Navas de Tolosa in 1 2 1 2. The events of his reign are dealt with 
under SPAIN. His personal history is that of many medieval 
kings. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, 
Sancho, at the age of a year and a half. Though proclaimed 
king, he was regarded as a mere name by the unruly nobles to 
whom a minority was convenient. The devotion of a squire of 
his household, who carried him on the pommel of his saddle to 
the stronghold of San Esteban de Gormaz, saved him from falling 
into the hands of the contending factions of Castro and Lara, 
or of his uncle Ferdinand of Leon, who claimed the regency. 
The loyalty of the town of Avila protected his youth. He was 
barely fifteen when he came forth to do a man's work by restoring 
his kingdom to order. It was only by a surprise that he recovered 
his capital Toledo from the hands of the Laras. His marriage 
with Leonora of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry II. of England, 
brought him under the influence of the greatest governing 
intellect of his time. Alphonso VIII. was the founder of the 
first Spanish university, the studium generate of Palencia, which, 
however, did not survive him. 

ALPHONSO IX. (1188-1230) of Leon, first cousin of Alphonso 
VIII. of Castile, and numbered next to him as being a junior 
member of the family (see the article SPAIN for the division of the 
kingdom and the relationship), is said by Ibn Khaldun to have 
been called the " Baboso " or Slobberer, because he was subject 
to fits of rage during which he foamed at the mouth. Though he 
took a part in the work of the reconquest, this king is chiefly 
remembered by the difficulties into which his successive marriages 
led him with the pope. He was first married to his cousin Teresa 
of Portugal, who bore him two daughters, and a son who died 
young. The marriage was declared null by the pope, to whom 



Alphonso paid no attention till he was presumably tired of his 
wife. It cannot have been his conscience which constrained him 
to leave Teresa, for his next step was to marry Berengaria of 
Castile, who was his second cousin. For this act of contumacy 
the king and kingdom were placed under interdict. The pope 
was, however, compelled to modify his measures by the threat 
that if the people could not obtain the services of religion they 
would not support the clergy, and that heresy would spread. 
The king was left under interdict personally, but to that he 
showed himself indifferent, and he had the support of his clergy. 
Berengaria left him after the birth of five children, and the king 
then returned to Teresa, to whose daughters he left his kingdom 
by will. 

ALPHONSO X., El Sabio, or the learned (1252-1284), is perhaps 
the most interesting, though he was far from being the most 
capable, of the Spanish kings of the middle ages. (His merits as a 
writer are dealt with in the article SPAIN : Literature) . His scientific 
fame is based mainly on his encouragement of astronomy. It 
may be pointed out, however, that the story which represents 
him as boasting of his ability to make a better world than this is 
of late authority. If he said so, he was speaking of the Ptolemaic 
cosmogony as known to him through the Arabs, and his vaunt 
was a humorous proof of his scientific instinct. As a ruler he 
showed legislative capacity, and a very commendable wish to 
provide his kingdoms with a code of laws and a consistent 
judicial system. The Fuero Real was undoubtedly his work, and 
he began the code called the Siete Partidas, which, however, was 
only promulgated by his great-grandson. Unhappily for himself 
and for Spain, he wanted the singleness of purpose required by a 
ruler who would devote himself to organization, and also the 
combination of firmness with temper needed for dealing with his 
nobles. His descent from the Hohenstaufen through his mother, 
a daughter of the emperor Philip, gave him claims to represent 
the Swabian line. The choice of the German electors, after the 
death of Conrad IV. in 1254, misled him into wild schemes which 
never took effect but caused immense expense. To obtain 
money he debased the coinage, and then endeavoured to prevent 
a rise in prices by an arbitrary tariff. The little trade of his 
dominions was ruined, and the burghers and peasants were deeply 
offended. His nobles, whom he tried to cow by sporadic acts of 
violence, rebelled against him. His second son, Sancho, enforced 
his claim to be heir, in preference to the children of Ferdinand de 
la Cerda, the elder brother who died in Alphonso 's life. Son and 
nobles alike supported the Moors, when he tried to unite the 
nation in a crusade; and when he allied himself with the rulers 
of Morocco they denounced him as an enemy of the faith. A 
reaction in his favour was beginning in his later days, but he died 
defeated and deserted at Seville, leaving a will by which he 
endeavoured to exclude Sancho and a heritage of civil war. 

ALPHONSO XL (1312-1350) is variously known among Spanish 
kings as the Avenger or the Implacable, and as " he of the 
Rio Salado." The first two names he earned by the ferocity 
with which he repressed the disorder of the nobles after a long 
minority; the third by his victory over the last formidable 
African invasion of Spain in 1340. The chronicler who records 
his death prays that " God may be merciful to him, for he was 
a very great king." The mercy was needed. Alphonso XI. 
never went to the insane lengths of his son Peter the Cruel, but 
he could be abundantly sultanesque in his methods. He killed 
for reasons of state without form of trial, while his open neglect 
of his wife, Maria of Portugal, and his ostentatious passion for 
Leonora de Guzman, who bore him a large family of sons, set 
Peter an example which he did not fail to better. It may be that 
his early death, during the great plague of 1350, at the siege of 
Gibraltar, only averted a desperate struggle with his legitimate 
son, though it was a misfortune in that it removed a ruler of 
eminent capacity, who understood his subjects well enough not 
to go too far. 

[Four other kings of Aragon, besides the Battler, bore the 
name of Alphonso. All these princes held territory in the south- 
east of France, and had a close connexion with Italy. ALPHONSO 
II. of Aragon (1162-1196) was the son of Raymond Berenger, 



73^ 



ALPHONSUS A SANCTA MARIA 



count of Barcelona, and of Petronilla, niece of Alphonso the 
Battler, and daughter of Ramiro surnamed the Monk. He 
succeeded to the county of Barcelona in 1162 on the death of his 
father, at the age of eleven, and in 1164 his mother renounced 
her rights in Aragon in his favour. Though christened Ramon 
(Raymond) , the favourite name of his line, he reigned as Alphonso 
out ofawish to please his Aragonese subjects, towhom thememory 
of the Battler was dear. As king of Aragon he took a share in 
the work of the reconquest, by helping his cousin Alphonso VIII. 
of Castile to conquer Cuenca, and to suppress one Pero Ruiz de 
Azagra, who was endeavouring to carve out a kingdom for himself 
in the debatable land between Christian and Mahommedan. 
But his double position as ruler both north and south of the 
eastern Pyrenees distracted his policy. In character and interests 
he was rather Provencal than Spanish, a favourer of the trouba- 
dours, no enemy of the Albigensian heretics, and himself a poet 
in the southern French dialect. ALPHONSO III. of Aragon (1285- 
1201), the insignificant son of the notable Peter III., succeeded 
to the Spanish and Provencal possessions of his father, but his 
short reign did not give him time even to marry. His inability 
to resist the demands of his nobles left a heritage of trouble in 
Aragon. By recognising their right to rebel in the articles called 
the Union he helped to make anarchy permanent. ALPHONSO IV. 
of Aragon (1327-1336) was a weak man whose reign was in- 
significant. ALPHONSO V. of Aragon (1416-1458), surnamed the 
Magnanimous, who represented the old line of the counts of 
Barcelona only through women, and was on his father's side 
descended from the Castilian house of Trastamara, is one of the 
most conspicuous figures of the early Renaissance. No man of 
his time had a larger share of the quality called by the Italians 
of the day " virtue." By hereditary right king of Sicily, by the 
will of Joanna II. and his own sword king of Naples, he fought 
and triumphed amid the exuberant development of individuality 
which accompanied the revival of learning and the birth of the 
modern world. When a prisoner in the hands of Filipo Maria 
Visconti, duke of Milan, in 1435, Alphonso persuaded his ferocious 
and crafty captor to let him go by making it plain that it was the 
interest of Milan not to prevent the victory of the Aragonese 
party in Naples. Like a true prince of the Renaissance he 
favoured men of letters whom he trusted to preserve his reputa- 
tion to posterity. His devotion to the classics was exceptional 
even in that time. He halted his army in pious respect before 
the birthplace of a Latin writer, carried Livy or Caesar on his 
campaigns with him, and his panegyrist Panormita did not think 
it an incredible lie to say that the king was cured of an illness 
by having a few pages of Quintus Curtius read to him. The 
classics had not refined his taste, for he was amused by setting 
the wandering scholars, who swarmed to his court, to abuse one 
another in the indescribably filthy Latin scolding matches which 
were then the fashion. Alphonso founded nothing, and after his 
conquest of Naples in 1442 ruled by his mercenary soldiers, and 
no less mercenary men of letters. His Spanish possessions were 
ruled for him by his brother John. He left his conquest of Naples 
to his bastard son Ferdinand; his inherited lands, Sicily and 
Sardinia, going to his brother John who survived him.] 

ALPHONSO XII. (1857-1885), king of modern Spain, son of 
Isabella II. and Maria Fernando Francisco de Assisi, eldest son 
of the duke of Cadiz, was born on the 28th of November 1857. 
When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave 
Spain by the revolution of 1868 he accompanied them to Paris, 
and from thence he was sent to the Theresianum at Vienna to 
continue his studies. On the 25th of June 1870 he was recalled 
to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence 
of a number of Spanish nobles who had followed the fortunes of 
the exiled queen. He assumed the title of Alphonso XII.; for 
although no king of united Spain had previously borne the name, 
the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the 
more ancient monarchy, represented by the eleven kings of 
Leon and Castile already referred to. Shortly afterwards he 
proceeded to Sandhurst to continue his military studies, and 
while there he issued, on the ist of December 1874, in reply to a 
birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming 



himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy. At 
the end of the year, when Marshal Serrano left Madrid to take 
command of the northern army, General Martinez Campos, who 
had long been working more or less openly for the king, carried 
off some battalions of the central army to Sagunto, rallied to his 
own flag the troops sent against him, and entered Valencia in 
the king's name. Thereupon the president of the council 
resigned, and the power was transferred to the king's pleni- 
potentiary and adviser, Canovas del Castillo. In the course of a 
few days the king arrived at Madrid, passing through Barcelona 
and Valencia, and was received everywhere with acclamation 
(1875). In 1876 a vigorous campaign against the Carlists, in 
which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Don 
Carlos and his abandonment of the struggle. Early in 1878 
Alphonso married his cousin, Princess Maria de las Mercedes, 
daughter of the due de Montpensier, but she died within six 
months of her marriage. Towards the end of the same year a 
young workman of Tarragona, Oliva Marcousi, fired at the king in 
Madrid. On the 2pth of November 1879 he married a princess 
of Austria, Maria Christina, daughter of the Archduke Charles 
Ferdinand. During the honeymoon a pastrycook named Otero 
fired at the young sovereigns as they were driving in Madrid. 
The children of this marriage were Maria de las Mercedes, titular 
queen from the death of her father until the birth of her brother, 
born on the nth of September 1880, married on the i4th of 
February 1901 to Prince Carlos of Bourbon, died on the I7th of 
October 1904; Maria Teresa, born on the i2th of November 
1882, married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on the I2th of 
January 1906; and Alphonso (see below). In 1881 the king 
refused to sanction the law by which the ministers were to remain 
in office for a fixed term of eighteen months, and upon the con- 
sequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he summoned 
Sagasta, the Liberal leader, to form a cabinet. Alphonso died 
of phthisis on the 24th of November 1885. Coming to the throne 
at such an early age, he had served no apprenticeship in the art 
of ruling, but he possessed great natural tact and a sound 
judgment ripened by the trials of exile. Benevolent and sym- 
pathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by 
fearlessly visiting the districts ravaged by cholera or devastated 
by earthquake in 1885. His capacity for dealing with men was 
considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instru- 
ment of any particular party. In his short reign peace was 
established both at home and abroad, the finances were well 
regulated, and the various administrative services were placed 
on a basis that afterwards enabled Spain to pass through the 
disastrous war with the United States without even the threat 
of a revolution. 

ALPHONSO XIII. (1886- ), king of Spain, son of Alphonso 
XII., was born, after his father's death, on the I7th of May 1886. 
His mother, Queen Maria Christina, was appointed regent during 
his minority (see SPAIN: History). In 1902, on attaining his 
1 6th year, the king assumed control of the government. On the 
3ist of May 1906 he married Princess Victoria Eugenie Julia Ena 
Maria Christina of Battenberg, niece of Edward VII. of England. 
As the king and queen were returning from the wedding they 
narrowly escaped assassination in a bomb explosion, which 
killed and injured many bystanders and members of the royal 
procession. An heir to the throne was born on the loth of May 
1907, and received the name of Alphonso. 

AUTHORITIES. The lives of all the early kings of Spain will be 
found in the general histories (see the article SPAIN: Authorities), 
of which the most trustworthy is the Anales de la Corona de Aragon, 
by Geronimo Zurita (Saragossa, 1610). See also the Chronicles of 
the Kings of Castile in the Biblioleca de Autores Espanoles de Riva 
deneyra (Madrid, 1846-1880, vols. 66, 68, 70). (D. H.) 

ALPHONSUS A SANCTA MARIA, or ALPHONSO DE CARTAGENA 
(1396-1456), Spanish historian, was born at Carthagena, and 
succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of Burgos. In 1431 he 
was deputed by John II., king of Castile, to attend the council 
of Basel, in which he made himself conspicuous by his learning. 
He was the author of several works, the principal of which is 
entitled Rerum Hispanorum Romanorum imperatorum, sum- 
morum ponlificum, nee non regum Francorum anacephaleosis. 



ALPINI ALPS 



737 



This is a history of Spain from the earliest times down to 1456, 
and was printed at Granada in 1545, and also in the Rerum 
Hispanicarum Scriptores aliquot, by R. Bel (Frankfort, 1579). 
Alphonsus died on the I2th of July 1456. 

ALPINI, PROSPERO (PROSPER ALPINUS), 1553-1617, Italian 
physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in the republic of 
Venice, on the 23rd of November 1553. In his youth he served 
for a time in the Milanese army, but in 1574 he went to study 
medicine at Padua. After taking his doctor's degree in 1578, 
he settled as a physician in Campo San Pietro, a small town in 
the Paduan territory. But his tastes were botanical, and to 
extend his knowledge of exotic plants he travelled to Egypt in 
1580 as physician to George Emo or Hemi, the Venetian consul 
in Cairo. In Egypt he spent three years, and from a practice in 
the management of date-trees, which he observed in that country, 
he seems to have deduced the doctrine of the sexual difference 
of plants, which was adopted as the foundation of the Linnaean 
system. He says that " the female date-trees or palms do not 
bear fruit unless the branches of the male and female plants are 
mixed together; or, as is generally done, unless the dust found 
in the male sheath or male flowers is sprinkled over the female 
flowers." On his return, he resided for some time at Genoa as 
physician to Andrea Doria, and in 1593 he was appointed 
professor of botany at Padua, where he died on the 6th of 
February 1617. He was succeeded in the botanical chair by 
his son Alpino Alpini (d. 1637). His best-known work is De 
Plantis Aegypti liber (Venice, 1592). His De Medicina 
Egyptiorum (Venice, 1591) is said to contain the first account 
of the coffee plant published in Europe. The genus Alpinia, 
belonging to the order Zingiberaceae, was named after him by 
Linnaeus. 

ALPS, the collective name for one of the great mountain 
systems of Europe. 

1. Position and NameThe continent of Europe is no more 
than a great peninsula extending westwards from the much 
vaster continent of Asia, while it is itself broken up by two 
inland seas into several smaUer peninsulas the Mediterranean 
forming the Iberian, the Italian and the Greek peninsulas, 
while the Baltic forms that of Scandinavia and the much smaller 
one of Denmark. Save the last-named, all these peninsulas of 
Europe are essentially mountain ranges. But in height and 
importance the ranges that rise therein are much surpassed by a 
great mountain-chain, stretching from south-eastern France to 
the borders of Hungary, as well as between the plains of northern 
Italy and of southern Germany. This chain is collectively known 
as the Alps, and is the most important physical feature of the 
European continent. The Alps, however, do not present so 
continuous a barrier as the Himalayas, the Andes or even the 
Pyrenees. They are formed of numerous ranges, divided by 
comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local exceptions, 
tend towards parallelism with the general direction of the whole 
mass. This, between the Dauphine and the borders of Hungary, 
forms a broad band convex towards the north, while most of the 
valleys lie between the directions west to east and south-west to 
north-east. But in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect 
the prevailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage 
of man, plants and animals, as well as of currents of air which 
mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be found between 
the climates of the opposite slopes. 

The derivation of the name Alps is still very uncertain, some 
writers connecting it with a Celtic root alb, said to mean height, 
while others suggest the Latin adjective albus (white), referring 
to the colour of the snowy peaks. But in all parts of the great 
chain itself, the term Alp (or Aim in the Eastern Alps) is exclu- 
sively applied to the high mountain pastures (see ALP), and not 
to the peaks and ridges of the chain. 

2. Limits. These will depend on the meaning we attach to 
the word Alps as referring to the great mountain-chain of central 
Europe. If we merely desire to distinguish it from certain 
minor ranges (e.g. the Cevennes, the Jura, the hills of central 
Germany, the Carpathians, the Apennines), which are really 
independent ranges rather than offshoots of the main chain, the 

I. 24 



best limits are on the west (strictly speaking south), the Col 
d'Altare or di Cadibona (1624 ft), leading from Turin to Savona 
and Genoa, and on the east the line of the railway over the 
Semmering Pass (3215 ft.) from Vienna to Marburg in the Mur 
valley, and on by Laibach to Trieste. But if we confine the 
meaning of the term Alps to those parts of the chain that 
are what is commonly called " Alpine," where the height is 
sufficient to support a considerable mass of perpetual snow, our 
boundaries to the west and to the east must be placed at spots 
other than those mentioned above. To the west the limit will 
then be the Col de Tenda (6145 ft.), leading from Cuneo (Coni) 
to Ventimiglia, while on the east our line will be the route over 
the Radstadter Tauern (5702 ft.) and the Katschberg (5384 ft.) 
from Salzburg to Villach in Carinthia, and thence by Klagenfurt 
to Marburg and so past Laibach in Carniola on to Trieste; from 
Villach the direct route to Trieste would be over the Predil Pass 
(3813 ft.) or the Pontebba or Saifnitz Pass (2615 ft.), more to the 
west, but in either case this would exclude the Terglou (9400 ft.), 
the highest summit of the entire South-Eastern Alps, as well as 
its lower neighbours. 

On the northern side the Alps (in whichever sense we take 
this term) are definitely bounded by the course of the Rhine 
from Basel to the Lake of Constance, the plain of Bavaria, and 
the low region of foot-hills that extend from Salzburg to the 
neighbourhood of Vienna. One result of this limit, marked out 
by Nature herself, is that the waters which flow down the 
northern slope of the Alps find their way either into the North 
Sea through the Rhine, or into the Black Sea by means of the 
Danube, not a drop reaching the Baltic Sea. On the southern 
side the mountains extending from near Turin to near Trieste 
subside into the great plain of Piedmont, Lombardy and 
Venetia. But what properly forms the western bit of the Alps 
runs, from near Turin to the Col de Tenda, in a southerly direc- 
tion, then bending eastwards to the Col d'Altare that divides it 
from the Apennines. 

It should be borne in mind that the limits adopted above 
refer purely to the topographical aspect of the Alps as they 
exist at the present day. Naturalists will of course prefer other 
limits according as they are geologists, botanists or zoologists. 

3. Climate. It is well known that as we rise from the sea- 
level into the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature 
decreases. The effect of mountain-chains on prevailing winds 
is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper 
zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate 
loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture 
in the form of snow or rain. The position of the Alps about the 
centre of the European continent has profoundly modified the 
climate of all the surrounding regions. The accumulation of 
vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into 
permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different 
climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the 
Foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the 
breezes that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most 
important function is to regulate the water-supply of that large 
region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps. Nearly 
all the moisture that is precipitated during six or seven months 
is stored up in the form of snow, and is gradually diffused in the 
course of the succeeding summer; even in the hottest and driest 
seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period 
of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the 
regular flow of the greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes 
that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the 
Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy 
and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply of water, which, 
From a remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation 
to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or 
zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic 
vegetation, are found in the Alps. It is an error to suppose that 
these are indicated by absolute height above the sea-level. 
Local conditions of exposure to the sun, protection from cold 
winds, or the reverse, are of primary importance in determining 
the climate and the corresponding vegetation. 






738 



ALPS 



[CLIMATE 



region. 



Vine 

region 



deciduous 
trees. 



The great plain of Upper Italy has a winter climate colder 
than that of the British Islands. The olive and the characteristic 
shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do 
not thrive i n the open air, but the former valuable 
tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places at the foot of 
the mountains, and penetrates along the deeper valleys and the 
shores of the Italian lakes. The evergreen oak is wild on the 
rocks about the Lake of Garda, and lemons are cultivated on a 
large scale, with partial protection in winter. The olive has been 
known to survive severe cold when of short duration, but it can- 
not be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where 
the mean winter temperature falls below 42 F.; and to produce 
fruit it requires a heat of at least 75 F. during the day, con- 
tinued through four or five months of the summer and autumn. 
The vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to 
produce tolerable wine it demands, at the season of ripening, 
a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the 
more delicate tree. These conditions are satisfied in 
the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of 
the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed 
to the sun. The protection afforded by winter snow enables 
the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts, such as would 
be fatal in more exposed situations. Many wild plants character- 
istic of the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish 
along with the vine. A mean summer temperature of at least 
68 F. is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but 
in ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great 
valleys of the Alps. 

Many writers take the growth of grain as the characteristic 

of the mountain region; but so many varieties of all the common 

. , species are in cultivation, and these have such different 

mountain *\ 

region, or chmatal requirements, that they do not afford a satis- 
region of factory criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by 
^e p resence o f th e chief deciduous trees oak, beech, 
ash and sycamore. These do not reach exactly to the 
same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but 
their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change 
from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a 
change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies 
about 4000 ft. above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on 
the southern slopes it often rises to 5 ft., sometimes even to 
5500 ft. It must not be supposed that this region is always marked 
by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of 
man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting 
the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a considerable wood of 
deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found. In many 
districts where such woods once existed, their place has been 
occupied by the Scottish pine and spruce, which suffer less from 
the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The 
mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that 
of the British Islands; but the climatal conditions are widely 
different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives 
place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than_the 
average of British seasons. 

The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the 
manner of life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate 
Subalpine we ma y reckon that, of the space lying between the 
region, or summits of the Alps and the low country on either 
region of side, one-quarter is available for cultivation, of which 
coniferous a jj OUt one _half may be vineyards and corn-fields, while 
the remainder produces forage and grass. About 
another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, 
glaciers, bare rock, lakes and the beds of streams. There 
remains about one-half, which is divided between forest 
and pasture, and it is the produce of this half which mainly 
supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the 
year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but 
the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals 
that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part 
of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making 
cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing 
up winter food for the cattle. The larger villages are mostly 



in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages 
stand in the subalpine region at heights varying from 4000 ft. to 
5500 ft. above the sea, more rarely extending to about 6000 ft. 
The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence 
of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been artificially 
kept down, form vast forests that cover a large part of the surface. 
These play a most important part in the natural economy of the 
country. They protect the valleys from destructive avalanches, 
and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, they mitigate 
the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys where they 
have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the slopes 
unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, that 
carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, 
covering the soil with gravel and debris. In the pine forests of 
the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and the 
silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and surpasses 
every other European species in height. The Scottish pine is 
chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests. The 
Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps 
but is not common. The mughus, creeping pine, or Krummholz 
of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes 
forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the level 
of its congeners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests Varely 
surpass the limit of 6000 ft. above the sea, but on the south side 
they commonly attain 7000 ft., while the larch, Siberian fir and 
mughus often extend above that elevation. 

Throughout the Teutonic region of the Alps the word Alp is 
used specifically for the upper pastures where cattle are fed in 
summer, but this region is held to include the whole 
space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first 
appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here 
that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed in its 
full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting. Three species 
of rhododendron vie with each other in the brilliancy of their 
masses of red or pink flowers; the common juniper rises higher 
still, along with three species of bilberry; and several dwarf 
willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation. The 
upper limit of this region coincides with the so-called limit of 
perpetual snow. 

On the higher parts of lofty mountains more snow falls in each 
year than is melted on the spot. A portion of this is carried 
away by the wind before it is consolidated; a larger 
portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the region 
surface, and is gradually converted into glacier-ice, 
which descends by a slow secular motion into the deeper valleys, 
where it goes to swell perennial streams. As on a mountain the 
snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness, and some parts 
are more exposed to the sun and warm winds than others, we 
commonly find beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes 
covered with brilliant vegetation; and to the observer near at 
hand there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the 
term limit of perpetual snow, though the case is otherwise when 
a high mountain-chain is viewed from a distance. Similar con- 
ditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level 
at which large snow-beds show themselves along its flanks is 
approximately horizontal. But this holds good only so far as 
the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the same 
chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a 
wide difference in the level of permanent snow; but in some 
cases the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist 
winds may more than compensate the increased influence of the 
sun's rays. Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line 
of perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favourable 
meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may 
and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, and lower the 
limit of seemingly permanent snow; while an opposite state of 
things may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the 
mountains. Hence all attempts to fix accurately the level of 
perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, and can at. the best 
approach only to local accuracy for a particular district. In 
some parts of the Alps the limit may be set at about 8000 ft. above 
the sea, while in others it cannot be placed much below 0500 ft. 



MAIN CHAIN] 



ALPS 



739 



Peaks >* Passes WPGIacien 
Land above 1500 feet left white 




As very little snow can rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 
60, and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses 
of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, 
but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation 
is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above 1 1 ,000 
ft. There is reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil 
rather than climatal conditions that checks the upward extension 
of the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation 
compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where 
plants have been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 ft., 
nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were 
arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. 
The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to 
that of the polar regions, but they are widely different. Here, 
intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry 
to a temperature approaching 80 F., alternates with severe 
frost by night. There, a sun which never sets sends feeble rays 
that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more 
than a few degrees above the freezing-point. Hence the upper 
region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant 
vegetation. 

4. Main Chain. In the case of every mountain system 
eographers are disposed to regard, as a general rule, the water- 
shed (or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards opposite 
slopes of the range) as marking the main chain, and this usage is 
justified in that the highest peaks often rise on or very near the 
watershed. Yet, as a matter of fact, several important mountain 
oups are situated on one or other side of the watershed of the 
Jps, and form almost independent ranges, being only connected 
vith the main chain by a kind of peninsula: such are the 
)auphin Alps, the Eastern and Western Graians, the entire 
Jernese Oberland, the Todi, Albula and Silvretta groups, the 
rtler and Adamello ranges, and the Dolomites of south Tirol, 
not to speak of the lower Alps of the Vorarlberg, Bavaria and 
zburg. Of course each of these semi-detached ranges has a 
watershed of its own, like the lateral ridges that branch off from 
he main watershed. Thus there are lofty ranges parallel to that 
vhich forms the main watershed. The Alps, therefore, are not 



composed of a single range (as shown on the old maps) but of a 
great " divide," flanked on either side by other important ranges, 
which, however, do not comprise such lofty peaks as the main 
watershed. In the following remarks we propose to follow the 
main watershed from one end of the Alps to the other. 

Starting from the Col d'Altare or di Cadibona (west of Savona), 
the main chain extends first south-west, then north-west to the 
Col de Tenda, though nowhere rising much beyond the zone of 
coniferous trees. Beyond the Col de Tenda the direction is first 
roughly west, then north-west to the Rocher des Trois Eveques 
(9390 ft.), just south of the Mont Enchastraye (9695 ft.), several 
peaks of about 10,000 ft. rising on the watershed, though the 
highest of all, the Punta dell' Argentera (10,794 ft-) stands a little 
way to its north. From the Rocher des Trois Eveques the 
watershed runs due north for a long distance, though of the two 
loftiest peaks of this region one, the Aiguille de Chambeyron 
(11,155 ft.), ' s J us t to the west, and the other, the Monte Viso 
(12,609 ft.)> is J us t to the east of the watershed. From the head 
of the Val Pellice the main chain runs north-west, and diminishes 
much in average height till it reaches the Mont Thabor (10,440 
ft.), which forms the apex of a salient angle which the main chain 
here presents towards the west. Hence the main watershed 
extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette 
(11,500 ft.), but makes a great curve to the north-west and back 
to the south-east before rising in the Rochemelon (11,605 ft-)> 
which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great 
rampart by which Italy is guarded from its neighbours. Thence 
the direction taken is north as far as the eastern summit (11,693 
ft.) of the Levanna, the watershed rising in a series of snowy 
peaks, though the loftiest point of the region, the Pointe -de 
Charbonel (12,336 ft.), stands a little to the west. Once more the 
chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks (the 
highest is the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere, 12,323 ft.), before 
attaining the considerable depression of the Little St Bernard 
Pass. Thence for a short way the direction is north to the Col de 
la Seigne, and then north-east along the crest of the Mont Blanc 
chain, which culminates in the peak of Mont Blanc (15,782 ft.), 
the loftiest in the Alps. A number of high peaks crown our 



740 



ALPS 



[MAIN CHAIN 



watershed before it attains the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft-)- Thence 
after a short dip to the south-east, our chain takes near the 
Great St Bernard Pass the generally eastern direction that it 
maintains till it reaches Monte Rosa,whence it bends northwards, 
making one small dip to the east as far as the Simplon Pass. It 
is in the portion of the watershed between the Great St Bernard 
and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average 
height than in any other part. But, though it rises in a number 
of lof typeaks, such as the Mont Velan (12,353 ft), the Matterhorn 
(14,782 ft), the Lyskamm (14,889 ft.), the Nord End of Monte 
Rosa (15,132 ft.), and the Weissmies (13,226 ft.), yet many of the 
highest points of the region, such as the Grand Combin (14,1 64 ft.), 
the Dent Blanche (14,318 ft.), the Weisshorn (14,804 ft.), the true 
summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) of Monte Rosa itself, and the 
Dom (14,942 ft.), all rise on its northern slope and not on the 
main watershed. On the other hand the chain between the 
Great St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen 
points below a level of 10,000 ft. The Simplon Pass corresponds 
to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. Thence 
to the St Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher 
summits (including the Monte Leone, 11,684 ft., and the Pizzo 
Rotondo, 10,489 ft.) rising on it, a curious contrast to the long 
stretch just described. From the St Gotthard to the Maloja the 
watershed between the basins of the Rhine and Po runs in an 
easterly direction as a whole, though making two great dips 
towards the south, first to near the Vogelberg (10,565 ft.) and 
again to near the Pizzo Gallegione (10,201 ft.), so that it presents 
a broken and irregular appearance. But all the loftiest peaks 
rise on it: Scopi (10,499 ft-)> Pi 2 Medel (10,509 ft.), the Rhein- 
waldhorn (11,149 ft.), the Tambohorn (10,749 ft.) and Piz Timun 
(10,502 ft.). 

From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the south- 
east for a short distance, and then runs eastwards and nearly over 
the highest summit of the Bernina group, the Piz Bernina (13,304 
ft.), to the Bernina Pass. Thence to the Reschen Scheideck 
Pass the main chain is ill-defined, though on it rises the Corno di 
Campo (10,844 ft-), beyond which it runs slightly north-east past 
the sources of the Adda and the Frae'le Pass, sinks to form the 
depression of the Ofen Pass, soon bends north and rises once 
more in the Piz Sesvenna (10,568 ft.). 

The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by 
the deep valley, the Vintschgau, of the upper Adige (Etsch) is one 
of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps. 
The little Reschen lake which forms the chief source of the Adige 
is only 13 ft. below the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and by 
it is but 5 m. from the Inn valley. Eastward of this pass, the 
main chain runs north-east to the Brenner Pass along the snowy 
crest of the Oetzthal and Stubai Alps, the loftiest point on it being 
the Weisskugel (i 2,291 ft., Oetzthal) , for the highest summits both 
of the Oetzthal and of the Stubai districts, the Wildspitze (12,382 
ft.) and the Zuckerhutl (11,520 ft.) stand a little to the north. 

The Brenner (4495 ft.) is almost the lowest of all the great 
carriage-road passes across the main chain, and has always been 
the chief means of communication between Germany and Italy. 
For some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the 
highest crest of the Zillerthal Alps, which attains n,559 ft. in the 
Hochfeiler. But, a little farther, at the Dreiherrenspitze (11,500 
ft.) we have to choose between following the watershed south- 
wards, or keeping due east along the highest crest of the 
Greater Tauern Alps, (a) The latter course is adopted by many 
geographers and has much in its favour. The eastward direc- 
tion is maintained and the watershed (though not the chief 
Alpine watershed) continues through the Greater Tauern Alps, 
culminating in the Gross Venediger (12,008 ft.), for the Gross 
Glockner (12,461 ft.) rises to the south. Our chain bends north- 
east near the Radstadter Tauern Pass, and preserves that 
direction through the Lesser Tauern Alps to the Semmering Pass, 
(ft) On the other hand, if from the Dreiherrenspitze we cleave to 
the true main watershed of the Alpine chain, we find that it dips 
south, passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft-), the culminating 
point of the Rieserferner group, and then sinks to the Toblach 
Pass, but at a point a little east of the great Dolomite peak of 



the Drei Zinnen it bends east again, and rises in the Monte 
Coglians (9128 ft., the monarch of the Carnic Alps). Soon after 
our watershed makes a last bend to the south-east and culminates 
in the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest point of the Julie Alps, 
though the Grintovc (8429 ft, the culminating point of the 
Karawankas Alps) stands more to the east. Finally our water- 
shed turns south and ends near the great limestone plateau of 
the Birnbaumerwald, between Laibach and Gorz. 

As might be expected, the main chain boasts of more glaciers 
and eternal snow than the independent or external ranges. Yet 
it is a curious fact that the three longest glaciers in the Alps (the 
Great Aletsch, 16^ m., and the Unteraar and the Fiescher, each 
10 m.) are all in the Bernese Oberland. In the main chain the 
two longest are both 9^ m., the Mer de Glace at Chamonix and 
the Corner at Zermatt. In the Eastern Alps the longest glacier 
is the Pasterze (rather over 6j m.), which is not near the true 
main watershed, though it clings to the slope of the Greater 
Tauern range, east of the Dreiherrenspitze. But the next two 
longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps (the Hintereis, 65 m., and the 
Gepatsch, 6 m.) are both in the Oetzthal Alps, and so close to 
the true main watershed. 

The so-called alpine lakes are the sheets of water found at the 
foot of the Alps, on either slope, just where the rivers that form 
them issue into the plains. There are, however, alpine lakes 
higher up (e.g. the lake of Thun, and those in the Upper Engadine, 
in the heart of the mountains, though these are naturally smaller 
in extent, while the true lakes of the High Alps are represented 
by the glacier lakes of the Marjelensee (near the Great Aletsch 
glacier) and those on the northern slope of the Col de Fenetre, 
between Aosta and the Val de Bagnes. The most singular, and 
probably the loftiest, lake in the Alps is the ever-frozen tarn that 
forms the summit of the Roccia Viva (11,976 ft.) in the Eastern 
Graians. 

Among the great alpine rivers we may distinguish two classes: 
those which spring directly from glaciers and those which rise in 
lakes, these being fed by eternal snows or glaciers. In the former 
class are the Isere, the Rhone, the Aar, the Ticino, the Tosa, the 
Hinter (or main) Rhine and the Linth; while in the latter class we 
have the Durance, the Po, the Reuss, the Vorder and middle 
branches of the Rhine, the Inn, the Adda, the Oglio and the 
Adige. The Piave and the Drave seem to be outside either class. 

5. Principal Passes. Though the Alps form a barrier they 
have never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earliest 
days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps, for 
purposes of war or commerce, and later by pilgrims, students 
and tourists. The spots at which they were crossed are called 
passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to gorges 
only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to form 
depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys lead from the plains. 
Hence the oldest name for such passes is Mont (still retained in 
cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte Moro), for it was many 
ages before this term was especially applied to the peaks of the 
Alps, which with a few very rare exceptions (e.g. the Monte Viso 
was known to the Romans as Vesulus) were long simply dis- 
regarded. The native inhabitants of the Alps were naturally 
the first to use the alpine passes. But to the outer world these 
passes first became known when the Romans traversed them in 
order to conquer the world beyond. In the one case we have no 
direct knowledge (though the Romans probably selected the 
passes pointed out to them by the natives as the easiest), while 
in the other we hear almost exclusively of the passes across the 
main chain or the principal passes of the Alps. For obvious 
reasons the Romans, having once found an easy direct pass 
across the main chain, did not trouble to seek for harder and 
more devious routes. Hence the passes that can be shown to 
have been certainly known to them are comparatively few in 
number: they are, in topographical order from west to east, 
the Col de PArgentiere, the Mont Genevre, the two St Bernards, 
the Splugen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radstadter Tauern, 
the Solkscharte, the Plocken and the Pontebba (or Saifnitz). 
Of these the Mont Genevre and the Brenner were the most 
frequented, while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps only 



DIVISIONS] 



ALPS 



two passes (the Spliigen and the Septimer) were certainly known 
to the Romans. In fact the central portion of the Alps was by 
far the least Romanised and least known till the early middle 
ages. Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in 1235, 
the St Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier in 965, 
the San Bernardino in 941; of course they may have been 
known before, but authentic history is silent as regards them 
till the dates specified. Even the Mont Cenis (from the ijth to 
the 1 9th century the favourite pass for travellers going from 
France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only. In the i3th 
century many hitherto unknown passes came into prominence, 
even some of the easy glacier passes. It should always be borne in 
mind that in the Western and Central Alps there is but one ridge 
to cross, to which access is gained by a deep-cut valley, though 
often it would be shorter to cross a second pass in order to gain 
the plains, e.g. the Mont Genevre, that is most directly reached 
by the Col du Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained 
by one of the lower passes over the western portion of the 
Bernese Oberland chain. On the other hand, in the Eastern 
Alps, it is generally necessary to cross three distinct ridges 
between the northern and southern plains, the central ridge 
being the highest and most difficult. Thus the passes which 
crossed a single ridge, and did not involve too great a detour 
through a long valley of approach, became the most important 
and the most popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, the Great St Bernard, 
the St Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner. As time went 
on the travellers (with whatever object) who used the great 
alpine passes could not put up any longer with the bad old mule 
paths. A few passes (e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the Tenda 
and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed before 
1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St Bernard 
were not completed till the early years of the 2oth century. 
Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine passes were 
thus constructed in the igth century (particularly its first 
half), largely owing to the impetus given by Napoleon. As 
late as 1905, the highest pass over the main chain that had a 
carriage road was the Great St Bernard (8m ft.), but three still 
higher passes over side ridges have roads the Stelvio (9055 ft.), 
the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the 
Umbrail Pass (8242 ft.). Still more recently the main alpine 
chain has been subjected to the further indignity of having 
railway lines carried over it or through it the Brenner and the 
Pontebba lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda, 
the Mont Cenis (though the tunnel is really 17 m. to the west), 
the Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes 
of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter. There are also 
schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the Spliigen and the 
Hohe Tauern, both on the main ridge, and the Lotschen Pass, 
on one of the external ranges. The numerous mountain railways, 
chiefly in Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g. the Rigi and Pilatus) 
and over various side passes (e.g. the Briinig and the Little 
Scheidegg) do not concern us here. 

6. Divisions. The Alps, within the limits indicated under 
(2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with 
ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains. They thus 
form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains at 
their base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at the 
spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions or passes. 
But for the sake of practical convenience it has long been usual to 
select certain of the best marked of these passes to serve as limits 
within the range, whether to distinguish several great divisions 
from each other, or to further break up each of these great divisions 
into smaller groups. As these divisions, great or small, are so 
to speak artificial, several systems have been proposed according 
to which the Alps may be divided. We give below that which 
seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely on 
personal acquaintance with most parts of the range), considering, 
as in the case of the limits of the chain, only its topographical 
aspect, as it exists at the present day, while leaving it to geo- 
logists, botanists and zoologists to elaborate special divisions 
as required by these various sciences. Our selected divisions 
relate only to the High Alps between the Col de Tenda and the 



route over the Radstadter Tauern, while in each of the 18 sub- 
divisions the less elevated outlying peaks are regarded as append- 
ages of the higher group within the topographical limits of which 
they rise. No attempt, of course, has been made to give a com- 
plete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps, while in 
the case of the peaks the culminating point of a lower half- 
detached group has been included rather than the loftier spurs 
of the higher and main group; in the case of the passes, the 
villages or valleys they connect have been indicated, and also 
the general character of the route over each pass. 

As regards the main divisions, three are generally distinguished ; 
the Western Alps (chiefly French and Italian, with a small bit 
of the Swiss Valais) being held to extend from the Col de Tenda 
to the Simplon Pass, the Central Alps (all but wholly Swiss and 
Italian) thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass, and the Eastern 
Alps (wholly Austrian and Italian, save the small Bavarian 
bit at the north-west angle) thence to the Radstadter Tauern 
route, with a bend outwards towards the south-east, as explained 
under (2) in order to include the higher summits of the South- 
Eastern Alps. Strictly speaking, we should follow the Reschen 
Scheideck route down the Adige valley, but as this would include 
in the Central Alps the Ortler and some other of the highest 
Tirolese summits, it is best (remembering the artificial character 
of the division) to draw a line from Mais southwards either over 
the Umbrail Pass (the old historical pass) or the Stelvio (well- 
known only since the carriage road was built over it in the first 
quarter of the igth century) to the head of the Valtellina, and 
then over the Aprica Pass (as the Bergamasque Alps properly 
belong to the Central Alps) to the Oglio valley or the Val 
Camonica, and down that valley to the Lake of Iseo and Brescid. 

Assuming these three main divisions, we must now consider 
in detail the 18 sub-divisions which we distinguish; the first 5 
forming the Western Alps, the next 7 the Central Alps, and the 
rest the Eastern Alps, the heights throughout being, of course, 
given in English feet and representing the latest measurements. 

I. WESTERN ALPS 

I. Maritime Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Col de 1'Argen- 
tiere). 

Chief Peaks of the Maritime Alps. 



Punta dell' Argentera 
Cima dei Gelas 
Monte Matto . 
Mont Pelat . 
Mont Clapier . 



Mont Tinibras 
Mont Enchastraye 
Monte Bego 
Mont Monnier . 
Rocca dell" Abisso 



io,794 
10,286 
10,128 
10,017 
9,994 

Chief Passes of the Maritime Alps. 
Passo del Pagarin (Vesubie Valley to Valdieri), snow. 
Col di Fremamorta (Tinee Valley to the Baths of Valdieri), 

bridle path ........ 

Bassa di Druos (same to same), bridle path 

Passo di Collalunga (Tinee Valley to Vmadio), bridle path. 

Coll dell' Agnel (Tenda to Valdieri), foot path . 

Col della Ciriegia (St Martin Vesubie to the Bathsof Valdieri), 

bridle path ........ 

Col des Granges Communes (St Etienne de Tinee to Barce- 
lonnette), bridle path ...... 

Col de Pourriac (Tinee Valley to Argentera), foot path 
Col della Finestre (St Martin de Vesubie to Valdieri), bridle 

path 

Col di Guercia (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), foot path . 

Col della Lombarda (same to same), bridle path 

Col de la Cayolle (Var Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage 

road ......... 

Col di Santa Anna (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path 

Col del Sabbione (Tenda to Valdieri), bridle path 

Col d'Allos or de Valgelaye (Verdon Valley to Barcelonnette), 

carriage road ........ 

Col de 1'Argentiere (Barcelonnette to Cuneo), carriage road . 
Col de Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road, railway 

beneath . 



9-948 
9-695 
9,426 
9,246 
9,039 

9-236 

8,688 
8,629 

8-531 
8,426 

8,370 
8,242 

8,222 

8,107 
8,042 
7,858 

7,717 
7-605 
7,428 

7-382 

6,545 



6,145 

2. Cottian Alps (from the Col de 1'Argentiere to the Mont Cenis 
and westwards to the Col du Galibier). 



Monte Viso . 

Viso di Vallante . 

Aiguille de Scolette . 

Aiguille de Chambeyron 

Grand Rubren 

Brec de Chambeyron 

Rognosa d'Etache 



Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps. 

12,609 Dents d'Ambin . . . 11,096 

12,048 Mont d'Ambin . . . 11,080 

11,500 Pointe de la Font Sancte 11,057 

11,155 Punta Ferrant . . . 11,037 

11,142 Visolotto .... 11,001 

11,116 Rochebrune .... 10,906 

11,106 Punta Sommeiller . . 10,896 



742 

Brie Froid . , . . 10,860 TSte des Toillies . . 

Grand Glayza . . . 10,781 Monte Granero 

Rognosa di Sestrieres . 10,758 Mont Chaberton 

Panestrel 10,673 Tlte de Mpyse . . . 

Roche du Grand Galibier 10,637 Monte Meidassa 

Peou Roc ...... 10,601 Pelvo d'Elva 

Pic du Pelvat . . 10,558 Mont Politri . . . 

Pointe Haute de Mary . 10,539 Mont Albergian 

Pic du Thabor . . . 10,516 Brie Bouchet . . . 

Mont Thabor ... 10,440 Punta Cournour , 

Pointe des Cerces . . 10,434 

Chief Passes in the Cottian Alps. 
Col Sommeiller (Bardonneche to Bramans), snow 
Col de la Traversette (Crissolo to Abries), mainly bridle path 

beneath pass tunnel made in 1478-1480 
Col d'Ambin (Exilles to Bramans), snow .... 
Col de St Veran (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), foot 

path . . . . . . 

Col d'Etache (Bardonneche to Bramans), bridle path 

Col dell' Agnello (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), bridle 

path ......... 

Col Girardin (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), bridle 

path . . . 

Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcelonnette) , bridle path . 
Col de Longet (Ubaye Valley to Val Varaita), bridle path . 
Col de Mary or de Maurin (Ubaye Valley to Val Maira) , bridle 

path 

Col d'Abries or de Prali (Perosa to Abries), bridle path 
Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridle path 
Col de Frejus (same to same), carriage road, beneath which 

is the so-called Mont Cenis railway tunnel. 
Col de Clapier (Bramans to Susa), bridle path . 
Col d'Izouard (Briancon to the Queyras Valley), carriage 

road ......... 

Col de la Croix (Torre Pellice to Abries), bridle path 

Petit Mont Cenis (Bramans to the Mont Cenis Plateau) , bridle 

path 

Col de Vars (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), carriage 

road ......... 

Mont Cenis (Lanslebourg to Susa), carriage road 
Col de Sestrieres (Pignerol to Cesanne), carriage road 
Mont Genevre (Briancon to Cesanne), carriage road . 
Col des Echelles de Planpinet (Briancon to Bardonneche), 

partly carriage road 



ALPS 



[PEAKS AND PASSES 



10,430 

10,401 

10,286 

10,204 

10,187 

10,053 

10,009 

9,974 

9,853 

9,410 



9,679 
9-364 

9,33i 
9,144 

9,003 

8,855 
8,823 

8,767 

8,708 

8,695 
8,419 

8,294 
8,173 

7,835 
7,576 

7,166 

6,939 
6,893 
6,631 
6,083 



5,774 
3. Dauphine Alps (from the Col du Galibier, westwards and 



southwards). 



Chief Peaks of the Dauphins Alps. 



Pointe des Ecrins . . 13,462 

Meije 13,081 

Ailefroide 12,989 

Mont Pelvoux . . . 12,973 

Pic Sans Nom . . . 12,845 

Pic Gaspard .... 12,730 

Pic Coolidge .... 12,323 

Grande Ruine . . . 12,317 

Rateau , 12,317 

Montagne des Agneaux . 12,008 

Les Bans n,979 

Sommet des Rouies . .11 ,923 

Aiguille du Plat . . . 11,818 

Pic d'Olan n,735 

Pic Bonvoisin . . . .11 ,680 
Aiguilles d'Arves (highest 

point) 11,529 

Grandes Rousses . . . 11,395 
Roche de la Muzelle . . 11,349 
11,280 



Pic Felix Neff 
Vieux Chaillol . . . 
TSte de Vautisse . 
Grand Pinier 
Pic de Parieres . 
Mourre Froid 
Belledonne (highest) 
Rocher Blanc (Sept Laux) 

Taillefer 

Pic du Frgne . . . 
TSte de 1'Obiou . . . 
Grand Ferrand . 
Pic de Bure (Aurouse) 
Grand Veymont 
Mont Aiguille . 
Chamechaude . 
Dent de Crolles . . 
Grand Som .... 
Mont Granier . 
Dent du Chat 



Sirac 

Chief Passes of the Dauphine Alps. 
Col de la Lauze (St Christophe to La Grave), snow . 
Col des Avalanches (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow . 
Col de la Casse Deserte (La Berarde to La Grave), snow 
Col Emile Pic (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . 
Col des Ecrins (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow 
Col du Glacier Blanc (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . 
Col du Sele (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow 
Breche de la Meije (La Berarde to la Grave), snow . 
Col de la Temple (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow 



10-571 

10,378 

io,375 

10,237 

10,007 

9,830 

9,781 

9,6i7 

9,387 

9,219 

9,164 

9,059 
8,898 

7,697 
6,880 
6,847 

6,779 
6,670 

6,358 
4,593 

11,625 
11,520 
11,516 
1 1 ,490 
11,205 
10,854 
10,834 
10,827 
10,772 



Col des Aiguilles d'Arves (Valloire to St Jean d'Arves), snow 10,335 
Col du Says (La Berarde to the Val Gaudemar), snow . 10,289 
Col du Clot des Ca vales (La Berarde to La Grave), snow . 10,263 
Col du Loup du Valgaudemar (Vallouise to the Val Gaude- 
mar), snow ........ 10,210 

Col Lombard (La Grave to S.t Jean d'Arves), snow . . 10,171 

Breche des Grandes Rousses (Allemont to Clavans), snow . 10,171 

Col du Sellar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow . 10,063 
Col de la Muande (St Christophe to the Val Gaudemar), 

snow . . . 10,037 

Col des Quirlies (St Jean d'Arves to Clavans), snow . . 9,679 



Col du Goleon (La Grave to Valloire), foot path 
Pas de la Cavale (Vallouise to Champoleon), carriage road . 
Col d'Orcieres (Dormillouse to Orcieres), bridle path. 
Col de I'lnfernet (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), foot path 
Col du Galibier (Lautaret Hospice toSt Michel de Maurienne), 

carriage road ....... 

Breche de Valsenestre (Bourg d'Oisans to Valsenestre), foot 

path . . ...... 

Col de Vallonpierre (Val Gaudemar to Champoleon), foot 

path ........ 

Col de Val Estrete (same to same), foot path . 
Col de Vaurze (Val Gaudemar to Val Jouffrey), foot path . 
Col de Martignare (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), foot path 
Col des Tourettes (Orcieres to Chateauroux) , bridle path . 
Col de la Muzelle (St Christophe to Valsenestre), foot path 
Col de 1'Eychauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle path . 
Col d'Arsine (La Grave to Monestier), bridle path . 
Col des Pres Nouveaux (Le Freney to St Jean d'Arves), 

bridle path ....... 

Col des Sept Laux (Allevard to Bourg d'Oisans), bridle path 
Col du Lautaret (Briancon to Bourg d'Oisans), carriage 

road ......... 

Col de la Croix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean d'Arves), 

carriage road ........ 

Col du Glandon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Chambre), carriage 

road ......... 

Col de 1'Alpe de Venose (Venose to Le Freney), bridle path 
Col d'Ornon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Mure), carriage road . 
Col Bayard (La Mure to Gap), carriage road 
Col de la Croix Haute (Grenoble to Veynes and Gap), rail- 
way line over ....... 

4. Graian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Little St Bernard 
Pass). These are usually divided into three groups, the Central 
(the watershed between the two passes named), the Western or 
French, and the Eastern or Italian; in the following lists the 
initials " C," " W," and " E " show to which group each peak 
and pass belongs. 

Chief Peaks of the Graian Alps. 



9,449 
8,990 
8,859 
8,826 

8,721 
8,642 
8,642 
8,596 
8,596 
8,596 
8,531 
8,531 
8,465 

8,202 
7,970 

7,874 

7,523 

7,166 
6,808 

6,765 

6,401 
5,446 
4,462 
4,088 

3-829 



Grand Paradis (E) . . 13,324 

Grivola (E) .... 13,022 

Grande Casse (W) . . 12,668 

Mont Pourri (W) . . 12,428 

Mont Herbetet (E) . . 12,396 

Pointe de Charbonel (C) 12,336 
Aiguille de la Grande 

Sassiere (C) . . . 12,323 

Dent Parrachee (W) . 12,179 
Tour du Grand St Pierre 

(E) 12,113 

Uja di Ciamarella (C) . 12,061 

Cima di Charforon (E) . 12,025 

Grande Motte (W) . . 12,018 

Albaron (C) .... 12,015 

Roccia Viva (E) . . . 11,976 

Levanna (C) . . . . 11,943 

Bessanese (C). . . . 11,917 

Punta di Gaij (E) . . 11,887 

D6me de 1'Arpont (W) . 11,874 

Pointe de Ronce (C) . . 11,871 

Bee de 1'Invergnan (C) . 11,838 

Tsanteleina (C) . . . 11,831 

D6me de Chassefore't (W) 1 1 ,802 

Croce Rossa (C) . . . 11,703 

Aiguille de Peclet (W) . 11,700 

Mont Emilius (E) . . 11,677 

Punta d'Arnas (C) . . 11,615 

Aiguille de Polset (W) . 11,608 

Rochemelon (C) . . . 11,605 

Mont Chalanson(C) . . 11,582 

Tersiva (E) .... 11,526 

Grande Traversiere (C) . 11,467 

TSte du Rutor (C) . . 11,438 



Grande Aiguille Rousse 

(C) 11,424 

Granta Parey (C) . . 11,395 

Roc du Mulinet (C) . 11,382 

Aiguille Pers (C) . . 11,323 

Pointe de la Sana (W) 11,319 

Cima dell' Auille (C) . 11,306 

Pointe de 1'Echelle (W) 11,260 

Punta Foura (E) . . 11,188 

Pointe des Sengies (E) 11,182 

Pointe de la Gliere (W) 11,109 

Pointe de la Galise (C) 10,975 
Pointe de la Traversiere 

(C) 10,962 

Pointe de Mean Martin 

(W) 10,949 

Punta Lavina (E) . . 10,854 

Ormelune (C) . . . 10,771 

Roche Chevriere (W) . 10,768 

Signal du Mont Iseran (C) 10,634 

Pointe de la Rechasse (W) 10,575 



Grand Assaly (C) 
Roisebanque (E) 
Becca di Nona (E) . 
Torre d'Ovarda (C) 
Pointe du Pousset (-) 
D&me de Val d'Isere (C) 
Uja di Mondrone (C) . 
Bellagarda (C) . . . 
Monte Marzo (E) . 
Petit Mont Blanc 



de 



Pralognan (W) 
(W) 



Mont Jouvet 
Monte Civrari (C) 
Chief Passes of the Graian Alps. 
Col de la Grande Rousse (Rnemes Valley to the Val 

Grisanche), snow (C) . ... 

Col de Gebroulaz (Arc Valley to Mofltiers Tarentaise), snow 

(W) . . . ' . . 

Col de Monei (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) 
Col du Grand Paradis (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), 

snow (E) ........ 

Col du Charforon (same to same), snow (E) 

Col de Teleccio (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) . 

Col de Lauzon (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) 

Col du Bouquetin (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), snow (C) 

Col de St Grat (Val Grisanche to La Thuille), snow (C) . 

Col de 1'Herbetet (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) 

Col du Collerin (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) . 

Col du Grand Etret (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow 

(E) . . 



10,414 

10,381 

10,309 

10,089 

9,994 

9,951 

9,725 

9,643 

9,023 

8,809 
8,409 
7,553 



11,483 

".385 
11,247 

10,988 
10,929 

10,913 
10,831 
10,827 
10,827 
10,686 
10,506 

10,361 



PEAKS AND PASSES] 



ALPS 



Col de Bassac (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow(C) 10,345 

Col du Carro (Bonneval to Ceresole), snow (C) . 

Col d'Arbole (Comboe to Brissogne), snow (E) . . 

Col de la Goletta(Va Id'Iseretothe Rhemes Valley), snow (C) 

Col de Rhemes (same to same), snow (C) 

Col de la Grande Casse (Pralognan to the Premou Glen), 

snow (W) . ..... 

Col de Sea (Bonneval to Forno AlpiGraie),snow (C) . 
Col de 1'Autaret (Bessans to Usseglio), foot path (C) . 
Col de Girard (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C) . 
Col Rosset (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), bridle 

path (C) 

Col d'Arnas (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) 

Col de la Galise (Ceresole to Val d'Isere), snow (C) . 

Col de Sort (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), partly 

bridle path (C) 

Quecees de Tignes (Val d'Isere to Termignon), snow (W) . 
Col della Nouva (Cogne to Pont Canavese), partly bridle 

path (E) 



Col de Garin (Aosta to Cogne), foot path (E) . 
Collarin d'Arnas (Balme to Usseglio), snow (C) 
Finestra del Torrent (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), 

foot path (C) 

Fene'tre de Champorcher (Cogne to Champorcher), bridle 

path (E) 

Col de Vaudet (Isere Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path 

(C) 

Col de Bardoney (Cogne to Pont Canavese), snow (E) 
Col de Chaviere (Modane to Pralognan), foot path (W) 
Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Termignon), snow (W) 
Col du Mont Iseran (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), bridle path 

(C) . . 

Ghicet di Sea (Balme to Forno Alpi Graie), foot path (C) . 
Col de la Sachette (Tignes to Bourg St Maurice), foot path 

(W) . . 

Col du Palet (Tignes to Mofltiers Tarentaise or Bourg 

St Maurice), bridle path (W) .... 
Col du Mont (Ste Foy to the Val Grisanche), bridle path (C) 
Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), 

bridle path (E) 

Col della Crocetta (Ceresole to Forno Alpi Graie), bridle 

path (C) 

Col de la Platiere (St Jean de Maurienne to Moutiers Taren- 
taise), partly bridle path (W) .... 
Col de la Vanoise (Pralognan to Termignon), bridle path (W) 
ires (St Michel de Maurienne to Moutiers 



10,302 
10,292 
10,237 
10,174 

10,171 
10,115 
10,073 
9-987 

9,922 
9,889 
9,836 

9,735 
9,646 

9-623 
9,4" 
9,351 

9,34' 
9-3" 

9,3<>5 
9,295 
9,206 
9,121 

9,o85 
8,973 

8,954 

8,721 
8,681 

8,665 
8,649 

8,531 
8,291 



Col des Encombres (St 

Tarentaise), bridle path (W) 7,668 

Little St Bernard (Aosta to Moutiers Tarentaise), carriage 

road (C) ... 7,179 

Col de la Madeleine (La Chambre to Moutiers Tarentaise), 

bridle path (W) . . . 6,509 

5. Pennine Alps (from the Little St Bernard to the Simplon Pass). 
This range contains all the highest peaks in the Alps, save the 
Finsteraarhorn (14,026) in the Bernese Oberland. 



Mont Blanc 

Monte Rosa (Dufour- 

spitze) . 

Nord End (Monte Rosa) 
Dom (Mischabelhorner) 
Lyskamm .... 
Weisshorn 
Matterhorn 
Taschhorn. 
Mont Maudit 
Dent Blanche . . 
D5me du GoQter 
Grand Combin 
Castor .... 
Zinal Rothhorn . 
Alphubel .... 
Grandes Jorasses 
Rimpfischhorn 
Stranlhorn 
Dent d'Herens 
Zermatt Breithorn . 
Aiguille Verte 
Ober Gabelhorn . 
Aiguille de Bionnassay 
Allalinhorn 
Weissmies 
Aiguille du Geant 
Laquinhorn 
Rossbodenhorn 
Grand Cornier 
Aiguille de Trelatfite 
Aiguille d'Argentiere 
Ruinette .... 
Aiguille de Triolet . 



Chief Peaks of the Pennine Alps. 

. 15,782 Mont Blanc de Seilon . 
Aiguille du Midi 
Tour Noir .... 
Aiguille des Glaciers 
Mont Dolent 
Aiguille du Chardonnet 
Cima di Jazzi . 

Balfrin 

Pigne d'Arolla . 
Mont Velan . . . 
Aiguille du Dru 
Tete Blanche . . . 
L'Eve'que .... 
Mont Pleureur . 
DSme de Miage. 
Lo Besso .... 
Aiguille de la Za 
Mont Collon 
Diablons .... 
Aiguille de Tour 
Mont Gele .... 
Bee de Luseney . . 
Aiguille de Grepon . 
Chateau des Dames 
Aiguille des Charmoz . 
Aiguille du Tacul . 
Grand Tournalin 
Pointe de Rosa Blanche 
Mont Avril .... 
Grande Rochere 
Corno Bianco 



15.217 
15,132 
14,942 
14,889 
14,804 
14-782 
14-758 
14,669 
14-318 
14,210 
14,164 
13-879 
13,856 
13,803 
13,797 
13,790 
13,751 
13.715 
13,685 
13-541 
13,364 
13,341 
13,236 
13,226 
13-170 
13-140 
13,128 
13,022 
12,832 
12,819 
12,727 
12,717 



Grauhaupt 
Pointe d'Orny 
Dent du Midi 



12,700 
12,609 
12,586 
12,579 
12,543 
12,540 

12,527 
12,474 
12,471 

12,353 
12,320 
12,304 
12,264 
12,159 

12,100 
12,058 
12,051 
11-956 
11,828 
11,615 

"-539 
"-503 
11,489 

"-447 
11,293 
11,280 
1 1, 086 
10,985 
10,962 

10,913 
10,893 
10,876 
10,742 
10,696 



Mont Favre .... 10,693 

Sasseneire .... 10,693 

Grand Golliaz . . . 10,630 

Tour Sallieres . . . 10,588 

Pizzo Bianco .... 10,552 

Latelhorn 10,525 

Schwarzhorn (Augstbord) 10,512 

Gornergrat .... 10,289 

Pointe de Lechaud . . 10,260 

Buet . . . . . . 10,201 

Mont Ruan .... 10,099 

Mont Neri .... 10,073 

Bella Tola .... 9,935 

Pointe de Tanneverge . 9,784 

Belvedere (Aigs. Rouges) 9,731 



Tagliaferro .... 
Riffelhorn .... 
Pointe Perceedu Reposoir 
Crammont .... 
Pointe des Fours 
Pointe du Colloney 

Catogne 

Monte Bo . 

Mont Joly .... 

Brevent 

Pointe de Salles 
Aiguille de Varens . 
Mont Chetif . . . . 

M61e 

Saleve (highest point) . 



743 

9.725 
9-617 
9,029 
8,g8o 
8,921 
8,832 

8,527 
8,386 
8,291 
8,284 
8,183 
8,163 
7,687 
6,132 
4-528 



Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps. 

Sesiaioch (Zermatt to Alagna), snow .... 14,515 

Col de la Brenva (Courmayeur to Chamonix), snow . . 14,217 

Domjoch (Randa to Saas), snow . .... 14,062 

Lysjoch (Zermatt to Gressoney), snow .... 14,033 

Mischabeljoch (Zermatt to Saas), snow .... 12,651 

Alphubel Pass (same to same), snow .... 12,474 

Adler Pass (same to same), snow ..... 12,461 

Morning Pass (Zermatt to Zinal), snow .... 12,287 

Schwarzthor (Zermatt to Ayas), snow .... 12,274 

Col de Triolet (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow . . 12, no 

Ried Pass (St Niklaus to Saas), snow .... 11,800 

New Weissthor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), snow . . 11,746 

Allalin Pass (Zermatt to Saas), snow .... 11,713 

Col de Valpelline (Zermatt to Aosta), snow . . . 11,687 

Biesjpch (Randa to Turtmann), snow .... 11,644 

Triftioch (Zermatt to Zinal), snow ..... 11,615 

Col d'Argentiere (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow . . 11,536 
Col du Sonadon (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), 

snow ........ . n,447 

Col de Talefre (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow . . 11,430 

Col d'Herens (Zermatt to Evolena), snow . . . 11,418 

Col Durand (Zermatt to Zinal), snow . . . 11,398 
Col des Maisons Blanches (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de 

Bagnes), snow . . .... 11,241 

Col de Bertol (Arolla to the Col d'Herens), snow . . 11,200 

Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow . . 11,077 

Col du Geant (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow . . 1 1 ,060 
Col du Mont Rouge (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), 

snow ......... 10,962 

Col du Chardonnet (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow . . 10,909 

Col de St Theodule (Zermatt to Chatillon), snow . . 10,899 

Col du Tour (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow . . . 10,762 

Fene'tre de Saleinaz (Saleinaz Glacier to Trient Glacier),snow 10,709 

Col de Tracuit (Zinal to Turtmann), snow . . . 10,670 

Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo), snow . . . 10,657 

Col d'Oren (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow . . 10,637 

Col de Seilon (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow 10,499 

Col du Cr@t (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow 10,329 
Col de Valcournera (Val Tournanche to the Valpelline), 

snow . . . . . . . . 10,325 

Col de Collon (Arolla to Aosta), snow . . . .10,270 

Col de Valsorey (Bourg St Pierre to Aosta), snow . . 10,214 

Col de Chermontane (Val de Bagnes to Arolla), snow . 10,119 

Cimes Blanches (Val Tournanche to Ayas), bridle path . 9,777 

Col de Torrent (Evolena to the Val de Torrent), bridle path 9,593 

Augstbord Pass (St Niklaus to Turtmann), bridle path . 9,492 

Col de CrSte Seche (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow 9,475 

Col de Breuil (Bourg St Maurice to La Thuille), snow . 9,446 

Col d'Olen (Alagna to Gressoney), bridle path . . 9,420 

Monte Moro (Saas to Macugnaga), partly bridle path . 9,390 

Pas de Chevres (Arolla to the Val d Heremence), foot path 9,354 

Antrona Pass (Saas to Antrona), partly bridle path . . 9,331 

Col de Sorebois (Zinal to the Val de Torrent), bridle path . 9,269 
Col de Vessona (Valpelline to the St Barthelemy Glen), foot 

path 9,167 

Col de Fene'tre (Val de Bagnes to Aosta), bridle path . 9,141 

Z'Meiden Pass (Zinal to Turtmann), bridle path . . 9,095 

Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), foot path . . . 8,977 
Col de Fengtre (Great St Bernard to the Swiss Val Ferret), 

bridle path 8,855 

Bettafurka (Ayas to Gressoney), bridle path . . . 8,780 

Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow . 8,498 

Col Serena (Great St Bernard to Courmayeur). foot path . 8,327 
Col Ferret (Courmayeur to Orsieres), carriage road in 

progress ....... 8,311 

Col de la Seigne (Chapieux to Courmayeur) bridle path . 8,242 

Col de Susanfe (Champery to Salvan), foot path . . 8,202 

Col du Bonhomme (Contamines to Chapieux), bridle path. 8,147 

Col de Valdobbia (Gressoney to the Val Sesia), bridle path 8,134 

Great St Bernard (Martigny to Aosta), carriage road . 8,in 

Col de Sagerou (Sixt to Champery), foot path . . . 7,917 

Col de Moud (Alagna to Rima and Varallo), bridle path . 7,622 

Col d'Anterne (Sixt to Servos), bridle path . . . 7,425 



744 

Col d'Egua (Rima to the Val Anzasca), bridle path . . 7,336 

Col de Balme (Chamonix to the Trient Valley), bridle path . 7,221 
Simplpn Pass (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage road over, 

railway tunnel beneath . . ... 6,592 

Col de Checouri (Courmayeur to the Lac de Corabal), bridle 

path ....... . . 6,431 

Baranca Pass (Varallo to the Val Anzasca), bridle path . 5,971 

Col de Voza (Chamonix to Contamines), bridle path . . 5,496 

Col de la Forclaz (Chamonix to St Gervais), bridle path . 5,105 

Col de la Forclaz (Trient Valley to Martigny), carriage road 4,987 

II. CENTRAL ALPS 

6. Bernese Oberland (from the Lake of Geneva to the Furka, the 
Reuss Valley and the Lake of Lucerne). This general name seems 
best to describe the range in question, though, of course, portions of 
it are in Cantons other than that of Berne, viz. Vaud, Fribourg, the 
Valais, Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden. 

Chief Peaks of the Bernese Oberland. 
Finsteraarhorn . . . 14,026 Wellborn. 

Mettenberg . 
Loffelhorn . . 
Grand Muveran 
Gross Wendenstock 
Sparrhorn 



Aletschhorn .... 13,721 

Jungfrau 13,669 

Monch 13,468 

Gross Schreckhorn . . 13,386 

Gross Fiescherhorn . . 13,285 

Eiger 13,042 

Bietschhorn .... 12,970 

Gross Wannehorn . . 12,812 

Gross Nesthorn . . . 12,533 

Lauterbrunnen Breithorn 12,399 

Balmhorn 12,176 

Wetterhorn (Mittelhorn) 12,166 
Wetterhorn (Hasli Jung- 
frau) 12,149 

Wetterhorn (Rosenhorn ) 12, no 



Torrenthorn 

Grande Dent de Morcles 
Schilthorn .... 
Eggishorn .... 
Uri Rothstock 



10,486 
10,194 
10,165 
10,043 

9,987 
9,928 

9,853 
9,777 
9,754 
9,626 
9,620 



Schwarzhorn(Grindelwald)9,6i3 



12,044 
1 1 ,966 

11,930 
11,920 
1 1 ,802 
",523 
11,293 
11,214 
10,985 
10,929 
10,768 



Gross Siedelhorn 

Albristhorn 

Rothihorn 

Faulhorn 

Gummfluh 



Blumlisalphorn 

Gross Doldenhorn 

Altels .... 

Dammastock . 

Galenstock 

Sustenhorn 

Gspaltenhorn . 

Fleckistock 

Gross Hiihnerstock 

Ewigschneehorn . 

Ritzlihorn 

Wildhorn 10,709 

Wildstrubel .... 10,673 
Diablerets .... 10,650 

Titlis 10,627 

Gross Spannort . . . 10,516 

Chief Passes of the Bernese Oberland. 
Lauithor (Lauterbrunnen to the Eggishorn), snow 
Monchjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn), snow 
Jungfraujoch (Wengern Alp to the Eggishorn), snow . 
Strahlegg Pass (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow . 
Grunhornlucke (Great Aletsch Glacier to the Fiescher 

Glacier), snow ..... 

Oberaarjoch (Grimsel to the Eggishorn), snow 

/""*,. ..1! T),. tr* _: i j__ jr \ 



Sulegg .... 
Vanfl Noir . 
Niesen .... 
Brienzer Rothhorn . 
Tour d'Ai 
Hohgant 
Stocfchorn 
Kaiseregg . . . 
Pilatus (Tomlishorn) 
Chamossaire . 
Gemmenalphorn 
Rochers de Naye . 
Moleson .... 
Dent de Jaman 
Napf 



9-452 
9,069 
9,052 
8,803 
8,074 
7.9H 
7,858 
7,763 
7,7H 
7,658 
7,225 
7,192 
7,182 
6,995 
6,943 
6,772 
6,710 
6,582 
6,165 
4,629 

12,140 
1 1, 680 
"-385 
io,995 

10,844 
10,607 



Gauli Pass (Grimsel to Meiringen), snow . . . 10,519 

Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnen to the Lotschenthal), snow . 10,516 

Lotschenliicke (Lotschenthal to the Eggishorn), snow . 10,512 

Lauteraarsattel (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow . . 10,355 

Beichgrat (Lotschenthal to the Bel Alp), snow . . . 10,289 

Lammernjoch (Lenk to the Gemmi), snow . ... 10,276 

Triftlimmi (Rhone Glacier to the Gadmen Valley), snow . 10,200 
Sustenlimmi (Stein Alp to Goeschenen), snow . . .10,181 

Gamchiliicke (Kien Valley to Lauterbrunnen), snow . 9,295 

Tschingel Pass (Lauterbrunnen to Kandersteg), snow . 9,265 

Hohthurli Pass (Kandersteg to the Kien Valley), foot path 8,882 

Lotschen Pass (Kandersteg to the Lotschenthal), snow . 8,842 

Sefinenfurka(Lauterbrunnen to the Kien Valley), foot path 8,583 

Wendenjoch (Engelberg to the Gadmen Valley), snow . 8,544 
Furtwangsattel(Guttannen to the Gadmen Valley), foot 

path . . . . . . . . . 8,393 

Furka Pass (Rhone Glacier to Andermatt), carriage road . 7,992 

Rawil Pass (Sion to Lenk), bridle path .... 7,924 

Gemmi Pass (Kandersteg to Leukerbad), bridle path . 7,641 

Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), foot path . . 7,563 

Susten Pass (Meiringen to Wassen), partly carriage road . 7,422 

Sanetsch Pass (Sion to Saanen), bridle path . . . 7,331 

Joch Pass (Meiringen to Engelberg), bridle path . . 7,267 
Grimsel Pass (Meiringen to the Rhone Glacier), carriage road 7,100 
Kleine Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Lauterbrunnen), railway 

over 6,772 

Col de Cheville (Sion to Bex), bridle path . . . 6,723 

Grosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meiringen), bridle path 6,434 
Col de Jaman (Montreux to Montbovon), mule path over, 

railway tunnel beneath ...... 4,974 

Briinig Pass (Meiringen to Lucerne), railway over . . 3,396 



[PEAKS AND PASSES 



7. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the Splugen and south 
of the Furka and Oberalp Passes). The eastern portion of this 
range, from the St Gotthard Pass to the Splugen, is sometimes 
named the Adula Alps. 

Chief Peaks of the Lepontine Alps. 
11,684 Piz Bias 
11,149 
11,132 
11,103 



Monte Leone 

Rheinwaldhorn 

Giiferhorn 

Blindenhorn . 

Basodino 10,749 



Tambohorn .... 10,749 

Helsenhorn . . . . 10,742 

Wasenhorn .... 10,680 

Ofenhorn 10,637 

Cherbadung .... 10,542 

Piz Medel .... 10,509 

Scopi 10,499 

Pizzo Rotondo . . . 10,489 

Pizzo dei Piani . . . 10,361 

Piz Tern 10,338 

Piz Aul 10,250 

Pizzo di Pesciora . . 10,247 

Wyttenwasserstock . . 10,119 

Campo Tencia . . . 10,089 

Leckihorn .... 10,069 

Bruschghorn .... 10,020 

Alperschellihorn . . . 9,991 

Chief Passes of the Lepontine Alps. 

Zapport Pass (Hinterrhein to Malvaglia and Biasca), snow. 
Guferliicke (Kanal Glen to the Lenta Glen), snow 
Lentalucke (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), snow . 
Hohsand Pass (Binn to Tosa Falls), snow 
Lecki Pass (Wyttenwasser Glen to the Mutten Glen), snow 
Passo Rotondo (Airolo to Oberwald), snow 
Kaltwasser Pass (Simplon Hospice to Veglia Alp), snow 
Scaradra Pass (Vals Platz to Olivone), foot path 
Sattelteliicke (Vals Platz to Vrin), foot path 



Monte Giove 
Pizzo Centrale . 
Pizzas d'Annarosa . 
Piz Beverin . 
Weisshorn (Splugen) 
Pizzo Lucendro 
Piz Tomul . . . 
Piz Cavel . . . 
Barenhorn . 
Six Madun (Badus) 
Piz Muraun 
Zervreilerhorn . 
Monte Cistella . 
Piz Lukmanier . 
Monte Prosa 
Pizzo Columbe . 
Monte Camoghe 
Piz Mundaun 
Monte Generoso 
Monte San Salvatore 



9,918 
9,876 
9,853 
9.850 
9,843 
9,8i7 
9,708 
9,676 

9,659 
9,620 

9,619 
9,5 12 
9,508 

9,353 

8,983 
8,363 
7,303 
6,775 
5-591 
3-004 



10,105 

9.777 
9,692 
9.603 
9,554 
9,449 
9.351 
9,088 
9,082 



Ritter Pass (Binn to Veglia Alp), snow .... 8,832 

Cavanna Pass (Realp to the Val Bedretto), snow . . 8,566 

Scatta Minoja (Devero to the Val Formazza), bridle path . 8,521 

Bocca di Cadlimo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), foot path 8,340 

Valserberg (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), bridle path . . 8,225 

Safierberg (Splugen to Safien Platz), bridle path . . 8,170 

Geisspfad Pass (Binn to Devero), foot path . . . 8,120 

Gries Pass (Ulrichen to Tosa Falls), bridle path . . 8,098 

Passo di Naret (Fusio to Airolo), bridle path . . . 8,015 

Nufenen Pass (Ulrichen to Airolo), bridle path . . 8,006 

Diesrut Pass (Vrin to the Somvix Glen), bad bridle path . 7,953 

Albrun Pass (Binn to Devero and Baceno), bridle path . 7,907 

Greina Pass (Olivone to the Somvix Glen), bridle path . 7,743 

San Giacomo Pass (Airolo to Tosa Falls), bridle path . 7,573 

Passo di Buffalora(Val Mesocco to the Val Calanca),foot path 7,431 

Passo dell' Uomo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass),bridle path 7,258 

Splugen Pass (Thusis to Chiavenna), carriage road . . ' 6,946 
St Gotthard Pass (Andermatt to Airolo), carriage road over, 

railway tunnel beneath 6,936 

San Bernardino Pass (Thusis to Bellinzona), carriage road 6,769 

Lukmanier Pass (Disentis to Olivone), carriage road . . 6,289 

8. The Range of the Todi (from the Oberalp Pass to the Klausen 
Pass). 

Chief Peaks of the Range of the Todi. 



Todi . . . . " . . 11,887 

Bifertenstock .... 11,241 

Piz Urlaun .... 11,060 

Oberalpstock .... 10,926 

Gross Scheerhorn. . . 10,814 

Claridenstock . . . 10,729 

Diissistock .... 10,703 

Ringelspitz .... 10,667 

Brigelserhorner (highest) 10,663 

Grosse Windgalle. . . 10,473 

Hausstock .... 10,342 

Gross Ruchen. . . . 10,289 



PizSegnes 

Piz Giuf 

Crispalt 

Bristenstock 

Selbsanft 

Vorab 

Tschingelhorner (Elm) 
Piz Sol (Grauehorner) . 
Calanda . . . . . 
Karpf stock . . 
Mageren . . . . 
Miirtschenstock. 



Chief Passes of the Range of the Todi. 
Clariden Pass (Amsteg to Linththal), snow 
Planura Pass (same to same), snow 
Kammlilucke or Scheerjoch (Maderanerthal to Unter- 
schachen), snow ...... 

Sardona Pass (Flims to Ragaz), snow 

Sand Alp Pass (Disentis to Linththal), snow 

Brunni Pass (Disentis to Amsteg), snow . 

Segnes Pass (Elm to Flims), foot path 

Kisten Pass (Linththal to Ilanz), bad bridle path 

Panixer Pass (Elm to Ilanz), bad bridle path . 

Kriizli Pass (Amsteg to Sedrun), foot path 

Foo or Ramin Pass (Elm to Weisstannen), bridle path 

Oberalp Pass (Andermatt to Disentis), carriage road 

Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Linththal), carriage road 



10,178 
10,165 
10,105 
10,086 
9,938 
9,925 
9,35i 
9,348 
9,213 
9-177 
8,294 

8,012 



9.741 
9,646 

9,344 
9,3i8 
9,121 

8,977 
8,613 
8,203 

7,897 
7,710 
7,290 
6,79 
6,404 



PEAKS AND PASSES] 



ALPS 



745 



9. The Alps of North 
Pass). 

Chief Peaks 
Glarnisch (highest) . 
Boser Faulen . 

Santis 

Altmann .... 
Faulfirst .... 

Alvier 

Kurfiirsten (highest) 
Speer .... 

Chief Passes 



-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen 



of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. 
9,580 Gross Mythen . 

Rigikulm .... 
Hoher Kasten . 
Rossberg .... 
Zugerberg (Hochwacht) 
Albis Hochwacht . 
Uetliberg .... 



9,200 
8,216 
7,999 
7.925 
7,753 
7.576 
6,411 



6,240 
5,906 
5,899 
5,194 
3,255 
2,887 
2,864 



of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. 



Ruosalperkulm (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot 

path . 7,126 

Karren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path . 6.877 
Kinzigkulm Pass (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), 

footpath ...... . 6,811 

Saasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path . . . 6,227 

Kamor Pass (Appenzell to Riiti), bridle path . . . 5,512 

Saxerliicke (Appenzell to Sax), foot path .... 5,417 

Schwein Alp Pass (Waggithal to the Klon Glen), bridle path. 5,158 

Pragel Pass (Muotathal to Glarus), carriage road in progress 5,099 

Hacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path . . 4,649 

Holzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path . . . 4,616 
Ibergeregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsiedeln), carriage 

road ......... 4,6!3 

Krazeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path . . 3,993 
10. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the TReschen Scheideck and 
the Stelvio, south and east of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine 
and north of the Valtellina). 



Chief Peaks of the 
Piz Bernina .... 13,304 

Piz Zupo 13,131 

Monte di Scerscen . . 13,116 

Piz Roseg 12,934 

Piz Palii 12,835 

Crast' Agiizza . . . 12,704 
Piz Morteratsch . . . 12,317 
Monte della Disgrazia . 12,067 
Pizzo di Verona . . . n,359 
Cima di Piazzi . . .11 ,283 
Cima di Castello . . . 11,155 
Cima Viola .... 11,103 
Pizzo Cengalo . . .II ,070 
Cima di Rosso . . .11 ,060 
Pizzo Scalino .... 10,903 
Pizzo Badile .... 10,863 
Corno di Campo . . . 10,844 
Pizzo di Dosde . . . 10,762 
Cima di Saoseo . . . 10,752 



Bernina Alps. 

Piz Languard . . . 10,716 

Piz Sesvenna . . . 10,568 

Piz Pisoc 10,427 

Piz Murtarol . . . 10,424 

Piz Quatervals . . . 10,358 

Pizzo della Margna . .. 10,355 

Cima di Redasco . . 10,299 

Pjz Lischanna . . . 10,204 

Pizzo di Sena . . . 10,099 

Piz Casana .... 10,079 

Monte Foscagno . . 10,010 

Pizzo del Teo . . . 10,007 

Pizzo del Ferro . . . 10,007 

Piz Umbrail . . . 9,955 

Zwei Schwestern . . 9,784 

Monte Braulio . . . 9,777 

Monte Spluga . . . 9,321 

Monte Massuccio . . 9,239 

Mont la Schera . . 8,494 



Chief Passes of the Bernina Alps. 
Fuorcla Bellavista (Pontresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco), 

snow ......... 12,087 

Fuorcla Crast' Agiizza (same to same), snow . . . 11,805 

Fuorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow .... 11,572 

Fuorcla Sella (same to same), snow . . . 10,840 

Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow . 10,227 

Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow . . . 10,171 

Passo Tremoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow .... 9,912 

Passo di Mello (Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow . . 9,813 

Diavolezza Pass(Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen) , snow 9,767 
Passo di Dosde (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bormina), foot 

path ....__. . . 9,351 

Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path . . 9,026 

Passo di Zocca (Vicosopranp to Val Masino), snow . . 9.000 

Casana Pass (Scanfs to Livigno), bridle path . . . 8,832 

Muretto Pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow . . . 8,389 
Umbrail Pass or Wormserjoch (Munster Valley to the 

Stelvio road), carriage road . . . 8,242 

Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bormio), bridle path . 7,976 

Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraele), bridle path . . 7,723 

Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road . . 7,645 
Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small 

carriage road ..... . . 7,638 

Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scarl to Taufers), bridlepath . 7,599 

Passo di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path . . . 7,592 

Sursass or Schlinig Pass (Remus to Mais) foot path . . 7,540 

Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Trepalle), bridle path . . 7,517 

Alpisella Pass (Livigno to Fraele), bridle path . . . 7,497 

Scarl Pass (Scarl to Santa Maria Munster), carriage road . 7,386 
Dossradond Pass (Santa Maria Munster to Fraele), bridle 

path .... .... 7,349 

Passo Dheira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path. . . 7,248 

Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mais), carriage road . . . 7,071 

Fraele Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path 6,398 

Scale di Fraele (Bormio to Frafile), bridle path. . . 6,372 

Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavenna), carriage road . 5,935 



it. Albula Range (from the Spliigen Pass to the Fliiela Pass, 
north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine). 



Piz Kesch 

Piz dellas Calderas 

Piz Platta . . 

Piz Julier . 

Piz d'Err . . . 

Piz d'Aela . . 

Cima da Flex 

Piz Uertsch . 

Piz Forbisch . 

Piz Ot . . . . 

Gross Piz Vadret 

Piz Timun or Emet 

Tinzenhorn 

Piz Michel . . 



Chief Peaks of the Albula Range. 

. . 1 1 ,228 Pizzo Stella . . . 

. 11,132 Fluela Schwarzhorn 

. 11,109 Pizzo della Duana . 

. 11,106 Pizzo Gallegione 

, 11,093 Gletscherhorn . 

IO ,959 Cima di Lago . 
. 10,785 Hoch Ducan 

10.739 Piz Grisch . 

. 10,689 Averser Weissberg . 

. 10,667 Surettahorn . 

. 10,584 Arosa Rothhorn 

. 10,502 Piz Curver . . 

. 10,430 Pizzo Lunghino 

. 10,378 Statzerhorn . 



Chief Passes of the Albula Range. 

Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Bevers), snow 

Fuorcla d'Eschia (Madulein to Bergiin), snow . 

Passo della Duana (Avers Valley to the Val Bregaglia) , snow 

Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path .... 

Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old paved 
cattle path ... .... 

Tinzenthor (Bergun to Savognino), foot path . 

Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chia- 
venna), foot path ... ... 

Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path . 

Ducan Pass (Davos to Bergun), foot path 

Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path . 

Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot 
path ..... 

Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), bridle path 

Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevers), bridle path . 

Fuorcla d'Alp Fontauna (Bergun to Scanfs), foot path . 

Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path . 

Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Sus), foot path. 

Fluela Pass (Davos to Siis), carriage road. 

Strela Pass (Davos to Langwies), bridle path . ... 

Albula Pass (Bergun to Ponte), carriage road over, rail- 
way tunnel beneath . . ... 

Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia), bridle path. 

Julier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road 

Passo di Madesimo or d'Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo), 
foot path ........ 

12. Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges (from the Fluela Pass 

Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass). 

Chief Peaks of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges. 



io,375 
10,335 
10,279 
10,201 
10,191 

10,112 

10,060 

IO.OOO 

9,987 

9,971 

9,794 
9,76i 
9,121 

8,450 

10,270 

9.869 
9,187 
9,062 

8,924 
8,918 

8,793 
8,770 
8,763 
8,724 

8,645 
8,593 
8,590 
8,580 
8,478 
8,353 
7.838 
7,799 

7,595 
7,582 
7,504 

7.48i 
to the 



Vesulspitze 
Fluela Weisshorn 
Piz Minschun 
Patteriol . . 
Piz Faschalba . 
Hexenkopf . 
Gemsbleiskopf . 
Pischahorn . 
Scesaplana . 
Rothbleiskopf . 
Hohes Rad . . 
Schiltfluh . . 
Plattenpspitze . 
Madrishorn . 
Drusenfluh . 
Sulzfluh . 
Zimbaspitze 
Naafkopf 
Falknis . 



Piz Linard . ' . . . 1 1, 201 
Fluchthorn .... 11,165 
Gross Piz Buin . . . 10,880 
Verstanklahorn . . . 10,831 

Muttler 10,821 

Piz Fliana .... 10,775 
Stammerspitze . . . 10,689 
Silvrettahorn .... 10,657 
Augstenberg .... 10,611 
Plattenhorn .... 10,568 
Dreilanderspitze . . . 10,539 

Piz Tasna 10,443 

Kuchenspitze .... 10,401 

Hoher Riffler 10,368 

Piz Mondin .... 10,325 
Kuchelspitze .... 10,315 
Gross Seehorn . . . 10,247 

Vesilspitze 10,220 

Gross Litzner .... 10,207 

Chief Passes of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges. 
Jamjoch (Guarda to Galtiir), snow . ... 

Fuorcla del Confin (Silvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier), 

snow ......... 

Buinliicke (Guarda to Patenen), snow .... 

Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow .... 

Zahnliicke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), snow 

Verstanklathor (Klosters to Lavin), snow 

Fuorcla d'Urezzas (Ardez to Galtiir), snow 

Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow .... 

Fuorcla Maisas (Remus to the Samnaun Glen), snow 
Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow 
Futschol Pass (Ardez to Galtiir), foot path 
Fuorcla Zadrell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow . 
Cuolm d'Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl) , 

foot path ........ 

Schafbiicheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path 
Fimber Pass (Remus to Ischgl), bridle path 
Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path . 
Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot 

path ......... 



10,145 
10,132 
10,079 
10,037 

10,010 

9,968 
9,899 
9.784 
9,741 
9,640 

9,554 
9,482 

9,449 
9,285 
9,282 
9,252 
8,678 

8,445 
8,419 



10,033 
I0.02O 

9,886 
9,712 
9,682 
9.564 
9,374 
9,357 
9,193 
9,098 

9,033 

8,852 
8,685 
8,570 
8,557 

8,54 



746 



ALPS 



[PEAKS AND PASSES 



Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Samnaun Glen), bridle path 

Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path 

Fless Pass (Klosters to Siis), foot path 

St Antonien or Gargellenjoch (St Antonien to St Gallen- 

kirch), foot path ... ... 

Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path 
Verrajpchl (Liinersee to the Schweizerthor), foot path 
Ofen Pass (Schweizerthor to Schruns), foot path 
Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Liinersee to Seewis), foot path 
Gruben Pass (St Antonien to Schruns), foot path 
Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenkirch), bridle path . 
Schweizerthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path . 
Bielerhohe (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path . . 
Zeinisjoch (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path 
Arlberg Pass (Landeck to Bludenz), carriage road over, 

railway tunnel beneath ...... 



8,350 
8,153 
8,045 



7,792 
7.710 

7,648 
7-523 
7,343 
7-333 
7,218 

7,057 
6,631 
6,076 

5-912 

III. EASTERN ALPS 

13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg (north of 
the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley). 

Chief Peaks of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg 

and Salzburg. 

Parseierspitze . . . 9,968 Watzmann 
Dachstein .... 9,830 

Zugspitze 9,738 

Hochkonig .... 9,639 

Valluga 9,223 

Rockspitze .... 9,059 
E. Hone Griesspitze . . 9,052 
Stanskogel .... 9.052 
Birkkarspitze (Karwendel) 9,042 



Rothewandspitze 



Gross Krottenkopf(AHgau)8,7i8 



Selbhorn 
Hohes Licht 
Madelegabel . 
Hochvogel . 

Elmauer Haltsspitze (Kaiser- 
gebirge) .... 7,691 



8,901 

8,878 



8,711 
8,701 
8,681 
8,511 



Chief Passes of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg 

and Salzburg. 

Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path . 6,480 
Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path . . 5,538 
Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path . . . 4,876 
Pass Thurn (Kitzbuhel to Mittersill), carriage road . . 4,183 
Fern Pass (Reutte to Nassereit), carriage road . . . 4,026 

Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage 

road . . 3,874 

Hirschbiihel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage 

road . . 3,858 

Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to Kitzbuhel), railway over . 3,173 
Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway 

tunnel beneath ....... 3,100 

Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage 

road .... .... 2,743 

14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstadter 
Tauern Pass, north of the Drove Valley and south of the Pinzgau 
and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and 
Fauern Ranges. 



Gross Glockner 
Gross Venediger . 
Gross Wiesbachhorn 
Hochfeiler (Zillerthal) 
Dreiherrenspitze . 
Mosele (Z) ... 
Olperer (Z) . . . 
Johannisberg . 
Hochgall (Rieserferner) 
Thurnerkamp (Z) 
Gross Loffler (Z) . . 
Fusstein (Z) . 
Schwarzenstein (Z) . 
Gross Geiger 



Chief Peaks of the Central Tirol Alps. 



12,461 Ruthnerhorn (Rieser- 

12,008 ferner) .... 

11,713 Hochalmspitze . . . 

11 .559 Reichenspitze (Z) . . 

11,500 Gross Rotherknopf 

11,438 (Schober) . . . , 

11,418 Gross Morchner(Z). 

H-375 Hochnarr (Goldberg) . 

11,287 Ankogel 

11,228 Hpchschober 

11,096 Kitzsteinhorn . 

11,090 Sonnblick .... 

11,057 Zsigmondyspitze 

Reckner (Tuxergebirge) 



11,041 

Chief Passes of the Central Tirol Alps. 
Mitterbachjoch (Breitlahner to Taufers), snow (Z) . 
Trippachsattel (Floiten Valley to Taufers), snow (Z). 
Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), snow 
Bockkarscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow 
Sonnblickscharte (Rauris to Heiligenblut), snow 
Alpeinerscharte (Breitlahner to St Jodok am Brenner), foot 

path (Z) 

Vorder Umbalthorl (Pragraten to Kasern), snow 
Ober Sulzbachthorl (Pragraten to Wald), snow 
Keilbachjoch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) 
Unter Sulzbachthorl (Wald to Gschloss), snow 
Schwarzkopfscharte (Bramberg to Gschloss), snow . 
Pragraterthorl (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), foot path 

Glodisthorl (Lienz to Kals), snow 

Antholzerscharte (Rein Valley to the Antholz Valley), 

snow (Z) ........ 

Krimmlerthorl [(Krimml Glen to the Obersulzbach Glen) 

snow ......... 

Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris), snow 
Kalserthorl (Kals to Lienz), snow ... 



11,024 
1 1, 008 
10,844 

10,814 
10,785 
10,689 
10,673 
10,663 
10,512 
10,196 
10,122 
9,485 

10,270 

10,020 

10,010 

9,994 

9,774 

9,712 
9,607 
9,600 
9,410 
9,400 
9-351 
9,338 
9,292 

9,252 

9,233 
9,220 

9.197 



Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Dollach), snow . . 9,193 

Kleine Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmund), snow . . 8,987 

Kleine Zirknitzscharte (Dollach to Fragant or Rauris), snow 8,921 

Dossener or Mallnitzerscharte (Mallnitz to Gmund), snow 8,783 
Grosse Elendscharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen), 

s/iow ... 8,770 

Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow . 8,744 

Heiliggeistjochl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z) . 8,721 

Bergerthorl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path . . . 8,695 
Kaprunerthorl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubach 

Glen), snow ........ 8,645 

Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path . . 8,642 
Virgner or Defereggerthorl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen and 

Pragraten), foot path . .... 8,586 
Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), 

foot path . 8,573 

Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Rauris), 

foot path ........ 8,442 

Horndljochl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) . 8,383 

Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to Mittersill), bridle path . 8,334 

Kaiser Tauern (Kals to Uttendorf), foot path . . . 8,242 
Hohe or Korn Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path over, 

railway tunnel beneath ...... 8,081 

Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle 

path ......... 7,920 

Fuscherthorl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkel Glen), foot path 7,891 

Lappacherjoch (Lappach to the Ahrn Valley), foot path (Z) . 7,763 
Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am 

Brenner), foot path (Z) . . . . . . 7,697 

Klammljoch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley), bridle path 7,517 

Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to Gmund), foot path . 7,386 

Pfitscherjoch (Mayrhofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z). . 7,376 

Kals Matreierthorl (Kals to Windisch Matrei), bridle path 7,238 

Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path . . . 6,900 
Stallersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle 

path (R) 6,742 

Radstadter Tauern (Radstadt to Mautendorf), carriage road 5,702 

15. Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges (from the Reschen 
Scheideck and the Stelvio to the Brenner Pass, south of the Inn 
Valley, and north of the Tonale Pass). 



Chief Peaks of the 
Ortler . . . . 
Konigsspitze . 
Monte Cevedale . 
Wildspitze (Oetzthal) 
Weisskugel 
Monte Zebru . 
Palon della Mare 
Punta San Matteo 
Thurwieserspitze 
Hintere Schwarze 
Similaun . 
PizzoTresero . 
Gross Ramolkogel 
Vertainspitze . 
Hochvernagtspitze 



Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. 

12,802 Zuckerhiitl (Stubai) . 11,520 

12,655 Schalfkogel .... 11,516 

12,382 Schrankogel . . . 11,483 

12,382 Hochwildspitze . . . 11,418 

12,291 Sonklarspitze . . . 11,405 

12,254 Tuckettspitze . . . 11,346 

12,156 Wilder Freiger . . . 11,241 

12,113 Veneziaspitze . . .11,103 

11,946 Tschengelser Hochwand 11,083 

11,920 Monte Confmale . . 11,057 

11,821 Glockthurm . . .11,011 

11,818 Fernerkogel .... 10,827 

11,651 Monte Sobretta . . 10,814 

11,618 Habicht . . . . 10,758 

11,585 Pflerscher Tribulaun . 10,178 



Chief Passes of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. 

Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow . . . 11,602 

Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow . . . 10,949 

Sonklarscharte (Solden to Sterzing), snow . . . 10,916 

Konigsjoch (Sulden to Santa Caterina), snow . . . 10,811 

Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow 10,732 

Gepatschjoch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow . . 10,640 

Ramoljoch (Vent to Gurgl), snow . . . . 10,479 

Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen Scheideck Pass), 

snow ......... 10,391 

Bildstockljoch (Solden to Ranalt), snow .... 10,296 

Gurgler Eisjoch (Gurgl to the Pfossen Glen), snow . . 10,292 

Eissee Pass (Sulden to the Martell Glen), snow . . 10,279 

Langthalerjoch (Gurgl to Pfelders), snow . . . 10,033 

Passo del Zebru (Santa Caterina to the Zebru Glen), snow . 9,925 

Sallentjoch (Martell Glen to Rabbi), snow . . . 9,913 

Niederjpch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . 9,899 

Sforzellina Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow . . 9,859 

Pitzthalerjochl (Mittelberg to Solden), snow . . . 9,826 

Eisjochl am Bild (Pfelders to the Pfossen Glen), snow . 9,541 

Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow. . 9,465 

Tabarettascharte (Sulden to Trafoi), foot path . . 9,459 

Stelvio Pass (Trafoi to Bormio), carriage road . . 9,055 

Gavia Pass (Santa Caterina to Ponte di Legno), foot path 8,651 
Timmeljoch orTimblerjoch (Solden to the Passeierthal and 

Meran), bridle path 8,232 

Jaufen Pass (Sterzing to Meran), bridle path . . . 6,870 

Reschen Scheideck Pass (Landeck to Meran), carriage road 4,902 

Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Verona), railway over . . 4,495 

16. Lombard Alps (from the Lake of Como to the Adige Valley, 
south of the Valtellina and the Aprica and Tonale Passes. This 



PEAKS AND PASSES] 



ALPS 



747 



Presanella .... 


11,694 


Pizzo del Diavolo 




Adamello .... 


1 1 ,66 1 


Re di Castello . 




Care Alto 


11,^69 


Recastello 




Dosson di Genova 


o v ;/ 
H, 2 54 


Monte Gleno 




Crozzon di Lares 


II,OO4 


Monte Tornello 




Corno di Baitone. 


IO,929 


Corno Stella 




Busazza .... 


IO,922 


Monte Legnone 




Lobbia Alta . 


10,486 


Pizzo dei Tre Signo 


i 


Cima Tosa (Brenta) 


10,420 


Pizzo di Presolana 




Cima di Brenta . 


10,352 


Grigna 




Crozzon di Brenta 


10,247 


Monte Baldo 




Pizzo di Coca (Bergam- 




Monte Spinale . 




asque) . . . ' . 


10,014 


Monte Roen. 




Pizzo di Scais 


9,974 


Monte Gazza 




Pizzo di Redorta 


9,964 


Monte Resegone 




Pietra Grande 


9,630 







division includes the Adamello, Presanella, Brenta and Bergamasque 
ranges. 

Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps. 

9-564 
9,482 

9,475 
9,459 
8,819 
8,596 
8,563 
8,380 

8,239 
7,907 
7,218 

7,094 
6,939 
6,529 
6,155 

Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps. 

Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Glacier), snow. 10,483 
Passo di Cercen (Val di Genova to Fucine), snow . . 9,984 
Passo della Lobbia Alta (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron 

Glacier), snow ........ 9,961 

Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to theTonale Pass), snow. 9,879 
Pisgana Pass (Val di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow . 9,626 
Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow . . 8,714 
Passo di Val Morta or del Diavolo (Val Seriana to Sondrio), 

foot path 8,534 

Bocca di Brenta (Pinzolp or Campiglio to Molveno), snow. 8,376 
Passo del Groste (Campiglio to Cles), foot path. . . 8,006 
Passo di Venina (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path . 7,983 
Passo del Salto (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path . . 7,937 
Passo del Venerocolo (Val di Scalve to the Aprica road), 

bridle path 7,595 

Passo della Forcellina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val di 

Fumo), foot path . . ... 
Passo di Dordona (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path 
Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path . 
Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridle 

path 

Tonale Pass (Trent to Edolo), carriage road 
Passo di Zpvetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path 
Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path 
Campo or Ginevrie Pass (Dimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo), 

carriage road ........ 

Gampenjoch (Cles to Meran), foot path . 

Mendel Pass (Botzen to Cles), railway on the E. slope 

Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val di 

Scalve), carriage road ...... 4,219 

Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road . . . 3,875 
17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pass to the 
Monte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal). 

Chief Peaks of the Dolomites of South Tirol. 

10,972 Pala di San Martino . 9,831 

10,706 Rosengartenspitze . . 9,781 

10,633 Marmarole .... 9,715 

10,594 Cima di Fradusta . . 9,649 

10,564 Fermedathurm . . . 9,407 

10,519 Cima d'Asta . . . 9,344 

10,496 Cima di Canali . . . 9,338 

10,470 Croda Grande . . . 9,315 

IO.453 Vajoletthurm (highest) 9,256 

10,427 Sass Maor . . . . 9,239 

10,397 Cima di Ball . . . 9,131 

IO -375 Cima della Madonna 

10,342 (Sass Maor) . . . 9,026 

Rosetta 8,993 

10,329 Croda da Lago . . . 8,911 

10,312 Central Grasleitenspitze 8,875 

10,220 Schlern 8,406 

10,207 Sasso di Mur . . . 8,380 

10,142 Cima delle Dodici . . 7,671 

9,932 Monte Pavione . . . 7,664 

9,853 Cima di Posta . . . 7,333 

9,846 Monte Pasubio . . . 7,323 
9,833 



Marmolata 

Antelao 

Tofana di Mezzo 

Sorapiss 

Monte Civetta 

Verne! .... 

Monte Cristallo . 

Cima di Vezzana 

Cimon della Pala 

Langkofel . 

Pelmo .... 

Dreischusterspitze 

Boespitze . 

Croda Rossa (Hoher 

Caisl) . . 
Piz Popena 
Elferkofel . . 
Grohmannspitze 
Zwolferkofel . 
Sass Rigais(Geislerspitzen) 
Drei Zinnen .... 
Kesselkogel (Rosengarten) 
Fiinffingerspitze . 






Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol. 
Passo d' Ombretta (Campitello to Caprile), foot path 
Langkofeljoch (Groden Valley to Campitello), foot path 
Tschagerjoch (Karersee to the Vajolet Glen), foot path 
Grasleiten Pass (Vajolet Glen to the Grasleiten Glen), foot path 
Passo di Pravitale (Rosetta Plateau to the Pravitale Glen), 

foot path ........ 

Passo delle Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path 
Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the great 

limestone Rosetta Plateau), foot path . 



8,983 
8,803 

8,675 
8,521 

8,465 
8,462 

8,442 



Vajolet Pass (Tiers to the Vajolet Glen), foot path . . 8,363 

Passo di Canali (Primiero to Agordo), foot path . . 8,193 

Tiersalpliochl (Campitello to Tiers), foot path . . . 8,055 
Passo di Ball (San Martino di Castrozza to the Pravitale Glen), 

foot path .... ... 8,038 

Forcella di Giralba (Sexten to Auronzo), foot path . . 7,992 
Col dei Bos (Falzarego Glen to the Travernanzes Glen), foot 

path ... 7,579 

Forcella Grande (San Vito to Auronzo), foot path . . 7,422 

Pordpi Pass (Caprile to Campitello), carriage road . . 7,382 

Sellajoch (Groden Glen to Campitello), bridle path . . 7,277 

Tre Sassi Pass (Cortina to St Cassian), foot path . . 7,215 
Mahlknechtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to theSeiser Alp), foot 

path 7,113 

Grodenerjoch (Groden Glen to Colfuschg), bridle path . 7,011 

Falzarego Pass (Caprile to Cortina), small carriage road . 6,946 

Fedaja Pass (Campitello to Caprile), bridle path . 6,713 

Passo di Valles (Paneveggio to Cencenighe), foot path . 6,667 
Rolle Pass (Predazzo to San Martino di Castrozza and 

Primiero), carriage road ...... 6,509 

Forcella Forada (Caprile to San Vito), bridle path . . 6,480 
Passo di San Pellegrino (Moena to Cencenighe), small carriage 

road ........ 6,267 

Forcella d'Alleghe (Alleghe to the Zoldo Glen), foot path . 5,971 

Tre Croci Pass (Cortina to Auronzo), carriage road . . 5,932 
Karersee or Caressa Pass (Welschenofen to Vigo di Fassa), 

carriage road ..... . . 5,715 

Monte Croce Pass (Innichen and Sexten to the Piave Valley 

and Belluno), carriage road ..... 5,374 
Ampezzo Pass (Toblach to Cortina and Belluno), carriage 

road . ....... 5,066 

Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo), bridle path . . 4,501 

Toblach Pass (Bruneck to Lienz), railway over. . . 3^67 

18. South-Eastern Alps (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This 
division includes three small groups, the Julie, Carnic and Karawankas 

Alps each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial 
letters " J," " C " or" K." 



8,468 
8,429 
8,202 
7,386 
7,369 
7,346 
7,110 

5,059 



7,550 
6,506 

4-495 
4,462 



2,897 
2,615 



7,507 
6,824 

6,513 

6,217 
6,181 
5,968 
5-476 

5-407 

4 A /, > 


Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps. 
Terglou or Triglav (J) . 9,400 Monte Cridola (C) 
Monte Coglians (C) . . 9,128 Grintovc (K) 
Kellerwand (C) . . . 9,105 Prestrelenik (J) 
Jof del Montasio (J) . . 9,039 Monte Cavallo (C) 
Cima dei Preti (C) . . 8,868 Km (I) . . . 
Monte Paralba (C) . . 8,829 Stou (K) . . 
Manhart (J) . . . . 8,786 Dobratsch (C) . 
Jalouc (j) .... 8,711 Velka Kappa (K) 
Monte Canin (J) . . 8,471 



Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps. 
Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzen in the Gail Valley), 

foot path (C) 

Wplayer Pass (same to Mauthen), foot path (C) . 
Loibl Pass (Klagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K) 
Plocken Pass (Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle path (C) 
Predil Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Flitsch to Gorz), carriage 

road (J) ...... 

Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J) 
Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Pontebba 

to Udine), railway ....... 



7. Political History and Modern Stale of the Inhabitants of the 
Alps. We know practically nothing of the early dwellers in the 
Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved to us by Roman 
and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come 
down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by 
Augustus, though not much more than their names. The suc- 
cessive emigrations and occupation of the Alpine region by divers 
Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the 6th centuries are, too, known 
to us only in outline, while to them, as to the Prankish kings 
and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another 
rather than a permanent residence. It is not till the final break 
up of the Carolingian empire in the loth and nth centuries that 
it becomes possible to trace out the local history of different 
parts of the Alps. 

In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain 
of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of the 
Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took place 
between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphine and Provence. 
In 1349 the Dauphine fell to France, while in 1388 the county 
of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which too 
held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the 
Alps. The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the 
house of Savoy, but little by little France succeeded in pushing 



ALPS 



[HISTORY 



back the house of Savoy across the Alps, thus forcing it to be- 
come a purely Italian power. One turning-point in the rivalry 
was the treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which France gave up to 
Savoy the districts (all forming part of the Dauphine, and lying 
on the Italian slope of the Alps) of Exilles, Bardonneche, Oulx, 
Fenestrelles, and Chateau Dauphin, while Savoy handed over 
to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western 
slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The 
final act in the long-continued struggle took place in 1860, when 
France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and 
also Savoy, thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope 
of the Alps. 

In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of 
the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1815 of the 
Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain 
Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confedera- 
tions of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full 
members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. 
The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest 
Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and 
actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese. The former, 
in the 15th century, won the Val Leventina (down which the 
St Gotthard train now thunders) as well as Bellinzona and the 
Val Blenio (though the Ossola Valley was held for a time only), 
while the latter added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been 
given to the bishop of Coire in 960 by the emperor Otto I.) 
the valleys of Mesocco and of Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the 
Swiss Confederation as a whole won the valleys of Locarno with 
Lugano, which, combined with the isth century conquests by 
the Forest Cantons, were formed in 1803 into the new Canton 
of Ticino or Tessin. On the other hand, the Grisons won in 
1512 the Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797 
these regions were finally lost to it as well as to the Swiss Con- 
federation, though the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco, 
Bregaglia and Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper 
bit of the valley of Munster that lies on the southern slope of the 
Alps. 

In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost monotonous, 
for it relates simply to the advance or retreat of the house of 
Habsburg, which still holds all but the whole of the northern 
portion (the exception is the small bit in the north-west that 
belongs to Bavaria) of that region. The Habsburgers, whose 
original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, where still 
stand the ruins of their ancestral castle, lost that district to the 
Swiss in 1415, as they had previously lost various other bits of 
what is now Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation 
in the Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they 
there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties 
had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won 
the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola 
in I 335> Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 
to 1523, not to speak of minor " rectifications " of frontiers on 
the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope their 
progress was slower, and finally less successful. It is true that 
they early won Primiero (1373), as well as (1517) the Ampezzo 
Valley and several towns to the south of Trent. In 1797 they 
obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of 
Trent and Brixen (as well as that of Salzburg, more to the north), 
besides the Valtellina region, and in 1815 the Bergamasque 
valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535. 
But, as is well known, in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy 
both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia 
proper also, so that the Trentino is now their chief possession 
on the southern slope of the Alps. The gain of the Milanese in 
1859 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then 
won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and 
Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the non- 
Italian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained 
in 1575, and not lost in 1860), with the heads of certain glens 
in the Maritime Alps, reserved in 1860 for reasons connected 
with hunting. Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and 
Austria), other than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory 



on the slope of the Alps where one would not expect to find them. 
Roughly speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine population 
speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there are a 
few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as well 
as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some German-speaking 
and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there are 
Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the Grisons) 
where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin survives; 
while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin, we have 
a Slavonic-speaking population in the South-Eastern Alps. 
The highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps is Juf, 
6998 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps, L'Ecot, 6713 ft. 
(Savoy), and St Veran, 6726 ft. (Dauphine), are rivals; the 
Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft. (between Livigno and 
Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober Gurgl, 6322 ft., and Fend, 
6211 ft. (both in the Oetzthal). 

8. Exploration of the High Alps. The higher region of the 
Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the 
adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished 
from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. It is reckoned 
that about 20 glacier passes were certainly known before 1600, 
about 25 more before 1700, and yet another score before 1800; 
but though the attempt of P. A. Arnod (an official of the duchy 
of Aosta) in 1689 to " re-open " the Col du Geant may be counted 
as made by a non-native, we do not come upon another case of 
the kind till the last quarter of the i8th century. Nor did it 
fare much better with the high peaks, though the two earliest 
recorded ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rochemelon 
in 1358 having been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and that 
of the Mont Aiguille in 1492 by order of Charles VIII. of France, 
in order to destroy its immense reputation for inaccessibility 
in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus proper, but only 
the grassy mound of the Gnepfstein, the lowest and the most 
westerly of the seven summits. The two first men who really 
systematically explored the regions of ice and snow were H. B. de 
Saussure (1740-1799), as regards the Pennine Alps, and the 
Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833, 
most of whose ascents were made before 1 806) , in the valleys at the 
sources of the Rhine. In the early igth century the Meyer 
family of Aarau conquered in person the Jungfrau (1811) and 
by deputy the Finsteraarhorn (1812), besides opening several 
glacier passes, their energy being entirely confined to the Bernese 
Oberland. Their pioneer work was continued in that district, 
as well as others, by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among whom 
were Gottlieb Studer (1804-1890) of Bern, and Edouard Desor 
(1811-1882) of Neuchatel. The first-known English climber in 
the Alps was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827), who in 1787 
made an ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to which 
his fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themselves, 
with a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Forbes 
(1809-1868), A. T. Malkin (1803-1888), John Ball (1818-1889), 
and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa the 
Vincent family, Josef Zumstein (1783-1861), and Giovanni 
Gnifetti (1801-1867) did good work during the half century 
between 1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Archduke 
John (1782-1859), Prince F. J. C. von Schwarzenberg, archbishop 
of Salzburg (1809-1885), Valentine Stanig (1774-1847), Adolf 
Schaubach (1800-1850), above all, P.J. Thurwieser (1789-1865), 
deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the igth 
century. In the early fifties of the igth century the taste for 
mountaineering rapidly developed for several very different 
reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundation of 
the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together the 
climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was the 
English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857-1858), 
followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in 1873 
was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alpine 
Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1863 
by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the French 
Alpine Club, not to mention numerous minor societies of more 
local character. It was by the members of these clubs (and a 
few others) that the minute exploration (now all but complete) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY] 



ALPS 



749 



of the High Alps was carried out, while much has been done in 
the way of building club huts, organizing and training guides, 
&c., to smooth the way for later comers, who benefit too by 
the detailed information published in the periodicals (the first 
dates from 1863 only) issued by these clubs. Limits of space 
forbid us to trace out in detail the history of the exploration of 
the High Alps, but the two sub-joined lists give the dates of the 
conquest of about fifty of the greater peaks (apart from the two 
climbed in 1358 and in 1492, see above), achieved before and 
after ist January 1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing 
activity of Englishmen, it may be pointed out that while before 
1858 only four summits (the Mittelhorn, or central peak of the 
Wetterhorner, the highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn 
and Pelmo) were first ascended by Englishmen, in the case 
of the second list only five (Grand Combin,Wildspitze,Marmolata, 
Langkofel and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present 
writer, an American, be included among the English pro hac vice). 

(1) Before ist January 1858: Titlis (1744), Ankogel (1762), 
Mont Velan (1779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhorn (1789), 
Gross Glockner (1800), Ortler (1804), Jungfrau (1811), Fin- 
steraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820), Todi (1824), Altels 
(1834), Piz Linard (1835), Gross Venediger (1841), Signalkuppe 
(1842), Wetterhorner (1844-1845), Mont Pelvoux (1848), 
Diablerets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest point of 
Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Pelmo (1857). 

(2) After ist January 1858: Dom (1858), Aletschhorn, 
Bietschhorn and Grand Combin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis 
and Grande Casse (both in 1860), Weisshorn, Monte Viso, Gross 
Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent 
Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Taschhorn (all in 1862), 
Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Rothhorn 
(all in 1864), Matterhorn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and 
Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (1869), Cimon della Pala 
(1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguille du Dru (1878), 
Punta dell' Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz (1880), 
Aiguille de Grepon (1881) and Aiguille du Geant (1882). 

9. GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS. (i) Books. For a longer 
list than we can give see John Ball's Hints and Notes for Travellers 
in the Alps (new ed., 1899) and also A. Waber's Landes- und Reise- 
beschreibungen der Schweiz (1899, supplement in 1907). In general 
see J. Ball's The Alpine Guide y vols., new ed. of vol. i., 1898; last 
ed. of vol. ii., 1876, and of vol. iii., 1879) ; H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen 
in Natur- und Lebensbildern (last ed., 1885, Eng. trans., 1861); 
T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring 
Countries (1868); A. Civiale, Les Alpes au point de vue de la geo- 
graphic physique (1882); Sir Martin Cpnway, The Alps (1904); 
W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (1889) and 
The Alps (1908) ; R. von Lendenfeld, Aus den Alpen (2 vols., 1896) ; 
C. Lentheric, L'Homme devant les Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft, Die 
Alpen (1887, Eng. trans., 1889). On some special subjects see 
W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps (1896); A. Moss6, Fisio- 
logia dell' Uomo suite Alpi (1897, English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz 
and others, Hohenklima und Bergwanderungen in ihrer Wirkungen 
auf den Menschen (1906); G. Berndt, Der Fohn (1896, the south 
wind, so important in mountain districts); and the article on 
GLACIER. 

As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Lopez, Leggende delle 
Alpi (1889); M. Tscheinen, Walliser-Sagen (1872); Th. Vernaleken, 
Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle, Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and 
as to Alpine poetry J. Adam, Der Natursinn in der deutschen 
Dichtun^ (1906); E. A. Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of the 
Mountains (1905, an anthology in verse and prose) ; A. von Haller, 
Die Alpen (1732, best ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E. 
Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweiz (1905). 

As to Alpine dialects, consult J. Alton, Die ladinischen Idiome 
in Ladinien, Groden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo (1879); J. A. 
Chabrand and A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Patois des Alpes cottiennes 
(1877); Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dizionari dels Idioms Romauntschs 
d'Engiadina ota e bassa, &c. (1895) ; A. Socin, Schrijtsprache und 
Dialekte im Deutschen (1888); F. J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der 
Schweiz (1819), and J. Zimmerli, Die deutsch-franzosische Sprach- 
grenze in der Schweiz (3 vols., 1891-1899) ; besides the great Swiss 
Dialect Dictionary (Schweiz. Idiotikori) in course of publication since 
1881. 

As to the history of the Alps, the following works touch on various 
aspects of the subject: G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali nell' Antichita 
(1891) ; W. Brockedon, Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps (2 vols., 
1828-1829); J- Grand-Carteret, La Montagne d, trovers les ages 
(2 vols., 1902-1904); G. Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusta contra i 
populi alpini (1900); E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter 



(1878-1879); R. Reinhard, Passe und Strassen in den Schweizer 
Alpen (1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli 
antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge's Josias Simler et les 
origines de I'alpinisme jusqu'en 1600 (1904) summarises our know- 
ledge of the Alps up to 1600. 

Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based on actual 
travels), the following list includes all the standard works dated 
before 1855: Le Alpi che cingono I' Italia (1845); J. G. Altmann, 
Versuch einer hist. u. phys. Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisbergen 
(1751); A. C. Bordier, Voyage pittoresque aux glacieres de Savoye 
(!773); P- J- de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les frontieres de 
la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801) ; M. T. Bourrit, Descrip- 
tion des glacieres, glaciers, et amas de glace du duche de Savoye 
(1773, Eng. trans., 1775), Description des Alpes pennines et 
rhetiennes (2 vols., 1781, 3rd vol., 1785), and Description des cols ou 
passages des Alpes (2 vols., 1803); W. Brockedon, Journals of 
Excursions in the Alps (1833) ; U. Campell, Raetiae alpestris topo- 
graphica descriptio (finished in 1572, but publ. only in 1884, with a 
supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation de 
differents voyages dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776); E. Desor, 
Excursions et sejours dans les glaciers (2 series, 1844-1845); C. M. 
Engelhardt, Naturschilderungen aus den hochsten Schweizer- Alpen 
(1840), and Das Monte-Rosa und Matterhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D. 
Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Savoy (1843, new ed., 1900); 
Sir John Forbes, A Physician's Holiday (1849); J. Frobel, Reise in 
die weniger bekannten Thaler auf der Nordseite der penninischen 
Alpen (1840); G. Gnifetti, Nozioni topografiche del Monte Rosa ed 
ascensioni su di esso (1845, 2nd ed., 1858); G. S. Gruner, Die Eis- 
gebirgedes Schweizerland.es (3 vols., 1760) ; J. Hegetschweiler, Reisen 
in den Gebirgsstock zwischen Glarus und Graubunden, 1810-1822 
(1825); G. Hoffmann, Wanderungen in der Gletscherwelt (1843); 
F. J. Hugi, Naturhistorische Alpenreise (1830); C. J. Latrobe, The 
Alpenstock (1829) and The Pedestrian (1832); J. R. and H. Meyer, 
Reise auf den Jungfrau-Gletscher und Ersteigung seines Gipfels (181 1) ; 
De Montannel, La Topographic militaire de la frontiere des Alpes 
(written in 1777, but publ. in 1875 only); Operations geodesiques et 
astronomiques pour la mesure d'un arc du parallele moyen (2 vols., 
1825-1827); H. R. Rebmann, Ein poetisch Gastmal und Gesprdch 
zweyer Bergen, nemlich des Niesens und Stockhorns (1606) ; C. Rohr- 
dorf, Reise uber die Grindelwald-Viescher-Gletscher und Ersteigung 
des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges (1828); H. B. de Saussure, 
Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1779-1796) ; A. Schaubach, Deutsche 
Alpen (4 vols., 1845-1847); J. J. Scheuchzer, Helvetiae Stoicheio- 
graphia, Orographia, et Oreographia (1716), and Itinera per Helvetiae 
alpinas regiones facta annis 1702-1711 (4 vols., 1723) ; J. Simler, 
Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius (1574, new ed. in 
1904, see Coolidge above) ; Albert Smith, The Story of Mont Blanc 
(1853); G. Studer, Topographische Mitteilungen aus dem Alpenge- 
birge (1843); R. Topffer, Voyages en zigzag (2 series, 1844 and 
1853) ; Aegid. Tschudi, De prised ac vera alpina Rhaetid (1538, also 
in German, same date) ; and L. von Welden, Der Monte Rosa (1824). 

As to works published atter 1855 we can only give a short, though 
carefully selected, list. C. Aeby and others, Das Hochgebirge von 
Grindelwald (1865) ; W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Tyrol and the Tyrolese 
(1876), and Gaddings with a Primitive People (2 vols., 1878); H. 
von Earth, Aus den nordlichen Kalkalpen (1874); L. Barth and 
L. Pfaundler, Die Stubaiergebirgsgruppe (1865); G. F. Browne, 
Off the Mill (1895); Mrs H. W. Cole, A Lady's Tour round Monle 
Rosa (1859); E. T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields (1859); 
Sir Martin Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895); A. Daudet, 
Tartarin sur les Alpes (1885, Eng. trans., same date) ; C. T. Dent, 
Above the Snow Line (1885); Miss A. B. Edwards, Untrodden Peaks 
and Unfrequented Valleys (1873, Dolomites) ; Max Forderreuther, 
Die Allgauer Alpen (1906); D. W. Freshfield, Across Country from 
Thovon to Trent (1865), and Italian Alps (1875); Mrs Henry Fresh- 
field, Alpine Byways (1861), and A Summer Tour in the Grisons 
(1862); H. B. George, The Oberland and its Glaciers (1866); 
J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (1864); 
A. G. Girdlestone, The High Alps without Guides (1870); P. Groh- 
mann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (1877); P. Giissfeldt, In den 
Hochalpen (1886), and Der Montblanc (1894); T. W. Hinchliff, 
Summer Months among the Alps (1857) ; C. Hudson and E. S. Kennedy, 
Where there's a Will there's a Way (1856) ; E. Javelle, Souvenirs d' un 
Alpiniste (1886, Eng. trans., 1899) ; S. W. King, The Italian Valleys 
of the Pennine Alps (1858) ; Le Valli di Lanzo (publ. by the Italian 
Alpine Club in 1899) ; A. Lorria and E. A. Martel, Le Massif de la 
Bernina (1894) ' J- Michelet, La Montagne (1868, Eng. trans., 1872) ; 
A. W. Moore, The Alps in 1864 (1867, publ. ed., 1902); A. F. 
Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps (1895) ; Norman- Neruda, The 
Climbs of (1899); Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (3 vols., 1859-1862); 
L. Purtscheller, Uber Pels und Pirn (1901); E. Rambert, Ascensions 
et fldneries (2 vols., 1888); G. Rey, // Monte Cervino (1904); John 
Ruskin, vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modern Painters (1856); 
A. von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869); 
V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890) ; F. Simony, 
Das Dachsteingebiet (1889-1896); L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminis- 
cences of the Dolomites (1896); K. von Sonklar, Die Oetzthaler 
Gebirgsgruppe (1860), and Die Gebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern 
(1866) ; Sir L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (1871) ; B. Studer, 
Geschichte der physischen Geographic der Schweiz bis 1815 (1863); 



750 



ALPS 



[GEOLOGY 



G. Studer and others, Berg- und Gletscherfahrten (2 series, 1859 and 
1863); G. Theobald, Naturbilder aus den rhdtischen Alpen (1860), 
and Das Biindner Oberland (1861); F. F. Tuckett, Hochalpenstudien 
(2 vols., 1873-1874) ; Miss L. Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer 
(1864), Pictures in Tyrol (1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites 
(1871) ; J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (1860), Mountaineering 
in 1861 (1862), and Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J. 
Weilenmann, Aus der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872-1877); E. Whymper, 
Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills, Wanderings among 
the High Alps (1856), and The " Eagle's Nest " in the Valley of Sixt 
(1860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the Eastern Graians (iqoo) ; H. 
Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung 
ihrer hochsten Gipfel im Sommer von 1812 (1813); E. Zsigmondy, 
Im Hochgebirge (1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes 
(1899). 

Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found in 
C. T. Dent and others, Mountaineering (1892, 3rd ed., 1900, 
" Badminton Library ") ; the Manuel d'Alpinisme (1904, publ. by 
the French Alpine Club) ; J. Meurer, Handbuch der alpinen Sport 
(1882), Katechismus fur Bergsteiger (1892), and Der Bergsteiger im 
Hochgebirge (1893); and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1893, "All 
England ' series). As regards the dangers of Alpine climbing 
consult C. Fiorio and C. Ratti, / Pericoli dell' Alpinismo (1889), and 
E. Zsigmondy, Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans., 1889). 
There are also special guide-books for the use of climbers in the 
Alps the " Climbers' Guides " series, edited by Sir Martin Conway 
and W. A. B. Coolidge (10 vols., 1890-1904) ; W. A. B. Coolidge, 
H. Duhamel and F. Perrin, Guide du Haul Dauphine (1887, with 
supplement in 1890, Eng. trans., 1892 and 1905) ; L. Purtscheller 
and H. Hess, Der Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (2 vols., 1894, 3 vols., 
3rd ed., 1903) ; the 3 vols. publ. (1902-1905) by the Swiss Alpine Club 
under the name of Clubfuhrer to the Alps of Glarus and Uri, and 
V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfiihrer (1898). 

As regards the early history of Alpine exploration consult W. A. B. 
Coolidge, Josias Simler el les origines de I'alpinisme jusqu'en 1600 
(1904), and F. Gribble, The Early Mountaineers (1899). For the 
later period see, besides the more general works of travel mentioned 
above, the publications (that date from 1863) of the various Alpine 
Clubs the Alpine Journal (English A. C.), the Annuaire, Bulletin, La 
Montagne, and Revue alpine (French A. C.), the Jahrbuch, Mittei- 
lungen, Verhandlungen, and Zeitschrift (German and Austrian A. C.), 
the Alpinista, Bollettino, and Rivista Mensile (Italian A. C.), and 
the Alpina, Echo des Alpes, Jahrbuch, Schweizer Alpen-Zeitung 
(Swiss A. C.), besides those of the smaller societies, such as the 
Osterreichische Alpen-Zeitung (Austrian A. C.), the Annuaire 
(Societe des Touristes du Dauphine), and the Annuario (Societ4 degli 
Alpinist! Tridentini). Summaries of the Alpine history of the three 
great divisions of the Alps are given in (W. Alps) L. Vaccarone, 
Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali (3rd. ed., 
1890 this work omits the Dauphine Alps, as to which see the 
1887 work or its Eng. version. 1905, mentioned above) ; (Central 
and Swiss Alps) G. Studer, Ober Eis und Schnee (2nd ed. 3 vols., 
1896-1899) ; and (E. Alps) G. Groger and J. Rabl, Die Entwickelung 
der Hochtouristik in den osterreichiscnen Alpen (1890), and 
E. Richter, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen (3 vols., 1894). The 
detailed history of Mont Blanc has been written by Ch. Durier, 
Le Mont Blanc (1877, 4th ed., 1897), and C. E. Mathews, The Annals 
of Mont Blanc (1898). Lives of some of the most celebrated moun- 
tain guides have been written in C. D. Cunningham and W. de W. 
Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1888). 

(2) Maps. There is no good modern and fairly large-scale map of 
the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravenstein s maps (scale 
i : 250,000) of the Swiss Alps (2 sheets) and of the Eastern Alps (8 
sheets) include the whole chain, save that portion south of the range 
of Mont Blanc. 

All the countries which include Alpine districts have now issued 
official Government maps. The French map on a scale of 1 : 80,000 
is clearer and more accurate than that on a scale of 1 : 100,000. The 
Italian Government has published maps on scales of 1 : 50,000 and 
i : 100,000. the Austrian on a scale of 1 : 75,000, and the Bavarian on 
a scale of 1 : 50,000. But the most splendid Government map of all 
is that put forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau, under 
the title of Siegfried Atlas (scale 1 : 50,000 for the Alpine districts), 
which has quite superseded the Dufour Map (scale 1 : 100,000), the 
history of which was published in 1896. For maps of the Swiss Alps 
and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf, Literatur der Landesvermessung 
(1896, with a supplement). 

A few of the best special maps of certain districts may be men- 
tioned such as H. Duhamel's maps of the Dauphine Alps (4 sheets 
on a scale of I :i 00,000, 1889, 2nd ed., 1802), and that of the range 
of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000, 1896, 2nd ed., 1905), by X. Imfeld 
and L. Kurz. The German and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing 
a very fine set of maps (scale 1 : 50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which 
are clearer and better than the Austrian Government s Topo- 
graphische Detailkarten (n sheets, scale i : 50,000). 

(W. A. B. C.) 

10. Geology. The Alps form but a small portion of a great 
zone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of cur ( ves, from 
the Atlas Mountains to the Himalayas. Within this zone the 



crust of the earth has been ridged up into a complex system of 
creases or folds, out of which the great mountain chains of 
southern Europe and Asia have been carved by atmospheric 
agencies. Superficially, the continuity of the zone is broken at 
intervals by gaps of greater or less extent; but these are due, 
in part at least, to the subsidence of portions of the folded belt 
and their subsequent burial by more recent accumulations. 
Such a gap is that between the Alps and the Carpathians, but 
a glance at a geological map of the region will show that the 
folding was probably at one time continuous. Leaving, however, 
the larger question of the connexion between the great mountain 
ranges of Europe and Asia, we find that the Alps are formed cf a 
series of wrinkles or folds, one behind another, frequently 
arranged en Echelon. The folds run, in general, in the direction 
of the chain, and together they form an arc around the plain of 
Lombardy and Piedmont. Outside this arc lies a depression 
along which the waters of the upper Danube and the lower 
Rhone find their way towards the sea; and beyond rise the 
ancient crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and 
the central plateau of France, together with the intervening 
Mesozoic beds of southern Germany and the Jura. The depres- 
sion is filled by Miocene and later beds, which for the most part 
lie flat and undisturbed as they were laid down. Beyond the 
depression also, excepting in the Jura Mountains, there is no 
sign of the folding which has raised the Alpine chain. Some of 
the older beds indeed are crumpled, but the folding is altogether 
different in age and in direction from that of the Alps. 

To assist in forming a clear idea of the relations of the Alps 
to the surrounding regions, a simple illustration will suffice. 
Upon a table covered by a cloth lay two books in the relative 
positions shown in figure. The book A represents the central 
plateau of France and the book B represents the rocks of 
Bohemia and southern Germany. If 
the two hands be placed flat upon the 
table, in the angle between the two 
books, and the cloth pushed towards 
the corner, it will at once be rucked up 
into a fold which will follow a curve not 
unlike that of the Alps. The precise 
character and form of the folds pro- 
duced will depend upon the nature of 




the cloth and other accidental circum- FlG j .Looking down 
stances; but with a little adjustment O n the table, 
not only a representation of the chain 

of the Alps, but even a subsidiary fold in front in the position 
of the Jura Mountains may be obtained. Imperfect though 
this illustration may be, it will serve to explain the modern 
conception of the forces concerned in the formation of the 
Alps. Within the crust of the earth, whether by the contrac- 
tion of the interior or in any other way, tangential pressures 
were set up. Since the crust is not of uniform strength through- 
out, only the weaker portions yielded to the pressure; and 
these were crumpled up against the more resisting portions and 
sometimes were pushed over them. In the case of the Alps it 
seems natural enough that the crystalline masses of Bohemia, 
the Black Forest and the central plateau of France should be 
firmer than the more modern sedimentary deposits; but it is 
not so easy to understand why the Mesozoic rocks of southern 
Germany resisted the folding, while those of the Jura yielded. 
It should, however, be borne in mind that the resisting mass is 
not necessarily at the surface. Such is in outline the process by 
which the Alps were elevated; but when the chain is examined 
in detail, it is found that its history has not been uniform through- 
out; and it will be convenient, , for purposes of description, to 
divide it into three portions, which may be called the Eastern 
Alps, the Swiss Alps, and the Western Alps. 

The Eastern Alps consist of a central mass of crystalline and 
schistose rocks flanked on each side by a zone of Mesozoic beds 
and on the north by an outer band of Tertiary deposits. 
On the Italian side there is usually no zone of folded Alps." 
Tertiaries and the Mesozoic band forms the southern 
border of the chain. Each of these zones is folded within itself, 



GEOLOGY] 



ALPS 



and the folding is more intense on the Bavarian side than 
on the Italian, the folds often leaning over towards the north. 
The Tertiary zone of the northern border is of especial significance 
and is remarkable for its extent and uniformity. It is divided 
longitudinally into an outer zone of Molasse and an inner zone of 
Flysch. The line of separation is very clearly defined; nowhere 
does the Molasse pass beyond it to the south and nowhere does 
the Flysch extend beyond it to the north. The Molasse, in the 
neighbourhood of the mountains, consists chiefly of conglomerates 
and sandstones, and the Flysch consists of sandstones and shales; 
but the Molasse is of Miocene and Oligocene age, while the Flysch 
is mainly Eocene. The relations of the two series are never 
normal. Along the line of contact, which is often a fault, the 
oldest beds of the Molasse crop out, and they are invariably 
overturned and plunge beneath the Flysch. A few miles farther 
north these same beds rise again to the surface at the summit of 
an anticlinal which runs parallel to the chain. Beyond this point 
all signs of folding gradually cease and the beds lie flat and un- 
disturbed. 

The Flysch is an extraordinarily, thick and uniform mass of 
sandstones and shales with scarcely any fossils excepting fucoids. 
It is intensely folded and is constantly separated from the 
Mesozoic zone by a fault. Throughout the whole extent of the 
Eastern Alps it is strictly limited to the belt between this fault 
and the marginal zone of Molasse. Eocene beds, indeed, pene- 
trate farther within the chain, but these are limestones with 
nummulites or lignite-bearing shales and have nothing in 
common with the Flysch. But although the Flysch is so uniform 
in character, and although it forms so well-defined a zone, it is 
not everywhere of the same age. In the west it seems to be 
entirely Eocene, but towards the east intercalated beds with 
Inoceramus, &c., indicate that it is partly of Cretaceous age. It 
is, in fact, a facies and nothing more. The most probable explana- 
tion is that the Flysch consists of the detritus washed down from 
the hills upon the flanks of which it was formed. It bears, indeed, 
very much the same relation to the Alps that the Siwalik beds of 
India bear to the Himalayas. 

The Mesozoic belt of the Bavarian and Austrian Alps consists 
mainly of the Trias, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds playing a 
comparatively subordinate part. But between the Trias of the 
Eastern Alps and the Trias of the region beyond the Alpine folds 
there is a striking contrast. North of the Danube, in Germany 
as in England, red sandstones, shales and conglomerates pre- 
dominate, together with beds of gypsum and salt. It was a 
continental formation, such as is now being formed within the 
desert belt of the globe. Only the Muschelkalk, which does not 
reach so far as England, and the uppermost beds, the Rhaetic, 
contain fossils in any abundance. The Trias of the Eastern Alps, 
on the other hand, consists chiefly of great masses of limestone 
with an abundant fauna, and is clearly of marine origin. The 
Jurassic and Cretaceous beds also differ, though in a less degree, 
from those of northern Europe. They consist largely of lime- 
stone; but marls and sandstones are by no means rare, and there 
are considerable gaps in the succession indicating that the region 
was not continuously beneath the sea. Tithonian fossils, 
characteristic of southern Europe, occur in the upper Jurassic, 
while the Gosau beds, belonging to the upper Cretaceous, contain 
many of the forms of the Hippuritic sea. Nevertheless, the 
difference between the deposits on the two sides of the chain 
shows that the central ridge was dry land during at least a part 
of the period. 

The central zone of crystalline rock consists chiefly of gneisses 
and schists, but folded within it is a band of Palaeozoic rocks 
which divides it longitudinally into two parts. Palaeozoic beds 
also occur along the northern and southern margins of the 
crystalline zone. The age of a great part of the Palaeozoic belts 
is somewhat uncertain, but Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian 
and Silurian fossils have been found in various parts of the 
chain, and it is not unlikely that even the Cambrian may be 
represented. 

The Mesozoic belt of the southern border of the chain extends 
from Lago Maggiore eastwards. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds 



play a larger part than on the northern border, but the Trias still 
predominates. On the west the belt is narrow, but towards the 
east it gradually widens, and north of Lago di Garda its northern 
boundary is suddenly deflected to the north and the zone spreads 
out so as to include the whole of the Dolomite mountains of Tirol: 
The sudden widening is due to the great Judicaria fault, which 
runs from Lago d'Idro to the neighbourhood of Meran, where it 
bends round to the east. The throw of this fault may be as much 
as 2000 metres, and the drop is on its south-east side, i.e. towards 
the Adriatic. It is probable, indeed, that the fault took a large 
share in the formation of the Adriatic depression. On the whole, 
the Mesozoic beds of the southern border of the Alps point to a 
deeper and less troubled sea than those of the north. Clastic 
sediments are less abundant and there are fewer breaks in the 
succession. The folding, moreover, is less intense; but in the 
Dolomites of Tirol there are great outbursts of igneous rock, and 
faulting has occurred on an extensive scale. 




I ( Quaternary 

V//A Tertiary 
JMfej Cretaceous 
fe^'iiij.i Jurassic 



1 Triasslo 
\ferm1an 

\Carboniferc 
voider Paleeoz 



is, including 
crochs in places I 



8HB Archaean & Metamorphiv 
il Plutonic RoM 
H Volcanic Rocks 






West of a line which runs from Lake Constance to Lago 
Maggiore the zones already described do not continue with the 
same simplicity. The zone of the Molasse is little 
changed, but the Flysch is partly folded in the Mesozoic 
belt and no longer forms an absolutely independent 
band. The Trias has almost disappeared, and what remains is 
not of the marine type characteristic of the Eastern Alps but 
belongs rather to the continental facies which occurs in Germany 
and France. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form the greater part 
of the Mesozoic band. On the southern side of the chain the 
Mesozoic zone disappears entirely a little west of Lago Maggiore 
and the crystalline rocks rise directly from the plain. 

Perhaps the strangest problem in the whole of Switzerland is 
that presented by the so-called Klippen. Within the Alps, when 
normally developed, we may trace the individual folds for long 
distances and observe how they arise, increase and die out, to be 
replaced by others of similar direction. But at times, within or 
on the border of the northern Eocene trough, the continuity of 
the folds is suddenly broken by mountain masses of quite different 
constitution. These are the Klippen, and they are especially 
important in the Chablais and between the Lakes of Geneva and 
Thun. Not only is the folding of the Klippen wholly independent 
of that of the zone in which they lie, but the rocks which form 
them are of foreign facies. They consist chiefly of Jurassic and 
Triassic beds, but it is the Trias and the Jura of the Eastern Alps 
and not of Switzerland. Moreover, although they interrupt the 
folding of the zone in which they occur, they do not disturb it: 
they do not, in fact, rise through the zone, but lie upon it like 
unconformable masses in other words, they rest upon a 
thrust-plane. Whence they have come into their present position 
is by no means clear; but the character of the beds which form 
them indicates a distant origin. It is interesting to note, in this 



752 
N. 



&ibalpine Nagelfluh 



ALPS 

Cretaceous & Eocene Kongo 



Eocene & Jurassic Range 

XI. Wmdaalle Hi 

T)lr Ter^ <^S*}t \C 



[GEOLOGY 

A- 




Cham 



Tertiary 

Aar Massif Gottherd Massif 



Cretaceous 



Metaxnorphlc Rocks 



:A 



Hiiinthat 



Tessiner Mass 

f.Tonxi 

Val C/Von/co 




Southern Edge 




T*r 



B 



fi C. Schmidt 



Ter. 

Cr. 

Jr. 

Tr. 

C 



Metamorphic Rocks 

Tertiary 
Cretaceous 
Jurassic 
Trlatslc 

Carboniferous A Verrucaito 



Sc. 



Western 



Serlcltlc Schists 
a. Amphibolite 
M. Marble 

Gn. Gneiss A Mica Schist 
A-G. Augen Gneiss 

connexion, that the pebbles of the Swiss Molasse are not generally 
such as would be derived from the neighbouring mountains, but 
resemble the rocks of the Eastern Alps. The Klippen are, no 
doubt, the remains of a much larger mass brought into the region 
upon a thrust-plane, and much of the Molasse has been derived 
from its destruction. Although the explanation here given of the 
origin of the Swiss Klippen is that which now is usually accepted, 
it should be mentioned that other theories have been proposed to 
account for their peculiarities. 

In the Western Alps the outer border of Molasse persists; but 
it no longer forms so well-defined a zone, and strips are infolded 
amongst the older rocks. The Eocene has altogether 
lost its independence as a band and occurs only in 
patches within the Mesozoic zone. The latter, on the 
other hand, assumes a greater importance and forms nearly the 
whole of the subalpine ranges. It consists almost entirely of 
Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, the Trias in these outer ranges 
being of very limited extent. The main chain is formed chiefly 
of crystalline and schistose rocks, which on the Italian side rise 
directly from the plain without any intervening zone of Mesozoic 
beds. But it is divided longitudinally by a well-marked belt of 
stratified deposits, known as the zone of the Brianconnais, 
composed chiefly of Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic beds. 
The origin of the schistose rocks has long been under discussion, 
and controversy has centred more particularly around the 
schistes lustrts, which are held by some to be of Triassic age and 
by others to be pre-Carboniferous and even, perhaps, Archaean. 
Partly in consequence of the uncertainty as to the age of these 
and other rocks, there is considerable difference of opinion as to 
the structure of the Western Alps. According to the view most 
widely accepted in France the main chain as a whole forms a fan, 
the folds on the eastern side leaning towards Italy and those on 
the western side towards France. The zone of the Brianconnais 
lies in the middle of the fan. 

From the above account it will at once appear that between 
the convex and the concave margins of the Alpine chain there is 
a striking difference. Upon the outer side of the arc the central 
zone of crystalline rocks is flanked by Mesozoic and Tertiary 
belts; towards the west, indeed, the individuality of these belts 



Pq. 
Pp. 
Gr. 
P. 



Quartz Porphyry \ 
Porphyrite \ 

Oranite j S 

Protoglne } " 



Age of the 
Alps. 



is lost, to a large extent, but the rocks remain. Upon the inner 

side the Tertiary band is found only in the eastern part of the 

chain, while towards the west, first the Tertiary and 

then the Mesozoic band disappears against the modern D ,etry of 

deposits of the low land. The appearance is strongly the Alps. 

suggestive of faulting; and probably the southern 

margin of the chain lies buried beneath the plain of northern 

Italy. 

The chain of the Alps was not raised by a single movement nor 
in a single geological period. Its growth was gradual and has not 
been uniform throughout. In the Eastern Alps the 
central ridge seems to have been in existence at least 
as early as Triassic times, but it has since been subject 
to several oscillations. The most conspicuous folding, that of the 
Mesozoic and Tertiary belts, must have occurred in Tertiary 
times, and it was not completed till the Miocene period. The 
structure of the zones in the Bavarian Alps seems to suggest that 
the chain grew outwards in successive stages, each stage being 
marked by the formation of a boundary fault. A precisely 
similar structure is seen in the Himalayas. 

AUTHORITIES. The literature is very extensive. The following 
list includes a few selected works on each portion of the chain: 
F. Freeh, " Die karnischen Alpen," Abh. naturf. Ges. Halle, vol. xviii. 
(1892 and 1894); A. Rothpletz, Ein geologischer Querschnitt durch 
die Ost-Alpen (Stuttgart, 1894) ; C. Diener, " Bau und Bild der 
Ostalpen und des Karstgebietes," in Bau und Bild Osterreichs (Vienna 
and Leipzig, 1903) ; Limet-guide geologique dans le Jura et les Alpes 
de la Suisse (Paris and Lausanne, 1894) ; A. Heim, Mechanismus der 
Gebirgsbildung (Basel, 1878) ; D. Zaccagna, " Riassunto di osserva- 
zioni geologiche fatte sul versante occidentale delle Alpi Graie," 
Boll. R. Com. Geol. Ital. vol. xxiii. (1892), pp. 175-244^ C. Diener, 
Der Gebirgsbau der West- Alpen (1894); M. Bertrand, Etudes dans 
les Alpes francaises," Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. xxii (1894), 
pp. 69-162; S. Franchi, " Sull* eta mesozoica della zona delle pietri 
verdi nelle Alpi Occidental!," Boll. R. Geol. Ital. vol. xxix. (1898), 
PP- I 73" 2 47, 325-482, pts. v.-ix. For the broader question of the 
relation of the Alps to other regions, E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde 
(Vienna, 1885) (English translation, Oxford, i9O4)should be consulted. 
The Geologischer Fiihrer durch die Alpen, published by Borntraeger, 
Berlin, are handy guides. (P. LA.) 

1 1 . Flora. The Alps owe the richness and beauty of their plant 
life partly to their position as the natural boundary between the 



FLORA] 



ALPS 



753 






"Baltic" flora on the north and the "Mediterranean" flora 
on the south, but chiefly to the presence on their heights of a 
third flora which has but little in common with either of the 
others. The stronghold of this last, the distinctively " Alpine " 
flora, is the region above the tree-limit. Its closest relationship 
is with the flora of the Pyrenees; but an alpine flora is character- 
istic of all the lofty mountains of central Europe. According to 
J. Ball, 2010 well-marked species of flowering plants occur 
within the limits of the Alps. If now we confine our attention 
to the alpine and higher regions of the Alps and exclude from our 
list all those plants which, however abundant in these regions, 
are not less so in the adjacent lowlands, we have left some 700 
species (693, according to Dr Christ). We must observe, as 
regards the plants of the lower alpine region, that it is the actual 
presence of a forest vegetation, rather than the theoretical tree- 
limit, which affects their vertical distribution; so that, e.g. 
they overflow into the extensive clearings made by man in the 
primeval mountain forests. Indeed, an analysis of the composi- 
tion of the alpine flora as a whole leads to the conclusion that 
the chief bond of union between its members consists in the 
treeless character of their habitat. 

We may broadly distinguish two main geographical elements 
in the alpine flora, namely, the northern element and the endemic 
element. This division (which is not, however, strictly ex- 
haustive) directs special attention to what is undoubtedly the 
most striking feature of the flora namely, that of its 693 
species no less than 271 reappear in the extreme north. This 
relation of the arctic to the alpine flora is all the more remarkable 
in view of the very important differences between the arctic and 
alpine climates. The following circumpolar species are common, 
and widely diffused throughout the whole of the Alps: Silene 
acaulis, Dryas oclopetala, Saxifraga oppositifolia, S. aizoides, 
S. stellaris, Erigeron alpinus, Azalea procumbens, Myosotis 
alpestris, Polygonum viviparum, Salix retusa, S. herbacea, Phleum 
alpinum, Juniperus nana. The proportion of northern forms, 
as regards both species and individuals, increases as we ascend 
to the higher regions. In the highest vegetation-zone, the 
snow-region I.e. on islands of rock above the snow-h'ne they 
attain to an equality with the endemic forms. As examples of 
northern flowers which are characteristic of the snow-region, 
we may mention Silene acaulis, Eritrichium nanum and Arenaria 
ciliala. On the other hand, typical endemic species of this highest 
zone are Androsace helvetica, A. glacialis, Petrocallis pyrenaica 
and Cherleria sedoides. All the plants just named, we may 
observe, are " cushion-plants." Their compact, moss-like 
growth and general structural peculiarities are not an expression 
of mutual affinity, but are in adaptation to the combined cold 
and dryness of their habitat. It is noteworthy that among the 
northern plants of the alpine zone, in the narrower sense of the 
term (i.e. of the region between the tree-limit and the snow-line), 
there is a marked predominance of species that affect moist 
localities; and conversely, the majority of alpine flowers of 
wet habitat are found also in the north. For example, in the 
genus Primula, a highly characteristic genus of the alpine flora, 
whose members are among the most striking ornaments of the 
rocks, the single northern species, P. farinosa, grows only in 
marshy meadows. On the whole, then, adaptation to cold and 
wet is the note of the northern element. 

As for the explanation of the community between the alpine 
and arctic floras, all authorities are agreed that the key to the 
problem is furnished by the occurrence of the glacial period. In 
the ice-free belt, between the northern ice-sheet and the vastly 
extended glaciers of the Alps, the two floras must have found a 
common refuge and congenial conditions of existence; and this 
view is confirmed by direct palaeontological evidence. With the 
return of a milder climate, the so-called northern forms of the 
present alpine flora were split in two, one portion following close 
on the northern ice in its gradual retreat to the Arctic, the other 
following the shrinking glaciers till the plants were able to 
establish (or re-establish) themselves on the slopes of the Alps. 
The same explanation covers the case of the similarity of the 
flora (not merely as regards the northern element) on all the 



high mountains of central Europe. So much seems to be beyond 
reasonable doubt. But at this point disagreement begins 
between the most eminent writers on the subject. While some 
(e.g. Sir J. D. Hooker, Heer) regard the Arctic, and some (e.g. 
Wettstein) the Alps, as the original home of at least the bulk of 
the "northern" element, others (e.g. Ball, Christ) locate this 
in the highlands of temperate Asia. For it is a remarkable fact 
that, of the 230 northern species which are most typical of the 
far north, 182 are found also in the Altai (taking this as a collec- 
tive name for the mountains that form the southern boundary of 
Siberia). In any case, however, the migration of these plants to 
the Alps must for the most part have taken place via the Arctic. 
The possibility of any extensive east to west migration having 
taken place direct from the Altai to the Alps seems excluded by 
the fact that 50% of the arctico-altaic alpine plants are absent 
from the Caucasus. A score of species, it is true not such a 
number, be it observed, as was formerly supposed are common 
to the Alps and Altai, but absent from the Arctic. But the 
species composing this Altaic element are not so numerous as 
the arctico-alpine species that are absent from the Altai. On 
the whole, a common origin in the north for at least the arctico- 
altaic group of alpine plants seems to be the most reasonable 
hypothesis. 

Side by side with the northern element (which in some respects, 
we may observe to point the contrast, would be better named 
the tundra-element) we find a group of species usually spoken of 
as the xerothermic or meridional element. These do not, how- 
ever, form an " element," in the strict geographical sense in 
which this term is otherwise used here. They are those species 
which, on general phyto-geographical grounds, must be regarded 
as having originated under steppe-like conditions. Their affinities 
are chiefly, though not exclusively, with the present Mediter- 
ranean flora about fifty are of presumably Mediterranean origin 
and a large proportion of them are restricted to the southern 
slopes of the Alps. The following, however, among others, are 
distributed throughout the whole, or a great part, of the range: 
Colchicum alpinum, Crocus vernus, Orchis globosa, Petrocallis 
pyrenaica, Astragalus depressus, A. arislalus, Oxytropis Halleri, 
Eryngium alpinum, Erica carnea, Linaria alpina, Globularia 
nudicaulis, G. cordifolia, Leontopodium alpinum. The last named 
(the well-known " edelweiss ") is at the present day character- 
istic of the Siberian steppes. The presence of these plants 
among the alpine flora is traceable to the steppe-like conditions 
which prevailed in central Europe both during the warmer 
inter-glacial periods and (probably) for a time after the close of 
the ice-age. Subsequently, as the climate of the plains assumed 
a colder and more humid character, they retired before the 
invading forests to the high mountains. Here, in the intenser 
insolation which they enjoy on the alpine slopes, they seem to 
find a compensation for the drawbacks incidental to the altitude 
of their present station. 

As regards now the endemic element as a whole, the question 
as to the time and place of its origin is of a highly complicated 
and controversial nature. The question, too, in the case of 
this element, is necessarily of genetic rather than purely geo- 
graphical scope. It must suffice to say that the weight of 
scientific opinion inclines to the view that at least the majority 
of endemic species are of pre-glacial origin, and are either 
strictly indigenous or products of the neighbouring lowlands. 
About 40 % of the endemic element in the alpine flora are 
endemic also in the narrower sense, i.e. they are confined to the 
Alps. Many of them are restricted to some one small portion 
of the chain; these occur chiefly in the southern and eastern 
Alps. It is an interesting fact that the centrally situated 
Bernese- Alps produce hardly a single peculiar species. The 
greater richness of certain districts in the matter of species is 
partly due to the variety of soils encountered therein; but in 
part may be explained by the fact that these districts were the 
first to be freed from the ice-sheet at the end of the glacial period. 

The following is a list of the most thoroughly characteristic 
alpine plants all of them ipso facto members of the endemic 
element which are at once peculiar to the Alps (or practically 



754 

so) and widely distributed within the limits of the chain. These 
are: Festuca pulchella, Carex microstyla, Salix caesia, Rumex 
nivalis, Alsinearetioides,Aquilegia alpina, Thlaspi rotundifolium, 
Saxifraga Seguieri, S. aphylla, Astragalus leontinus, Daphne 
striata, Eryngium alpinum, Bupleurum stellatum, Androsace 
helvetica, A. glacialis, Gentiana bavarica, Phyteuma humile, 
Campanula thyrsoidea, C. cenisia, Achillea atrata, Cirsium 
spinosissimum, Crepis Terglouensis. 

AUTHORITIES. Among the voluminous literature on alpine flora, 
the following works are particularly noteworthy: Ball, "On the 
Origin of the Flora of the European Alps," in Proceed, of the Roy. Geog. 
Soc., 1879; Bennett, The Flora of the Alps, 2 vols. with 120 coloured 
plates (1896); Briquet, " Les Colonies vegetales xerothermiques 
des alpes lemaniennes," in Bull. d. I. Murithienne, soc. valaisienne 
des sciences nat., xxvii. and xxyiii. (1898-1899); Alph. de Candolle, 
" Sur les causes de 1'inegale distribution des plantes rares dans la 
chalne des Alpes," Exlr. des Actes du Congres botan. internal, de 
Florence (1875); Chodat u. Pampanini, "Sur la distribution des 
plantes des alpes austro-orientales," Extr. du Globe, organe de la soc. 
de geographic de Geneve, tome xli. (1902) ; H. Christ, Das Pflanzenleben 
der Schweiz (1882) the chief classic on the subject; Engler, Die 
Pflanzenjormationen und die pflanzengeographische Gliederung der 
Alpenkette (1901); Heer, Ueber die nivale Flora der Schweiz (1885); 
Jerosch, Geschichte und Herkunft der schweizerischen Alpenfiora; eine 
Vbersicht iiber den gegenwdrtieen Stand der Frage (1903) ; Schroter, 
Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen (Zurich, 1908) ; R. von Wettstein, Die 
Geschichte unserer Alpenflora (1896). The best book of coloured 
plates is the Atlas der Alpenflora, in 5 vols., pub. by the Deutscher u. 
Oesterreichischer Alpenverein (2nd. ed., 1897). 

12. Fauna. The fauna of the lower zones in the Alps is, on 
the northern side of the chain, practically identical with that of 
central Europe, and on the southern side with that of the 
Mediterranean basin. But in the higher regions it presents many 
features of special interest alike to the zoologist and the traveller. 
It seems therefore best to treat here principally of the animal 
inhabitants of the high Alps. 

Though among mammalia as also in the case of the birds 
there are but few forms peculiar to the Alps, many interesting 
animals have found in the high mountains at least a temporary 
refuge from man. The European bison, the urus, the elk and the 
wild swine have disappeared since Roman times. But the lynx 
(Lynx vulgaris) perhaps lingers in remote parts, and the brown 
bear ( Ursus arctos) still survives in the dense forests of the Lower 
Engadine. The fox (Canis vulpes), the stonemarten (Maries 
foina) and the stoat or ermine (Putorius erminea) range in summer 
above the tree-limit. The Ungulata are represented by the 
chamois (Rupicapra tragus) and the bouquetin or steinbock 
(Capra ibex). The former the sole representative, in western 
Europe, of the antelopes is found elsewhere only in the Pyrenees, 
Carpathians, Caucasus and the mountains of eastern Turkey; 
the latter survives only in the eastern Graian Alps. Of the 
Rodentia the most interesting and conspicuous is the marmot 
(Arctomys marmota), which lives in colonies close to the snow-line. 
The snow-mouse (Armenia nivalis) is confined to the alpine and 
snow regions, and is abundant at these levels throughout the 
whole chain of the Alps. The mountain hare (Lepus variabilis or 
timidus) replaces the common hare (Lepus europaeus) in the 
higher regions; though absent from the intervening plains it 
again appears in the north of Europe and in Scotland. Among 
the Insectivora, the alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus) is restricted to 
the Alps. Of the Cheiroptera (bats) only Vesperugo maurus is 
characteristically alpine. 

The birds of the Alps are proportionately very numerous. The 
lammergeyer (Gypaetus barbatus), once common, is now extremely 
rare, even if it has not already become extinct in the Alps; but 
the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) still holds its own. Some of 
the smaller birds of prey are not uncommon, but there is none 
that can be regarded as specially characteristic either of the Alps 
as a whole or of the alpine region. As characteristic birds of the 
snow-region may be mentioned the alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax 
alpinus), which is frequently seen at the summits even of the 
loftiest mountains, the alpine swift (Cypselus melba), the wall- 
creeper (Tichodroma muraria), snow-finch (Montifringilla nivalis) 
and ptarmigan (Lagopus mulus); the geographical distribution 
of this last being similar to that of the mountain hare. The black 
redstart (Ruticilla titys), though common in the lower regions, is 



ALPUJARRAS 



[ALPINE FAUNA 



also met with in fair numbers almost up to the snow-line. The 
raven (Corvus corax) is fairly common in the alpine and sub-alpine 
regions. On the highest pastures we find, further, the alpine 
accentor (Accentor collaris) and the alpine pipit (Anthus spipo- 
letta) . The crag-martin (Cotyle rupestris) haunts lofty cliffs in the 
alpine region. On the upper verge of the pine forests, or in the 
scrubby vegetation just beyond, the following are not uncommon 
black woodpecker (Picus martius), ring-ousel (Turdus lor- 
quatus), Bonelli's warbler (Phylloscopus Bonellii), crested tit 
(Parus cristatus), citril finch (Citrinella alpina), siskin (Chryso- 
mitris spinus) , crossbill (Loxia curmrostra), nutcracker (Nucifraga 
caryocatactes) , blackcock (Tetrao tetrix), and the alpine varieties 
of the marsh-tit (Parus palustris, borealis) and tree-creeper 
(Certhia familiaris, costae). 

The remaining classes of Vertebrata are very sparsely repre- 
sented in the high Alps; and what few species occur are mostly 
common to the plains as well. In fact, among the remaining land 
vertebrates, only the black salamander (Salamandra atra) is 
exclusively alpine. This interesting animal, though a member of 
the Amphibia, is terrestrial and viviparous. 

The former connexion between the Arctic and the Alps, which 
has left such unmistakable traces in the present alpine flora, 
affords, as regards the fauna also, the only possible explanation 
of the present geographical distribution of many alpine forms; 
but it is chiefly among the Invertebrata that we find this collateral 
testimony to the influence of the glacial period. In this respect 
we may note that two small crustaceans, Diaptomus bacillifer and 
D. denticornis, swarm in the ice-cold waters of the highest alpine 
tarns throughout the entire chain ; and the former of these is also 
a characteristic inhabitant of pools formed from melting snow in 
the extreme north. Among the remaining divisions of Inverte- 
brata special mention may be made of the air-breathing 
Arthropoda on the whole the most important and interesting 
group. About one-third of the animals belonging thereto that 
occur in the higher regions are exclusively alpine (or alpine and 
northern); these characteristically alpine forms being furnished 
chiefly by the spiders, beetles and butterflies. Most numerous 
are the beetles. Those of the highest zone are remarkable for the 
great predominance of predaceous species and of wingless forms. 
In this last respect they present a striking analogy with the 
endemic coleopterous fauna of oceanic islands. As for the 
butterflies, not more than one-third of the species found in the 
alpine region occur in the neighbouring lowlands. The relations 
between alpine butterflies and plants are especially interesting, 
as regards not only their bionomic interdependence but also the 
analogies of their geographical distribution. It should be noted 
that butterflies are the chief agents in securing the continued 
existence of such alpine flowers as depend on insect fertilization, 
the other insect fertilizers being mostly wanting at great heights. 

The classic of alpine zoology is F. von Tschudi's Das Tierleben der 
Alpenwelt (nth ed., 1890). See also zoological section, by K. W. v. 
Dalla Torre, of Anleitung zu wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf 
Alpenreisen. For the Vertebrata, see V. Fatio's Faune des verlebres 
de la Suisse (5 vols., 1869-1904). Die Tierwelt der Hochgebirgsseen, 
by F. Zschokke (1900) is an important treatise on an interesting 
department of alpine natural history. C. Zeller's Alpentiere im 
Wechsel der Zeit (1892) gives a reliable account of the gradual dis- 
appearance of some of the larger forms of life from the Alps. For 
the inter-relations of alpine insects and flowers, see H. Miiller's 
Alpenblumen, ihre Befruchtung durch Insekten, und ihre Anpassung 
an dieselben (1881). ' (H. V. K.) 

ALPUJARRAS, or ALPUXARRAS, THE (Moorish al Busheral, 
" the grass-land "), a mountainous district of southern Spain, in 
the province of Granada, consisting principally of valleys 
which descend at right angles from the crest of the Sierra Nevada 
on the north, to the Sierras Almijara, Contraviesa and Gador, 
which sever it from the Mediterranean Sea, on the south. These 
valleys are among the most beautiful and fertile in Spain. They 
contain a rich abundance of fruit trees, especially vines, oranges, 
lemons and figs, and in some parts present scenes of almost 
Alpine grandeur. The inhabitants are the descendants of the 
Moors, who, after the Spanish conquest of Granada in 1492, 
vainly sought to preserve the last relics of their independence in 
their mountain fastnesses. Many of the names of places in the 



'ALQAMA IBN 'ABADA ALSACE 



755 



Alpujarras are of Moorish origin. The district contains many 
villages of 1000 to 4000 inhabitants, the four largest being 
Lanjaron, with its ruined castle and chalybeate baths, Orgiba, 
Trevelez and Ugijar; all situated at a considerable elevation. 
Trevelez, the highest, stands 5332 ft. above the sea. 

'ALQAMA IBN 'ABADA, generally known as 'ALOAMA AL- 
FAHL, an Arabian poet of the tribe Tamlm, who flourished in the 
second half of the 6th century. Of his life we know practically 
nothing except that his chief poem concerns an incident in the 
wars between the Lakhmids and the Ghassanids (see ARABIA, 
History). Even the date of this is doubtful, but it is generally 
referred to the period after the middle of the 6th century. His 
poetic description of ostriches is said to have been famous among 
the Arabs. His diwan consists of three qasldas (elegies) and 
eleven fragments. Asma' I considered three of the poems 
genuine. 

The poems were edited by A. Socin with Latin translation as 
Die Gedichte des 'Alkama Alfahl (Leipzig, 1867), and are contained 
in W. Ahlwardt's The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets 
(Lond., 1870) ; cf. W. Ahlwardt's Bemerkungen iiber die Aechtheit 
der alien arabischen Gedichte (Greifswald, 1872), pp. 65-71 and 
146-168. (G. W. T.) 

ALQUIFOU (etymologically -the same word as " alcohol "), 
a lead ore found in Cornwall, used by potters for its green glaze. 

ALREDUS, ALURED or ALUREDUS, OF BEVERLEY, was 
sacristan of the church of Beverley in the first half of the I2th 
century. He wrote, apparently about the year 1143, a chronicle 
entitled Annales sive Historia de-gestis regum Britanniae, which 
begins with Brutus and carries the history of England down to 
1129. This work was edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1716), and 
at One time enjoyed some reputation as an authority. It is, 
however, a mere compilation and of no value. Geoffrey 
of Monmouth and Simeon of Durham are Alured's chief 
sources. Among the Cottonian MSS. there is a collection of 
records relating to Beverley, Libertates Ecclesiae S. Johannis 
de Beverlae, which is attributed to Alured, but on no good 
authority. (H. W. C. D.) 

ALSACE (Ger. Elsass), a former province of France, divided 
after the Revolution into the departments of Haut-Rhin and 
Bas-Rhin, and incorporated since the war of 1870 with the 
German empire (see ALSACE-LORRAINE). It is bounded on the 
north by the Rhenish Palatinate, on the east by the Rhine, on 
the south by Switzerland and on the west by the Vosges 
Mountains; and it comprises an area of 3344 English sq. 
m. The district possesses many natural attractions, and is 
one of the most fertile in central Europe. There are several 
ranges of hills, but no point within the province attains a great 
elevation. The only river of importance is the 111, which falls 
into the Rhine after a course of more than 100 m., and is navi- 
gable below Colmar. The hills are generally richly wooded, 
chiefly with fir, beech and oak. The agricultural products are 
corn, flax, tobacco, grapes and various other fruits. The country 
has a great wealth of minerals, silver having been found, and 
copper, lead, iron, coal and rock-salt being wrought with profit. 
There are considerable manufactures, chiefly of cotton and linen. 
The chief towns are Miilhausen and Colmar in the upper district 
and Strassburg in the lower. The province is traversed from 
east to west by the railway from Strassburg to Nancy, and the 
main line north and south runs between Basel and Strassburg. 

History. From a very early period Alsace has been a disputed 
territory, and has suffered in the contentions of rival races. 
Inhabited by tfJfe Rauraci and the Sequani, it formed part of 
ancient Gaul, and was therefore included in the Roman empire 
in the provinces of Germania Superior and Maxima Sequanorum. 
The Romans held it nearly five hundred years, and on the dis- 
solution of their power it passed under the sway of the Franks. 
In the Merovingian period it formed a duchy attached to the 
kingdom of Austrasia, and was governed by the descendants 
of duke Eticho, one of whom was St Odilia. After the death 
of Charlemagne, Alsace, like the rest of the empire, was divided 
into countships. But the duchy was re-established after the 
death of the German king Henry I., and became hereditary in 
the Hohenstaufen family, and then in the house of Austria, 



which succeeded in 1273 to the imperial dignity. In the be- 
ginning of the 1 2th century the country was divided between 
the two landgraviates of Upper and Lower Alsace, but to 
counteract the power of the nobles the emperors established 
in Alsace a great number of free towns. This state of things 
continued until 1648, when a large part of Alsace, comprising 
the two landgraviates of Upper and Lower Alsace and the pre- 
fecture of the ten free imperial towns, was ceded to France by 
the treaty of Westphalia. In the war which preceded this peace 
(generally known as the Thirty Years' War) Alsace had been 
so terribly devastated by the Swedes and the French that the 
German emperor found himself unable to hold it. The population 
was greatly reduced in numbers, and much of the land was left 
uncultivated. In the war between France and the Empire, 
arising out of the attempt of Louis XIV. to seize Holland, that 
part of Alsace which remained to Germany was again overrun 
by the French. Although this war was terminated in 1678 by 
the treaty of Nijmwegen, the French monarch was desirous of 
incorporating a still larger amount of Rhine territory; and 
accordingly in 1680 he laid claim to a number of territories, 
belonging to princes of the Empire, which he alleged had been 
dismembered from Alsace. It was ordered that these territories 
should be at once restored to that province under the crown of 
France, and several independent sovereigns were cited to appear 
before two chambers of inquiry, called chambres de reunion, which 
Louis had established at Brisach and Metz. The princes appealed 
to the emperor and to the diet; but the previous wars had so 
exhausted the power of the former that nothing could be done 
to resist the aggression. In 1681 the French troops under 
Louvois seized Strassburg, aided by the treachery of the bishop 
and other great men of the city. A further war broke out, but 
by the treaty of Ratisbon (Regensburg) in 1684, Strassburg was 
secured to France. The war was renewed in 1688 and con- 
tinued until 1697, when the peace of Ryswick confirmed defini- 
tively the annexation of Strassburg to France. Some remaining 
territories of small extent were acquired by the French after 
the revolution of 1789, including Miilhausen, which had been 
a republic allied to Switzerland. 

Originally Celtic, the population was modified during the 
Roman period by the arrival of a Germanic people, the Triboci. 
In the sth century came other German tribes, the Aiamanni, 
and then the Franks, who drove the Aiamanni into the south. 
Since that period the population has in the main been Teutonic; 
and the French conquests of the i7th century, while modifying 
this element, still left it predominant. The people continued 
to use a German dialect as their native tongue, though the 
educated classes also spoke French. Protestantism was professed 
by a large number of the inhabitants; and in many respects 
their characteristics identified them rather with the race to the 
east than that to the west of the Rhine. In process of time, 
however, they considered themselves French, and lost all desire 
for reannexation to any of the German states. 

Alsace suffered a good deal in the war of 1870-71. The 
earlier battles of the campaign were fought there; Strassburg 
and other of its fortified towns were besieged and taken; and 
its people were compelled to submit to very severe exactions. 
The civil and military government of the province, as well as 
that of Lorraine, was assumed by the Germans as soon as they 
obtained possession of those parts of France, which was very 
shortly after the commencement of the war. The Alsatian rail- 
ways were reorganized and provided with a staff of German 
officials. German stamps were introduced from Berlin; the 
occupied towns were garrisoned by the Landivehr; and requisi- 
tions on a large scale were demanded, and paid for in cheques 
which, at the close of the war, were to be honoured by whichever 
side should stand in the unpleasant position of the conquered. 
The people, notwithstanding their German origin, showed a very 
strong feeling against the invaders, and in no part of France 
was the enemy resisted with greater stubbornness. It was evident 
from an early period of the war, however, that Prussia was 
resolved to reannex Alsace to German territory. When the 
preliminaries of peace came to be discussed at Versailles in 



756 



ALSACE-LORRAINE 



February 1871, the cession of Alsace, together with what is called 
German Lorraine, was one of the earliest conditions laid down 
by Bismarck and accepted by Thiers. This sacrifice of territory 
was afterwards ratified by the National Assembly at Bordeaux, 
though not without a protest from the representatives of the 
departments about to be given up; and thus Alsace once more 
became German. By the bill for the incorporation of Alsace 
and German Lorraine, introduced into the German parliament 
in May 1871, it was provided that the sole and supreme control 
of the two provinces should be vested in the German emperor 
and the federal council until the ist of January 1874, when the 
constitution of the German empire was established. Bismarck 
admitted the aversion of the population to Prussian rule, but said 
that everything would be done to conciliate the people. This 
policy appears really to have been carried out, and it was not 
long in bearing fruit. Many of the inhabitants of the conquered 
districts, however, still clung to the old connexion, and on the 
3oth of September 1872 the day by which the people were 
required to determine whether they would consider themselves 
German subjects and remain, or French subjects and transfer 
their domicile to France 45,000 elected to be still French, and 
sorrowfully took their departure. The German system of com- 
pulsory education of every child above the age of six was intro- 
duced directly after the annexation. 

ALSACE-LORRAINE (Ger. Elsass-Lothringen) , a German 
imperial territory (since 1871), consisting of the former French 
province Alsace (then divided into the departments of Haut- 
Rhin and Bas-Rhin), together with its capital Strassburg, and 
German Lorraine (which included the department of the Moselle 
and portions of the departments of Meurthe and Vosges), 
together with the capital and fortress of Metz. The imperial 
territory (Reichsland) is bounded S. by Switzerland; E. by 
Baden, from which it is separated by the Rhine; N.E. and N. 
by the Bavarian Palatinate, the Prussian Rhine Province and 
Luxemburg, and W. by France. Its area is 5601 sq. m. The 
maximum length from N. to S. is 145 m.; the maximum breadth 
E. to W. 105 m., and the minimum breadth, on a line drawn 
through Schlettstadt, 24 m. In respect of its physical features, 
Alsace-Lorraine falls into three parts mountain land, plain 
and plateau. The first, practically co-extensive with the 
western half of Alsace, consists of the Vosges range, which 
running in a northerly direction from the deep gap or pass of 
Belfort (troute de Belfort) forms in its highest ridges the natural 
frontier line between Germany and France. Between this 
mountain chain and its spurs, which fall steeply to the E., and 
the Rhine, stretches a fertile plain forming the eastern half of 
Alsace. In the N.W. a high and undulating plateau, which 
gently descends in the W. to the valley of the Moselle, occupies 
nearly the whole area of Lorraine. The drainage of the Vosges 
valleys and of the Rhine valley is collected and carried into the 
Rhine about 10 m. below Strassburg by the 111, which has a 
course of more than 100 m. and is navigable below Colmar. 
With the exception of a few streams which run to the Rhone, 
all the waters of Alsace flow into the Rhine. The climate is on 
the whole temperate warmest in the lowest districts (460 ft 
above sea-level) of N. Alsace, and coldest on the summits of 
the Vosges, where snow lies six months in the year. The mean 
annual temperature at Strassburg is 49-8 F., at Metz 48-2 
the rainfall at Strassburg 26 J in., and at Metz 27$ in. The Rhine 
valley is in great part fertile, yielding good crops of potatoes 
cereals (including maize), sugar beet, hops, tobacco, flax, hemp 
and products of oleaginous plants. But grapes and fruit are 
amongst the most valuable of the crops. The cereals chiefly 
grown are wheat, oats, barley and rye. Great quantities of hay 
are harvested. This description embraces also the production 
of Lorraine, where agriculture is less strenuously carried on, am 
the fertility of the soil is less. But Lorraine possesses, in com 
pensation, greater riches in the earth, in coal and iron and sal 
mines. Cows are grazed on the S. Vosges in summer, and largi 
quantities of cheese (Miinster cheese) are made and exported 
Total population (1905) 1,814,626. 

The farms in Alsace are mostly small and are held partly as a 



irivate possession, partly on the communal system; in Lorraine 
here are some larger occupations. The manufacture of cottons, 

ind on a smaller scale of woollens, is special to Alsace, the chief 

entres of the industry being Mulhausen, Colmar and the 

alleys of the Vosges. The territory has always been the centre 

)f an active commerce, owing to its situation on the confines of 

ermany, France and Switzerland, and alongside the great 

highway of the Rhine. The communications embraced some 
249 m. of railway (1903), of which 1108 m. belonged to the 
tate, a good system of roads, and several canals (notably the 

Rhine-Rhone, the Rhine-Marie and the Saar Canals), in addition 
o the rivers. Administratively the territory is divided into the 
ollowing three districts, showing a density of population of 
.bout 316 to the sq. m.: 



Districts. 


Area in sq. 
miles. 


Population. 


1885. 


1905. 


Upper Alsace . 
Lower Alsace . 
Lorraine . 


1354 
1845 
2402 


462,549 
612,077 
489,729 


512,709 
686,359 
615.558 



On the sex division, 935,305 were in 1905 males, and 879,321 
emales. The percentage of illegitimacy is about 7. The rural 
population embraces 51% of the whole, the urban population 
48 %. The largest towns are Strassburg (the capital of the 
territory), Mulhausen, Metz, Colmar, all above 20,000 inhabitants 
each. Classified according to religion there were, in 1904, 
372,078 Protestants, 1,310,391 Roman Catholics, and 32,379 
fews. Education is provided for at the university of Strassburg, 
n 21 classical and pro-classical schools, in 18 modern schools, 
and in nearly 4000 elementary schools. Over 85 % of the people 
speak German as their mother-tongue, the rest French, or a 
jatois of French. The annual revenue and expenditure are 
:ach somewhat in excess of 3,000,000. Customs and indirect 
taxes yield more than three-fifths of the total revenue, and 
direct taxes less than one-fourth. The state forests give about 
one-ninth of the whole. The higher administration of justice is 
devolved upon six provincial courts and a supreme court, sitting 
at Colmar. Moreover, there are purely industrial tribunals at 
Mulhausen, Thann, Markirch, Strassburg and Metz. The fish- 
breeding establishment at Hiiningen in Upper Alsace should be 
mentioned. 

Constitution. The sovereignty over the territory was by a 
law (Reichsgesetz) of the 9th of June 1871 vested in the German 
emperor, who, until the introduction of the imperial constitution 
on the ist of January 1874, had, with the assent of the federal 
council (Bundesraf) and, in a few cases, that of the imperial diet 
(Reichstag), the sole right of initiating legislation. In October 
of this last year a committee (Landesausschuss) of the whole 
territory was appointed to deliberate on laws proposed to it 
before they received the final sanction of the emperor. On the 
2nd of May 1877, the Landesausschuss was itself empowered to 
initiate legislation within the competence of the territory, and in 
1879 the imperial viceroy (Statthalter) , representing the imperial 
chancellor, who had until then been the responsible minister, 
took up his residence in Strassburg. He is assisted in the govern- 
ment by 4 ministers of departments, under the presidency of a 
secretary of state, and, when occasion demands the extraordinary 
discussion of legislative proposals, by a council of state 
(Staatsrat), consisting of the secretary of state, under secretaries, 
the president of the supreme court of justice of the territory 
and, as a rule, of 12 nominees of the emperor. The Landesaus- 
schuss, a constitutional body with parliamentary privileges, 
consists of 58 members, 34 being appointed out of their number 
by the various district councils (Bezirkstage), 4 by the large towns, 
and 20 by the rural districts. Alsace-Lorraine is represented 
in the Bundesrat by two commissioners, who have, however, 
but one voice; and the territory returns 15 members to the 
Reichstag. 

See A. Schmidt, Elsass und LoOiringen (Leip., 1859); Spach, 
Histoire de la basse Alsace et de la ville de Strasbourg (btras., 
1860); von Mullenheim Rechberg, Die Annexion des Elsass durch 



ALSATIA ALSTROMER 



757 



Frankreich und Riickblick auf die Verwaltung des Landes, 1648-1697 
(Stras., 1897) ; Du Prel, Die deutsche Verwaltung in Elsass, 1870-1879 
(Stras., 1879); L. Petersen, Das Deutschtum in Elsass - Lothringen 
(Munich, 1902). (P. A. A.) 

ALSATIA (the old French province of Alsace), long a 
" debatable ground " between France and Germany, and hence 
a name applied in the i?th century to the district of Whitefriars, 
between the Thames and Fleet Street, in London, which afforded 
sanctuary (?..) to debtors and criminals. The privileges were 
abolished in 1697. The term is also used generally of any refuge 
for criminals. 

ALSEN (Danish Als), an island in the Baltic, off the coast of 
Schleswig, in the Little Belt. It formerly belonged to Denmark, 
but, as a result of the Danish war of 1864, was incorporated 
with Germany. Its area is 105 sq. m.; the length nearly 20, 
and the breadth from 3 to 12 m. Pop. (1900) 25,000, most of 
whom speak Danish. The island is fertile, richly wooded, and 
yields grain and fruit. Sonderburg, the capital, with a good 
harbour and a considerable trade, is connected with the mainland 
by a pontoon bridge. Other places of note are Norburg and 
Augustenburg. On the peninsula Kekenis at the S.W. end of 
Alsen there is a lighthouse. Here, in 1848, the Danes directed 
their main attack against Field-marshal Wrangel's army. In 
1864 the Prussians under Herwarth von Bittenfeld took Alsen, 
which was occupied by 9000 Danish troops under Steinmann, 
thus bringing the Danish war to a close. Since 1870 Alsen has 
been fortified. 

'ALSHEKH, MOSES, Jewish rabbi in Safed (Palestine) in the 
later part of the i6th century. He was the author of many 
homiletical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. His works still 
justly enjoy much popularity, largely because of their powerful 
influence as practical exhortations to virtuous life. 

ALSIETINUS LACUS (mod. Lago di M artignand) , a small 
lake in southern Etruria, 15 m. due N.N.W. of Rome, in an 
extinct crater. Augustus drew from it the Aqua Alsietina; 
the water was hardly fit to drink, and was mainly intended to 
supply his naumachia (lake made for a sham naval battle) at 
Rome, near S. Francesco a Ripa, on the right bank of the Tiber, 
where some traces of the aqueduct were perhaps found in 1720. 
The course of the aqueduct, which was mainly subterranean, 
is practically unknown: Frontinus tells us that it received a 
branch from the lake of Bracciano near Careiae (Galera): and 
an inscription relating to it was found in this district in 1887 
(F. Barnabei, Notizie degli Scavi, 1887, 181). 

ALSIUM (mod. Palo), an ancient town of Etruria, 29 m. W. by 
N. of Rome by rail, on the Via Aurelia, by which it is about 
22 m. from Rome. It was one of the oldest cities of Etruria, 
but does not appear in history till the Roman colonization of 
247 B.C., and was never of great importance, except as a resort 
of wealthy Romans, many of whom (Pompey, the Antonine 
emperors) had villas there. About 1 5 m. N.E. of Palo is a row of 
large mounds called I Monteroni, which belong to tombs of the 
Etruscan cemetery. Considerable remains of ancient villas 
still exist along the low sandy coast, one of which, about i m. E. 
of Palo, occupies an area of some 400 by 250 yds. The medieval 
castle belongs to the Odescalchi family. Near Palo is the modern 
sea-bathing resort Ladispoli, founded by Prince Odescalchi. 

See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 219. 

ALSOP, VINCENT (c. 1630-1703), English Nonconformist 
divine, was of Northamptonshire origin and was educated at 
St John's College, Cambridge. He received deacon's orders 
from a bishop, whereupon he settled as assistant-master in the 
free school of Oakham, Rutland. He was reclaimed from in- 
different courses and associates here by a very " painful " 
minister, the Rev. Benjamin King. Subsequently he married 
Mr King's daughter, and " becoming a convert to his principles, 
received ordination in the Presbyterian way, not being satisfied 
with that which he had from the bishop." He was presented to 
the living of Wilby in Northamptonshire; but was thence 
ejected under the act of Uniformity in 1662. After his ejection 
he preached privately at Oakham and Wellingborough, sharing 
the common pains and penalties of nonconformists, e.g. he was 
imprisoned six months for praying with a sick person. A book 



against William Sherlock, dean of St Paul's, called Antisozzo 
(against Socinus), written in the vein of Andrew Marvell's 
Rehearsal Transprosed, procured him much celebrity as a wit. 
Dr Robert South, no friend to nonconformists, publicly pro- 
nounced that Alsop had the advantage of Sherlock in every way. 
Besides fame, Antisozzo procured for its author an invitation to 
succeed the venerable Thomas Cawton (the younger) as inde- 
pendent minister in Westminster. He accepted the call and 
drew great multitudes to his chapel. He published other books 
which showed a fecundity of wit, a playful strength of reasoning, 
and a provoking indomitableness of raillery. Even with Dr 
Goodman and Dr Stillingfleet for antagonists, he more than 
held his own. His Mischief of Impositions (1680) in answer to 
Stillingfleet's Mischief of Separation, and Melius Inquirendum 
(1679) in answer to Goodman's Compassionate Inquiry, remain 
historical landmarks in the history of nonconformity. Later 
on, from the entanglements of a son in alleged treasonable 
practices, he had to sue for and obtained pardon from King 
James II. This seems to have given a somewhat diplomatic 
character to his closing years, inasmuch as, while remaining a 
nonconformist, he had a good deal to do with proposed political- 
ecclesiastical compromises. He died on the 8th of May 1703, 
having preserved his " spirits and smartness " to the last. 

See Wood's Athenae (Bliss) iv. 106; Calamy's Life of Baxter, ii. 487 ; 
Wilson's History and Ant. of Dissenting Churches, iv. 63-66. 

(A. J. G.) 

ALSTED, JOHANN HEINRICH (1588-1638), German Pro- 
testant divine. He was some time professor of philosophy and 
theology at Herborn, in Nassau, and afterwards at Weissenburg 
in Transylvania, where he remained till his death in 1638. He 
was a marvellously prolific writer. His Encyclopaedia (1630), 
the most considerable of the earlier works of that class, was long 
held in high estimation. 

ALSTON, CHARLES (1683-1760), Scottish botanist, was 
born at Eddlewood, near Hamilton, in 1683, and became lecturer 
in maleria medico, and botany at Edinburgh and also superin- 
tendent of the botanical gardens, of the plants in which he 
published a catalogue in 1740. He was a critic of Linnaeus's 
system of plant-classification (see BOTANY). He died on the 
22nd of November 1760 at Edinburgh. His Lectures on Materia 
Medica were published posthumously in 1770. 

ALSTON, a market-town in the Penrith parliamentary division 
of Cumberland, England, 29 m. by road E.S.E. of Carlisle, on 
a branch of the North-Eastern railway from Haltwhistle. Pop. 
(1901) 3133. It lies in the uppermost part of the valley of the 
South Tyne, among the high bleak moors of the Pennines. 
Copper and blende are found, and there are limestone quarries. 
The mines of argentiferous lead, belonging to Greenwich Hospital, 
London, were formerly of great value, and it was in order that 
royalties on the Alston lead mines and on those elsewhere in the 
county might be jointly collected that the parish was first 
included within the borders of Cumberland, in the i8th century. 
As many as 119 lead mines were worked in the parish in 1768, 
but the supply of metal has been almost exhausted. Coal is 
worked chiefly for lime-burning, and umber is prepared for the 
manufacture of colours. Thread and flannels are also made. 
Whitley Castle, 2 m. N., was a Roman fort, the original name of 
which is not known, guarding the road which ran along the 
South Tyne valley and over the Pennines. It has no connexion 
with Alston itself. 

ALSTROMER, JONAS (1685-1761), Swedish industrial re- 
former, was born at Alingsas in Vestergotland, on the 7th of ' 
January 1685. He left his native village at an early age, and in 
1707 became clerk to Alberg, a merchant of Stockholm, whom he 
accompanied to London. After carrying on business for three 
years, Alberg failed, and Alstrom (as his name was before his 
ennoblement) engaged in the business of shipbroker on his own 
account, and eventually proved very successful. After travel- 
ling for several years on the continent, he was seized with the 
patriotic desire to transplant to his native country some of the 
industries he had seen flourishing in Britain. He accordingly 
returned to Alingsas, and in 1724 established a woollen factory in 



ALTAI 



the village. After preliminary difficulties it became a very 
profitable business. He next established a sugar refinery at 
Gothenburg, introduced improvements in the cultivation of 
potatoes and of plants suitable for dyeing, and directed atten- 
tion to improved methods in shipbuilding, tanning and the 
manufacture of cutlery. But his most successful undertaking 
was the importation of sheep from England, Spain and Angora. 
He received many marks of distinction, was created ( 1 748) knight 
of the order of the North Star, and a few years later received letters 
of nobility, with permission to change his name to Alstromer. He 
died on the 2nd of June 1761, leaving several works on practical 
industrial subjects. A statue was erected in his honour in the 
exchange at Stockholm. One of his sons, Clas (Claude) (1736- 
1794), was a naturalist of considerable eminence. During a 
voyage to Spain he noticed a native Peruvian plant known in 
Peru as the lily of the Incas, at the Swedish counsul's at Cadiz; he 
sent a few seeds to his master and friend, Linnaeus, who named 
the genus in his honour Alstromeria. He also wrote a work on 
sheep-breeding. 

ALTAI ( in Mongolian Altain-ula, the " Mountains of Gold "), 
a term used in Asiatic geography with various significations. 
The Altai region, in West Siberia and Mongolia, is similar in 
character to Switzerland, but covers a very much greater area. 
It extends from the river Irtysh and the Dzungarian depression 
(46-47 N.) northwards to the Siberian railway and to the Sayan 
mountains. The backbone of the region is the Sailughem or 
Silyughema mountains, also known as Kolyvan Altai, which 
stretch north-eastwards from 49 N. and 86 E. towards the 
western extremity of the Sayan mountains in 51 60' N. and 
89 E. Their mean elevation is 5000-5500 ft. The snow-line 
runs at 6700 ft. on the northern versant and at 7800 ft. on the 
southern, and above it the rugged peaks tower up some 3200 ft. 
more. Passes across the range are few and difficult, the chief 
being the Ulan-daban at 9275 ft. (9445 ft. according to Kozlov), 
and the Chapchan-daban, at 10,555 ft-> in the south and north 
respectively. On the east and south-east this range is flanked by 
the great plateau of Mongolia, the transition being effected 
gradually by means of several minor plateaus, such as Ukok 
(7800 ft.), Chuya (6000 ft.), Kendykty (8200 ft.), Kak (8270 ft.), 
Suok (8500 ft.), and Juvlu-kul (7900 ft.). This region, which is 
not accurately known, is studded with large lakes, i.e. Ubsa-nor 
(2370 ft. above sea-level), Kirghiz-nor, Durga-nor and Kobdo-nor 
(3840 ft.), and traversed by various mountain ranges, of which 
the principal are the Tannu-ola, running roughly parallel with 
the Sayan mountains as far east as the Kosso-gol (ioo-ioi E. 
long.), and the Khan-khu mountains, also stretching west and 
east. 

The range of the Altai proper, known also as the Ek-tagh, 
Mongolian Altai, Great Altai and Southern Altai, likewise extend 
in two twin parallel chains eastwards as far as 99, if not farther. 
The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai, which separates the Kobdo 
basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, is a true 
border-range, in that it rises in a steep and lofty escarpment 
from the Dzungarian depression (1550 to 3000 ft.), but descends 
on the north by a relatively short slope to the plateau (4000-5500 
ft.) of north-western Mongolia. East of 94 the range is continued 
by a double series of mountain chains, all of which exhibit less 
sharply marked orographical features and are at considerably 
lower elevations. The southern chain bears the names of Kara- 
adzirga and Burkhan-ola, and terminates in about 99; but the 
northern range, the principal names of which are Artsi-bogdo and 
Saikhat, extends probably most of the way to the great north- 
ward bend of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River round the desert of 
Ordos. Whereas the western Ek-tagh Altai rises above the snow- 
Jine and is destitute of timber, the eastern double ranges barely 
touch the snow-line and are clothed with thick forests up to an 
altitude of 6250 ft. The slopes of the constituent chains of the 
system are inhabited principally by nomad Kirghiz. 

The north-western and northern slopes of the Sailughem 
mountains are extremely steep and very difficult of access. On 
this side lies the culminating summit of the range, the double- 
headed Byelukha (the Mont Blanc of the Altai), whose summits 



reach 14,890 and 14,560 ft. respectively, 1 and give origin to 
several glaciers (30 sq. m. in aggregate area). Here also are the 
Kuitun (12,000 ft.) and several other lofty peaks. Numerous 
spurs, striking in all directions from the Sailughem mountains, 
fill up the space between that range and the lowlands of Tomsk, 
but their mutual relations are far from being well known. Such 
are the Chuya Alps, having an average altitude of 9000 ft., with 
summits from 11,500 to 12,000 ft., and at least ten glaciers on 
their northern slope ; the Katun Alps, which have a mean 
elevation of about 10,000 ft. and are mostly snow-clad; the 
Kholzun range; the Korgon (6300 to 7600 ft.), Talitsk and Selitsk 
ranges; the Tigeretsk Alps, and so on. Several secondary 
plateaus of lower altitude are also distinguished by geographers. 
The Katun valley begins as a wild gorge on the south-west slope 
of Byelukha; then, after a big bend, the river (400 m. long) 
pierces the Katun Alps, and enters a wider valley, lying at an 
altitude of from 2000 to 3500 ft., which it follows until it emerges 
from the Altai highlands to join the Biya in a most picturesque 
region. The Katun and the Biya together form the Ob. The 
next valley is that of the Charysh, which has the Korgon and 
Tigeretsk Alps on one side and the Talitsk and Bashalatsk Alps 
on the other. This, too, is very fertile. The Altai, seen from this 
valley, presents the most romantic scenes, including the small 
but deep Kolyvan lake (altitude, 1180 ft.), which is surrounded 
by fantastic granite domes and towers. Farther west the valleys 
of the Uba, the Ulba and the Bukhtarma open south-westwards 
towards the Irtysh. The lower part of the first, like the lower 
valley of the Charysh, is thickly populated; in the valley of the 
Ulba is the Riddersk mine, at the foot of the Ivanovsk peak 
(6770 ft.), clothed with beautiful alpine meadows. The valley of 
the Bukhtarma, which has a length of 200 m., also has its origin 
at the foot of the Byelukha and the Kuitun peaks, and as it falls 
some 5000 ft. in less than 200 m., from an alpine plateau at an 
elevation of 6200 ft. to the Bukhtarma fortress (i 130 ft.), it offers 
the most striking contrasts of landscape and vegetation. Its 
upper parts abound in glaciers, the best known of which is the 
Berel, which comes down from the Byelukha. On the northern 
side of the range which separates the upper Bukhtarma from the 
upper Katun is the Katun glacier, which after two ice-falls 
widens out to 700-900 yards. From a grotto in this glacier bursts 
tumultuously the Katun river. The middle and lower parts of 
the Bukhtarma valley have been colonized since the i8th century 
by runaway Russian peasants serfs and nonconformists 
(Raskolniks) who created there a free republic on Chinese 
territory; and after this part of the valley was annexed to 
Russia in 1869, it was rapidly colonized. The high valleys 
farther north, on the same western face of the Sailughem range, 
are but little known, their only visitors being Kirghiz shepherds. 
Those of Bashkaus, Chulyshman, and Chulcha, all three leading 
to the beautiful alpine lake of Teletskoye (length, 48 m. ; 
maximum width, 3 m.; altitude, 1700 ft.; area, 87 sq. m.; 
maximum depth, io2oft.; mean depth, 660 ft.), are only inhabited 
by nomad Telenghites or Teleuts. The shores of the lake 
reminding a visitor somewhat of the Swiss lake of Lucerne 
rise almost sheer to over 6000 ft. and are too wild to accommodate 
a numerous population. From this lake issues the Biya, which 
joins the Katun at Biysk, and then meanders through the 
beautiful prairies of the north-west of the Altai. Farther north 
the Altai highlands are continued in the Kuznetsk district, which 
has a slightly different geological aspect, but still belongs to the 
Altai system. But the Abakan river, which rises on the western 
shoulder of the Sayan mountains, belongs to the system of the 
Yenisei. The Kuznetsk Ala-tau range, on the left bank of the 
Abakan, runs north-east into the government of Yeniseisk, while 
a complexus of imperfectly mapped mountains (Chukchut, 
Salair, Abakan) fills up the country northwards towards the 
Siberian railway and westwards towards the Ob. The Tom and 
its numerous tributaries rise on the northern slopes of the 
Kuznetsk Ala-tau, and their fertile valleys are occupied by a 

1 Mr S. Turner estimates the culminating peak of Mt. Byelukha 
at 14,800 ft., but to Willer's Peak, a little to the N. W. of Byelukha, 
he assigns an altitude of 17,800 ft. (p. 205 of Siberia). 



ALTAMURA ALTAR 



759 



dense Russian population, the centre of which is Kuznetsk, on 
the Tom. 

Geology. Geologically the Altai mountains consist of two 
distinct elements which differ considerably from each other in 
composition and structure. The Russian Altai is composed 
mainly of mica and chlorite schists and slates, together with 
beds of limestone, and in the higher horizons Devonian and 
Carboniferous fossils occur in many places. There is no axial 
zone of gneiss, but intrusions of granite and other plutonic 
rocks occur, and the famous ore deposits are found chiefly near 
the contact of these intrusions with the schists. The strata are 
thrown into folds which run in the direction of the mountain 
ridges, forming a curve with the convexity facing the south-east. 
The Mongolian or Great Altai, on the other hand, consists mainly 
of gneiss and Archaean rocks. The strike of the rocks is inde- 
pendent of the direction of the chain, and the chain is bounded 
by faults. It is, in fact, a horst and not a zone of folding. 

Flora. The flora of the Altai, explored chiefly by Karl F. von 
Ledebour (1785-1851), is rich and very beautiful. Up to a level 
of 1000 ft. on the northern and 2000 ft. on the southern slopes, 
plant life belongs to the European flora, which extends into 
Siberia as far as the Yenisei. The steppe flora penetrates into 
the mountains, ascending some 1100-1200 ft., and in sheltered 
valleys even up to 5500 ft., when it of course comes into contact 
with the purely alpine flora. Tree vegetation, which reaches up 
as high as 6500 and 8150 ft., the latter limit on the north and 
west, consists of magnificent forests of birch, poplar, aspen, and 
Coniferae, such as Pinus cembra, Abies sibirica, Larix sibirica, 
Picea obovata, and so on, though the fir is not found above 2500 
ft., while the meadows are abundantly clothed with brightly- 
coloured, typical assortments of herbaceous plants. The alpine 
meadows, which have many species in common with the European 
Alps, have also a number of their own peculiar Altaian species. 

Mineral wealth. The Altai proper is rich in silver, copper, 
lead and zinc ores, while in the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, gold, iron 
and coal are the chief mineral resources. The Kuznetsk Ala-tau 
mines are only now beginning to be explored, while the copper, 
and perhaps also the silver, ores of the Altai proper were worked 
by the mysterious prehistoric race of the Chudes at a time when 
the use of iron was not yet known. Russians began to mine in 
1727 at Kolyvan, and in 1739 at Barnaul. Most of the Altai 
region, covering an area of some 170,000 sq. m. and including the 
Kuznetsk district, has since 1746 formed a domain of the imperial 
family under the name of the Altai Mining District. The ores of 
the Altai proper nearly always appear in irregular veins, con- 
taining silver, lead, copper and gold sometimes all together, 
and they are, or were, worked chiefly by Zmeinogorsk (or Zmeiev) , 
Zyryanovsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk and Riddersk (abandoned in 
1861). They offer, however, great difficulties, especially on 
account of their continually varying productivity and tempera- 
ture of fusion. The beautiful varieties of porphyry green, red, 
striped -which are obtained, often in big monoliths, near 
Kolyvan, are cut at the imperial stone-cutting factory into vases 
and other ornaments, familiar in the art galleries and palaces of 
Europe. Aquamarines of mediocre quality but enormous size 
(up to 3 in. in diameter) are found in the Korgon mine. The 
northern, or Salair, mining region is rich in silver ores, and the 
mine of tluVname used formerly to yield up to 93,300 oz. of silver 
in the year. But the chief wealth of the northern Altai is in the 
Kuznetsk coal-basin, also containing iron-ores, which fills up a 
valley between the Kuznetsk Ala-tau and the Salair range for a 
length of about 270 m., with a width of about 65 m. The coal 
is considered equal to the best coal of England and south Russia. 
The country is also covered with thick diluvial and alluvial 
deposits containing gold. However, all the mining is now on the 
decline. 

Population. The Russian population has rapidly increased 
since the fertile valleys belonging to the imperial family have 
been thrown open to settlement, and it has been estimated that 
in 1908 the population of the region (Biysk, Barnaul and 
Kuznetsk districts) reached about 800,000. Their chief occupa- 
tions are agriculture (about 3,500,000 acres under culture), cattle- 



breeding, bee-keeping, mining, gathering of cedar-nuts and 
hunting. All this produce is exported partly to Tomsk and 
partly to Kobdo in Mongolia. The natives may represent a 
population of about 45,000. They are Altaians in the west and 
Telenghites or Teleuts in the east, with a few Kalmucks and 
Tatars. Although all are called Kalmucks by the Russians, 
they speak a Turkish language. Both the Telenghites and the 
Altaians are Shamanists in religion, but many of the former are 
already quite Russified. The virgin forests of the Kuznetsk 
Ala-tau the Chern, or Black Forest of the Russians are 
peopled by Tatars, who live in very small settlements, sometimes 
of the Russian type, but mostly in wooden yurts or huts of the 
Mongolian fashion. They can hardly keep any cattle, and lead 
the precarious life of forest-dwellers, living upon various wild 
roots when there is no grain in the spring. Hunting and fishing 
are resorted to, and the skins and furs are tanned. 

Towns. The capital of the Altai region is Barnaul, the centre 
of the mining administration and an animated commercial town; 
Biysk is the commercial centre; Kuznetsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk, 
and the mining towns of Kolyvan, Zmeinogorsk, Riddersk and 
Salairsk are the next largest places. 

AUTHORITIES. P. Semenov and G. N. Potanin, in supplementary 
vol. of Russian ed. of Ritter's Asien (1877); Ledebour, Reise durch 
das Altaigebirge (1829-1830); P. Chikhatchev, Voyage scientifique 
dans V Altai oriental (1845); Gebler, Vbersicht des katunischen 
Gebirges (1837) ; G. von Helmersen, Reise nach dem Altai (St Peters- 
burg, 1848); T. W. Atkinson, Oriental and Western Siberia (1858); 
and Cotta, Der Altai (1871), are still worth consulting. Of modern 
works see Adrianov, " Journey to the Altai," in Zapiski Russ. 
Geogr. Soc. xi. ; Yadrintsev, " Journey in West Siberia, in Zapiski 
West Sib. Geogr. Soc. ii. ; Golubev, Altai (1890, Russian); Schmurlo, 
" Passes in S. Altai " (Sailughem), in Izvestia Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1898), 
xxxiv. 5; V. Saposhnikov, various articles in same periodical (1897), 
xxxiii. and (1899) xxxv., and, by the same, Katun i yeya Istoki 
(Tomsk, 1901); S. Turner, Siberia (1905); Deniker, on Kozlov's 
explorations, in La Geographic (1901, pp. 41, &c.); and P. Ignatov, 
in Izvestia Russ. Geog. Soc. (1902, No. 2). (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.) 

ALTAMURA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Ban, 
28 m. S.S.W. of the town of that name, and 56 m. by rail via 
Gioia del Colle. Pop. (1901) 22,729. It possesses a fine Roman- 
esque cathedral begun in 1232 and restored in 1330 and 1531, 
the portal being especially remarkable. It is one of the four 
Palatine churches of Apulia. The surrounding territory' is 
fertile. The medieval walls, erected by the emperor Frederick 
II., rest upon the walls of an ancient city of unknown name. 
These early walls are of rough blocks of stone without mortar. 
Ancient tombs with fragments of vases have also been found, 
and there are cases which have been used as primitive tombs or 
dwellings, and a group of some fifty tumuli near Altamura. 

ALTAR (Lat. allare, from altus, high; some ancient etymo- 
logical guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymolo'giae 
xv. 4), strictly a base or pedestal used for supplication and 
sacrifice to gods or to deified heroes. The necessity for such 
sacrificial furniture has been felt in most religions, and conse- 
quently we find its use widespread among races and nations 
which have no mutual connexion. 

Mesopotamia. Altars are found from the earliest times in the 
remains of Babylonian cities; the oldest are square erections of 
sun-dried bricks. In Assyrian mounds limestone and alabaster 
are the chief material. They are of varying form; an altar 
shown in a relief at Khorsabad is ornamented with stepped 
battlements, which are the equivalent of the familiar " altar- 
horns " in Hebrew ritual. An altar also from Khorsabad (now 
in the British Museum) has a circular table and a solid base 
triangular on plan, with pilasters ornamented with animals' 
paws at the angles. A third variety, of which an 8th century 
B.C. example from Nimrud exists in the British Museum, is a 
rectangular block ornamented at the ends by cylindrical rolls. 
These altars are in height from 2 to 3 ft. According to Herodotus 
(i. 183) the great altars of Babylonia were made of gold. 

Egypt. In Egypt altars took the form of a truncated cone or 
of a cubical block of polished granite or of basalt, with one or 
more basin-like depressions in the upper surface for receiving 
fluid libations. These had channels whereby fluids poured into 
the receptacles could be drained off. The surface was plain, 



y6o 



ALTAR 



inscribed with dedicatory or other legends, or adorned with 
symbolical carving. 

Palestine. Recent excavations, especially at Gezer, have 
shown that the earliest altars, or rather sacrifice hearths, in 
Palestine were circular spaces marked out by small stones set 
on end. At Gezer a pre-Semitic place of worship was found in 
which three such hearths stood together, and drained into a cave 
which may reasonably be supposed to have been regarded as the 
residence of the divinity. These circular hearths persisted into 
the Canaanite period, but were ultimately superseded by the 
Semitic developments. To the primitive nomadic Semite the 
presence of the divinity was indicated by springs, shady trees, 
remarkable rocks and other landmarks; and from this earliest 
conception grew the theory that a numen might be induced to 
take up an abode in an artificial heap of stones, or a pillar set 
upright for the purpose. The blood of the victim was poured 
over the stone as an offering to the divinity dwelling within 
it; and from this conception of the stone arose the further and 
final view, that the stone was a table on which the victim was to 
be burned. 

Very few specimens of early Palestinian altars remain. The 
megalithic structures common in the Hauran and Moab may 
be entirely sepulchral. At Gezer no definite altar was discovered 
in the great High Place; though it is possible that a bank of 
intensely hard compact earth, in which were embedded a large 
number of human skulls, took its place. A very remarkable 
altar, at present unique, was found at Taanach by the Austrian 
excavators. It is pyramidal in shape, and the surface is orna- 
mented with human-headed animals in relief. This, like the 
earliest Babylonian altars, is of baked earth. 

The Old Testament conception of the altar varies with the 
stage of religious development. In the pre-Deuteronomic 
period altars are erected in any place where there had appeared 
to be a manifestation of deity, or under any circumstance in 
which the aid of deity was invoked; not by heretical individuals, 
but by the acknowledged religious leaders, such as Noah at 
Ararat, Abraham at Shechem, Bethel &c., Isaac at Beersheba, 
Jacob at Bethel, Moses at Rephidim, Joshua at Ebal, Gideon 
at Ophrah, Samuel at Ramah, Elijah at Carmel, and others. 
These primitive altars were of the simplest possible description 
in fact they were required to be so by the regulation affecting 
them, preserved in Exodus xx. 24, which prescribes that in every 
place where Yahiveh records his name an altar of earth or of unhewn 
stone, without steps or other extraneous ornamentation, shall 
be erected. 

The priestly regulations affecting altars are of a very elaborate 
nature, and are framed with a single eye to the essential theory 
of later Hebrew worship the centralization of all worship at 
one shrine. These recognize two altars, which by the authors 
of this portion of the Pentateuch are placed from the first in the 
tabernacle in the wilderness a theory which is inconsistent with 
the other evidences of the nature of the earlier Hebrew worship, 
to which we have just alluded. 

The first of these altars is that for burnt-offering. This altar 
was in the centre of the court of the tabernacle, of acacia wood, 
3 cubits high and 5 square. It was covered with copper, 
was provided with " horns " at the corners (like those of Assyria), 
hollow in the middle, and with rings on the sides into which the 
staves for its transportation could be run (Ex. xxvii. 1-8). The 
altar of the Solomonic temple is on similar lines, but much larger. 
It is now generally recognized that the description of the taber- 
nacle altar is intended to provide a precedent for this vast 
structure, which would otherwise be inconsistent with the 
traditional view of the simple Hebrew altars. In the second 
temple a new altar was built after the fashion of the former 
(i Mace. iv. 47) of " whole stones from the mountain." In 
Herod's temple the altar was again built after the same model. 
It is described by Josephus (v. 5. 6) as 15 cubits high and 
50 cubits square, with angle horns, and with an " insensible 
acclivity " leading up to it (a device to evade the pre-Deutero- 
nomic regulation about steps). It was made without any use of 
iron, and no iron tool was ever allowed to touch it. The blood 



and refuse were discharged through a drain into the brook 
Kedron; this drain probably still remains, in the Sir el-Anvah, 
under the " Dome of the Rock " in the mosque which covers 
the site of the temple. 

The second altar was the altar of incense, which was in the 
holy place of the tabernacle. It was of similar construction 
to the altar of burnt-offering, but smaller, being 2 cubits 
high and i cubit square (Ex. xxx. 1-5). It was overlaid with 
gold. Solomon's altar of incense (i K. vi. 20) is referred to in 
a problematical passage from which it would appear to have been 
of cedar. But the authenticity of the passages describing the 
altar of incense in the tabernacle, and the historicity of the 
corresponding altar in Solomon's temple, are matters of keen 
dispute among critics. The incense altar in the second temple 
was removed by Antiochus Epiphanes (i Mace. i. 21) and restored 
by Judas Maccabaeus (i Mace. iv. 49). That in the temple of 
Herod is referred to in Luke i. n. 

The ritual uses of these altars are sufficiently explained by 
their names. On the first was a fire continually burning, in 
which the burnt-offerings were consumed. On the second an 
offering of incense was made twice a day. 

In the pre-Deuteronomic passage, Exodus xxi. 14, the use of 
the altar as an asylum is postulated, though denied to the wilful 
murderer. This is a survival of the ancient belief that the deity 
resided in the pillar or stone-heap, and that the fugitive was 
placing himself under the protection of the local numen by 
seeking sanctuary. From i Kings i. 50 it would appear that 
the suppliant caught hold of the altar-horns (compare i Kings 
ii. 28), as though special protective virtue resided in this important 
though obscure part of the structure. 

Greece and Rome. According to the difference in the service 
for which they were employed, altars fell into two classes. Those 
of the first class were pedestals, so small and low that the suppliant 
could kneel upon them; these stood inside the temples, in front 
of the sacred image. The second class consisted of larger tables 
destined for burnt sacrifice; these were placed in the open air, 
and, if connected with a temple, in front of the entrance. 
Possibly altars of the former class were in historical times sub- 
stitutes for, and rendered the same service as, the bases of the 
sacred images within the temples in earlier ages. In this case 
the altar of Apollo at Delphi, upon which on the Greek vases 
Neoptolemus is frequently represented as taking refuge from 
Orestes, might be regarded as the pedestal of an invisible image 
of the god, and as fulfilling the same function as did the base of 
the actual image of Athene in Troy, towards which Cassandra 
fled from Ajax. The second class of altars, called /3juoi by 
the Greeks and altaria by the Romans, appears to have originated 
in temporary constructions such as heaps of earth, turf or stone, 
made for kindling a sacrificial fire as occasion required. But 
sacrifices to earth divinities were made on the earth itself, and 
those to the infernal deities in sunk hollows (Odyss. x. 25; Festus 
s. v. Altaria). The note of Eustathius (Odyss. xii. 252) perhaps 
indicates some customs reminiscent of a primitive antiquity 
in which the sacrifice was made without an altar at all. He 
says dTro^co/iii riva. Itpa Siv OVK ri /3o)/iov 6 Kadajiff/jidy dXX' 
M t<5d0ous "some holy places away from altars, whose 
offering is made not on an altar but on tie floor." Pausanias 
(vi. 20. 7) speaks of an altar at Olympia made of unbaked bricks. 
In some primitive holy shrines the bones and ashes of the victims 
sacrificed were allowed to accumulate, and upon this new fires 
were kindled. Altars so raised were, like most religious survivals, 
considered as endowed with particular sanctity; the most 
remarkable recorded instances of such are the altars of Hera at 
Samos, and of Pan at Olympia (Paus. v. 14. 6; v. 15. 5), of 
Heracles at Thebes (Paus. ix. n. 7), and of Zeus at Olympia 
(Paus. v. 13. 5). The last-mentioned stood on a platform 
(irpodvtris) measuring 125 ft. in circumference, and led up to 
by steps, the altar itself being 22 ft. high. Women were excluded 
from the platform. Where hecatombs were sacrificed, the 
irp6dvais necessarily assumed colossal proportions, as in the 
case of the altar at Parion, where it measured on each side 600 ft. 
The altar of Apollo at Delos (6 ntpbrivos /3oj)u6s) was made 



ALTAR 



PLATE I. 




-S * It '^ 



W^ i 



^^F^^V- *, rJS 'W 

IP' 







1. 7o. 



PLATE II. 



ALTAR 





ALTAR 



761 



of the horns of goats believed to have been slain by Diana; 
while at Miletus was an altar composed of the blood of victims 
sacrificed (Paus. v. 13. 6). The altar at Phorae in Achaea was 
of unhewn stones (Paus.vii. 22.3). Thealtarused at the festival 
in honour of Daedalus on Mt. Cithaeron was of wood, and was 
consumed along with the sacrifice (Paus. ix. 3. 4). Others of 
bronze are mentioned. But these were exceptional, the usual 
material of an altar was marble, and its form, both among the 
Greeks and Romans, was either square or round; polygonal 
altars, of which examples still exist, being exceptions. When 
sculptured decorations were added they frequently took the 
form of imitations of the actual festoons with which it was usual 
to ornament altars, or of symbols, such as crania and horns of 
oxen, referring to the victims sacrificed. As a rule, the altars 
which existed apart from temples bore the name of the person 
by whom they were dedicated and the names of the deities in 
whose service they were, or, if not the name, some obvious 
representation of the deity. Such, for example, is the purpose 
of the figures of the Muses on an altar dedicated to them, now 
to be seen in the British Museum.- An altar was retained for the 
service of one particular god, except where through local 
tradition two or more deities had become intimately associated, 
as in the case of the altar at Olympia to Artemis and Alpheus 
jointly, or that of Poseidon and Erechtheus in the Erechtheum 
at Athens. The most.remarkable instance of multiple dedication 
was, however, at Oropus, where the altar was divided into five 
parts, one dedicated to Heracles, Zeus and Paean Apollo, a 
second to heroes and their wives, a third to Hestia, Hermes, 
Amphiaraus and the children of Amphilochus, a fourth to 
Aphrodite Panacea, Jason, Health, and Healing Athene, and 
the fifth to the Nymphs, Pan, and the rivers Archelous and 
Cephissus (Paus. i. 34. 2). Such deities were styled <rvn()o>noi, 
each having a separate part of the altar (Paus. i. 34. 2). 
Other terms are 6.yaviot, or o/uo/Scbuioi. Deities of an inferior 
order, who were conceived as working together -e.g. the wind 
gods had an altar in common. In the same way, the "unknown 
gods " were regarded as a unit, and had in Athens and at Olympia 
one altar for all (Paus. i. i. 4; v. 14. 5; cf. Acts of Apostles, 
xvii. 18). An altar to all the gods is mentioned by Aeschylus 
(Suppl. 222). Among the exceptional classes of altars are also 
to be mentioned those on which fire could not be kindled (fiu>fj.ol 
dirupoi), and those which were kept free from blood (^co/xoi 
avaifiaKTOi), of which in both respects the altar of Zeus 
Hypatos at Athens was an example. The tana was a round 
altar; the etrxapa, one employed apparently for sacrifice to 
inferior deities or heroes (but ia\dpa 4>o!j3<w, Aesch. Pers. 
205). In Rome an altar erected in front of a statue of a god was 
always required to be lower than the statue itself ( Vitruvius iv. 9) . 
Altars were always places of refuge, and even criminals and 
slaves were there safe, violence offered to them being insults to 
the gods whose suppliants the refugees were for the time being. 
They were also taken hold of by the Greeks when making their 
most solemn oaths. 

Ancient America. As a single specimen of an altar, wholly 
unrelated to any of the foregoing, we may cite the ancient 
Mexican example described by W. Bullock (Six Months in Mexico, 
London, 1824, p. 335). This was cylindrical, 25 ft. in circum- 
ference, with sculpture representing the conquests of the national 
warriors in fifteen different groups round the side. 1 

Portable altars and tables of offerings were used in pre-Christian 
as well as in Christian ritual. One such was discovered in the 
Gezer excavations, dating about 200 B.C. It was a slab of 
polished limestone about 6 in. square with five cups in its upper 
surface. Another from the same place was a small cubical 
block of limestone bearing a dedication to Heracles. They have 
also been found in Assyria. Pocket altars are still used in some 
forms of worship in India. See the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society, 1852, p. 71. 

1 Bullock also says (p. 354) that the altar in the church of the 
Indian village of S. Miguel de los Ranches which he visited was " of 
the same nature as those in use before the introduction of 
Christianity." 



ALTARS IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH 



I. The Early Church. The altar is spoken of by the early 
Greek and Latin ecclesiastical writers under a variety of names : 
rpaTref a, the principal name in the Greek fathers and the 
liturgies; 0it<naoTi7ptoi' (rarer; used in the Septuagint for 
Hebrew altars); iXaffrfipiov; j3w/j.6s (usually avoided, as it is 
a word with heathen associations); mensa Domini; ara (avoided 
like j3co/i6j, and for the same reason) ; and, most regularly, altare. 
After the 4th century other names or expressions come into use, 
such as mensa tremenda, sedes corporis et sanguinis Christi. 

The earliest Christians had no altars, and were taunted by the 
pagans for this. It is admitted by Origen in his reply to Celsus 
(p. 389), who has charged the Christians with being a secret 
society " because they forbid to build temples, to raise altars." 
" The altars," says Origen, " are the heart of every Christian." 
The same appears from a passage in Lactantius, De Origine 
Erroris, ii. 2. We gather from these passages that down to 
about A.D. 250, or perhaps a little later, the communion was 
administered on a movable wooden table. In the Catacombs, 
the arcosolia or bench-like tombs are said (though the statement 
is doubtful) to have been used to serve this purpose. The earliest 
church altars were certainly made of wood; and it would appear 
from a passage in William of Malmesbury (De Gest. Pontif. 
Angl. iii. 14) that English altars were of wood down to the 
middle of the nth century, at least in the diocese of Worcester. 

The cessation of persecution, and consequent gradual elabora- 
tion of church furniture and ritual, led to the employment of 
more costly materials for the altar as for the other fittings of 
ecclesiastical buildings. Already in the 4th century we find 
reference to stone altars in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa. 
In 517 the council of Epaone in Burgundy forbade any but 
stone pillars to be consecrated with chrism; but of course the 
decrees of this provincial council would not necessarily be 
received throughout the church. 

Pope Felix I. (A.D. 269-274) decreed that " mass should be 
celebrated above the tombs of martyrs " an observance 
probably suggested by the passage in Revelation vi. 9, " I saw 
under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the word 
of God." This practice developed into the medieval rule that 
no altar can be consecrated unless it contain a relic or relics. 

The form of the altar was originally table-shaped, consisting 
of a plane surface supported by columns. There were usually 
four, but examples with one, two and five columns are also 
recorded. But the development of the relic-custom led to the 
adoption of another form, the square box shape of an " altar- 
tomb." Transitional examples, combining the box with the 
earlier table shape, are found dating about 450. Mention is 
made occasionally of silver and gold altars in the sth to the 8th 
centuries. This means no doubt that gold and silver were 
copiously used in its decoration. Such an altar still remains 
in Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, dating from the gth century (see 
fig. i). 

II. The Medieval Church. It will be convenient now to pass 
to the fully-developed altar of the Western Church with its 
accessories, though the rudiments of most of the additional 
details are traceable in the earlier period. 

In the Roman Catholic Church, which preserves in this respect 
the tradition that had become established during the middle 
ages, the component parts of a fixed altar in the liturgical sense 
are the table (mensa), or super-altar, consisting of a stone slab; 
the support (stipes), consisting either of a solid mass or of four 
or more columns; the sepulchrum, or altar-cavity, a small 
chamber for the reception of the relics of martyrs. The support, 
in the technical sense, must be of stone solidly joined to the 
table; but, if this support consist of columns, the intervals may 
be filled with other materials, e.g. brick or cement. The altar- 
slab or " table " alone is consecrated, and in sign of this are cut 
in its upper surface five Greek crosses, one in the centre and one 
in each corner. These crosses must have been anointed by the 
bishop with chrism in the ritual of consecration before the altar 
can be used. Crosses appear on the portable altar buried with 



762 



ALTAR 



St Cuthbert (A.D. 687), but the history of the origin and develop- 
ment of this practice is not fully worked out. 

According to the Caeromoniale (i. 12. 13) a canopy (balda- 
chinum) should be suspended over the altar; this should be 
square, and of sufficient size to cover the altar and the predella 
on which the officiating priest stands. This baldachin, called 
liturgically the ciborium, is sometimes hung from the roof by 
chains in such a way that it can be lowered or raised; sometimes 
it is fixed to the wall or reredos; sometimes it is a solid structure 
of wood covered with metal or of marble supported on four 
columns. The latter form is, however, usual only in large 
churches, more especially of the basilica type, e.g. St Peter's at 
Rome or the Roman Catholic cathedral at Westminster. The 
origin of the ciborium is not certain, but it is represented in a 
mosaic at Thessalonica of a date not later than A.D. 500. Even 
at the present day, in spite of a decree of the Congregation of 
Rites (2yth of May 1697) ordering it to be placed over all altars, 
it is even at Rome itself usually only found over the high 
altar and the altar of the Blessed Sacrament. 

Multiplication of altars is another medieval characteristic. 
This also is probably a result of the edict of Pope Felix already 
mentioned. In a vault where more than one martyr was buried 
an altar might be erected for each. It is in the 6th century 
that we begin to find traces of the multiplication "of altars. In 
the church of St Gall, Switzerland, in the 9th century there were 
seventeen. In the modern Latin Church almost every large 
church contains several altars dedicated to certain saints, in 
private side chapels, established for masses for the repose of the 
founder's soul, &c. Archbishop Wulfred in 816 ordered that 
beside every altar there should be an inscription recording its 
dedication. This regulation fell into abeyance after the iath 
century, and such inscriptions are very rare. One remains 
mutilated at Deerhurst (Archaeologia, vol. 1. p. 69). 

Where there is in a cathedral or church more than one altar, 
the principal one is called a " high altar." Where there is a 
second high altar, it is generally at the end of the choir or 
chancel. In monastic churches (e.g. formerly at St Albans) it 
sometimes stands at the end of the nave close to the choir screen. 

Beside the altar was a drain (piscina) for pouring away the 
water in which the communion vessels were rinsed. This seems 
originally to have been under the altar, as it is still in the Eastern 
Church. 

That the primitive communion table was covered with a 
communion-cloth is highly probable, and is mentioned by 
Optatus (c. A.D. 370), bishop of Milevis. This had developed 
by the i4th or isth century into a cerecloth, or waxed cloth, on 
the table itself; and three linen coverings one above the other, 
two of about the size of the table and one rather wider than the 
altar, and long enough to hang down at each end. Five crosses 
are worked upon it, four in the corners and one in the middle, 
and there is an embroidered edging. 1 In front was often a 
hanging panel of embroidered cloth (the frontal; but f rentals 
of wood, ornamented with carving or enamel, &c., are also to be 
found). These embroidered f rentals are changeable, so that the 
principal colour in the pattern can accord with the liturgical 
colour of the day. Speaking broadly, red is the colour for feasts 
of martyrs, white for virgins, violet for penitential seasons, &c. ; 
no less than sixty-three different uses differing in details have 
been enumerated. A similar panel of needlework (the dossal) 
is suspended behind the altar. 

Portable altars have been used on occasion since the time of 
Bede. They are small slabs of hard stone, just large enough for 
the chalice and paten. They are consecrated and marked with 
the five incised crosses in the same way as the fixed altar, but 
they may be placed upon a support of any suitable material, 
whether wood or stone. They are used on a journey in a heretical 
or heathen country, or in private chapels. In the inventory of 
the field apparel of Henry, earl of Northumberland, A.D. 1513, is 

1 In the Eastern Church four small pieces of cloth marked with 
the names of the Evangelists are placed on the four corners of the 
altar, and covered with three cloths, the uppermost (the corporal) 
being of smaller size. 



included "A coffer wyth ij liddes to serue for an Awter and ned 
be" (Archaeologia, xxvi. 403). 

On the altar are placed a cross and candlesticks six in number, 
and seven when a bishop celebrates in his cathedral; and over it 
is suspended or fixed a tabernacle or receptacle for the reservation 
of the Sacrament. 

III. Post-Reformation Altars. At the Reformation the altars 
in churches were looked upon as symbols of the unreformed 
doctrine, especially where the struggle lay between the Catholics 
and the Calvinists, who on this point were much more radical 
revolutionaries than the Lutherans. In England the name 
"altar" 2 was retained in the Communion Office in English, 
printed in 1 549, and in the complete English Prayer-book of the 
following year, known to students as the First Book of Edward VI. 
But orders were given soon after that the altars should be 
destroyed, and replaced by movable wooden tables; while from 
the revised Prayer-book of 1552 the word "altar" was carefully 
expunged, "God's board" or "the table" being substituted. 
The short reign of Mary produced a temporary reaction, but the 
work of reformation was resumed on the accession of Elizabeth. 

The name " altar " has been all along retained in the Corona- 
tion Office of the kings of England, where it occurs frequently. 
It was also recognized in the canons of 1640, but with the reserva- 
tion that "it was an altar in the sense in which the primitive 
church called it an altar and in no other."* In the same canons 
the rule for the position of the communion tables, which has been 
since regularly followed throughout the Church of England, was 
formulated. In the primitive church the altars seem to have 
been so placed that, like those of the Hebrews, they could be 
surrounded on all sides by the worshippers. The chair of the 
bishop or celebrant was on their east side, and the assistant 
clergy were ranged on each side of him. But in the middle ages 
the altars were placed against the east wall of the churches, or 
else against a reredos erected at the east side of the altar, so as to 
prevent all access to the table from that side; the celebrant was 
thus brought round to the west side and caused to stand between 
the people and the altar. On the north and south sides there' 
were often curtains. When tables were substituted for altars in 
the English churches, these were not merely movable, but at the 
administration of the Lord's Supper were actually moved into 
the body of the church, and placed table-wise that is, with the 
long sides turned to the north and south, and the narrow ends to 
the east and west, the officiating clergyman standing at the 
north side. In the time of Archbishop Laud, however, the 
present practice of the Church of England was introduced. The 
communion table, though still of wood and movable, is, as a 
matter of fact, never moved; it is placed altar-wise that is, 
with its longer axis running north and south, and close against 
the east wall. Often there is a reredos behind it; it is also fenced 
in by rails to preserve it from profanation of various kinds. 

In 1841 the ancient church of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridge 
was robbed of most of its interest by a calamitous " restoration " 
carried out under the superintendence and partly at the charge 
of the Camden Society. On this occasion a stone altar, consisting 
of a flat slab resting upon three other upright slabs, was presented 
to the parish, and was set up in the church at the east wall of the 
chancel. This was brought to the notice of the Court of Arches 
in 1845, and Sir H. Jenner Fust (Faulkner v. Lichfield and Steam) 
ordered it to be removed, on the ground that a stone structure so 
weighty that it could not be carried about, and seeming to be a 
mass of solid masonry, was not a communion-table in the sense 
recognized by the Church of England. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For altars in the ancient East see M. Jastrow, 
Religion of Assyria and Babylonia; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in 
Chaldea (i. 143, 255) ; Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, A Second Series of 
the Manners and Customs of the A ncient Egyptians, ii. 387 ; Benzinger's 
and Nowack's works on Hebraischf Archdologie. For classical altars, 
much information can be obtained from the notes in J. G. Frazer's 
Pausanias. See also Schomann, Griechische Alterthumer, vol. ii.; 
the volume on " Gottesdienstliche Alterthumer " in Hermann's 
Lehrbuch der griechischen Aniiquitdten. On domestic altars and 
worship see Petersen, Hausgottesdiensl der Griechen (Cassel, 1851). 

2 Except in one place where the term used is " God's board." 



ALTDORF ALTERNATION 



763 



On plural dedications consult Maurer, De aribus graecorum pluribus 
deis in commune positis (Darmstadt, 1885). For Christian altars, 
reference is best made to the articles on the subject in the dictionaries 
of Christian and liturgical antiquities of Migne, Martigny, Smith 
and Cheetham, and Pugin, where practically all the available informa- 
tion is collected. See also Ciampinus, Vetera Monumenta (Rome, 
1747), where numerous illustrations of altars are to be found; 
Martene, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus, iii. vi. (Rouen, 1700); Voigt, 
Thysiasteriologia sive de altaribus veterum Christianorum (Hamburg, 
1709) ; and the liturgical works of Bona. Many articles on various 
sections of the subject have appeared in the journals of archaeo- 
logical societies; we may mention Nesbitt on the churches of Rome 
earlier than 1150 (Archaeologia, xl. p. 210), Didron, " L'Autel 
chretien " (Annales archeologiques, iv. p. 238), and a paper by 
Texier on enamelled altars in the same volume. (R. A. S. M.) 

ALTDORF, the capital of the Swiss canton of Uri. It is built 
at a height of 1516 ft. above sea-level, a little above the right 
bank of the Reuss, not far above the point where this river is 
joined on the right by the Schachen torrent. In 1900 the popula- 
tion was 3117, all Romanists and German-speaking. Altdorf is 
34 m. from Lucerne by the St Gotthard railway and 22m. from 
Goeschenen. Its port on the Lake of Lucerne, Fluelen, is 2 m. 
distant. There is a stately parish' church, while above the little 
town is the oldest Capuchin convent in Switzerland (1581). 
Altdorf is best known as the place where, according to the legend, 
William Tell shot the apple from his son's head. This act by 
tradition happened on the market-place, where in 1895, at the 
foot of an old tower (with rude frescoes commemorating the feat), 
there was set up a fine bronze statue (by Richard Kissling of 
Zurich) of Tell and his son. In 1899 a theatre was opened close 
to the town for the sole purpose of performing Schiller's play of 
Wilhelm Tell. The same year a new carriage-road was opened 
from Altdorf through the Schachen valley and over the Klausen 
Pass (6404 ft.) to the village of Linththal (30 m.) and so to Glarus. 
One and a half mile from Altdorf by the Klausen road is the 
village of Burglen, where by tradition Tell was born; while he is 
also said to have lost his life, while saving that of a child, in the 
Schachen torrent that flows past the village. On the left bank of 
the Reuss, immediately opposite Altdorf, is Attinghausen, where 
the ruined castle (which belonged to one of the real founders of 
the Swiss Confederation) now houses the cantonal museum of 
antiquities. (W. A. B. C.) 

ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT (? 1480-1538), German painter and 
engraver, was born at Regensburg (Ratisbon), where in 1505 he 
was enrolled a burgher, and described as " twenty-five years old." 
Soon afterwards he is known to have been prosperous, and as 
city architect he erected fortifications and a public slaughter- 
house. Altdorfer has been called the " Giorgione of the North." 
His paintings are remarkable for minute and careful finish, and 
for close study of nature. The most important of them are to be 
found in the Pinakothek at Munich. A representation of the 
battle of Arbela (1529), included in that collection, is usually 
considered his chief work. His engravings on wood and copper 
are very numerous, and rank next to those of Albrecht Diirer. 
The most important collection is at the Berlin museum. 
Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and 
engraver, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach. 

ALIEN, SIR CHARLES [Karl] (1764-1840), Hanoverian and 
British soldier, son of Baron Alten, a member of an old Hanoverian 
family, entered the service of the elector as a page at the age of 
twelve. In 1781 he received a commission in the Hanoverian 
guards, and as a captain took part in the campaigns of 1793- 
1795 in the Low Countries, distinguishing himself particularly 
on the Lys in command of light infantry. In 1803 the 
Hanoverian army was disbanded, and Alten took service with 
the King's German Legion in British pay. In command of the 
light infantry of this famous corps he took part with Lord 
Cathcart in the Hanoverian expedition of 1805 and in the siege 
of Copenhagen in 1807, and was with Moore in Sweden and 
Spain, as well as in the disastrous Walcheren expedition. He 
was soon employed once more in the Peninsula, and at Albuera 
commanded a brigade. In April 1813 Wellington placed him at 
the head of the famous " Light Division " (43rd, S2nd, 95th, 
and Cacadores), in which post he worthily continued the records 
of Moore and Robert Craufurd at Nivelle, Nive, Orthez and 



Toulouse. His officers presented him with a sword of honour as 
a token of their esteem. In 1815 Alten commanded Wellington's 
3rd division and was severely wounded at Waterloo. His conduct 
won for him the rank of Count von Alten. When the King's 
German Legion ceased to exist, Alten was given the command of 
the Hanoverians in France, and in 1818 he returned to Hanover, 
where he became subsequently minister of war and foreign 
affairs, and rose to be field-marshal, being retained on the British 
Army list at the same time as Major-General Sir Charles Alten, 
G. C. B. He died in 1840. A memorial to Alten has been 
erected at Hanover. 

See Gentleman's Magazine, 1840; N. L. Beamish, Hist, of the 
King's German Legion, 2 vols. (1832-1837). 

ALTENA, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Westphalia, on the river Lenne, 38 m. S.S.E. from Dortmund. 
Pop. (1900) 12,769. It consists of a single street, winding up a 
deep valley for about 3 m. There are three churches, a 
museum, high grade and popular schools. Its hardware in- 
dustries are important, and embrace iron rolling, the manufacture 
of fine wire, needles, springs and silver ornaments. On the 
neighbouring Schlossberg is the ancestral castle of the counts of 
La Marck, ancestors, on the female side, of the Prussian royal 
house. 

ALTENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of 
Saxe-Altenburg, situated near the river Pleisse, 23 m. S. of 
Leipzig, and at the junction of the Saxon state railways Leipzig- 
Hof and Altenburg-Zeitz. Pop. (1905) 38,811. The town from 
its hilly position is irregularly built, but many of its streets are 
wide, and contain a number of large and beautiful buildings. 
Its ancient castle is picturesquely situated on a lofty porphyry 
rock, and is memorable as the place from which, in 1455, Kunz 
von Kaufungen carried off the young princes Albert and Ernest, 
the founders of the present royal and ducal families of Saxony. 
Its beautiful picture gallery, containing portraits of several of 
the famous princes of the house of Wettin, was almost totally 
destroyed by fire in January 1905. Altenburg is the seat of 
the higher courts of the Saxon duchies, and possesses a cathedral 
and several churches, schools, a library, a gallery of pictures 
and a school of art, an infirmary and various learned societies. 
There is also a museum, with natural history, archaeological, 
and art collections, and among other buildings may be mentioned 
St Bartholomew's church (1089), the-town hall (1562-1564), a 
lunatic asylum, teachers' seminary and an agricultural academy. 
There is considerable traffic in grain and cattle brought from the 
surrounding districts; and twice a year there are large horse fairs. 
Cigars, woollen goods, gloves, hats and porcelain are among the 
chief manufactures. There are lignite mines in the vicinity. 

ALTENSTEIN, a castle upon a rocky mountain in Saxe- 
Meiningen, on the south-western slope of the Thiiringerwald, 
not far from Eisenach. It is the summer residence of the 
dukes of Meiningen, and is surrounded by a noble park, which 
contains, among other objects of interest, a remarkable under- 
ground cavern, 500 ft. long, through which flows a large and rapid 
stream. Boniface, the apostle of the Germans, lived and preached 
at Altenstein in 724; and near by is the place where, in 1521, 
Luther was seized, by the order of the elector Frederick the 
Wise, to be carried off to the Wartburg. An old beech called 
" Luther's tree," which tradition connected with the reformer, 
was blown down in 1841, and a small monument now stands in 
its place. 

ALTERNATION (from Lat. alternare, to do by turns), 
strictly, the process of " alternating," i.e. of two things following 
one another regularly by turns, as night alternates with day. 
A somewhat different sense is attached to some usages of the 
derivatives. Thus, in American political representative bodies 
and in the case of company directors, a substitute is sometimes 
called an " alternate." An " alternative " is that which is 
offered as a choice of two things, the acceptance of the one 
implying the rejection of the other. It is incorrect to speak 
of more than two alternatives, though Mr Gladstone wrote in 
1857 of a fourth (Oxf. Essays, 26). When there is only one 
course open there is said to be no alternative. 



7 6 4 



ALTHAEA ALTONA 



ALTHAEA, in classical legend, daughter of Thestius, king 
of Aetolia, wife of Oeneus, king of Calydon, and mother of 
Meleager (?..). 

ALTIN6, JOHANN HEINRICH (1583-1644), German divine, 
was born at Emden,where his father, Menso Alting (1541-1612), 
was minister. Johann studied with great success at the uni- 
versities of Groningen and Herborn. In 1608 he was appointed 
tutor of Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine, at Heidelberg, 
and in 1612 accompanied him to England. Returning in 1613 to 
Heidelberg, after the marriage of the elector with Princess 
Elizabeth of England, he was appointed professor of dogmatics, 
and in 1616 director of the theological department in the Col- 
legium Sapientiae. In 1618, along with Abraham Scultetus, he 
represented the university in the synod of Dort. When Count 
Tilly took the city of Heidelberg (1622) and handed it over to 
plunder, Alting found great difficulty in escaping the fury of the 
soldiers. He first retired to Schorndorf; but, offended by the 
" semi-Pelagianism " of the Lutherans with whom he was brought 
in contact, he .removed to Holland, where the unfortunate 
elector and " Winter King " Frederick, in exile after his brief 
reign in Bohemia, made him tutor to his eldest son. In 1627 
Alting was appointed to the chair of theology at Groningen, 
where he continued to lecture, with increasing reputation, until 
his death in 1644. Though an orthodox Calvinist, Alting laid 
little stress on the sterner side of his creed and, when at Dort he 
opposed the Remonstrants, he did so mainly on the ground that 
they were "innovators." Among his works are: Notae in 
Decadem Problematum Jacobi Behm (Heidelberg, 1618); Scripta 
Theologica Heiddbergensia (Amst., 1662); Exegesis Augustanae 
Confessionis (Amst., 1647). 

ALTINUM (mod. Altino), an ancient town of Venetia, 12 m. 
S.E. of Tarvisium (Treviso), on the edge of the lagoons. It was 
probably only a small fishing village until it became the point of 
junction of the Via Postumia and the Via Popillia (see AQUILEIA). 
At the end of the republic it was a municipium. Augustus and 
his successors brought it into further importance as a point on 
the route between Italy and the north-eastern portions of the 
empire. After the foundation of the naval station at Ravenna, 
it became the practice to take ship from there to Altinum, instead 
of following the Via Popillia round the coast, and thence to 
continue the journey by land. A new road, the Via Claudia 
Augusta, was constructed by the emperor Claudius from Altinum 
to the Danube, a distance of 350 m., apparently by way of the 
Lake of Constance. The place thus became of considerable 
strategic and commercial importance, and the comparatively 
mild climate (considering its northerly situation) led to the 
erection of villas which Martial (Epigr. iv. 25) compares with 
those of Baiae. It was destroyed by Attila in A.D. 452, and its 
inhabitants took refuge in the islands of the lagoons, forming 
settlements from which Venice eventually sprang. 

ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high), height or 
eminence, and particularly the height above the ground or above 
sea-level. In geometry, the altitude of a triangle is the length 
of the perpendicular from the vertex to the base. In astronomy, 
the altitude of a heavenly body is the apparent angular elevation 
of the body above the plane of the horizon (see ASTRONOMY: 
Spherical). Apparent altitude is the value which is directly 
observed; true altitude is deduced by correcting for astronomical 
refraction and dip of the horizon; geocentric altitude by correcting 
for parallax. 

ALTMUHL, a river of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria. 
It is an important left bank tributary of the Danube, rising in the 
Franconian plateau (Frankische Terrasse), and after a tortuous 
course of 116 m., at times flowing through meadows and again 
in weird romantic gorges, joins the Danube at Kelheim. From 
its mouth it is navigable up to Dietfurt (18 m.), whence the 
Ludwigscanal (100 m. long) proceeds to Bamberg on the 
Regnitz, thus establishing communication between the Danube 
and the Rhine. 

ALTO (Ital. for " high "), a musical term applied to the highest 
adult male voice or counter-tenor, and to the lower boy's or 
woman's (contralto) voice. 



ALTON, a market-town in the Fareham parliamentary division 
of Hampshire, England, 46^ m. S.W. of London by the London 
& South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5479. 
It has a pleasant undulating site near the headwaters of the river 
Wey. Of the church of St Lawrence part, including the tower, 
is Norman; the building was the scene of a fierce conflict between 
the royalist and parliamentary troops in 1643. There is a 
museum of natural history; the collection is reminiscent of the 
famous naturalist Gilbert White, of Selborne in this vicinity. 
Large markets and fairs are held for corn, hops, cattle and sheep; 
and the town contains some highly reputed ale breweries, besides 
paper mills and iron foundries. 

ALTON, a city of Madison county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the 
W. part of the state, on the Mississippi river, about 10 m. above 
the mouth of the Missouri, and about 25 m. N. of St Louis, 
Missouri. Pop. (1890) 10,294; (1900) 14,210, of whom 1638 
were foreign-born; (1910) 17,528. Alton is served by the 
Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis, the Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Illinois Terminal 
railways. The river is here spanned by a bridge. The residential 
portion of the city lies on the river bluffs, some of which rise to 
a height of 250 ft. above the water level, and the business streets 
are on the bottom lands of the river. Alton has a public library 
and a public park. Upper Alton (pop. 2918 in 1910), about 
15 m. N.E. of Alton, is the seat of the Western Military Academy 
(founded in 1879 as Wyman Institute; chartered in 1892), and 
of Shurtleff College (Baptist, founded in 1827 at Rock Spring, 
removed to Upper Alton in 1831, and chartered in 1833), which 
has a college of liberal arts, a divinity school, an academy and a 
school of music; and the village of Godfrey, 55 m. N. of Alton, 
is the seat of the Monticello Ladies' Seminary, founded by 
Benjamin Godfrey, opened in 1838, and chartered in 1841. 
Among the manufactures of Alton are iron and glass ware, 
miners' tools, shovels, coal-mine cars, flour, and agricultural 
implements; and there are a large oil refinery and a large lead 
smelter. The value of the city's factory products increased 
from $4,250,389 in 1000 to $8,696,814 in 1905, or 104-6 %. 

The first settlement on the site of Alton was made in 1807, 
when a trading post was established by the French. The town 
was laid out in 1817, was first incorporated in 1821, and in 1827 
was made the seat of a state penitentiary, which was later 
removed to Joliet, the last prisoners being transferred in 1860. 
Alton was first chartered as a city in 1837. In 1836 the Rev. 
Elijah P. Lovejoy( 1802-183 7), a native of Albion, Maine, removed 
the Observer, a religious (Presbyterian) periodical of which he 
was the editor, from St Louis to Alton. He had attracted 
considerable attention in St Louis by his criticisms of slavery, 
but though he believed in emancipation, he was not a radical 
abolitionist. After coming to Alton his anti-slavery views soon 
became more radical, and in a few months he was an avowed 
abolitionist. His views were shared by his brother, Owen 
Lovejoy (1811-1864), a Congregational minister, who also at that 
time lived in Alton, and who from 1857 until his death was an 
able anti-slavery member of Congress. Most of the people of 
southern Illinois were in sympathy with slavery, and conse- 
quently the Lovejoys became very unpopular. The press of the 
Observer was three time destroyed, and on the 7th of November 
1837 E. P. Lovejoy was killed while attempting to defend against 
a mob a fourth press which he had recently obtained and which 
was stored in a warehouse in Alton. His death caused intense 
excitement throughout the country, and he was everywhere 
regarded by abolitionists as a martyr to their cause. In 1897 a 
monument, a granite column surmounted by a bronze statue of 
Victory, was erected in his honour by the citizens of Alton and by 
the state. 

See Henry Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy (Chicago, 1881), 
and " The Alton Tragedy " in S. J. May s Some Recollections of Our 
Anti-Slavery Conflict (Boston, 1869). 

ALTONA, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe immediately 
west of Hamburg. Though administratively distinct, the two 
cities so closely adjoin as virtually to form one whole. Lying 



ALTOONA ALTRINCHAM 



765 



higher than Hamburg, Altona enjoys a purer and healthier 
atmosphere. It has spacious squares and streets, among the 
latter the Palmaille, a stately avenue ending on a terrace about 
100 ft. above the Elbe, whence a fine view is obtained of the 
river and the lowlands beyond. Of the six Evangelical churches, 
the Hauptkirche (parish church), with a lofty steeple, is note- 
worthy. The main thoroughfares are embellished by several 
striking monuments, notably the memorials of the wars of 
1864 and 1870, bronze statues of the emperor William I. and 
Bismarck and the column of Victory (Siegessaule) . The museum 
(1001) is an imposing building in the German Renaissance style 
and contains, in addition to .a valuable library, ethnographical 
and natural history collections. Its site is that formerly occupied 
by the terminus of the Schleswig-Holstein railways, but a hand- 
some central station lying somewhat farther to the N., connected 
with Hamburg by an elevated railway, now accommodates all 
the traffic and provides through communication with the main 
Prussian railway systems. There are also fine municipal and 
judicial buildings, a theatre (under the same management as 
the Stadttheater in Hamburg), a gymnasium, technical schools, 
a school of navigation and a hospital. In respect of its local 
industries Altona has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, of 
machinery, woollens, cottons and chemicals. There are also 
extensive breweries, tanneries and soap and oil works. Altona 
carries on an extensive maritime trade with Great Britain, 
France and America, but it has by no means succeeded in 
depriving Hamburg of its commercial superiority indeed, so 
dependent is it upon its rival that most of its business is trans- 
acted on the Hamburg exchange, while the magnificent ware- 
houses on the Altona river bank are to a large extent occupied 
by the goods of Hamburg merchants. Since 1888, when Altona 
joined the imperial Zollverein, approximately half a million 
sterling has been spent upon harbour improvement works. 
The exports and imports resemble those of Hamburg. In the 
ten years 1871-1880, the port was entered on an average annually 
by 737 vessels of 67,735 tons, in 1881-1890 by 608 vessels of 
154,713 tons, and in 1891-1898 by 839 vessels of 253,384 tons. 

In 1890 the populous suburbs of Ottensen to the W., where 
the poet Gottlieb Klopstock lies buried, Bahrenfeld, Othmarschen 
and Ovelgonne were incorporated. Without these suburbs the 
growth of the town may be seen from the following figures: 
(1864, when it ceased to be Danish) 53,039; (1880) 91,049; 
(1885) 104,717; (1890) together with the four suburbs, 143,249; 
(1895) 148,944; (1900) 161,508; (1905) 168,301. Altona is the 
headquarters of the IX. German army corps. 

The name Altona is said to be derived from allzu-nah (" all 
too near"); the Hamburgers' designation for an inn which in 
the middle of the i6th century lay too close to their territory. 
For a long time this was the only house in the locality. When in 
1640 Altona passed to Denmark it was a small fishing village. 
Its rise to its present position is mainly due to the fostering care 
of the Danish kings who conferred certain customs privileges 
and exemptions upon it with a view to making it a formidable 
rival to Hamburg. In 1713 it was burnt by the Swedes, but 
rapidly recovered from this disaster, and despite the trials of 
the Napoleonic wars, gradually increased in prosperity. In 1853, 
owing to the withdrawal by Denmark of its customs privileges, 
its trade waned. In 1864 Altona was occupied in the name 
of the German Confederation, passed to Prussia after the 
war of 1866, and 1888 together with Hamburg joined the 
Zollverein, while retaining certain free trade rights over the 
Freihafengebiet which it shares with Hamburg and Wandsbek. 

See Wichmann, Geschichte Altonas (2 vols., Alt., 1896) ; Ehrenberg 
& Stahl, Altonas topographische Entwickelung (Alt., 1894). 

ALTOONA, a city of Blair county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 
about 117 m. E. by N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 30,337; (1900) 
38,973, of whom 3301 were foreign-born, 1518 being German; 
(1910) 52,127. It lies in the upper end of Logan Valley 
at the base of the Alleghany mountains, about 1180 ft. 
above sea-level, and commands views of some of the most 
picturesque mountain scenery in the state. A short distance to 
the W. is the famous Horseshoe Bend of the Pennsylvania 



railway. Altoona is served by the Pennsylvania railway, and 
is one of the leading railway cities in the United States. Its 
freight yard is 7 m. long, and has 221 m. of tracks. Large 
numbers of eastbound coal trains from the mountains and 
westbound " empties " returning to the mines stop here; and 
the cars of these trains are classified here and new trains made 
up. Locomotives and cars are sent to Altoona to be repaired 
from all over the Pennsylvania railway system E. of Pittsburg, 
and cars and locomotives are built here; and in the south 
Altoona foundries car wheels and general castings for locomotives 
and cars are made. The several departments of railway work 
are used to give training in a sort of railway university. Gradu- 
ates of technical schools are received as special apprentices and 
are directed in a course of four years through the erecting shops, 
vice shop, blacksmith shop, boiler shop, roundhouse, test depart- 
ment, machine shop, air-brake shop, iron foundry, car shop, 
work of firing on the road, office work in the motive power 
accounting department, and drawing room; the most competent 
may be admitted through the grades of inspector, in the office of 
the master mechanic or of the road foreman of engines, assistant 
master mechanic, assistant engineer of motive power, master 
mechanic and superintendent of motive power. The Pennsyl- 
vania railway, co-operating with the public school authorities, 
established at Altoona, in 1007, a railway high school, the first 
institution of the kind in the country. It has a well-equipped 
drawing room, carpenter shop, forging room, foundry, science 
laboratories and machinery department, in which expert in- 
struction is given. In 1905 the city's factory products were 
valued at $14,349,963, and in this year the railway shops gave 
employment to 83-7 % of all wage-earners employed in manu- 
facturing establishments. The manufacture of silk is the only 
other important industry in the city. The site of the city 
(formerly farming land) was purchased in 1849 by the Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad Company and was laid out as a town. It was 
incorporated as a borough in 1854 and was chartered as a city 
in 1868. 

ALTO-RELIEVO (Ital. for " high relief "), the term applied 
to sculpture that projects from the plane to which it is attached 
to the extent of more than one-half the outline of the principal 
figures, which may be nearly or in parts entirely detached from 
the background. It is thus distinguished from basso-relievo 
(q.v.), in which there is a greater or less approximation in effect 
to the pictorial method, the figures being made to appear as 
projecting more than half their outline without actually doing 
so. At the same time it is not only the actual degree of relief 
which is implied by these two terms, but a resultant difference 
also of design and treatment necessitated by the contingent 
differences of light and shadow. (See RELIEF and SCULPTURE.) 

ALTOTTING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, 
on the Morren, not far from its junction with the Inn, and on 
the Miihldorf-Burghausen railway. Pop. (1900) 4344. It has 
long been a place of pilgrimage to which Roman Catholics, 
especially from Austria, Bavaria and Swabia resort in large 
numbers, on account of a celebrated image of the Virgin Mary in 
the Holy Chapel, which also contains the hearts of some Bavarian 
princes in silver caskets. In the church of St Peter and St Paul 
is the tomb of Tilly. 

ALTRANSTADT, a village of Germany, in Prussian Saxony 
near Merseburg (q.v.), with (1900) 813 inhabitants. Altranstadt 
is famous in history for two treaties concluded here: (i) the 
peace which Augustus II., king of Poland and elector of Saxony, 
was forced to ratify, on the 24th of September 1706, with Charles 
XII. of Sweden, whereby the former renounced the throne of 
Poland in favour of Stanislaus Leszczynski a treaty which 
Augustus declared null and void after Charles XII. 's defeat at 
Poltava (8th of July 1709); (2) the treaty of the 3ist of August 
1707, by which the emperor Joseph I. guaranteed to Charles 
XII. religious tolerance and liberty of conscience for the Silesian 
protestants. 

ALTRINCHAM, or ALTRINGHAM (and so pronounced), a 
market-town in the Altrincham parliamentary division of 
Cheshire, England, 8 m. S.W. by S. of Manchester, on the London 



y66 



ALTRUISM ALUM 



& North-Western, Manchester, South Junction & Altrincham 
and Cheshire Lines railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 
16,831. Many residences in the locality are occupied by those 
whose business lies in Manchester, who are attracted by the 
healthy climate and the vicinity of Bowdon Downs and Dunham 
Massey Woods. Market gardening is carried on, large quantities 
of fruit and flowers being grown for sale in Manchester. 
Cabinet-making is also practised; and there are sawmills, iron 
foundries, and manufactures of cotton, yarn and worsted. 

Altrincham ( Aldringham) was originally included in the barony 
of Dunham Massey, one of the eight baronies founded by Hugh, 
earl of Chester, after the Conquest. An undated charter from 
Hamo de Massey, lord of the barony, in the reign of Edward I., 
constituted Altrincham a free borough, with a gild merchant, 
the customs of Macclesfield, the right to elect reeves and bailiffs 
for the common council and other privileges. In 1290 the same 
Hamo obtained a grant of a Tuesday market and a three days' 
fair at the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin; but in 1319, by 
a charter from Edward II., the date of the fair was changed to the 
feast of St James the Apostle. A mayor of Altrincham is 
mentioned by name in 1452, but the office probably existed long 
before this date; it has now for centuries been a purely nominal 
appointment, the chief duty consisting in the opening of the 
annual fairs. The trade in worsted and woollen yarns, which 
formerly furnished employment to a large section of the popula- 
tion, has now completely declined, partly owing to the introduc- 
tion of Irish worsted. 

See Victoria County History, Cheshire; Alfred Ingham, History 
of Altrincham and Bowdon (Altrincham, 1879). 

ALTRUISM (Fr. autrui, from Lat. alter, the other of two), a 
philosophical term used in ethics for that theory of conduct 
which regards the good of others as the end of moral action. It 
was invented by Auguste Comte and adopted. by the English 
positivists as a convenient antithesis to egoism. According to 
Comte the only practical method of social regeneration is gradually 
to inculcate the true social feeling which subordinates itself to the 
welfare of others. The application to sociological problems of 
the physical theory of organic evolution further developed the 
altruistic theory. According to Herbert Spencer, the life of the 
individual in the perfect society is identical with that of the state: 
in other words, the first object of him who would live well must 
be to take his part in promoting the well-being of his fellows 
individually and collectively. Pure egoism and pure altruism 
are alike impracticable. For on the one hand unless the egoist's 
happiness is compatible to some extent with that of his fellows, 
their opposition will almost inevitably vitiate his perfect enjoy- 
ment; on the other hand, the altruist whose primary object is the 
good of others, must derive his own highest happiness i.e. 
must realize himself most completely in the fulfilment of this 
object. In fact, the altruistic idea, in itself and apart from a 
further definition of the good, is rather a method than an end. 

The self-love theory of Hobbes, with its subtle perversions of 
the motives of ordinary humanity, led to a reaction which 
culminated in the utilitarianism of Bentham and the two Mills; 
but their theory, though superior to the extravagant egoism of 
Hobbes,' had this main defect, according to Herbert Spencer, 
that it conceived the world as an aggregate of units, and was so 
far individualistic. Sir Leslie Stephen in his Science of Ethics 
insisted that the unit is the social organism, and therefore that 
the aim of moralists is not the " greatest happiness of the greatest 
number," but rather the " health of the organism." The 
socialistic tendencies of subsequent thinkers have emphasized 
the ethical importance of altruistic action, but it must be re- 
membered always that it is ultimately only a form of action, 
that it may be commended in all types of ethical theory, and that 
it is a practical guide only when it is applied in accordance with 
a definite theory of "the good." Finally, he who devotes himself 
on principle to furthering the good of others as his highest moral 
obligation is from the highest point of view realizing, not sacri- 
ficing, himself. 

See works of Comte, Spencer, Stephen, and text-books of ethics 
(cf. bibliography at end of article ETHICS). 



ALTWASSER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Silesia, 43 m. by rail S.W. from Breslau, and 3 m. N. from 
Waldenburg. It has factories for glass, porcelain, machinery, 
cotton-spinning, iron-foundries and coal-mines. .Pop. (1900) 
12,144. 

ALTYN-TAGH, or ASTYN-TAGH, one of the chief constituent 
ranges of the Kuen-lun (q.v.) in Central Asia, separating Tibet 
from east Turkestan and the Desert of Gobi. 

ALUM, in chemistry, a term given to the crystallized double 
sulphates of the typical formula M 2 SO4-MJ 11 -(SO4) 3 24H 2 O, 
where M is the sign of an alkali metal (potassium, sodium, 
rubidium, caesium), silver or ammonium, and M 111 denotes one 
of the trivalent metals, aluminium, chromium or ferric iron. 
These salts are employed in dyeing and various other industrial 
processes. They are soluble in water, have an astringent, acid, 
and sweetish taste, react acid to litmus, and crystallize in 
regular octahedra. When heated they liquefy; and if the heat- 
ing be continued, the water of crystallization is driven off, the 
salt froths and swells, and at last an amorphous powder remains. 

Potash alum is the common alum of commerce, although both 
soda alum and ammonium alum are manufactured. The 
presence of sulphuric acid in potash alum was known to the 
alchemists. J. H. Pott and A. S. Marggraf demonstrated that 
alumina was another constituent. Pott in his Lithogeognosia 
showed that the precipitate obtained when an alkali is poured 
into a solution of alum is quite different from lime and chalk, 
with which it had been confounded by G. E. Stahl. Marggraf 
showed that alumina is one of the constituents of alum, but 
that this earth possesses peculiar properties, and is one of the 
ingredients in common clay (Experiences faites sttr la terre 
de I'alun, Marggraf 's Opusc. ii. 1 1 1 ) . He also showed that crystals 
of alum cannot be obtained by dissolving alumina in sulphuric 
acid and evaporating the solutions, but when a solution of 
potash or ammonia is dropped into this liquid, it immediately 
deposits perfect crystals of alum (Sur la regeneration de I'alun, 
Marggraf 's Opusc. ii. 86). 

T. O. Bergman also observed that the addition of potash or 
ammonia made the solution of alumina in sulphuric acid crystal- 
lize, but that the same effect was not produced by the addition 
of soda or of lime (De confectione aluminus, Bergman's Opusc. 
i. 225), and that potassium sulphate is frequently found in alum. 

After M. H. Klaproth had discovered the presence of potassium 
in leucite and lepidolite, it occurred to L. N. Vauquelin that it 
was probably an ingredient likewise in many other minerals. 
Knowing that alum cannot be obtained in crystals without the 
addition of potash, he began to suspect that this alkali constituted 
an essential ingredient in the salt, and in 1797 he published a 
dissertation demonstrating that alum is a double salt, composed 
of sulphuric acid, alumina and potash (Annales de chimie, xxii. 
258). Soon after, J. A. Chaptal published the analysis of four 
different kinds of alum, namely, Roman alum, Levant alum, 
British alum and alum manufactured by himself. This analysis 
led to the same result as that of Vauquelin (Ann. de chim. 
xxii. 280). 

The word alumen, which we translate alum, occurs in Pliny's 
Natural History. In the i5th chapter of his 35th book he gives 
a detailed description of it. By comparing this with the account 
of oruTrnjpia. given by Dioscorides in the i23rd chapter of his 
5th book, it is obvious that the two are identical. Pliny informs 
us that alumen was found naturally in the earth. He calls it 
salsugoterrae. Different substances were distinguished by the 
name of " alumen"; but they were all characterized by a certain 
degree of astringency, and were all employed in dyeing and 
medicine, the light-coloured alumen being useful in brilliant 
dyes, the dark-coloured only in dyeing black or very dark 
colours. One species was a liquid, which was apt to be adulter- 
ated; but when pure it had the property of blackening when 
added to pomegranate juice. This property seems to characterize 
a solution of iron sulphate in water; a solution of ordinary 
(potash) alum would possess no such property. Pliny says that 
there is another kind of alum which the Greeks call schistos. It 
forms in white threads upon the surface of certain stones. From 



ALUMINIUM 



767 



the name schistos, and the mode of formation, there can be 
little doubt that this species was the salt which forms spontane- 
ously on certain slaty minerals, as alum slate and bituminous 
shale, and which consists chiefly of the sulphates of iron and 
aluminium. Possibly in certain places the iron sulphate may 
have been nearly wanting, and then the salt would be white, 
and would answer, as Pliny says it did, for dyeing bright colours. 
Several other species of alumen are described by Pliny, but we 
are unable to make out to what minerals he alludes. 

The alumen of the ancients, then, was not the same with the 
alum of the moderns. It was most commonly an iron sulphate, 
sometimes probably an aluminium sulphate, and usually a 
mixture of the two. But the ancients were unacquainted with 
our alum. They were acquainted with a crystallized iron 
sulphate, and distinguished it by the names of misy, sory, 
chalcanthum (Pliny xxxiv. 12). As alum and green vitriol were 
applied to a variety of substances in common, and as both are 
distinguished by a sweetish and astringent taste, writers, even 
after the discovery of alum, do not seem to have discriminated 
the two salts accurately from each other. In the writings of 
the alchemists we find the words misy, sory, chalcanthum applied 
to alum as well as to iron sulphate; and the name atramentum 
sutorium, which ought to belong, one would suppose, exclusively 
to green vitriol, applied indifferently to both. Various minerals 
are employed in the manufacture 
of alum, the most important being 
alunite (q.v.) or alum-stone, alum 
schist, bauxite and cryolite. 

In order to obtain alum from 
alunite, it is calcined and then 
exposed to the action of air for 
a considerable time. During this 
exposure it is kept continually 
moistened with water, so that it 
ultimately falls to a very fine 
powder. This powder is then 
lixiviated with hot water, the 
liquor decanted, and the alum 

allowed to crystallize. The alum schists employed in the manu- 
facture of alum are mixtures of iron pyrites, aluminium silicate 
and various bituminous substances, and are found in upper 
Bavaria, Bohemia, Belgium and Scotland. These are either roasted 
or exposed to the weathering action of the air. In the roasting 
process, sulphuric acid is formed and acts on the clay to form 
aluminium sulphate, a similar condition of affairs being produced 
during weathering. The mass is now systematically extracted 
with water, and a solution of aluminium sulphate of specific 
gravity 1-16 is prepared. This solution is allowed to stand for 
some time (in order that any calcium sulphate and basic ferric 
sulphate may separate), and is then evaporated until ferrous 
sulphate crystallizes on cooling; it is then drawn off and 
evaporated until it attains a specific gravity of 1-40. It is now 
allowed to stand for some time, decanted from any sediment, 
and finally mixed with the calculated quantity of potassium 
sulphate (or if ammonium alum is required, with ammonium 
sulphate), well agitated, and the alum is thrown down as a 
finely-divided precipitate of alum meal. If much iron should 
be present in the shale then it is preferable to use potassium 
chloride in place of potassium sulphate. 

In the preparation of alum from clays or from bauxite, the 
material is gently calcined, then mixed with sulphuric acid and 
heated gradually to boiling; it is allowed to stand for some 
time, the clear solution drawn off and mixed with acid potassium 
sulphate and allowed to crystallize. When cryolite is used for 
the preparation of alum, it is mixed with calcium carbonate 
and heated. By this means, sodium aluminate is formed; it 
is then extracted with water and precipitated either by sodium 
bicarbonate or by passing a current of carbon dioxide through 
the solution. The precipitate is then dissolved in sulphuric 
acid, the requisite amount of potassium sulphate added and 
the solution allowed to crystallize. 

Potash alum, K2SO4-Al2(SO4)3-24H 2 0, crystallizes in regular 



octahedra and is very soluble in water. The solution reddens 
litmus and is an astringent. When heated to nearly a red heat 
it gives a porous friable mass which is known as " burnt alum." 
It fuses at 92 C. in its own water of crystallization. " Neutral 
alum " is obtained by the addition of as much sodium carbonate 
to a solution of alum as will begin to cause the separation of 
alumina; it is much used in mordanting. Alum finds application 
as a mordant, in the preparation of lakes for sizing hand-made 
paper and in the clarifying of turbid liquids. 

Sodium alum, Na2SCvAl2(SO4)3-24H.2O, occurs in nature as 
the mineral mendozite. It is very soluble in water, and is 
extremely difficult to purify. In the preparation of this salt, it 
is preferable to mix the component solutions in the cold, and to 
evaporate them at a temperature not exceeding 60 C. 100 
parts of water dissolve no parts of sodium alum at o C. (W. A. 
Tilden, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1884, 45, p. 409), and 51 parts at 
16 C. (E. Auge, Comptes rendus, 1800, no, p. 1139). 

Chrome alum, K^SCVC^SC^s^H^O, appears chiefly as a 
by-product in the manufacture of alizarin, and as a product of 
the reaction in bichromate batteries. 

The solubility of the various alums in water varies greatly, 
sodium alum being readily soluble in water, whilst caesium and 
rubidium alums are only sparingly soluble. The various solu- 
bilities are shown in the following table: 



Ammonium Alum. 


Caesium Alum. 


Potash Alum. 


Rubidium Alum. 


tC. 


100 parts water 
dissolve. 


tC. 


100 parts water 
dissolve. 


tC. 


100 parts water 
dissolve. 


tC. 


100 parts water 
dissolve. 


o 
10 
50 
80 

IOO 


2-62 
4'5 
15-9 

35-2 
70-83 


o 
10 

5 
80 


0-19 
0-29 
1-235 
5-29 


10 

10 

50 
80 

IOO 


3'9 
9-52 
44-11 

134-47 

357-48 


o 
10 

5 
80 


0-71 
1-09 
4-98 
21-60 


Poggiale 
Ann. Chim. phys. 
[3] 8, p. 467. 


C. Setterberg 
Ann. 1882, 211, p. 104. 


Poggiale 


C. Setterberg 



ALUMINIUM (symbol Al; atomic weight 27-0), a metallic 
chemical element. Although never met with in the free state, 
aluminium is very widely distributed in combination, principally 
as silicates. The word is derived from the Lat. alumen (see 
ALUM), and is probably akin to the Gr. aXs (the root of salt, 
halogen, &c.). In 1722 F. Hoffmann announced the base of alum 
to be an individual substance; L. B. Guyton de Morveau sug- 
gested that this base should be called alumine, after Sel alumineux, 
the French name for alum; and about 1820 the word was changed 
into alumina. In 1760 the French chemist, T. Baron de Henou- 
ville, unsuccessfully attempted " to reduce the base of alum " 
to a metal, and shortly afterwards various other investigators 
essayed the problem in vain. In 1808 Sir Humphry DaVy, 
fresh from the electrolytic isolation of potassium and sodium, 
attempted to decompose alumina by heating it with potash 
in a platinum crucible and submitting the mixture to a current 
of electricity; in 1809, with a more powerful battery, he raised 
iron wire to a red heat in contact with alumina, and obtained 
distinct evidence of the production of an iron-aluminium alloy. 
Naming the new metal in anticipation of its actual birth, he 
called it alumium; but for the sake of analogy he was soon 
persuaded to change the word to aluminum, in which form, 
alternately with aluminium, it occurs in chemical literature 
for some thirty years. 

In the year 1824, endeavouring to prepare it by chemical means, 
H. C. Oersted heated its chloride with potassium amalgam, 
and failed in his object simply by reason of the mercury, 
so that when F. Wohler repeated the experiment at tlo * a ' 
Gottingen in 1827, employing potassium alone as the 
reducing agent, he obtained it in the metallic state for the first 
time. Contaminated as it was with potassium and with platinum 
from the crucible, the metal formed a grey powder and was far 
from pure; but in 1845 he improved his process and succeeded 
in producing metallic globules wherewith he examined its chief 



768 



ALUMINIUM 



properties, and prepared several compounds hitherto unknown. 
Early in 1854, H. St Claire Deville, accidentally and in ignorance 
of Wohler's later results, imitated the 1845 experiment. At once 
observing the reduction of the chloride, he realized the importance 
of his discovery and immediately began to study the commercial 
production of the metal. His attention was at first divided 
between two processes the chemical method of reducing the 
chloride with potassium, and an electrolytic method of decom- 
posing it with a carbon anode and a platinum cathode, which 
was simultaneously imagined by himself and R. Bunsen. Both 
schemes appeared practically impossible; potassium cost about 
17 per Ib, gave a very small yield and was dangerous to mani- 
pulate, while on the other hand, the only source of electric current 
then available was the primary battery, and zinc as a store of 
industrial energy was utterly out of the question. Deville 
accordingly returned to pure chemistry and invented a practicable 
method of preparing sodium which, having a lower atomic weight 
than potassium, reduced a larger proportion. He next devised a 
plan for manufacturing pure alumina from the natural ores, and 
finally elaborated a process and plant which held the field for 
almost thirty years. Only the discovery of dynamo-electric 
machines and their application to metallurgical processes rendered 
it possible for E. H. and A. H. Cowles to remove the industry from 
the hands of chemists, till the time when P. T. L. Heroult and 
C. M. Hall, by devising the electrolytic method now in use, 
inaugurated the present era of industrial electrolysis. 

The chief natural compounds of aluminium are four in number: 
oxide, hydroxide (hydrated oxide), silicate and fluoride. Corun- 
Ons. dum, the only important native oxide (A1 2 O 3 ), occurs 
in large deposits in southern India and the United 
States. Although it contains a higher percentage of metal 
(5 2 '9 %) than any other natural compound, it is not at present 
employed as an ore, not only because it is so hard as to be crushed 
with difficulty, but also because its very hardness makes it 
valuable as an abrasive. Cryolite (AlFrSNaF) is a double 
fluoride of aluminium and sodium, which is scarcely known 
except on the west coast of Greenland. Formerly it was used 
for the preparation of the metal, but the inaccessibility of its 
source, and the fact that it is not sufficiently pure to be employed 
without some preliminary treatment, caused it to be abandoned 
in favour of other salts. When required in the Heroult-Hall 
process as a solvent, it is sometimes made artificially. Aluminium 
silicate is the chemical body of which all clays are nominally 
composed. Kaolin or China clay is essentially a pure disilicate 
(AljOj-2SiO2-2H 2 O), occurring in large beds almost throughout 
the world, and containing in its anhydrous state 24-4% of the 
metal, which, however, in common clays is more or less replaced 
by calcium, magnesium, and the alkalis, the proportion of silica 
sometimes reaching 70 %. Kaolin thus seems to be the best 
ore, and it would undoubtedly be used were it not for the fatal 
objection that no satisfactory process has yet been discovered 
for preparing pure alumina from any mineral silicate. If, 
according to the present method of winning the metal, a bath 
containing silica as well as alumina is submitted to electrolysis, 
both oxides are dissociated, and as silicon is a very undesirable 
impurity, an alumina contaminated with silica is not suited for 
reduction. Bauxite is a hydrated oxide of aluminium of the ideal 
composition, AUCVzHjO. It is a somewhat widely distributed 
mineral, being met with in Styria, Austria, Hesse, French Guiana, 
India and Italy; but the most important beds are in the south 
of France, the north of Ireland, and in Alabama, Georgia and 
Arkansas in North America. The chief Irish deposits are in 
the neighbourhood of Glenravel, Co. Antrim, and have the 
advantage of being near the coast, so that the alumina can be 
transported by water-carriage. After being dried at 100 C., 
Antrim bauxite contains from 33 to 60 % of alumina, from 2 to 
30% of ferric oxide, and from 7 to 24% of silica, the balance 
being titanic acid and water of combination. The American 
bauxites contain from 38 to 67 % of alumina, from i to 23 % 
of ferric oxide, and from i to 32 % of silica. The French bauxites 
are of fairly constant composition, containing usually from 58 
to 70 % of alumina, 3 to 15 % of foreign matter, and 27 % made 



up of silica, iron oxide and water in proportions that vary with 
the colour and the situation of the beds. 

Before the application of electricity, only two compounds were 
found suitable for reduction to the metallic state. Alumina 
itself is so refractory that it cannot be melted save by the oxy- 
hydrogen blowpipe or the electric arc, and except in the 
molten state it is not susceptible of decomposition by any chemical 
reagent. Deville first selected the chloride as his raw material, 
but observing it to be volatile and extremely deliquescent, 
he soon substituted in its place a double chloride of aluminium 
and sodium. Early in 1855 John Percy suggested that cryolite 
should be more convenient, as it was a natural mineral and 
might not require purification, and at the end of March in that 
year, Faraday exhibited before the Royal Institution samples of 
the metal reduced from its fluoride by Dick and Smith. H. Rose 
also carried out experiments on the decomposition of cryolite, 
and expressed an opinion that it was the best of all compounds 
for reduction; but, finding the yield of metal to be low, receiving 
a report of the difficulties experienced in mining the ore, and 
fearing to cripple his new industry by basing it upon the employ- 
ment of a mineral of such uncertain supply, Deville decided 
to keep to his chlorides. With the advent of the dynamo, the 
position of affairs was wholly changed. The first successful 
idea of using electricity depended on the enormous heating powers 
of the arc. The infusibility of alumina was no longer prohibitive, 
for the molten oxide is easily reduced by carbon. Nevertheless, 
it was found impracticable to smelt alumina electrically except 
in presence of copper, so that the Cowles furnace yielded, not the 
pure metal, but an alloy. So long as the metal was principally 
regarded as a necessary ingredient of aluminium-bronze, the 
Cowles process was popular, but when the advantages of alu- 
minium itself became more apparent, there arose a fresh demand 
for some chief method of obtaining it unalloyed. It was soon 
discovered that the faculty of inducing dissociation possessed 
by the current might now be utilized with some hope of pecuniary 
success, but as electrolytic currents are of lower voltage than 
those required in electric furnaces, molten alumina again became 
impossible. Many metals, of which copper, silver and nickel 
are types, can be readily won or purified by the electrolysis of 
aqueous solutions, and theoretically it may be feasible to treat 
aluminium in an identical manner. In practice, however, it 
cannot be thrown down electrolytically with a dissimilar anode 
so as to win the metal, and certain difficulties are still met with 
in the analogous operation of plating by means of a similar 
anode. Of the simple compounds, only the fluoride is amenable 
to electrolysis in the fused state, since the chloride begins to 
volatilize below its melting-point, and the latter is only 5 below 
its boiling-point. Cryolite is not a safe body to electrolyse, 
because the minimum voltage needed to break up the aluminium 
fluoride is 4-0, whereas the sodium fluoride requires only 4-7 volts; 
if, therefore, the current rises in tension, the alkali is reduced, 
and the final product consists of an alloy with sodium. The 
corresponding double chloride is a far better material; first, 
because it melts at about 180 C., and does not volatilize below 
a red heat, and second, because the voltage of aluminium chloride 
is 2-3 and that of sodium chloride 4-3, so that there is a much 
wider margin of safety to cover irregularities in the electric 
pressure. It has been found, however, that molten cryolite 
and the analogous double fluoride represented by the formula 
Al 2 F 6 -2NaF are very efficient solvents of alumina, and that these 
solutions can be easily electrolysed at about 800 C. by means 
of a current that completely decomposes the oxide but leaves 
the haloid salts unaffected. Molten cryolite dissolves roughly 
30 % of its weight of pure alumina, so that when ready for treat- 
ment the solution contains about the same proportion of what 
may be termed " available " aluminium as does the fused 
double chloride of aluminium and sodium. The advantages lie 
with the oxide because of its easier preparation. Alumina 
dissolves readily enough in aqueous hydrochloric acid to yield 
a solution of the chloride, but neither this solution, nor that 
containing sodium chloride, can be evaporated to dryness 
without decomposition. To obtain the anhydrous single or 



ALUMINIUM 



769 



double chloride, alumina must be ignited with carbon in a 
current of chlorine, and to exclude iron from the finished metal, 
either the alumina must be pure or the chloride be submitted 
to purification. This preparation of a chlorine compound 
suited for electrolysis becomes more costly and more troublesome 
than that of the oxide, and in addition four times as much raw 
material must be handled. 

At different times propositions have been made to win the 
metal from its sulphide. This compound possesses a heat of 
formation so much lower that electrically it needs but a voltage 
of 0-9 to decompose it, and it is easily soluble in the fused 
sulphides of the alkali metals. It can also be reduced metal- 
lurgically by the action of molten iron. Various considerations, 
however, tend to show that there cannot be so much advantage 
in employing it as would appear at first sight. As it is easier to 
reduce than any other compound, so it is more difficult to produce. 
Therefore while less energy is absorbed in its final reduction, 
more is needed in its initial preparation, and it is questionable 
whether the economy possible in the second stage would not be 
neutralized by the greater cost of the first stage in the whole 
operation of winning the metal from bauxite with the sulphide as 
the intermediary. 

The Deville process as gradually elaborated between 1855 and 
1859 exhibited three distinct phases: Production of metallic 
sodium, formation of the pure double chloride of sodium 
reduction. an< ^ aluminium,and preparation of the metal by the inter- 
action of the two former substances. To produce the 
alkali metal, a calcined mixture of sodium carbonate, coal and 
chalk was strongly ignited in flat retorts made of boiler-plate; 
the sodium distilled over into condensers and was preserved 
under heavy petroleum. In order to prepare pure alumina, 
bauxite and sodium carbonate were heated in a furnace until the 
reaction was complete; the product was then extracted with 
water to dissolve the sodium aluminate, the solution treated 
with carbon dioxide, and the precipitate removed and dried. 
This purified oxide, mixed with sodium chloride and coal tar, 
was carbonized at a red heat, and ignited in a current of dry 
chlorine as long as vapours of the double chloride were given off, 
these being condensed in suitable chambers. For the production 
of the final aluminium, 100 parts of the chloride and 45 parts of 
cryolite to serve as a flux were powdered together and mixed 
with 35 parts of sodium cut into small pieces. The whole was 
thrown in several portions on to the hearth of a furnace previously 
heated to low redness and was stirred at intervals for three hours. 
At length when the furnace was tapped a white slag was drawn 
off from the top, and the liquid metal beneath was received into a 
ladle and poured into cast-iron moulds. The process was worked 
out by Deville in his laboratory at the Ecole Normale in Paris. 
Early in 1855 he conducted large-scale experiments at Javel in 
a factory lent him for the purpose, where he produced sufficient 
to show at the French Exhibition of 1855. In the spring of 
1856 a complete plant was erected at La Glaciere, a suburb 
of Paris, but becoming a nuisance to the neighbours, it was 
removed to Nanterre in the following year. Later it was again 
transferred to Salindres, where the manufacture was continued 
by Messrs. Pechiney till the advent of the present electrolytic 
process rendered it no longer profitable. 

When Deville quitted the Javel works, two brothers C. and A. 
Tissier, formerly his assistants, who had devised an improved 
sodium furnace and had acquired a thorough knowledge of their 
leader's experiments, also left, and erected a factory at Amf reville, 
near Rouen, to work the cryolite process. It consisted simply in 
reducing cryolite with metallic sodium exactly as in Deville's 
chloride method, and it was claimed to possess various mythical 
advantages over its rival. Two grave disadvantages were soon 
obvious the limited supply of ore, and, what was even more 
serious, the large proportion of silicon in the reduced metal. 
The Amfreville works existed some eight or ten years, but 
achieved no permanent prosperity. In 1858 or 1859 a small 
factory, the first in England, was built by F. W. Gerhard at 
Battersea, who also employed cryolite, made his own sodium,, and 
was able to sell the product at 33. gd. per oz. This enterprise 



only lasted about four years. Between 1860 and 1874 Messrs 
Bell Brothers manufactured the metal at Washington, near 
Newcastle, under Deville's supervision, producing nearly 2 cwt. 
per year. They took part in the International Exhibition of 
1862, quoting a price of 403. per Ib troy. 

In 1881 J. Webster patented an improved process for making 
alumina, and the following year he organized the Aluminium 
Crown Metal Go. of Hollywood to exploit it in conjunction with 
Deville's method of reduction. Potash-alum and pitch were 
calcined together, and the mass was treated with hydrochloric 
acid; charcoal and water to form a paste were next added, and 
the whole was dried and ignited in a current of air and steam. 
The residue, consisting of alumina and potassium sulphate, was 
leached with water to separate the insoluble matter which was 
dried as usual. All the by-products, potassium sulphate, sulphur 
and aluminate of iron, were capable of recovery, and were 
claimed to reduce the cost of the oxide materially. From this 
alumina the double chloride was prepared in essentially the same 
manner as practised at Salindres, but sundry economies accrued 
in the process, owing to the larger scale of working and to the 
adoption of W. Weldon's method of regenerating the spent 
chlorine liquors. In 1886 H. Y. Castner's sodium patents 
appeared, and The Aluminium Co. of Oldbury was promoted to 
combine the advantages of Webster's alumina and Castner's 
sodium. Castner had long been interested in aluminium, and 
was desirous of lowering its price. Seeing that sodium was the 
only possible reducing agent, he set himself to cheapen its cost, 
and deliberately rejecting sodium carbonate for the more ex- 
pensive sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and replacing carbon 
by a mixture of iron and carbon the so-called carbide of iron 
he invented the highly scientific method of winning the alkali 
metal which has remained in existence almost to the present day. 
In 1872 sodium prepared by Deville's process cost about 45. per Ib, 
the greater part of the expense being due to the constant failure 
of the retorts; in 1887 Castner's sodium cost less than is. per Ib, 
for his cast-iron pots survived 125 distillations. 

In the same year L. Grabau patented a method of reducing the 
simple fluoride of aluminium with sodium, and his process was 
operated at Trotha in Germany. It was distinguished by the 
unusual purity of the metal obtained, some of his samples contain- 
ing 99- 5 to 99-8 %. In 1888 the Alliance Aluminium Co., organized 
to work certain patents for winning the metal from cryolite by 
means of sodium, erected plant in London, Hebburn and Wall- 
send, and by 1889 were selling the metal at us. to 153. per Ib. 
The Aluminium Company's price in 1888 was 205. per Ib and 
the output about 250 Ib per day. In 1889 the price was i6s., 
but by 1891 the electricians commenced to offer metal at 43. 
per Ib, and aluminium reduced with sodium became a thing of 
the past. 

About 1879 dynamos began to be introduced into metallurgical 
practice, and from that date onwards numerous schemes for 
utilizing this cheaper source of energy were brought 
before the public. The first electrical method worthy 
of notice is that patented by E. H. and A. H. Cowles 
in 1885, which was worked both at Lockport, New York, U.S.A., 
and at Milton, Staffordshire. The furnace consisted of a flat, 
rectangular, firebrick box, packed with a layer of finely-powdered 
charcoal 2 in. thick. Through stuffing-boxes at the ends 
passed the two electrodes, made after the fashion of arc-light 
carbons, and capable of being approached together according to 
the requirements of the operation. The central space of the 
furnace was filled with a mixture of corundum, coarsely-powdered 
charcoal and copper; and an iron lid lined with firebrick was 
luted in its place to exclude air. The charge was reduced by 
means of a 5o-volt current from a 3OO-kilowatt dynamo, which 
was passed through the furnace for 15 hours till decomposition 
was complete. About 100 Ib of bronze, containing from 15 to 
20 ft> of aluminium, were obtained from each run, the yield of 
the alloy being reported at about i ft) per 18 e.h.p.-hours. The 
composition of the alloys thus produced could not be pre- 
determined with exactitude; each batch was therefore analysed, 
a number of them were bulked together or mixed with copper in 

I. 49 



ALUMINIUM 



the necessary proportion, and melted in crucibles to give mer- 
chantable bronzes containing between i j and 10 % of aluminium. 
Although the copper took no part in the reaction, its employment 
was found indispensable, as otherwise the aluminium partly 
volatilized, and partly combined with the carbon to form a 
carbide. It was also necessary to give the fine charcoal a thin 
coating of calcium oxide by soaking it in lime-water, for the 
temperature was so high that unless it was thus protected it was 
gradually converted into graphite, losing its insulating power 
and diffusing the current through the lining and walls of the 
furnace. That this process did not depend upon electrolysis, but 
was simply an instance of electrical smelting or the decomposition 
of an oxide by means of carbon at the temperature of the electric 
arc, is shown by the fact that the Cowles furnace would work 
with an alternating current. 

In 1883 R. Cratzel patented a useless electrolytic process with 
fused cryolite or the double chloride as the raw material, and in 
1886 Dr E. Kleiner propounded a cryolite method which was 
worked for a time by the Aluminium Syndicate at Tyldesley near 
Manchester, but was abandoned in 1890. In 1887 A. Minet took 
out patents for electrolysing a mixture of sodium chloride with 
aluminium fluoride, or with natural or artificial cryolite. The 
operation was continuous, the metal being regularly run off from 
the bottom of the bath, while fresh alumina and flouride were 
added as required. The process exhibited several disadvantages, 
the electrolyte had to be kept constant in composition lest either 
fluorine vapours should be evolved or sodium thrown down, and 
the raw materials had accordingly to be prepared in a pure state. 
After prolonged experiments in a factory owned by Messrs 
Bernard Freres at St Michel in Savoy, Minet's process was given 
up, and at the close of the igth century the Heroult-Hall method 
was alone being employed in the manufacture of aluminium 
throughout the world. 

The original Deville process for obtaining pure alumina from 
bauxite was greatly simplified in 1889 by K. T. Bayer, whose 
improved process is exploited at Larne in Ireland and at Gardanne 
in France. New works on the same process have recently been 
erected near Marseilles. Crude bauxite is ground, lightly 
calcined to destroy organic matter, and agitated under a pressure 
of 70 or 80 Ib per sq. in. with a solution of sodium hydroxide 
having the specific gravity 1-45. After two or three hours the 
liquid is diluted till its density falls to 1.23, when it is passed 
through filter-presses to remove the insoluble ferric oxide and 
silica. The solution of sodium aluminate, containing aluminium 
oxide and sodium oxide in the molecular proportion of 6 to i, is 
next agitated for thirty-six hours with a small quantity of 
hydrated alumina previously obtained, which causes the liquor 
to decompose, and some 70 % of the aluminium hydroxide to be 
thrown down. The filtrate, now containing roughly two mole- 
cules of alumina to one of soda, is concentrated to the original 
gravity of 1-45, and employed instead of fresh caustic for the 
attack of more bauxite; the precipitate is then collected, washed 
till free from soda, dried and ignited at about 1000 C. to convert 
it into a crystalline oxide which is less hygroscopic than the 
former amorphous variety. 

The process of manufacture which now remains to be described 
was patented during 1886 and 1887 in the name of C. M. Hall in 
America, in that of P. T. L. Heroult in England and France. It 
would be idle to discuss to whom the credit of first imagining 
the method rightfully belongs, for probably this is only one of 
the many occasions when new ideas have been born in several 
brains at the same time. By 1888 Hall was at work on a com- 
mercial scale at Pittsburg, reducing German alumina; in 1891 
the plant was removed to New Kensington for economy in fuel, 
and was gradually enlarged to 1500 h.p.; in 1894 a factory 
driven by water was erected at Niagara Falls, and subsequently 
works were established at Shawenegan in Canada and at Massena 
in the United States. In 1890 also the Hall process operated by 
steam power was installed at Patricroft, Lancashire, where the 
plant had a capacity of 300 Ib per day, but by 1894 the turbines 
of the Swiss and French works ruined the enterprise. About 
1897 the Bernard factory at St Michel passed into the hands of 



Messrs Pechiney, the machinery soon being increased, and there, 
under the control of a firm that has been concerned in the 
industry almost from its inception, aluminium is being manu- 
factured by the Hall process on a large scale. In July 1888 the 
Societe Mttallurgique Suisse erected plant driven by a 500 h.p. 
turbine to carry out Heroult's alloy process, and at the end of 
that year the Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft united with the 
Swiss firm in organizing the Aluminium Industrie Actien Gesell- 
schaft of Neuhasen, which has factories in Switzerland, Germany 
and Austria. The SocieU Electrom&tallurgique Fran$aise, started 
under the direction of Heroult in 1888 for the production of 
aluminium in France, began operations on a small scale at 
Froges in Isere; but soon after large works were erected in Savoy 
at La Praz, near Modane, and in 1903 another large factory was 
started in Savoy at St Michel. In 1895 the British Aluminium 
Company was founded to mine bauxite and manufacture alumina 
in Ireland, to prepare the necessary electrodes at Greenock, to 
reduce the aluminium by the aid of water-power at the Falls of 
Foyers, and to refine and work up the metal into marketable 
shapes at the old Milton factory of the Cowles Syndicate, re- 
modelled to suit modern requirements. In 1905 this company 
began works for the utilization of another water-power at Loch 
Leven. 

In 1907 a new company, The Aluminium Corporation, was 
started in England to carry out the production of the metal by 
the Heroult process, and new factories were constructed near 
Conway in North Wales and at Wallsend-on-Tyne, quite close 
to where, twenty years before, the Alliance Aluminium Co. had 
their works. 

The Heroult cell consists of a square iron or steel box lined 
with carbon rammed and baked into a solid mass; at the bottom 
is a cast-iron plate connected with the negative pole of the 
dynamo, but the actual working cathode is undoubtedly the 
layer of already reduced and molten metal that lies in the bath. 
The anode is formed of a bundle of carbon rods suspended from 
overhead so as to be capable of vertical adjustment. The cell is 
filled up with cryolite, and the current is turned on till this is 
melted; then the pure powdered alumina is fed in continuously 
as long as the operation proceeds. The current is supplied at a 
tension of 3 to 5 volts per cell, passing through 10 or 12 in series; 
and it performs two distinct functions: (i) it overcomes the 
chemical affinity of the aluminium oxide, (2) it overcomes the 
resistance of the electrolyte, heating the liquid at the same time. 
As a part of the voltage is consumed in the latter duty, only the 
residue can be converted into chemical work, and as the theoretical 
voltage of the aluminium fluoride in the cryolite is 4-0, provided 
the bath is kept properly supplied with alumina, the fluorides are 
not attacked. It follows, therefore, except for mechanical losses, 
that one charge of cryolite lasts indefinitely, that the sodium and 
other impurities in it are not liable to contaminate the product, 
and that only the alumina itself need be carefully purified. The 
operation is essentially a dissociation of alumina into aluminium, 
which collects at the cathode, and into oxygen, which combines 
with the anodes to form carbon monoxide, the latter escaping 
and being burnt to carbon dioxide outside. Theoretically 36 
parts by weight of carbon are oxidized in the production of 54 
parts of aluminium; practically the anodes waste at the same 
rate at which metal is deposited. The current density is about 
700 amperes per sq. ft. of cathode surface, and the number of 
rods in the anode is such that each delivers 6 or 7 amperes per 
sq. in. of cross-sectional area. The working temperature lies 
between 750 and 850 C., and the actual yield is i Ib of metal per 
12 e.h.p. hours. The bath is heated internally with the current 
rather than by means of external fuel, because this arrangement 
permits the vessel itself to be kept comparatively cool; if it were 
fired from without, it would be hotter than the electrolyte, and 
no material suitable for the construction of the cell is competent 
to withstand the attack of nascent aluminium at high tempera- 
tures. Aluminium is so light that it is a matter requiring some 
ingenuity to select a convenient solvent through which it shall 
sink quickly, for if it does not sink, it short-circuits the electrolyte. 
The molten metal has a specific gravity of 2-54, that of molten 



ALUMINIUM 



771 



cryolite saturated with alumina is 2-35, and that of the fluoride 
A1 2 F 6 2NaF saturated with alumina 1-97. The latter therefore 
appears the better material, and was originally preferred by Hall; 
cryolite, however, dissolves more alumina, and has been finally 
adopted by both inventors. 

Aluminium is a white metal with a characteristic tint which 
most nearly resembles that of tin; when impure, or after pro- 
longed exposure to air, it has a slight violet shade. Its 
roperttes. atomic we jg nt J s 2? (26-77, H = I, according to J. 

Thomsen). It is trivalent. The specific gravity of cast metal 
is 2-583, and of rolled 2-688 at 4 C. It melts at 626 C. (freezing- 
point 654-5, Heycock and Neville). It is the third most malle- 
able and sixth most ductile metal, yielding sheets 0-000025 in. 
in thickness, and wires 0-004 i n - i n diameter. When quite pure 
it is somewhat harder than tin, and its hardness is considerably 
increased by rolling. It is not magnetic. It stands near the 
positive end of the list of elements arranged in electromotive 
series, being exceeded only by the alkalis and metals of the 
alkaline earths; it therefore combines eagerly, under suitable 
conditions, with oxygen and chlorine. Its coefficient of linear 
expansion by heat is 0-0000222 (Richards) or 0-0000231 (Roberts- 
Austen) per i C. Its mean specific heat between o and 100 
is 0-227, an< i i ts latent heat of fusion 100 calories (Richards). 
Only silver, copper and gold surpass it as conductors of heat, its 
value being 31-33 (Ag=ioo, Roberts-Austen). Its electrical 
conductivity, determined on 99-6 % metal, is 60-5 % that of 
copper for equal volumes, or double that of copper for equal 
weights, and when chemically pure it exhibits a somewhat 
higher relative efficiency. The average strength of 98 % metal 
is approximately shown by the following table: 





Elastic Limit, 
tons per sq. in. 


Ultimate 
Strength, tons 
per sq. in. 


Reduction 
of Area % 


Cast . 
Sheet . 
Bars 
Wire . 


ij 

6i 

7-13 


7 
II 

12 
13-29 


15 
35 
40 
60 



Weight for weight, therefore, aluminium is only exceeded 
in tensile strength by the best cast steel, and its own alloy, 
aluminium bronze. An absolutely clean surface becomes 
tarnished in damp air, an almost invisible coating of oxide 
being produced, just as happens with zinc; but this film is 
very permanent and prevents further attack. Exposure to air 
and rain also causes slight corrosion, but to nothing like the 
same extent as occurs with iron, copper or brass. Commercial 
electrolytic aluminium of the best quality contains as the average 
of a large number of tests, 0-48 % of silicon and 0-46 % of iron, 
the residue being essentially aluminium itself. The metal in 
mass is not affected by hot or cold wafer, the foil is very slowly 
oxidized, while the amalgam decomposes rapidly. Sulphuretted 
hydrogen having no action upon it, articles made of it are not 
blackened in foggy weather or in rooms where crude coal gas is 
burnt. To inorganic acids, except hydrochloric, it is highly 
resistant, ranking well with tin in this respect; but alkalis 
dissolve it quickly. Organic acids such as vinegar, common 
salt, the natural ingredients of food, and the various extraneous 
substances used as food preservatives, alone or mixed together, 
dissolve traces of it if boiled for any length of time in a chemically- 
clean vessel; but when aluminium utensils are submitted to 
the ordinary routine of the kitchen, being used to heat or cook 
milk, coffee, vegetables, meat and even fruit, and are also cleaned 
frequently in the usual fashion, no appreciable quantity of metal 
passes into the food. Moreover, did it do so, the action upon 
the human system would be infinitely less harmful than similar 
doses of copper or of lead. 

The highly electro-positive character of aluminium is most 
important. At elevated temperatures the metal decomposes 
nearly all other metallic oxides, wherefore it is most serviceable 
as a metallurgical reagent. In the casting of iron, steel and 
brass, the addition of a trifling proportion (0-005 %) removes 
oxide and renders the molten metal more fluid, causing the 



Alloys. 



finished products to be more homogeneous, free from blow-holes 
and solid all through. On the other hand, its electro-positive 
nature necessitates some care in its utilization. If it be exposed 
to damp, to sea-water or to corrosive influences of any kind in 
contact with another metal, or if it be mixed with another metal 
so as to form an alloy which is not a true chemical compound, 
the other metal being highly negative to it, powerful galvanic 
action will be set up and the structure will quickly deteriorate. 
This explains the failure of boats built of commercially pure 
aluminium which have been put together with iron or copper 
rivets, and the decay of other boats built of a light alloy, in 
which the alloying metal (copper) has been injudiciously chosen. 
It also explains why aluminium is so difficult to join with low- 
temperature solders, for these mostly contain a large proportion 
of lead. This disadvantage, however, is often overestimated 
since in most cases other means of uniting two pieces are 
available. 

The metal produces an enormous number of useful alloys, some 
of which, containing only i or 2 % of other metals, combine the 
lightness of aluminium itself with far greater hardness 
and strength. Some with 90 to 99 % of other metals 
exhibit the general properties of those metals conspicuously 
improved. Among the heavy alloys, the aluminium bronzes 
(Cu, 90-97-5 %; Al, 10-2-5 %) occupy the most important 
position, showing mean tensile strengths increasing from 20 to 
41 tons per sq. in. as the percentage of aluminium rises, and all 
strongly resisting corrosion in air or sea- water. The light copper 
alloys, in which the proportions just given are practically 
reversed, are of considerably less utility, for although they are 
fairly strong, they lack power to resist galvanic action. This 
subject is far from being exhausted, and it is not improbable 
that the alloy-producing capacity of aluminium may eventually 
prove its most valuable characteristic. In the meantime, 
ternary light alloys appear the most satisfactory, and tungsten 
and copper, or tungsten and nickel, seem to be the best substances 
to add. 

The uses of aluminium are too numerous to mention. Probably 
the widest field is still in the purification of iron and steel. To 
the general public it appeals most strongly as a material 
for constructing cooking utensils. It is not brittle 
like porcelain and cast iron, not poisonous like lead-glazed 
earthenware and untinned copper, needs no enamel to chip off, 
does not rust and wear out like cheap tin-plate, and weighs but 
a fraction of other substances. It is largely replacing brass and 
copper in all departments of industry especially where dead 
weight has to be moved about, and lightness is synonymous 
with economy for instance, in bed-plates for torpedo-boat 
engines, internal fittings for ships instead of wood, complete 
boats for portage, motor-car parts and boiling-pans for con- 
fectionery and in chemical works. The British Admiralty 
employ it to save weight in the Navy, and the war-offices of the 
European powers equip their soldiers with it wherever possible. 
As a substitute for Solenhofen stone it is used in a modified form 
of lithography, which can be performed on rotary printing- 
machines at a high speed. With the increasing price of copper, 
it is coming into vogue as an electrical conductor for uncovered 
mains; it is found that an aluminium wire 0-126 in. in diameter 
will carry as much current as a copper wire o-ioo in. in diameter, 
while the former weighs about 79 ft and the latter 162 Ib per 
mile. Assuming the materials to be of equal tensile strength 
per unit of area hard-drawn copper is stronger, but has a lower 
conductivity the adoption of aluminium thus leads to a 
reduction of 52 % in the weight, a gain of 60% in the strength, 
and an increase of 26 % in the diameter of the conductor. Bare 
aluminium strip has recently been tried for winding-coils in 
electrical machines, the oxide of the metal acting as insulators 
between the layers. When the price of aluminium is less than 
double the price of copper aluminium is cheaper than copper 
per unit of electric current conveyed; but when insulation is 
necessary, the smaller size of the copper wire renders it more 
economical. Aluminium conductors have been employed on 
heavy work in many places, and for telegraphy and telephony 



772 



ALUMINIUM 



they are in frequent demand and give perfect satisfaction. 
Difficulties were at first encountered in making the necessary 
joints, but these have been overcome by practice and experience. 
Two points connected with this metal are of sufficient moment 
to demand a few words by way of conclusion. Its extraordinary 
lightness forms its chief claim to general adoption, yet is apt 
to cause mistakes when its price is mentioned. It is the weight 
of a mass of metal which governs its financial value; its industrial 
value, in the vast majority of cases, depends on the volume of 
that mass. Provided it be rigid, the bed-plate of an engine is 
no better for weighing 30 cwt. than for weighing 10 cwt. A 
saucepan is required to have a certain diameter and a certain 
depth in order that it may hold a certain bulk of liquid: its 
weight is merely an encumbrance. Copper being 3^ times as 
heavy as aluminium, whenever the latter costs less than 3^ times 
as much as copper it is actually cheaper. It must be remembered, 
too, that electrolytic aluminium only became known during 
the last decade of the igth century. Samples dating from the 
old sodium days are still in existence, and when they exhibit 
unpleasant properties the defect is often ascribed to the metal 
instead of to the process by which it was won. Much has yet 
to be learnt about the practical qualities of the electrolytic 
product, and although every day's experience serves to place 
the metal in a firmer industrial position, a final verdict can only 
be passed after the lapse of time. The individual and collective 
influence of the several impurities which occur in the product 
of the Heroult cell is still to seek, and the importance of this 
inquiry will be seen when we consider that if cast iron, wrought 
iron and steel, the three totally distinct metals included in the 
generic name of " iron " which are only distinguished one from 
another chemically by minute differences in the proportion 
of certain non-metallic ingredients had only been in use for 
a comparatively few years, attempts might occasionally be made 
to forge cast iron, or to employ wrought iron in the manufacture 
of edge-tools. (E. J. R.) 

Compounds of Aluminium. 

Aluminium oxide or alumina, A1 2 O 3 , occurs in nature as the 
mineral corundum (q.v.), notable for its hardness and abrasive 
power (see EMERY), and in well-crystallized forms it constitutes, 
when coloured by various metallic oxides, the gem-stones, 
sapphire, oriental topaz, oriental amethyst and oriental emerald. 
Alumina is obtained as a white amorphous powder by heating 
aluminium hydroxide. This powder, provided that it has not 
been too ''strongly ignited, is soluble in strong acids; by ignition 
it becomes denser and nearly as hard as corundum; it fuses 
in the oxyhydrogen flame or electric arc, and on cooling it assumes 
a crystalline form closely resembling the mineral species. 
Crystallized alumina is also obtained by heating the fluoride 
with boron trioxide; by fusing aluminium phosphate with 
sodium sulphate; by heating alumina to a dull redness in 
hydrochloric acid gas under pressure; and by heating alumina 
with lead oxide to a bright red heat. These reactions are of 
special interest, for they culminate in the production of artificial 
ruby and sapphire (see GEMS, ARTIFICIAL). 

Aluminium Hydrates. Several hydrated forms of aluminium 
oxide are known. Of these hydrargiUite or gibbsite, A1(OH) 3 , 
diaspore, AIO(OH), and bauxite, A1 2 O(OH) 4 , occur in the mineral 
kingdom. Aluminium hydrate, Al(OH)s, is obtained as a 
gelatinous white precipitate, soluble in potassium or sodium 
hydrate, but insoluble in ammonium chloride, by adding ammonia 
to a cold solution of an aluminium salt; from boiling solutions 
the precipitate is opaque. By drying at ordinary temperatures, 
the hydrate A1(OH) 3 -H 2 O is obtained; at 300 this yields 
AIO(OH), which on ignition gives alumina, A1 2 O 3 . Precipitated 
aluminium hydrate finds considerable application in dyeing. 
Soluble modifications were obtained by Walter Crum (Journ. 
Chem. Soc., 1854, vi. 216), and Thomas Graham (Phil. Trans., 
1861, p. 163); the first named decomposing aluminium acetate 
(from lead acetate and aluminium sulphate) with boiling water, 
the latter dialysing a solution of the basic chloride (obtained 
by dissolving the hydroxide in a solution of the normal chloride). 



Both these soluble hydrates are readily coagulated by traces 
of a salt, acid or alkali; Crum's hydrate does not combine 
with dye-stuffs, neither is it soluble in excess of acid, while 
Graham's compound readily forms lakes, and readily dissolves 
when coagulated in acids. 

In addition to behaving as a basic oxide, aluminium oxide 
(or hydrate) behaves as an acid oxide towards the strong bases 
with the formation of aluminates. Potassium aluminate, 
K2A1 2 O4, is obtained in solution by dissolving aluminium hydrate 
in caustic potash; it is also obtained, as crystals containing 
three molecules of water, by fusing alumina with potash, ex- 
hausting with water, and crystallizing the solution in vacua. 
Sodium aluminate is obtained in the manufacture of alumina; 
it is used as a mordant in dyeing, and has other commer- 
cial applications. Other aluminates (in particular, of iron and 
magnesium), are of frequent occurrence in the mineral kingdom, 
e.g. spinel, gahnite, &c. 

Salts of Aluminium. Aluminium forms one series of salts, 
derived from the trioxide, Al 2 Os. These exhibit, in certain cases, 
marked crystallographical and other analogies with the corre- 
sponding salts of chromium and ferric iron. 

Aluminium fluoride, A1F 3 , obtained by dissolving the metal 
in hydrofluoric acid, and subliming the residue in a current of 
hydrogen, forms transparent, very obtuse rhombohedra, which 
are insoluble in water. It forms a series of double fluorides, 
the most important of which is cryolite (q.v.); this mineral has 
been applied to the commercial preparation of the metal (see 
above). Aluminium chloride, AlCls, was first prepared by 
Oersted, who heated a mixture of carbon and alumina in a current 
of chlorine, a method subsequently improved by Wohler, Bunsen, 
Deville and others. A purer product is obtained by heating 
aluminium turnings in a current of dry chlorine, when the chloride 
distils over. So obtained, it is a white crystalline solid, which 
slowly sublimes just below its melting point (194). Its vapour 
density at temperatures above 750 corresponds to the formula 
AlClaj below this point the molecules are associated. It is 
very hygroscopic, absorbing water with the evolution of hydro- 
chloric acid. It combines with ammonia to form AlCls-3NH 3 ; 
and forms double compounds with phosphorus pentachloride, 
phosphorus oxychloride, selenium and tellurium chlorides, as well 
as with many metallic chlorides; sodium aluminium chloride, 
AlCU-NaCl, is used in the production of the metal. As a syn- 
thetical agent in organic chemistry, aluminium chloride has 
rendered possible more reactions than any other substance; 
here we can only mention the classic syntheses of benzene 
homologues. Aluminium bromide, AlBr 3 , is prepared in the 
same manner as the chloride. It forms colourless crystals, 
melting at 90, and boiling at 26$-2'jo. Aluminium iodide, 
A1I 3 , results from the interaction of iodine and aluminium. It 
forms colourless crystals, melting at 185, and boiling at 3*60. 
Aluminium sulphide, A1 2 S 3 , results from the direct union of the 
metal with sulphur, or when carbon disulphide vapour is passed 
over strongly heated alumina. It forms a yellow fusible mass, 
which is decomposed by water into alumina and sulphuretted 
hydrogen. Aluminium sulphate A1(SO4) 3 , occurs in the 
mineral kingdom as keramohalite, Alj( 804)3- 18H 2 O, found near 
volcanoes and in alum-shale; aluminite or websterite is a basic 
salt, A1 2 (S04)(OH) 4 -7H 2 O. Aluminium sulphate, known com- 
mercially as " concentrated alum " or " sulphate of alumina," 
is manufactured from kaolin or china clay, which, after roasting 
(in order to oxidize any iron present), is heated with sulphuric 
acid, the clear solution run off, and evaporated. " Alum cake " 
is an impure product. Aluminium sulphate crystallizes as 
A1 2 (SO4)3-18H 2 O in tablets belonging to the monoclinic system. 
It has a sweet astringent taste, very soluble in water, but scarcely 
soluble in alcohol. On heating, the crystals lose water, swell up, 
and give the anhydrous sulphate, which, on further heating, gives 
alumina. It forms double salts with the sulphates of the metals 
of the alkalis, known as the alums (see ALUM). 

Aluminium nitride (A1N) is obtained as small yellow crystals 
when aluminium is strongly heated in nitrogen. The nitrate, 
Al(NOa) 3 , is obtained as deliquescent crystals (with 8H 2 0) 



ALUNITE ALVA 



773 




by evaporating a solution of the hydroxide in nitric acid. 
Aluminium phosphates may be prepared by precipitating a 
soluble aluminium salt with sodium phosphate. Wavellite 
Al8(PO4) 3 (OH)i5-9H 2 O, is a naturally occurring basic phosphate, 
while the gem-stone turquoise (q.v.) is Al (PO 4 ) (OH)3-H 2 O, 
coloured by traces of copper. Aluminium silicates are widely 
diffused in the mineral kingdom, being present in the commonest 
rock-forming minerals (felspars, &c.), and in the gem-stones, 
topaz, beryl, garnet, &c. It also constitutes with sodium 
silicate the mineral lapis-lazuli and the pigment ultramarine 
(q.v.). Forming the basis of all clays, aluminium silicates play 
a prominent part in the manufacture of pottery and porcelain. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The metallurgy and uses of aluminium are 
treated in detail in P. Moissonnier, L' Aluminium (Paris, 1903); in 
J. W. Richards, Aluminium (1896); and in A. Minet, Production of 
Aluminium, Eng. trans, by L. Waldo (1905) ; reference may also 
be made to treatises on general metallurgy, e.g. C. Schnabel, Hand- 
book of Metallurgy, vol. ii. (1907). For the chemistry see Roscoe and 
Schlorlemmer, Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry, vol. ii. (1908); H. 
Moissan,. Traite de chimie minerale; Abegg, Handbuch der anor- 
ganischen Chemie; and O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen 
Chemie. Aluminium alloys have been studied in detail by Guillet. 
ALUNITE, or ALUMSTONE, a mineral first observed in the 
1 5th century at Tolfa, near Rome, where it is mined for the 
manufacture of alum. Extensive deposits are also worked in 
Tuscany and Hungary, and at Bulladelah in New South Wales. 
By repeatedly roasting and lixiviating the mineral, alum is 
obtained in solution, and this is crystallized out by evaporation. 
Alunite occurs as seams in trachytic and allied volcanic rocks, 
having been formed by the action of sulphureous vapours on 

these rocks. The white, finely 
granular masses somewhat resemble 
limestone in appearance, and the 
more compact kinds from Hungary 
are so hard and tough that they are 
used for millstones. Distinct crys- 
tals of alunite are rarely met with 
in cavities in the massive material; 
these are rhombohedra with interfacial angles of 90 50', so 
that they resemble cubes in appearance. Minute glistening 
crystals have also been found loose in cavities in altered 
rhyolite. The hardness is 4 and the specific gravity 2-6. The 
mineral is a hydrated basic aluminium and potassium sulphate, 
KAl3(SO 4 ) 2 (OH)6. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in 
sulphuric ado). First called aluminilite by J. C. Delametherie 
in 1797, this name was contracted by F. S. Beudant in 1824 to 
alunite. (L. J. S.) 

ALUR (Lur, Luri, Lurem), a Negro people of the Nile valley, 
living on the north-west coast of Albert Nyanza. They are 
akin to the Acholi (q.v.), speaking practically the same language. 
ALURE (O. Fr., from alter, to walk), an architectural term for 
an alley, passage, the water-way or flat gutter behind a parapet, 
the galleries of a clerestory, sometimes even the aisle itself of a 
church. The term is sometimes written valure or valoring. 

ALVA, or ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, DUKE 
OF, (1508-1583), Spanish soldier, descended from one of the 
most illustrious families in Spain, was born in 1508. His grand- 
father, Ferdinand of Toledo, educated him in military science 
and politics; and he was engaged with distinction at the battle 
of Pavia while still a youth. Selected for a military command by 
Charles V., he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and success- 
fully defended Perpignan against the dauphin of France. He 
was present at the battle of Miihlberg (1547), and the victory 
gained there over John of Saxony was due mainly to his exertions. 
He took part in the subsequent siege of Wittenberg, and presided 
at the court-martial which tried the elector and condemned him 
to death. In 1552 Alva was intrusted with the command of 
the army intended to invade France, and was engaged for 
several months in an unsuccessful siege of Metz. In consequence 
of the success of the French arms in Piedmont, he was made 
commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in Italy, and at 
the same time invested with unlimited power. Success did not, 
however, attend his first attempts, and after several unfortunate 
attacks he was obliged to retire into winter quarters. After the 



abdication of Charles he was continued in the command by 
Philip II., who, however, restrained him from extreme measures. 
Alva had subdued the whole Campagna and was at the gates of 
Rome, when he was compelled by Philip's orders to negotiate 
a peace. One of its terms was that the duke of Alva should in 
person ask forgiveness of the haughty pontiff whom he had 
conquered. Proud as the duke was by nature, and accustomed 
to treat with persons of the highest dignity, he confessed his 
voice failed him at the interview and his presence of mind 
forsook him. Not long after this (1559) he was sent at the head of 
a splendid embassy to Paris to espouse, in the name of his master, 
Elizabeth, daughter of Henry, king of France. In 1567, Philip, 
who was a bigoted Catholic, sent Alva into the Netherlands at 
the head of an army of 10,000 men, with unlimited powers for the 
extirpation of heretics. When he arrived he soon showed how 
much he merited the confidence which his master reposed in 
him, and instantly erected a tribunal which soon became known 
to its victims as the " Court of Blood," to try all persons who had 
been engaged in the late commotions which the civil and religious 
tyranny of Philip had excited. He imprisoned the counts 
Egmont and Horn, the two popular leaders of the Protestants, 
brought them to an unjust trial and condemned them to death. 
In a short time he totally annihilated every privilege of the 
people, and with unrelenting cruelty put multitudes of them to 
death. The executioner was employed in removing all those 
friends of freedom whom the sword had spared. In most of the 
considerable towns Alva built citadels. In the city of Antwerp 
he erected a statue of himself, which was a monument no less of 
his vanity than of his tyranny : he was figured trampling on the 
necks of two smaller statues, representing the two estates of the 
Low Countries. His attempt to raise money by imposing the 
Spanish alcabala, a tax of 5 % on all sales, aroused the 
opposition of the Catholic Netherlands themselves. The exiles 
from the Low Countries, encouraged by the general resistance 
to his government, fitted out a fleet of privateers, and after 
strengthening themselves by successful depredations, ventured 
upon the bold exploit of seizing the town of Brielle. Thus Alva 
by his cruelty became the unwitting instrument of the future 
independence of the seven Dutch provinces. The fleet of the 
exiles, having met the Spanish fleet, totally defeated it, and 
reduced North Holland and Mons. Many cities hastened to 
throw off the yoke; while the states-general, assembling at 
Dordrecht, openly declared against Alva's government, and 
marshalled under the banners of the prince of Orange. Alva's 
preparations to oppose the gathering storm were made with his 
usual vigour, and he succeeded in recovering Mons, Mechlin and 
Zutphen, under the conduct of his son Frederick. With the 
exception of Zealand and Holland, he regained all the provinces; 
and at last his son stormed Naarden, and massacring its inhabi- 
tants, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem,which, after standing 
an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged. Their next attack 
was upon Alkmaar; but the spirit of desperate resistance was 
raised to such a height in the breasts of the Hollanders that the 
Spanish veterans were repulsed with great loss and Frederick 
constrained reluctantly to retire. Alva's feeble state of health 
and continued disasters induced him to solicit his recall from 
the government of the Low Countries; a measure which, in 
all probability, was not displeasing to Philip, who was now 
resolved to make trial of a milder administration. In December 
1 573 the much-oppressed country was relieved from the presence 
of the duke of Alva, who, returning home accompanied by his 
son, made the infamous boast that during the course of six 
years, besides the multitudes destroyed in battle and massacred 
after victory, he had consigned 18,000 persons to the executioner. 
On his return he was treated for some time with great distinc- 
tion by Philip. A tardy and imperfect justice, however, overtook 
him, when he was banished from court and confined in the castle 
of Uzeda for complicity in certain disgraceful conduct of his son. 
Here he had remained two years, when the success of Don 
Antonio in assuming the crown of Portugal determined Philip to 
turn his eyes towards Alva as the person in whose fidelity and 
abilities he could most confide. A secretary was instantly 



774 



ALVA ALVENSLEBEN 



despatched to Alva to ascertain whether his health was suffi- 
ciently vigorous to enable him to undertake the command of an 
army. The aged chief returned an answer full of loyal zeal, 
and was immediately appointed to the supreme command in 
Portugal. It is a striking fact, however, that the liberation and 
elevation of Alva were not followed by forgiveness. In 1581 
Alva entered Portugal, defeated Antonio, drove him from the 
kingdom, and soon reduced the whole under the subjection of 
Philip. Entering Lisbon he seized an immense treasure, and 
suffered his soldiers, with their accustomed violence and rapacity, 
to sack the suburbs and vicinity. It is reported that Alva, being 
requested to give an account of the money expended on that 
occasion, sternly replied, " If the king asks me for an account, I 
will make him a statement of kingdoms preserved or conquered, 
of signal victories, of successful sieges and of sixty years' ser- 
vice." Philip deemed it proper to make no further inquiries. 
Alva, however, did not enjoy the honours and rewards of his 
last expedition, for he died in January 1583 at the age of 74. 

AUTHORITIES. See the Life, by Rustant (Madrid, 1751). His 
correspondence during his Flemish government has been published 
by M. Gachard (Brussels, 1850). See also Coleccion de docu- 
mentos ineditos para la historia de Espana, vols. iv., vii., viii., xiv., 
xxxii. and xxxv. (Madrid) ; and Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic 
(1856). 

ALVA, a police burgh of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 31 m. 
N. of Alloa, terminus of a branch line of the North British 
railway. Pop. (1891) 5225; (1901) 4624. It is situated at the 
foot of three front peaks of the Ochils West Hill (1682 ft.), 
Middle Hill (1436 ft.) and Wood Hill (1723 ft.). There are 
spinning-mills, and manufactures of tweeds, tartans and other 
woollen goods. Silver, lead and other metals have been found 
in the hills, but not in paying quantities. The glen to the east 
of the town, in which are abandoned workings, is called the 
Silver Glen. Alva House is the seat of the Johnstones, a family 
which has been intimately connected with the district since the 
latter half of the i8th century. 

ALVARADO, PEDRO DE (1495-1541), one of the Spanish 
leaders in the discovery and conquest of America, was born at 
Badajoz about 1495. He held a command in the expedition 
sent from Cuba against Yucatan in the spring of 1518, and 
returned in a few months, bearing reports of the wealth and 
splendour of Montezuma's empire. In February 1519 he 
accompanied Hernando Cortes in the expedition for the conquest 
of Mexico, being appointed to the command of one of the eleven 
vessels of the fleet. He acted as Cortes's principal officer, and 
on the first occupation of the city of Mexico was left there in 
charge. When the Spaniards had temporarily to retire before 
the Mexican uprising, Alvarado led the rear-guard (ist of July 
1520), and the Salto de Alvarado a long leap with the use of his 
spear, by which he saved his life became famous. He was 
engaged (1523-24) in the conquest of Guatemala, of which he 
was subsequently appointed governor by Charles V. In 1534 
he attempted to bring the province of Quito under his power, 
but had to content himself with the exaction of a pecuniary 
indemnity for the expenses of the expedition. During a visit to 
Spain, three years later, he had the governorship of Honduras 
conferred upon him in addition to that of Guatemala. He died 
in Guatemala in 1541. 

ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO (c. 1465-1541?), Portuguese mis- 
sionary and explorer, was born at Coimbra. He was a chaplain- 
priest and almoner to Dom Manuel, king of Portugal, and was 
sent in 1515 as secretary to Duarte Galvao and Rodrigo da 
Lima on an embassy to the negus of Abyssinia (Lebna Dengel 
Dawit (David) II.). The expedition having been delayed by 
the way, it was not until 1520 that he reached Abyssinia, where 
he remained six years, returning to Lisbon in 1526-1527. In 
1533 he was sent to Rome on an embassy to Pope Clement VII. 
The precise date of his death, like that of his birth, is unknown, 
but it must have been later than 1 540, in which year he published 
at Lisbon under the king's patronage an account of his travels 
in one volume folio, entitled Verdadera InformaQam das terras 
do Preste Joam. This curious work was translated into Italian 
(G. B. Ramusio, Navagationi, vol. i., Venice, 1550); into 



Spanish (Historia de las Cosas de Etiopia, by Fray Thomas de 
Padilla, Antwerp, 1557); into French (Historiale Description 
de I'Ethiopie, Christ. Plantin, Antwerp, 1558); into German 
(W ahrhaf tiger Bericht von . . . Ethiopien, Eisleben, 1566); 
into English (Sam. Purchas, Pilgrimes, part ii., London, 1625). 
The information it contains must, however, be received with 
caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, and does not 
confine himself to what came within. his own observation. 

ALVAREZ, DON JOS6 (i768-i82~7), Spanish sculptor, was 
born at Priego, in the province of Cordova, in 1768. His full 
name was Jose Alvarez de Pereira y Cubero. Bred to his 
father's trade of a stone-mason, he devoted all his spare time to 
drawing and modelling. His education in art was due partly to 
the teaching of the French sculptor Verdiguier at Cordova, and 
partly to lessons at Madrid, where he attended the lectures of 
the academy of San Fernando. In 1799 he obtained from 
Charles IV. a pension of 12,000 reals to enable him to visit 
Paris and Rome. In the former city he executed in 1804 a 
statue of Ganymede, which placed him at once in the front rank 
of the sculptors of his time, and which is now in the sculpture 
gallery of the Prado. Shortly afterwards his pension was more 
than doubled, and he left Paris for Rome, where he remained 
till within a year of his death. He had married in Paris Elizabeth 
Bougel, by whom he had a son in 1805. This son, known as 
Don Jose Alvarez y Bougel, also distinguished himself as a 
sculptor and a painter, but he died at Burgos before he had 
reached the age of twenty-five, a little more than two years after 
his father's death in Madrid in 1827. One of the most successful 
works of the elder Alvarez was a group representing Antilochus 
and Memnon, which was commissioned in marble (1818) by 
Ferdinand VII., and secured for the artist the appointment of 
court-sculptor. It is now in the museum of Madrid. He also 
modelled a few portrait busts (Ferdinand VII., Rossini, the 
duchess of Alba), which are remarkable for their vigour and 
fidelity. 

ALVAREZ, DON MANUEL (1727-1797), Spanish sculptor, 
was born at Salamanca. He followed classical models so closely 
that he was styled by his countrymen El Griego, " The Greek." 
His works, which are very numerous, are chiefly to be found at 
Madrid. 

ALVARY, MAX (1858-1898), German singer, was born at 
Diisseldorf. Gifted with a fine tenor voice and handsome 
presence he speedily made a reputation in Germany, in the leading 
roles in Wagnerian opera, and from 1885 onwards appeared 
also in America and England. He was at his best in 1892, when 
his performances as Tristan and Siegfried at Covent Garden 
aroused great enthusiasm. 

ALVEARY (from the Lat. alvearium}, a beehive; used, like 
apiarium in the same sense, figuratively for a collection of hard- 
working people, or a scholarly work (e.g. dictionary) involving 
bee-like industry. By analogy the term is used for the hollow 
of the ear, where the wax collects. 

ALVENSLEBEN, CONSTANTIN VON (1809-1892), Prussian 
general, was born on the 26th of August 1809 at Eichenbarleben 
in Prussian Saxony, and entered the Prussian guards from the 
cadet corps in 1827. He became first lieutenant in 1842, captain 
in 1849, an d major on the Great General Staff in 1853, whence 
after seven years he went to the Ministry of War. He was soon 
afterwards promoted colonel, and commanded a regiment of 
Guard infantry up to 1864, when he became a major-general. 
In this rank he commanded a brigade of guards in the war of 
1866. At the action of Soor (Biirkersdorf) on the 28th of June 
he distinguished himself very greatly, and at Koniggratz, where 
he led the advanced guard of the Guard corps, his energy and 
initiative were still more conspicuous. Soon afterwards he suc- 
ceeded to the command of his division, General Hiller v. 
Gartringen having fallen in the battle; he was promoted 
lieutenant-general, and retained this command after the conclu- 
sion of peace, receiving in addition the order pour le merite for 
his services. In 1870, on the outbreak of war with France, 
von Alvensleben succeeded Prince Frederick Charles in command 
of the III army corps which formed part of the II German 



ALVEOLATE ALWAR 



775 



Army commanded by the prince. Under their new general, 
the Brandenburg regiments forming the III corps proved them- 
selves collectively the best in the whole German army, with the 
possible exception of the Prussian guards, and, if Prince Frederick 
Charles is entitled to the chief credit in training the III corps, 
Alvensleben had contributed in almost equal degree to the 
efficiency of the Guard infantry, while his actual leadership of 
the III corps in the battles of 1870 and 1871 showed him afresh 
as a fighting general of the very first rank. The battle of 
Spicheren, on the 6th of August, was initiated and practically 
directed throughout by him, and in the confusion which followed 
this victory, for which the superior commanders were not pre- 
pared, Alvensleben showed his energy and determination by 
resuming the advance on his own responsibility. This led to 
the great battles of the i4th, i6th and i8th of August around 
Metz, and again the III corps was destined, under its resolute 
leader, to win the chief credit. Crossing the Moselle the instant 
that he received permission from his army commander to do so, 
Alvensleben struck the flank of Bazaine's whole army (August 
i6th) in movement westward from Metz. The III corps attacked 
at once, and for many hours bore the whole brunt of the battle 
at Vionville. By the most resolute leading, and at the cost of 
very heavy losses, Alvensleben held the whole French army at 
bay while other corps of the I and II German Armies gradually 
closed up. In the battle of Gravelotte, on the i8th, the corps 
took little part. Its work was done, and it remained with the 
II Army before Metz until the surrender of Bazaine's army. 
Prince Frederick Charles then moved south-west to co-operate 
with the grand-duke of Mecklenburg on the Loire. At the 
battle of Beaune-la-Rolande, the corps, with its comrades of 
Vionville, the X corps under General v. Voigts-Rhetz, won new 
laurels, and it participated in the advance on Le Mans and the 
battle at that place on the 1 2th of January 1871. At the close 
of the war Alvensleben received the oak-leaves of the order 
pour le merite, the first class of the Iron Cross and a grant of 
100,000 thalers. He became full general of infantry in 1873 
and retired immediately afterwards. In 1889 the emperor 
William II. ordered that the 5 2nd infantry regiment (one of 
the distinguished regiments of Vionville) should thereafter bear 
Alvensleben's name, and in 1892, on the anniversary of the battle 
of Le Mans, the old general received the order of the Black Eagle. 
He died on the 28th of March 1892 at Berlin. 

His brother, GUSTAV VON ALVENSLEBEN (1803-1881), Prussian 
general of infantry, was born at Eichenbarleben on the 3oth of 
September 1803, entered the Guard infantry in 1821, and took 
part as a general staff officer in the suppression of the Baden 
insurrection of 1849. He became a major-general in 1858, 
aide-de-camp to the king in 1861, and lieutenant-general in 
1863, and in the campaign of 1866 performed valuable military 
and political services. He was promoted general of infantry 
in 1868. In the war of 1870 he commanded the IV army corps, 
which took a conspicuous part in the action of Beaumont and 
afterwards served in the siege of Paris. He received the Iron 
Cross, the order pour le nitrite, and a money grant, as a reward 
for his services, and retired in 1872. He died at Gernrode in the 
Harz on the 3Oth of June 1881. 

Another brother, ALBRECHT, COUNT VON ALVENSLEBEN (i 794- 
1858), was a distinguished Prussian statesman. 

ALVEOLATE (from Lat. / alveolus) , honeycombed, a word used 
technically in biology, &c., to mean pitted like a honeycomb. 

ALVERSTONE, RICHARD EVERARD WEBSTER, IST 
BARON (1842- ), lord chief justice of England, was born 
on the 22nd of December 1842, being the second son of Thomas 
Webster, Q.C. He was educated at King's College and Charter- 
house schools, and Trinity College, Cambridge; was called to 
the bar in 1868, and became Q.C. only ten years afterwards. 
His practice was chiefly in commercial, railway and patent 
cases until (June 1885) he was appointed attorney-general in 
the Conservative Government in the exceptional circumstances 
of never having been solicitor-general, and not at the time 
occupying a seat in parliament. He was elected for Launceston 
in the following month, and in November exchanged this seat 



for the Isle of Wight, which he continued to represent until his 
elevation to the House of Lords. Except under the brief Glad- 
stone administration of 1886, and the Gladstone-Rosebery 
cabinet of 1892-1895, Sir Richard Webster was attorney-general 
from 1885 to 1900. In 1890 he was leading counsel for The 
Times in the Parnell inquiry; in 1893 he represented Great 
Britain in the Bering Sea arbitration; in 1898 he discharged 
the same function in the matter of the boundary between ' 
British Guiana and Venezuela; and in 1903 was one of the 
members of the Alaska Boundary Commission. He was well 
known as an athlete in his earlier years, having represented his 
university as a runner, and his interest in cricket and foot-racing 
was kept up in later life. In the House of Commons, and outside 
it, he was throughout his political career prominently associated 
with church work; and his speeches were distinguished for 
gravity and earnestness. In 1900 he succeeded Sir Nathaniel 
Lindley as Master of the Rolls, being raised to the peerage as 
Baron Alverstone, and in October of the same year he was 
elevated to the office of lord chief justice upon the death of Lord 
Russell of Killowen. 

ALWAR, or ULWAR, a native state of India in the Rajputana 
agency. It is bounded on the E. by the state of Bharatpur and 
the British district of Gurgaon, on the N. by Gurgaon district 
and the state of Patiala, on the W. by the states of Nabha and 
Jaipur, and on the S. by the state of Jaipur. Its configuration 
is irregular, the greatest length from north to south being about 
80 m., and breadth from east to west about 60 m., with a total 
area of 3141 sq. m. The eastern portion of the state is open and 
highly cultivated; the western is diversified by hills and peaks, 
which form a continuation of the Aravalli range, from 12 to 20 
m. in breadth. These hills run in rocky and precipitous parallel 
ridges, in some places upwards of 2200 ft. in height. The Sabhi 
river flows through the north-western part of the state, the only 
other stream of importance being the Ruparel, which rises in 
the Alwar hills, and flows through the state into the Bharatpur 
territory. The population in 1901 was 828,487, showing an 
increase of 8 % during the decade. When compared with a 
heavy decrease elsewhere throughout Rajputana, this increase 
may be attributed to the successful administration of famine 
relief, under British officials. The revenue is 185,000. The 
maharaja Jai Singh, who succeeded in 1892 at the age of ten, 
was educated at the Mayo college, where he excelled both in 
sports and in knowledge of English. He came of age in 1903, 
when he was invested by the viceroy with full ruling powers. 
Alwar was the first native state to accept a currency struck at 
the Calcutta mint, of the same weight and assay as the imperial 
rupee, with the head of the British sovereign on the obverse. 
Imperial service troops are maintained, consisting of both 
cavalry and infantry, with transport. The state is traversed 
by the Delhi branch of the Rajputana railway. A settlement 
of the land revenue has been carried out by an English civilian. 

The state was founded by Pratap Singh (1740-1791), a Rajput 
of ancient lineage, and increased by his adopted son Bakhtawar 
Singh. The latter joined the British against the Mahrattas, and 
in 1803, after the battle of Laswari (Nov. i), signed a treaty of 
offensive and defensive alliance with the British government. 
In 1811, owing to his armed intervention in Jaipur, a fresh 
engagement was made, prohibiting him from political intercourse 
with other states without British consent. In 1857 the raja 
Binni Singh sent a force of Mussulmans and Rajputs to relieve 
the British garrison in Agra; the Mussulmans, however, 
deserted, and the rest were defeated by the mutineers. 

The CITY OF ALWAR has a railway station on the Rajputana 
line, 98 m. from Delhi; pop. (1901) 56,771, showing a 
steady increase. It stands in a valley overhung by a fortress 
1000 ft. above. It is surrounded by a rampart and moat, with 
five gates, and contains fine palaces, temples and tombs. The 
water-supply is brought from a lake 9 m. distant. It has a high 
school, affiliated to the Allahabad university; and a school for 
the sons of nobles, founded to commemorate the Diamond 
Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The Lady Dufferin hospital is under 
the charge of an English lady doctor, with two female assistants. 



776 



ALYATTES AMADIS DE GAULA 



ALYATTES, king of Lydia (609-560 B.C.), the real founder of 
the Lydian empire, was the son of Sadyattes, of the house of the 
Mermnadae. For several years he continued the war against 
Miletus begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention 
to the Medes and Babylonians. On the 28th of May 585, during 
a battle on the Halys between him and Cyaxares, king of Media, 
an eclipse of the sun took place; hostilities were suspended, 
peace concluded, and the Halys fixed as the boundary between 
the two kingdoms. Alyattes drove the Cimmerii (see SCYTHIA) 
from Asia, subdued the Carians, and took several Ionian cities 
(Smyrna, Colophon). He was succeeded by his son Croesus. 
His tomb still exists on the plateau between lake Gygaea and the 
river Hermus to the north of Sardis a large mound of earth 
with a substructure of huge stones. It was excavated by 
Spiegelthal in 1854, who found that it covered a large vault of 
finely-cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of 
the same stone from the south. The sarcophagus and its contents 
had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb, all that was 
left being some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal. 
On the summit of the mound were large phalli of stone. 

See A. von Olfers, "Uber die lydischen Konigsgraber bei Sardes," 
Abh. Berl. Ak., 1858. 

ALYPIUS, a Greek writer on music whose works, with those of 
six others, were collected and published with a commentary and 
explanatory notes (Antiquae Musicae Auctores Septem, Amstel., 
1652), by Mark Meibomius (1630-1711). He is said to have 
written before Euclid and Ptolemy; and Cassiodorus arranges 
his Introduction to Music between those of Nicomachus and 
Gaudentius. The work consists solely of a list of symbols of the 
various scales and modes, and is probably only a fragment. 

ALYPIUS or ANTIOCH, a geographer of the 4th century, who 
was sent by the emperor Julian into Britain as first prefect, and 
was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem. 
Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to 
Alypius; one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a 
geographical treatise, which no longer exists. 

See also Ammiunus Marcellinus xxiii. I, 2. 

ALYTES, the midwife toad, first discovered by P. Demours 
in 1741, on the border of a small pond in the Jardin des Plantes, 
in the very act of parturition which has rendered it famous, 
and described as Petit crapaud mAle accoucheur de sa femelle. 
Alytes obstetricans is of special interest as the first known example 
of paternal solicitude in Batrachians, and although many no less 
wonderful cases of nursing instinct have since been revealed to 
us, it remains the only one among European forms. 

Alytes obstetricans is a small toad-like Batrachian, two inches 
in length, of dull greyish coloration, plump form with warty skin 
and large eyes with vertical pupils. Although toad-like it is not 
really related to the toads proper, but belongs to the family 
Discoglossidae, characterized by a circular, adherent tongue, 
teeth in the upper jaw and on the palate, short but distinct ribs 
on the anterior vertebrae, and convex-concave vertebrae. It 
inhabits France, Belgium, Switzerland, Western Germany (east- 
wards to the Weser), Spain and Portugal. A second species, 
A . cisternasii, occurs in Spain and Portugal. 

Alytes is nocturnal and slow in its movements. It is thoroughly 
terrestrial, selecting for its retreat in the daytime holes made by 
small mammals, or interstices between stones. Towards evening 
it reveals its presence by a clear whistling note, which has often 
been compared to the sound of a little bell, or to a chime when 
produced by numerous individuals. The breeding season lasts 
throughout spring and summer, and the female is able to spawn 
two, three or even four times in the year. Pairing and oviposition 
take place on land; the male seizes the female round the waist. 
The eggs are large and yellow, and produced in two rosary-like 
strings, as if strung together by elastic filaments continuous with 
the gelatinous capsules. After impregnation, the male twists 
them round his legs and returns to his usual retreat, going about 
at night in order to feed himself and to keep up the moisture of 
the eggs, even resorting to a short immersion in the water during 
exceptionally dry nights. The development of the embryo 
within the egg takes about three weeks. When the time for 



eclosion has come, the male enters the water with his burden; 
the larvae, in the full tadpole condition, measuring 14 to 17 
millimetres, bite their way through their tough envelope, which 
is not abandoned by the father until all the young are liberated, 
and complete in the ordinary way their metamorphosis. The 
tadpoles grow to a large size considering that of the adult, the 
body equalling in size a sparrow's or even a small pigeon's egg, 
and they often remain more than a year in that condition. 

See A. de 1'Isle, " Memoire sur les moeurs et 1'accouchement de 
1' Alytes obstetricans," Ann. Sci. Nat. (6) iii. 1876; G. A. Boulenger, 
Tailless Batrachians of Europe (Ray Society, 1897). (G. A. B7) 

ALZEY, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, 18 m. S. of Mainz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6893. There 
are a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, several high- 
grade schools and a teachers' seminary. Alzey has industries of 
dyeing and weaving, breweries, and does a considerable trade in 
wine. It is immortalized in the Nibelungenlied in the person of 
" Volker von Alzeie," the warrior who in the last part of the epic 
plays a part second only to that of Hagen, and who " was called 
the minstrel (spilman) because he could fiddle." It became an 
imperial city in 1277. In 1620 it was sacked by the Spaniards 
and in 1689 burnt by the French. Annexed to France during 
the Napoleonic wars, it passed in 1815 to the grand-duchy of 
Hesse-Darmstadt. 

ALZOG, JOHANN BAPTIST (1808-1878), German theologian, 
was born at Ohlau, in Silesia, on the 29th of June 1808. He 
studied at Breslau and Bonn and was ordained priest at Cologne 
in 1834. In the following year he accepted the chairs of exegesis 
and church history at the seminary of Posen. He removed in 
1844 to Hildesheim, where he had been appointed rector of the 
seminary. He became professor of church history at the 
university of Freiburg in the Breisgau in 1853 and held that 
post till his death on the ist of March 1878. Together with 
Dollinger, Alzog was instrumental in convoking the famous 
Munich assembly of Catholic scholars in 1863. He also took 
part, with Bishops Hefele and Haseberg, in the preparatory work 
of the Vatican Council and voted in favour of the doctrine 
of papal infallibility but against the opportuneness of its 
promulgation. Alzog's fame rests mainly on his Handbuch der 
Universal-Kirchengeschichte (Mainz, 1841, often reprinted under 
various titles; Eng. trans, by Pabisch and Byrne, A Manual 
of Church History, 4 vols. Cincinnati, 1874). Based upon the 
foundations laid by Mohler, this manual was generally accepted 
as the best exposition of Catholic views, in opposition to the 
Protestant manual by C. A. Hase, and was translated into 
several languages. Besides a host of minor writings on ecclesi- 
astical subjects, and an active collaboration in the great Kirchen- 
lexicon of Wetzer and Welte,Alzog was also the author of Grundriss 
der Patrologie (Freiburg, 1866, 4th ed. 1888), a scholarly work, 
though now superseded by that of O. Bardenhewer. 

A full list of Alzog's writings is given in H. Hurter's Nomenclator 
literarius recentioris theologiae catholicae, vol. iii. For an account 
of his life see the funeral oration by F. X. Kraus, entitled: 
Gedachtnissrede auf Johannes Alzog (Freiburg, 1879). 

AMADfS DE GAULA. This famous romance of chivalry 
survives only in a Castilian text, but it is claimed by Portugal 
as well as by Spain. The date of its composition, the name of its 
author, and the language in which it was originally written 
are not yet settled. It is not even certain when the romance was 
first printed, for though the oldest known edition (a unique copy 
of which is in the British Museum) appeared at Saragossa in 
1508, it is highly probable that Amadis was in print before this 
date: an edition is reported to have been issued at Seville in 
1496. As it exists in Spanish, Amadis de Gaula consists of four 
books, the last of which is generally believed to be by the regidor 
of Medina del Campo, Garci Rodriguez de Montalvo (whose 
name is given as Garci Ordonez de Montalvo in all editions of 
Amadis later than that of 1508, and as Garci Guti6rrez de 
Montalvo in some editions of the Sergas de Esplandian). 
Montalvo alleges that the first three books were arranged and 
corrected by him from " the ancient originals," and a reference 
in the prologue to the siege of Granada points to the conclusion 
that the Spanish recast was made shortly after 1492; it is 



AMADOU AMALASUNTHA 



777 



possible, however, that the prologue alone was written after 1492, 
and that the text itself is older. The number of these "ancient 
originals " is not stated, nor is there any mention of the language 
in which they were composed; Montalvo's silence on the latter 
point might be taken to imply that they were in Castilian, but 
any such inference would be hazardous. Three books of Amadis 
de Gaula are mentioned by Pero Ferrus who was living in 1379, 
and there is evidence that the romance was current in Castile 
more than a quarter of a century earlier; but again there is no 
information as to the language in which they were written. Gomes 
Eannes de Azurara, in his Chronica de Conde D. Pedro de Menezes 
(c. 1450), states that Amadis de Gaula was written by Vasco de 
Lobeira in the time of king Ferdinand of Portugal who died in 
1383: as Vasco de Lobeira was knighted in 1385, it would follow 
that he wrote the elaborate romance in his earliest youth. This 
conclusion is untenable, and the suggestion that the author was 
Pedro de Lobeira (who flourished in the isth century) involves 
a glaring anachronism. A further step was taken by the historian 
Joao de Barros, who maintained in an unpublished work dating 
between 1540 and 1550 that Vasco de Lobeira wrote Amadis de 
Gaula in Portuguese, and that his text was translated into 
Castilian; this is unsupported assertion. Towards the end of 
the i6th century Miguel Leite Ferreira, son of the Portuguese 
poet, Antonio Ferreira, declared that the original manuscript of 
Amadis de Gaula was then in the Aveiro archives, and an Amadis 
de Gaula in Portuguese, which is alleged to have existed in the 
conde de Vimeiro's library as late as 1586, had vanished before 
1726. In the absence of corroboration, these dubious details 
must be received with extreme reserve. A stronger argument 
in favour of the Portuguese case is drawn from the existing 
Spanish text. In book I, chapters 40 and 42, it is recorded that 
the Infante Alphonso of Portugal suggested a radical change in 
the narrative of Briolanja's relations with Amadis. This prince 
has been identified as the Infante Alphonso who died in 1312, or 
as Alphonso IV. who ascended the Portuguese throne in 1325. 
Were either of these identifications established, the date of com- 
position might be referred with certainty to the beginning of the 
i4th century or the end of the I3th. But both identifications 
are conjectural. Nevertheless the passage in the Spanish text 
undeniably lends some support to the Portuguese claim, and 
recent critics have inclined to the belief that Amadis de Gaula 
was written by Joao de Lobeira, a Galician knight who frequented 
the Portuguese court between 1258 and 1285, and to whom are 
ascribed two fragments of a poem in the Colocci-Brancuti 
Camoniere (Nos. 240 and 240*"), which reappears with some 
unimportant variants in Amadis de Gaula (book II, chapter n). 
The coincidence may be held to account in some measure for the 
traditional association of a Lobeira with the authorship of Amadis 
de Gaula; but, though curious, it warrants no definite conclusion 
being drawn from it. Against the Portuguese claim it is argued 
that the Villancico corresponding to Joao de Lobeiro's poem is an 
interpolation in the Spanish text, that Portuguese prose was in 
a rudimentary stage of development at the period when ex 
hypothesi the romance was composed, and that the book was 
very popular in Spain almost a century before it is even mentioned 
in Portugal. Lastly, there is the incontrovertible fact that A midis 
de Gaula exists in Castilian, while it remains to be proved that it 
ever existed in Portuguese. As to its substance, it is beyond 
dispute that much of the text derives from the French romances 
of the Round Table; but the evidence does not enable us to say 

(1) whether it was pieced together from various French romances; 

(2) whether it was more or less literally translated from a lost 
French original; or (3) whether the first Peninsular adapter or 
translator was a Castilian or a Portuguese. On these points 
judgment must be suspended. There can, however, be no 
hesitation in accepting Cervantes' verdict on Amadis de Gaula as 
the " best of all the books of this kind that have ever been 
written." It is the prose epic of feudalism, and its romantic 
spirit, its high ideals, its fantastic gallantry, its ingenious 
adventures, its mechanism of symbolic wonders, and its flowing 
style have entranced readers of such various types as Francis I. 
and Charles V., Ariosto and Montaigne. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. Carolina MichaelisdeVasconcellos and Gottfried 
Baist in the Grundriss der romanischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1 897 ) , ii . 
Band, 2. Abteilung, pp. 216-226 and 440-442; Ludwig Braunfels, 
Kritischer Versuch iiber den Roman Amadis von Gallien (Leipzig, 
1876) ; Theophilo Braga, Historia das novelas portuguezas de cavatlena 
(Porto, 1873), Curso de litteratura e arte porlugueza (Lisboa, 1881), 
and Questdes de litteratura e arte portugueza (Lisboa, 1885) ; Marcelino 
Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela (Madrid, 1905) ; Eugene 
Baret, De t Amadis de Cattle et de son influence sur les mceurs et la 
litterature au XVI' et au XVII' siecle (Paris, 1873). (J. F. -K.) 

AMADOU, a soft tough substance used as tinder, derived 
from Polyporus fomentarius, a fungus belonging to the group 
Basidiomycetes and somewhat resembling a mushroom in manner 
of growth. It grows upon old trees, especially the oak, ash, 
fir and cherry. The fungus is cut into slices and then steeped in 
a solution of nitre. Amadou is prepared on the continent of 
Europe, chiefly in Germany, but the fungus is a native of Britain. 
Polyporus igniarius and other species are also used, but yield an 
inferior product. 

AMAKUSA, an island belonging to Japan, 26^ m. long and 
135 in extreme width, situated about 32 20' N., and 130 E. 
long., on the west of the province of Higo (island of Kiushiu), 
from which it is separated by the Yatsushiro-kai. It has no 
high mountains, but its surface being very hilly four of the 
peaks rise to a height over 1500 ft. the natives resort to the 
terrace system of cultivation with remarkable success. A 
number of the heads of the Christians executed in connexion 
with the Shimabara rebellion in the first half of the i;th century 
were buried in this island. Amakusa produces a little coal 
and fine kaolin, which was largely used in former times by the 
potters of Hirado and Satsuma. 

AMAL, the name of the noblest family among the Ostrogoths, 
and that from which nearly all their kings were chosen. 

AMALARIC (d. 531), king of the Visigoths, son of Alaric II., 
was a child when his father fell in battle against Clovis, king of 
the Franks (507). He was carried for safety into Spain, which 
country and Provence were thenceforth ruled by his maternal 
grandfather, Theodoric the Ostrogoth, acting through his vice- 
gerent, an Ostrogothic nobleman named Theudis. In 522 the 
young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on 
Theodoric's death, he assumed full royal power in Spain and a 
part of Languedoc, relinquishing Provence to his cousin Atha- 
laric. He married Clotilda, daughter of Clovis; but his disputes 
with her, he being an Arian and she a Catholic, brought on him 
the penalty of a Prankish invasion, in which he lost his life in 531. 

AMALASUNTHA or AMALASUENTHA, queen of the Ostrogoths 
(d. 535), daughter of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, was 
married in 515 to Eutharic, an Ostrogoth of the old Amal line, 
who had previously been living in Spain. Her husband died, 
apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with 
two children, Athalaric;and Matasuentha., '.On the death of her 
father in 526, she succeeded him, acting as regent for her son, 
but being herself deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, 
she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary 
turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious 
of her unpopularity she banished, and afterwards put to death, 
three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of intriguing against her 
rule, and at the same time opened negotiations with the emperor 
Justinian with the view of removing herself and the Gothic 
treasure to Constantinople. [Her son's death in 534 made but 
little change in the posture of affairs. Amalasuntha, now queen, 
with a view of strengthening her position, made her cousin 
Theodahad partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her 
husband, for his wife was still living). The choice was un- 
fortunate. Theodahad, notwithstanding a varnish of literary 
culture, was a coward and a scoundrel. He fostered the dis- 
affection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his 
permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned on an island in the 
Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where in the spring of 535 she was 
murdered in her bath. 

The letters of Cassiodprus, chief minister and literary adviser of 
Amalasuntha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanes, give us, 
our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha. 



AMALEKITES AMALRIC 



AMALEKITES, an ancient tribe, or collection of tribes, in 
the south and south-east of Palestine, often mentioned in the 
Old Testament as foes of the Israelites. They were regarded 
as a branch of the Edomites (Gen. xxxvi. 12, see EDOM), and 
appear to have numbered among their divisions the Kenites. 
When the Israelites were journeying from Egypt to the land of 
Canaan, the Amalekites are said to have taken advantage of 
their weak condition to harry the stragglers in the rear, and as a 
judgment for their hostility it was ordained that their memory 
should be blotted out from under heaven (Deut. xxv. 17-19). 
An allusion to this appears in the account of Israel's defeat on 
the occasion of the attempt to force a passage from Kadesh 
through Hormah, evidently into Palestine (Num. xiv. 43-43, 
cp. Deut. i. 44-46). The statements are obscure, and elsewhere 
Hormah is the scene of a victory over the Canaanites by Israel 
(Num. xxi. 1-3), or by the tribes Judah and Simeon (Judg. i. 17). 
The question is further complicated by the account of Joshua's 
overthrow of Amalek apparently in the Sinaitic peninsula. The 
event was commemorated by the erection of the altar " Yahweh- 
nissi " (" Yahweh my banner " or " memorial "), and rendered 
even more memorable by the utterance, " Yahweh hath sworn: 
Yahweh will have war with Amalek from generation to genera- 
tion " (Ex. xvii. 8-16, on its present position, see EXODUS 
[BOOK]). The same sentiment recurs in Yahweh's command to 
Saul to destroy Amalek utterly for its hostility to Israel (i Sam. 
xv.), and in David's retaliatory expedition when he distributed 
among his friends the spoil of the " enemies of Yahweh " (xxx. 
26). Saul himself, according to one tradition, was slain by an 
Amalekite (2 Sam. i., contrast i Sam. xxxi.). A similar spirit 
appears among the prophecies ascribed to Balaam: " Amalek, 
first (or chief) of nations, his latter end [will be] destruction " 
(Num. xxiv. 20). 

The district of Amalek lay to the south of Judah (cp. i Chron. 
iv. 42 seq.), probably between Kadesh and Hormah (cp. Gen. 
xiv. 7; i Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8), and the interchange of the 
ethnic with " Canaanites " and " Amorites " suggests that the 
Amalekites are merely one of Israel's traditional enemies of the 
older period. Hence we find them taking part with Ammonites 
and Midianites (Judg. iii. 13, vi. 3), and their king Agag, slain 
by Samuel as a sacrificial offering (i Sam. xv. 9), was a byword 
for old-time might and power (Num. xxiv. 7). Even in one of 
the Psalms (Ixxxiii. 7) Amalek is mentioned among the enemies 
of Israel just as Greek writers of the 6th century of this era 
applied the old term Scythians to the Goths (Noldeke), and 
the traditional hostility between Saul and Amalek is reflected 
still later in the book of Esther where Haman the Agagite is 
pitted against Mordecai the Benjamite. 

Twice Amalek seems to be mentioned as occupying central 
Palestine (Judg. v. 14, xii. 15), but the passages are textually un- 
certain. The name is celebrated in Arabian tradition, but the 
statements regarding them are confused and conflicting, and for 
historical purposes are practically worthless, as has been proved by 
Th. Noldeke (Ueber die Amalekiter, Gottingen, 1864). On the 
biblical data, see also E. Meyer, Die Israelite*, (Index, s.v.~). 

(S. A. C.) 

AMALFI, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, 
in the province of Salerno, from the town of which name it is 
distant 12 m. W.S.W. by road, on the N. coast of the Gulf of 
Salerno. Pop. (1901) 6681. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine, 
in a sheltered situation, at the foot of Monte Cerreto (4314 ft.), 
in the centre of splendid coast scenery, and is in consequence 
much visited by foreigners. The cathedral of S. Andrea is a 
structure in the Lombard-Norman style, of the nth century; 
the facade in black and white stone was well restored in 1891; 
the bronze doors were executed at Constantinople before 1066. 
The campanile dates from 1276. The interior is also fine, and 
contains ancient columns and sarcophagi. The conspicuous 
Capuchin monastery on the W. with fine cloisters (partly de- 
stroyed by a landslip in 1899) is now used as an hotel. Amalfi 
is first mentioned in the 6th century ,and soon acquired importance 
as a naval power; in the 9th century it shared with Venice 
and Gaeta the Italian trade with the East, and in 848 its fleet 
went to the assistance of Pope Leo IV. against the Saracens. 



It was then an independent republic with a population of some 
70,000, but in 1131 it was reduced by King Roger of Sicily. In 
1135 and 1137 it was taken by the Pisans, and rapidly declined 
in importance, though its maritime code, known as the Tavole 
Amalfitane, was recognized in the Mediterranean until 1570. In 
1343 a large part of the town was destroyed by an inundation, 
and its harbour is now of little importance. Its industries too, 
have largely disappeared, and the paper manufacture has lost 
ground since 1861. 

AMALGAM, the name applied to alloys which contain mercury. 
It is said by Andreas Libavius to be a corruption of /mXary /ua; 
in the alchemists the form algamala is also found. Many amal- 
gams are formed by the direct contact of a metal with mercury, 
sometimes with absorption, sometimes with evolution, of heat. 
Other methods are to place the metal and mercury together 
in dilute acid, to add mercury to the solution of a metallic 
salt, to place a metal in a solution of mercuric nitrate, 
or to electrolyse a metallic salt using mercury as the negative 
electrode. Some amalgams are liquids, especially when contain- 
ing a large proportion of mercury; others assume a crystalline 
form. In some cases definite compounds have been isolated from 
amalgams which may be regarded as mixtures of one or more 
of such compounds with mercury in excess. In general these 
compounds are decomposable by heat, but some of them, such 
as those of gold, silver, copper and the alkali metals, even 
when heated above the boiling point of mercury retain mercury 
and leave residues of definite composition. Tin amalgam is 
used for " silvering " mirrors, gold and silver amalgam in gilding 
and silvering, cadmium and copper amalgam in dentistry, and 
an amalgam of zinc and tin for the rubbers of electrical machines ; 
the zinc plates of electric batteries are amalgamated hi order 
to reduce polarization. 

AMALRIC, the name of two kings of Jerusalem. 

AMALRIC I., king from 1162 to 1174, was the son of Fulk of 
Jerusalem, and the brother of Baldwin III. He was twice 
married: by his first wife, Agnes of Edessa, he had issue a 
son and a daughter, Baldwin IV. and Sibylla, while his second 
wife, Maria Comnena, bore him a daughter Isabella, who ulti- 
mately carried the crown of Jerusalem to her fourth husband, 
Amalric of Lusignan (Amalric II.). The reign of Amalric I. 
was occupied by the Egyptian problem. It became a question 
between Amalric and Nureddin, which of the two should control 
the discordant viziers, who vied with one another for the control 
of the decadent caliphs of Egypt. The acquisition of Egypt had 
been an object of the Franks since the days of Baldwin I. (and 
indeed of Godfrey himself, who had promised to cede Jerusalem to 
the patriarch Dagobert as soon as he should himself acquire 
Cairo). The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III. in 1153 made 
this object more feasible; and we find the Hospitallers preparing 
sketch-maps of the routes best suited for an invasion of Egypt, 
in the style of a modern war office. On the other hand, it was 
natural for Nureddin to attempt to secure Egypt, both because 
it was the terminus of the trading route which ran from Damascus 
and because the acquisition of Egypt would enable him to surround 
the Latin kingdom. For some five years a contest was waged 
between Amalric and Shirguh (Shirkuh), the lieutenant of 
Nureddin, for the possession of Egypt. Thrice (1164,1167,1168) 
Amalric penetrated into Egypt: but the contest ended in the 
establishment of Saladin, the nephew of Shirguh, as vizier 
a position which, on the death of the puppet caliph in 1171, 
was turned into that of sovereign. The extinction of the Latin 
kingdom might now seem imminent; and envoys were sent to 
the West with anxious appeals for assistance in 1169, 1171 and 
1173. But though in 1170 Saladin attacked the kingdom, and 
captured Aila on the Red Sea, the danger was not so great as it 
seemed. Nureddin was jealous of his over-mighty subject, 
and his jealousy bound Saladin's hands. This was the position of 
affairs when Amalric died, in 1174; but, as Nureddin died in the 
same year, the position was soon altered and Saladin began 
the final attack on the kingdom. Amalric I., the second of the 
native kings of Jerusalem, had the qualities of his brother 
Baldwin III. (q.v.). He was something of a scholar, and it was 



AMALRIC AMANA 



779 



he who set William of Tyre to work. He was perhaps still more 
of a lawyer: his delight was in knotty points of the law, and he 
knew the Assises better than any of his subjects. The Church 
had some doubts of him, and he laid his hands on the Church. 
William of Tyre was once astonished to find him questioning, 
on a bed of sickness, the resurrection of the body; and his taxa- 
tion of clerical goods gave umbrage to the clergy generally. 
But he maintained the state of his kingdom with the resources 
which he owed to the Church; and he is the last in the fine list 
of the early kings of Jerusalem. 

William of Tyre is our original authority: see xix. 2-3 for his 
sketch of Amalric. Rohricht narrates the reign of Amalric I., 
Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem, c. xvii.-xviii. . 

Amalric II., king from 1197 to 1205, was the brother of Guy 
of Lusignan. He had been constable of Jerusalem, but in 1194, 
on the death of his brother, he became king of Cyprus, as 
Amalric I. He married Isabella, the daughter of Amalric I. 
by his second marriage, and became king of Jerusalem in right 
of his wife in 1197. In 1198 he was, able to procure a five years' 
truce with the Mahommedans, owing to the struggle between 
Saladin's brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories. 
The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in 1204 it 
was renewed for six years. Amalric died in 1205, just after his 
son and just before his wife. The kingdom of Cyprus passed 
to Hugh, his son by an earlier marriage, while that of Jerusalem 
passed to Maria, the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage 
with Conrad of Montferrat. (E. BR.) 

AMALRIC (Fr. AMAURY) OF BENA (d.c. 1204-1207), French 
theologian, was born in the latter part of the i2th century at 
Bena, a village in the diocese of Chartres. He taught philosophy 
and theology at the university of Paris and enjoyed a great 
reputation as a subtle dialectician; his lectures developing the 
philosophy of Aristotle attracted a large circle of hearers. In 
1204 his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on 
a personal appeal to Pope Innocent III., the sentence was ratified, 
Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors. 
His death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to 
which he had been subjected. In 1 209 ten of his followers were 
burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was 
exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds. The 
doctrines of his followers, known as the Amalricians, were 
formally condemned by the fourth La teran Council in 1215. 
Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from 
Erigena (#..), whose principles he developed in a one-sided and 
strongly pantheistic form. Three propositions only can with 
certainty be attributed to him: (i) that God is all; (2) that 
every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the 
body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation: 
(3) that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin. These 
three propositions were further developed by his followers, who 
maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation, 
the first in Abraham, marking the epoch of the Father; the 
second in Christ, who began the epoch of the Son; and the third 
in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the era of the Holy 
Ghost. Under the pretext that a true believer could commit no 
sin, the Amalricians indulged in every excess, and the sect does 
not appear to have long survived the death of its founder. 

See W. Preger, Geschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter 
(Leipzig, 1874, i- 167-173); Haureau, Hist, de la phil. seal. (Paris, 
1872) ; C. Schmidt, Hist, de 1'f.glise ^Occident pendant le moyen age 
(Paris, 1885) ; Hefele, Conciliengesch. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1886). 

AMALTEO, the name of an Italian family belonging to Oderzo, 
Treviso, several members of which were distinguished in literature. 
The best known are three brothers, Geronimo (1507-1574), 
Giambattista ( 1 5 2 5-1 573) and Cornelio ( 1 530-1 603) , whose Latin 
poems were published in one collection under the title Trium 
Fratrum Amaltheorum Carmina (Venice, 1627; Amst, 1689). 
The eldest brother, Geronimo, was a celebrated physician; the 
second, Giambattista, accompanied a Venetian embassy to 
England in 1554, and was secretary to Pius IV. at the council of 
Trent; the third, Cornelio, was a physician and secretary to the 
republic of Ragusa. 



AMALTEO, POMPONIO (1505-1584), Italian painter of the 
Venetian school, was born at San Vito in Friuli. He was a pupil 
and son-in-law of Pordenone, whose style he closely imitated. 
His works consist chiefly of frescoes and altar-pieces and many 
of them (e.g. in the church of Santa Maria de' Battisti, at San 
Vito) have suffered greatly from the ravages of time. 

AMALTHEIA, in Greek mythology, the foster-mother of Zeus. 
She is sometimes represented as the goat which suckled the 
infant-god in a cave in Crete, sometimes as a nymph of uncertain 
parentage (daughter of Oceanus, Haemonius, Olen, Melisseus), 
who brought him up on the milk of a goat. This goat having 
broken off one of its horns, Amaltheia .filled it with flowers and 
fruits and presented it to Zeus, who placed it together with the 
goat amongst the stars. According to another story, Zeus 
himself broke off the horn and gave it to Amaltheia, promising 
that it would supply whatever she desired in abundance. 
Amaltheia gave it to Achelous (her reputed brother), who 
exchanged it for his own horn which had been broken off in his 
contest with Heracles for the possession of Deianeira. According 
to ancient mythology, the owners of the horn were many and 
various. Speaking generally, it was regarded as the symbol of 
inexhaustible riches and plenty, and became the attribute of 
various divinities (Hades, Gaea, Demeter, Cybele, Hermes), and 
of rivers (the Nile) as fertilizers of the land. The term " horn of 
Amaltheia " is applied to a fertile district, and an estate belonging 
to Titus Pomponius Atticus was called Amaltheum. Cretan 
coins represent the infant Zeus being suckled by the goat; other 
Greek coins exhibit him suspended from its teats or carried in the 
arms of a nymph (Ovid, Fasti, v. 115; Metam. ix. 87). 

AMANA, a township in Iowa county, Iowa, U.S.A., 19 m. 
S.W. (by rail) of Cedar Rapids. Pop. (1890) 1687; (1900) 
1748. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, 
and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The town- 
ship is the home of a German religious communistic society, 
the Amana Society, formerly the True Inspiration Society (so 
called from its belief in the present inspiration of the truly 
godly and perfectly pious), whose members h've in various 
villages near the Iowa river. These villages are named Amana, 
West Amana, South Amana, East Amana, Middle Amana, High 
Amana and Homestead. The houses are of brick or unpainted 
wood. The society has in all 26,000 acres of land, of which 
about 10,000 acres are covered with forests. The principal 
occupation of the members is farming, although they also have 
woollen mills (their woollens being of superior quality), a cotton 
print factory, flour mills, saw mills and dye shops. Each family 
has its own dwelling-place and a small garden; each member 
of a family has an annual allowance of credit at the common 
store and a room in the dwelling-house; and each group of 
families has a large garden, a common kitchen and a common 
dining-hall where men and women eat at separate tables. 
Between the ages of five and fourteen education is compulsory 
for the entire year. In the schools nature study and manual 
training are prominent; German is used throughout and 
English is taught in upper classes only. No man is permitted 
to marry until twenty-four years of age, and no woman until 
twenty. The society's views and practices are nearly related 
to the teachings of Schwenkfeld and Boehme. Baptism is not 
practised; the Lord's Supper is celebrated only once in two 
years; foot- washing is held as a sacrament. At an annual 
spiritual examination of the members, there are mutual criti- 
cisms and public confessions of sin. The Inspirationists are 
opposed to war and to taking of oaths. The Society became 
attached to the Separatist leader, Eberhard Ludwig Gruber 
(d. 1728) in Wetterau in 1714; in 1842-1844 about 600 members, 
led by Christian Metz, the " divine instrument " of the Society, 
emigrated from Germany to the United States and settled in a 
colony called Ebenezer, in Erie county, near Buffalo, N.Y.; 
in 1855 the colony began to remove to its present home, which 
it named from the mountain mentioned in the Song of Solomon, 
iv. 8, the Hebrew word meaning " remain true " (or, more 
probably, " fixed "), and in 1859 it was incorporated under the 
name of the Amana Society. Metz died in 1864 and was 



y8o 



AMANITA AMARAPURA 



succeeded by Barbara Landmann, since whose death in 1884 the 
community has lacked an inspired leader. Amana was the 
strongest in numbers of the few sectarian communities in 
America which outlived the igth century. A few new members 
have joined the community from Switzerland and Germany in 
recent years. In 1905 the community won a suit brought 
against it for its dissolution on the ground that, having been 
incorporated solely as a benevolent and religious body, it was 
illegally carrying on a general business. 

See W. R. Perkins and B. L. Wick, History of the Amana Society 
or Community of True Inspiration, Historical Monograph, No. I, in 
State University of Iowa publications (Iowa City, 1891) ; R. T. Ely, 
"Amana: A Study of Religious Communism," in Harper's Maga- 
zine for October 1902; and Bertha M. H. Shambaugh, Amana, the 
Community of True Inspiration (Iowa City, 1908). 

AMANITA. The amanitas include some of the most showy 
representatives of the Agaricineae or mushroom order of fungi 
(q.v.). In the first stages of growth, they are completely en- 
veloped by an outer covering called the veil. As the plant 
develops the veil is ruptured; the lower portion forms a sheath 
or volva round the base of the stem, while the upper portion 
persists as white patches or scales or warts on the surface of 
the cap. The stem usually bears an upper ring of tissue, the 
B C 






Amanita muscaria. 

A, the young plant. g, the gills. 

B, the mature plant. a, the annulus, or remnant of 

C, longitudinal section of mature velum partiale. 

plant. v, remains of volva or velum 

p, the pileus. universale. s, the stalk, 

remains of an inner veil, that stretched from the stem to the 
edge of the cap and broke away from the cap as the latter 
expanded. The presence of the volva, and the clear white gills 
and spores, distinguish this genus from all other agarics. They 
are beautiful objects in the autumn woods; Amanita muscaria, 
the fly fungus, formerly known as Agaricus muscarius, being 
especially remarkable by its bright red cap covered with white 
warts. Others are pure white or of varying shades of yellow 
or green. There are sixteen British species of Amanita; they 
grow on the ground in or near woods. Several of the species are 
very poisonous. 

AMANUENSIS (a Latin word, derived from the phrase servus 
a manu, slave of the hand, a secretary), one who writes, from 
dictation or otherwise, on behalf of another. 

AMAPALA, the only port on the Pacific coast of Honduras, 
on the northern shore of Tigre island, in the Bay of Fonseca 
(q.v.); in 13 3' N., and 87 9' W. Pop. (1905) about 4000. 
Amapala was founded in 1838, and its port was opened and 
declared free in 1868. The roadstead is perfectly sheltered 
and so deep that the largest vessels can lie within a few yards of 
the shore. It is the natural outlet for the commerce of some of 
the richest parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Salvador; and 
during the igth century it exported large quantities of gold, 
silver and other ores, although its progress was retarded by the 
delay in constructing a transcontinental railway from Puerto 
Cortes. Its depots on the mainland, both about 30 m. distant, 



are La Brea, for the line to Puerto Cortes, and San Lorenzo, for 
Tegucigalpa. Silver is still exported, in addition to hides, 
timber, coffee and indigo, and there are valuable fisheries. 

AMARANTH, or AMARANT (from the Gr. bnapavTos, un- 
withering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to 
certain plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality. 
Thus Milton (Paradise Lost, iii. 353) : 

" Immortal amarant, a flower which once 
In paradise, fast by the tree of life, 
Began to bloom ; but soon for man's offence 
To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows, 
And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life, 
And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven 
Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream : 
With these that never fade the spirits elect 
Bind their resplendent locks." 

It should be noted that the proper spelling of the word is 
amarant; the more common spelling seems to have come from 
a hazy notion that the final syllable is the Greek word ac#os, 
" flower," which enters into a vast number of botanical names. 
The plant genus Amarantus (natural order Amarantaceae) 
contains several well-known garden plants, such as love-lies- 
bleeding (A. caudatus), a native of India, a vigorous hardy 
annual, with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome droop- 
ing spikes. Another species A. hypochondriacus, is prince's 
feather, another Indian annual, with deeply-veined lance- 
shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson 
flowers densely packed on erect spikes. " Globe amaranth " 
belongs to an allied genus, Gomphrena, and is also a native of 
India. It is an annual about 18 in. high, with solitary round 
heads of flowers; the heads are violet from the colour of the 
bracts which surround the small flowers. 

In ancient Greece the amaranth (also called xpvaavOtiJav and 
eXtXpws) was sacred to Ephesian Artemis. It was supposed 
to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of immor- 
tality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In 
legend, Amarynthus (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of 
Artemis and king of Euboea; in a village of Amarynthus, of 
which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple 
of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. 

i- 3i, P- 5)- 

See Lenz, Botanik der alt. Griech. und Rom. (1859) ; J. Murr, Die 
Pflanzenwelt in der griech. My thai. (1890). 

AMARAPURA ("the city of the gods"), formerly the 
capital of the Burmese kingdom, now a suburb of Mandalay, 
Burma, with a population in 1901 of 9103. The town was 
founded in 1783 to form a new capital about 6 m. to the 
north-east of Ava. It increased rapidly in size and population, 
and in 1810 was estimated to contain 170,000 inhabitants; 
but in that year the town was destroyed by fire, and this disaster, 
together with the removal of the native court to Ava in 1823, 
caused a decline in the prosperity of the place. In 1827 its 
population was estimated at only 30,000. It suffered severe 
calamity from an earthquake, which in 1839 destroyed the 
greater part of the city. It was finally abandoned in 1860, 
when king Mindon occupied Mandalay, 5 or 6 m. farther 
north. Amarapura was laid out on much the same plan as Ava. 
The ruins of the city wall, now overgrown with jungle, show it to 
have been a square with a side of about three-quarters of a mile 
in length. At each corner stood a solid brick pagoda about i oo f t. 
high. The most remarkable edifice was a celebrated temple, 
adorned with 250 lofty pillars of gilt wood, and containing a 
colossal bronze statue of Buddha. The remains of the former 
palace of the Burmese monarchs still survive in the centre of the 
town. During the time of its prosperity Amarapura was defended 
by a rampart and a large square citadel, with a broad moat, the 
walls being 7000 ft. long and 20 ft. high, with a bastion at each 
corner. The Burmans know it now as Myohaung, " the old 
city." It has a station on the Rangoon-Mandalay railway, 
and is the junction for the line to Maymyo and the Kunlong 
ferry and for the Sagaing-Myitkyina railway. The group of 
villages called Amarapura by Europeans is known to the Burmans 
as Taung-myo, " the southern city," as distinguished from 
Mandalay, the Myauk-myo, or " northern city," 3 m. distant. 



AMARAR AMASIA 



781 



AMARAR, a tribe of African " Arabs " inhabiting the moun- 
tainous country on the west side of the Red Sea from 
Suakin northwards towards Kosseir. Between them and the 
Nile are the Ababda and Bisharin tribes and to their south 
dwell the Hadendoa. The country of the Amarar is called the 
Etbai. Their headquarters are in the Ariab district. The tribe 
is divided into four great families: (i) Weled Gwilei, (2) Weled 
Aliab, (3) Weled Kurbab Wagadab, and (4) the Amarar proper of 
the Ariab district. They claim to be of Koreish blood and to be 
the descendants of an invading Arab army. Possibly some 
small bands of Koreish Arabs may have made an inroad and 
converted some of the Amarar to Islam. Further than this 
there is little to substantiate their claim. 

See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 
1905) ; Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 
1891); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884). 

AMARA SINK A (c. A.D. 375), Sanskrit grammarian and poet, 
of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is 
said to Have been " one of the nine gems that adorned the throne 
of Vikramaditya," and according to the evidence of Hsiian 
Tsang, this is the Chandragupta Vikramaditya that flourished 
about A.D. 375. Amara seems to have been a Buddhist; and an 
early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were 
destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox 
Brahmins in the 5th century. The exception is the celebrated 
Amara- Kosha (Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanskrit 
roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda or 
the " Tripartite." It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, 
like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The 
first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in Tamil character 
in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and 
an index by H. T. Colebrooke, appeared at Serampore in 1808. 
The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French 
translation by A. L. A. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published 
at Paris in 1839. 

AMARI, MICHELE"(i8o6-i889), Italian orientalist and patriot, 
was born at Palermo. From his earliest youth he imbibed 
liberal principles from his relatives, especially from -his grand- 
father, and although at the age of fourteen he was appointed 
clerk in the Bourbon civil service, he joined the Carbonari like 
many other young Sicilians and actively sympathized with 
the revolution of 1820. The movement, which was separatist 
in its tendencies, was quickly suppressed, but the conspiracies 
continued, and Amari's father, implicated in that of 1822, was 
arrested and condemned to death together with many others; 
but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment, and in 1834 
he was liberated. Michele Amari still held his clerkship, but he 
regarded the Neapolitan government with increasing hatred, and 
he led a life of active physical exercise to train himself for the 
day of revolution. He devoted much of his time to the study 
of English and of history; his first literary essay was a translation 
of Sir Walter Scott's Marmion (1832), and in 1839 he published 
a work on the Sicilian Vespers, entitled Un Periodo delle storie 
Sidliane del XIII. secolo, filled with political allusions reflecting 
unfavourably on the government. The book had an immediate 
success and went through many editions, but it brought the 
author under the suspicion of the authorities, and in 1842 he 
escaped from a boat just as he was about to be arrested. He 
settled in Paris, where he came in contact with a number of 
literary men, such as Michelet and Thierry, as well as with the 
Italian exiles. Having no private means he had to earn a 
precarious livelihood by literature. He was much struck with 
certain French translations of Arabic works on Sicily,which awoke 
in him a desire to read the authors in the original. With the 
assistance of Prof. Reinaud and Baron de Slane he soon acquired 
great proficiency in Arabic, and his translations and editions of 
oriental texts, as well as his historical essays, made him a reputa- 
tion. In 1844 he began his great work La Storiadei Musulmani 
in Sicilia, but the revolution of 1848 plunged him into politics 
once more. His pamphlet, Quelques Observations sur le droit 
public de la Sidle, advocating the revival of the 1812 constitution 
for the island, met with great success, and on arriving at Palermo, 



whence the Bourbon government had been expelled, he was 
chosen member of the war committee and appointed professor 
of public law at the university. At the general elections Amari 
was returned for Palermo and became minister of finance in 
the Stabile cabinet. On its fall he was sent to Paris and London 
to try to obtain help for the struggling island; having failed in 
his mission he returned to Sicily in 1849, hoping to fight. But 
the Neapolitan troops had re-occupied the island, the Liberals 
were in disagreement among themselves, and Amari with several 
other notables with difficulty escaped to Malta. Characteristic 
of his scholarly nature is the fact that he delayed his flight to take 
the impress of an important Arabic inscription. He returned 
to Paris, sad and dejected at the collapse of the movement, and 
devoted himself once more to his Arabic studies. He published 
a work oh the chronology of the Koran, for which he received 
a prize from the Academic des Inscriptions, edited the Solwan el 
Mota by Ibn Zafer (a curious collection of philosophical thoughts) 
and Ibn Haukal's Description of Palermo, and in 1854 the first 
volume of his history of the Mahommedans in Sicily appeared. 
He received a meagre stipend for cataloguing the Arabic MSS. in 
the Bibliotheque Nationale, and he contributed many articles 
to the reviews. Although a firm friend of Mazzini, he discouraged 
the latter's premature conspiracies. In 1859, after the expulsion 
of the central Italian despots, Amari was appointed professor 
of Arabic at Pisa and afterwards at Florence. But when 
Garibaldi and his thousand had conquered Sicily, Amari returned 
to his native island, and was given an appointment in the 
government. Although intensely Sicih'an in sentiment, he 
became one of the staunchest advocates of the union of Sicily 
with Italy, and was subsequently made senator of the kingdom 
at Cavour's instance. He was minister of education in the 
Farini and Minghetti cabinets, but on the fall of the latter in 
1864, he resumed his professorship at Florence and spent the 
rest of his life in study. His circle of acquaintances, both in Italy 
and abroad, was very large, and his sound scholarship was 
appreciated in all countries. He died in 1889, loaded with 
honours. The last volume of his Storia dei Musulmani appeared in 
1873, and in addition to the above-mentioned works he published 
many others on oriental and historical subjects. His work on the 
Sicilian Vespers was re- written as La Guerra del Vespro (gth ed., 
Milan, 1886). He was the pioneer of Arabic studies in modern 
Italy, and he still remains the standard authority on the Mussul- 
man domination in Sicily, though his judgment on religious 
questions is sometimes warped by a violently anti-clerical bias. 

See A. D'Ancona, Carteggio di Michele Amari coll' elogio di lui 
(Turin, 1896) ; and Oreste Tommasini's essay in his Scritti di storia 
e critica (Rome, 1891). (L. V.*) 

AMARYLLIS (the name of a girl in classical pastoral poetry), in 
botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, containing 
the belladonna lily (Amaryllis Belladonna), a native of South 
Africa, which was introduced into cultivation at the beginning 
of the 1 8th century. This is a half-hardy bulbous plant, produc- 
ing in the spring a number of strap-shaped, dull green leaves, 
1-15 ft. long, arranged in two rows, and in autumn a solid stem, 
bearing at the top a cluster of 6-12 funnel-shaped flowers, of a 
rose colour and very fragrant. Several forms are known in 
cultivation. Most of the so-called Amaryllis of gardens belong 
to the allied genus Hippeastrum (q.v.). 

AMASIA (anc. Amasia), the chief town of a sanjak in the Sivas 
vilayet of Asia Minor and an important trade centre on the 
Samsun-Sivas road, beautifully situated on the Yeshil Irmak 
(Iris). Pop. 30,000; Moslems about 20,000, of whom a large 
proportion are Kizilbash (Shia); Christians (mostly Armenians), 
10,000. It was one of the chief towns of the kingdom of 
Trebizond and of the Seljuks, one of whose sultans, Kaikobad I., 
enriched it with fine buildings and restored the castle, which was 
thus enabled to stand a seven months' siege by Timur. It was 
also much favoured by the early Osmanli sultans, one of whom, 
Selim I., was born there. Bayezid II. built a fine mosque. The 
place was modernized about a generation ago by Zia Pasha, the 
poet, when governor, and is now an unusually well built Turkish 
town with good bazaar and khans and a fine clock-tower. The 






782 



AMASIS AMATEUR 



Americans and the Jesuits have missionary schools for the 
Armenian population. Amasia has extensive orchards and fruit 
gardens still, as in Ibn Batuta's time, irrigated by water wheels 
turned by the current of the river; and there are steam flour- 
mills. Wheat, flour and silk are exported. 

Ancient Amasia has left little trace of itself except on the castle 
rock, on the left of the river, where the acropolis walls and a 
number of splendid rock-cut tombs, described by Strabo as those 
of the kings of Pontus, can be seen. The cliff is cut away all 
round these immense sepulchres so that they stand free. The 
finest, known from its polished surfaces as the " Mirror Tomb," 
is about 2 m. from the modern city. Amasia rose into historical 
importance after the time of Alexander as the cradle of the power 
of Pontus; but the last king to reign there was the father of 
Mithradates Eupator " The Great." The latter, however, made 
it the base of his operations against the Romans in 89, 72 and 
67 B.C. Pompey made it a free city in 65, after Mithradates' fall. 
It was the birthplace of Strabo. (D. G. H.) 

AMASIS, or AMOSIS (the Greek forms of the Egyptian name 
Ahmase, Ahmosi, " the moon is born," often written Aahmes or 
Ahmes in modern works), the name of two kings of ancient 
Egypt. 

AMASIS I., the founder of the XVIIIth dynasty, is famous for 
his successful wars against the Hyksos princes who still ruled in 
the north-east of the Delta (see EGYPT: History, sect, i.) 

AMASIS II. was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian 
conquest, 570-526 B.C. Most of our information about him is 
derived from Herodotus (ii. 161 et seq.) and can only be im- 
perfectly controlled by monumental evidence. According to the 
Greek historian he was of mean origin. A revolt of the native 
soldiers gave him his opportunity. These troops, returning 
home from a disastrous expedition to Cyrene, suspected that they 
had been betrayed in order that Apries, the reigning king, might 
rule more absolutely by means of his mercenaries, and their 
friends in Egypt fully sympathized with them. Amasis, sent to 
meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the 
rebels, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercen- 
aries, was defeated and taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at 
Momemphis; the usurper treated the captive prince with great 
lenity, but was eventually persuaded to give him up to the people, 
by whom he was strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at 
Sais. An inscription confirms the fact of the struggle between 
the native and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was 
killed and honourably buried in the 3rd year of Amasis. Although 
Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native, 
he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the Greek 
world, and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever 
before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration 
Egypt reached the highest pitch of prosperity; he adorned the 
temples of Lower Egypt especially with splendid monolithic 
shrines and other monuments (his activity here is proved by 
remains still existing). To the Greeks Amasis assigned the 
commercial colony of Naucratis on the Canopic branch of the 
Nile, and when the temple of Delphi was burnt he contributed 
1000 talents to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess 
named Ladice, the daughter of Battus, king of Cyrene, and he 
made alliances with Polycrates of Samos and Croesus of Lydia. 
His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the 
First Cataract, but to this he added Cyprus, and his influence 
was great in Cyrene. At the beginning of his long reign, before 
the death of Apries, he appears to have sustained an attack by 
Nebuchadrezzar (568 B.C.). Cyrus left Egypt unmolested; but 
the last years of Amasis were disturbed by the threatened 
invasion of Cambyses and by the rupture of the alliance with 
Polycrates of Samos. The blow fell upon his son Psam- 
metichus III., whom the Persian deprived of his kingdom after 
a reign of only six months. 

See NAUCRATIS; also W. M. Flinders Petrie, History, vol. Hi.; 
Breasted, History and Historical Documents, vol. iv. p. 509 ; Maspero, 
Les Empires. (F. LL. G.) 

AMATEUR (Lat. amalor, lover), a person who takes part in any 
art, craft, game or sport for the sake of the pleasure afforded 



by the occupation itself and not for pecuniary gain. Being 
thus a person for whom the pursuit in question is a recreation 
and not a business, and who therefore presumably devotes to it 
a portion only of his leisure and not his working hours, the 
average amateur possesses less skill than the average professional, 
whose livelihood and reputation depend on his proficiency, and 
who therefore concentrates all his energies on the task of attaining 
the greatest possible mastery in his chosen career. In the arts, 
such as music, painting and the drama, the best amateurs are 
outdistanced as executants not merely by the best professionals 
but by professionals far below the highest rank; and although 
the inferiority of the amateur is not perhaps so pronounced or 
so universal in the case of games and outdoor sports, the records 
of such pastimes as horse-racing, boxing, rowing, billiards, 
tennis and golf prove that here also the same contrast is gener- 
ally to be found. Hence it has come about that the term 
"amateur," and more especially the adjectival derivative 
" amateurish," has acquired a secondary meaning, usually 
employed somewhat contemptuously, signifying inefficiency, 
unskilfulness, superficial knowledge or training. 

The immense increase in popularity of athletic contests and 
games of all kinds in modern times, and especially the keen 
competition for " records " and championships, often of an 
international character, have made it a matter of importance to 
arrive at a clear and formal definition of the amateur as dis- 
tinguished from the professional. The simple, straightforward 
definition of the amateur given above has been proved to be 
easily evaded. Many leading cricketers, for example, preserve 
their amateur status who, although they are not paid wages for 
each match they play like their professional colleagues, are 
provided with an annual income by their county or club under 
the guise of salary for performing the duties of "secretary" or 
some other office, leaving them free to play the game six days a 
week. Similarly, " gentlemen riders " are often presented with 
a cash payment described as a bet, or under some other pretext. 
Nor is the dividing-line between " out-of-pocket expenses " 
allowed to the amateur and the remuneration payable to the 
professional always strictly drawn. The various associations 
controlling the different branches of sport have therefore devised 
working regulations to be observed so far as their jurisdiction 
extends. Thus the Amateur Athletic Association of Great 
Britain defines an amateur as " one who has never competed 
for a money prize or staked bet, or with or against a professional 
for any prize, or who has never taught, pursued or assisted in 
the practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a 
livelihood." The rules of the Amateur Rowing Association are 
stricter, denying amateur status to anyone who has ever steered 
or rowed in a race with a professional for any prize, or who is 
or has been by trade or employment for wages a mechanic, 
artisan or labourer, or engaged in any menial duty, besides 
insisting upon the usual restrictions in regard to taking money 
and competing with professionals. In association football the 
rules are much more lax, for although amateurs are clearly 
distinguished from professionals, an amateur may even become 
a regular member, though unsalaried, of a professional team 
without losing his amateur status. The Rugby game was, up to 
1895, entirely controlled by the Rugby Football Union, which, 
by the strictness of its laws, effectually prevented the growth of 
professionalism, but there had been much dissatisfaction in the 
provinces with the Union's decision against reimbursing day- 
working players for " broken time," i.e. for that part of their 
wages which they lost by playing on working days, and this 
resulted in the formation (1895) of the Northern Union, which 
permits remuneration for " broken time," but allows no person 
who works for his living to play football unless regularly employed 
at his particular trade. 

In America the amateur question is less complicated than in 
Great Britain; but the intensely business-like character of 
American ideas of sport has encouraged the modern spirit of 
professionalism. All important sports in America, except 
baseball, football, cricket, golf and rowing, are, however, under 
the control of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States, 



AMATHUS AMAZON 



783 



the rules of which, so far as they relate to professionalism, are 
as follows. No person shall be eligible to compete in any athletic 
meeting, game or entertainment, given or sanctioned by this 
Union, who has (i) received or competed for compensation or 
reward in any form for the display, exercise or example of his 
skill or knowledge of any athletic exercise, or for rendering 
personal service of any kind to any athletic organization, or for 
becoming or continuing a member of any athletic organization; 
or (2) has entered any competition under a name other than his 
own, or from a club of which he was not at that time a member 
in good standing; or (3) has knowingly entered any competition 
open to any professional or professionals, or has knowingly 
competed with any professional for any prize or token; or (4) 
has issued or allowed to be issued in his behalf any challenge 
to compete against any professional or for money; or (5) has 
pawned, bartered or sold any prize won in athletic competition. 
It will be seen that by rule 3 the American Union enacts a 
standard for all athletes not much different from that of the 
British Amateur Rowing Association. The rules for the sports 
not within the Union's jurisdiction 'are practically the same, 
except that in baseball, cricket and golf amateurs may compete 
with professionals, though not for cash prizes. In the case of 
open golf competitions professional prize-winners receive cash, 
while amateurs are given plate to the value of their prizes as in 
Great Britain. There are practically no professional football 
players in America. 

On both sides of the Atlantic the question of the employment 
of professional coaches has occasioned much discussion. In 
America it has been accepted as legal. In England the same is 
almost universally true, but there are certain exceptions, such 
as the decision of the Henley Regatta Committee, that no crew 
entering may be coached by a professional within two months 
of the race-day. Whether such a regulation be wise or the reverse 
is a question that depends upon the spirit in which games are 
regarded. Nobody wants to disparage proficiency; but if a 
game is conducted on business methods, the " game " element 
tends to be minimized, and if its object is pecuniary it ceases to 
be " sport " in the old sense, and the old idea of the " amateur " 
who indulges in it for love of the mere enjoyment tends to 
disappear. 

AMATHUS, an ancient city of Cyprus, on the S. coast, about 
24 m. W. of Larnaka and 6 m. E. of Limassol, among sandy hills 
and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek 
(d/m0os, sand). The earliest remains hitherto found on the 
site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco- Phoenician 
influences (1000-600 B.C.). Amathus is identified by some 
(E. Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern, i., 1902, pp. 13-14; but see 
CITIUM) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician " New-Town ") in the 
Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 B.C.). It 
certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for it was 
its refusal to join the phil-Hellene league of Onesilas of Salamis 
which provoked the re volt of Cyprus from Persia in 500-494 B.C. 
(Herod, v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and 
avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilas. The 
phil-Hellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by 
Amathus about 385-380 B.C. in conjunction with Citium and 
Soli (Diod. Sic. xiv. 98); and even after Alexander the city re- 
sisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to 
Seleucus (Diod. Sic. xix. 62). Its political importance now ended, 
but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia) 
remained famous in Roman time. 

The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its corn 
(Strabo 340, quoting Hipponax, fl. 540 B.C.), partly from its 
copper mines (Ovid, Met. x. 220, 531), of which traces can be seen 
inland (G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, Inselreise, iv. 195; W. H. 
Engel, Kypros, i. in ff.). Ovid also mentions its sheep (Met. 
x. 227); the epithet Amathusia in Roman poetry often means 
little more than "Cypriote," attesting however the fame of the 
city. 

Amathus still flourished and produced a distinguished patriarch 
of Alexandria (Johannes Eleemon), as late as 606-616, and a 
ruined Byzantine church marks the site; but it was already 



almost deserted when Richard Cceur de Lion won Cyprus by 
a victory there over Isaac Comnenus in 1191. The rich necro- 
polis, already partly plundered then, has yielded valuable works 
of art to New York (L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus, 1878 passim) and 
to the British Museum (Excavations in Cyprus, 1894 (1899) 
passim); but the city has vanished, except fragments of wall 
and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel 
was transported to the Louvre in 1867. Two small sanctuaries, 
with terra-cotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, 
lie not far off, but the great shrine of Adonis and Aphrodite 
has not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, i. 
ch.i). (J.L. M.) 

AMATI, the name of a family of Italian violin-makers, who 
flourished at Cremona from about 1550 to 1692. According to 
Fetis, Andrea and Nicolo Amati, two brothers, were the first 
Italians who made violins. They were succeeded by Antonio 
and Geronimo, sons of Nicolo. Another Nicolo, son of Geronimo, 
was born on the 3rd of September 1596 and died on the I2th of 
August 1684. He was the most eminent of the family. He im- 
proved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced 
instruments capable of yielding greater power of tone. His 
pattern was usually small, but he also made the so-called "Grand 
Amatis." Of his pupils the most famous were Andrea Enamieri 
and Antonio Stradivari. 

AMATITLAN, or SAN JUAN DE AMATITLAN, the capital of 
a department bearing the same name in Guatemala, on Lake 
Amatitlan, ism. S.W. of Guatemala city by the transcontinental 
railway from Puerto Barrios to San Jose. Pop. (1905) about 
10,000. The town consists almost entirely of one-storeyed 
adobe huts inhabited by mulattoes and Indians, whose chief 
industry is the production of cochineal. t In 1840 only a small 
Indian village marked its site, and its subsequent growth was 
due to the sugar plantations established by a Jesuit settlement. 
The wells of the town are strongly impregnated with salt and 
alum, and in the vicinity there are several hot springs. Lake 
Amatitlan, 9 m. long and 3 m. broad, lies on the northern side 
of the great Guatemalan Cordillera. Above it rises the four- 
cratered volcano of Pacaya (8390 ft.), which was in eruption in 
1870. The outlet of the lake is a swift river 65 m. long, which 
cuts a way through the Cordillera, and enters the Pacific at 
Istapa, after forming at San Pedro a fine waterfall more than 
200 ft. high. 

AMAUROSIS (Gr. for " blinding,"), a term for " deprivation 
of sight," limited chiefly to those forms of defect or loss of vision 
which are caused by diseases not directly involving the eye. 

AMAZON, the great river of South America. Before the con- 
quest of South America, the Rio de las Amazonas had no general 
name; for, according to a common custom, each savage tribe gave 
a name only to the section of the river which it occupied such as 
Paranaguazu, Guyerma, Solimoes and others. In the year 1 500, 
Vicente Yanez Pinzon, in command of a Spanish expedition, 
discovered and ascended the Amazon to a point about 50 m. 
from the sea. He called it the Rio Santa Maria de la Mar Dulce, 
which soon became abbreviated to Mar Dulce, and for some years, 
after 1502, it was known as the Rio Grande. The principal com- 
panions of Pinzon, in giving evidence in 1515, mention it as 
El Ryo Maranon. There is much controversy about the origin 
of the word Maranon. Peter Martyr in a letter to Lope Hurtado 
de Mendoza in 1513 is the first to state that it is of native origin. 
Ten years after the death of Pinzon, his friend Oviedo calls it 
the Maranon. Many writers believe that this was its Indian 
name. We are disposed to agree with the Brazilian historian 
Constancio that Maranon is derived from the Spanish word 
marana, a tangle, a snarl, which well represents the bewildering 
difficulties which the earlier explorers met in navigating not 
only the entrance to the Amazon, but the whole island-bordered, 
river-cut and indented coast of the now Brazilian province of 
Maranhao. 

The first descent of the mighty artery from the Andes to the 
sea was made by Orellana in 1541, and the name Amazonas 
arises from the battle which he had with a tribe of Tapuya 
savages where the women of the tribe fought alongside the men, 



7*4 



AMAZON 



as was the custom among all of the Tapuyas. Orellana, no 
doubt, derived the name Amazonas from the ancient Amazons 
(q.v.) of Asia and Africa described by Herodotus and Diodorus. 

The first ascent of the river was made in 1638 by Pedro 
Texiera, a Portuguese, who reversed the route of Orellana and 
reached Quito by way of the Rio Napo. He returned in 1639 
with the Jesuit fathers Acufia and Artieda, delegated by the 
viceroy of Peru to accompany him. 

The river Amazon has a drainage area of 2,722,000 sq. m., if 
the Tocantins be included in its basin. It drains four-tenths of 
South America, and it gathers its waters from 5 N. to 20 S. 
latitude. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-Andean 
plateau, but a short distance from the Pacific Ocean; and, after 
a course of about 4000 m. through the interior of Peru and 
across Brazil, it enters the Atlantic Ocean on the equator. It is 
generally accepted by geographers that the Maranon, or Upper 
Amazon, rises in the little lake, Lauricocha, in 10 30' S. latitude, 
and 100 m. N.N.E. of Lima. They appear to have followed 
the account given by Padre Fritz which has since been found 
incorrect. According to Antonio Raimondi, it is the Rio de Nupe 
branch of the small stream which issues from the lake that has 
the longer course and the greater volume of water. The Nupe 
rises in the Cordillera de Huayhuath and is the true source of the 
Maranon. There is a difference among geographers as to where 
the Maranon ends and the Amazon begins, or whether both 
names apply to the same river. The Pongo de Manseriche, at 
the base of the Andes and the head of useful navigation, seems 
to be the natural terminus of the Maranon; and an examination 
of the hydrographic conditions of the great valley makes the 
convenience and accuracy of this apparent. Raimondi terminates 
the Maranon at the mouth of the Ucayali, Reclus the same, both 
following the missionary fathers of the colonial period. C. M. de 
la Condamine uses " Amazon " and " Maranon " indiscriminately 
and considers them one and the same. Smyth and Lowe give 
the mouth of the Javary as the eastern limit, as does d'Orbigny. 
Wolf, apparently uncertain, carries the " Maranon or Amazon " 
to the Peruvian frontier of Brazil at Tabatinga. Other travellers 
and explorers contribute to the confusion. This probably arises 
from the rivalry of the Spaniards and Portuguese. The former 
accepted the name Maranon in Peru, and as the missionaries 
penetrated the valley they extended the name until they reached 
the mouth of the Ucayali; while, as the Portuguese ascended 
the Amazon, they carried this name to the extent of their explora- 
tions. Beginning with the lower river we propose to notice, first, 
the great affluents which go to swell the volume of the main 
stream. 

Tributaries. 

The TOCANTINS is not really a branch of the Amazon, although 
usually so considered. It is the central fluvial artery of Brazil, 
running from south to north for a distance of about 1500 m. 
It rises in the mountainous district known as the Pyrenees; but 
its more ambitious western affluent, the Araguay, has its extreme 
southern headwaters on the slopes of the Serra Cayap6, and flows 
a distance of 1080 m. before its junction with the parent 
stream, which it appears almost to equal in volume. Besides 
its main tributary, the Rio das Mortes, it has twenty smaller 
branches, offering many miles of canoe navigation. In finding 
its way to the lowlands, it breaks frequently into falls and rapids, 
or winds violently through rocky gorges, until, at a point about 
100 m. above its junction with the Tocantins, it saws its way 
across a rocky dyke for 12 m. in roaring cataracts. The tribu- 
taries of the Tocantins, called the Maranhao and Parana-tinga, 
collect an immense volume of water from the highlands which 
surround them, especially on the south and south-east. Between 
the latter and the confluence with the Araguay, the Tocantins 
is occasionally obstructed by rocky barriers which cross it almost 
at a right angle. Through these, the river carves its channel, 
broken into cataracts and rapids, or cachoeiras, as they are called 
throughout Brazil. Its lowest one, the Itaboca cataract, is about 
130 m. above its estuarine port of Cameta, for which distance 
the river is navigable; but above that it is useless as a commer- 
cial avenue, except for laborious and very costly transportation. 



The flat, broad valleys, composed of sand and clay, of both the 
Tocantins and its Araguay branch are overlooked by s:eep 
bluffs. They are the margins of the great sandstone plateaus, 
from 1000 to 2000 ft. elevation above sea-level, through which 
the rivers have eroded their deep beds. Around the estuary of 
the Tocantins the great plateau has disappeared, to give place 
to a part of the forest-covered, half submerged alluvial plain, 
which extends far to the north-east and west. The Para river, 
generally called one of the mouths of the Amazon, is only the 
lower reach of the Tocantins. If any portion of the waters of 
the Amazon runs round the southern side of the large island 
of Marajo into the river Para, it is only through tortuous, 
natural canals, which are in no sense outflow channels of the 
Amazon. 

The XINGU, the next large river west of the Tocantins, is a 
true tributary of the Amazon. It was but little known until 
it was explored in 1884-1887 by Karl von den Steinen from 
Cuyaba. Travelling east, 240 m., he found the river Tamita- 
toaba, 180 ft. wide, flowing from a lake 25 m. in diameter. He 
descended this torrential stream to the river Romero, 1300 ft. 
wide, entering from the west, which receives the river Colisu. 
These three streams form the Xingd, or Parana-xingu, which, 
from 73 m. lower down, bounds along a succession of rapids 
for 400 m. A little above the head of navigation, 105 m. from 
its mouth, the river makes a bend to the east to find its way across 
a rocky barrier. Here is the great cataract of Itamaraca, which 
rushes down an inclined plane for 3 m. and then gives a final 
leap, called the fall of Itamaraca. Near its mouth, the Xingu 
expands into an immense lake, and its waters then mingle with 
those of the Amazon through a labyrinth of canos (natural canals), 
winding in countless directions through a wooded archipelago. 

The TAPAJOS, running through a humid, hot and unhealthy 
valley, pours into the Amazon 500 m. above Para and is about 
1200 m. long. It rises on the lofty Brazilian plateau near 
Diamantino in 14 25' S. lat. Near this place a number of 
streams unite to form the river Arinos, which at latitude 10 25' 
joins the Juruena to form the Alto Tapajos, so called as low 
down as the Rio Manoel, entering from the east. Thence to 
Santarem the stream is known as the Tapajos. The lower 
Arinos, the Alto Tapajos and the Tapajos to the last rapid, 
the Maranhao Grande, is a continuous series of formidable 
cataracts and rapids; but from the Maranhao Grande to its 
mouth, about 188 m., the river can be navigated by large vessels. 
For its last 100 m. it is from 4 to 9 m. wide and much of it very 
deep. The valley of the Tapajos is bordered on both sides by 
bluffs. They are from 300 to 400 ft. high along the lower river; 
but, a few miles above Santarem, they retire from the eastern 
side and only approach the Amazon flood-plain some miles below 
Santarem. 

The MADEIRA has its junction with the Amazon 870 m. by river 
above Para, and almost rivals it in the volume of its waters. It 
rises more than 50 ft. during the rainy season, and the largest 
ocean steamers may ascend it to the Fall of San Antonio, 663 m. 
above its mouth; but in the dry months, from June to 
November, it is only navigable for the same distance for craft 
drawing from 5 to 6 ft. of water. According to the treaty of 
San Ildefonso, the Madeira begins at the confluence of the 
Guapor6 with the Mamore. Both of these streams have their 
headwaters almost in contact with those of the river Paraguay. 
The idea of a connecting canal is based on ignorance of local 
conditions. San Antonio is the first of a formidable series of 
cataracts and rapids, nineteen in number, which, for a river 
distance of 263 m., obstruct the upper course of the Madeira 
until the last rapid called Guajara Merim (or Small Pebble), 
is reached, a little below the union of the Guapore with the 
Mamore. The junction of the great river Beni with the Madeira 
is at the Madeira Fall, a vast and grand display of reefs, whirl- 
pools and boiling torrents. Between Guajara-Merim and this 
fall, inclusive, the Madeira receives the drainage of the north- 
eastern slopes of the Andes, from Santa Cruz de la Sierra to Cuzco, 
the whole of the south-western slope of Brazilian Matto Grosso, 
and the northern one of the Chiquitos sierras, an area about 



AMAZON 



Pi ^P^y\ ^tfF^jqi |8 VT" *U,ANA/ 



The 
AMAZON BASIN 

Scale, 1:22,500,000 



English Miles 
o 50 roo 200 300 400 



Longitude West 70* of Greenwich 




EmcryWlkcr sc 



equal to that of France and Spain. The waters find their way 
to the falls of the Madeira by many great rivers, the principal 
of which, if we enumerate them from east to west, are the Guapore 
or Itenez, the Baures and Blanco, the Itonama or San Miguel, 
the Mamore, Beni, and Mayutata or Madre de Dios, all of which 
are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents. 
The Guapore presents many difficulties to continuous navigation ; 
the Baures and Itonama offer hundreds of miles of navigable 
waters through beautiful plains; the Mamore has been sounded 
by the writer in the driest month of the year for a distance of 
500 m. above Guajara-Merim, who found never less than from 
10 to 30 ft. of water, with a current of from i to 3 m. an hour. 
Its Rio Grande branch, explored under the writer's instructions, 
was found navigable for craft drawing 3 ft. of water to within 
30 m. of Santa Cruz de la Sierra a level sandy plain intervening. 
The Grande is a river of enormous length, rising in a great valley 
of the Andes between the important cities of Sucre and Cocha- 
bamba, and having its upper waters in close touch with those of the 
Pilcomayo branch of the river Paraguay. It makes a long curve 
through the mountains, and, after a course of about 800 m., 
joins the Mamore near 15 S. lat. The Chapare, Secure and 
Chimore, tributaries of the Mamore, are navigable for launches 
up to the base of the mountains, to within 130 m. of Cochabamba. 
The Beni has a i2-ft. fall 18 m. above its mouth called 
"La Esperanza"; beyond this, it is navigable for 217 m. to 
the port of Reyes for launches in the dry season and larger craft 
in the wet one. The extreme source of the Beni is the little river 
La Paz, which rises in the inter-Andean region, a few miles south- 
east of Lake Titicaca, and flows as a rivulet through the Bolivian 
city of La Paz. From this point to Reyes the river is a torrent. 
The principal affluent of the Beni, and one which exceeds it in 
volume, enters it 120 m. above its mouth, and is known to the 
Indians along its banks as the Mayutata, but the Peruvians 



call it the Madre de Dios. Its ramifications drain the slopes of 
the Andes between 12 and 15 of latitude. It is navigable in 
the wet season to within 180 m. of Cuzco. Its upper waters 
are separated by only a short transitable canoe portage of 7 m. 
in a straight line from those of the Ucayali. The portage on 
the eastern side terminates at the Cashpajali river 22m. above its 
junction with the Manu. For the first 13 m. it is navigable all 
the year for craft drawing 18 in. of water, but the remaining 
9 m. present many obstacles to navigation. At the Manu junc- 
tion the elevation above sea-level is 1070 ft., the river width 
300 ft., depth 8 ft., current i j m. per hour. The general direction 
of the Manu is south-east for 158 m. as far as the Pilcopata 
river, where under" the name of Madre de Dios it continues with 
a flow of 22,000 cubic metres per minute. Here its elevation is 
718 ft. above the sea and its width 500 ft. During the above 
course of 158 m. the Manu receives 135 large and small affluents. 
Although the inclination of its bed is not great, the obstacles to 
free navigation are abundant, and consist of enormous trees 
and masses of tree-trunks which have filled the river during 
the period of freshets. 

From the time it receives the Manu, the Madre de Dios carries 
its immense volume of waters 485 m. to the Beni over the 
extremely easy slope of a vast and fertile plain. Its banks are 
low, its bottom pebbly. A greater part of its course is filled with 
large and small islands some 63 in number. Its average width 
is about 1500 ft. Below the mouth of the Tambopata, the flow 
is estimated at 191,250 cubic metres per minute. The average 
current is 2\ m. per hour. There are two important rapids and 
one cataract on the lower 300 m. of the river. 

The Mayutata receives three principal tributaries from the 
south the Tambopata, Inambari and Pilcopata. 

The Peruvian government has sought to open a trade route 
between the Rio Ucayali and the rich rubber districts of the 



7 86 



AMAZON 



Mayutata. All of the upper branches of the river Madeira 
find their way to the falls across the open, almost level Mojos 
and Beni plains, 35,000 sq. m. of which are yearly flooded to an 
average depth of about 3 ft. for a period of from three to four 
months. They rival if they do not exceed in fertility the valley 
of the Nile, and are the healthiest and most inviting agricultural 
and grazing region of the basin of the Amazon. 

The PURUS, a very sluggish river, enters the Amazon west of 
the Madeira, which it parallels as far south as the falls of the 
latter stream. It runs through a continuous forest at the bottom 
of the great depression lying between the Madeira river, which 
skirts the edge of the Brazilian sandstone plateau, and the 
Ucayali which hugs the base of the Andes. One of its marked 
features is the five parallel furos 1 which from the north-west at 
almost regular intervals the Amazon sends to the Purus; the 
most south-westerly one being about 150 m. above the mouth 
of the latter river. They cut a great area of very low-lying 
country into five islands. Farther down the Purus to the 
right three smaller furos also connect it with the Amazon. 
Chandless found its elevation above sea-level to be only 107 ft. 
590 m. from its mouth. It is one of the most crooked streams 
in the world, and its length in a straight line is less than half 
that by its curves. It is practically only a drainage ditch for the 
half-submerged, lake-flooded district it traverses. Its width is 
very uniform for 1000 m. up, and for 800 m. its depth is never 
less than 45 ft. It is navigable by steamers for 1648 m. as far 
as the little stream, the Curumaha, but only by light-draft craft. 
Chandless ascended it 1866 m. At 1792 m. it forks into two 
small streams. Occasionally a cliff touches the river, but in 
general the lands are subject to yearly inundations throughout 
its course, the river rising at times above 50 ft., the numerous 
lakes to the right and left serving as reservoirs. Its main 
tributary, the Aquiry or Acre, enters from the right about 1104 
m. from the Amazon. Its sources are near those of the Mayu- 
tata. It is navigable for a period of about five months of the 
year, when the Purus valley is inundated; and, for the remaining 
seven months, only canoes can ascend it sufficiently high to 
communicate overland with the settlements in the great india- 
rubber districts of the Mayutata and lower Beni; thus these 
regions are forced to seek a canoe outlet for their rich products 
by the very dangerous, costly and laborious route of the falls 
of the Madeira. 

The JURUA is the next great southern affluent of the Amazon 
west of the Purus, sharing with this the bottom of the immense 
inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristics of 
the Purus as regards curvature, sluggishness and general 
features of the low, half-flooded forest country it traverses. It 
rises among the Ucayali highlands, and is navigable and un- 
obstructed for a distance of 1133 m. above its junction with the 
Amazon. 

The JAVARY, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is 
another Amazon tributary of importance. It is supposed to be 
navigable by canoe for 900 m. above its mouth to its sources 
among the Ucayali highlands, but only 260 have been found 
suitable for steam navigation. The Brazilian Boundary Com- 
mission ascended it in 1866 to the junction of the Shino with its 
Jaquirana branch. The country it traverses in its extremely 
sinuous course is very level, similar in character to that of the 
Jurua, and is a fostered wilderness occupied by a few savage 
hordes. 

The UCAYALI, which rises only about 70 m. north of Lake 
Titicaca, is the most interesting branch of the Amazon next to 
the Madeira. The Ucayali was first called the San Miguel, then 
the Ucayali, Ucayare, Poro, Apu-Poro, Cocama and Rio de 
Cuzco. Peru has fitted out many costly and ably-conducted 
expeditions to explore it. One of them (1867) claimed to have 
reached within 240 m. of Lima, and the little steamer " Napo " 
forced its way up the violent currents for 77m. above the junction 
with the Pachitea river as far as the river Tambo, 770 m. from 

1 A furo is a natural canal-j-sometimes merely a deviation from 
the main channel, which it ultimately rejoins, sometimes a connexion 
across low flat country between two entirely separate streams. 



the confluence of the Ucayali with the Amazon. The " Napo " 
then succeeded in ascending the Urubamba branch of the 
Ucayali 35 m. above its union with the Tambo, to a point 200 m. 
north of Cuzco. The remainder of the Urubamba, as shown by 
Bosquet in 1806 and Castelnau in 1846, is interrupted by 
cascades, reefs and numberless other obstacles to navigation. 
Senor Torres, who explored the Alto Ucayali for the Peruvian 
government, gives it a length of 186 m., counting from the 
mouth of the Pachitea to the junction of the Tambo and Uru- 
bamba. Its width varies from 1300 to 4000 ft., due to the great 
number of islands. The current runs from 3 to 4 m. an hour, 
and a channel from 60 to 1 50 ft. wide can always be found with 
a minimum depth of 5 ft. There are five bad passes, due to 
the accumulation of trees and rafts of timber. Sometimes 
enormous rocks have fallen from the mountains and spread over 
the river-bed causing huge whirlpools. " No greater difficulties 
present themselves to navigation by lo-knot steamers drawing 
4 ft. of water." 

The TAMBO, which rises in the Vilcanota knot of mountains 
south of Cuzco, is a torrential stream valueless for commercial 
purposes. The banks of the Ucayali for 500 m. up are low, and 
in the rainy season extensively inundated. 

The HUALLAGA (also known as the Guallaga and Rio de los 
Motilones), which joins the Amazon to the west of the Ucayali, 
rises high among the mountains, in about 10 40' S. lat., on the 
northern slopes of the celebrated Cerro de Pasco. For nearly 
its entire length it is an impetuous torrent running through a 
succession of gorges. It has forty-two rapids, its last obstruction 
being the Pongo de Aguirre, so called from the traitor Aguirre 
who passed there. To this point, 140 m. from the Amazon, the 
Huallaga can be ascended by large river steamers. Between the 
Huallaga and the Ucayali lies the famous " Pampa del Sacra- 
mento," a level region of stoneless alluvial lands covered with 
thick, dark forests, first entered by the missionaries in 1726. 
It is about 300 m. long, from north to south, and varies in width 
from 40 to 100 m. Many streams, navigable for canoes, penetrate 
this region from the Ucayali and the Huallaga. It is still 
occupied by savage tribes. 

The river MARANON rises about 100 m. to the north-east of 
Lima. It flows through a deeply-eroded Andean valley in a 
north-west direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of 
the Andes, as far as 5 36' S. lat.; then it makes a great bend 
to the north-east, and with irresistible power cuts through the 
inland Andes, until at the Pongo de Manseriche 2 it victoriously 
breaks away from the mountains to flow onwards through the 
plains under the name of the Amazon. Barred by reefs, and full 
of rapids and impetuous currents, it cannot become a commercial 
avenue. At the point where it makes its great bend the river 
Chinchipe pours into it from southern Ecuador. Just below this 
the mountains close in on either side of the MarafJon, forming 
narrows or pongos for a length of 35 m., where, besides numerous 
whirlpools, there are no less than thirty-five formidable rapids, 
the series concluding with three cataracts just before reaching 
the river Imasa or Chunchunga, near the mouth of which La 
Condamine embarked in the i8th century to descend the 
Amazon. Here the general level of the country begins to 
decrease in elevation, with only a few mountain spurs, which 
from time to time push as far as the river and form pongos of 
minor importance and less dangerous to descend. Finally, after 
passing the narrows of Guaracayo, the cerros gradually disappear, 
and for a distance of about 20 m. the river is full of islands, and 
there is nothing visible from its low banks but an immense 
forest-covered plain. But the last barrier has yet to be passed, 
the Pongo de Manseriche, 3 m. long, just below the mouth of the 
Rio Santiago, and between it and the old abandoned missionary 
station of Borja, in 38 30' S. lat. and 77 30' 40* W. long. 
According to Captain Carbajal, who descended it in the little 

1 Pongo is a corruption of the Quichua puncu and the Aymara 
ponco, meaning a door. The Pongo de Manseriche was first named 
Maranon, then Santiago, and later Manseric, afterwards Mansariche 
and Manseriche, owing to the great numbers of parrakeets found 
on the rocks there. 



AMAZON 



787 



steamer " Napo " in 1868, it is a vast rent in the Andes about 
2QOO ft. deep, narrowing in places to a width of only 100 ft., the 
precipices " seeming to close in at the top." Through this dark 
canon the Maranon leaps along, at times, at the rate of 12 m. 
an hour. 1 The Pongo de Manseriche was first discovered by the 
Adelantado Joan de Salinas. He fitted out an expedition at 
Loxa in Ecuador, descended the Rio Santiago to the Maranon, 
passed through the perilous Pongo in 1557 and invaded the 
country of the Maynas Indians. Later, the missionaries of 
Cuenca and Quito established many missions in the Pais de los 
Maynas, and made extensive use of the Pongo de Manseriche as 
an avenue of communication with their several convents on the 
Andean plateau. According to their accounts, the huge rent in 
the Andes, the Pongo, is about five or six m. long, and in places 
not more than 80 ft. wide, and is a frightful series of torrents and 
whirlpools interspersed with rocks. There is an ancient tradition 
of the savages of the vicinity that one of their gods descending 
the Maranon and another ascending the Amazon to communicate 
with him, they opened the pass called the Pongo de Manseriche. 
From the northern slope of its basin the Amazon receives many 
tributaries, but their combined volume of water is not nearly so 
great as that contributed to the parent stream by its affluents 
from the south. That part of Brazil lying between the Amazon 
and French, Dutch and British Guiana, and bounded on the 
west by the Rio Negro, is known as Brazilian Guiana. It is the 
southern watershed of a tortuous, low chain of mountains running, 
roughly, east and west. Their northern slope, which is occupied 
by the three Guianas first named, is saturated and river-torn; 
but their southern one, Brazilian Guiana, is in general thirsty 
and semi-barren, and the driest region of the Amazon valley. 
It is an area which has been left almost in the undisturbed 
possession of nomadic Indian tribes, whose scanty numbers find 
it difficult to solve the food problem. From the divortium 
aquarum between French Guiana and Brazil, known as the 
Tumuc-humac range of highlands, two minor streams, the 
Yary and the Parou, reach the Amazon across the intervening 
broken and barren tableland. They are full of rapids and 
reefs. 

The TROMBETAS is the first river of importance we meet on the 
northern side as we ascend the Amazon. Its confluence with 
this is just above the town of Obidos. It has its sources in the 
Guiana highlands, but its long course is frequently interrupted 
by violent currents, rocky barriers, and rapids. The inferior 
zone of the river, as far up as the first fall, the Porteira, has but 
little broken water and is low and swampy; but above the long 
series of cataracts and rapids the character and aspect of the 
valley completely change, and the climate is much better. The 
river is navigable for 135 m. above its mouth. 

The NEGRO, the great northern tributary of the Amazon, has 
its sources along the watershed between the Orinoco and the 
Amazon basins, and also connects with the Orinoco by way of 
the Casiquiare canal. Its main affluent is the Uaupes, which 
disputes with the headwaters of the Guaviari branch of the 
Orinoco the drainage of the eastern slope of the " oriental " 
Andes of Colombia. The Negro is navigable for 450 m. above 
its mouth for 4 ft. of water in the dry season, but it has many 
sandbanks and minor difficulties. In the wet season, it overflows 
the country far and wide, sometimes to a breadth of 20 m., for 
long distances, and for 400 m. up, as far as Santa Isabella, is a 
succession of lagoons, full of long islands and intricate channels, 
and the slope of the country is so gentle that the river has almost 
no current. But just before reaching the Uaupes there is a long 
series of reefs, over which it violently flows in cataracts, rapids 
and whirlpools. The Uaupes is full of similar obstacles, some 
fifty rapids barring its navigation, although a long stretch of its 
upper course is said to be free from them, and to flow gently 
through a forested country. Despite the impediments, canoes 
ascend this stream to the Andes. 

1 One of the most daring deeds of exploration ever known in South 
America was done by the engineer A. Wertheman. He fitted out 
three rafts, in August 1870, and descended this whole series of rapids 
and cascades from the Rio Chinchipe to Borja. 



The Branco is the principal affluent of the Negro from the north; 
it is enriched by many streams from the sierras which separate 
Venezuela and British Guiana from Brazil. Its two upper main 
tributaries are the Urariquira and the Takutu. The latter almost 
links its sources with those of the Essequibo. The Branco flows 
nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several 
channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river. 
It is 350 m. long, up to its Urariquira confluence. It has numerous 
islands, and, 235 m. above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of 
rapids. 

CASIQUIARE CANAL. In 1744 the Jesuit Father Roman, 
while ascending the Orinoco river, met some Portuguese slave- 
traders from the settlements on the Rio Negro. He accompanied 
them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and after- 
wards retraced his route to the Orinoco. La Condamine, seven 
months later, was able to give to the French Academy an account 
of Father Roman's extraordinary voyage, and thus confirm the 
existence of this wonderful waterway first reported by Father 
Acuna in 1639. But little credence was given to Father 
Roman's statement until it was verified, in 1756, by the Spanish 
Boundary-line Commission of Yturriaga y Solano. The actual 
elevation of the canal above sea-level is not known, but is of 
primary importance to the study of the hydrography of South 
America. Travellers in general give it at from 400 to 900 ft., 
but, after much study of the question of altitudes throughout 
South America, the writer believes that it does not exceed 300 ft. 
The canal connects the upper Orinoco, 9 m. below the mission 
of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the Amazon near 
the town of San Carlos. The general course is south-west, and 
its length, including windings, is about 200 m. Its width, at its 
bifurcation with the Orinoco, is approximately 300 ft., with a cur- 
rent towards the Negro of three-quarters of a mile an hour ; but as 
it gains in volume from the very numerous tributary streams, large 
and small, which it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in 
the wet season reaches 5 and even 8 m. an hour in certain stretches. 
It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is 
about 1750 ft. in width. It will thus be seen that the volume of 
water it captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to 
what it accumulates in its course. In flood-time it is said to 
have a second connexion with the Rio Negro by a branch which 
it throws off to the westward called the Itinivini, which leaves it 
at a point about 50 m. above its mouth. In the dry season it 
has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and 
granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more 
fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the 
plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of 
the Rio Negro slope south-east. The whole line of the Casiquiare 
is infested with myriads of tormenting insects. A few miserable 
groups of Indians and half-breeds have their small villages 
along its southern portion. It is thus seen that this marvellous 
freak of nature is not, as is generally supposed, a sluggish canal 
on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper 
waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting 
back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon. 
To the west of the Casiquiare there is a much shorter and more 
facile connexion between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, 
called the isthmus of Pimichin, which is reached by ascending 
the Terni branch of the Atabapo affluent of the Orinoco. Although 
the Terni is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could 
easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is 10 m. 
across, with undulating ground, nowhere over 50 ft. high, with 
swamps and marshes. It is much used for the transit of large 
canoes, which are hauled across it from the Terni river, and 
which reach the Negro by the little stream called the Pimichin. 

The YAPURA. West of the Negro the Amazon receives three 
more imposing streams from the north-west the Yapura, the 
lea or Putumayo, and the Napo. The first was formerly known 
as the Hyapora, but its Brazilian part is now called the Yapura, 
and its Colombian portion the Caqueta. Barao de Marajo gives 
it 600 m. of navigable stretches. Jules Crevaux, who descended 
it, describes it as full of obstacles to navigation, the current very 
strong and the stream frequently interrupted by rapids and 
cataracts. It rises in the Colombian Andes, nearly in touch 
with the sources of the Magdalena, and augments its volume 



7 88 



AMAZON 



from many branches as it courses through Colombia. It was 
long supposed to have eight mouths; but Ribeiro tie Sampaio, 
in his voyage of 1774, determined that there was but one real 
mouth, and that the supposed others arc all furos or caftos. 1 
In 1864-1868 the Brazilian government made a somewhat 
careful examination of the Brazilian part of the river, as far up 
as tin- rapid of Cupaty. Several very easy and almost complete 
water-routes exist between the Yapurd and Negro across the low, 
flat intervening country. Barao de Marajo says there are six 
of them, and one which connects the upper Yapura with the 
Uaupcs branch of the Negro; thus the Indian tribes of the 
respective valleys have facile contact with each other. 

The ICA or PUTUMAYO, west of and parallel to the Yapura, 
was found more agreeable to navigate by Crevaux. He ascended 
il in a steamer drawing 6 ft. of water, and running day and 
night. He reached Cuemby, 800 m. above its mouth, without 
linding a single rapid. Cuemby is only 200 m. from the Pacific 
Ocean, in a straight line, passing through the town of Pasto in 
southern ( 'olombia. There was not a stone to be seen up to the 
I M sr nl 1 1 ic Andes; I lie river hanks were of argillaceous earth anil 
the bottom of line sand. 

The NAPO rises on the flanks of the volcanoes of Antisana, 
Sincholagua and Cotopaxi. Before it reaches the plains it 
receives a great number of small streams from impenetrable, 
saturated and much broken mountainous districts, where the 
dense and varied vegetation seems to fight for every square foot 
of ground. From the north it is joined by the river Coca, having 
its sources in the gorges of < 'avainhc on the equator, and also a 

powerful river, the Aguarico, having its headwaters between 
Cayambfi and the Colombian frontier. From the west it receives 
a secondary tributary, the Curaray, from the Andean slopes, 
between Cotopaxi and the volcano of Tunguragua. From its 
Coca branch to the mouth of the Curaray the Napo is full of 
snags and shelving sandbanks, and throws out numerous canos 
among jungle-tangled islands, which in the wet season are 
Hooded, giving the river an immense width. From the Coca to 
the Amazon it runs through a forested plain where not a hill 
is visible from the river its uniformly level banks being only 
interrupted by swamps and lagoons. From the Amazon the 
Napo is navigable for river craft up to its Curaray branch, a 
distance of about 216 m., and perhaps a few miles farther; 
thence, by painful canoe navigation, its upper waters may be 
ascended as far as Santa Rosa, the usual |>oint of embarkation 

for any venturesome traveller who descends from the Quito 
tableland. The Coca river may be penetrated as far up as its 
middle course, where it is jammed between two mountain walls, 
in a deep canyon, along which it dashes over high falls and 
numerous reefs. This is the stream made famous by the 
expedition of (lonzalo Pizarro. 

The NANAY is the next Amazon tributary of importance west 
of the Napo. It belongs entirely to the lowlands, and is very 
crooked, has a slow current and divides much into canos 
and strings of lagoons which flood the flat, low areas of country 
on either side. It is simply the drainage ditch of districts which 
arc extensively overflowed in the rainy season. Captain Butt 
ascended it 195 m., to near its source. 

The TIGRE is the next west of the Nanay, and is navigable for 
1 25 m. from its confluence with the Amazon. Like the Nanay, 
it belongs wholly to the plains. Its mouth is 42 m. west of the 
junction of the Ucayali with the Amazon. Continuing west from 
the Tigre we have the Parinari, Chambira, and Nucuray, all 
short lowland streams, resembling the Nanay in character. 

The PASTAZA (the ancient river Sumatara) is the next large 
river we meet. It rises on the Ecuadorian tableland, where a 
branch from the valley of Riobamba unites with one from the 
Latacunga basin and breaks through the inland range of the 
Andes; and joined, afterwards, by several important tributaries, 
finds its way south-cast among the gorges; thence it turns 
southward into the plains, and enters the Amazon at a point 
about 60 m. west of the mouth of the Huallaga. So far as 

1 A nifln. like furo, is a kind of natural canal; it forms a lateral 
discharge for surplus water from a river. 



known, it is a stream of no value except for canoe navigation. 
Its rise and fall are rapid and uncertain, and it is shallow and 
full of sandbanks and snags. It is a terrible river when in flood. 
The MORONA flows parallel to the Pastaza and immediately 
to the west of it, and is the last stream of any importance on 
the northern side of the Amazon before reaching the Pongo de 
Manscriche. It is formed from a multitude of water-courses 
which descend the slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes south of the 
gigantic volcano of Sangay; but it soon reaches the plain, 
which commences where it receives its Cusulima branch. The 
MORONA is navigable for small craft for about 300 m. above its 
mouth, but it is extremely tortuous. Canoes may ascend many 
of its branches, especially the Cusulima and the Miazal, the 
latter almost to the base of Sangay. The Morona has been the 
scene of many rude explorations, with the hope of finding it 
serviceable as a commercial route between the inter-Am lean 
tableland of Kcuador and the Amazon river. A river called the 
Pautc dashes through the eastern Andes from the valley of 
Cuenca; and a second, the Zamora, has broken through the 
same range from the basin of Loja. Swollen by their many 
affluents, they reach the lowlands and unite their waters to form 
the Santiago, which flows into the Maranon at the head of the 
Pongo de Manseriche. There is but little known of a trustworthy 
character regarding this river, but Wolf says that it is probably 
navigable up to the junction of the Paute with the Zamora. 

The Main River. 

The AMAZON MAIN RIVER is navigable for ocean steamers as 
far as Iquitos, 2300 m. from the sea, and 486 m. higher up for 
vessels drawing 14 ft. of water, as far as Achual Point. Phyiicul 
Beyond that, according to Tucker, confirmed by chuncttr- 
Wcrtheman, it is unsafe ; but small steamers frequently '*"" 
ascend to the Pongo de Manscriche, just above Achual Point. 
The average current of the Amazon is about 3 m. an hour; but, 
especially in flood, it dashes through some of its contracted 
channels at the rate of 5 m. The U.S. steamer " Wilmington " 
ascended it to Iquitos in 1899. Commander Todd reports that 
the average depth of the river in the height of the rainy season 
is 120 ft. It commences to rise in November, and increases in 
volume until June, and then falls until the end of October. The 
rise of the Negro branch is not synchronous ; for the steady 
rains do not commence in its valley until February or March. 
Hy June it is full, and then it begins to fall with the Amazon. 
According to Bates, the Madeira " rises and sinks " two months 
earlier than the Amazon. The Amazon at times broadens to 
4 and 6 m. Occasionally, for long distances, it divides into two 
main streams with inland, lateral channels, all connected by 
a complicated system of natural canals, cutting the low, flat 
igapo lands, which are never more than 15 ft. above low river, 
into almost numberless islands. 1 At the narrows of Obidos, 
400 m. from the sea, it is compressed into a single bed a mile 
wide and over 200 ft. deep, through which the water rushes at 
the rate of 4 to 5 m. an hour. In the rainy season it inundates 
the country throughout its course to the extent of several 
hundred thousand square miles, covering the flood-plain, called 
vargem. The flood-levels are in places from 40 to 50 ft. high above 
low river. Taking four roughly equidistant places, the rise at 
Iquitos is 20 ft., at Teffd 45, near Obidos 35, and at Para 12 ft. 

The first high land met in ascending the river is on the north 
bank, opposite the mouth of the Xingfi, and extends for about 
150 m. up, as far as Monte Alcgre. It is a series of steep, table- 
topped hills, cut down to a kind of terrace which lies between 
them and the river. Monte Alcgre reaches an altitude of several 
hundred feet. On the south side, above the Xingu, a line of low 
bluffs extends, in a scries of gentle curves with hardly any breaks 
nearly to Santarem, but a considerable distance inland, bordering 
the flood-plain, which is many miles wide. Then they bend to 
the south-west, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajos, merge 

1 Igapo la thus the name given to the recent alluvial tracts along 
the margins of rivers, submerged by moderate floods, whereas 
vargem is the term used for land oetwecn the levels of moderate and 
high floods, while for land above this the people use the term terra 
firma. 



AMAZON 



7*9 



into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of that river 
valley. The next high land on the north side is Obidos, a bluff, 
56 ft. above the river, backed by low hills. From Scrpa, nearly 
opposite the river Madeira, to near the mouth of the Rio Negro, 
the banks are low, until approaching Manaos, they are rolling 
hills; but from the Negro, for 600 m., as far up as the village of 
Canaria, at the great bend of the Amazon, only very low land is 
found, resembling that at the mouth of the river. Vast areas of 
it are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part 
of the trees of the sombre forests appear. At Canaria, the high 
land commences and continues as far as Tabatinga, and thence 
up stream. 

On the south side, from the Tapajos to the river Madeira, the 
banks are usually low, although two or three hills break the 
general monotony. From the latter river, however, to the 
Ucayali, a distance of nearly 1500 m., the forested banks are 
just out of water, and arc inundated long before the river attains 
its maximum flood-line. Thence to the Huallaga the elevation 
of the land is somewhat greater;, but not until this river is 
passed, and the Pongo de Manseriche approached, does the 
swelling ground of the Andean foot-hills raise the country above 
flood-level. 

The Amazon is not a continuous incline, but probably consists 
of long, level stretches connected by short inclined planes of 
extremely little fall, sufficient, however, owing to its great depth, 
to give the gigantic volume of water a continuous impulse towards 
the ocean. The lower Amazon presents every evidence of having 
once been an ocean gulf, the upper waters of which washed the 
cliffs near Obidos. Only about 10 % of the water discharged by 
the mighty stream enters it below Obidos, very little of which 
is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of 
the Amazon basin above Obidos is about 1,945,000 sq. m., and, 
below, only about 423,000 sq. m., or say 20%, exclusive of the 
354,000 sq. m. of the Tocantins basin. 

The width of the mouth of the monarch river is usually 
measured from Cabo do Norte to Punto Patijoca, a distance of 
207 statute m.; but this includes the ocean outlet, 40 m. wide, 
of the Para river, which should be deducted, as this stream is 
only the lower reach of the Tocantins. It also includes the ocean 
frontage of Marajo, an island about the size of the kingdom of 
Denmark lying in the mouth of the Amazon. 

Following the coast, a little to the north of Cabo do Norte, 
and for 100 m. along its Guiana margin up the Amazon, is a belt 
of half-submerged islands and shallow sandbanks. Here the 
tidal phenomenon called the bore, or Pororoca, occurs, where 
the soundings are not over 4 fathoms. It commences with a roar, 
constantly increasing, and advances at the rate of from 10 to 
15 m. an hour, with a breaking wall of water from 5 to 12 ft. 
high. Under such conditions of warfare between the ocean and 
the river, it is not surprising that the former is rapidly eating 
away the coast and that the vast volume of silt carried by the 
Amazon finds it impossible to build up a delta. 

The Amazon is not so much a river as it is a gigantic reservoir, 
extending from the sea to the base of the Andes, and, in the wet 
season, varying in width from 5 to 400 m. Special attention 
has already been called to the fourteen great streams which 
discharge into this reservoir, but it receives a multitude of 
secondary rivers, which in any other part of the world would also 
be termed great. 

For 350 years after the discovery of the Amazon, by Pinzon, 
the Portuguese portion of its basin remained almost an undis- 
turbed wilderness, occupied by Indian tribes whom the 
Papula- f ooc j q ues t had split into countless fragments. It is 
^on, m , joyful if jt s indigenous inhabitants ever exceeded 
one to every 5 sq. m. of territory, this being the maxi- 
mum it could support under the existing conditions of the period 
in question, and taking into account Indian methods of life. A few 
settlements on the banks of the main river and some of its tribu- 
'taries, either for trade with the Indians or for evangelizing 
purposes, had been founded by the Portuguese pioneers of 
European civilization. The total population of the Brazilian 
portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of 



whom about two-thirds were white and slaves, the latter number- 
ing about 25,000. The principal commercial city, Para, had from 
10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of 
Manaos, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had from 1000 to 1500 
population; but all the remaining villages, as far up as Tabatinga, 
on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were wretched little groups of 
houses which appeared to have timidly effected a lodgment on 
the river bank, as if they feared to challenge the mysteries of 
the sombre and gigantic forests behind them. The value of the 
export and import trade of the whole valley in 1850 was but 
500,000. 

On the 6th of September 1850 the emperor, Dom Pedro II., 
sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon, 
and confided to an illustrious Brazilian, Barao Maua (Irincu 
Evangilista de Sousa), the task of carrying it into effect. He 
organized the " Compania de Naviga^ao c Commercio do 
Amazonas" at Rio de Janeiro in 1852; and in the following 
year it commenced operations with three small steamers, the 
"Monarch," the "Marajo" and "Rio Negro." At first the naviga- 
tion was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 
a modification of the! government contract only obliged the 
company to a monthly service between Para and Manaos, 
with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make 
six round voyages a year between Manaos and Tabatinga, and 
a third, two trips a month between Para and Cameta. The 
government paid the company a subvention of 3935 monthly. 
Thus the first impulse of modern progress was given to the 
dormant valley. The success of the venture called attention to 
the unoccupied field; a second company soon opened commerce 
on the Madeira, Purus and Negro; a third established a line 
between Para and Manaos; and a fourth found it profitable 
to navigate some of the smaller streams; while, in the interval, 
the Amazonas Company had largely increased its fine fleet. 
Meanwhile private individuals were building and running small 
steam craft of their own, not only upon the main river but upon 
many of its affluents. The government of Brazil, constantly 
pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling 
the upper Amazon basin, decreed, on the 3ist of July 1867, 
the opening of the Amazon to all flags; but limited this to 
certain defined points Tabatinga, on the Amazon; Cameta, 
on the Tocantins; Santarcm, on the Tapajos; Borba, on the 
Madeira; Manaos, on the Rio Negro; the decree to take effect 
on the 7th of September of the same year. Para, Manaos and 
Iquitos are now thriving commercial centres. The first direct 
foreign trade with Manaos was commenced about 1874. 

The local trade of the river is carried on by the English 
successors to the Amazonas Company the Amazon Steam 
Navigation Company. In addition to its excellent fleet there 
are numerous small river steamers, belonging to companies and 
firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, 
Purus and many other streams. The principal exports of the 
valley are india-rubber, cacao, Brazil nuts and a few other 
products of very minor importance. The finest quality of india- 
rubber comes from the Acre and Beni districts of Bolivia, 
especially from the valley of the Acre (or Aquiry) branch of the 
river Purus. Of the rubber production of the Amazon basin, 
the state of Para gives about 35 %. The cacao tree is not 
cultivated, but grows wild in great abundance. There is but one 
railway in the whole valley; it is a short line from Para towards 
the coast. The cities of Para and Manaos have excellent tram- 
ways, many fine public buildings and private residences, gardens 
and public squares, all of which give evidence of artistic taste 
and great prosperity. 

The number of inhabitants in the Brazilian Amazon basin (the 
states of Amazonas and Para) is purely a matter of rough 
estimate. There may be 500,000 or 600,000, or more; for the 
immigration during recent years from the other parts of Brazil 
has been large, due to the rubber excitement. The influx from 
the state of Ceara alone, from 1892 to 1899 inclusive, reached 
98,348. 

As Commander Todd, in his report to the United States 
government, says: "The crying need of the Amazon valley is 



790 



AMAZONAS AMAZONS 



food for the people. ... At the small towns along the river it 
is nearly impossible to obtain beef, vegetables, or fruit of any 
sort, and the inhabitants depend largely upon river fish, mandioc, 
and canned goods for their subsistence." Although more than 
four centuries have passed since the discovery of the Amazon 
river, there are probably not 25 sq. m. of its basin under 
cultivation, excluding the limited and rudely cultivated areas 
among the mountains at its extreme headwaters, which are 
inaccessible to commerce. The extensive exports of the mighty 
valley are almost entirely derived from the products of the 
forest. (G. E. C.) 

AMAZONAS, the extreme north-western and largest state of 
Brazil, bounded N. by Colombia and Venezuela, E. by the state 
of Para, S. by the state of Matto Grosso and Bolivia, and W. by 
Peru and Colombia. It embraces an area of 742,123 sq. m., 
wholly within the Amazon basin. A small part bordering the 
Venezuelan sierras is elevated and mountainous, but the greater 
part forms an immense alluvial plain, densely wooded, traversed 
by innumerable rivers, and subjected to extensive annual 
inundations. The climate is tropical and generally unfavourable 
to white settlement, the exceptions being the elevated localities 
on the Amazon exposed to the strong winds blowing up that 
river. The state is very sparsely populated; two-thirds of the 
inhabitants are Indians, forming small tribes, and subject only 
in small part to government control. The principal products 
are rubber, cacao and nuts; cattle are raised on the elevated 
plains of the north, while curing fish and collecting turtle eggs for 
their oil give occupation to many people on the rivers. Coffee, 
tobacco, rice and various fruits of superior quality are produced 
with ease, but agriculture is neglected and production is limited 
to domestic needs. The capital, Manaos, is the only city and 
port of general commercial importance in the state; other 
prominent towns are Serpa and Teffe on the Amazon, Borba and 
Crato on the Madeira, and Barcellos on the Rio Negro. Up to 
1755 all the Portuguese territory on the Amazon formed part of 
the capitania of Para. The upper districts were then organized 
into a separate capitania, called S.Jose do Rio Negro, to facilitate 
administration. When Brazil became independent in 1822, Rio 
Negro was overlooked in the reorganization into provinces and 
reverted, notwithstanding the protests and an attempted revolu- 
tion (1832) of the people, to a state of dependence upon Para. 
In 1850 autonomy was voted by the general assembly at Rio de 
Janeiro, and on the ist of January 1852 the province of Amazonas 
was formally installed. In 1889 it became a federal state in the 
Brazilian republic. 

AMAZONAS, a northern department of Peru, covering a 
mountainous district between the departments of Loreto and 
Cajamarca, with Ecuador on the N. The Marafion river forms 
the greater part of its W. boundary-line. Area, 13,943 sq. m.; 
pop. (1896) 70,676. The rainfall is abundant, and the soil of the 
heavily wooded valleys and lower mountain slopes is exception- 
ally fertile and productive. Its settlement and development is 
seriously impeded by the lack of transportation facilities. The 
capital, Chachapoyas, is a small town (pop. about 6000) situated 
on a tributary of the Marafion, 7600 ft. above sea-level. It is 
the seat of a bishopric, created in 1802, which covers the depart- 
ments of Amazonas and Loreto, and one province of Libertad. It 
has an imposing cathedral and a university. The climate is 
equable and delightful, the mean temperature for the year being 
62 F. 

AMAZONAS, a territory belonging to Venezuela, and occupy- 
ing the extreme southern part of that republic, adjoining the 
Brazilian state of Amazonas. It lies partly within the drainage 
basin of the Orinoco and partly within that of the Rio Negro, an 
affluent of the Amazon. The territory is covered with dense 
forests and is filled with intricate watercourses, one of which, the 
Casiquiare, forms an open communication between the Orinoco 
and the Rio Negro and is navigable for large canoes. The capital 
of the territory is Maroa, situated on the Guainia river, an 
affluent of the Rio Negro. 

AMAZONS, an ancient legendary nation of female warriors. 
They were said to have lived in Pontus near the shore of the 



Euxine sea, where they formed an independent kingdom under 
the government of a queen, the capital being Themiscyra on 
the banks of the river Thermodon (Herodotus iv. 110-117). 
From this centre they made numerous warlike excursions to 
Scythia, Thrace, the coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of the 
Aegean, even penetrating to Arabia, Syria and Egypt. They 
were supposed to have founded many towns, amongst them 
Smyrna, Ephesus, Sinope, Paphos. According to another 
account, they originally came to the Thermodon from the Palus 
Maeotis (Sea of Azov). No men were permitted to reside in 
their country; but once a year, in order to prevent their race 
from dying out, they visited the Gargareans, a neighbouring 
tribe. The male children who were the result of these visits 
were either put to death or sent back to their fathers; the 
female were kept and brought up by their mothers, and trained 
in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and the art of war (Strabo 
xi. p. 503). It is said that their right breast was cut off or burnt 
out, in order that they might be able to use the bow more 
freely; hence the ancient derivation of 'A/tdfoi'ts from d-/iaf6s, 
" without breast." But there is no indication of this practice 
in works of art, in which the Amazons are always represented 
with both breasts, although the right is frequently covered. 
Other suggested derivations are: a (intensive) and /lafos, 
breast, " full-breasted "; d (privative) and paaau, touch, " not 
touching men "; maza, a Circassian word said to signify " moon," 
has suggested their connexion with the worship of a moon- 
goddess, perhaps the Asiatic representative of Artemis. 

The Amazons appear in connexion with several Greek legends. 
They invaded Lycia, but were defeated by Bellerophon, who was 
sent out against them by lobates, the king of that country, in 
the hope that he might meet his death at their hands (Iliad, vi. 
1 86). They attacked the Phrygians, who were assisted by 
Priam, then a young man (Iliad, iii. 189), although in his later 
years, towards the end of the Trojan war, his old opponents 
took his side against the Greeks under their queen Penthesileia, 
who was slain by Achilles (Quint Smyr. i.; Justin ii. 4; 
Virgil, Aen. i. 490). One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles 
by Eurystheus was to obtain possession of the girdle of the 
Amazonian queen Hippolyte (Apollodorus ii. 5). He was 
accompanied by his friend Theseus, who carried off the princess 
Antiope, sister of Hippolyte, an incident which led to a retaliatory 
invasion of Attica, in which Antiope perished fighting by the 
side of Theseus. The Amazons are also said to have undertaken 
an expedition against the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the 
Danube, where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by 
Thetis. The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified 
the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invaders, 
who were forced to retire. They are heard of in the time of 
Alexander the Great, when their queen Thalestris visited him 
and became a mother by him, and Pompey is said to have found 
them in the army of Mithradates. 

The origin of the story of the Amazons has been the subject 
of much discussion. While some regard them as a purely 
mythical people, others assume an historical foundation for 
them. The deities worshipped by them were Ares (who is 
consistently assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of 
Thracian and generally northern origin) and Artemis, not the 
usual Greek goddess of that name, but an Asiatic deity in some 
respects her equivalent. It is conjectured that the Amazons 
were originally the temple-servants and priestesses (hierodulae) 
of this goddess; and that the removal of the breast corresponded 
with the self-mutilation of the galli, or priests, of Rhea Cybele. 
Another theory is that, as the knowledge of geography extended, 
travellers brought back reports of tribes ruled entirely by 
women, who carried out the duties which elsewhere were regarded 
as peculiar to man, in whom alone the rights of nobility and 
inheritance were vested, and who had the supreme control of 
affairs. Hence arose the belief in the Amazons as a nation of 
female warriors, organized and governed entirely by women. 
According to J. Vurtheim (De Ajacis origine, 1907), the Amazons 
were of Greek origin: " all the Amazons were Dianas, as Diana 
herself was an Amazon." It has been suggested that the fact 



AMAZON-STONEAMBASSADOR 



791 



of the conquest of the Amazons being assigned to the two 
famous heroes of Greek mythology, Heracles and Theseus 
who in the tasks assigned to them were generally opposed to 
monsters and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as 
illustrations of permanent danger and damage, shows that 
they were mythical illustrations of the dangers which beset the 
Greeks on the coasts of Asia Minor; rather perhaps, it may be 
intended to represent the conflict between the Greek culture of 
the colonies on the Euxine and the barbarism of the native 
inhabitants. 

In works of art, combats between Amazons and Greeks are 
placed on the same level as and often associated with combats 
of Greeks and centaurs. The belief in their existence, however, 
having been once accepted and introduced into the national 
poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as 
possible with the appearance of not unnatural beings. Their 
occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear, 
axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called pelta, 
and in early art a helmet, the model before the Greek mind 
having apparently been the goddess Athena. In later art they 
approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high 
for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often 
peculiarly Persian that is, close-fitting trousers and a high 
cap called the kidaris. They were usually on horseback but 
sometimes on foot. The battle between Theseus and the 
Amazons is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the 
reliefs from the frieze of the temple of Apollo at Bassae, now in 
the British Museum), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at Athens 
it was represented on the shield of the statue of Athena Parthenos, 
on wall-paintings in the Theseum and in the Poikile Stoa. 
Many of the sculptors of antiquity, including Pheidias, Poly- 
clitus, Cresilas and Phradmon, executed statues of Amazons; 
and there are many existing reproductions of these. 

The history of Bohemia affords a parallel to the Greek 
Amazons. During the 8th century a large band of women, 
under a certain Vlasta, carried on war against the duke of 
Bohemia, and enslaved or put to death all men who fell into 
their hands. In the i6th century the Spanish explorer Orellana 
asserted that he had come into conflict with fighting women in 
South America on the river Marafion, which was named after 
them the Amazon (q.v.) or river of the Amazons, although others 
derive its name from the Indian amassona (boat-destroyer), 
applied to the tidal phenomenon known as the " bore." The 
existence of " Amazons " (in the sense of fighting women) in the 
army of Dahomey in modern times is an undoubted fact, but 
they are said to have died out during the French protectorate. 
For notable cases of women who have become soldiers, reference 
may be made to Mary Anne Talbot and Hannah Snell. 

See A. D. Mordtmann, Die Amazonen (1862); W. Strieker, Die 
A. in Sage und Geschichte (1868); A. Kliigmann, Die A. in der 
attischen Literatur und Kunst (1875); H. L. Krause, Die Amazonen- 
sage (1893); F. G. Bergmann, Les Amazones dans I'histoire et dans 
la fable (1853); P. Lacour, Les Amazones (1901); articles in Pauly- 
Wissowa's Realencyclopadie and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; 
Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. i. ch. n. In article GREEK ART, fig. 40 
represents three types of Amazons, and fig. 70 (pi. iv.) a battle 
between Amazons and Greeks. 

AMAZON-STONE, or AMAZONITE, a green variety of microcline- 
felspar. The name is taken from that of the river Amazon, 
whence certain green stones were formerly obtained, but it is 
doubtful whether green felspar occurs in the Amazon district. 
The modern amazon-stone is a mineral of restricted occurrence. 
Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively from the neighbour- 
hood of Miyask, in the Ilmen mountains, 50 m. S.W. of Chelia- 
binsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks. Of late years, 
magnificent crystals have been obtained from Pike's Peak, 
Colorado, where it is found associated with smoky quartz, 
orthoclase and albite in a coarse granite or pegmatite. Some 
other localities in the United States yield amazon-stone, and it 
is also found in pegmatite in Madagascar. On account of its 
lively green colour, it is cut and polished to a limited extent as 
an ornamental stone. The colour has been attributed to the 
presence of copper, but as it is discharged by heat it is likely 



to be due to some pigment of organic origin, and an organic salt 
of iron has been suggested. (See MICROCLINE.) 

AMBARVALIA, an annual festival of the ancient Romans, 
occurring in May, usually on the zpth, the object of which was 
to secure the growing crops against harm of all kinds. The priests 
were the Arval Brothers (q.v.), who conducted the victims ox, 
sheep and pig (suovetaurilia) in procession with prayer to Ceres 
round the boundaries of the ager Romanus. As the extent of 
Roman land increased, this could no longer be done, and in the 
Acta of the Fratres, which date from Augustus, we do not find 
this procession mentioned (Henzen, Acta Fratrum Arvalium, 
1874) ; but there is a good description of this or a similar rite in 
Virgil, Georg. i. 338 ff., and in Cato's work de Re Rustica (141) 
we have full details and the text of the prayers used by the Latin 
farmer in thus " lustrating " his own land. In this last case 
the god invoked is Mars. The Christian festival which seems 
to have taken the place of these ceremonies is the Rogation 
or Gang week of the Roman Church. The perambulation or 
beating of bounds is probably a survival of the same type of rite. 

See W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899), p. 124 ff. 

(W. W. F.*) 

AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes 'still 
used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which 
compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span, embajador, all variants 
of the Med. Lat. ambasciator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., 
derived from Med. Lat. ambasciare or ambactiare, " to go 
on a mission, to do or say anything in another's name," from 
Lat. ambactus, 1 a vassal or servant; see Du Cange, Glossarium, 
s.v. ambasciare), a public minister of the first rank, accredited 
and sent by the head of a sovereign state as his personal repre- 
sentative to negotiate with a foreign government, and to watch 
over the interests of his own nation abroad. The power thus 
conferred is defined in the credentials or letters of credence 
of which the ambassador is the bearer, and in the instructions 
under the sign-manual delivered to him. The credentials consist 
of a sealed letter addressed by the sovereign whom the ambassador 
represents to the sovereign to whom he is accredited, and they 
embody a general assurance that the sovereign by whom the 
ambassador is sent will confirm whatever is done by the 
ambassador in his name. In Great Britain letters of credence 
are under the royal sign-manual, and are not countersigned 
by a minister. Ambassadors are distinguished as ordinary and 
extraordinary, which implied originally the difference between 
a permanent mission and one appointed to conduct a particular 
negotiation. The style of ambassador extraordinary is, however, 
now often given to a minister accredited to a court for an in- 
definite time and implies a somewhat more dignified rank. 

By the protocol of the igthof March 1815, afterwards embodied 
in the treaty of Vienna (1815) and confirmed by an instrument 
signed by the five great powers at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 2ist 
.of November 1818, it was finally determined that " ambassadors 
and papal legates and nuncios alone have a representative 
character," i.e. in the most exalted and peculiar sense, as repre- 
senting the person of the sovereign, or the head of a republic, 
as well as the state to which they belong. It follows that only 
states enjoying " royal honours," i.e. empires, kingdoms, grand 
duchies, the great republics (e.g. France, Switzerland, the 
United States of America) and the Holy See, have the right to 
send or to receive ambassadors. By custom it has moreover 
been established that, as a general rule, only the greater " royal 
states " are represented by ambassadors, and then only when 
these are accredited to states esteemed, for one reason or another, 
to be of equal rank. Thus the promotion of the Japanese lega- 
tions in Europe and the United States to the rank of embassies, 
and the corresponding change in the representation of the various 

1 Ambactus is explained by Festus (Paulus Diaconus ex Festo, ed. 
C. O. Miiller) as a GaUic word used by Ennius and meaning servus. 
Caesar (De Bella Gallico, vi. 15) says of the Gallic equites, " atque 
eorum ut quisque est genere copiisque amplissimus, plurimos circum 
se ambactos clientesque habent." Accepting the Celtic origin of 
the word, it has been connected with the Welsh amaeth, a tiller of 
the ground. A Teutonic origin has been suggested in the Old High 
Ger. ambaht, a retainer, which appears in a Scandinavian word 
amboht, bondwoman or maid, in the Ormulum (c. 1200). 



792 



AMBATO AMBER 



powers at Tokio, marked in 1905 the definite recognition of 
Japan as a great power. To this rule the United States of 
America long remained an exception, and was content, in 
accordance with the tradition of republican simplicity, to be 
represented abroad only by ministers of the second rank. The 
subordinate position given to the representatives of so great 
a power, however, inevitably led to many inconveniences, and 
in 1893 an act of Congress empowered the president to accredit 
ambassadors to the great powers. 

The distinction between an ambassador and ministers of the 
second rank is one rather of rank and dignity than of power or 
functions. His special immunities he shares with other diplo- 
matic representatives of all classes. The peculiar privilege 
which he claims of free access to the sovereign has, in common 
practice, been reduced to the right of being received on presenting 
his credentials in public or private audience by the sovereign 
in person, it being obviously against public policy that a foreign 
representative should negotiate with the ruler otherwise than 
through his responsible ministers. In Great Britain the sovereign, 
when granting an audience to a foreign ambassador, is always 
attended by one or more ministers, and the same is usual in other 
states. 

An ambassador, however, unless specially armed with plenary 
authority, cannot decide any questions beyond his instructions 
without reference to his government. Thus Lord Londonderry 
(Lord Stewart), who represented Great Britain at the conferences 
of Troppau in 1820 and Laibach in 1821, had not the same 
standing as the plenipotentiaries of the other powers present, 
and efforts were even made to exclude him from some of the 
more important discussions in consequence, not on the ground 
of inferior rank but of defective powers. 

Socially, the position of an ambassador is one of great dignity. 
The pomp and magnificence which in earlier days characterized 
his progresses and his " entries " are indeed no longer observed. 
He is received, however, by the sovereign to whom he is accredited 
with elaborate state, of which every detail is minutely regulated, 
and ranks, as representing his own sovereign, next to the princes 
of the blood in the court where he resides. The controversies 
that once raged as to the order of precedence of the various 
ambassadors accredited to any one court were settled by the 
treaties already mentioned, it being decided that they should 
rank in order of seniority according to the date of the presentation 
of their credentials. In Roman Catholic countries, however 
as in France before the abrogation of the concordat, the position 
of doyen (dean) of the diplomatic body is given by courtesy to 
the. nuncio of the pope. 

The special immunities and privileges enjoyed by ambassadors 
are dealt with in the articles EXTERRITORIALITY and DIPLOMACY. 
See also the latter for the history of the subject. 

The most authoritative modern hand-book on the subject is 
Charles de Martens, Manuel diplomatique (Paris, 1822; new ed., 1868). 
See also Henry Wheaton, Hist, of the Law of Nations (New York, 
1845); L. Oppenheim, International Law (London, 1905); and 
the list of books attached to the article DIPLOMACY. (W. A. P.) 

AMBATO, or ASIENTO DE AMBATO, an inland town of Ecuador, 
capital of the province of Tunguragua, 80 m. S. of Quito by the 
highway, and near the northern foot of Chimborazo. Pop. (est.) 
10,000. The town stands in a bowl-like depression, 8606 ft. 
above sea-level, surrounded by steep, sandy, barren mountains, 
and has an equable climate, which has been likened to a perpetual 
autumn. The immediate environs are very fertile and produce 
a great variety of fruits, including many of the temperate zone, 
but the surrounding country is arid and sterile, producing scanty 
crops of barley, Indian corn and pease. The cochineal insect 
is found on the cactus which grows in abundance in the vicinity, 
and the town is known throughout Ecuador for its manufacture 
of boots and shoes, and for a cordage made from cabuya, the 
fibre of the agave plant. Ambato was destroyed by an eruption 
of Cotopaxi in 1698, and has been badly damaged two or three 
times by earthquakes. 

AMBATO is also the name of a range of mountains in northern 
Argentina, being a spur of the Sierra de Aconquija crossing the 
province of Catamarca from north to south. 



AMBER, a ruined city of India, the ancient capital of Jaipur 
state in the Rajputana agency. The name of Amber is first 
mentioned by Ptolemy. It was founded by the Minas and was 
still flourishing in A.D. 967. In 1037 it was taken by the Rajputs, 
who held it till it was deserted. In 1728 it was supplanted by 
the modern city of Jaipur, from which it is 5 m. distant. The 
picturesque situation of Amber at the mouth of a rocky mountain 
gorge, in which nestles a lovely lake, has attracted the admiration 
of all travellers, including Jacquemont and Heber. It is now 
only remarkable for its architecture. The old palace begun by 
Man Sing in 1600 ranks second only to Gwalior. The chief 
building is the Diwan-i-Khas built by Mirza Raja. " No sooner " 
(it is related) " had Mirza completed the Diwan-i-Khas than it 
came to the ears of the emperor Jehangir that his vassal had 
surpassed him in magnificence, and that this last great work 
quite eclipsed all the marvels of the imperial city; the columns 
of red sandstone having been particularly noticed as sculptured 
with exquisite taste and elaborate detail. In a fit of jealousy the 
emperor commanded that this masterpiece should be thrown 
down, and sent commissioners to Amber charged with the 
execution of this order; whereupon Mirza, in order to save the 
structure, had the columns plastered over with stucco, so that 
the messengers from Agra should have to acknowledge to the 
emperor that the magnificence, which had been so much talked 
of, was after all pure invention. Since then his apathetic suc- 
cessors have neglected to bring to light this splendid work; and 
it is only by knocking off some of the plaster that one can get a 
glimpse of the sculptures, which are perfect as on the day they 
were carved." 

AMBER, a fossil resin much used for the manufacture of 
ornamental objects. The name comes from the Arab, anbar, 
probably through the Spanish, but this word referred originally 
to ambergris, which is an animal substance quite distinct from 
yellow amber. True amber has sometimes been called karabe, 
a word of oriental derivation signifying " that which attracts 
straw," in allusion to the power which amber possesses of acquir- 
ing an electric charge by friction. This property, first recorded 
by Thales of Miletus, suggested the word " electricity," from the 
Greek, ij\tKTpov, a name applied, however, not only to amber 
but also to an alloy of gold and silver. By Latin writers 
amber is variously called electrum, sucinum (succinum), and 
glaesum or glesum. The Hebrew frashmal seems to have been 
amber. 

Amber is not homogeneous in composition, but consists of 
several resinous bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether and 
chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. 
The average composition of amber leads to the general formula 
CioHi e O. Heated rather below 300 C. amber suffers decomposi- 
tion, yielding an " oil of amber," and leaving a black residue 
which is known as " amber colophony," or " amber pitch "; 
this forms, when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed oil, 
" amber varnish " or " amber lac." 

True amber yields on dry distillation succinic acid, the pro- 
portion varying from about 3 to 8%, and being greatest in the 
pale opaque or " bony " varieties. The aromatic and irritating 
fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. 
True Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, 
for many of the other fossil resins which are often termed amber 
contain either none of it, or only a very small proportion; hence 
the name " succinite " proposed by Professor. J. D. Dana, and 
now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific term for the 
real Prussian amber. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, 
which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its 
specific gravity varies from 1-05 to i-io. 

The Baltic amber or succinite is found as irregular nodules 
in a marine glauconitic sand, known as "blue earth," occurring 
in the Lower Oligocene strata of Samland in East Prussia, where 
it is now systematically mined. It appears, however, to have 
been partly derived from yet earlier Tertiary deposits (Eocene) ; 
and it occurs also as a derivative mineral in later formations, such 
as the drift. Relics of an abundant flora occur in association 
with the amber, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern 



AMBER 



793 



Asia and the southern part of North America. H. R. Goppert 
named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests 
Pinites succinifer, but as the wood, according to some authorities, 
does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been 
also called Pinus succinifera. It is improbable, however, that 
the production of amber was limited to a single species; and 
indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera 
are represented in the amber-flora. The resin contains, in addi- 
tion to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, numerous 
remains of insects, spiders, annelids, crustaceans and other small 
organisms which became enveloped while the exudation was 
fluid. In most cases the organic structure has disappeared, 
leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of chitin. Even hair 
and feathers have occasionally been represented among the 
enclosures. Fragments of wood not infrequently occur, with 
the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while 
leaves, flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvellous 
perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the form of drops and 
stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of 
the injured trees. The abnormal development of resin has been 
called " succinosis." Impurities are often present, especially 
when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material 
may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure 
amber is called firniss. Enclosures of pyrites may give a bluish 
colour to amber. The so-called " black amber " is only a kind 
of jet. " Bony amber " owes its cloudy opacity to minute bubbles 
in the interior of the resin. 

Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of 
the Baltic and the North Sea, the great amber-producing country 
is the promontory of Samland. Pieces of amber torn from the 
sea-floor are cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-tide. 
Sometimes the searchers wade into the sea, furnished with nets 
at the end of long poles, by means of which they drag in the 
sea- weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge 
from boats in shallow water and rake up amber from between 
the boulders. Divers have been employed to collect amber from 
the deeper waters. Systematic dredging on a large scale was at 
one time carried on in the Kurisches Haff by Messrs Stantien 
and Becker, the great amber merchants of Kb'nigsberg. At the 
present time extensive mining operations are conducted in quest 
of amber. The " pit amber " was formerly dug in open works, 
but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules 
from the " blue earth " have to be freed from matrix and divested 
of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels 
containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its 
crust, but has often acquired a dull rough surface by rolling in 
sand. 

Amber is extensively used for beads and other trivial orna- 
ments, and for cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It 
is regarded by the Turks as specially valuable, inasmuch as it 
is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the pipe passes 
from mouth to mouth. The variety most valued in the East is 
the pale straw-coloured, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best 
qualities are sent to Vienna for the manufacture of smoking 
appliances. In working amber, it is turned on the lathe and 
polished with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil, 
the final lustre being given by friction with flannel. During the 
working much electricity is developed. 

By gradually heating amber in an oil-bath it becomes soft and 
flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the 
surfaces with linseed oil, heating them, and then pressing them 
together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, 
as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is due. 
Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, 
are now utilized on a large scale in the formation of " ambroid " 
or " pressed amber." The pieces are carefully heated with 
exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by 
intense hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced 
through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used 
for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking. 
This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colours in 
polarized light. Amber has often been imitated by other resins 



like copal and kauri, as well as by celluloid and even glass. True 
amber is sometimes coloured artificially. 

Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very 
early times. It has been found in Mycenaean tombs; it is 
known from lake-dwellings in Switzerland, and it occurs with 
neolithic remains in Denmark, whilst in England it is found with 
interments of the bronze age. A remarkably fine cup turned in 
amber from a bronze-age barrow at Hove is now in the Brighton 
Museum. Beads ofjamber occur with Anglo-Saxon relics in the 
south of England; and up to a comparatively recent period the 
material was valued as an amulet. It is still believed to possess 
certain medicinal virtue. 

Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very 
large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England, having 
probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea. 
Cromer is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other 
parts of the Norfolk coast, as well as at Yarmouth, Southwold, 
Aldeburgh and Felixstowe in Suffolk, and as far south as 
Walton-on-the-Naze in Essex, whilst northwards it is not un- 
known in Yorkshire. On the other side of the North Sea, amber 
is found at various localities on the coast of Holland and Denmark. 
On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the Prussian and 
Pomeranian coast but in the south of Sweden, in Bornholm and 
other islands, and in S. Finland. Amber has indeed a very wide 
distribution, extending over a large part of northern Europe and 
occurring as far east as the Urals. Some of the amber districts 
of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and 
led to early trade with the south of Europe. Amber was carried 
to Olbia on the Black Sea, Massilia on the Mediterranean, and 
Hatria at the head of the Adriatic; and from these centres it 
was distributed over the Hellenic world. 

Whilst succinite is the common variety of European amber, 
the following varieties also occur: 

Gedanite, or " brittle amber," closely resembling succinite, 
but much more brittle, not quite so hard, with a lower melting- 
point and containing no succinic acid. It is often covered 
with a white powder easily removed by wiping. The name 
comes from Gedanum, the Latin name of Danzig. 

Stantienite, a brittle, deep brownish-black resin, destitute of 
succinic acid. 

Beckerite, a rare amber in earthy-brown nodules, almost 
opaque, said to be related in properties to gutta-percha. 

Glessite, a nearly opaque brown resin, with numerous micro- 
scopic cavities and dusty enclosures, named from glesum, an old 
name for amber. 

Krantzite, a soft amber-like resin, found in the lignites of 
Saxony. 

Allingite, a fossil resin allied to succinite, from Switzerland. 

Roumanite, or Rumanian amber, a dark reddish resin, 
occurring with lignite in Tertiary deposits. The nodules are 
penetrated by cracks, but the material can be worked on 
the lathe. Sulphur is present to the extent of more than i %, 
whence the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when the resin is 
heated. According to G. Murgoci the Rumanian amber is true 
succinite. 

Simetite, or Sicilian amber, takes its name from the river 
Simeto or Giaretta. It occurs in Miocene deposits and is also 
found washed up by the sea near Catania. This beautiful 
material presents a great diversity of tints, but a rich hyacinth 
red is common. It is remarkable for its fluorescence, which in 
the opinion of some authorities adds to its beauty. Amber is 
also found in many localities in Emilia, especially near the 
sulphur-mines of Cesena. It has been conjectured that the 
ancient Etruscan ornaments in amber were wrought in the 
Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached 
the Etruscans at Hatria. It has even been supposed that amber 
passed from Sicily to northern Europe in early times a sup- 
position said to receive some support from the fact that much 
of the amber dug up in Denmark is red; but it must not be 
forgotten that reddish amber is found also on the Baltic, though 
not being fashionable it is used rather for varnish-making than 
for ornaments. Moreover, yellow amber after long burial is 



794 



AMBERG AMBIGUITY 



apt to acquire a reddish colour. The amber of Sicily seems not 
to have been recognized in ancient times, for it is not mentioned 
by local authorities like Diodorus Siculus. 

Burmite is the name under which the Burmese amber is now 
described. Until the British occupation of Burma but little 
was known as to its occurrence, though it had been worked for 
centuries and was highly valued by the natives and by the 
Chinese. It is found in flat rolled pieces, irregularly distributed 
through a blue clay probably of Miocene age. It occurs in the 
Hukawng valley, in the Nangotaimaw hills, where it is irregularly 
worked in shallow pits. The mines were visited some years ago 
by Dr Fritz Noetling, and the mineral has been described by 
Dr Otto Helm. The Burmese amber is yellow or reddish, some 
being of ruby tint, and like the Sicilian amber it is fluorescent. 
Burmite and simetite agree also in being destitute of succinic 
acid. Most of the Burmese amber is worked at Mandalay into 
rosary-beads and ear-cylinders. 

Many other fossil resins more or less allied to amber have 
been described. Schraufite is a reddish resin from the Carpathian 
sandstone, and it occurs with jet in the cretaceous rocks of the 
Lebanon; ambrite is a resin found in many of the coals of New 
Zealand; retinite occurs in the lignite of Bovey Tracey in 
Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in 
the London clay of Highgate in North London. Chemawinite 
or cedarite is an amber-like resin from the Saskatchewan river 
in Canada. 

Amber and certain similar substances are found to a limited 
extent at several locah'ties in the United States, as in the green- 
sand of New Jersey, but they have little or no economic value. 
A fluorescent amber is said, however, to occur in some abundance 
in Southern Mexico. Amber is recorded also from the Dominican 
Republic. 

REFERENCES. See, for Baltic amber, P. Dahms, " Ueber die 
Vorkommen und die Verwendung des Bernsteins," Zeitsch. fur 
praktische Geologie, 1901, p. 201; H. Conwentz, Monographic der 
baltischen Bernsteinbaume (Danzig, 1890) ; R. Klebs, Guide to Exhibit 
of the German Amber Industry at World's Fair (St Louis, 1904) ; and 
abstract by G. F. Kunz in Mineral Resources of the U. S. (1904). 
For Sicilian amber, W. Arnold Buffum, The Tears of the Heliades, 
or Amber as a Gem (London, 1896). For Burmese amber, papers 
by Fritz Noetling and Otto Helm in Records of Geol. Surv. of 
India, vol. xxvi. (1893), pp. 31, 61. For British amber, Clement 
Reid in Trans. Norfolk Nat. Soc., vol. iii. (1884) p. 601 ; vol. iv. 
(1886) p. 247; and H. Conwentz in Natural Science, vol. ix. (1896) 
pp. 99, 161. (F. W. R.*) 

AMBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, 
formerly the capital of the Upper Palatinate, situated on both 
sides of the Vils, 42 m. E. of Nuremberg by rail. Pop. 22,089. 
It has a town hall with handsome rooms, a library, a gymnasium, 
a lyceum, elementary schools, an arsenal, and eleven churches, 
the finest of which is St Martin's, of the i5th century, with many 
excellent paintings and a tower 300 ft. high. A former Jesuit 
monastery is now used for a grammar school and seminary. 
There are also a pilgrimage church on a hill 1621 ft. high, a 
large convict prison for men, an industrial, commercial and 
other schools. The principal manufactures are firearms, 
ironmongery, earthenware, woollen cloth, beer, stoneware, 
zinc goods, colours and salt; in the neighbourhood are iron 
and coal mines. The French under Jourdan were defeated by 
the Austrians under the Archduke Charles near Amberg in 1796. 

AMBERGRIS (Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, or grey amber), a 
solid, fatty, inflammable substance of a dull grey or blackish 
colour, the shades being variegated like marble, possessing a 
peculiar sweet, earthy odour. It occurs as a biliary concretion 
in the intestines of the spermaceti whale (Physeter macrocephalus), 
and is found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in the 
sand near the sea-coast. It is met with in the Atlantic Ocean; 
on the coasts of Brazil and Madagascar; also on the coast of 
Africa, of the East Indies, China, Japan and the Molucca 
islands; but most of the ambergris which is brought to England 
comes from the Bahama Islands, Providence, &c. It is also 
sometimes found in the abdomen of whales, always in lumps 
of various shapes and sizes, weighing from J oz. to 100 or more 
pounds. Ambergris, when taken from the intestinal canal of 



the sperm whale, is of a deep grey colour, soft consistence and a 
disagreeable smell. On exposure to the air it gradually hardens, 
becomes pale and develops its peculiar sweet, earthy odour. In 
that condition its specific gravity ranges from 0-780 to 0-926. 
It melts at about 62 C. to a fatty, yellow resinous-like liquid; 
and at 100 C. it is volatilized into a white vapour. It is soluble 
in ether, and in volatile and fixed oils; it is only feebly acted 
on by acids. By digesting in hot alcohol, a substance termed 
ambrein, closely resembling cholesterin, is obtained, which 
separates in brilliant white crystals as the solution cools. The 
use of ambergris in Europe is now entirely confined to perfumery, 
though it formerly occupied no inconsiderable place in medicine. 
In minute quantities its alcoholic solution is much used for 
giving a " floral " fragrance to bouquets, washes and other 
preparations of the perfumer. It occupies a very important 
place in the perfumery of the East, and there it is also used in 
pharmacy and as a flavouring material in cookery. The high 
price it commands makes it peculiarly liable to adulteration, 
but its genuineness is easily tested by its solubility in hot alcohol, 
its fragrant odour, and its uniform fatty consistence on being 
penetrated by a hot wire. 

AMBERT, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse- 
ment of the department of Puy-de-D6me, on the Dore, 52 m. 
E.S.E. of Clermont-Ferrand by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 3889; 
commune, 7581. The town has a church of the i5th and i6th 
centuries and carries on the manufacture of paper, lace, ribbon, 
rosaries, &c., and trade in cheese. It is the seat of a sub-prefect, 
and the public institutions include tribunals of first instance 
and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a 
communal college. 

AMBIENT (from Lat. ambi, on both sides, and ire, to go), 
surrounding; a word implying a moving rather than a stationary 
encircling. It is used mostly in the phrase the " ambient air," 
though Bacon applied it as an adjective to the clergy, suggesting 
" ambition." In astrology it means the sky. 

AMBIGU, a French game of cards, composed of the character- 
istic elements of whist, bouillotte and piquet. A whist pack 
with the court cards deleted is used, and from two to six persons 
may play. Each player is given an equal number of counters, 
and a limit of betting is agreed upon. Two cards are dealt, one 
at a time, to each player, after each has placed two counters 
in a pool. Each player then either keeps his hand, saying 
" Enough," or takes one or two new cards from the top of the 
stock, after which the stock is reshuffled and cut, and each 
player receives two more cards, one at a time. The players 
then either " play " or " pass." If a person " plays," he bets a 
number of counters and the others may equal this bet or raise 
it. Should no player meet the first bet, the bettor takes back 
his bet, leaving the pool intact, and receives two counters from 
the last player who refuses to play. When two or more bet the 
same number, they again draw cards and " pass " or " play " 
as before. If all " pass," each pays a counter to the pool and a 
new deal ensues. The player betting more than the others call 
wins the pool. He then exposes his hand and is paid by each 
adversary according to its value. The hands rank as follows: 
" Point," the number of pips on two or more cards of a suit 
(one counter). " Prime," four cards of different suits (two 
counters). " Grand Prime," the same with the number of pips 
over 30 (three counters). " Sequence," a hand containing three 
cards of the same suit in sequence (three counters). " Tricon," 
three of a kind (four counters). " Flush," four cards of the same 
suit (five counters). "Doublet," a hand containing two counting 
combinations at once, as 2, 3, 4 and 7 of spades, amounting to 
both a " sequence " and a " flush " (eight counters). " Fredon," 
four of a kind (the highest possible hand), ten or eleven counters, 
according to the number of pips. Ties are decided by the 
number of pips. 

AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambigmte, med. Lat. ambiguilas, from Lat. 
ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive), doubtful- 
ness or uncertainty. In law an ambiguity as to the meaning of the 
words of a written instrument may be of considerable importance. 
Ambiguity, in law, is of two kinds, patent and latent, (i) Patent 



AMBIORIX AMBLYPODA 



795 



ambiguity is that ambiguity which is apparent on the face of an 
instrument to any one perusing it, even if he be unacquainted 
with the circumstances of the parties. In the case of a patent 
ambiguity parol evidence is admissible to explain only what 
has been writen, not what it was intended to write. For 
example, in Saunderson v. Piper, 1839, 5 B.N.C. 425, where a 
bill was cdrawn in figures for 245 and in words for two hundred 
pounds, evidence that " and forty-five " had been omitted by 
mistake was rejected. But where it appears from the general 
context of the instrument what the parties really meant, the 
instrument will be construed as if there was no ambiguity, as 
in Saye and Sele's case, 10 Mod. 46, where the name of the 
grantor had been omitted in the operative part of a grant, but, 
as it was clear from another part of the grant who he was, the 
deed was held to be valid. (2) Latent ambiguity is where the 
wording of an instrument is on the face of it clear and in- 
telligible, but may, at the same time, apply equally to two 
different things or subject matters, as where a legacy is given 
" to my nephew, John," and the testator is shown to have 
two nephews of that name. A latent ambiguity may be ex- 
plained by parol evidence, for, as the ambiguity has been 
brought about by circumstances extraneous to the instrument, 
the explanation must necessarily be sought for from such 
circumstances. (See also EVIDENCE.) 

AMBIORIX, prince of the Eburones, a tribe of Belgian Gaul. 
Although Caesar (q.v.) had freed him from.paying tribute to the 
Aduatuci, he joined Catuvolcus (winter, 54 B.C.) in a rising 
against the Roman forces under Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. 
Aurunculeius Cotta, and almost annihilated them. An attack 
on Quintus Cicero (brother of the orator), then quartered with 
a legion in the territory of the Nervii, failed owing to the timely 
appearance of Caesar. Ambiorix is said to have found safety 
across the Rhine. 

Caesar, Bell. Gall. v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 
7-11; Florus iii. 10. 

AMBLESIDE, a market-town in the Appleby parliamentary 
division of Westmorland, England, a mile from the head of 
Windermere. Pop. of urban district (1001) 2536. It is most 
beautifully situated, for though the lake is hardly visible from 
the town, the bare, sharply rising hills surrounding the richly 
wooded valley of the Rothay afford a series of equisite views. 
The hills immediately above this part of the valley are Wansfell 
on the east, Loughrigg Fell on the west, and 
Rydal Fell and the ridge below Snarker Pike 
(2096 ft.) to the north. At the head of Winder- 
mere is Waterhead, the landing-stage of Amble- 
side, which is served by the lake steamers of the 
Furness Railway Company. The chief roads 
which centre upon Ambleside are one from the 
town of Windermere, following the eastern shore 
of the lake; one from Ullswater, by Patterdale 
and Kirks tone Pass; one from Keswick, by 
Dunmail Raise and Grasmere, and the two lovely 
lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water; and one 
from the Brathay valley and the Langdales to 
the west. Ambleside is thus much frequented 
by tourists. In its vicinity is Rydal Mount, for 
many years the residence of the poet Wordsworth. 
The town has some industry in bobbin-making, 
and there are slate quarries in the neigh- 
bourhood. 

Close by the lake side the outlines are still 
visible of a Roman fort, the name of which is not known. 
It appears to have guarded a route over the hills by Hard- 
knott and Wrynose Pass to Ravenglass on the coast of 
Cumberland. 

AMBLYGONITE, a mineral usually found as cleavable or 
columnar, and compact masses; it is translucent and has a 
vitreous lustre, and the colour varies from white to pale shades 
of violet, grey, green or yellow. There are good cleavages in 
two directions. The hardness is 6 and the specific gravity 3-0. 
The mineral is thus not unlike felspar in general appearance, but 



it is readily distinguished from this by its chemical characters, 
being an aluminium and lithium fluophosphate, Li(AlF)PO 4 , 
with part of the lithium replaced by sodium and part of the 
fluorine by hydroxyl. Crystals, which are rarely distinctly 
developed, belong to the anorthic system, and frequently show 
twin lamellae. 

The mineral was first discovered in Saxony by A Breithaupt 
in 1817, and named by him from the Greek djU/3Xi>s, blunt, and 
y<tivia, angle, because of the obtuse angle between the cleavages. 
Later it was found at Montebras, dep. Creuse, France, and at 
Hebron in Maine; and on account of slight differences in optical 
character and chemical composition the names montebrasite 
and hebronite have been applied to the mineral from these 
localities. Recently it has been discovered in considerable 
quantity at Pala in San Diego county, California, and at Caceres 
in Spain. Amblygonite occurs with lepidolite, tourmaline and 
other lithia-bearing minerals in pegmatite-veins. It contains 
about 10% of lithia, and, since 1886, has been utilized as a 
source of lithium salts, the chief commercial sources being the 
Montebras deposits, and later the Californian. (L. J. S.) 

AMBLYPODA, a suborder of primitive ungulate mammals, 
taking its name from the short and stumpy feet, which were 
furnished with five toes each, and supported massive pillar-like 
limbs. The brain-cavity was extremely small, and insignificant 
in comparison to the bodily bulk, which was equal to that of the 
largest rhinoceroses. These animals are, in fact, descendants 
of the small ancestral ungulates which have retained all the 
primitive characters of the latter accompanied by a huge increase 
in bodily size. They are confined to the Eocene period, and occur 
both in North America and Europe. The cheek teeth are short 
crowned (brachyodont) , with the tubercles more or less completely 
fused into transverse ridges, or cross-crests (lophodont type); 
and the total number of teeth is in one case the typical 44, but 
in another is reduced below this. The vertebrae of the neck 
unite by nearly flat surfaces, the humerus has lost the foramen, 
or perforation, at the lower end, and the third trochanter to the 
femur may also be wanting. In the fore-limb the upper and 
lower series of carpal bones scarcely alternate, but in the hind- 
foot- the astragalus overlaps the cuboid, while the fibula, which 
is quite distinct from the tibia(as is the radius from the ulna in 
the fore-limb), articulates with both astragalus and calcaneum. 
The most generalized type is Coryphodon, representing the family 




Restored skeleton of Uintathcrium (Dinoceras) mirabile. j"0. 

(After O. C. Marsh.) 

Coryphodontidae, from the lower Eocene of Europe and North 
America, in which there were 44 teeth, and no horn-like excres- 
cences on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter. 
The canines are somewhat elongated, and were followed by a 
short gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for 
succulent food. The length of the body reached about 6 ft. in 
some cases. 

In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurs 
the more specialized Uintatherium (or Dinoceras), typifying the 
family Uintatheriidae, which also contains species sometimes 



79 6 



AMBO AMBOISE 



separated as Tinoceras. Uintatheres were huge creatures, wit 
long narrow skulls, of which the elongated facial portion carriei 
three pairs of bony horn-cores, probably covered with shor 
horns in life, the hind-pair being much the largest. The denta 
formula is *. %,c. $, p. -fa, m. f ; the upper canines being long 
sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending flange on eac] 
side of the front of the lower jaw. 

In the basal Eocene of North America the Amblypoda were 
represented by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulate 
such as Periptychus and Pantolambda, each of these typifying 
a family. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developec 
in each, but whereas in the Periptychidae the upper molars were 
bunodont and tritubercular, in the Pantolambdidae they hav 
assumed a selenodont structure. Creodont characters (see 
CREODONTA) are displayed in the skeleton. 

See also H. F. Osborn, " Evolution of the Amblypoda," Bull 
Amer. Mus. vol. x. p. 169. (R. L.*) 

AMBO, or AMBON (Gr. anffuv, from avapaivtiv, to walk 
up, the reading-desk of early Basilican churches, also callec 
7ri>p7oj. Originally small and movable, it was afterwards made 
of large proportions and fixed in one place. In the Byzantine 
and early Romanesque periods it was an essential part of church 
furniture; but during the middle ages it was gradually super- 
seded in the Western Church by the pulpit and lectern. The 
gospel and epistle are still read from the ambo in the Ambrosian 
rite at Milan. The position of the ambo was not absolutely 
uniform; sometimes in the central point between the sanctuary 
and the nave, sometimes in the middle of the church, and some- 
times at one or both of the sides of the chancel. The normal 
ambo, when the church contained only one, had three stages 
or degrees, one above the other, and it was usually mounted 
by a flight of steps at each end. The uppermost stage was re- 
served for the deacon who sang the gospel (facing the congrega- 
tion); for promulgating episcopal edicts; reciting the names 
inscribed on the diptychs (see DIPTYCH); announcing fasts, 
vigils and feasts; reading ecclesiastical letters or acts of the 
martyrs celebrated on that day; announcing new miracles for 
popular edification, professions by new converts or recantations 
by heretics; and (for priests and deacons) preaching sermons, 
bishops as a general rule preaching from their own throne. The 
second stage was for the sub-deacon who read the epistle (facing 
the altar); and the third for the subordinate clergy who read 
other parts of scripture. The inconvenience of having a 
single ambo led to the substitution of two separate ambones, 
between which these various functions were divided, one on the 
south side of the chancel being for the reading of the gospel, 
and one on the north for reading the epistle. In the Russian 
Orthodox Church the term " ambo " is used of the semicircular 
steps leading to the platform in front of the iconostasis (?..), 
but in cathedrals the bishop has an ambo in the centre of the 
church. In the Greek Church the older form remains, usually 
placed at the side. In the Uniate Greek Catholic Church the 
" ambo " has become a table, on which are placed a crucifix 
and lights, before the doors of the iconostasis; here baptisms, 
marriages and confirmations take place. 

Ambones were made of wood or else of costly marbles, and 
were decorated with mosaics, reliefs, gilding, &c.; sometimes 
also covered with canopies supported on columns. They were 
often of enormous size; that at St Sophia in Constantinople 
was large enough for the ceremonial of coronation. 

The churches in Rome possess many fine examples of ambones 
in marble, of which the oldest is probably that in S. Clemente, 
reconstructed in the beginning of the I2th century. Those of 
slightly later date are enriched with marble mosaic known as 
Cosmati work, of which the examples in S. Maria-in-Ara-Coeli, 
S. Maria-in-Cosmedin and S. Lorenzo are those which are best 
known. Some early ambones are found in Ravenna, and in the 
south of Italy are many fine examples; the epistle ambo in the 
cathedral at Ravello (1130), which is perhaps the earliest, shows 
a Scandinavian influence in the design of its mosaic inlay, an 
influence which is found in Sicilian work and may be a Norman 
importation. The two ambones in the cathedral of Salerno, 



which are different in design, are magnificent in effect and are 
enriched with sculpture as well as with mosaic. In the gospel 
ambo in the cathedral of Ravello (1272), and also in that of the 
convent of the Trinita della Cava near Salerno, the spiral columns 
inlaid with mosaic stand on the backs of lions. In the epistle 
ambo at Salerno and the gospel ambones at Cava and San 
Giovanni del Toro in Ravello, the columns support segmental 
arches carrying the ambones; the epistle ambo at Ravello and 
all those in Rome are raised on solid marble bases. 

See the liturgical and ecclesiastical dictionaries of Martigny, 
Migne, and Smith and Cheetham, sub voce, where all the scattered 
references are collected together and summarized. In Ciampinus, 
Vetera Monumenta (Rome, 1747), plates xii., xiii., are several illus- 
trations of actual examples. 

AMBOISE, GEORGES D' (1460-1510), French cardinal and 
minister of state, belonged to a noble family possessed of con- 
siderable influence. His father, Pierre d'Amboise, seigneur de 
Chaumont, was chamberlain to Charles VII. and Louis XI. and 
ambassador at Rome. His eldest brother, Charks d'Amboise, 
was governor of the Isle of France, Champagne and Burgundy, 
and councillor of Louis XI. Georges d' Amboise was only 
fourteen when his father procured for him the bishopric of 
Montauban, and Louis XI. appointed him one of his almoners. 
On arriving at manhood d'Amboise attached himself to the 
party of the duke of Orleans, in whose cause he suffered im- 
prisonment, and on whose return to the royal favour he was 
elevated to the archbishopric of Narbonne, which after some 
time he changed for that of Rouen (1493). On the appointment 
of the duke of Orleans as governor of Normandy, d'Amboise 
became his lieutenant-general. In 1498 the duke of Orleans 
mounted the throne as Louis XII., and d'Amboise was suddenly 
raised to the high position of cardinal and prime minister. His 
administration was, in many respects, well-intentioned and 
useful. Having the good fortune to serve a king who was both 
economical and just, he was able to diminish the imposts, to 
introduce order among the soldiery, and above all, by the 
ordinances of 1499, to improve the organization of justice. He 
was also zealous for the reform of the church, and particularly 
;or the reform of the monasteries; and it is greatly to his credit 
that he did not avail himself of the extremely favourable oppor- 
tunities he possessed of becoming a pluralist. He regularly 
spent a large income in charity, and he laboured strenuously to 
stay the progress of the plague and famine which broke out in 
1 504. His foreign policy, less happy and less wise, was animated 
>y two aims to increase the French power in Italy and to seat 
limself on the papal throne; and these aims he sought to 
achieve by diplomacy, not by force. He, however, sympathized 
with, and took part in, the campaign which was begun in 1499 
"or the conquest of Milan. In 150x3 he was named lieutenant- 
jeneral in Italy and charged with the organization of the con- 
quest. On the death of Alexander VI. he aspired to the papacy, 
le had French troops at the gates of Rome, by means of which 
ic could easily have frightened the conclave and induced them 
.o elect him; but he was persuaded to trust to his influence; 
:he troops were dismissed, and an Italian was appointed as Pius 
II.; and again, on the death of Pius within the month, another 
talian, Julius II., was chosen (1503). D'Amboise received in 
:ompensation the title of legate for life in France and in the 
'omtat Venaissin. He was one of the negotiators of the dis- 
astrous treaties of Blois (1504), and in 1508 of the League of 
ambrai against Venice. In 1509 he again accompanied Louis 
XII. into Italy, but on his return he was seized at the city of 
"^yons with a fatal attack of gout in the stomach. He died there 
n the 25th of May 1510. His body was removed to Rouen, 
.nd a magnificent tomb, on which he is represented kneeling in 
tie attitude of prayer, was erected to his memory in the cathedral 
f that town. Throughout his life he was an enlightened patron 
f letters and art, and it was at his orders that the chateau of 
iaillon near Rouen was built. 

See Lettres du roi Louis XII. et du cardinal d'Amboise (Brussels, 
712); L. Legendre, Vie du cardinal d'Amboise (Rouen, 1726); 
;. Lavisse, Histoire de France (vol. v. by H. Lemonnier, Paris, 1903) ; 



AMBOISE AMBRACIA 



797 






J. A. Deville, Tombeaux de la cathedrale de Rouen (3rd ed., 1881). 
For a bibliography of the printed sources, see H. Hauser, Les Sources 
de I'histoire de France, XVI' siecle, vol. i. (1906). (J. I.) 

AMBOISE, a town of central France in the department of 
Indre-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Loire, 12 m. E. of Tours 
by the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 4632. Amboise owes its 
celebrity to the imposing chateau which overlooks the Loire 
from the rocky eminence above the town. The Logis du Roi, 
the most important portion, was the work of Charles VIII.; 
the other wing was built under Louis XII. and Francis I. The 
ramparts are strengthened by two massive towers containing 
an inclined plane on which horses and carriages may ascend. 
The chapel of St Hubert, said to contain the remains of Leonardo 
da Vinci, who was summoned to Amboise by Francis I., king of 
France, and died there in 1519, is in the late Gothic style; a 
delicately carved relief over the doorway represents the con- 
version of St Hubert. The hotel de ville is established in a 
mansion of Renaissance architecture; a town gateway of the 
I5th century, 'surmounted by a belfry, is also of architectural 
interest. Iron-founding, wool-weaving, and the manufacture of 
boots and farm implements are among the industries. 

Amboise at the end of the nth century was a lordship under 
the counts of Anjou, one of whom, Hugues I., rebuilt the ancient 
castle. Its territory was united to the domain of the crown of 
France by Charles VII. about the middle of the i5th century, 
and thenceforth the chateau became a favourite residence of 
the French kings. The discovery in 1560 of the " conspiracy of 
Amboise," a plot of the Huguenots to remove Francis II. from 
the influence of the house of Guise, was avenged by the death of 
1200 members of that party. In 1563 Amboise gave its name 
to a royal edict allowing freedom of worship to the Huguenot 
nobility and gentry. After that period the chateau was fre- 
quently used as a state prison, and Abd-el-Kader was a captive 
there from 1848 to 1852. In 1872 it was restored by the National 
Assembly to the house of Orleans, to which it had come by 
inheritance from the duke of Penthievre in the latter half of the 
1 8th century. 

AMBOYNA (Dutch Ambon), the name of a residency, its chief 
town, and the island on which the town is situated, in the Dutch 
East Indies. 

The residency shares with that of Ternate the administration 
of the Moluccas, the previous government of which was abolished 
in 1867. It includes a mass of islands in the BandaSea (2 30'- 
8 20' S.and i254s'-i35E.), including the island-belt which 
surrounds the sea on the north, east and south; and is divided 
for administrative purposes into nine districts (afdeelingen) : 
i) Amboyna, the island of that name; (2) Saparua, with Oma 
and Nusa Laut; (3) Kajeli (Eastern Buru); (4) Masareti 
(Western Buru); (5) Kairatu (Western Ceram); (6) Wahai 
(the northern part of Mid-Ceram); (7) Amahai (the southern 
part of Mid-Ceram); (8) the Banda Isles, with East Ceram, 
Ceram Laut and Gorom; (9) the islands of Aru, Kei, Timor 
Laut or Tenimber, and the south-western islands. The total 
area of the residency is about 19,861 sq. m., and its population 
296,000, including 2400 Europeans. 

Amboyna Island lies off the south-west of Ceram, on the north 
side of the Banda Sea, being one of a series of volcanic isles in 
the inner circle round the sea. It is 32 m. in length, with an 
area of about 386 sq. m., and is of very irregular figure, being 
almost divided into two. The south-eastern and smaller portion 
(called Leitimor) is united to the northern (Hitoe) by a neck of 
land a few yards in breadth. The highest mountains, Wawani 
(3609 ft.) and Salhutu (4020 ft.), have hot springs and solfataras. 
They are considered to be volcanoes, and the mountains of the 
neighbouring Uliasser islands the remains of volcanoes. Granite 
and serpentine rocks predominate, but the shores of Amboyna 
Bay are of chalk, and contain stalactite caves. The surface is 
fertile, the rivers are small and not navigable, and the roads are 
mere footpaths. Cocoa is one of the products. The climate is 
comparatively pleasant and healthy; the average temperature 
is 80 F., rarely sinking below 72. The rainfall, however, after 
the eastern monsoons, is very heavy, and the island is liable to 



violent hurricanes. It is remarkable that the dry season (October 
to April) is coincident with the period of the west monsoon. 
Indigenous mammals are poor in species as well as few in number; 
birds are more abundant, but of no greater variety. The ento- 
mology of the island, however, is very rich, particularly in re- 
spect of Lepidoptera. Shells are obtained in great numbers and 
variety. Turtle-shell is also largely exported. The vegetation 
is also rich, and Amboyna produces most of the common tropical 
fruits and vegetables, including the sago-palm, bread-fruit, 
cocoa-nut, sugar-cane, maize, coffee, pepper and cotton. Cloves, 
however, form its chief product, though the trade in them is 
less important than formerly, when the Dutch prohibited the 
rearing of the clove-tree in all the other islands subject to their 
rule, in order to secure the monopoly to Amboyna. Amboyna 
wood, of great value for ornamental work, is obtained from the 
hard knots which occur on certain trees in the forests of Ceram. 
The population (about 39,000) is divided into two classes 
orang burger or citizens, and orang negri or villagers, the former 
being a class of native origin enjoying certain privileges conferred 
on their ancestors by the old Dutch East India Company. The 
natives are of mixed Malay-Papuan blood. They are mostly 
Christians or Mahommedans. There are also, besides the Dutch, 
some Arabs, Chinese and a few Portuguese settlers. 

Amboyna, the chief town, and seat of the resident and military 
commander of the Moluccas, is protected by Fort Victoria, and 
is a clean little town with wide streets, well planted. Agriculture, 
fisheries and import and export trade furnish the chief means 
of subsistence. It lies on the north-west of the peninsula of 
Leitimor, and has a safe and commodious anchorage. Its 
population is about 8000. 

The Portuguese were the first European nation to visit 
Amboyna (1511). They established a factory there in 1521, 
but did not obtain peaceable possession of it till 1580, and were 
dispossessed by the Dutch in 1609. About 1615 the British 
formed a settlement in the island, at Cambello, which they 
retained until 1623, when it was destroyed by the Dutch, and 
frightful tortures inflicted on the unfortunate persons connected 
with it. In 1654, after many fruitless negotiations, Cromwell 
compelled the United Provinces to give the sum of 300,000, 
together with a small island, as compensation to the descendants 
of those who suffered in the " Amboyna massacre." In 1673 
the poet Dryden produced his tragedy of Amboyna, or the 
Cruelties of the Dutch to the English Merchants. In 1796 the 
British, under Admiral Rainier, captured Amboyna, but restored 
it to the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in 1802. It was retaken 
by the British in 1810, but once more restored to the Dutch in 
1814. 

AMBRACIA (more correctly AMPRACIA), an ancient Corinthian 
colony, situated about 7 m. from the Ambracian Gulf, on a bend 
of the navigable river Aracthus (or Aratthus), in the midst of a 
fertile wooded plain. It was founded between 650 and 625 B.C. 
by Gorgus, son of the Corinthian tyrant Cypselus. After the 
expulsion of Gorgus's son Periander its government developed 
into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambracia was 
determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served 
as an entrepot in the Epirus trade), its consequent aversion to 
Corcyra, and its frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and 
Acarnanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the Pelopon- 
nesian War until the crushing defeat at Idomene (426) crippled 
its resources. In the 4th century it continued its traditional 
policy, but in 338 surrendered to Philip II. of Macedon. After 
forty-three years of autonomy under Macedonian suzerainty it 
became the capital of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who adorned it 
with palace, temples and theatres. In the wars of Philip V. of 
Macedon and the Epirotes against the Aetolian league (220-205) 
Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other, but ultimately 
joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the 
Aetolians against Rome it stood a stubborn siege. After its 
capture and plunder by M. Fulvius Nobilior in 189, it fell into 
insignificance. The foundation by Augustus of Nicopolis (?..), 
into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site 
desolate. In Byzantine times a new settlement took its place 



AMBRIZ AMBROSE 



under the name of Arta (q.v.). Some fragmentary walls of large, 
well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early 
prosperity of Ambracia. 

AUTHORITIES. Thucydides ii. 68-iii. 114; Aristotle, Politics, 
13033 sqq. ; Strabo p. 325; Polybius xxii. 9-13; Livy xxxviii. 
3-9; G. Wolfe, Journal of Geographical Society (London), iii. (1833) 
PP- 77-94; E. Oberhummer, Akarnanien, Ambrakien, &c. im 
Altertum (Munich, 1887). (M. O. B. C.) 

AMBRIZ, a West African seaport belonging to Portugal, at 
the mouth of the Loje River, in 7 50' S., 13 E., some 70 m. N. 
of Loanda. It forms a part of the province of Angola (q.v.). 
The town is within the free-trade area of the conventional basin 
of the Congo river. Its chief exports are rubber, gum, coffee and 
copper. Pop. about 2500. Ambriz was, previously to 1884, the 
northernmost point of Africa south of the equator acknowledged 
as Portuguese territory. 

AMBROS, AUGUST WILHELM (1816-1876), Austrian com- 
poser and historian of music, was born at Mauth near Prague. 
His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of 
R. G. Kiesewetter (1773-1850), the musical archaeologist and 
collector. Ambros was well educated in music and the arts, 
which were his abiding passion; but he was destined for the 
law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he 
occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice, 
music being the employment of his leisure. From 1850 onwards 
he became well known as a critic and essay- writer, and in 1860 
he began working on his magnum opus, his History of Music, 
which was published at intervals from 1864 in five volumes, the 
last two (1878, 1882) being edited and completed by Otto Kade 
and Langhaus. Ambros became professor of the history of 
music at Prague in 1869. He was an excellent pianist, and 
the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of 
Mendelssohn. He died at Vienna on the 28th of June 1876. 

AMBROSE (fl. 1190), Norman poet, and chronicler of the 
Third Crusade, author of a work called L'Estoire de la guerre 
sainte, which describes in rhyming French verse the adventures 
of Richard Cceur de Lion as a crusader. The poem is known to 
us only through one Vatican MS., and long escaped the notice 
of historians. The credit for detecting its value belongs to the 
late Gaston Paris, although his edition (1897) was partially 
anticipated by the editors of the Monumenla Germaniae Historica, 
who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of 
their Scriptores (1885). Ambrose followed Richard I. as a non- 
combatant, and not improbably as a court-minstrel. He speaks 
as an eye-witness of the king's doings at Messina, in Cyprus, at 
the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which followed 
the capture of that city. Ambrose is surprisingly accurate in his 
chronology; though he did not complete his work before 1195, 
it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the 
course of his pilgrimage. He shows no greater political insight 
than we should expect from his position; but relates what he 
had seen and heard with a naive vivacity which compels attention. 
He is prejudiced against the Saracens, against the French, and 
against all the rivals or enemies of his master; but he is never 
guilty of deliberate misrepresentation. He is rather to be treated 
as a biographer than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader 
aspects. None the less he is the chief authority for the events 
of the years 1190-1192, so far as these are connected with the 
Holy Land. Tbe Itinerarium Regis Ricardi (formerly attributed 
to Geoffrey Vinsauf, but in reality the work of Richard, a canon 
of Holy Trinity, London) is little more than a free paraphrase 
of Ambrose. The first book of the Itinerarium contains some 
additional facts; and the whole of the Latin version is adorned 
with flowers of rhetoric which are foreign to the style of Ambrose. 
But it is no longer possible to regard the Itinerarium as a first- 
hand narrative. Stubbs's edition of the Itinerarium (Rolls Series, 
1864), in which the contrary hypothesis is maintained, appeared 
before Gaston Paris published his discovery. 

See the edition of L'Estoire de la guerre sainte by Gaston Paris in 
the Collection des documents inedits sur I'histoire de France (1897); 
the editor discusses in his introduction the biography of Ambrose, 
the value of the poem as a historical source, and its relation to the 
Itinerarium. R. Pauli's remarks (in Monumenta Germaniae His- 
torica. Scriptores, xxvii.) also deserve attention. (H. W. C. D.) 



AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 34~397), bishop of Milan, one of the 
most eminent fathers of the church in the 4th century, was 
a citizen of Rome, born about 337-340 in Treves, where his father 
was prefect of Gallia Narbonensis. His mother was a woman of 
intellect and piety. Ambrose was early destined to follow his 
father's career, and was accordingly educated in Rome. He 
made such progress in literature, law and rhetoric, that the 
praetor Anicius Probus first gave him a place in the council and 
then made him consular prefect of Liguria and Emilia, with 
headquarters at Milan, where he made an excellent administrator. 
In 374 Auxentius, bishop of Milan, died, and the orthodox and 
Arian parties contended for the succession. An address delivered 
to them at this crisis by Ambrose led to his being acclaimed as 
the only competent occupant of the see; though hitherto only 
a catechumen, he was baptized, and a few days saw him duly 
installed as bishop of Milan. He immediately betook himself 
to the necessary studies, and acquitted himself in his new office 
with ability, boldness and integrity. Having apportioned his 
money among the poor, and settled his lands upon the church, 
with the exception of making his sister Marcellina tenant during 
life, and having committed the care of his family to his brother, 
he entered upon a regular course of theological study, under the 
care of Simplician, a presbyter of Rome, and devoted himself 
to the labours of the church, labours which were temporarily 
interrupted by an invasion of Goths, which compelled Ambrose 
and other churchmen to retire to Illyricum. 

The eloquence of Ambrose soon found ample scope in the 
dispute between the Arians and the orthodox or Catholic party, 
whose cause the new bishop espoused. Gratian, the son of the 
elder Valentinian, took the same side; but the younger Valen- 
tinian, who had now become his colleague in the empire, adopted 
the opinions of the Arians, and all the arguments and eloquence 
of Ambrose could not reclaim the young prince to the orthodox 
faith. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, also professed the 
orthodox belief; but there were many adherents of Arius 
scattered throughout his dominions. In this distracted state of 
religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, Palladius and 
Secundianus, confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to 
call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request 
appeared so equitable that he complied without hesitation; 
but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence, prevailed upon the 
emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the 
Western bishops. A synod, composed of thirty-two bishops, 
was accordingly held at Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was 
elected president; and Palladius, being called upon to defend his 
opinions, declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one, 
and that, all the bishops of the empire not being present, 
the sense of the Christian church concerning the question in 
dispute could not be obtained. A vote was then taken, when 
Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from the 
episcopal office. 

Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the attempt made 
by the upholders of the old state religion to resist the enactments 
of Christian emperors. The pagan party was led by Quintus 
Aurelius Symmachus (q.v.), consul in 391, who presented to 
Valentinian II. a forcible but unsuccessful petition praying 
for the restoration of the altar of Victory to its ancient station 
in the hall of the senate, the proper support of seven vestal 
virgins, and the regular observance'of the other pagan ceremonies. 
To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to Valentinian, 
arguing that the devoted worshippers of idols had often been 
forsaken by their deities; that the native valour of the Roman 
soldiers had gained their victories, and not the pretended 
influence of pagan priests; that these idolatrous worshippers 
requested for themselves what they refused to Christians; that 
voluntary was more honourable than constrained virginity; 
that as the Christian ministers declined to receive temporal 
emoluments, they should also be denied to pagan priests; that 
it was absurd to suppose that God would inflict a famine upon the 
empire for neglecting to support a religious system contrary to 
His will as revealed in the Scriptures; that the whole process 
of nature encouraged innovations, and that all nations had 



AMBROSE 



799 



permitted them, even in religion; that heathen sacrifices were 
offensive to Christians; and that it was the duty of a Christian 
prince to suppress pagan ceremonies. In the epistles of Sym- 
machus and of Ambrose both the petition and the reply are 
preserved. They are a strange blend of sophistry, superstition, 
sound sense and solid argument. 

The increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable task 
for Ambrose. In 384 the young emperor and his mother Justina, 
along with a considerable number of clergy and laity professing 
the Arian faith, requested from the bishop the use of two churches, 
one in the city, the other in the suburbs of Milan. Ambrose 
refused, and was required to answer for his conduct before the 
council. He went, attended by a numerous crowd of people, 
whose impetuous zeal so overawed the ministers of Valentinian 
that he was permitted to retire without making the surrender 
of the churches. The day following, when he was performing 
divine service in the Basilica, the prefect of the city came to 
persuade him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs. 
As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to violent 
measures: the officers of the household were commanded to 
prepare the Basilica and the Portian churches to celebrate divine 
service upon the arrival of the emperor and his mother at the 
ensuing festival of Easter. Perceiving the growing strength of 
the prelate's interest, the court deemed it prudent to restrict 
its demand to the use of one of the churches. But all entreaties 
proved in vain, and drew forth the following characteristic 
declaration from the bishop: "If you demand my person, I 
am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not 
resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not 
call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the 
altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not 
encourage: but God alone can appease it." 

Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are strongly 
characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief causes 
of his victory over his opponents were his great popularity and 
the superstitious reverence paid to the episcopal character at 
that period. But it must also be noted that he used several in- 
direct means to obtain and support his authority with the people. 
He was liberal to the poor; it was his custom to comment severely 
in his preaching on the public characters of his times; and he 
introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of public 
worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when the influence 
of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was admonished in 
a dream to search for, and found under the pavement of the 
church, the remains of two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. 
The applause of the vulgar was mingled with the derision of the 
court party. 

Although the court was displeased with the religious principles 
and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great political talents ; 
and when necessity required, his aid was solicited and generously 
granted. When Maximus usurped the supreme power in Gaul, 
and was meditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent 
Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking, and the embassy 
was successful. On a second attempt of the same kind Ambrose 
was again employed; and although he was unsuccessful, it 
cannot be doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the 
schemes of the usurper would have proved abortive; but the 
enemy was permitted to enter Italy; and Milan was taken. 
Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose remained at his post, 
and did good service to many of the sufferers by causing the 
plate of the church to be melted for their relief. Theodosius, 
the emperor of the East, espoused the cause of Justina, and 
regained the kingdom. This Theodosius was sternly rebuked 
by Ambrose for the massacre of 7000 persons at Thessalonica 
in 390, and was bidden imitate David in his repentance as he 
had imitated him in guilt. 

In 392, after the assassination of Valentinian and the usurpa- 
tion of Eugenius, Ambrose fled from Milan ; but when Theodosius 
was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for the 
pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon after 
acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman empire, 
Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and two years later (4th 



April 397) Ambrose also passed away. He was succeeded by 
Simplician. 

A man of pure character, vigorous mind, unwearying zeal 
and uncommon generosity, Ambrose ranks high among the 
fathers of the ancient church on many counts. His chief faults 
were ambition and bigotry. Though ranking with Augustine, 
Jerome, and Gregory the Great, as one of the Latin " doctors," 
he is most naturally compared with Hilary, whom he surpasses 
in administrative excellence as much as he falls below him in 
theological ability. Even here, however, his achievements are 
of no mean order, especially when we remember his juridical 
training and his comparatively late handling of Biblical and 
doctrinal subjects. In matters of exegesis he is, like Hilary, an 
Alexandrian; his chief productions are homiletic commentaries 
on the early Old Testament narratives, e.g. the Hexaemeron 
(Creation) and Abraham, some of the Psalms, and the Gospel 
according to Luke. In dogmatic he follows Basil of Caesarea 
and other Greek authors, but nevertheless gives a distinctly 
Western cast to the speculations of which he treats. This is 
particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis which he lays 
upon human sin and divine grace, and in the place which he 
assigns to faith in the individual Christian life. His chief works 
in this field are De fide ad Gratianum Augustum, De Spiritu 
Sancto, De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento, De mysteriis. 
His great spiritual successor, Augustine, whose conversion was 
helped by Ambrose's sermons, owes more to him than to any 
writer except Paul. Ambrose's intense episcopal consciousness 
furthered the growing doctrine of the Church and its sacerdotal 
ministry, while the prevalent asceticism of the day, continuing 
the Stoic and Ciceronian training of his youth, enabled him to 
promulgate a lofty standard of Christian ethics. Thus we have 
the De officiis ministrorum, De viduis, De virginitate and De 
paenitentia. 

Ambrose has also left several funeral orations and ninety- 
one letters, but it is as a hymn-writer that he perhaps deserves 
most honour. Catching the impulse from Hilary and confirmed 
in it by the success of Arian psalmody, Ambrose composed 
several hymns, marked by dignified simplicity, which were not 
only effective in themselves but served as a fruitful model for 
later times. We cannot certainly assign to him more than four 
or five (Deus Creator Omnium, Aeterne rerum conditor, Jam 
surgit hora tertia, and the Christmas hymn Veni redemptor 
gentium) of those that have come down to us. Each of these 
hymns has eight four-line stanzas and is written in strict iambic 
tetrameter. 

On the Ambrosian ritual see LITURGY; on the Ambrosian library 
see LIBRARIES; on the church founded by him at Milan in 387 see 
MILAN. EDITIONS: The Benedictine (4 vols., Venice, 1748 ff.); 
Migne, Patrol. Lat. xiv.-xvii. ; P. A. Ballerini (6 vols., Milan, 1875 ff.). 
LITERATURE: Th. Forster, Ambrose, B. of Mailand (Halle, 1884), 
and art. in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk., where the literature is cited 
in full; A. Ebert, Gesch. der christlich-latein. Litt. (2nd ed., 1889); 
O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie (2nd ed., 1891); A. Harnack, Hist, of 
Dogma, esp. vol. v. ; W. Bright, Age of the Fathers. (A. J. G.) 

AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771), arch- 
bishop of Moscow, was born at Nezhine in the government of 
Chernigov, and studied in the school of St Alexander Nevskiy, 
where he afterwards became a tutor. At the age of thirty-one 
he entered a monastery, where he took the name of Ambrose. 
Subsequently he was appointed archimandrite of the convent of 
New Jerusalem at Voznesensk. From this post he was trans- 
ferred as bishop, first to the diocese of Pereyaslav, and afterwards 
to that of Krusitsy near Moscow, finally becoming archbishop of 
Moscow in 1761. He was famous not only for his interest in 
schemes for the alleviation of poverty in Moscow, but also as the 
founder of new churches and monasteries. A terrible outbreak 
of plague occurred in Moscow in 1771, and the populace began 
to throng round an image of the Virgin to which they attributed 
supernatural healing power. Ambrose, perceiving that this 
crowding together merely enabled the contagion to spread, had 
the image secretly removed. The mob, suspecting that he was 
responsible for its removal, attacked a monastery to which he had 
retired, dragged him away from the sanctuary, and, having given 



8oo 



AMBROSE AMBROSIANS 



him time to receive the sacrament, strangled him. Ambrose's 
works include a liturgy and translations from the Fathers. 

AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d. 778), French Bene- 
dictine monk. He became abbe of St Vincent on the Volturno 
" in the time of Desiderius, king of the Lombards." He wrote a 
considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects 
generally. Among these are commentaries on the Apocalypse 
(see Bibl. Patrum, xiii. 403), on the Psalms, on the Song of 
Solomon; Lives of SS. Paldo, Tuto and Vaso (according to 
Mabillon); Assumption of the Virgin; Combat between the 
Virtues and the Vices. 

See Mabillon, Acta sanct. Holland. III. ii. 259, 266; Georg Lommel, 
Der ostfrdnkische Reformator Ambrosius (Giessen, 1847); Bollandist 
Bibl. hag. lat. (1898), 61. 

AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4), English Puritan divine, 
was the son of Richard Ambrose, vicar of Ormskirk, and was 
probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness, 
a well-known Catholic family. He entered Brazenose College, 
Oxford, in 1621, in his seventeenth year. Having graduated 
B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the little 
cure of Castleton in Derbyshire. By the influence of William 
Russell, earl of Bedford, he was appointed one of the king's 
itinerant preachers in Lancashire, and after living for a time in 
Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as 
vicar of Preston. He associated himself with Presbyterianism, 
and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of 
" scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters " during 
the Commonwealth. So long as Ambrose continued at Preston 
he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton 
family, their ancestral woods and the tower near Blackburn 
affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations 
and " experiences " that give such a charm to his diary, portions 
of which are quoted in his Prima Media and Ultima (1650, 1659). 
The immense auditory of his sermon (Redeeming the Time) at the 
funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all ever 
the county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil 
war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and 
became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was 
ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to conform. 
His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet 
meditation at Preston. He died of apoplexy about the 2oth 
of January 1663/4. As a religious writer Ambrose has a 
vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely 
any of the Puritan Nonconformists. Many who have no love 
for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience, 
have appreciated the pathos and beauty of his writings, and his 
Looking to Jesus long held its own in popular appreciation with 
the writings of John Bunyan. 

AMBROSE THE CAMALDULIAN, the common name of 
AMBROGIO TRAVERSARI (1386-1439), French ecclesiastic, born 
near Florence at the village of Portico. At the age of fourteen 
he entered the Camaldulian Order in the monastery of Sta Maria 
degli Angeli, and rapidly became a leading theologian and 
Hellenist. In Greek literature his master was Emmanuel 
Chrysoloras. He became general of the order in 1431, and was 
a leading advocate of the papacy. This attitude he showed 
clearly when he attended the council of Basel as legate of 
Eugenius IV. So strong was his hostility to some of the delegates 
that he described Basel as a western Babylon. He likewise 
supported the pope at Ferrara and Florence, and worked hard 
in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. 
Though this cause was unsuccessful, Ambrose is interesting as 
typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the 
church. Voigt says that he was the first monk in Florence in 
whom the love of letters and art became predominant over 
his ecclesiastical views. Thus while among his own colleagues 
he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his re- 
lations with his brother humanists, such as Cosimo de Medici, he 
appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of 
Greek theological authors. His chief works are: Hodoeporicon, 
an account of a journey taken by the pope's command, during 
which he visited the monasteries of Italy; a translation of 



Palladius' Life 0} Chrysostom; of Nineteen Sermons oj Ephraem 
Syrus; of the Book of St Basil on Virginity. A number of MSS. 
remain in the library of St Mark at Venice. He died on the 2oth 
of October 1439. 

See G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klass. Altertums (2 vols., 
3rd ed., 1893); his Epistolae were published by Cannato (Florence, 
1759) with a life by Mehus; Bollandist Bibl. hag. lat. (1898), 63; 
A. Masius, Ober die Stellung des Kamaldulensers Ambrogio Traversari 
zum Papst Eugen IV. und zum Easier Konzil (Dobeln, 1888); 
Savigny, Geschichte rom. Rechts, Mittel. (1850), vi. 422-424. 

AMBROSIA, in ancient mythology, sometimes the food, 
sometimes the drink of the gods. The word has generally been 
derived from Gr. d-, not, and (ifiparos, mortal; hence the food 
or drink of the immortals. A. W. Verrall, however, denies 
that there is any clear example in which the word d^/Spouios 
necessarily means " immortal," and prefers to explain it as 
" fragrant," a sense which is always suitable; cf. W. Leaf, 
Iliad (2nd ed.), on the phrase dju/3pocrtos wrvos (ii. 18). If so, 
the word may be derived from the Semitic ambar (ambergris) 
to which Eastern nations attribute miraculous properties. 
W. H. Roscher thinks that both nectar and ambrosia were 
kinds of honey, in which case their power of conferring immor- 
tality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing power 
of honey (see further NECTAR). Derivatively the word Ambrosia 
(neut. plur.) was given to certain festivals in honour of Dionysus, 
probably because of the predominance of feasting in connexion 
with them. 

The name Ambrosia was also applied by Dioscorides and Pliny 
to certain herbs, and has been retained in modern botany 
for a genus of plants from which it has been extended to the 
group of dicotyledons called Ambrosiaceae, including Ambrosia, 
Xanthium and Iva, all annual herbaceous plants represented in 
America. Ambrosia maritime and some other species occur also 
in the Mediterranean region. 

There is also an American beetle, the Ambrosia beetle, be- 
longing to the family of Scolytidae, which derives its name from 
its curious cultivation of a succulent fungus, called ambrosia. 
Ambrosia beetles bore deep though minute galleries into trees 
and timber, and the wood-dust provides a bed for the growth 
of the fungus, on which the insects and larvae feed. 

AMBROSIANS, the name given to several religious brother- 
hoods which at various times since the i4th century have sprung 
up in and around Milan; they have about as much connexion 
with St Ambrose as the " Jeromites " who were found chiefly 
in upper Italy and Spain have with their patron saint. Only 
the oldest of them, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had any- 
thing more than a very local significance. This order is known 
from a bull of Gregory XI. addressed to the monks of the church 
of St Ambrose outside Milan. These monks, it would appear, 
though under the authority of a prior, had no rule. In response 
to the request of the archbishop, the pope had commanded 
them to follow the rule of Augustine and to be known by the 
above name. They were further to recite the Ambrosian office. 
Subsequently the order had a number of independent establish- 
ments in Italy which were united into one congregation by 
Eugenius IV., their headquarters being at Milan. Their discipline 
afterwards became so slack that an appeal was made to Cardinal 
Borromeo asking him to reform their houses. By Sixtus V. the 
order was amalgamated with the congregation of St Barnabas, 
but Innocent X. dissolved it in 1650. 

The name Ambrosians is also given to a 16th-century Ana- 
baptist sect, which laid claim to immediate communication with 
God through the Holy Ghost. Basing their theology upon the 
words of the Gospel of St John i. 9 " There was the true light 
which lighteth every man, coming into the world " they denied 
the necessity of any priests or ministers to interpret the Bible. 
Their leader Ambrose went so far as to hold further that the 
revelation which was vouchsafed to him was a higher authority 
than the Scriptures. The doctrine of the Ambrosians, who 
belonged probably to that section of the Anabaptists known as 
Pneumatici, may be compared with the " Inner Light " doctrine 
of the Quakers. 

See Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie, i. 439. 



AMBROSIASTER AMBULANCE 



801 



AMBROSIASTER. A commentary on St Paul's epistles, 
" brief in words but weighty in matter," and valuable for the 
criticism of the Latin text of the New Testament, was long 
attributed to St Ambrose. Erasmus in 1527 threw doubt on 
the accuracy of this ascription, and the author is usually spoken 
of as Ambrosiaster or pseudo-Ambrose. Owing to the fact that 
Augustine cites part of the commentary on Romans as by 
" Sanctus Hilarius " it has been ascribed by various critics at 
different times to almost every known Hilary. Dom G. Morin 
(Rev. d' hist, et de litt. religieuses, torn. iv. 97 f.) broke new ground 
by suggesting in 1899 that the writer was Isaac, a converted Jew, 
writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled 
to Spain in 378-380 and then relapsed to Judaism, but he after- 
wards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of 
Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius, proconsul of Africa in 377. With 
this attribution Professor Alex. Souter, in his Study of Ambrosi- 
aster (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1905), agrees. There is scarcely 
anything to be said for the possibility of Ambrose having written 
the book before he became a bishop, and added to it in later years, 
incorporating remarks of Hilary of Poitiers on Romans. The 
best presentation of the case for Ambrose is by P. A. Ballerini 
in his complete edition of that father's works. 

In the book cited above Professor Souter also discusses the 
authorship of the Quaestiones Veteris et Noiii Testamenti, which 
the MSS. ascribe to Augustine. He concludes, on very thorough 
philological and other grounds, that this is with one possible 
slight exception the work of the same " Ambrosiaster." The 
same conclusion had been arrived at previously by Dom Morin. 

AMBROSINI, BARTOLOMEO (1588-1657), Italian naturalist, 
was born and died at Bologna. He was a pupil of Aldrovandi, 
several of whose works he published, and whom he succeeded 
eventually as director of the university botanical garden. He 
studied at the university, and became successively professor of 
philosophy, of botany and of medicine; and during the plague 
of 1630 in Bologna he worked assiduously for the relief of the 
sufferers. He was the author of several medical works of some 
importance in their day. 

His brother, GIACINTO AMBROSINI (1605-1672), was a dis- 
tinguished botanist, who succeeded Bartolomeo as professor of 
botany and director of the university garden in 1657. He 
published a catalogue of its plants and also a botanical dictionary. 

AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, leader of the Britons against 
the Saxons in the 5th century, was, according to the legends 
preserved in Gildas and the Historic, Brittonum, of Roman 
extraction. There are signs of the existence of two parties in 
the national opposition to the invaders, but as Pascent, son of 
Vortigern, is said by Nennius to have held his dominions in the 
west by leave of Ambrosius, the Roman element seems to have 
triumphed. Some measure of success appears to have attended 
the efforts of Ambrosius, and it has been suggested that Amesbury 
in Wiltshire is connected with Emrys, the Celtic form of his name. 

See Bede, Eccl. Hist. (Plummer), i. 16; Nennius, Hist. Brill. 31 ; 
Gildas, De excidio Brittarum, 25; J. Rhys, Celtic Britain (1884), 
pp. 104, 105, 107. 

AMBULANCE (from the Fr. ambulance, formerly hopital 
ambulant, derived from the Lat. ambulare, to move about), a 
term generally applied in England and America to the wagon or 
other vehicle in which the wounded in battle, or those who have 
sustained injuries in civil life, are conveyed to hospital. More 
strictly, in military parlance, the term imports a hospital estab- 
lishment moving with an army in the field, to provide for the 
collection, treatment and care of the wounded on the battlefield, 
and of the sick, until they can be removed to hospitals of a more 
stationary character. In 1905-1906 the term " field ambulance " 
was adopted in the British service to denote this organization, 
the former division of the ambulance service into " bearer 
companies " and " field hospitals " being done away with. 
The description of the British service given below applies 
generally to the system in vogue in the army after the experience 
gained in the South African War of 1899-1902; but in recent 
years the medical arrangements in connexion with the British 
army hospitals have been altered in various details, and the 
I. 26 






changes in progress showed no sign of absolute finality. Some of 
these, however, were rather of nomenclature than of substance, 
and hardly affect the principles as described below. 

The ambulance organization which, variously modified in 
details, now prevails in all civilized armies, only dates from the 
last decade of the i8th century. Before that time 
wounded soldiers were either carried to the rear by 
comrades or left unattended to and exposed until the fighting 
was over. Surgical assistance did not reach the battlefield till 
the day after the engagement, or even later; and for many of the 
wounded it was then too late. In 1792 Baron Dominique Jean 
Larrey (1766-1842) of the French army introduced his system 
of ambulances volantes, or flying field hospitals, capable of moving 
with speed from place to place, like the " flying artillery " of 
that time. They were adapted both for giving the necessary 
primary surgical treatment and for removing the wounded 
quickly from the sphere of fighting. Napoleon warmly supported 
Larrey in his efforts in this direction, and the system was soon 
brought to a high state of efficiency in the Grande Armee. About 
the same time another distinguished surgeon in the French army, 
Baron Pierre Francois Percy (1754-1825), organized a corps of 
brancardiers, or stretcher-bearers. These were soldiers trained 
and equipped for the duty of collecting the wounded while a 
battle was in progress, and carrying them to a place of safety, 
where their wounds and injuries could be attended to. An 
important step towards the amelioration of the condition of the 
wounded of armies in the field was the European 
Convention signed at Geneva in 1864, by the terms 
of which, subject to certain regulations, not only the tioa. 
wounded themselves but also the official staff of ambu- 
lances and their equipment were rendered neutral, the former, 
therefore, not being liable to be retained as prisoners of war, nor 
the latter to be taken as prize of war. This convention has 
greatly favoured the development of ambulance establishments, 
but as all combatants have not the same knowledge of the 
conditions of this convention, or do not interpret them in the 
same way, charges of treachery and abuse of the Red Cross flag 
are but too common in modern warfare. 

The American Civil War marked the beginning of the modern 
ambulance system. The main feature, however, of the hospital 
organization throughout that war was the railway hospital 
service, which provided for the rapid conveyance of the sick and 
wounded to the rear of the contending armies. Hospital carriages, 
equipped with medical stores and appliances, for the transport 
of cases from the front to the base, were rapidly introduced into 
other armies, and played a great part in the ambulance service 
of the Franco-German War. 

The German hospital service as existing at the time of the 
Franco-German War of i87o-7r was modified and extended by 
the Kriegs Sanitdts Ordnung of 1878 and the Kriegs 
Etappen Ordnung of 1887, which completed the organ- 
ization by the addition in time of war of numerous 
subordinate offices and departments. The main divisions of the 
ambulance organization of the German army in the field fall into : 
(i) sanitary detachments, (2) field hospitals, (3) flying hospitals, 
(4) hospital reserve depots, (5) " committees for the transport of 
the sick," and (6) railway hospital trains. The whole administra- 
tion of the ambulance service of the grand army in the field is 
in the hands of the chief of the ambulance sanitary staff, who is 
attached to headquarters. Next in command come surgeons- 
general of armies in the field, surgeons-general of army corps, 
and under them again surgeons-in-chief of divisions and regiments. 
Civil consulting surgeons of eminence, and professors from the 
universities, are also attached to the various armies and divisions 
to co-operate with and act as advisers to the surgeons of the 
standing military surgical staff. The hospital transport service 
on the lines of communication is highly organized and the 
hospital railway carriages are elaborately equipped. 
The French ambulance system, finally settled by the 
reglement of 1884, is organized on almost identical lines 
with the German; one of the principal peculiarities of the former 
being the ambulances volantes already referred to. The peace 






802 



AMBULANCE 



organization of the German and French systems does not materi- 
ally differ from that of the British service. 

In the Japanese army a special feature is the sanitary corps, 
whose duty is the prevention of disease among the troops; it 

has been brought to a great pitch of perfection, with 

tne resu lt that in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) 

the immunity of the troops from all forms of prevent- 
able disease surpassed all previous experience. Not only was 
the army accompanied by sanitary experts who advised on all 
questions of camping grounds, water supply, &c., but before the 
war began the Intelligence Department collected information as 
to the diseases of the country likely to be the scene of operations, 
unhealthy places to be avoided, and precautions to be taken. 

Coming now to the ambulance system of the British army, in 
which are comprised the arrangements and organization of the 

medical department for the care and treatment of 
army tne s * c k an ^ woun ded from the time they are injured 
system. or taken ill, till they are able to return to duty or are 

invalided home, we will trace the progress of a wounded 
man from the field of battle to his home; remembering that, 
as British troops are usually engaged overseas, hospital ships 
as well as land transport are necessary. 

When a soldier falls wounded in action he is attended by the 
regimental surgeon and stretcher-bearers, who apply some 
First field extemporized method of stopping bleeding and dress 
dressing, the'wounds with the " first field dressing " a packet 

of antiseptic material which every officer and man on 
active service carries stitched to some part of his clothing, 
and which contains everything necessary for dressing an ordi- 
nary gunshot wound. Recent wars have demonstrated that 
in all uncomplicated cases it is better to leave this dressing 
undisturbed, as the wounds made by modern projectiles heal 
up at once if left alone, if air and dirt have been thus excluded. 
From the field he is carried on a stretcher by bearers (formerly 
of the " Bearer Companies ") of the Royal Army Medical Corps 

to the collecting station, where he is placed on an 
station"* ambulance wagon of the first line of assistance and 

taken to the dressing station. Here his wound will 
be examined if considered necessary, but as on the field the first 
medical officer who examined him has already attached a 
" specification tally " to the patient, giving particulars of the 
wound, it will probably not be disturbed unless complicated 
by bleeding, splintering of bone or some other condition requiring 
interference. Any operation, however, which is urgently called 
for will be here performed, nourishment, stimulants and opiates 
administered if required, and the patient moved to the field 
hospital in an ambulance wagon of the second line of assistance. 
From the field hospital he is transferred as soon as possible by 
the ambulance train to the general hospital at the advanced base 
of operations, and from there in due time in another train to the 
base of operations at the coast, from which he is ultimately either 
returned to duty or sent home in a hospital ship. The organiza- 
tion by which these requirements are fulfilled is the following: 
Every regiment and fighting unit has posted to it, on proceeding 
on active service, a medical officer who looks after the health of 
the men and advises the commanding officer on sanitary matters. 
Regi- When the regiment goes into action he takes command 
meat*! of the regimental stretcher-bearers who, to the number 

of two per company, have been in peace time instructed 

in first aid and in the carrying of the wounded on 
stretchers. These men leave their arms behind and wear the 
Red Cross armlets, to indicate their non-combatant functions, 
but in these days, when a battle is often fought at long ranges, it 
is not to be wondered at, or attributed to disregard of the red cross 
flag by the enemy, if medical officers and stretcher-bearers are hit. 
The bearer company into whose charge the wounded man next 
passes is composed of men of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 
with a detachment of the Army Service Corps for transport 
duties. In future, bearer sections of the Field Ambulances will 
perform the duties of the bearer company. Its function is to 
collect and succour the wounded on the battlefield and to hand 
them over to the field hospitals, with which these bearer com- 



panies are closely associated, though separately organized. In the 
Indian army the bearer company is provided from the personnel 
of the field hospital when there is a battle, and reverts to the 
hospital again after it is over. The war in South Africa of 1899- 
1902 clearly demonstrated the superiority of the Indian plan; 
for after the action the bearer company staff should be available 
to give the much-needed help in the field hospital, and some 
amalgamation of the two organizations, or something after the 
plan of the ambulance volatile of the French, is necessary. The 
bearers afford the wounded any treatment required, supply water 
and sedatives, and then carry them back on stretchers to the 
collecting station in the rear, whence they are conveyed to the 
dressing station in the wagons or other form of transport. 

At the dressing station, which ought to be out of range of the 
firing, and should have a good water supply, the patient is made 
as comfortable as possible, nourishment and stimulants are 
administered, and he is then taken to the field hospital. In 
times of great stress, when it is desirable to remove the wounded 
quickly from the field, and there are no roads or wheeled trans- 
port is not available, large numbers of bearers are employed to 
carry them on stretchers, &c. These men are engaged locally 
and are soon given the slight training necessary. This was done 
in Natal after the battles on the Tugela (1899), in which there 
were some thousands of wounded to be conveyed; also in Egypt, 
where the local troops not required for the fighting line were 
requisitioned; the Japanese in Mongolia employed hundreds of 
Chinese coolies for this purpose, the general use of sedan-chairs 
in China having accustomed the poorer class of natives to 
this kind of labour. In India, the rank and file of the Royal 
Army Medical Corps not being employed, the bearer 
work is carried out by natives specially enlisted and bearers. 
organized into a corps. These men are bearers by 
caste a reminiscence of the system which prevailed generally a 
hundred years ago, and is still met with in out-of-the-way places, 
of conveyance of travellers in dhoolies, which are closed wooden 
carriages fixed on long poles and carried on men's shoulders. 
The bearers convey the wounded in dandies, similar to dhoolies, 
but made mostly of canvas, so that they are much lighter. The 
courage of these bearers on the battlefield has often been praised. 
The old bearer caste is, however, rapidly dying out owing to the 
general discontinuance of the use of dhoolies. Thus the ambulance 
organization in India is entirely different from that in other parts 
of the British empire. The rank and file of the Royal Army 
Medical Corps are not employed there, although the medical 
officers are. The warrant and non-commissioned ranks are re- 
placed by a most useful body of men of Anglo-Indian or Eurasian 
(half caste) birth, called the Subordinate Medical Department, 
the members of which, now called assistant surgeons (formerly 
apothecaries), receive a three years' training in medical work 
at the Indian medical schools and are competent to perform the 
compounding of medicines and to deal with all but the most 
serious cases of injury and illness. In the hospitals the men of the 
Royal Army Medical Corps are replaced by the Native Army 
Hospital Corps, subdivided into ward-servants, cooks, water- 
carriers, sweepers and washermen. The caste system necessitates 
this division of labour, and the men are not so efficient or trust- 
worthy as the white soldiers whose places they take. The bearers 
of the wounded are a separate and distinct class, partly attached 
to regiments, &c., as part of the regimental transport, and partly 
organized into bearer companies, attached to field hospitals. 
The dandies in which they carry the wounded are much more 
comfortable than stretchers, being fitted with roofs and sides of 
canvas to keep off sun and rain, thus being collapsible so that 
the dandy is quite flat when not in use. Still they are heavy, 
clumsy, and cannot be folded up into a small compass for trans- 
port like a stretcher; they also take up a good deal of room in 
wagons and can scarcely be carried on the backs of animals owing 
to the length of the pole. Hence riding ponies and mules are 
much used in Indian warfare, especially in the mountains, for 
the carriage of less seriously wounded men. In India separate 
hospitals are necessary for white and native troops, and the latter 
have accommodation for the large numbers of non-combatant 






AMBULANCE 



803 



Field 
hospitals. 



Hospitals 
on the 
lines of 
communi- 
cation. 



camp-followers, mule-drivers, cooks, officers' servants, &c., &c., 
which constitute one of the most remarkable features of the 
Indian army organization. 

Field hospitals, under the new scheme furnished by tent 
sections of the Field Ambulances, are each supposed to provide 
accommodation for 100 patients, who live on their field 
rations suitably cooked and supplemented by various 
medical comforts. The patients are not supplied with 
hospital clothing, nor do they have beds, but lie on straw, which 
is spread on the ground and covered with waterproof sheets 
and blankets; of these latter a considerable reserve is carried. 
These hospitals can and must at times accommodate more than 
the regulation number of patients, but in the South African 
War their resources were at times considerably overtaxed, with 
consequent discomfort and hardship to the patients, the medical 
equipment proving insufficient for unexpectedly heavy calls 
upon its resources. These hospitals are supposed to move with 
the army, and therefore it is imperative to pass the wounded 
quickly back from these to the stationary hospitals on the lines 
f communication (which vary according to the length 
of these lines) and thence to the general hospitals at 
the base. The size of the lines of communication 
hospitals varies according to circumstances, and they 
are as a rule " dieted," that is to say, proper hospital 
diets and not field rations are issued to the patients, who 
also are supplied with beds and proper hospital clothing. In 
these hospitals also there may be nursing sisters, who of course 
are unsuited for the rough work and life nearer the front. 
Sisters are also employed on the hospital trains, which were 
found most useful and brought to great perfection in the South 
African War, being fitted with beds, kitchens, dispensaries, &c., 
so that patients were moved long distances in comfort. 

Arrived at the base of operations the wounded are admitted 
to the general hospitals, of which the numbers and situation 
vary with circumstances, but each is supposed to 
have an officers' ward. In the South African War, 
owing to the inability of the comparatively small 
Royal Army Medical Corps to meet all the requirements of the 
enormous force which was ultimately employed, many of the 
doctors were drawn from the civil profession, and the rank and 
file from the St John's Ambulance Association and the Volunteer 
Medical Staff Corps, while many nursing sisters belonged to the 
Army Nursing Reserve, ordinarily employed in civil hospitals 
but liable to be drafted out during war. In the South African 
War the patriotism and liberality of the British public furnished 
several large general hospitals, perfectly equipped, and officered 
by some of the most eminent members of the medical profession 
in the United Kingdom. Among others may be men- 
tioned the Princess Christian, the Imperial Yeomanry 
hospitals, (both field and general hospitals), the Langman, the 
Portland, the Scottish, Irish and Welsh hospitals. These 
were staffed entirely by civilians, except that an officer of the 
Royal Army Medical Corps was attached to each as administrator 
and organizer; and their personnel was made up of physicians, 
surgeons, nurses, dressers (medical students and in some cases 
fully qualified surgeons) and servants; the numbers, of course, 
varying with the size of the hospitals. In addition to the staff 
of these hospitals several eminent civil surgeons, including Sir 
William MacCormac and Sir F. Treves, went out to the seat of 
war as consultants: an innovation in the British service, but in 
accordance with the system long in vogue in Germany. 

To the Army, Medical organization is affiliated in war time 
that of the Red Cross Society and other charitable associations, 
which during the South African War aided the Army Medical 
Service greatly by gifts of clothing, money and numerous 
luxuries for the sick and wounded. 

Lastly, the wounded man is transferred to a hospital ship, 

which is fitted up with comfortable swinging cots in airy wards, 

with refrigerators for preserving provisions and the 

shfps. a supply of ice, punkahs for hot weather, &c. Each 

division of an army corps is supposed to have one such 

ship, with from 200 to 250 beds and the same staff of doctors, 



General 
hospitals. 






Red Cross 
societies. 






nurses, &c., as a hospital of similar size on shore, when 
necessary. 

Different regulations are made by various powers as to the 
work of the Red Cross societies under the Geneva flag. Whereas 
in Germany and France such aid is officially recognized 
and placed under direct military control, the English 
Red Cross societies have acted side by side with, but 
independently of, the military ambulance organization. In the 
South African War (1890-1902), however, the bonds of union 
were drawn considerably closer, and cordial co-operation was 
brought about to prevent overlapping and waste of money. In 
Germany the volunteer organization is presided over by an 
imperial commission or inspector-general appointed in peace 
time, who in time of war is attached to the headquarters staff. 
His functions are to control the relations of the various Red 
Cross societies and secure harmonious co-operation. Delegates 
appointed by him are attached to the various corps and transport 
commissions. No volunteer assistance can be utilized which is 
not entirely subordinate to the military control, and has not 
already in peace time received official recognition and been 
organized on a skeleton footing. Moreover, only persons of 
German nationality can be employed under it with the armies 
in the field. In case of base hospitals situated in Germany 
itself, the services of foreigners may be employed when specially 
authorized by the war office. In France, in the m.ain, the same 
rules obtain in the case of volunteer hospital service. 

Great attention has been paid to civil ambulance organization 
in England. In 1878 the British ambulance association of St 
John of Jerusalem was founded. Its object was to st. John's 
render first aid to persons injured in accidents on the Ambulance 
road, railway, or in any of the occupations of civil life. 
As the result of the initiative taken by this society, 
ambulance corps have been formed in most large towns 
of the United Kingdom; and police, railway servants and 
workmen have been instructed how to render first aid pending 
the arrival of a doctor. This Samaritan work has been further 
developed and extended to most parts of the British empire, 
notably Canada, Australia and India, and there is no doubt 
that many lives are saved annually by the knowledge, diffused 
by this association, as to how to stop bleeding, resuscitate the 
apparently drowned, &c. Moreover, during the South African 
War this association provided a most valuable reserve for the 
Royal Army Medical Corps, and drafted out some hundreds of 
partially trained men whose assistance was most valuable to 
the Army Medical Service in dealing with the enormous numbers 
of sick and wounded who came upon their hands. 

In America each city has its own system and organization of 
civil ambulance service. In some, as in Boston, the service is 
worked by the police; in others, notably New York, CMI 
by the hospitals, while Chicago has an admirable ambu- 
service under municipal control. In most of the 
capitals of Europe similar systems prevail. 

British ambulance wagons are built very strongly to stand 
rough roads, and are of several patterns; those used in the war 
in South Africa were reported on as heavy, uncomfort- 
able, and so unwieldy as to be incapable very often of 
keeping up with the troops; but a new and more wagons. 
mobile vehicle, to convey four patients lying down as 
well as six seated, or fourteen all seated (whereas the old pattern 
wagons only accommodated two lying-down cases), has been 
introduced. All patterns of wagons weigh from 175 to 185 
cwt., while the Boers and the British Colonial auxiliaries used 
much lighter carts, which were taken at a gallop over almost 
any country. The Indian ambulances are small two-wheeled 
carts, called tongas, drawn by two bullocks or mules; very 
strongly made, they are capable of holding two men lying down, 
or four sitting up, besides the native driver. 

Various other forms of transport are found, such as mule 
litters in mountainous districts, where wheeled carriages cannot 
go, camel litters in the Sudan, dhoolies in India, hammocks on 
the west coast of Africa, or sedan-chairs in China. In the Russo- 
Japanese War an ingenious form of mule litter for serious cases 






8 04 



AMBULATORY AMEN 



was made by fixing the ends of two long springy poles about 
15 ft. long into each side of the pack saddles of two mules, one 
in front of the other, so as to support a bed for the patient between 
them; the length and resiliency of the poles prevented jolting 
of the wounded man, and the mules were able to carry him long 
distances over any kind of ground. The ordinary mule or camel 
litter provides for a wounded man (lying down) being carried 
on a sort of stretcher on either side of the animal, or in cacolets 
in which the less serious cases are slung in seats (one on each 
side of the animal), sitting up. 

In Great Britain, the material and equipment required are 
stored in times of peace at the various headquarters stations and 
carefully examined twice a year; and on orders for 
a a- mobilization being issued, the doctors and various 

ranks of attendants, who have previously been told 
off to each unit, repair to the allotted station, draw the equip- 
ment and transport, and embark with the brigade to which 
they are attached. The tendency of the present day is towards 
reduction in bulk and concentration of strength of drugs, 
points which simplify the question of transport of ambulance 
material. As the fighting man can carry concentrated nourish- 
ment enough for thirty-six hours, in the form of an emergency 
ration, in a tin the size of an ordinary cigar-case, and enough 
sweetening material in the form of saccharine to last a fortnight 
in a bottle smaller than an ordinary watch, so the medical 
department can take their drugs in the form of compressed 
tabloids, each the correct dose, and each occupying about one- 
tenth of the space the drug ordinarily would; while the medical 
officers can carry hypodermic cases, not so large as an ordinary 
cigarette-case, containing a syringe and hundreds of doses of 
highly concentrated remedies. Again, the traction engines 
which now accompany an army can also supply electricity for 
X-ray work, electric-lighting, ice-making, &c. (J. R. D.) 

AMBULATORY (Med. Lat. ambulatorium, a place for 
walking, from ambulare, to walk), the covered passage round a 
cloister; a term applied sometimes to the procession way round the 
east end of a cathedral or large church and behind the high altar. 

AMBUSH (older form, " embush," O. Fr. embusche, from the 
Ital. imboscata, in and bosco, a wood), the hiding of troops, 
primarily in a wood, and so any concealment for the purpose of 
a sudden attack. 

AMEDEO FERDINANDO MARIA DI SAVOIA, duke of 
Aosta (1845-1890), third son of Victor Emmanuel II., king of 
Italy, and of Adelaide, archduchess of Austria, was born at 
Turin on the 3Oth of May 1845. Entering the army as captain 
in 1859 he fought through the campaign of 1866 with the rank 
of major-general, leading his brigade into action at Custozza and 
being wounded at Monte Torre. In May 1867 he married the 
princess Maria Carlotta del Pozzo della Cisterna. In 1868 he 
was created vice-admiral of the Italian navy, but, two years 
later, left Italy to ascend the Spanish throne, his reluctance to 
accept the invitation of the Cortes having been overridden by the 
Italian cabinet. On the i6th of November 1870 he was pro- 
claimed king of Spain by the Cortes; but, before he could arrive 
at Madrid, Marshal Prim, chief promoter of his candidature, was 
assassinated. Undeterred by rumours of a plot against his own 
life, Amedeo entered Madrid alone, riding at some distance from 
his suite to the church where Marshal Prim's body lay in state. 
His efforts as constitutional king were paralysed by the rivalry 
between the various Spanish factions, but with the approval of 
his father he rejected all idea of a coup d'etat. Though warned 
of a plot a.gainst his life (August 18, 1872) he refused to take 
precautions, and, while returning from Buen Retiro to Madrid 
in company with the queen, was repeatedly shot at in Via 
Avenal. The royal carriage was struck by several revolver and 
rifle bullets, the horses wounded, but its occupants escaped 
unhurt. A period of calm followed the outrage. On the i ith of 
February 1873, however, Amedeo, abandoned by his partisans 
and attacked more fiercely than ever by his opponents, signed 
his abdication. Upon returning to Italy he was cordially 
welcomed and reinstated in his former position. His consort, 
whose health had been undermined by anxiety in Spain, died on 



the 3rd of November 1876. Not until the nth of September 
1888 did Amedeo contract his second marriage, with his niece 
Princess Letitia Bonaparte. Less than two years later (Jan- 
uary 18,1890) he died at Turin in the arms of his elder brother, 
King Humbert I., leaving four children the duke of Aosta, 
the count of Turin, the duke of the Abruzzi (issue of his first mar- 
riage), and the count of Salemi. (H. W. S.) 

AMELIE-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of south-western 
France, in the department of Pyrenees-Orientales, at the junction 
of the Mondony with the Tech, 28^ m. S.S.W. of Perpignan 
by rail. Pop. (1906) 1247. It has numerous sulphur springs 
(68-i45 F.) used as baths by sufferers from rheumatism and 
maladies of the lungs. The town is situated at a height of 770 ft. 
and has both a winter and summer season. There are two 
bathing establishments, one of which preserves remains of Roman 
baths, and a large military thermal hospital. The town, formerly 
called Arles-les-Bains, is named after Queen Amelia, wife of 
Louis Philippe. 

AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, ABRAHAM NICOLAS (1634- 
1706), French historian and publicist, was born at Orleans in 
February 1634, and died at Paris on the 8th of December 1706. 
Little is known of his personal history beyond the fact that he 
was secretary to an embassy from the French court to the 
republic of Venice. In his Histoire du gomernement de Venise 
he undertook to explain, and above all to criticize, the administra- 
tion of that republic, and to expose the causes of its decadence. 
The work was printed by the king's printer and dedicated to 
Louvois, which points to the probability that the government 
did not disapprove of it. It appeared in March 1676, and pro- 
voked a warm protest from the Venetian ambassador, Gius- 
tiniani. The author was sent to the Bastille, where he remained, 
however, only six weeks (Archives de la Bastille, vol. viii. pp. 93 
and 94) . A second edition with a supplement, published immedi- 
ately after, drew forth fresh protestations, and the edition was 
suppressed. This persecution gave the book an extraordinary 
vogue, and it passed through twenty-two editions in three years, 
besides being translated into several languages; there is an 
English translation by Lord Falconbridge, son-in-law of Oliver 
Cromwell. Amelot next published in 1683 a translation of Fra 
Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent. This work, and 
especially certain notes added by the translator, gave great 
offence to the advocates of unlimited papal authority, and three 
separate memorials were presented asking for its repression. 
Under the pseudonym of La Motte Josseval, Amelot subsequently, 
published a Discours politique sur Tacile, in which he analysed 
the character of Tiberius. 

AMEN, a Hebrew word, of which the root meaning is "stability," 
generally adopted in Christian worship as a concluding formula 
for prayers and hymns. Three distinct biblical usages may be 
noted, (a) Initial Amen, referring back to words of another 
speaker, e.g. i Kings i. 36; Rev. xxii. 20. (b) Detached Amen, 
the complementary sentence being suppressed, e.g. Neh. v. 13; 
Rev. v. 14 (cf. i Cor. xiv. 16). (c) Final Amen, with no change 
of speaker, as in the subscription to the first three divisions of the 
Psalter and in the frequent doxologies of the New Testament 
Epistles. The uses of amen (" verily ") in the Gospels form a 
peculiar class; they are initial, but often lack any backward 
reference. Jesus used the word to affirm his own utterances, not 
those of another person, and this usage was adopted by the 
church. The liturgical use of the word in apostolic times is 
attested by the passage from i Cor. cited above, and Justin 
Martyr (c. A.D. 150) describes the congregation as responding 
" amen " to the benediction after the celebration of the Eucharist. 
Its introduction into the baptismal formula (in the Greek Church 
it is pronounced after the name of each person of the Trinity) is 
probably later. Among certain Gnostic sects Amen became the 
name of an angel, and in post-biblical Jewish works exaggerated 
statements are multiplied as to the right method and the bliss of 
pronouncing it. It is still used in the service of the synagogue, 
and the Mahommedans not only add it after reciting the first 
Sura of the Koran, but also when writing letters, &c., and repeat 
it three times, often with the word Qimtir, as a kind of talisman. 



AMENDMENT AMERICA 



805 



AMENDMENT (through the 0. Fr. amender, to correct, from 
Lat. mendum, a fault), an improvement, correction or alteration 
(nominally at least) for the better. The word is used either of 
moral character or, more especially, in connexion with " amend- 
ing " a bill or motion in parliament or resolution at a meeting; 
and in law it signifies the correction of any defect or error in 
the record of a civil action or on a criminal indictment. All 
written constitutions also usually contain a clause providing for 
the method by which they may be amended. Another noun, 
in the plural form of " amends," is restricted in its meaning to 
that of the penalty paid for a fault or wrong committed. In its 
French form the amende, or amende honorable, once a public 
confession and apology when the offender passed to the seat of 
justice barefoot and bareheaded, now signifies in the English 
phrase a spontaneous and satisfactory rectification of an error. 

AMENTIFERAE, or AMENTACEAE, a name which has been 
used to include in one class several natural orders of plants 
which bear their flowers in catkins {amenta). They are trees 
and shrubs chiefly of temperate climates, and include many 
common British trees. It comprised the following orders: 
Salicaceae, willows and poplars; Corylaceae, hazel, hornbeam; 
Betulaceae, birch, alder; Fagaceae, oak, beech, chestnut; 
Casnarinaceae, Casuarina (beef wood); Platanaceae, plane; 
Juglandaceae, walnut; Myricaceae, bog myrtle. This class is 
not retained in the most modern systems of classification. 

AMERCEMENT, or AMERCIAMENT (derived, through the 
Fr. a merci, from Lat. merces, pay), in English law, an arbitrary 
pecuniary penalty, inflicted in old days on an offender by the 
peers or equals of the party amerced. The word has in modern 
times become practically a poetical synonym for fine or de- 
privation. But an amercement differed from a fixed fine, 
prescribed by statute, by reason of its arbitrary nature; it 
represented a commutation of a sentence of forfeiture of goods, 
while a fine was originally a composition agreed upon between 
the judge and the prisoner to avoid imprisonment. The fixing 
or assessment of an amercement was termed an affeerment. In 
the lower courts the amercement was offered by a jury of the 
offender's neighbours (affeerors); in the superior courts by the 
coroner, except in the case of officers of the court, when the 
amount was affeered by the judges themselves. All judgments 
were entered on the court roll as " in mercy " (sit in misericord ia), 
and the word misericordia, or some contracted form of it, was 
written on the margin. Articles twenty to twenty-two of Magna 
Carta regulated the assessment of amercements. 

See Stephen, History of Criminal Law; Pollock and Maitland, 
History of English Law; W. S. McKechnie, Magna Carta (1905). 

AMERIA (mod. A melia), a city of Umbria, situated about 65 m. 
N. of Rome on the Via Amerina (which approached it from the 
S. starting from Falerii and passing through Castellum Amerinum, 
probably mod. Orte, where it crossed the Tiber). It has a fine 
position, 1332 ft. above sea-level, and still retains considerable 
remains of the city wall, built in polygonal masonry of carefully 
jointed blocks of limestone, some 12 ft. in total thickness, and 
showing traces of reconstruction at different periods. Various 
remains of the Roman period exist between the walls, including 
a large water reservoir divided into ten chambers. The lofty 
campanile of the cathedral was erected in 1050 with fragments 
of Roman buildings. Amelia is not mentioned in the history 
of the Roman conquest of Umbria, but is alluded to as a flourish- 
ing place, with a fertile territory extending to the Tiber, by 
Cicero in his speech in defence of Sextus Roscius Amerinus, and 
its fruit is often extolled by Roman writers. Augustus divided 
its lands among his veterans-, but did not plant a colony here. 
The bishopric of Ameria was founded in the middle of the 4th 
century. 

AMERICA. I. Physical Geography. The accidental use of a 
single name, America, for the pair of continents that has a greater 
extension from north to south than any other continuous land area 
of the globe, has had some recent justification, since the small 
body of geological opinion has turned in favour of the theory of 
the tetrahedral deformation of the earth's crust as affording 
explanation of the grouping of continents and oceans. America, 



broadening in the north as if to span the oceans by reaching to its 
neighbours on the east and west, tapering between vast oceans 
far to the south where the nearest land is in the little-known 
Antarctic regions, roughly presents the triangular outline that is 
to be expected from tetrahedral warping; and although greatly 
broken in the middle, and standing with the northern and 
southern parts out of a meridian line, America is nevertheless the 
best witness among the continents of to-day to the tetrahedral 
theory. There seems to be, however, not a unity but a duality in 
its plan of construction, for the two parts, North and South 
America, resemble each other not only in outline but, roughly 
speaking, in geological evolution also; and the resemblances 
thus discovered are the more remarkable when it is considered 
how extremely small is the probability that among all the possible 
combinations of ancient mountain systems, modern mountain 
systems and plains, two continents out of five should present 
so many points of correspondence. Thus regarded, it becomes 
reasonable to suppose that North and South America have in a 
broad way been developed under a succession of somewhat similar 
strains in the earth's crust, and that they are, in so far, favourable 
witnesses to the theory that there is something individual in the 
plan of continental growth. The chief points of correspondence 
between these two great land masses, besides the southward taper- 
ing, are as follows: (i) The areas of ancient fundamental rocks of 
the north-east (Laurentian highlands of North America, uplands 
of Guiana in South America), which have remained without signi- 
ficant deformation, although suffering various oscillations of level, 
since ancient geological times; (2) the highlands of the south- 
east (Appalachians and Brazilian highlands) with a north-east 
south-west crystalline axis near the ocean, followed by a belt of de- 
formed and metamorphosed early Palaeozoic strata, and adjoined 
farther inland by a dissected plateau of nearly horizontal later 
Palaeozoic formations all greatly denuded since the ancient de- 
formation of the mountain axis, and seeming to owe their present 
altitude to broad uplifts of comparatively modern geological date; 
(3) the complex of younger mountains along the western side of 
the continents (Western highlands, or Cordilleras, of North 
America; Andean Cordilleras of South America) of geologically 
modern deformation and upheaval, with enclosed basins and 
abundant volcanic action, but each a system in itself, disconnected 
and not standing in alignment; (4) confluent lower lands between 
the highlands, giving river drainage to the north (Mackenzie, 
Orinoco), east (St Lawrence, Amazon), and south (Mississippi, La 
Plata). Differences of dimension and detail are numerous, but 
they do not suffice to mask what seems to be a resemblance in 
general plan. Indeed, some of the chief contrasts of the two con- 
tinents arise not so much from geological unlikeness as from their 
unsymmetrical situation with respect to the equator, whereby the 
northern one lies mostly in the temperate zone, while the southern 
one lies mostly in the torrid zone. North America is bathed in 
frigid waters around its broad northern shores; its mountains 
bear huge glaciers in the north-west; the outlying area of Green- 
land in the north-east is shrouded with ice; and in geologically 
recent times a vast ice-sheet has spread over its north-eastern 
third; while warm waters bring corals to its southern shores. 
South America has warm waters and corals on the north-east, and 
cold waters and glaciers only on its narrowing southern end. If 
the symmetry that is so noticeable in geological history had 
extended to climate as well, many geographical features might 
now present likenesses instead of contrasts. 

The relation of the Americas to each other and to the rest of the 
world, as the home of plants and animals, is greatly affected by the 
breadth of the adjacent oceans, and also by the geologically recent 
changes of altitude whereby the breadth of the narrower parts of 
the lands and the oceans has been significantly altered. Between 
the parallels of 60 and 70 N. the east and west widening of North 
America forms more than a third of the almost continuous land 
ring around a zone of sub- Arctic climate, through the middle of 
which runs the Arctic circle. As a result there is a remarkable 
community of resemblance of plant and animal life in the high 
northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia. In strong 
contrast with this relation of close fellowship is the exceptional 



8o6 



AMERICA 



[HISTORY 



isolation of far southern South America. Excepting the barren 
lands of the Antarctic regions, with which Patagonia is somewhat 
associated by a broken string of islands, the nearest continental 
lands of a more habitable kind are South Africa and New Zealand., 
In contrast to the sub-Arctic land ring, here is a sub-Antarctic 
ocean ring, and as a result the land flora and fauna of South 
America to-day are strongly unlike the life forms of the other 
south-ending continents. 

For further treatment of the physical geography of the 
American continents, see NORTH AMERICA, SOUTH AMERICA. 

(W. M. D.) 

II. General Historical Sketch. The name America was derived 
from that of Amerigo Vespucci (q.v.). In Waldseemiiller's map 
of 1507 the name is given to a body of land roughly corresponding 
to the continent of South America. As discovery revealed the 
existence of another vast domain to the north, the name spread 
to the whole of the pair of continents by customary use, in 
spite of the protests of the Spaniards, by whom it was not 
officially used of North America till the i8th century. 

The discovery of America is justly dated on the izth (N.S. aist) 
of October 1492, when Christopher Columbus (q.v.), the Genoese, 
made his landfall on the island of Guanahani, now identified with 
Watling Island in the Bahamas. In the loth and nth centuries 
Norse sea-rovers, starting from Iceland, had made small settle- 
ments in Greenland and had pushed as far as the coast of New 
England (or possibly Nova Scotia) in transient visits (see VINLAND 
and LEIF ERICSSON). But the Greenland colony was obscure, the 
country was believed to form part of Europe, and the records of 
the farther explorations were contained in sagas which were only 
rediscovered by modern scholarship. Throughout the middle 
ages, legendary tales of mythical lands lying in the western 
ocean the Isle of St B randan, of Brazil and Antilia had been 
handed down. Scholars, guessing from isolated passages in classic 
writers, or arguing on general principles, had held that the 
" Indies " could be reached by sailing due west. But the venture 
was beyond the resources of the ships and the seamanship of 
the time. The opinions of scholars, and the fantasies of poets, 
became an enthusiastic belief in the mind of Columbus. After 
many disappointments he persuaded the Catholic sovereigns 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to furnish him with a squadron 
of three small vessels. With it- he sailed from Palos in Andalusia 
on the 3rd of August 1492, reached Guanahani on the i2th of 
October, touched on the coast of Cuba and Hispaniola, established 
a small post on the latter, and returned to Lisbon on the 4th of 
March 1493, and thence to Spain. 

i It was the belief of Columbus and his contemporaries that he 
had reached the islands described by Marco Polo as forming the 
eastern extremity of Asia. Hence he spoke of the " Indies," and 
" las Indias " continued to be the official name given to their 
American possessions by the Spaniards for many generations. 
His feat produced a diplomatic controversy with Portugal which 
was destined to have important political consequences. In 1454 
Pope Nicholas V. had given the Portuguese the exclusive right of 
exploration and conquest on the road to the Indies. His bull 
contemplated only the use of the route by the coast of Africa to 
the south and east. In 1488 the Portuguese Bartholomeu Diaz 
had rounded the Cape of Good Hope. After the return of 
Columbus and his supposed demonstration that the Indies could 
be reached by sailing west, disputes might obviously arise be- 
tween the two powers as to their respective " spheres of influ- 
ence." The Catholic sovereigns applied to Pope Alexander VI., 
a Spaniard, for a confirmation of their rights. The pope drew a 
line from north to south one hundred leagues west of the Azores 
and Cape Verde Islands, and gave the Spaniards the claim to all 
to the west (May 4, 1493). The Portuguese thought the division 
unfair to them, and protested. A conference was held between 
the two powers at Tordesillas in 1494, and by common consent the 
line was shifted to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the 
Cape Verde Islands. The boundary line corresponded to the soth ' 
degree of longitude west of Greenwich, which strikes the main- 

1 The exact position has been disputed. According to John Fiske, 
the line would be between 41 and 44 long. 



land of South" America about the mouth of the Amazon. Thence- 
forward the Spaniards claimed the right to exclude all other 
peoples from trade or settlement " beyond the line." 

Between September 1493 and the time of his last voyage (May 
1502 to November 1504), Columbus explored the West Indies, 
reached the mainland of South America at the mouth of the 
Orinoco and sailed along the coast of Central America from 
Cape Honduras to Nombre de Dios (near Colon) . Henry VII. of 
England allowed the Bristol merchants to fit out a western voyage 
under the command of another Genoese, John Cabot (q.v.), in 
1497. The history of the venture is very obscure, but Cabot is 
thought to have reached Newfoundland and the mainland. Be- 
tween 1 500 and 1 503 a Portuguese family of the name of Cortereal 
carried out voyages of exploration on the eastern coast of North 
America, with the consent of their government, and with little 
regard for the treaty of Tordesillas. In 1 500 the Portuguese Pedro 
Alvarez Cabral, while on his way to the East Indies, sighted the 
coast of Brazil at Monte Pascoal in the Aimores, and took formal 
possession. The belief that the eastern extremity of Asia had 
been reached died slowly, and the great object of exploration in 
America continued for some years to be the discovery of a passage 
through to the Spice Islands, in order to compete with the Portu- 
guese, who had reached them by the Cape route. The first 
Spanish settlement in Hispaniola spread to the mainland by the 
adventure of Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa in Darien in 
1509. Cuba was occupied by Diego de Velazquez in 1511. In 
1512 (or 1513) Juan Ponce de Leon made the first recorded 
exploration of the coast of Florida and the Bahama Channel. In 
1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the isthmus of Darien and 
saw the South Sea (Pacific). The hope that a passage through to 
the Spice Islands would be found near existing Spanish settle- 
ments was now given up. One was sought farther south, and in 
November 1520 Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) passed through the 
strait which bears his name and sailed across the Pacific. At 
last the existence of a continent divided by a vast stretch of 
ocean from Asia, and mostly lying within the sphere of influence 
assigned to Spain by the pope, was revealed to the world. 

The first aim of the Spaniards had been trade with the Indies. 
TheCasadeContratacion, a committee for the regulation of trade, 
was established at Seville in 1 503. European plants and animals 
were introduced into Hispaniola and Cuba, and sugar plantations 
were set up. But the main object of the Spaniards, who could not 
labour in the tropics even if they had wished to do so, was always 
gold, to be won by slave labour. As the surface gold of the islands 
was exhausted, and the feeble island races perished before the 
invaders, the Spaniards were driven to go farther afield. In 1 5 19 
Pedrarias Davila transferred the Darien settlement to Panama. 
In that and the following year the coasts of Yucatan and of the 
Gulf of Mexico were explored successively by Francisco Hernan- 
dez C6rdova and Juan de Grijalva, who both sailed from Cuba. 
From Cuba it was that Hernan Cortes (q.v.) sailed on the loth (or 
1 8th) of February 1519 for the conquest of Mexico. Hitherto the 
Spaniards had met only the weak islanders, or the more robust 
cannibal Caribs, both alike pure savages. In Mexico they found 
" pueblo " or town Indians who possessed an organized govern- 
ment and had made some progress in civilization. The hegemony 
of the Aztecs, who dominated the other tribes from the central 
valley of Mexico, was oppressive. Cortes, the most accomplished 
and statesmanlike of the Spanish conquerors, raised the subject 
peoples against them. His conquest was effected by 1521. His 
example stimulated the settlers at Panama, who had heard of a 
great people owning vast quantities of gold to the south of them. 
Between 1524 and 1535 Francisco Pizarro (q.v.) and Diego de 
Almagro had completed the conquest of Peru, which was followed, 
however, by a long period of strife among the Spaniards, and of 
rebellions. The country between Peru and Panama was subdued 
before 1537 by the conquest of Quito by Sebastian de Benalcazar 
and of New Granada by Jimenez de Quesada. From Peru the 
Spaniards advanced southwards to Chile, which was first unsuc- 
cessfully invaded (1535-37) by Diego de Almagro, and 
afterwards occupied (1540-53) by Pedro de Valdivia. Their 
advance to the south was checked by the indomitable opposition 



HISTORY] 



AMERICA 



807 



of the Araucanians, but from the southern Andes the Spaniards 
overflowed on to the great plains which now form the interior of 
the Argentine Republic. The first permanent settlement at the 
mouth of the river Plate at Buenos Aires dates from 1580. In its 
main lines the Spanish conquest was complete by 1550. What 
the Spaniards had then overrun from Mexico to Chile is still 
Spanish America. Brazil, after a period of exploration which 
began in 1510, was gradually settled by the Portuguese, though 
its bounds on the south remained a subject of dispute with the 
Spaniards till the i8th century. 

The vast territories acquired by Spain in this brief period were 
held to be, by virtue of the pope's bull, the peculiar property of 
the sovereign. When the wide and dangerous powers granted 
to Columbus by his patent were confiscated, Ferdinand first 
imposed Bishop Fonseca on him as a check. In 1509 the council 
of the Indies was established, but it did not take its final form till 
1524. It consisted of a president, with a board of advisers, who 
possessed legislative and administrative powers, and who varied 
in number at different times. There was an appeal to it from all 
colonial governors and courts. The Casa de Contratacion, another 
board, regulated the trade. In America the crown was repre- 
sented by governors. After the preliminary period of conquest 
the whole of the Spanish possessions were divided into the two 
" kingdoms " of New Spain, consisting of Venezuela and the 
Spanish possessions north of the isthmus and of New Castile, a 
title soon changed to Peru, which included the Central American 
isthmus and all of South America except Venezuela and Brazil. 
Each was ruled by a viceroy. As the Spanish dominions became 
more settled, the viceroyalty of Peru was found to be unwieldy. 
New Granada (which included the present republics of Venezuela, 
Colombia and Ecuador) was created a viceroyalty in 1718 (soon 
abolished, but re-created in 1740). A fourth viceroyalty for the 
river Plate was formed in 1778. Other governments known as 
captain-generalships were cut out of the viceroyalties at different 
periods Guatemala in 1527, Venezuela in 1773, Cuba in 1777 and 
Chile in 1778. The captains-general corresponded directly with 
the council of the Indies, and were independent of the viceroys 
except in war time. The administrative powers of the viceroys 
were very great. They were, however, checked by the audi- 
encias, or law courts, of which there were eleven from the reign 
of Philip IV. Santo Domingo, Mexico, Panama, Lima, Guate- 
mala, Guadalajara, Bogota, La Plata, Quito, Chile, Buenos Aires. 
They acted as councils to the governors, and had civil and criminal 
jurisdiction with an appeal to the council of the Indies at Seville. 
The towns had municipal franchises, exercised by a governing 
body comprised of Spaniards, either immigrants from Old Spain, 
or Creoles, i.e. descendants of Spanish settlers. The places were 
often sold, and were objects of ambition to the richer merchants. 
In practice the selling of a seat in the town councils, or cabildos, 
did not have the bad consequences which might have appeared in- 
evitable. In the earlier stages of Spanish colonial history meet- 
ings of delegates (procurators) of the town councils, in imitation 
of the national cortes of Spain, were not uncommon. The kings 
of Spain had obtained from the popes Alexander VI. and Julius II. 
the right of levying the tithe, and of naming the holders of all 
ecclesiastical benefices. These immense concessions, made when 
the development of the Spanish settlements could not be foreseen, 
were regretted by later popes, but the crown adhered firmly to its 
regalities. 

The government of Spain administered its dominions from the 
beginning in the strictest spirit of the " colonial system." The 
Indies were expected to supply precious metals and raw materials, 
and to take all manufactures from the mother country. In order 
to.facilitate the regulation of the trade by the Casa de Contratacion, 
it was concentrated first in Seville, and when the Guadalquivir 
was found to be becoming too shallow for the growing tonnage of 
ships, at Cadiz. Merchant vessels were required for their protection 
to sail in convoy. The convoys orflotas sailed in October first to 
Cartagena in South America, and from thence to Nombre de Dies 
or, in later times, Porto Bello. The yearly fairs at these places 
received the imports from Europe and the colonial trade of the 
Pacific coast, first collected at Panama and then carried over the 



isthmus. From Nombre de Dies or Porto Bello the convoys went 
to La Vera Cruz for the trade of New Spain, and returned home in 
July by the Florida straits. One-fifth of the produce of the mines 
belonged to the crown. The collection of this bullion was at all 
times a main object with the Spanish government, and more 
especially so after the discovery of the great silver deposits of 
Potosi in Bolivia. Forced labour was required to work them and 
the natives were driven to the toil. The excesses of the earliest 
Spanish settlers have become a commonplace, largely through 
the passionate eloquence of Bartolome de Las Casas (see LAS 
CASAS). The Spanish government made strenuous attempts to 
regulate forced labour by limiting the rights of the masters. An 
encomienda was required by anyone who wished to exact labour, 
i.e. the Indians of a district were given to him " in commendam " 
with the power to demand a corvee from them and a small yearly 
payment per head. The laws endeavoured to check abuses, but 
there can be no doubt that they were often defeated by the greed 
of the colonists more especially in the viceroyalty of Peru, which 
was always less well governed than Mexico. But the bulk of the 
inhabitants of the Spanish possessions were of pure or mixed 
Indian blood, and many Indians were prosperous as traders, 
manufacturers, farmers and artisans. 

The Portuguese settlement in Brazil was more purely colonial 
than the Spanish possessions. Until 1 534 little was done to regu- 
late the activity of private adventures. In that year the coast 
was divided into captaincies, which were united under a single 
governor-general in 1549. Between 1555 and 1567 the Portu- 
guese had to contend with the French Huguenot invaders who 
seized Rio, and whom they expelled. Between 1572 and 1576 
there were in Brazil the two governments of Rio de Janeiro and 
Bahia, but its history is of little importance till the occupation of 
Portugal by Philip II. drew the country into the wars of the 
Spanish monarchy. 

The claim of the Peninsula powers to divide the American con- 
tinent between them, based as it was on an award given in entire 
ignorance of the facts, would in no case have been respected. In 
the great upheaval of the Renaissance and the Reformation it 
was certain to be defied. As England was in general alliance with 
the sovereigns of Spain during the early i6th century, English- 
men turned their attention at first towards the discovery of a 
route to the Spice Islands round the north of Asia. But the 
rivalry of Francis I. and Charles V. gave France a strong motive 
for assailing the Spaniards in the New World now revealed to the 
ambition of Europe. King Francis encouraged the ill-recorded 
and disputed voyages of the Florentine Giovanni da Verrazano 
in 1524, and the undoubted explorations of Jacques Cartier. 
Between 1 534 and 1 542 this seaman, a native of St Malo, explored 
the Strait of Belle Isle and the Gulf of St Lawrence, and visited 
the Indian village of Hochelaga, now Montreal. The claims of 
France to the possession of a great part of the northern half of 
America were based on the voyages of Verrazano and Cartier. 
The death of King Francis, and the beginning of the wars of 
religion, suspended colonial enterprise under royal direction. But 
the Huguenots, under the inspiration of Coligny, made three 
attempts to found colonies to the south at Rio de Janeiro in 
1555-1567, near the present Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1562, 
and in Florida in 1 565. These ventures were ruined partly by the 
hostility of the Spaniards and Portuguese, partly by the dissen- 
sions of the colonists. Meanwhile French corsairs from St Malo 
and Dieppe had been active in infesting the West Indies and the 
trade route followed by the Spanish convoys. After the accession of 
Queen Elizabeth, and the beginning of the breach between England 
and Spain, they were joined by English sea-rovers. The English 
claimed the right to trade with all Spanish possessions in or out of 
Europe by virtue of their treaty of trade and amity made in the 
reign of Charles V. The Spaniards disputed this interpretation of 
the treaty, and maintained that there was " no peace beyond the 
line," i.e. Pope Alexander's line as finally fixed by the conference 
at Tordesillas. The English retaliated by armed smuggling 
voyages. 

It was, however, not till late that they attempted to found 
permanent settlements. In 1 578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained 



8o8 



AMERICA 



[HISTORY 



a patent for discovery and settlement. In 1583 he perished in an 
effort to establish a colony in Newfoundland. His work was taken 
up by his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584. Between 1586 
and 1603 Sir Walter made successive efforts to settle a colony in 
the wide territory called Virginia, in honour of Queen Elizabeth, 
a name of much wider significance then than in later days. His 
colony at Roanoke, in what is now the state of North Carolina, 
was unsuccessful, and after his fall his patent reverted to the 
crown, but the new Virginia Company carried on his schemes. In 
1607 the first lasting settlement was made in Virginia, and after a 
period of struggle began to flourish by the cultivation of tobacco. 

In 1620 another settlement was made. A small body of reli- 
gious dissentients, one hundred and one men, women and children, 
including some who had fled to Holland to escape the discipline 
of the church of England, secured leave from the Virginia 
Company to plant themselves witliin its bounds. They sailed in a 
single ship, the " Mayflower," and landed near Cape Cod, where 
they founded the colony of Plymouth, afterwards (1621) obtain- 
ing a patent from the council for New England. From these two 
centres, and from later settlements, arose the " Plantations " of 
the English, which gradually increased to the number of thirteen 
and were destined to become the United States of America. 
Two strongly contrasted types were found among them. The 
Virginian or southern type, which may be said to have prevailed 
from Maryland southward, were for the most part planters 
producing tobacco, Indian corn, rice, indigo and cotton, largely 
by the labour of negro slaves. They had no very pronounced 
religious leaning, though Maryland was founded as a Roman 
Catholic refuge, but they had a prevailing leaning to the church 
of England. The northern or New England element began by 
endeavouring to establish a Puritan theocracy which broke down. 
But the tendency was towards "Independency," and the New 
Englanders were farmers tilling their own land, traders and sea- 
faring men. In the middle region between them religion had a 
large share in promoting the formation of Pennsylvania, which 
was founded by the Quaker William Penn. 

The English colonies, though divided by interest or character, 
were all alike jealous to defend, and eager to extend, their freedom 
of self-government, based on charters granted by, or extorted 
from, the crown. The settlers by degrees threw off the control of 
the proprietors who had received grants from the crown and 
had promoted the first settlements. It was a marked character- 
istic of the English colonists, and a strong element in their 
prosperity, that they were hospitable in welcoming men of other 
races, Germans from the Palatinate, and French Huguenots 
driven out by persecution who brought with them some capital, 
more intelligence and an enduring hatred of Roman Catholic 
France. Though the British government gave, more or less un- 
willingly, a large measure of self-government to the Plantations, 
it was no less intent than the Spanish crown on retaining the 
whole colonial trade in British hands, and on excluding foreigners. 
Like the Spaniards it held that this trade should be confined to 
an exchange of colonial raw produce for home manufactures. 
Two foreign settlements within the English sphere the Dutch 
colony of New Netherland, now New York, and the Swedish 
settlement on the Delaware were absorbed by the growing 
English element. 

While the English plantations were striking root along the coast, 
by somewhat prosaic but fruitful industry, and were growing in 
population with rapid strides, two other movements were in pro- 
gress. To the south, the English, French and Dutch, though often 
in rivalry with one another, combined to break in on the mono- 
poly of the Spaniards. They turned the maxim that " there is 
no peace beyond the line " against its inventors. They invaded 
the West Indies, seized one island after another, and formed the 
freebooting communities known as the Brethren of the Coast and 
the Buccaneers (q.v.) . After the renewal of the war between Spain 
and Holland in 1621, the Dutch invaded the Portuguese colony of 
Brazil, and seized Bahia. A long period of struggle followed, 
but, after the declaration of Portuguese independence in 1640, 
local opposition, and the support given to the Portuguese by the 
French, led to the retreat of the Dutch. 



To the north, to the west and to the south of the English settle- 
ments on the mainland, a most characteristic French colonial 
policy was being carried out. No sooner were the wars of religion 
over than the French again set about making good their claim to 
Canada, and to whatever they could represent as arising naturally 
out of Canada. In 1 599, under the encouragement of Henry IV., 
speculators began to frequent the St Lawrence in pursuit of the fur 
trade. Their settlements were mainly trading posts. Their colon- 
ists were not farmers but trappers, woodrangers, coureurs du bois, 
who married Indian women, and formed a mixed race known as 
the bois brulls. Not a few of the leaders, notably Samuel de 
Champlain (<?.!>.), who founded Quebec in 1608, were brave 
ingenious men, but the population provided no basis for a lasting 
colony. It was adventurous, small, scattered and unstable. The 
religious impulse which was so strong both in the Spanish and the 
English colonies was prominent in the French, but in the most 
fatal form. Pious people were eager to bring about the conversion 
of the Indians, and were zealously served by missionaries. The 
Jesuits, whose first appearance in New France dates from 1611, 
were active and devoted. Their aim was to reduce the fierce Red 
men to a state of childlike docility to priests, and they discouraged 
all colonization in their neighbourhood. It was true that the most 
active French colonial element, the trappers, were barbarized 
by the natives, and that the pursuit of the fur trade and other 
causes had brought the French into sharp collision with the most 
formidable of the native races, the confederation known as the 
Five (or Six) Nations. During the reign of Louis XIV., after 
1660, the French government paid great attention to Canada, but 
not in a way capable of leading to the formation of a colony. The 
king was as intent as the rulers of Spain had been to keep the 
American possessions free from all taint of heresy. Therefore he 
carried on the policy of excluding the Huguenots the only 
colonizing element among his subjects, and drove them into the 
English plantations. A small handful of obedient peasants, 
priest-ridden and over-administered, formed the basis of the 
colony. On this narrow foundation was raised a vast super- 
structure, ecclesiastical, administrative and military. His priests, 
and his officials civil and military, gave the French king many 
daring explorers. While the English colonies were slowly digging 
their way, taking firm hold of the soil, and growing in numbers, 
from the sea to the Alleghanies, French missionaries and explorers 
had ranged far and wide. In 1682 Robert Cavelier, sieur de la 
Salle, who had already explored the Ohio, sailed down the Missis- 
sippi and took possession of the region at the mouth by the name 
of Louisiana. 

The problem which was to be settled by a century of strife was 
now posed. On the one hand were the English plantations, popu- 
lated, cultivated, profitable, stretching along the east coast of 
North America; on the other were the Canadian settlements, 
poverty-stricken, empty, over-officialled, a cause of constant 
expense to the home government, and, at a vast distance, those 
of Louisiana, struggling and bankrupt. The French remedy for 
an unsuccessful colony has always been to annex more territory, 
and forestall a possible rival. Therefore the French government 
strove to unite the beggarly settlements in Canada and Louisiana 
by setting up posts all along the Ohio and the Mississippi, in order 
to confine the English between the Alleghanies and the sea. 

The political history of North America till 1763 is mainly the 
story of the pressure of the English colonies on this paper barrier. 
As regards Spanish America, England was content to profit by the 
Asiento (q.v.) treaty, which gave her the monopoly of slave- 
hunting for the Spanish colonies and an opening for contraband 
trade. In the river Plate region, where the dissensions of 
Spaniards and Portuguese afforded another opening, English 
traders smuggled. The Spaniards, with monstrous fatuity, 
refused to make use of the superb waterways provided by 
the Parana and Paraguay, and endeavoured to stifle all trade. 
England's main struggle was with France. It was prolonged 
by her entanglement in European disputes and by political causes, 
by the want of co-operation among the English colonies and their 
jealousy of control by the home government. The organization 
of the French colonies, though industrially ruinous, gave them 



AMERICA 



PLATE I. 



Illustrations representative of the primitive cultures of Central 
America, Mexico and Peru (gg.r.) selected and arranged by Dr 
Walter Lehmann of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. 








FIG. I. Stone Sculpture, from Teo- FIG. 2. View of the Giant Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan. FIG. 3. Alabaster Vessel, with carved 
tihuacan, Mexico. Prae-Mexican Plateau region, Mexico. Prae-Mexican culture (? Totonacan). lizard as handle. Teotihuacan, 

culture (? Totonacan). Mexico. Proto-Mexican culture. 





FIG. 6. Sculptured Frieze of the Temple of Xochicalco. Plateau 
region, Mexico. Mexican culture with Mayan influence. 



(Figs. 2 and 6 from photos by Waite, Mexico.) 



FlG. 5. Carved Stone Figure of the god of 
sports and dancing (Xochipilli-Miacuil- 
xochitl, "five flowers"), squatting on 
a stool, decorated with flowers and 
tonallo emblems. Plateau region, Mexico. 
Mexican culture. 





FIG. 7. Stone Tablet in memory of the year 
chicuei-acatl (" 8 reeds "), A. p. 1487, when 
the Great Temple in Mexico was con- 
secrated ; above are the figures of the 
Kings Ticoc and Ahuitzotl, sacrificing, 
with the date of the beginning of the 
rebuilding, chicome-acall (" 7 reeds "), A.D. 
1447. Mexico City. Mexican culture. 



FIG. 8. Leaf 3 of the Tonalamatl, or sacred 
cycle of 260 days, from the Aubin collec- 
tion. Figures of the gods Quetzalcoatl 
and Tepeyollotli. Mexico. Mexican 
culture. 



FIG. 9. Leaf lOof Codex Borbonicus. with 
figure of the god of the underworld 
(Mictlantecutli) as regent of the tenth 
of the 20 sections, each of 13 days, of 
the tonalamatl, which begins with "one 
flint" (ce tecpatl). Mexico. Mexican 
culture. 




FIG. 10. Leaf 54 of Codex Borbonicus B., 
with figures of the ancient moon-god, 
the twelve months, and the rabbit as 
the animal moon -emblem. Mexico. 
Mexican culture. 



1.808. 



(Figs. 8-10 from the publications of the duke of Loubat.) 



PLAIE II. 



AMERICA . 




FIG. I. Male Clay Figure, 
holding weapon (?). 
From near Tzintzun- 
tzan, Michoacan, 
Mexico. (?) Tarascan 
culture. 





FIG. 2. -View of the Ruins of the Pyramid Temple of Papantla, 
near Vera Cruz, Mexico. Totonacan culture. 



FIG. 3. Hump-Backed Clay 
Figure, standing on a fish ; 
a reed staff in one hand, 
and incised lines on face. 
From Tzintzuntzan. (?) 
Tarascan culture. 




FlG. 4. Human Figure, with 
a rattle-stick in the right 
hand. From near Alva- 
rado, Vera Cruz, Mexico. 
Totonacan culture. 




. 5- Stone Carving, deeply 
undercut, of the so-called 
Palma type. From Coatepec, 
Canton Falapa, Vera Cruz, 
Mexico. Totonacan culture. 





FIG. 6. Similar Carving, with 
human figure. From Coate- 
pec. Totonacan culture. 



FIG. 7. Stone Yoke, carved in the 
so-called frog-type. Vera Cruz, 
Mexico. Totonacan culture. 




FIG. 8. Crucified Figure, 
pkrced with arrows, of 
the victim at the festival 
of the god Xipe (Mexi- 
can Tlacaxipenaliztli), 
with the symbols of the 
god. Culture of the 
Mayan transitional 
peoples of the Atlantic 
coast of the Gulf of 
Mexico. Totonacan 
culture. 




FIG. 9. Temple 
Chambers, with 
stone pillars, 
from the ruins of 
M i 1 1 a , Oaxaca, 
with wall mosaic 
of joined stones. 
Zapotecan cul- 
ture with proto- 
Mexican influ- 
ence. 




FIG. 10. Wall Mosaic of 
joined Stone from the 
ruins of Mitla. Zapote- 
can culture with proto- 
Mexican influence. 

Figs. 2, 9 and 10 are 
from photos by Waite, 
Mexico; Fig. 8, from the 
Codex Nuttall, publications 
of the Peabody Museum. 



HISTORY] 



AMERICA 



809 



the command of more available military forces than were at 
the disposal of the English. Thus the fight dragged on, and was 
constantly maintained in Acadia, where the sovereignty had been 
early disputed, and the border never properly settled. At last, 
when under the leadership of the elder Pitt (see CHATHAM, EARL 
OF) England set to work resolutely to force a final settlement, 
the end came. The British navy cut off the French from all help 
from home, and after a gallant struggle, their dominion in Canada 
was conquered, and the French retired from the North American 
continent. They surrendered Louisiana to Spain, which had 
suffered much in an attempt to help them, and their possessions 
in America were reduced to their islands in the West Indies 
and French Guiana. 

The fall of the French dominion on the continent of North 
America was practically the beginning of the existence of 
independent nations of European origin in the New World. The 
causes which led to the revolt of the Plantations, the political and 
military history of the War of Independence, are dealt with under 
the heading of UNITED STATES (History) and AMERICAN WAR OF 
INDEPENDENCE. The significance of these great events in the 
general history of America is that from 1783 onwards there was, 
in the New World, an autonomous community not wholly unified 
at once, nor without strife, but self-governing and self-subsisting, 
in entire separation from European control. Such a polity, sur- 
rounded as it was by territory dependent on European sovereigns, 
could not be without a profound influence on its neighbours. Of 
deliberate direct action there was not much, nor was it needed. 
The peoples of the thirteen states which had secured emancipation 
from British sovereignty were wisely intent on framing their own 
Federal Union, and in taking effective possession of the vast terri- 
tories in the Ohio region and beyond the Mississippi. But their 
example worked. Their independence tempted, their prosperity 
stimulated. From the freedom of the United States came the 
revolt of Spanish America, and the grant by Great Britain to 
Canada of the amplest rights of self-government. 

The effect which the establishment of the great northern re- 
public was bound to have on their own colonies was not unknown 
to the wiser among the rulers of Spain. They took, however, few 
and weak steps to counteract the visible peril. During the later 
1 7th century and the whole of the i8th, the history of the Spanish 
colonies and of the Portuguese in Brazil, was not, as has often 
been said, one of pure stagnation. Apart from such a peculiar 
development as the rise, formation and fall of the Jesuit missions 
in Paraguay, there was growth and change. The Creole popula- 
tion increased and was steadily recruited from home. Apart from 
settlers who came for trade, the flow of government officials, and 
soldiers, both officers and men, ended generally in recruiting the 
Creole element. The newcomers married in the country, and died 
there, leaving their families to grow up Americans. San Martin, 
the military leader of Buenos Aires in the revolt, was the son of a 
Spanish army officer and a Creole mother, and he is quoted as the 
example of thousands. He was educated in Spain, and began as 
an officer in the Spanish army. Increasing numbers of Creoles 
came home for education, and though they rarely went beyond 
Spain, yet Spain itself was being permeated by the influence of 
French philosophic and economic writers. The Creoles brought 
back new ideas. Slow as the Spanish government was to move, 
and obstinately as it clung to old ways, it was forced to remove 
restrictions on trade, largely by the discovery that it could not 
prevent smuggling, which was, in fact, carried on with the con- 
nivance of its own corrupt officials. The attempt to prevent all 
trade on the river Plate was given up, and a vigorous commercial 
community arose. A revolt of the Indians in Peru in 1 780, which 
was savagely suppressed, forced the government to take note 
of the abuses of its colonial administration. Many reforms were 
introduced. Spanish America was never so well governed as at 
the end of the i8th century, and was on the whole prosperous. 
But the reforms and concessions of Spain came too late. In 
commerce it had to compete with the highly developed maritime 
industry of Great Britain. In government it had to meet with the 
growing discontent of the Creoles, who found themselves treated 
as children, and their country looked on as a milch cow. The 



wars of the French Revolution and of the emperor Napoleon, in 
which Spain was entangled, interrupted its communications with 
its colonies, and weakened its hold on them. The defeat, in 1806 
and 1807, of two British expeditions to Buenos Aires and Monte- 
video, resulting in the capitulation of the English force, gave a 
great impulse to the self-reliance of the colonists, to whom the 
credit of the victory entirely belonged. When the intervention 
of Napoleon in Spain plunged the mother country into anarchy, 
the colonists began to act for themselves. They were still loyal, 
but they were no longer passive. The brutality of some Spanish 
governors on the spot provoked anger. v JThe cortes assembled in 
Cadiz, being under the influence of the merchants and mob, could 
make no concessions, and all Spanish America flamed into revolt. 
For the details of the struggle the reader must refer to the articles 
ARGENTINA, BOLIVIA, CHILE, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR, PANAMA, 
PERU, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, VENEZUELA. Brazil followed the 
same course in a milder way and a little later. The struggle of 
Spanish America for independence lasted from 1810 to 1826. 

This vast extension of the area of independence in America 
could not but have its proportionate effect on the general balance 
of power among nations. So long as Spain retained her colonies 
on the mainland, while England held Canada, and the English, 
Dutch and French had possessions in Guiana, the New World must 
have remained in political dependence on the Old. When the 
Spanish colonies secured effective independence, and even before 
their freedom was formally recognized, foreign sovereignty became 
at once the exception in America. The change thus established 
de facto owed its first diplomatic consecration to the develop- 
ments of international politics in the Old World. The committee 
of the great powers which, since the downfall of Napoleon, had 
succeeded to the authority which he had usurped in Europe (see 
EUROPE: History), was for the few years of its unbroken exist- 
ence fully occupied with the task of preserving the " European 
Confederation " from the peril to its peace of renewed revolution- 
aryoutbreaks. As early as the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), 
however, the question of the relations of Spain and her colonies 
had been brought up and the suggestion made of concerted inter- 
vention, to put an end to a state of things scandalous in itself 
and dangerous, if only by force of example, to the monarchical 
principle. The proposal came to nothing, and fared no better 
when revived at subsequent conferences, owing to the opposition 
of Great Britain and of Spain herself. Spanish pride resented the 
interference of an alliance in which Spain had no part; Great 
Britain could not afford to allow any action to be taken which 
might end in the re-establishment of the old Spanish colonial 
system and the destruction of the considerable British trade, still 
nominally contraband, which had grown up with the colonies 
during the troubles. Had the Spanish government frankly 
accepted the situation and acknowledged the trade as legitimate, 
England would have had no objection to the re-establishment of 
the Spanish sovereignty in America. But the stubborn blindness 
of Ferdinand VII. and his ministers made any such solution 
impossible, and, before the meeting of the congress of Verona, in 
1822, Castlereagh had realized the eventual necessity of recogniz- 
ing the independence of the South American states. Matters 
were brought to a crisis by the outcome of the Verona conferences 
(see VERONA, CONGRESS OF), and the re-establishment, in 1823, of 
the absolute power of the king in Spain by French arms and under 
French influence, the logical consequence of which seemed to be 
the reconquest, with the aid of France, of the Spanish colonies. 
Great Britain could not afford to stand aside and watch the 
accomplishment of an ambition to prevent which she had, at 
immense sacrifice of blood and treasure, overthrown .the power 
of Louis XIV. and of Napoleon. She had exhausted every art 
of diplomatic obstruction to the aggressive action of France; 
her counterstroke to the unexpectedly easy victory of the 
French arms was the formal recognition of the revolted colonies 
as independent states. " If France has Spain," cried Canning in 
parliament, " at least it shall be Spain without the Indies. We 
have called a New World into existence to redress the balance of 
the Old." 

On the 23rd of July 1824, a commercial treaty was signed 



8io 



AMERICA 



[ETHNOLOGY 



between Great Britain and Brazil; Colombia and Mexico were 
acknowledged in December of the same year; and the recognition 
of the other states followed, as each was able to give guarantees 
of stable government. Meanwhile the United States, acting in 
harmony, but not in formal co-operation, with England, had taken 
decisive action. President Monroe, in his message to Congress on 
the and of December 1823, laid down the rule that no part of 
America was any longer res nullius, or open to colonial settlement. 
Though the vast ultimate consequences of this sudden appearance 
of the great western republic in the arena of international politics 
were not realized even by those in sympathy with Monroe's action, 
the weight of the United States thrown into the scale on the side of 
Great Britain made any effective protest by the European powers 
impossible; Russia, Austria and Prussia contented themselves 
with joining in a mild expression of regret that the action of Great 
Britain " tended to encourage that revolutionary spirit it had 
been found so difficult to control in Europe." Great Britain and 
the United States were, indeed, not in complete agreement as to 
the legitimacy of fresh colonial settlements in the New World, but 
they were practically resolved that nobody should make any new 
settlements except themselves. From President Monroe's de- 
claration has grown up what is now known as the Monroe Doctrine 
(q.v.), which, in substance, insists that America forms a separate 
system apart from Europe, wherein still existing European 
possessions may be tolerated, but on the understanding that no 
extension of them, and no establishment of European control 
over a nominally independent American state, will be allowed. 

The Monroe Doctrine is indeed the recognition, rather than 
the cause, of undeniable fact. Europe is still possessed of some 
measure of sovereign power in the New World, in Canada, in 
Guiana and in the West Indian islands. But Canada is bound 
only by a voluntary allegiance, Guiana is unimportant, and in the 
West Indian islands, where the independence of Hay ti and the loss 
of Cuba and Porto Rico by Spain have diminished the European 
sphere, European dominion is only a survival of the colonial epoch. 
America, North and South, does form a separate system. Within 
that system power is divided as it has not been in Europe since 
the fall of the Roman empire. On the one hand are the United 
States and Canada. On the other are all the states formed out of 
the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal. The states of the 
American Union are non-tropical, adapted to the development of 
European races, not mixed with Indian blood, and possessed 
by long inheritance of the machinery needed for the successful 
conduct of self-government. They grew during the i pth century in 
population and wealth at a rate that placed them far ahead of the 
Spanish and Portuguese states, which in the year 1800 were the 
richer and the more populous. ' The Spanish and Portuguese 
states of America are mainly tropical, and therefore ill adapted to 
the health of a white race. Their population is divided between a 
white minority, among whom there are to be found strains of 
Indian blood, and a coloured majority, sometimes docile and in- 
dustrious, sometimes mere savages. They inherited no machinery 
of self-government. Townships governed by close corporations, 
and all embedded in the despotic power of the crown, presented 
none of the elements out of which a commonwealth could be 
formed. It was inevitable that in the early stages of their history, 
the so-called Latin communities should fall under the control of 
" the single person," and no less inevitable that he should be a 
soldier. The sword and military discipline supplied the only 
effective instruments of government. It would have been a 
miracle if the first generation of Mexican and South American 
history had not been anarchical. And though in recent years 
Spanish America has seemingly settled down, and republican 
institutions have followed upon long periods of continual 
revolution, yet over the American continent as a whole there is 
an overwhelming predominance, material and intellectual, of the 
communities of English speech and politically of English origin. 

AUTHORITIES. Separate bibliographies will be found under the 
headings of the separate states. Amid the plethora of books, the 
reader cannot dp better than consult the Narrative and Critical 
History of America, edited by Justin Winsor (1886-1889), in eight 
large octavo volumes, in which all the chapters are supplied with 
copious and carefully compiled bibliographies. (D. H.) 



III. Ethnology and Archaeology. A summary account is here 
given of the American aborigines, who are discussed in more 
detail under INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN. Whether 
with Payne it is assumed that in some remote time a Tbe 
speechless anthropoid passed over a land bridge, now 
the Bering Sea, which then sank behind him; or with 
W. Boyd Dawkins and Brinton, that the French cave man came 
hither by way of Iceland; or with Keane, that two subvarieties, 
the long-headed Eskimo-Botocudo type and the Mexican round- 
headed type, prior to all cultural developments, reached the New 
World, one by Iceland, the other by Bering Sea; or that Malayoid 
wanderers were stranded on the coast of South America; or that 
no breach of continuity has occurred since first the march of 
tribes began this way ethnologists agree that the aborigines of 
the western came from the eastern hemisphere,and there is lacking 
any biological evidence of Caucasoid or Negroid blood flowing in 
the veins of Americans before the invasions of historic times. 
The time question is one of geology. 

Following Notes and Queries on Anthropology, published by the 
British Association for the Advancement of Science, the study of 
the American aborigines divides itself into two parts: that re- 
lating to their biology, and that relating to their culture. In the 
four subdivisions of humanity based on the hair, the Americans 
are straight-haired or Mongoloid. But it will free this account of 
them from embarrassments if they be looked upon as a distinct 
subspecies of Homo sapiens. Occupying 135 degrees of latitude, 
living on the shores of frozen or of tropical waters; at altitudes 
varying from sea-level to several thousands of feet; in forests, 
grassy prairies or deserts; here starved, there in plenty; with a 
night here of six months' duration, there twelve hours long; here 
among health-giving winds, and there cursed with malaria this 
brown man became, in different culture provinces, brunette or 
black, tall or short, long-headed or short-headed, and developed 
on his own hemisphere variations from an average type. 

Since the tribes practised far more in-breeding than out-breed- 
ing, the tendency was toward forming not only verbal linguistic 
groups, but biological varieties; the weaker the tribe, the fewer 
the captures, the greater the isolation and harder the conditions 
producing dolichocephaly, dwarfism and other retrogressive 
characteristics. The student will find differences among anthro- 
pologists in the interpretation of these marks some averring that 
comparative anatomy is worthless as a means of subdividing the 
American subspecies, others that biological variations point to 
different Old World origins, a third class believing these structural 
variations to be of the soil. The high cheek-bone and the hawk's- 
bill nose are universally distributed in the two Americas; so also 
are proportions between parts of the body, and the frequency of 
certain abnormalities of the skull, the hyoid bone, the humerus 
and the tibia. Viability, by which are meant fecundity, longevity 
and vigour, was low in average. The death-rate was high, through 
lack of proper weaning foods, and hard life. The readiness with 
which the American Indian succumbed to disease is well known. 
For these reasons there was not, outside of southern Mexico, 
northern Central America and Peru, a dense population. In the 
whole hemisphere there were not over ten million souls. 

The materials for studying the American man biologically are 
abundant in the United States National Museum in Washington; 
the Peabody Museum, at Cambridge, Massachusetts ; the American 
Museum of Natural History, New York; the Academy of 
Sciences and the Free Museum of Arts and Sciences, Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania; the Field Museum in Chicago; the National 
Museum, city of Mexico, and the Museum of La Plata. In 
Europe there are excellent collections in London, Cambridge, 
Paris, Berlin, St Petersburg and Prague. 

Professor Putnam measured for the World's Columbian Ex- 
position 1700 living Indians, and the results have been summed 
up by Boas. The breadth of the Indian face is one centimetre 
more than that of the whites, and the half-breeds are nearer the 
Indian standard; this last is true also of colour in the skin, eyes 
and hair. In stature, the tall tribes exceed 170 cm.; middle 
stature ranges between 166 and 170; and short tribes are under 
166 cm. The Indians are on the whole a tall people. Tribes that 



ETHNOLOGY] 



AMERICA 



811 



have changed residence have changed stature. The tallest 
statures are on the plains in both Americas. The mountains of 
the south-east and of the west reveal the shortest statures. The 
whole Mississippi valley was occupied by tall peoples. The 
Athapascans of New Mexico are of middle stature, the Pueblo 
peoples are short. The Shoshoni, Shahaptin and Salish tribes are 
of middle stature; on the coast of British Columbia, Puget 
Sound, in Oregon, and northern California, are the shortest of 
all the North Americans save the Eskimo, while among them, 
on the Columbia, are taller tribes. The comparison of cranial 
indexes is rendered difficult by intentional flattening of the 
forehead and undesigned flattening of the occiput by the hard 
cradle-board. The Mississippi valley tribes are nearly brachy- 
cephalic; the index increases arourid the Great Lakes, and lessens 
farther east. The eastern Eskimo are dolichocephalic, the western 
are less so, and the Aleuts brachycephalic. On the North Pacific 
coast, and in spots down to the Rio Grande, are short heads, but 
scattered among these are long heads, frequent in southern 
California, but seen northward to Oregon, as well as in Sonora 
and some Rio Grande pueblos. 

The same variety of index exists in South America. In the 
regions of greatest linguistic mixture is the greatest heterogeneity 
of cephalic index. 

The concepts on which the peoples of the Old World have been 
classified, such as stature, colour, skeletal measurements, nation- 
ality, and so on, cannot as yet be used in America with 

Classifies- " ~, ...... .. , . 

Uon _ success. The only basis of division practicable is 

language, which must be kept separate in the mind 
from the others. However, before the conquest, in no other part 
of the globe did language tally so nearly with kinship. Marriage 
was exogamic among clans in a tribe, but practically, though not 
wholly, endogamic as between tribes, wife and slave capture being 
common in places. In his family tree of HomoAmericanus Keane 
follows out such a plan, placing the chief linguistic family names 
on the main limbs, North American on one side, and South 
American on the other. Deniker groups mankind into twenty- 
nine races and sub-races. Americans are numbered thus: 
21, South American sub-race; Palaeo- Americans and South 
Americans. 22, North American sub-race; tall, mesocephalic. 
23, Central American race; short, brachycephalic. 24, Pata- 
gonian race; tall, brachycephalic. 25, Eskimo race; short, 
dolichocephalic. 

Farrand speaks of physical, linguistic, geographic, and cultural 
criteria, the first two the more exact, the latter more convenient 
and sometimes the only feasible bases. 

Zoologists divide the earth into biological areas or regions, so 
both archaeologists and ethnologists may find it convenient to 
have in mind some such scheme of provinces as the 
provinces, following, named partly after the dominant ethnic 
groups: Eskimo, on Arctic shores; Dene (Tinneh), 
in north-western Canada; Algonquin-Iroquois, Canada and 
eastern United States; Sioux, plains of the west; Muskhogee, 
Gulf States; Tlinkit-Haida, North Pacific coast; Salish-Chinook, 
Fraser-Columbia coasts and basins; Shoshoni, interior basin; 
California-Oregon, mixed tribes; Pueblo province, south- 
western United States and northern Mexico; Nahuatla-Maya, 
southern Mexico and Central America; Chibcha-Kechua, the 
Cordilleras of South America; Carib-Arawak, about Caribbean 
Sea; Tupi-Guarani, Amazon drainage; Araucanian, Pampas; 
Patagonian, peninsula; Fuegian, Magellan Strait. It is neces- 
sary to use geographical terms in the case of California and the 
North Pacific, the Caucasus or cloaca gentium of the western 
hemisphere, where were pocketed forty out of one hundred or 
more families of native tribes. The same is true in a limited 
sense of Matto Grosso. That these areas had deep significance 
for the native races is shown by the results, both in biology and 
culture. The presence or absence of useful minerals, plants and 
animals rendered some congenial, others unfriendly; some areas 
were the patrons of virile occupations, others of feminine pursuits. 

Among the languages of America great differences exist in the 
sounds used. A collection of all the phonetic elements exhausts 
the standard alphabets and calls for new letters. A comparison 



of one family with another shows also that some are vocalic and 
soft, others wide in the range of sounds, while a third set are 
harsh and guttural, the speaking of them (according Laagaage 
to Payne) resembling coughing, barking and sneezing. 
Powell also thinks that man lived in America before he acquired 
articulate speech. The j utterance of these speech elements in 
definite order constitutes the roots and sentences of the various 
tongues. From the manner of assemblage, all American languages 
are agglutinative, or holophrastic, but they should not be called 
polysynthetic or incorporative or inflexional. They were more 
or less on the way to such organized forms, in which the world's 
literatures are preserved. As in all other languages, so in those of 
aboriginal America, the sentence is the unit. Words and phrases 
are the organic parts of the sentence, on which, therefore, the 
languages are classified. It is on this basis of sentential elements 
that Powell has arranged the linguistic families of North 
America. He has brought together, in the Bureau of American 
Ethnology in Washington, many hundreds of manuscripts, 
written by travellers, traders, missionaries, and scholars; and, 
better still, in response to circulars, carefully prepared vocabu- 
laries, texts and long native stories have been written out by 
trained collectors. A corps of specialists Boas, Ball, Dorsey, 
Gatschet, Hewitt, Mooney, Pilling, J. R. Swanton have studied 
many of these languages analytically and comparatively. Other 
institutional investigations have been prosecuted, the result of all 
which will be an intelligent comprehension of the philology of a 
primitive race. 

Attention is frequently called to the large number of linguistic 
families in America, nearly 200 having been named, embracing 
over 1000 languages and dialects. A few of them, how- 
ever, occupied the greater part of lands both north 
and south of Panama; the others were encysted in the 
territory of the prevailing families, or concealed in culs-de-sac of 
the mountains. They are, through poverty of material, unclassed 
languages, merely outstanding phenomena. Factions separated 
from the parent body developed dialects or languages by contact, 
intermarriage and incorporation with foreign tribes. To the old- 
time belief that languages multiplied by splitting and colonizing, 
must be added the theory that languages were formerly more 
numerous, and that those of the Americans were formed by com- 
bining. 

The families of North America, Middle America and South 
America are here given in alphabetical order, the prevailing ones 
in small capitals: 

ALGONQUIN, E. Can., N. Atlantic States, middle States, middle 
western States; ATHAPASCAN, N.W. Can., Alaska, Wash., Or., 
Cal., Ariz., Mex. ; Attacapan, La.; Beothukan, Nova North 
Scotia; CADDOAN, Tex., Neb., Dak.; Chimakuan, Wash.; America 
Chimarikan, N. Cal.; CHIMMESYAN, Brit^Col. ; CHINOO- 
KAN, Or.; Chitimachan, La.; Chumashan, S. Cal.; Coahuiltecan, 
Tex.; Copehan, N. Cal.; Costanoan, Cal.; ESKIMAUAN, Arctic 
province; Esselenian, Cal.; IROQUOIAN, N.Y., N.C.; Kalapooian, 
Or.; Karankawan, Tex.; KERESAN, N. Mex.; KIOWAN, Neb.; 
KITUNAHAN, Brit. Col. ; KOLUSCHAN, S. Alaska; KULANAPAN, Cal. ; 
Kusan, Cal.; Lutuamian, Or.; Mariposan, Ca!.; Moquelumnan, 
Cal.; MUSKHOGEAN, Gulf States; NATCHESAN, Miss.; Palaihnihan, 
Cal.; PIMAN, Ariz.; Pujunan, Cal.; Quoratean, Or.; Salinan, 
Cal.; SALISHAN, Brit. Col.; Sastean, Or.; SHAHAPTIAN, Or.; 
SHOSHONEAN, Interior Basin; SIOUAN, Mo. Valley; SKITTAGETAN, 
Brit. Col.; Takilman, Or.; TANYOAN, Mex.; Timuquanan, Fla. ; 
Tonikan, Miss.; Tonkawan, Tex.; Uchean, Ga. ; Waiilatpuan, 
Or.; WAKASHAN, Vancouver I.; Washoan, Nev. ; Weitspekan, Or.; 
Wishoskan, Cal. ; Yakonan, Or. ; Yanan, Or. ; Yukian, Cal. ; Yuman, 
L. Cal. ; ZUNYAN, N. Mex. 

CHAPANECAN, Chi.; Chinantecan, Oax. ; Chontalan, S. Mex.; 
Huatusan, Nic. ; Huavean, Tehuant.; Lencan, Hon.; MAYAN, Yuc. 
and Guat. ; NAHUATLAN, Mex. ; OTOMITLAN, Cen. Mex. ; Middle 
Raman, Hond. ; Serian, Tiburon I.; Subtiaban, Nic.; America. 
TARASCAN, Mich.; Tehuantepecan, Isthmus; Tequist- 
latecan, Oax.; TOTONACAN, Mex.; Triquian, S. Mex.; Ulvan, 
Nic.; Xicaquean, Hond.; ZAPOTECAN, Oax.; ZOQUEAN, Tehuant. 

Alikulufan, T. del Fuego; Arauan, R. Purus; ARAWAKIAN, E. 
Andes; Atacamenyan, S. Peru; ARAUCANIAN, Pampas; AYMARAN, 
Peru; Barbacpan, Colombia; Betoyan, Bogota; Cani- South 
chanan, Bolivia; Carahan, S. Brazil; CARIBIAN, around America. 
Caribbean Sea; Catamarenyan, Chaco; Changuinan, 
Panama; Charruan, Parana R. ; CHIBCHAN, Colombia; Churttyan, 
Orinoco R. ; Coconucan, Colombia; Cunan, Panama; GUAYCURUAN, 



8l2 



AMERICA 



[ARCHAEOLOGY 



Techno- 
logy. 



Paraguay R.; JIVAROAN, Ecuador; KECHUAN, Peru; Laman, 
N.E. Peru; Lulean, Vermejo R. ; Mainan, S. Ecuador; Matacoan, 
Vermejo R. ; Mocoan, Colombia; Mosetenan, E. Bolivia; ONAN, 
T. del Fuego ; Paniquitan, Colombia ; Panoan, Ucayali R. , Peru ; 
Payaguan, Chaco; Puquinan, Titicaca L. ; Samucan, Bolivia; 
Tacanan, N. Bolivia; TAPUYAN, Brazil; Timotean, Venezuela; 
TUPIAN, Amazon R. ; TZONEC AN, Patagonia; YAHGAN.T. del Fuego; 
Yuncan, Truxillo, Peru; Yurucarian, E. Bolivia; ZAPAROAN, 
Ecuador. 

Written language was largely hierographic and heroic. The 
drama, the cult image, the pictograph, the synecdochic picture, 
the ideaglyph, were steps in a progress without a break. The 
warrior painted the story of conflicts on his robe only in part, to 
help him recount the history of his life; the Eskimo etched the 
prompters of his legend on ivory; the Tlinkit carved them on his 
totem post; the women fixed them in pottery, basketry, or 
blankets. At last, the central advanced tribes made the names 
of the abbreviated pictures useful in other connexions, and were 
far on the way to a syllabary. Intertribal communication was 
through gestures; it may be, survivals of a primordial speech, 
antedating the differentiated spoken languages. See publications 
of the Bureau of American Ethnology, by F. W. Hodge (1906); 
Farrand, Basis of Am. History, chap, xviii.; and Orozco y Berra, 
Geografia de las lenguas, 6*c. (Mexico, 1868). 

To supply their wants the Americans invented modifications 
in natural materials, the working of which was their industries. 

The vast collections in richly endowed European and 

American museums are the witnesses and types of these. 

There is danger of confounding the products of native 
industries. The following classes must be carefully discrimin- 
ated: (a) pre-Columbian, (6) Columbian, (c) pre-contact, (d) first 
contact, (e) post-contact, (/) present, and (g) spurious. Pre- 
Columbian or pre-historic material is further classified into that 
which had been used by Indians before the discovery, and such as 
is claimed to be of a prior geological period. Columbian, or 1 5th- 
century material, still exists in museums of Europe and America, 
and good descriptions are to be found in the writings of contem- 
porary historians. Pre-contact material is such as continued to 
exist in any tribe down to the time when they were touched by 
the presence of the trade of the whites. In some tribes this would 
bring the student very near to the present time; for example, 
before Steinen, the Indians in Matto Grosso were in the pre- 
contact period. Post-contact material is genuine Indian work 
more or less influenced by acculturation. It is interesting in this 
connexion to study also first contact in its lists of articles, and 
the effects produced upon aboriginal minds and methods. For 
example, a tribe that would jump at iron arrow-heads stoutly 
declined to modify the shafts. Present material is such as the 
Indian tribes of the two Americas are making to-day. Spurious 
material includes all that mass of objects made by whites and sold 
as of Indian manufacture; some of it follows native models and 
methods; the rest is fraudulent and pernicious. The question 
whether similarities in technology argue for contact of tribes, or 
whether they merely show corresponding states of culture, with 
modifications produced by environment, divides ethnologists. 
(See Farrand, chap, xviii.) 

The study of mechanics involves materials, tools, processes and 
products. No iron tools existed in America before the invasion of 

the whites. Mineral, vegetable and animal substances, 
mechanics. so ^ an( ^ hard, were wrought into the supply of wants 

by means of tools and apparatus of stone, wood and 
bone tools for cutting, or edged tools; tools for abrading and 
smoothing the surfaces of substances, like planes, rasps and sand- 
paper; tools for striking, that is, pounding for the sake of pound- 
ing, or for crushing and fracturing violently; perforating tools; 
devices for grasping and holding firmly. These varied in the 
different culture provinces according to the natural supply, and 
the presence or absence of good tool material counted for as much 
as the presence or absence of good substances on which to work. 
As a means of grading progress among the various tribes, the tool 
is valuable both in its working part and its hafting, or manual 
part. Fire drills were universal. 

Besides chipped stone knives, the teeth of rodents, sharks, and 



other animals served an excellent purpose. In north-west 
America and in the Caribbean area the adze was highly developed. 
In Mexico, Colombia and Peru the cutting of friable stone with 
tough volcanic hammers and chisels, as well as rude metallurgy, 
obtained, but the evidences of smelting are not convincing. 
Engineering devices were almost wanting. The Eskimo lifted his 
weighted boat with sheer-legs made of two paddles; he also had 
a tackle without sheaves, formed by reaving a greased thong 
through slits cut in the hide of a walrus. The north-west coast 
Indians hoisted the logs that formed the plates of their house 
frames into position with skids and parbuckles of rope. The 
architectural Mexicans, Central Americans, and especially the 
Peruvians, had no derricks or other hoisting devices, but rolled 
great stones into place along prepared ways and up inclined planes 
of earth, which were afterwards removed. In building the fortress 
of Sacsahuaman, heights had to be scaled; in Tiahuanaco stones 
weighing 400 tons were carried seventeen miles; in the edifices of 
Ollantaytambo not only were large stones hauled up an ascent, 
but were fitted perfectly. The moving of vast objects by these 
simple processes shows what great numbers of men could be 
enlisted in a single effort, and how high a grade of government it 
was which could hold them together and feed them. In Arizona, 
Mexico and Peru, reservoirs and aqueducts prove that hydro- 
techny was understood. (Hodge, Am. Anthrop. vi. 323.) 

Time-keeping devices were not common. Sun-dials and 
calendar monuments were known among the more advanced 
tribes. Fractional portions of time were gauged by shadows, and 
time of day indicated by the position of the sun with reference to 
natural features. No standards of weighing or measuring were 
known, but the parts of the body were the units, and money con- 
sisted in rare and durable vegetable and animal substances, which 
scarcely reached the dignity of a mechanism of exchange. If the 
interpretation of the Maya calculiform glyphs be trustworthy, 
these people had carried their numeral system into the hundreds 
of thousands and devised symbols for recording such high 
numbers. (See Bulletin 28, Bur. Am. Ethnol.) 

The Americans were, in most places, flesh-eaters. The air, the 
waters and the land were their base of supplies, and cannibalism, 
it is admitted, was widespread. With this animal diet p 00 a 
everywhere vegetable substances were mixed, even in 
the boreal regions. Where the temperature allowed, vegetable 
diet increased, and fruits, seeds and roots were laid under tribute. 
Storage was common, and also the drying of ripened fruits. The 
most favoured areas were those where 1 corn and other plants could 
be artificially produced, and there barbaric cultures were elabor- 
ated. This farming was of the rudest kind. Plots of ground 
were burned over, trees were girdled, and seeds were planted by 
means of sharpened sticks. The first year the crop would be free 
from weeds, the second year only those grew whose seeds were 
wafted or carried by birds, the third year the crop required hoeing, 
which was done with sticks, and then the space was abandoned 
for new ground. Irrigation and terrace culture were practised 
at several points on the Pacific slope from Arizona to Peru. The 
steps along which plant and animal domestication passed up- 
wards in artificiality are graphically illustrated in the aboriginal 
food quest. 

Except in the boreal areas the breech-clout was nearly universal 
with men, and the cincture or short petticoat with women. Even 
in Mexican and Mayan sculptures the gods are arrayed 
in gorgeous breech-clouts. The foot-gear in the tropics a ada^ora- 
was the sandal, and, passing northward, the moccasin, meat. 
becoming the long boot in the Arctic. Trousers and the 
blouse were known only among the Eskimo, and it is difficult to 
say how much these have been modified by contact. Leggings 
and skin robes took their place southward, giving way at last to 
the nearly nude. Head coverings also were gradually tabooed 
south of the 4pth parallel. Tattooing and painting the body were 
well-nigh universal. Labrets, i.e. pieces of bone, stone, shell, &c., 
were worn as ornaments in the lip (Latin, labrum) or cheek by 
Eskimo, Tlinkit, Nahuatlas and tribes on the Brazilian coast. 
For ceremonial purposes all American tribes were expert in the 
masquerade and dramatic apparel. A study of these in the 



AMERICA 



PLATE III. 








Pliolo, Watte, Mexico. 

FIG. 2. General View of the Ruins of Monte Alban, 
Oaxaca, with terraced pyramids. Zapotecan 
culture. 






FIG. I. Stone Tablet with 
seated figures, and charac- 
teristic hieroglyphs (un- 
deciphcred). From Monte 
Alban, Oaxaca. Zapotecan 
culture. 






FIG. 3. Sepulchral Clay Urn, 
with beast mask and rich 
head ornament. Oaxaca. 
Zapotecan culture. 



FIG. 5. Leaf 44 of Codex Fejenidry- 
Mayer. Figure of the god Tex- 
catlipoca, surrounded by the 20 
day symbols of the sacred cycle of 
260 days, tonalamatl. Mexican 
culture with Mayan influence. 
(From publications o/ the Duke of Loubat.) 



FlG. 4. Sepulchral Clay Urn, in the 
form of a jaguar-like human figure, 
with shell ornament and loin-cloth. 
Oaxaca. Zapotecan culture. 






FIG. 6. Temple Chamber, with 
richly carved wall facing 
and hieroglyph groups 
beneath the plinth. Copan, 
Honduras. Mayan culture. 



FIG. 7. Temple Pyramid, with sculptured corner- 
stone at base. Copan, Honduras. Mayan 
culture. 




FlG. 8. Stone Stele, with richly dec- 
orated human figure, the hands 
meetingacrossthebreast. Copan, 
Honduras. Mayan culture. 



FIG. 9. Stone Figure of the so-called Chac-Mol 
type, with round vessel resting on the body 
and characteristic breastplate. Chi-chen-itza, 
Yucatan. Proto-Mexican culture. 




FIG. 10. Stone Stele, 
with human figure. 
Chiapas, Mexico. 
Mayan culture. 



I. 812. 



PLAIE IV 



AMERICA 




FIG. I .Polychrome Clay 
Bowl, with incised curves 
and figure of the earth 
monster. Necropolis of 
Santa Barbara, Guana- 
caste, Costa Rica. Mexi- 
can culture. 






FIG. 3. Polychrome Clay Bowl, 
with maeander border and 
stencilled figures in three 
fields. Santa Barbara Necro- 
polis. Guanacaste. Choro- 
tsga culture. 



FIG. 2. Stone Relief, with figure of a peni- 
tent (faca-quixtiani) passing through 
his tongue a thong studded with thorns. 
It is accompanied by two groups of 
hieroglyphs. Lorillard City, Chiapas, 
Mexico. Mayan culture. 



FIG. 4. Lower Portion of 
Leaf 60 of Codex Dresdensis, 
with figures of four deities 
and groups of hieroglyphs 
on Agave paper. Mayan 
culture. 
From E. Farstenann, 1892. 






FIG. 5. Gold Breast Ornament 
from the grave of a chief, in 
the form of a crocodile with 
three reptiles on each side. 
S. E. Costa Rica (El General), 
Central America. Culture of 
the Goto and Quepo. 



FlG. 6. Two Typical Stone .Sculptures in the 
form of human heads, with characteristic 
ornaments. Interior of Costa Rica, Central 
America. Culture of the Guetar. 




FIG. 7. Large Gold Human Figure, 
with a gold coco-flask in each 
hand ; gold diadem, nose and ear 
ornaments, and chains on neck 
and legs. Antioquia, Colombia. 
Chibcha culture. 



FIG. 8. Stone Vessel supported by prone 
Human Figure. Interior of Costa Rica, 
Central America. Culture of the Guetar. 




FlG. 9. Painted Clay Vessel in poly- 
chrome, with neck in form of a 
human face with tear marks. 
Beneath a stencilled bird resem- 
bling a condor. Tiahuanaco 
style. Pachacamac, Peru. Pre- 
Inca culture. 




FIG. 10. Painted Clay Vessel in 
polychrome on white stucco 
ground. A human figure with 
pearl chain and arrows in left 
hand, and parrot on a wooden 
stick in the right. Nasca style. 
Nasca, Peru. Pre-Inca culture. 




FIG. ii. Typical painted Clay 
Vessel, with geometric pattern, 
standing on a conical point. 
Cuzco style. Cuzco, Peru. 



ARCHAEOLOGY] 



AMERICA 



813 



HabUa- 

(/on. 



historic tribes makes plain the motives in gorgeous Mexican 
sculptures. 

The tribal system of family organization, universal in America, 
dominated the dwelling. The Eskimo underground houses of sod 
and snow, the Dene (Tinneh) and Sioux bunch of bark 
or skin wigwams, the Pawnee earth lodge, the Iroquois 
long house, the Tlinkit great plank house, the Pueblo 
with its honeycomb of chambers, the small groups of thatched 
houses in tropical America and the Patagonian toldos of skin are 
examples. The Indian habitation was made up of this composite 
abode, with whatever out-structures and garden plots were 
needed. A group of abodes, however joined together, constituted 
the village or home of the tribe, and there was added to these a 
town hall or large assembly structure where men gathered and 
gossiped, and where all dramatic and religious ceremonies were 
held. Powell contends that in a proper sense none of the Indian 
tribes was nomadic, but that, governed by water-supply, bad 
seasons and superstition (and discomfort from vermin must be 
added), even the Pueblo tribes often tore down and rebuilt their 
domiciles. The fur trade, the horse, the gun, disturbed the sedent- 
ary habit of American tribes. Little attention was paid to furni- 
ture. In the smoke-infested wigwam and hut the ground was the 
best place for sitting or sleeping. The communal houses of the 
Pacific coast had bunks. The hammock was universal in the 
tropics, and chairs of wood or stone. Eating was from the pot, 
with the hand or spoon. Tables, knives, forks and other prandial 
apparatus were as lacking as they were in the palaces of kings a 
few centuries before. (Morgan, Houses and House Life', Farrand, 
p. 286.) 

Stone- working was universal in America. The tribes quarried 
by means of crowbars and picks of wood and bone. They split 
the silicious rocks with stonehammers,and then chipped 
working them into shape with bone tools. Soapstone for pot- 
tery was partly cut into the desired shape in the native 
ledge, broken or prised -loose, and afterwards scraped into form. 
Paint was excavated with the ubiquitous digging-stick, and 
rubbed fine on stones with water or grease. For polished stone- 
work the material was pecked by blows, ground with other stones, 
and smoothed with fine material. Sawing was done by means of 
sand or with a thin piece of harder stuff. Boring was effected with 
the sand-drill; the hardest rocks may have been pierced with 
specially hard sand. At any rate stones were sawed, shaped, 
polished, carved and perforated, not only by the Mexicans, but 
among other tribes. For building purposes stones were got out, 
dressed, carved and sculptured with stone hammers and chisels 
made of hard and tenacious rock. Stone-cutters' tools of metal 
are not known to have existed, and they were not needed. Their 
quarrying and stone- working were most wasteful. Those localities 
where chipping was done reveal hundreds of tons of splinters and 
failures, and these are often counted as ruder implements of an 
earlier time. The dressed stones for great buildings were pecked 
out of the ledges, and broken off with levers in pieces much too 
large for their needs. (McGuire, " The Stone Hammer," Am. 
Anthrop. iv., 1891; Holmes, Archaeological Studies; see Hodge's 
List, Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1906, and Handbook.) 

Metals were treated as malleable stones by the American ab- 
origines. No evidence of smelting ores with fluxes is offered, but 
casting from metal melted in open fires is assumed. 
Gold, silver, copper, pure or mixed with tin or silver, 
are to be found here and there in both continents,- and 
nuggets were objects of worship. Tools and appliances for work- 
ing metals were of the rudest kind, and if moulds for casting were 
employed these were broken up; at least no museum contains 
samples of them, and the processes are not described. In the 
Arctic and' Pacific coast provinces, about Lake Superior, in 
Virginia and North Carolina, as well as in ruder parts of Mexico 
and South America, metals were cold-hammered into plates, 
weapons, rods and wire, ground and polished, fashioned into 
carved blocks of hard, tenacious stone by pressure or blow, over- 
laid, cold- welded and plated. Soldering, brazing and the blow- 
pipe in the Cordilleran provinces are suspected, but the evidence 
of their existence must be further examined. A deal of study has 



Metal- 
lurgy. 



Pottery. 



been devoted to the cunning Tubal Cains, the surprising produc- 
tions of whose handiwork have been recovered in the art provinces 
of Mexico and the Cordilleras, especially in Chiriqui, between 
Costa Rica and Colombia. It must be admitted, however, that 
both the tools and the processes have escaped the archaeologist, 
as they did " the ablest goldsmiths in Spain, for they never could 
conceive how they had been made, there being no sign of a 
hammer or an engraver or any other instrument used by them, 
the Indians having none such" (Herrera). 

The potter's wheel did not exist in the western world, but it 
was almost invented. Time and muscle, knack and touch, a 
trained eye and brain and an unlimited array of patterns 
hanging on fancy's walls, aided by a box of dry sand, 
were competent to give the charming results. No more striking 
contrast can be found between forlorn conditions and refined art 
products. Art in clay was far from universal in the two Americas. 
The Eskimo on Bering Sea had learned to model shallow bowls for 
lamps. No pottery existed in Athapascan boundaries. Algonquin- 
Iroquois tribes made creditable ware in Canada and eastern 
United States. Muskhogean tribes were potters, but Siouan 
tribes, as a rule, in all the Mississippi drainage were not. In their 
area, however, dwelt clay-working tribes, and the Mandans had 
the art. Moreover, the mound-builders in the eastern half of this 
vast plain, being sedentary, were excellent potters. The efflor- 
escence of aboriginal pottery is to be found in the Pueblo region 
of south-westernUnited States, in Mexico, Central America, Carib- 
bean Islands, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and restricted areas of 
eastern Brazil. (The literature on this subject is extensive. See 
Gushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hough, Stevenson.) On the Pacific 
side of the continent not one of the forty linguistic families made 
pottery. The only workers in clay west of the Rockies and north 
of the Pueblo country belonged to the Shoshonean family of the 
Interior Basin. 

The study of Indian textiles includes an account of their fibres, 
tools, processes, products, ornaments and uses. The fibres were 
either animal or vegetable; animal fibres were hair, 
fur on the skin, feathers, hide, sinew and intestines; i n a us tHes. 
vegetable fibres were stalks of small trees, brush, straw, 
cotton, bast, bark, leaves and seed vessels in great variety as 
one passes from the north southward through all the culture 
provinces. The products of the textile industry in America were 
bark cloth, wattling for walls, fences and weirs, paper, basketry, 
matting, loom products, needle or point work, net-work, lace- 
work and embroidery. In the manufacture of these the sub- 
stances were reduced to the form of slender filaments, shreds, 
rods, splints, yarn, twine and sennit or braid. All textile work was 
done by hand; the only devices known were the bark peeler and 
beater, the shredder, the flint-knife, the spindle, the rope-twister, 
the bodkin, the warp-beam and the most primitive harness. The 
processes involved were gathering the raw material, shredding, 
splitting, gauging, wrapping, twining, spinning and braiding. 
Twining and spinning were done with the fingers of both hands, 
with the palm on the thigh, with the spindle and with the twister. 
Ornamentation was in form, colour, technical processes and dyes. 
The uses to which the textiles were put were for clothing, furniture 
for the house, utensils for a thousand industries, fine arts, social 
functions and worship. 

In order to comprehend the more intricate processes of the 
higher peoples it is necessary to examine the textile industry in all 
of the culture areas. It is essentially woman's work, though 
among the Pueblos, strangely enough, men are weavers. 

The Eskimo woman did not weave, but was expert in sewing and 
embroidering with sinew thread by means of a bodkin. The Dene 
(Tinneh) peoples used strips of hide for snowshoes and game-bags, 
sewed their deerskin clothing with sinew thread, and embroidered 
in split quill. Their basketry, both in Canada and in Arizona, 
was coiled work. The northern Algonquin and Iroquoian tribes 
practised similar arts, and in the Atlantic states wove robes of 
animal and bird skins by cutting the latter into long strips, wind- 
ing these strips on twine of hemp, and weaving them by the same 
processes employed in their basketry. Textile work in the Sioux 
province was chiefly the making of skin garments with sinew 



AMERICA 



[ARCHAEOLOGY 



thread, but in the Gulf states the existence of excellent cane and 
' grasses gave opportunity for several varieties of weaving. On the 
Pacific coast of America the efflorescence of basketry in every form 
of technic was known. This art reached down to the borders of 
Mexico. Loom-weaving in its simplest form began with the 
Chilkats of Alaska, who hung the warp over a long pole, and 
wrought mythological figures into their gorgeous blankets by a 
process resembling tapestry work. The forming of bird skins, 
rabbit skins and feathers into robes, and all basketry technic, 
existed from Vancouver Island to Central America. In northern 
Mexico net-work, rude lace-work in twine, are followed farther 
south, where finer material existed, by figured weaving of most 
intricate type and pattern; warps were crossed and wrapped, 
wefts were omitted and texture changed, so as to produce marvel- 
lous effects upon the surface. This composite art reached its 
climax in Peru, the llama wool affording the finest staple on 
the whole hemisphere. Textile work in other parts of South 
America did not differ from that of the Southern states of the 
Union. The addition of brilliant ornamentation in shell, teeth, 
feathers, wings of insects and dyed fibres completed the round of 
the textile art. A peculiar type of coiled basketry is found at the 
Strait of Magellan, but the motives are not American. (Consult 
the works of Boas, Dixon, G. T. Emmons, Holmes, Otis T. 
Mason, Matthews, John Murdoch, E. W. Nelson, A. P. Niblack, 
Lucien M. Turner.) 

Since most American tribes lived upon flesh, the activities of life 
were associated with the animal world. These activities were not 
confined to the land, but had to do also with those 
y ' littoral meadows where invertebrate and vertebrate 
marine animals fed in unlimited numbers. An account of savage 
life, therefore, includes the knowledge of the animal life of 
America and its distribution, regarding the continent, not only as 
a whole, but in those natural history provinces and migrations 
which governed and characterized the activities of the peoples. 
This study would include industries connected with capture, those 
that worked up into products the results of capture, the social 
organizations and labours which were involved in pursuit of 
animals, the language, skill, inventions and knowledge resulting 
therefrom, and, finally, the religious conception united with the 
animal world, which has been named zootheism. In the capture 
of animals would be involved the pedagogic influence of animal 
life; the engineering embraced in taking them in large numbers; 
the cunning and strategy necessary to hunters so poorly armed 
giving rise to disguises and lures of many kinds. Capture begins 
among the lower tribes with the hand, without devices, develop- 
ing knack and skill in seizing, pursuing, climbing, swimming, and 
maiming without weapons; and proceeds to gathering with 
devices that take the place of the hand in dipping, digging, hook- 
ing and grasping; weapons for striking, whether clubs, missiles 
or projectiles; edged weapons of capture, which were rare in 
America; piercing devices for capture, in lances, barbed spears, 
harpoons and arrows; traps for enclosing, arresting and killing, 
such as pens, cages, pits, pen-falls, nets, hooks, nooses, clutches, 
adhesives, deadfalls, impalers, knife traps and poisons; animals 
consciously and unconsciously aiding in capture ; fire in the form 
of torches, beacons, burning out and smoking out; poisons and 
asphyxiators; the accessories to hunting, including such changes 
in food, dress, shelter, travelling, packing, mechanical tools and 
intellectual apparatus as demanded by these arts. Finally, in 
this connexion, the first steps in domestication, beginning with the 
improvement of natural corrals or spawning ground, and hunting 
with trained dogs and animals. Zootechnic products include 
food, clothing, ornaments, habitations, weapons, industrial tools, 
textiles, money, &c. 

In sociology the dependence of the American tribes upon the 
animal world becomes most apparent. A great majority of all the 
family names in America were from animal totems. The division 
of labour among the sexes was based on zootechny. Labour 
organizations for hunting, communal hunt and migrations had to 
do with the animal world. 

In the duel between the hunter and the beast-mind the 
intellectual powers of perception, memory, reason and will 



were developed; experience and knowledge by experience were 
enlarged, language and the graphic arts were fostered, the 
inventive faculty was evoked and developed, and primitive 
science was fostered in the unfolding of numbers, metrics, clocks, 
astronomy, history and the philosophy of causation. Beliefs and 
practices with reference to the heavenly world were inspired by 
zoic activities; its location, scenery and environment were the 
homes of beast gods. It was largely a zoopantheon; thus 
zootheism influenced the organization of tribes and societies in 
the tribes. The place, furniture, liturgies and apparatus of 
worship were hereby suggested. Myths, folk-lore, hunting 
charms, fetishes, superstitions and customs were based on the 
sameidea. (For life zones, see C. H. Merriam, Biol. Survey, U. S. 
Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Excepting for extensive and rapid travel over the snow in the 
Arctic regions by means of dog sleds, the extremely limited 
transportation by dog travail (or sledge) in the Sioux 
province, and the use of the llama as a beast of burden 
throughout the Peruvian highlands, land travel was on foot, and 
land transportation on the backs of men and women. One of the 
most interesting topics of study is the trails along which the 
seasonal and annual migrations of tribes occurred, becoming in 
Peru the paved road, with suspension bridges and wayside inns, 
or tambos. In Mexico, and in Peru especially, the human back 
was utilized to its utmost extent, and in most parts of America 
harness adapted for carrying was made and frequently decorated 
with the best art. In the Mexican codices pictures of men and 
women carrying are plentiful. Travelling on the water was an 
important activity in aboriginal times. Hundreds of thousands 
of miles of inland waters and archipelagoes were traversed. 
Commencing in the Arctic region, the Eskimo in his kayak, 
consisting of a framework of driftwood or bone covered with 
dressed sealskin, could paddle down east Greenland, up the west 
shore to Smith Sound, along Baffin Land and Labrador, and 
the shores of Hudson Bay throughout insular Canada and the 
Alaskan coast, around to Mount St Elias, and for many miles 
on the eastern shore of Asia. In addition to this most delicate 
and rapid craft, he had his umiak or freight boat, sometimes 
called woman's boat. The Athapascan covered all north-western 
Canada with his open and portable birch-bark canoe, somewhat 
resembling the kayak in finish. The Algonquin-Iroquois took up 
the journey at Bear Lake and its tributaries, and by means 
of paddling and portages traversed the area of middle and 
eastern Canada, including the entire St Lawrence drainage. 
The absence of good bark, dugout timber, and chisels of stone 
deprived the whole Mississippi valley of creditable water-craft, 
and reduced the natives to the clumsy trough for a dugout 
and miserable bull-boat, made by stretching dressed buffalo hide 
over a crate. On the Atlantic coast of the United States the 
dugout was improved in form where the waters were more dis- 
turbed. John Smith's Indians had a fleet of dugouts. The same 
may be said of the Gulf states tribes, although they added rafts 
made of reed. Along the archipelagoes of the North Pacific 
coast, from Mount St Elias to the Columbia river, the dugout 
attained its best. The Columbia river canoe resembled that 
of the Amur, the bow and stern being pointed at the water-line. 
Poor dugouts and rafts, made by tying reeds together, con- 
stituted the water-craft of California and Mexico until Central 
America is reached. 

The Caribs were the Haidas of the Caribbean Sea and northern 
South America. Their craft would vie in form, in size, and sea- 
worthiness with those of the North Pacific coast. The cata- 
maran and the reed boat were known to the Peruvians. The 
tribes of Venezuela and Guiana, according to Im Thurn, had both 
the dugout and the built-up hull. The simplest form of navi- 
gation in Brazil was the woodskin, a piece of bark stripped from 
a tree and crimped at the ends. The sangada, with its platform 
and sail, belonging to the Brazilian coast, is spoken of as a good 
seaworthy craft. Finally, the Fuegian bark canoe, made in three 
pieces so that it can be taken apart and transported over hills and 
sewed together, ends the series. The American craft was pro- 
pelled by poling, paddling, rowing, and by rude sails of matting. 



ARCHAEOLOGY] 



AMERICA 



815 



The aesthetic arts of the American aborigines cannot be studied 
apart from their languages, industries, social organizations, lore 
Flue art an ^ worships. Art was limited most of all by poverty 
in technical appliances. There were just as good 
materials and inspirations, but what could the best of them do 
without metal tools? One and all skilful to a surpassing degree 
weavers, embroiderers, potters, painters, engravers, carvers, 
sculptors and jewellers, they were wearied by drudgery and over- 
powered by a never-absent, weird and grotesque theology. The 
Eskimo engraved poorly, the Dene (Tinneh) embroidered in quill, 
the North Pacific tribes carved skilfully in horn, slate and cedar, 
the California tribes had nimble fingers for basketry, the Sioux 
gloried in feathers and painted parfleche. The mound builders, 
Pueblo tribes, middle Americans and Peruvians, were potters of 
many schools; gorgeous colour fascinated the Amazonians, the 
Patagonians delighted in skins, and even the Fuegians saw beauty 
in the pretty snail shells of their desolate island shores. Of the 
Mexican and Central American sculpture and architecture a 
competent judge says that Yucatan and the southern states of 
Mexico are not rich in sculptures, apart from architecture; but 
in the valley of Mexico the human figure, animal forms, fanciful 
life motives in endless variety, were embodied in masks, yokes, 
tablets, calendars, cylinders, disks, boxes, vases and ornaments. 
The Nahuatl lapidaries had at hand many varieties of workable 
and beautiful stone onyx, marble, limestone, quartz and quartz 
crystal, granite, syenite, basalt, trachyte, rhyolite, diorite and 
obsidian, the best of material prepared for them by nature; 
while the Mayas had only limestone, and hard, tenacious rock 
with which to work it, and timber for burning lime. However, 
looking over the whole field of North American achievement, 
architectural and non-architectural, composite and monolithic, 
the palm for boldness, magnitude of proportions and infinity of 
labour, must go to the sculptured mosaics of Yucatan. Maya 
architecture is the best remaining index of the art achievements 
of the American race. The construction of such buildings as the 
palace at Uxmal and the Castillo at Chichen (Chichenitza) indi- 
cates a mastery in architectural design. There is lack of unity in 
plan and grouping, and an enormous waste of material as com- 
pared with available room. At Uxmal the mass of masonry is to 
chamber space about as forty to one. The builders were " ignor- 
ant of some of the most essential principles of construction, and 
are to be regarded as hardly more than novices in the art " 
(Holmes, Archaeological Studies, &c.). As for the marvels of Peru, 
the walls of the temple of the sun in Cuzco, with their circular 
form and curve inward, from the ground upward, are most 
imposing. Some of the gates without lintels are beautiful, and 
the geometric patterns in the walls extremely effective. The same 
objection to over-massiveness might not apply here as in Mexico, 
owing to volcanic activity. 

Institutions in Europe and America have gathered abundant 
material for an intelligent comprehension of American Indian 
Sociology soc ilgy- The British Association had a committee 
reporting during many years on the tribes of north- 
west Canada. The American Museum in New York has prepared 
a series of monographs on the tribes of the North Pacific coast, of 
northern Mexico, and of the Cordilleras of South America. The 
reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology in Washington 
cover the Eskimo, east and west, and all the tribes of the United 
States. In Mexico the former labours of Pimentel and Orozco y 
Berra are supplemented by those of Bandelier, Penafiel, Herrera 
and Alfredo Chavero. Otto Stoll's studies in Guatemala, 
Berendt's in Central America, Ernst's in Venezuela, Im Thurn's 
in Guiana, those of Ehrenreich, von den Steinen, Meyer in Brazil, 
or of Bandelier, Bastian, Brtihl, Middendorf, von Tschudi in 
Peru, afford the historian of comparative sociology ample ground- 
work for a comprehensive grasp of South American tribes. In all 
parts of the western hemisphere society was organized on cognate 
kinship, real or artificial, the unit being the clan. There were 
tribes where the basis of kinship was agnate, but these were the 
exceptions. The headship of the clan was sometimes hereditary, 
sometimes elective, but each clan had a totemic name, and the 
clans together constituted the tribe, the bond being not land, but 



blood. Women could adopt prisoners of war, in which case the 
latter became their younger sons. When a confederacy was 
organized under a council, intermarriage between tribes some- 
times occurred; an artificial kinship thus arose, in which event the 
council established the rank of the tribes as elder and younger 
brother, grandfather, father and sons, rendering the relationship 
and its vocabulary most intricate, but necessary in a social 
system in which age was the predominant consideration and 
etiquette most exacting. (See Morgan, Tables of Consanguinity, 
Smithsonian Contributions, xvii.) 

The Eskimo have a regular system of animal totem marks and 
corresponding gentes. Powell sets forth the laws of real and arti- 
ficial kinship among the North American tribes, as well as tribal 
organization and government, the formation of confederacies, 
and the intricate rules of artificial kinship by which rank and 
courtesy were established. (Many papers in Reports of Bur. A m. 
Ethnol.) Bandelier declares that in Mexico existed neither state 
nor nation, nor political society of any kind, but tribes represent- 
ing dialects, and autonomous in matters of government, and 
forming confederacies for the purposes of self-defence and con- 
quest. The ancient Mexican tribe was composed of twenty 
autonomous kins. According to Brinton the social organization 
of ancient Peru was a government by a council of the gentes. 
The Inca was a war chief elected by the council to carry out its 
commands. Among the Caribs a like social order prevailed; 
indeed, their family system is identical with the totem system 
of North American Indians. Dominated by the rule of blood 
relationship, the Indians regulated all co-operative activities 
on this basis. Not only marriage, but speech and common 
industries, such as rowing a boat or chasing a buffalo, were under 
its sway. It obtrudes itself in fine art, behaviour, law-making, lore 
and religion. In larger or smaller numbers of cognate kindred, 
for shorter or longer periods of time, near or far from home, the 
aborigines developed their legislatures, courts, armies, secret 
societies and priesthoods. 

In organization, engineering, strategy, offence and defence, the 
art of war was in the barbarous and the savage status or grade. 
One competent to judge asserts that peace, not war, 
was the normal intertribal habit. They held frequent 
intercourse, gave feasts and presents, and practised 
unbounded hospitality. Through this traffic objects travelled 
far from home, and now come forth out of the tombs to perplex 
archaeologists. Remembering the organization of the tribe 
everywhere prevalent, it is not difficult to understand that the 
army, or horde, that stands for the idea, was assembled on the 
clan basis. The number of men arrayed under one banner, the 
time during which they might cohere, the distances from home 
they could march, their ability to hold permanently what they 
had gained, together form an excellent metric scale of the culture 
grade in the several American provinces, and nowhere, even in 
the most favoured, is this mark high. With the Mexicans war 
was a passion, but warfare was little above the raid (Bandelier; 
Farrand) . The lower tribes hunted their enemies as they hunted 
animals. In their war dances, which were only rehearsals, they 
disguised themselves as animals, and the pantomime was a 
mimic hunt. They had striking, slashing and piercing weapons 
held in the hand, fastened to a shaft or thong, hurled from the 
hand, from a sling, from an atlatl or throwing-stick, or shot from 
a bow. Their weapons were all individual, not one co-operative 
device of offence being known among them, although they under- 
stood fortification. 

The term " slavery " is often applied to the aboriginal American 
tribes. The truth of this depends upon the definition of the word 
" slave." If it means the capture of men, and especially of 
women, and adoption into the tribe, this existed everywhere; 
but if subjection to a personal owner, who may compel service, 
sell or put to death the individual, slavery was far from universal. 
Nieboer finds it only on the North Pacific coast as far south as 
Oregon, among the Navajo and the Cibola pueblos, and in a few 
tribes of Middle and South America. 

The thought life of the American aborigines is expressed in 
their practical knowledge and their lore. The fascination which 



Art of 
war. 



8i6 



AMERICA 



[ARCHAEOLOGY 



hangs around the latter has well-nigh obscured the former. 
As in medicine theory is one thing and practice another, so among 
, these savages must the two be carefully discriminated. 

Dorsey, again, draws a distinction between lore 
narratives, which can be rehearsed without fasting or prayer, 
and rituals which require the most rigid preparation. In each 
culture province the Indians studied the heavenly bodies. The 
Arctic peoples regulated their lives by the long day and night in 
the year; among the tribes in the arid region the place of sunrise 
was marked on the horizon for each day; the tropical Indians 
were not so observant, but they worshipped the sun-god above all. 
The Mayas had a calendar of 360 days, with intercalary days; 
this solar year was intersected by their sacred year of twenty 
weeks of thirteen days each, and these assembled in bewildering 
cycles. Their knowledge of the air and its properties was no less 
profound. Heat and cold, rain and drought, the winds in rela- 
tion to the points of the compass, were nearest their wants and 
supplies, and were never out of their thoughts. In each province 
they had found the best springs, beds of clay, paint, soapstone, 
flinty roqk, friable stone for sculpture and hard, tenacious stone 
for tools, and used ashes for salt. The vegetal kingdom was no 
less familiar to them. Edible plants, and those for dyes and 
medicines, were on their lists, as well as wood for tools, utensils 
and weapons, and fibres for textiles. They knew poisonous 
plants, and could eliminate noxious properties. The universal 
reliance on animal life stimulated the study of the animal king- 
dom. Everywhere there were names for a large number of 
species; industries and fine arts were developed through animal 
substances. Society was organized in most cases on animal clans, 
and religion was largely zoomorphic. The hunting tribes knew 
well the nature and habits of animals, their anatomy, their migra- 
tions, and could interpret their voices. Out of this practical 
knowledge, coupled with the belief in personeity, grew a folk-lore 
so vast that if it were written down the world would not contain 
the books. 

The religion of the American aborigines, so far as it can be made 
a subject of investigation, consisted (i) in what the tribes believed 
Religion. a b ut spirits, or shades, and the spirit world its 
organization, place, activities and relation to'our world; 
and (2) in what they did in response to these beliefs. The former 
was their creeds, the latter their cults or worships. In these 
worships, social organization, religious dramas and paraphernalia, 
amusement and gambling, and private religion or fetichism, found 
place. In order to obtain an intelligent grasp of the religion of 
tribes in their several culture provinces, it must be understood : 
(i) That the form of belief called animism by Tylor (more 
correctly speaking, personeity), was universal; everything was 
somebody, alive, sentient, thoughtful, wilful. This personeity 
lifts the majority of earthly phenomena out of the merely physical 
world and places them in the spirit world. Theology and science 
are one. All is supernatural, wakan. (2) That there existed more 
than one self or soul or shade in any one of these personalities, 
and these shades had the power not only to go away, but to 
transform their bodily tenements at will; a bird, by raising its 
head, could become a man; the latter, by going on all fours, 
could become a deer. (3) That the regulative side of the spirit 
world was the natural outcome of the clan social system and 
the tribal government in each tribe. Even one's personal name 
had reference to the world of ghosts. The affirmation that 
American aborigines believed in an all-pervading, omnipotent 
Spirit is entirely inconsistent with the very nature of the case. 
(4) Worship was everywhere dramatic. Only here and there 
among the higher tribes were bloody sacrifices in vogue, and 
prayers were in pantomime. 

In the culture areas the environment gave specific characters 
to the religion. In the Arctic province the overpowering influ- 
ence of meteorological phenomena manifested itself both in the 
doctrine of shades and in their shamanistic practices. The raven 
created the world. The Dene (Tinneh) myths resembled those of 
the Eskimo, and all the hunting tribes of eastern Canada and 
United States and the Mississippi valley have a mythology based 
upon their zootechny and their totemism. The religious concep- 



" 



tions of the fishing tribes on the Pacific coast between Mount St 
Elias and the Columbia river are worked out by Boas; the trans- 
formation from the hunting to the agricultural mode of life was 
accompanied by changes in belief and worship quite as radical. 
These have been carefully studied by Gushing, Stevenson and 
Fewkes. The pompous ceremonials of the civilized tribes of 
Mexico and the Cordilleras in South America, when analysed, 
reveal only a higher grade of the prevailing idea. Im Thurn says 
of the Carib: " All objects, animate and inanimate, seem exactly 
of the same nature, except that they differ in the accident of 
bodily form." These mythological ideas and symbols of the 
American aborigines were woven in their textiles, painted on 
their robes and furniture, burned into their pottery, drawn in 
sand mosaics on deserts, and perpetuated in the only sculptures 
worthy of the name, in wood and stone. They are inseparable 
from industry; language, social organization and custom wait 
upon them: they explain the universe in the savage mind. 

The archaeology of the western hemisphere should be divided 
as follows: (i) that of Indian activities; (2) the question of 
man's existence in a prior geological period. There is 
no dividing line between first-contact ethnology and . 

pre-contact archaeology. Historians of this time, both 
north and south of Panama, described tools and products of 
activities similar to those taken from beneath the soil near by. 
The archaeologist recovers his specimens from waste places, cave 
deposits, abandoned villages, caches, shell-heaps, refuse-heaps, 
enclosures, mounds, hut rings, earthworks, garden beds, quarries 
and workshops, petroglyphs, trails, graves and cemeteries, cliff 
and cavate dwellings, ancient pueblos, ruined stone dwellings, 
forts and temples, canals or reservoirs. The relics found in these 
places are material records of language, industries, fine arts, 
social life, lore and religion. 

Here and there in the Arctic province remains of old village 
sites have been examined, and collections brought away by 
whalers and exploring expeditions. Two facts are established 
namely, that the Eskimo lived formerly farther south on the 
Atlantic coast, and that, aboriginally, they were not specially 
adept in carving and etching. The old apparatus of hunting and 
fishing is quite primitive. The Dene (Tinneh) province in Alaska 
and north-western Canada yields nothing to the spade. Algon- 
quin-Iroquois Canada, thanks to the Geological Survey and the 
Department of Education in Ontario, has revealed old Indian 
camps, mounds and earthworks along the northern drainage of 
Lakes Erie and Ontario, and pottery in a curved line from 
Montreal to Lake of the Woods. Throughout eastern United 
States shell-heaps, quarries, workshops and camp sites are in 
abundance. The Sioux and the Muskhogee province is the mound 
area, which extends also into Canada along the Red river. The 
forms of these are earth-heaps, conical mounds, walls of earth, 
rectangular pyramids and effigies (Putnam). Thomas sums up 
the work of the Bureau of American Ethnology upon the struc- 
ture, contents and distribution of these earth monuments, over a 
vast area from which adobe, building stone and stone-working 
material were absent. (See Hodge's List of Pubs, of the Bur. Am. 
Ethnol.) No writings have been recovered, the artisans shaping 
small objects in stone were specially gifted, the potters in only a 
few places approached those of the Pueblos, the fine art was poor, 
and relics found in the mounds do not indicate in their makers a 
grade of culture above that of the Indian tribes near .by. The 
archaeology of the Pacific coast, from the Aleutian Islands, is 
written in shell-heaps, village sites, caves, and burial-places (Dall, 
Harlan I. Smith, Schumacher). The relics of bone, antler, stone, 
shell and copper are of yesterday. Even the Calaveras man is no 
exception, since his skull and his polished conical pestle, the latter 
made of stone more recent than the auriferous gravels, show him 
to have been of Digger Indian type. In Utah begin the ruins 
of the Pueblo culture. These cover Arizona and New Mexico, 
with extensions into Colorado on the north and Mexico on the 
south. The reports of work done in this province for several 
years past form a library of text and illustration. Cliff dwellings, 
cavate houses, pueblos and casas are all brought into a series with- 
out a break by Bandelier, Gushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hough, 



AMERICA 



PLATE V. 




FIG. I. Reddish Brown Clay 
Vessel, in the form of a 
human head (portrait). 
Trujillo style. 'Chimboto, 
Peru. Inca culture 



FIG. 2. Red Clay Vessel, in the 
form of a demon shaped like 
a crab upon a mussel. Tru- 
jillo style. Chimboto, Peru- 
Inca culture. 



FIG. 3. Black Clay Vessel, in 
the form of a human figure, 
with peculiar head - gear. 
Trujillo, Peru. Inca 
culture. 



FIG. 4. Black Clay Vessel, in the 
form of a human figure, with 
large head-gear and ornamen- 
tation of maize-cobs. Trujillo, 
Peru. Inca culture. 







FIG. 5. Red-Brown Clay Flask, 
with impressed relief repre- 
senting a mythological scene. 
Supe, Peru. 



FIG. 6. Female Mummy, with 
mantle of feathered mosaic ; 
neckband, shawls, hair-net, 
heid-wrap over tassels of 
parrot feathers. Peru. Inca 
culture. 



FIG. 7. Textile Fabric, with 
stencilled human figure; 
colours, black, red-brown 
and yellow. Peru. Inca 
culture. 



FIG. 8. Coloured Textile 
Fabric, with picture 
writing. Peru. 







FIG. 9. Textile Fabric in 
brown and yellowish white, 
with figures of birds and 
men holding staves and 
head trophies. Inca style. 
Peru. 

1.816. 



FIG. 10. Two Gold Beakers, 
with human faces. Peru. 
Inca culture. 



FIG. II. Human Clay Figure, 
with bead chain of mussel 
shells and of Venetian glass 
in the ears and on the neck; 
1st period of Spanish con- 
quest. Chancay, Peru. 



FIG. 12. Black- Painted 
Clay Vessel, in form 
of a human figure 
holding a mussel. 
Chancay, Peru. 



ARCHAEOLOGY] 



AMERICA 



817 



Mindeleff, Nordenskjold, Powell and Stevenson. From Casa 
Grande, in Chihuahua, to Quemada, in Zacatecas, Carl S. Lum- 
holtz found survivals of the cliff dwellers. Between Quemada 
and Copan, in Honduras, is an unbroken series of mural structures. 
The traditions agree with the monuments, whatever may be 
objected to assigning any one ruin to the Toltec, the Chichimec 
or the Nahuatl, that there are distinct varieties in ground-plan, 
motives, stone-craft, wall decorations and sculptures. Among 
these splendours in stone the following recent explorers must be 
the student's guide: Bowditch, Charnay, Forstemann, F. T. 
Goodman, Gordon, Holmes, Maudslay, Mercer, Putnam, Sapper, 
Marshall H. Saville, Seler, Cyrus Thomas, Thompson. A list of 
the ruins, printed in the handbook on Mexico published by the 
Department of State in Washington, covers several pages. The 
special characteristics of each are to be seen partly in the skill and 
genius of their makers, and partly in the exigencies of the site 
and the available materials. A fascinating study in this con- 
nexion is that of the water-supply. The cenotes or underground 
reservoirs were the important factors in locating the ruins of 
northern Yucatan. From Honduras to Panama the urn burials, 
the pottery, the rude carved images and, above all, the grotesque 
jewellery, absorb the archaeologist's attention. (Publications of 
Peabody Museum.) 

Beyond Chiriqui southward is El Dorado. Here also bewilder- 
ing products -of ancient metallurgy tax the imagination as to the 
processes involved, and questions of acculturation also interfere 
with true scientific results. The fact remains, however, that the 
curious metal-craft of the narrow strip along the Pacific from 
Mexico to Titicaca is the greatest of archaeological enigmas. 
Bandelier, Dorsey, Holmes, Seler and Uhle have taken up the 
questions anew. Beyond Colombia are Ecuador and Peru, where, 
in the widening of the continent, architecture, stone-working, 
pottery, metallurgy, textiles are again exalted. Among the 
Cordilleras in their western and interior drainages, over a space 
covering more than twenty degrees of latitude, the student comes 
again upon massive ruins. The materials on the coast were clay 
and gravel wrought into concrete, sun-dried bricks and pise, or 
rammed work, cut stalks of plants formed with clay a kind of staff, 
and lintels were made by burying stems of cana brava (Gynerium 
saccharoides) in blocks of pise. On the uplands structures were of 
stone laid up in a dozen ways. Walls for buildings, garden 
terraces and aqueducts were straight or sloping. Doorways were 
usually square, but corbelled archways and gateways surmounted 
with sculptures were not uncommon. Ornamentation was in 
carving and in colour, the latter far more effectively used than in 
Middle America. A glance at the exquisite textiles reveals at once 
the inspiration of mural decorations. The most prolific source of 
Peruvian relics is the sepulchres or huacas, the same materials 
being used in their construction as in building the houses. Here, 
owing to a dry climate, are the dead, clad and surrounded with 
food, vessels, tools and art products, as in life. The textiles and 
the pottery can only be mentioned; their quality and endless 
varieties astonish the technologist. In the Carib province there 
are no mural remains, but the pottery, with its excessive onlaying, 
recalls Mexico and the jewellers of Chiriqui. The polished stone 
work is superb, finding its climax in Porto Rico, which seems to 
have been the sacred island of the Caribs. For the coasts of South 
America the vast shell-heaps are the repositories of ancient 
history. 

Since 1880 organized institutions of anthropology have taken 
the spade out of the hands of individual explorers in order to know 

the truth concerning Glacial or Pleistocene man. The 
nthic man. geologist and the trained archaeologist are associated. 

In North America the sites have been examined by the 
Peabody Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and others, 
with the result that only the Trenton gravels have any standing. 
The so-called palaeolithic implements are everywhere. The 
question is one of geology, simply to decide whether those re- 
covered at Trenton are ancient. Putnam and George Frederick 
Wright maintain that they are ancient, Alex. Francis Chamber- 
lain and Holmes that they are post-Glacial and comparatively 
recent (Am. Anthrop., N.S. i. pp. 107, 614). Elsewhere in the 



United States fossilized bones, crania of a low order, association 
of human remains with those of fossil animals are not necessarily 
evidence of vast antiquity. In South America the shell-heaps, of 
enormous size, are supposed to show that the animals have under- 
gone changes in size and that such vast masses require untold ages 
to accumulate. The first is a biological problem. As for the 
second, the elements of savage voracity and wastefulness, of 
uncertainty as to cubical contents on uneven surface, and of the 
number of mouths to fill, make it hazardous to construct a chrono' 
logical table on a shell-heap. Hudson's village sites in Patagonia 
contain pottery, and that brings them all into the territory of 
Indian archaeology. Ameghino refers deposits in Patagonia, from 
which undoubted human bones and relics have been exhumed, to 
the Miocene. The question is of the age of the sediments from 
which these were taken. The bones of other associated animals, 
says John B. Hatcher, demonstrate the Pleistocene nature of the 
deposits, by which is not necessarily meant older Quaternary, for 
their horizons have not been differentiated and correlated in South 
America. Hatcher believes that " there is no good evidence in 
favour of a great antiquity for man in Patagonia." In a cave 
near Consuelo Cove, southern Patagonia, have been found frag- 
ments of the skin and bones of a large ground-sloth, Grypolherium 
(N eomylodon) listai, associated with human remains. Ameghino 
argues that this creature is still living, while Dr Moreno advances 
the theory that the animal has been extinct for a long period, and 
that it was domesticated by a people of great antiquity, who 
dwelt there prior to the Indians. Rodolfo Hauthal, Walter E. 
Roth and Dr R. Lehmann Nitsche review their work with the 
conclusion, not unanimously held by them, that man co-existed 
here with all the other animals whose remains were found during 
an inter-Glacial period. Arthur Smith Woodward sums up the 
question in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, closing 
with this sentence: "If we accept the confirmatory evidence 
afforded by Mr Spencer Moore, we can hardly refuse to believe 
that this ground-sloth was kept and fed by an early race of men." 
These are individual opinions, subject to revision by that court of 
appeals, the institutional judgment. (Summary in H. Hesketh 
Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia (1902), Appendix A.) 

AUTHORITIES. A valuable endowment of research in specimens, 
literature and pictures, deposited in libraries, museums and galleries 
since 1880, will keep ethnologists and archaeologists employed for 
many years to come. The scientific inquirer will find a mass of 
material in the papers and reports contributed to the numerous 
societies and institutions which are devoted to anthropological 
research. Museums of aboriginal culture are without number; in 
Washington the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, the 
Bureau of American Ethnology and the American Anthropologist 
issue publications on every division of the subject, lists of their 
publications and general bibliographies. Also the Peabody Museum, 
Cambridge; the American Museum of Natural History, New York; 
the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Field Museum, 
Chicago; the California Academy and the California University, 
San Francisco; and the Canadian Institute, Toronto, publish 
monographs and lists. The most comprehensive work on North 
America is the Handbook of American Indians (prepared by the 
Bureau of American Ethnology, under W. H. Holmes, and edited 
by F. Webb Hodge). 

The following represent a select list of works on the American 
aborigines: H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of 
North America, vols. i.-v. (1874-1876); A. F. Bandelier, Papers on 
the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico (see Papers of the Archaeo- 
logical Institute of America, 1881, 1890, 1892); also loth, nth, 
1 2th Reports Peabody Museum; Franz Boas, The Central Eskimo 
(6th Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1888) ; also Bulls. 20, 26, 27 and Reports 
Brit. Assoc. 1885-1898; Charles P. Bowditch, Mexican and Central 
American Antiquities; Bull. 28, Bur. Am. Ethnol.; also The 
Temples of the Cross and Mayan Nomenclature (Cambridge, Mass., 
1906) ; David Boyle, Reports of the Provincial Museum of Toronto on 
Archaeology and Ethnology of Canada; D. G. Brinton, Library of 
Aboriginal American Literature, vols. i.-viii. (Philadelphia, 1822-1890) ; 
The American Race (New York, 1891); Gustav Briihl, Die Cultur- 
volker Amerikas (Cincinnati, 1889); Desire Charnay, The Ancient 
Cities of the New World (New York, 1887) ; Frank Gushing, Zuni 
Folk Tales (New York, 1901); William H. Dall, Alaska and its 
Resources (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870) (also papers by Bur. Am. 
Ethnol.) ; J. Deniker, The Races of Man (London, 1900) ; Roland B. 
Dixon, The Northern Maidu, Cat., Bull. 17, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 
(New York, 1905); Paul Ehrenreich, Die Vplkerstdmme Brasiliens 
(Berlin, 1 892) ; Anthropologische Studien tiber die Urbewohner Brasiliens 
(Berlin, 1897) ; Livingston Farrand, The American Nation: A History, 



8i8 



AMERICA ISLANDS AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



vol. ii. (New York, 1904), with copious references; J. W. Fewkes, A 
Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, vols. i.-iv. (Boston, 
1891-1894); Pliny Earle Goddard, Life and Culture of the Hupa, 
Univ. of Cal., vol. i. (1903) ; papers by F. W. Hodge, List of Publica- 
tions of the Bur. Am. Ethnol., Bull. 31 (1906); W. H. Holmes, 
Handbook of the Indians North of Mexico; Alice C. Fletcher, Francis 
la Flesche and John Comfort Fillmore, " A Study of Omaha Indian 
Music," Peabody Museum Archaeological and Ethnological Papers, 
i. (1893); George Byron Gordon, " Researches in Central America," 
Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. i. Nos. i, 4, 5, 6; and Proc. 
Mus. Univ. of Pa. ; William H. Holmes, Archaeological Studies 
among the Ancient Cities of Mexico (Chicago, 1895) ; Walter Hough, 
Archaeological Field Work in N.-E. Arizona, Museum-Gates Expedi- 
tion of IQOI ; Report U.S. National Museum, 1901 ; Ales. Hrdlicka, 
"The Chichimecs," Am. Anthropologist, 1903, pp. 385-440; also 
papers on physical anthropology in the Handbook and Pubs, of 
the National Museum and the American Museum; Archer Butler 
Hulbert, Historic Highways of America, 16 vols. (Cleveland, O.) ; E. F. 
Im Thurn, Among the Indians of British Guiana (London, 1883); 
A. H. Keane, Ethnology (Cambridge, 1896); and Man, Past and 
Present (Cambridge, 1899); A. L. Kroeber, Papers on Eskimo, 
Arapaho, Languages and Culture of California Tribes, in Pubs, of 
California University and the American Museum of Natural History, 
N. Y.; Albert Buell Lewis, " Tribes of the Columbia Valley," Mem. 
Anthrop. Assoc. vol. i. (1906), with bibliography; Joseph D. 
McGuire, " The Stone Hammer and its Various Uses," Am. Anthro- 
pologist, iv. (1891); Teobert Maler, " Researches in Usumatsintla 
Valley" (1901-1903), Peabody Museum Mem. ii. ; Clements R. 
Markham, Cuzco (London, 1856, and Hakluyt Soc., 1859) ; Marquis 
de Nadaillac, L'Amerique prehistorique (Paris, 1883) ; H. J. Nieboer, 
Slavery as an Industrial System (The Hague, 1900) ; G. Nordenskjold, 
The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Colorado (Stockholm, 1893); 
Zelia Nuttall, The Book of the Life of the Ancient Mexicans (Univ. of 
Cal., 1903); An Ancient Mexican Codex, special publications of the 
Peabody Museum (Cambridge, Mass., 1902); Edward John Payne, 
History of the New World called America (vol. i. 1892, vol. ii. 1899, Ox- 
ford) ; Antonio Penaf\e\,MonumentosdelArte Mexicano antiguo (Berlin, 
1890) ; James C. Pilling, " Bibliographies of Indian Languages," 
Bulls. Bur. Am. Ethnol. 5-/P; J. W. Powell, " Indian Linguistic 
Families," 7th Report Bureau of American Ethnology (1891); H. 
Hesketh Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia (New York, 1902) 
(appendix on the co-existence of mylodon and man) ; F. W. Putnam, 
"" Archaeology and Ethnology," vol. vii., Wheeler Surveys, &c. 
(Washington, 1879) ; Charles Rau, The Palenque Tablet, Smithsonian 
Contributions, Washington; Caecilie Seler, Auf alien Wegen in 
Mexico und Guatemala (Berlin, 1900) ; Harlan I. Smith, " Archaeo- 
logical Discoveries in North-Western America," Bull. Am. Geo- 
graphical Society (May 1906); also Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. History 
(New York) ; Karl von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral- 
Brasiliens (Berlin, 1884) ; E. H. Thompson, " Explorations in Loltun 
and Labna," Memoirs Peabody Museum of Archaeol. and Ethnol. i. 
(1897); Max Uhle, " Explorations in Peru," Memoir Univ. of Cal. 
i. ; Washington Matthews, Navaho Legends (Cambridge, Mass.) ; 
Anne Gary Maudslay and Alfred Percival Maudslay, A Glimpse at 
Guatemala (London, 1899) (Maudslay 's whole series in Biologia 
Centrali Americana, 1889-1902, are valuable); H. C. Mercer, The 
Hill Caves of Yucatan (Philadelphia, 1896); Clarence B. Moore, 
papers on archaeology of Florida and neighbouring states, Journal 
Acad. Nat. Sc. (Philadelphia, vol. xiii., 1905) ; Lewis H. Morgan, 
Smithsonian Contributions, xvii., 1869; and Ancient Society, 
New York. (O. T. M.) 

AMERICA ISLANDS, a name given to Christmas, Fanning, 
Palmyra and attendant islets, belonging to Great Britain, in the 
Central Pacific Ocean, between the equator and 6 N., and about 
1 60 W. They are so named because frequented for their guano 
by traders from the United States. Christmas Island is probably 
the largest atoll in the Pacific (it is about 90 m. in circuit), and 
was discovered by Captain Cook in 1777. The islands were 
annexed by Great Britain in 1888 in view of the laying of the 
Pacific cable, of which Fanning Island is a station. Guano and 
mother-of-pearl shells are the principal articles of export; the 
.population of the islands is about 300. 

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861-1865). i. The Civil War 
between the northern and southern sections of the United States, 
which began with the bombardment of Fort Sumter on the i2th 
of April 1861, and came to an end, in the last days of April 1865, 
with the surrender of the Confederates, was in its scope one of the 
greatest struggles known to history. Its operations were spread 
over thousands of miles, vast numbers of men were employed, and 
both sides fought with an even more relentless determination than 
is usual when " armed nations " meet in battle. The duration of 
the war was due to the nature of the country and the enormous 
distances to be traversed, not to any want of energy, for the 
armies were in deadly earnest and their battles and combats (of 



which two thousand four hundred can be named) sterner than 
those of almost any war in modern history. The political history 
of the war, its antecedents and its consequences, are dealt with in 
the articles UNITED STATES (History) and CONFEDERATE STATES. 
For the purposes of the military narrative it is sufficient to say 
that eleven southern states seceded from the Union and formed 
the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was chosen 
president of this confederacy, and an energetic government 
prepared to repel the expected attack of the " Union " states. 
The " resumption " by the seceding states of the coast defences 
(built on land ceded by the various states to the Federal 
government, and, it was argued, withdrawn therefore by the 
act of secession) brought on the war. 

2. Bombardment of Fort Sumter. South Carolina, finding 
other means of seizing or regaining Fort Sumter at Charleston 
ineffectual, ushered in the great struggle by the bombardment of 
the 1 2th of April 1861. Against overwhelming odds the United 
States troops held out until honour was satisfied; they then 
surrendered the ruins of the fort and were conveyed by warships 
to the north. At once the war spirit was aroused. President 
Lincoln called out 75,000 men. The few southern states which 
had not yet seceded, refused their contingents and promptly 
joined the " rebels," but there was no hesitation in the people of 
the North, and the state troops volunteered in far greater numbers 
than had been demanded. Nearly the whole of the nation had 
now definitely taken sides in the quarrel. The Confederacy con- 
sisted of eleven states (Virginia, North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, 
Arkansas and Tennessee). All the remaining states and terri- 
tories stood by the Union, except Missouri, Kentucky and 
Maryland, in which public opinion was divided. But the first 
operations of the war brought about the willing or unwilling 
adhesion of these border states to the Federal cause. Citizens of 
these states served on either side in the war. The small, but 
highly efficient, regular army stood by the president, though 
large numbers of the officers, amongst them many of the best in 
the service, left it when their states seceded. The navy likewise 
remained national, and of its officers very few went with their 
states, for the foreign relations of the navy tended to produce a 
sentiment wider than local. But the Federal armaments were not 
on such a scale as to enable the government to cope with a " nation 
in arms," and the first call for volunteers was followed by more 
and more, until in the end the Federals had more than a million 
men under arms. At first the troops on both sides were volun- 
tarily enlisted, but the South quickly, the North later, put in 
force conscription acts. Reducing the figures to a three years' 
average, the North furnished about 45 % of her military popula- 
tion, the South not less than 90 % for that term. Even so the 
Confederacy was numerically, as in every other respect, far 
weaker, and rarely, after the second year, opposed equal numbers 
to the troops of the Union. Throughout the critical period of 
the war, that is, from the beginning of 1862 up to the day of 
Chattanooga, three distinct campaigns were always in progress. 
Virginia, separating the two hostile capitals, Richmond and 
Washington, was the theatre of the great campaigns of the east, 
where the flower of both armies fought. In the centre, the 
valleys of the Ohio, the Cumberland and the Tennessee were the 
battle-ground of large armies attacking and defending the south 
and south-eastern states of the Confederacy, while on and beyond 
the great waterway of the Mississippi was carried on the struggle 
for those interests, vital to either party, which depended on the 
mighty river and its affluents. Until the end of 1863 the events 
in these three regions remain distinct episodes; after that the 
whole theatre of war is comprised in the " anaconda policy," 
which concentrated irresistible masses of troops from all sides on 
the heroic remnants of the Confederacy. In Virginia and the 
east, Washington, situated on the outpost line of the Union, 
and separated by the " border " state of Maryland from Penn- 
sylvania and the North, was for some time in great peril. Virginia, 
and with it the Federal navy yard at Norfolk and the arsenal 
at Harper's Ferry, was controlled by the rebels. Baltimore 
was the scene of a bloody riot as the first Northern regiment 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



819 



(6th Mass.) passed through on its way to Washington on the ipth 
of April, and, until troops could be spared to protect the railway 
through Maryland, all reinforcements for the national capital had 
to be brought up to Annapolis by sea. When that state was 
reduced to order, the Potomac became the front, and, later, the 
base, of the Northern armies. 

3. Missouri and West Virginia. Missouri, at the other flank of 
the line, contained an even stronger Confederate element, and it 
was not without a severe struggle that the energy of Mr (after- 
wards General) F. P. Blair, and of Nathaniel Lyon, the Unionist 
military commander, prevailed over the party of secession. In 
Kentucky the Unionist victory was secured almost without a 
blow, and, even at the end of 1861, the Confederate outposts west 
of the Alleghenies lay no farther north than the line Columbus 
Bowling Green Cumberland Gap, though southern Missouri 
was still a contested ground. Between the Mississippi and the 
mountains the whole of the year was spent by both sides in pre- 
paring for the contest. In the east hostilities began in earnest 
in western Virginia. This part of the state, strongly Unionist, 
had striven to prevent secession, arid soon became itself a state 
of the Union (1863). A force under General G. B. McClellan 
advanced from the Ohio in June and captured Philippi. This 
promptitude was not only dictated by the necessity of preserving 
West Virginia, but imposed by the necessity of holding the 
Baltimore & Ohio railway, which, as the great link between 
east and west, was essential to the Federal armies. A month 
later, an easy triumph was obtained by McClellan and Rosecrans 
against the Confederates of Virginia at Rich Mountain. 

4. First Bull Run. The opposing forces now in the field 
numbered 190,000 Unionists and half that number of Confeder- 
ates; sixty-nine warships flew the Stars and Stripes and a 
number of improvised ironclads and gunboats the rival " Stars 
and Bars. " On the loth of June a Federal force was defeated 
at Big Bethel (near Fortress Monroe), and soon afterwards the 
main Virginian campaign began. On the Potomac the Unionist 
generals McDowell and Patterson commanded respectively the 
forces at Washington and Harper's Ferry, opposed by the 
Confederates under Generals J. E. Johnston and Beauregard 
at Winchester and at Manassas. The forces of these four 
commanders were raw but eager, and the people behind them 
clamoured for a decision. Much against his own judgment, 
Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott, the Federal general-in-chief, 
a veteran of the second war with England and of the war with 
Mexico, felt constrained to order an advance against Beau- 
regard, while Patterson was to hold Johnston in check on the 
Shenandoah. On the 2ist of July took place the first battle of 
Bull Run (q.v.) between McDowell and Beauregard, fought by 
the raw troops of both sides with an obstinacy that foreboded 
the desperate battles of subsequent campaigns. The arrival of 
Johnston on the previous evening and his lieutenant Kirby Smith 
at the crisis of the battle (for Patterson's part in the plan had 
completely failed), turned the scale, and the Federals, not yet 
disciplined to bear the strain of a great battle, broke and fled in 
wild rout. The equally raw Confederates were in no condition to 
pursue. A desultory duel between the forces of Rosecrans and 
Robert E. Lee in West Virginia, which ended in the withdrawal 
of the Confederates, and a few combats on the Potomac (Ball's 
Bluff or Leesburg, October 2 1 ; Dranesville, December 20) , brought 
to a close the first campaign in the east. 

5. Close of the First Year. In the end Bull Run did more 
harm to the victors than to the conquered. The Southerners 
undeniably rested on their laurels, and enabled McClellan, who 
was now called to the chief military command at Washington, to 
raise, organize and train the famous Army of the Potomac, which, 
in defeat and victory, won its reputation as one of the finest 
armies of modern history. Johnston meanwhile was similarly 
employed in fashioning the equally famous Army of northern 
Virginia, which for three years carried the Confederacy on 
its bayonets. It was not until the people was stung by the 
humiliation of Bull Run that the unorganized enthusiasm of the 
North settled down into an invincible determination to crush 
the rebellion at all costs. The men of the South were not less in 



earnest, and the most highly individualized people in the world 
was thus found ready to accept a rigorous discipline as the only 
way to success. In the autumn, a spirited attempt was made by 
the Arkansas Confederates to reoccupy Missouri. Fremont, the 
Federal commander, proved quite unable to deal with this, and 
the gallant Lyon was defeated and killed at Wilson's Creek 
(August 10). Soon afterwards, after a steady resistance, the 
Unionist garrison of Lexington surrendered to Sterling Price. 
But the work of Blair and Lyon had not been in vain, and the 
mere menace of Fremont's advance sufficed to clear the state, 
while General John Pope, by vigorous action in the field and able 
civil administration, restored order and quiet in the northern 
part of the state. In the central theatre (Kentucky), the only 
event of importance was a daring reconnaissance of the Con- 
federate fort at Columbus on the Mississippi by a small 
force under Brigadier-General U. S. Grant (action of Belmont, 
November 7). 

6. The Blockade. Meanwhile the Federal navy had settled 
down to its fourfold task of blockading the enemy's coast against 
the export of cotton and the import of war material, protecting 
the Union commerce afloat, hindering the creation of a Con- 
federate navy and co-operating with the land forces. From 
the first months of the war the sea power of the Federals was 
practically unchallenged, and the whole length of the hostile 
coast-line was open to invasion. But the blockade of 3000 miles 
of coast was a far more formidable task, and international law 
required it to be effective in order to be respected. Nevertheless 
along the whole line some kind of surveillance was established 
long before the close of 1861, and, in proportion as the number 
of vessels available increased, the blockade became more and 
more stringent, until at last it was practically unbreakable at 
any point save by the fastest steamers working under unusually 
favourable conditions of wind and weather. As against the 
civilian enemy the navy strangled commerce; its military pre- 
ponderance nipped in the bud every successive attempt of the 
Confederates to create a fleet (for each new vessel as it emerged 
from the estuary or harbour in which it had been built, was 
destroyed or driven back), while at any given point a secure base 
was available for the far-ranging operations of the Union armies. 
Two hundred and twelve warships or converted merchantmen 
were in commission on the ist of January 1862. There had been 
se veralcoastal successes in 1 86 1 ,notably the occupation of Hatteras 
Inlet, North Carolina, by Commodore S.H. Stringham and General 
B. F. Butler (August 28-29, 1861), and the bombardment and 
capture of Forts Beauregard and Walker at Port Royal, South 
Carolina,by the fleet under Commodore S.F. duPont and the forces 
of General T. W. Sherman (November 7, 1861). Early in 1862 a 
large expedition under General A. E. Burnside and Commodore 
L. M. Goldsborough captured Roanoke Island, and the troops 
penetrated inland as far as Newbern (actions of February 8 and 
March 14). About the same time Fort Pulaski (the main de- 
fence of Savannah, Georgia) was invested and captured. But 
the greatest and most important enterprise was the capture of 
New Orleans (q.v.) by Flag-Officer D. G. Farragut and General 
Butler (April 18-25, 1862). This success opened up the lower 
Mississippi at the same time as the armies of the west began to 
move down that river under Grant, who was always accompanied 
by the gunboat flotilla which had been created on the upper 
waters in 1861. A slight campaign in New Mexico took place 
in February 1862, in which several brilliant tactical successes 
were won by the Texan forces, but -no permanent foothold was 
secured by them. 

7. Fort Donelson. In the early months of 1862 preparations 
on a gigantic scale were made for the conquest of the South. 
McClellan and the Army of the Potomac faced Johnston, who 
with the Army of northern Virginia lay at Manassas, exercising 
and training his men with no less care than his opponent. Major- 
General D. C. Buell in Kentucky had likewise drilled his troops 
to a high state of efficiency and was preparing to move against the 
Confederate general Albert Sidney Johnston, whose reputation 
was that of being the foremost soldier on either side. Farther 
west the troops on both sides were by no means so well trained, 



820 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



yet active operations began on the Tennessee. Here Fort 
Donelson on the Cumberland, Fort Henry on the Tennessee and 
Columbus on the Mississippi guarded the left of the Southern line, 
Sidney Johnston himself maintaining a precarious advanced 
position at Bowling Green, with his lieutenants, Zollicoffer and 
Crittenden, farther east at Mill Springs, and a small force under 
General Marshall in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. The 
last-named was soon defeated by General James A. Garfield at 
Prestonburg, and a few days later General G. H. Thomas won his 
first victory at Mill Springs (Logan's Cross Roads). Zollicoffer 
was killed and his army forced to make a disastrous retreat 
(January 19-20, 1862). The centre of Johnston's line (Forts 
Henry and Donelson) was next attacked by General Grant and 
Flag-Officer A. H. Foote. On the 6th of February Fort Henry 
fell to Foote's gunboat flotilla, and Grant then moved overland 
to Donelson. His troops were raw and possessed no decisive 
superiority in numbers, and sharp fighting took place when the 
garrison of Donelson tried to cut its way out. The attempt 
failed when almost on the point of success, and the Federals, under 
the excellent leadership of Generals C. F. Smith, Lew Wallace 
and McClernand, effected a lodgment in the works. The Con- 
federate commanders proved themselves quite unequal to the 
crisis, and 15,000 men surrendered with the fort on the i6th of 
February. 

8. Island No. 10 and Pea Ridge. This very considerable 
success thrust back Johnston's whole line to New Madrid, 
Corinth and the Memphis & Charleston railway. The left 
flank, even after the evacuation of Columbus, was exposed, and 
the Missouri divisions under Pope quickly seized New Madrid. 
The adjoining river defences of Island No. 10 in the Mississippi 
proved more formidable. Foote's gunboats could, and did, run 
the gauntlet, but a canal had to be cut right round the batteries 
for the transports, before the land forces could cross the river and 
attack the works in rear; when this was accomplished, by the 
skill and energy of all concerned, the place with its garrison of 
7000 men surrendered at once (April 8, 1862). Meanwhile, in 
the Missouri theatre, the Federal general Curtis, outnumbered 
and outmanoeuvred by the forces of Price and Van Dorn, fought, 
and by his magnificent tenacity won, the battle of Pea Ridge 
(March 7-8), which put an end to the war in this quarter. On 
the whole, the first part of the western campaign was uniformly 
a brilliant success for the Federal arms. General H. W. Halleck, 
who was here in control of all the operations of the Federals, had 
meanwhile ordered Grant's force to ascend the Tennessee river 
and operate against Corinth; BuelFs well-disciplined forces were 
to march overland from Nashville to join him, and General 0. M. 
Mitchel with a division was sent straight southwards from the 
same place to cut the Memphis & Charleston line. The latter 
mission, brilliantly as it was executed, failed, through want of 
support, to secure a foothold. Had Halleck reinforced Mitchel, 
that officer might perhaps have forestalled the later victories of 
Grant and Sherman. As it was, the enterprise became a mere 
diversion. 

9. Shiloh. Meanwhile Grant was encamped at Pittsburg 
Landing on the Tennessee with an army of 43,000 men, and Buell 
with 37,000 men about two marches away. Early on the 6th of 
April A. S. Johnston and Beauregard completely surprised the 
camps of Grant's divisions. The battle of Shiloh (?..) was a 
savage scuffle between two half -disciplined hosts, contested with a 
fury rare even in this war. On the 6th the Unionists, scattered 
and unable to combine, were driven from point to point, and at 
nightfall barely held their ground on the banks of the river. 
The losses were enormous on both sides, Johnston himself being 
amongst the killed. The arrival of Buell enabled the Federals 
to take the offensive next morning along the whole line, and by 
sunset on the 7th, after another sanguinary battle, Beauregard 
was in full retreat. Some weeks afterwards, Halleck with the 
combined armies of Grant, Buell and Pope began the siege of 
Corinth, which Beauregard ultimately evacuated a month later. 
Thus the first campaign of the western armies, completed by 
the victory of the gunboat flotilla at Memphis (June 6), 
cleared the Mississippi as far down as Vicksburg, and compelled 



the Confederates to evacuate the Cumberland and a large portion 
of the Tennessee basins. 

10. The Peninsula. Many schemes were discussed between 
McClellan and President Lincoln before the Army of the Potomac 
finally took the offensive in Virginia. It was eventually decided 
that General Banks was to oppose " Stonewall " Jackson in the 
Shenandoah Valley, Fr6mont to hold western Virginia against 
the same general's enterprise, and McDowell with a strong corps 
to advance overland to meet McClellan, who, with the main army, 
was to proceed by sea to Fortress Monroe and thence to advance 
on Richmond. The James river, afterwards so much used for the 
Federal operations, was not yet clear, and it was here, in Hampton 
Roads, that the famous fight took place between the ironclads 
"Merrimac" (or "Virginia") and "Monitor" (March 8-9, 
1862). McClellan's advance was opposed by a small force of Con- 
federates under General Magruder, which, gradually reinforced, 
held the historic position of Yorktown for a whole month, and 
only evacuated it on the 3rd of May. Two days later McClellan's 
advanced troops fought a sharp combat at Williamsburg and the 
Army of the Potomac rendezvoused on the Chickahominy with its 
base at White House on the Pamunkey (May 7). J. E.Johnston 
had, long ere this, fallen back from Manassas towards Rich- 
mond, and the two armies were in touch when a serious check 
was given to McClellan by the brilliant successes of Jackson in 
the Shenandoah Valley. 

it. Jackson's Valley Campaign. The " Valley of Virginia," 
called also the " Granary of the Confederacy," was cut into long 
parallel strips by ridges and rivers, across which passages were 
rare, and along which the Confederates could, with little fear of 
interruption from the east, debouch into Maryland and approach 
Washington itself. Here Stonewall Jackson lay with a small 
force, and in front of him at the outlet of the valley was Banks, 
while Fremont threatened him from West Virginia. Jackson had 
already fought a winter campaign which ended in his defeat at 
the hands of General Shields at Kernstown (March 23). Banks's 
main army, early in May, lay far down the Valley at Strasburg 
and Front Royal, Fremont at the town of McDowell. Jackson's 
first blow fell on part of Fremont's corps, which was sharply 
attacked and driven into the mountains (McDowell, May 8). 
The victor quickly turned upon Banks, destroyed his garrison of 
Front Royal and nearly surrounded his main body; barely 
escaping, Banks was again defeated at Winchester and driven 
back to the Maryland border (May 23-25). These rapid suc- 
cesses paralysed the Federal offensive. McDowell, instead of 
marching to join McClellan, was ordered to the Valley to assist in 
"trapping Jackson," an operation which, at one critical moment 
very near success, ended in the defeat of Fremont at Cross Keys 
and of McDowell's advanced troops at Port Republic (June 8-9) 
and the escape of the daring Confederates with trifling loss. 
McClellan, deprived of McDowell's corps, felt himself reduced to 
impotence, and three Federal armies were vainly marching up and 
down the Valley when Johnston fell with all his forces upon the 
Army of the Potomac. The Federals lay on both sides of the 
Chickahominy river, and at this moment Johnston heard that 
McDowell's arrival need not be feared. The course of the battle 
of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks (q.v.) bore some resemblance to that 
of Shiloh; a sharp attack found the Unionists unprepared, and 
only after severe losses and many partial defeats could McClellan 
check the rebel advance. Here also fortune was against the 
Confederates. J. E. Johnston fell severely wounded, and in the 
end a properly connected and combined advance of the Army of 
the Potomac drove back his successor into the lines of Richmond 
(May 3i-June i). 

12. The Seven Days. Bad weather and skilful defence com- 
pletely checked the assailants^for another three weeks, and the 
situation was now materially altered. Jackson with the Valley 
troops hadstealthily left Harrisonburg by rail on the 1 7th of June, 
and was now at Ashland in McClellan's rear. General Lee, who 
had succeeded Johnston in the command of the Army of northern 
Virginia, proposed to attack the Federals in their line of com- 
munication with White House, and passed most of his forces 
round to the aid of Jackson. The Seven Days' Battle (q.v.) 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



821 



opened with the combat of Mechanicsville on the z6th of June, 
and the battle of Games' Mill on the 27th. Lee soon cut the 
communication with White House, but McClellan changedhis base 
and retreated towards Harrison's Landing on the James river. It 
was some time before Lee realized this. In the end the Federals 
were sharply pursued, but McClellan had gained a long start and, 
fighting victoriously almost every day, at length placed himself 
in a secure position on the James, which was now patrolled by the 
Federal warships (June 26-July i). But the second advance on 
Richmond was clearly a strategical failure. 

13. The Campaign of Perryville. After the capture of Corinth 
Halleck had suspended the Federal advance all along the line in 
the west, and many changes took place about this time. Halleck 
went to Washington as general-in-chief , Pope was transferred to 
Virginia, Grant, with his own Army of the Tennessee and Rose- 
crans's (lately Pope's) Army of the Mississippi, was entrusted 
with operations on the latter river, while Buell's Army of the 
Ohio was ordered to east Tennessee to relieve the inhabitants of 
that district, who, as Unionist sympathizers, were receiving harsh 
treatment from the Confederate and state authorities. Late in 
July Braxton Bragg, who had succeeded Beauregard in command 
of the Confederates, transferred his forces to the neighbourhood 
of Chattanooga. Tennessee was thenceforward to be the central 
theatre of war, and too late it was recognized that Mitchel should 
have been supported in the spring. The forces left south of 
Corinth were enough to occupy the attention of Grant and Rose- 
crans, and almost contemporaneously with Lee's advance on 
Washington (see below), Price and Bragg took the offensive 
against Grant and Buell respectively. The latter early in August 
lay near Murfreesboro, covering Nashville, but the Confederate 
general did not intend to threaten that place. The valleys and 
ridges of eastern Tennessee screened him as he rapidly marched 
on Louisville and Cincinnati. The whole of the Southern army in 
the west swung round on its left wing as the pivot, and Buell only 
just reached Louisville before his opponent. The Washington 
authorities, thoroughly dissatisfied, ordered him to turn over the 
command to General Thomas, but the latter magnanimously 
declined the offer, and Buell on the 8th of October fought the 
sanguinary and indecisive battle of Perryville, in consequence of 
which Bragg retired to Chattanooga. 

14. The Western Campaign. The Union leader was now 
ordered once more to east Tennessee, but he protested that want 
of supplies made such a move impossible. Rosecrans, the victor 
of Corinth and luka (see below) , was thereupon ordered to replace 
him. Buell's failure to appreciate political considerations as a 
part of strategy justified his recall, but the value of his work, like 
that of McClellan, can hardly be measured by marches and 
victories. The disgraced general was not again employed, but the 
men of the Army of the Ohio retained throughout, as did those of 
the Army of the Potomac, the impress of their first general's 
discipline and training. Sterling Price in the meanwhile had been 
ordered forward against Grant and Rosecrans, and Van Dorn 
promised his assistance. Before the latter could come up, how- 
ever, Rosecrans defeated Price at luka (September 19). The 
Confederates, not dismayed thereby, effected their junction and 
moved on Corinth, which was defended by Rosecrans and 23,000 
Federal troops. Grant's other forces were split up into detach- 
ments, and when Van Dorn, boldly marching right round Rose- 
crans, descended upon Corinth from the north, Grant could 
hardly stir to help his subordinate. Rosecrans, however, won the 
battle of Corinth (October 3-4), though on the evening of the 
3rd he had been in a perilous position. The Confederates fell 
back to the southward, escaping Grant once more, and thus ended 
the Confederate advance in the West. 

15. Pope's Campaign in Virginia. The Army of Virginia 
under Pope was composed of the troops lately chasing Jackson 
in the Valley Fremont's (now Sigel's), Banks's and McDowell's 
corps. Halleck (at the Washington headquarters) began by 
withdrawing McClellan from the James to assist Pope in central 
Virginia; Lee, thus released from any fear for the safety of 
Richmond, turned swiftly upon Pope. That officer desired to 
concentrate his command on Gordonsville, but Jackson was before 



him at that place, and he fell back on Culpeper. On the gth of 
August Banks and Jackson joined battle once more at Cedar 
Mountain (or Cedar Run) ; the Federals, though greatly inferior 
in numbers, attacked with much vigour. Banks was eventually 
beaten, but he had come very near to success, and Jackson soon 
retired across the Rapidan, where (the Army of the Potomac 
having now begun to leave the James) Lee joined him (August 
1 7) with the corps of Longstreet. Pope now fell back behind 
the Rappahannock without showing fight. Here Halleck's orders 
bade him cover both Washington and Aquia Creek (whence the 
Army of the Potomac was to join him), orders almost impossible 
of execution, as any serious change of position necessarily un- 
covered one of these lines. The leading troops of the Army of the 
Potomac were now landed, and set out to join Pope's army, which 
faced Longstreet and Jackson on the Rappahannock between 
Bealton and Waterloo. On the 24th of August Lee ordered 
Jackson to march round Pope's right wing and descend on his rear 
through Thoroughf are.Gap on Manassas and the old battle-ground 
of 1 86 1. Pope was at this moment about to take the offensive, 
when a violent storm swelled the rivers and put an end to all 
movement. On the 26th of August the daring flank march of 
Jackson's corps ended at Manassas Station (see BULL RUN). 
Longstreet followed Jackson, and Lee's army was reunited on 
the battlefield. By the ist of September the campaign of 
" Second Manassas " was over. Pope's army and such of the 
troops of the Army of the Potomac as had been involved in the 
catastrophe were driven, tired and disheartened, into the 
Washington lines. The Confederates were once more masters of 
eastern Virginia. 

1 6. Antietam. It was at this moment that Bragg was in the 
full tide of his temporary success in Tennessee and Kentucky, 
and, after his great victory of Second Bull Run, Lee naturally 
invaded Maryland, which, it was assumed, had not forgotten its 
Southern sympathies. But Lee received no real accession of 
strength, and when McClellan with all available forces moved out 
of Washington to encounter the Army of northern Virginia, the 
Confederates were still but a few marches from the point where 
they had crossed the Potomac. Lee had again divided his army. 
On the I3th of September Jackson was besieging 11,000 Federals 
in Harper's Ferry, Longstreet was at Hagerstown, Stuart's 
cavalry holding the passes of the South Mountain, while 
McClellan's whole army lay at Frederick. Here extraordinary 
good fortune put into the enemy's hands a copy of Lee's orders, 
from which it was clear that the Confederates were dangerously 
dispersed. Had McClellan moved at once he could have seized 
the passes without difficulty, as he was aware that he had only 
cavalry to oppose him. But the I3th was spent in idleness, and 
stubborn infantry now held the passes. A serious and costly 
action had to be fought before the way was cleared (battle 
of South Mountain, September 14). On the following day 
Harper's Ferry capitulated after a weak defence. Jackson there- 
upon swiftly rejoined Lee, leaving only a division to carry out the 
capitulation. On the i6th McClellan found Lee in position behind 
the Antietam Creek, and on the i7th was fought the sanguinary 
and obstinately contested battle of Antietam (q.v.) or Sharpsburg. 
At the price of enormous losses both sides escaped defeat in the 
field, but Lee's offensive was at an end and he retired into 
Virginia. Thenceforward the Confederacy was purely on the 
defensive. Only twice more did the forces of the South strike 
out (Gettysburg, 1863; Nashville, 1864), and then the offensive 
was more of a counter-attack than an advance. 

17. Vicksburg in 1862. The Confederate failures of Corinth, 
Perryville and Antietam were followed by a general advance by 
the Federals. It is about this time that Vicksburg becomes a 
place of importance. Farragut from New Orleans, and the gun- 
boat flotilla from the upper waters, had engaged the batteries in 
June and July, but had returned to their respective stations, 
while a Federal force under General Williams, which had appeared 
before the fortress, retired to Baton Rouge. Early in August, 
Van Dorn, now in command of the place, sent a force to attack 
Williams, and on the sth a hard-fought action took place at 
Baton Rouge, in which Williams was killed but his troops held 



822 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



their own. At this time the minor fortress of Port Hudson was 
established to guard the rear of Vicksburg. In November 
Grant, with 57,000 men, began to move down from the north 
against General J. C. Pemberton, who had superseded the 
talented Van Dorn. A converging movement made by Grant 
from Grand Junction, W. T. Sherman from Memphis, and a force 
from Helena on the Arkansas side, failed, owing to Pemberton's 
prompt retirement to Oxford, Mississippi, and complications 
brought about by the intrigues of an able but intractable sub- 
ordinate, McClernand, induced Grant to make a complete change 
of plan. Sherman was to proceed down the great river, and join 
the ships from the Gulf before Vicksburg, while Grant himself 
drove Pemberton southwards along the Mississippi Central 
railway. This double plan failed. Grant, as he pushed 
Pemberton before him to Granada, lengthened day by day his 
line of communication, and when Van Dorn, ever enterprising, 
raided the great Federal depot of Holly Springs the game was up. 
Grant retired hastily, for starvation was imminent, and Pember- 
ton, thus freed, turned upon Sherman, and inflicted a severe 
defeat on that general at Chickasaw Bayou near Vicksburg 
(December 29). McClernand now assumed command, and on 
the nth of January 1863 captured Fort Hindman near Arkansas 
Post. This was the solitary gain of the whole operation. Mean- 
while Vicksburg was steadily becoming stronger and more 
formidable. 

18. Fredericksburg. McClellan, after the battle of the 
Antietam, paused for some time to reorganize his forces, some of 
which had barely recovered from the effects of Pope's unlucky 
campaign. He then slowly moved down the east side of the Blue 
Ridge, while Lee retired up the Valley on the west side of the same 
range. On the 6th of November the Army of the Potomac was at 
Warrenton, Lee at Culpeper, and Jackson in the Valley. When 
on the point of resuming the offensive, McClellan was suddenly 
superseded by Burnside, one of his corps commanders. Like 
Buell, McClellan had tempered the tools with which others were 
to strike; he was not again employed, and in his fall was involved 
his most brilliant subordinate, Fitz John Porter (<?..). Burnside 
was by no means the equal of his predecessor, though a capable 
subordinate, and indeed only accepted the chief command with 
reluctance. He began his campaign by cancelling McClellan's 
operation, and, his own plan being to strike at Richmond from 
Fredericksburg, he moved the now augmented army to Falmouth 
opposite that place, hoping to surprise the crossing of the Rappa- 
hannock. Delays and neglect, not only at the front, but on the 
part of the headquarters staff at Washington, permitted Lee to 
seize the heights of the southern bank in time. When Burnside 
fought his battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.) an appalling reverse 
was the result, the more terrible as it was absolutely useless 
(December 13). 

19. Closing Operations of 1862. Chickasaw Bayou and 
Fredericksburg ended the Federal initiative in the west and the 
east; the Army of the Cumberland under Rosecrans alone could 
claim a victory. Buell's successor retained the positions about 
Nashville, whilst a new Army of the Ohio prepared to operate in 
east Tennessee. Bragg lay at Murfreesboro (see STONE RIVER), 
where Rosecrans attacked him on the 3 ist of December 1862. A 
very obstinate and bloody two days' battle ended in Bragg's 
retirement towards Chattanooga. During these campaigns the 
United States navy had not been idle. The part played by the 
gunboats on the upper Mississippi had been most conspicuous, 
as had been the operations of Farragut's heavier ships in the lower 
waters of the same river. The work of Du Pont and Goldsborough 
on the Atlantic coast has been alluded to above. Charleston was 
attacked without success in 1862, but from June to August 1863 
it was besieged by General Gillmore and Admiral Dahlgren, and 
under great difficulties the Federals secured a lodgment, though 
it was not until Sherman appeared on the land side early in 
1865 that the Confederate defence collapsed. Fort Fisher near 
Wilmington also underwent a memorable siege by land and sea. 
Certain incursions were from time to time made at different 
points along the whole sea-board. Minor operations moreover, 
especially in Arkansas and southern Missouri, were continually 



undertaken by both sides during 1862-1863, of which the battle 
of Prairie Grove, Arkansas (December 7, 1862), was the most 
notable incident. Meanwhile the blockade had become so stringent 
that few ordinary vessels could expect to break through, and a 
special type of steamer came into vogue for the purpose. 

20. Capture of Vicksburg. In 1863 the campaigns once more 
divided themselves accurately into those of east, centre and 
west. This year saw the greatest successes and the heaviest 
reverses of the Union army, Gettysburg and Vicksburg and 
Chattanooga against Chancellorsville and Chickamauga. Opera- 
tions began in the west with the second advance upon Vicksburg. 
One corps of the Army of the Tennessee was detached to cover 
the Memphis & Charleston railway. Grant, with the other 
three under Sherman, McClernand and McPherson, moved by 
water to the neighbourhood of the fortress. Many weeks passed 
without any success to the Union arms. Vicksburg and its long 
line of fortifications stood on high bluffs, all else was swampy 
lowlandand intricate waterways. As Sherman in 1862, so now 
Grant was unable to obtain any foothold on the high ground, and 
no effective attack was possible until this had been gained. At 
last, after many trials and failures, Grant took a daring step. 
The troops with their supplies marched round through a network 
of lakes and streams to a point south of Vicksburg; Admiral 
Porter's gunboats and the transports along with them " ran " 
the batteries. At Bruinsburg, beyond Pemberton's reach, a 
landing was made on the eastern bank and, without any base of 
supplies or line of retreat, Grant embarked upon a campaign 
which made him in the end master of the prize. On the 4th 
of July Pemberton surrendered the fortress and 37,000 men. 
Grant's endurance and daring had won what was perhaps the 
greatest success of the war. General Joseph Johnston with a 
small relieving army had appeared at Jackson, Mississippi, but 
had been held in check by General F. P. Blair and a force from the 
Army of the Tennessee; when Vicksburg surrendered a larger 
force was at once sent against him, whereupon he retired. In the 
meanwhile Banks had moved upstream from New Orleans, and 
laid siege to Port Hudson. Operations were pressed with vigour, 
and the place surrendered four days after Vicksburg. A Con- 
federate attack on the post of Helena, Arkansas, was the last 
serious fight on the great river, and before the end of July the first 
merchant steamer from St Louis discharged her cargo at New 
Orleans. 

21. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. In Virginia Burnside had 
made, in January 1863, an attempt to gain by manoeuvre what he 
had missed in battle. The sudden swelling of rivers and down- 
pour of rain stopped all movement at once, and the " Mud 
March " came to an end. A Federal general could retain his hold 
on the men after a reverse, but not after a farce: Burnside was 
replaced by General Joseph Hooker, who had a splendid reputa- 
tion as a subordinate leader. The new commander displayed 
great energy in reorganizing the Army of the Potomac, the 
discipline of which had not come unscathed through a career of 
failure. Lee still held the battlefield of Fredericksburg and had 
not attempted the offensive, and in April he was much weakened 
by thedetachmentof Longstreet 's corps to a minor theatre of opera- 
tions. Hooker's operations began well, Lee was outmanceuvred 
and threatened in flank and rear, but the Federals were in the 
end involved in the confused and disastrous battle of Chancellors- 
ville (q.v.). Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded, but his 
men and those of Longstreet's who had remained with Lee 
defeated Hooker and forced him to retire again beyond the 
Rappahannock, though he had double Lee's force. But Hooker 
could at least make himself obeyed, and when Lee initiated 
his second invasion of the North a month after the battle of 
Chancellorsville, the Army ,01 the Potomac was as resolute as 
ever. On the 9th of June the cavalry combat of Brandy Station 
made it clear to the Federal staff that Lee was about to use the 
Valley once more to screen an invasion of Maryland. Longstreet, 
A. P. Hill and Ewell (who were now Lee's corps commanders) 
were at one time scattered from Strasburg in the Valley to 
Fredericksburg, and Hooker earnestly begged to be allowed to 
attack them in detail. Success was certain, but the scheme was 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



823 



vetoed by the Federal headquarters and government, whose 
first and ruling idea was to keep the Army of the Potomac 
between Lee and Washington. Hooker was thus compelled to 
follow Lee's movements. Ewell's men were raiding unchecked 
as far north as the Susquehanna, while Hooker was compelled to 
inactivity before the forces of Hill and Longstreet. The Federal 
general, within his limitations, acted prudently and skilfully. The 
Army of the Potomac crossed that river only one day later than 
Lee, and concentrated at Frederick. But Hooker was no longer 
trusted by the Washington authorities, and his dispositions were 
interfered with. Not allowed to control the operations of his own 
men, the unfortunate general resigned his command on the 28th. 
He was succeeded by General G. G. Meade, who, besides steadi- 
ness and ability, possessed the confidence of Lincoln and Halleck 
which Hooker had lacked. Meade was thus able to move 
promptly, Lee was compelled to meet him, and the Army of the 
Potomac began to take up its position on Pipe Creek, screened by 
Generals Reynolds and Buford at Gettysburg (q.v.). On the ist 
of July the heads of Lee's columns engaged Buford's cavalry out- 
posts, and the conflict began. All troops on both sides hurried 
to the unexpected battlefield, and after a great three days' 
battle, the Army of the Potomac emerged at last with a decisive 
victory. On the 4th, as Pemberton surrendered at Vicksburg, 
Lee drew off his shattered forces. One third of the Army of 
northern Virginia and one quarter of the Army of the Potomac 
remained on the field. Pursuit was not seriously undertaken, and 
the armies manoeuvred back to the old battle-grounds of the 
Rapidan and the Rappahannock. A war of manoeuvre followed, 
each side being reduced in turn by successive detachments sent 
to aid Rosecrans and Bragg in the struggle for Tennessee. In 
October Lee attempted a third Bull Run campaign on the same 
lines as the second, but Meade's steadiness foiled him, and he 
retired to the Rapidan again, where he in turn repulsed Meade's 
attempt to surprise him (Mine Run, November 26-28, 1863). 

22. Chickamauga. In the centre Rosecrans and Bragg spent 
the first six months of the year, as it were glaring at each other. 
Nothing was done by the main armies, but the far-ranging 
cavalry raids of the Confederates under J. H. Morgan and other 
leaders created much excitement, especially " Morgan's Raid " 
(June 27-July 26), through Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio, which 
states had hitherto little or no experience of the war on their 
own soil. At last the Army of the Cumberland advanced. 
Rosecrans manoeuvred his opponent out of one position after 
another until Bragg was driven back into Chattanooga. These 
operations were very skilfully conducted by Rosecrans and his 
second-in-command, Thomas, and, at a trifling cost, advanced 
the Union outposts to the borders of Georgia. Burnside and the 
new Army of the Ohio had now cleared east Tennessee and 
occupied Knoxville (September 2), and meanwhile Rosecrans 
by a brilliant movement, in which he displayed no less daring in 
execution than skill in planning, once more manoeuvred Bragg out 
of his position and occupied Chattanooga. But he had to fight to 
maintain his prize, and in the desperate battle of Chickamauga 
(q.v.) on the ipth and 2oth of September, Bragg, reinforced by 
Longstreet from Virginia, won a complete victory. Thomas's 
defence won him the popular title of the " Rock of Chicka- 
mauga " and enabled Rosecrans to draw off his men, but the 
critical position of the Army of the Cumberland in Chattanooga 
aroused great alarm. 

23. Chattanooga. Grant was now given supreme command in 
the west, and the Army of the Tennessee (now under Sherman) 
and two corps from Virginia under Hooker were hurried by rail to 
Tennessee. In spite of his good record Rosecrans was deprived of 
his command. But Thomas, his successor, was one of the greatest 
soldiers of the war, and Grant's three generals, all men of great 
ability, set to work promptly. Hooker defeated Longstreet at 
Wauhatchie and revictualled Chattanooga (<?..), and on the 
23rd, 24th and 25th of November the three armies attacked 
Bragg's position. On the left Sherman made little progress; on 
the right, however, Hooker and the men from the Potomac army 
fought and won the extraordinary " Battle above the Clouds " 
on Lookout Mountain, and on the 25th the Confederate centre 



on Missionary Ridge was brilliantly stormed by Thomas and the 
Army of the Cumberland. Grant's triumph was decisive of the 
war in the west, and with Burnside's victory over Longstreet at 
Knoxville, the struggle for Tennessee was over. Vicksburg, 
Gettysburg and Chattanooga ended the crisis of the war, which 
had been at its worst for the Union in this year. Henceforth the 
South was fighting a hopeless battle. 

24. Plan of Campaign for 1864. Grant, now the foremost 
soldier in the Federal army, was on the.gth of March 1864 com- 
missioned lieutenant-general and appointed general-in-chief. 
Halleck, Lincoln and Stanton, the intractable, if energetic, 
war secretary, now stood aside, and the efforts of the whole vast 
army were to be directed and co-ordinated by one supreme 
military authority. Sherman was to command in the west, 
Grant's headquarters accompanied Meade and the Army of the 
Potomac. The general plan was simple and comprehensive. 
Meade was to " hammer " Lee, and Sherman, at the head of the 
armies which had been engaged at Chattanooga and Knoxville, 
was to deal with the other great field army of Confederates under 
Johnston, and as far as possible gain ground for the Union in the 
south-east. Sherman's own plans went farther still, and in- 
cluded an eventual invasion of Virginia itself from the south, but 
this was not contemplated as part of the immediate programme. 
Butler with the new Army of the James was to move up that 
river towards Richmond and Petersburg. Subsidiary forces were 
to operate on the sea-board, in the Shenandoah Valley and else- 
where. At this time took place the Red River Expedition, which 
was intended for the subjugation of western Louisiana. The 
troops of General Banks and the war vessels under Admiral 
Porter moved up the Red river, and on the i6th of March 1864 
reached Alexandria. Skirmishing constantly with the Confeder- 
ates under Kirby Smith and Taylor, the Federals eventually 
on the 8th and gth of April suffered serious reverses at Sabine 
Cross Roads and Pleasant Hill. Banks thereupon retreated, and, 
high water in the river having come to an end, the fleet was in the 
gravest danger of being cut off, until Colonel Bailey suggested, 
and rapidly carried out, the construction of a dam and weir over 
which the ships ran down to the lower waters. Eventually the 
various forces retired to the places whence they had come. 

25. The Wilderness Campaign. Virginia was now destined to 
be the scene of the bloodiest fighting of the whole war. Grant 
and Meade, reinforced by Burnside's IX. Corps to a strength of 
120,000 men, crossed the Rapidan on the 4th of May with the 
intention of attacking Lee's inner flank, that nearer Richmond. 
With a bare 70,000 men the Confederate general struck at the 
flank of Grant's marching columns in that same Wilderness where 
Jackson had won his last battle twelve months before. The 
battle of the Wilderness (q.v.) went on for two days, with little 
advantage to either side. On his part Grant had lost 18,000 men. 
Lee had lost fewer, but could ill spare them, and Longstreet 
had been severely wounded (May 5-6). Grant, astonished 
perhaps, but here as always resolute, tried again to reach Lee's 
right wing, and on the 8th another desperate battle began at 
Spottsylvania (q.v.) Court House. The fighting on this field 
lasted ten days, at the end of which Grant had doubled his losses 
and was as far as ever from success. On the 2ist of May, T 
with extraordinary pertinacity, he sent Meade and Burnside once 
more against the inner flank of the Army of northern Virginia. 
The action of North Anna ended like the rest, though on this 
occasion the loss was small. A week later the Federals, again 
moving to their left, arrived upon the ground on which McClellan 
had fought two years before, and at Cold Harbor (Porter's battle- 
field of Games' Mill) the leading troops of the Army of the James 
joined the lieutenant-general. Meanwhile the minor armies had 
come to close quarters all along the line. The Army of the James 
moved towards Richmond on the same day on which the Army of 
the Potomac crossed the Rapidan. On the i6th of May Butler 
fought the indecisive battle of Drury's Bluff against Beauregard, 
in consequence of which he had to retire to Bermuda Hundred, 
whence most of his troops were sent to join Grant. At the same 
time the Union troops under Sigel in the Shenandoah Valley were 
defeated at New Market (May 15). General Hunter, who 



824 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



replaced Sigel, won a combat at Piedmont, and marched on the 
8th of June towards Lynchburg. The danger threatening this 
important point caused Lee to send thither General Early with 
the remnants of Jackson's old Valley troops. Hunter's assault 
(June 1 8) failed, and the Federals, unable to hold their ground, 
had to make a circuitous retreat to the Potomac by way of West 
Virginia. 

26. Cold Harbor. On the 3rd of June at Cold Harbor (q.v.) 
took place the last of Grant's " hammering " battles in the open 
fields. The attack of the Federals failed utterly; not even 
Fredericksburg was so disastrous a defeat. Six thousand men 
fell in one hour's fighting, and the total losses on this field, where 
skirmisliing went on for many days, were 13,000. But Grant was 
as resolute as ever. His forces once more manoeuvred against 
Lee's inner flank, still found no weak spot, and eventually arrived 
upon the James. The river was crossed, Lee as usual conforming 
to the movement, and on the i5th of June the Federals appeared 
before the works of Petersburg (q.v.). Here, and in the narrow 
neck of land between the Appomattox and the James, was the 
ganglion of the Confederacy, and the struggle for its possession 
was perhaps the greatest of modern history. A first assault 
made at once (June 15-18) failed with a loss of 8150 men. 
Two sharp combats followed on the 22nd of June and the 2nd 
of July, as Grant once more began to feel Lee's right. But the 
anniversary of Gettysburg saw Lee's works still intact, and 
72,000 men of the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the 
James had fallen since the campaign had opened two months 
before. History has few examples to show comparable to this 
terrible campaign in Virginia. The ruthless determination of the 
superior leaders had been answered splendidly by the devotion of 
the troops, but the men of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg were 
mostly dead or wounded, and the recruits attracted by bounties 
or compelled by the " draft," which had at last been enforced in 
the North, proved far inferior soldiers to the gallant veterans 
whom they replaced. 

27. Petersburg. There was no formal siege of Lee's position. 
A vast network of fortifications covered the front of both armies, 
whose flank extended far to the south-west, Grant seeking to 
capture, Lee to defend, the Danville railway by which the Con- 
federates received their supplies. Richmond, though no longer 
of paramount importance, was no less firmly held than Peters- 
burg, and along the whole long line fighting went on with little 
interruption. On the 3oth of July the Federal engineers exploded 
a mine under the hostile works, and Burnside's corps rushed to 
the assault. But the attempt ended in failure the first defeat 
of the Army of the Potomac which could fairly be called dis- 
creditable. Still, Lee was losing men, few it is true, but most 
precious, since it was impossible to replace them, while the North 
poured unlimited numbers into the Federal camps. The policy 
of " attrition " upon which Grant had embarked, and which he 
was carrying through regardless of his losses, was having its effect. 
About this time Early, freed from the opposition of Hunter's 
forces, made a bold stroke upon Washington. Crossing the 
Potomac, he marched eastward, and, defeating a motley force 
(action of the Monocacy) which General Lew Wallace had collected 
to oppose him, appeared before the lines of Washington. The 
Federal capital was at the moment almost denuded of troops, and 
forces hastily despatched from the James only arrived just in 
time to save it. Thereupon the Confederates retired, narrowly 
escaping Hunter, and the brief campaign came to an end with 
an engagement at Kernstown. Early had been nearer to the 
immediate success than Lee had been in 1862 and 1863, but 
he had failed utterly to relax Grant's hold on Petersburg, 
which was becoming daily more crushing. 

On the decisive theatre the Federals made their way, little by 
little and at a heavy cost, to the Weldon railway, and beyond 
it to the westward. Lee's lines were becoming dangerously 
extended, but he could not allow the enemy to cut him off from 
the west. On the 25th of August there was a battle at Reams 
Station, in which the Federals were forced back, and the famous 
II. Corps under Hancock was for the first time routed. But Grant 
was tireless, and five days later another battle was fought, at 



Peebles Farm, in which the lost ground was regained. Butler and 
the Army of the James at the same time won some successes in 
front of the Richmond works. One more attempt to outflank Lee 
to the westward was made by Grant without success, before 
winter came on, and the campaign closed with an expedition, 
under the direction of General Warren, which destroyed the 
Weldon line. Grant had not reached Lee's flank at any point, 
and his casualties from first to last had been unprecedentedly 
heavy, but " hammering " was steadily prevailing where skill and 
valour had failed. 

28. Sheridan's Valley Campaign. In the closing months of the 
year Grant's brilliant cavalry commander Sheridan had been 
put in command of an army to operate against Early in the 
Valley. The Federals in this quarter had hitherto suffered from 
want of unity in the command (e.g. Banks, Fremont and 
McDowell in 1862). The Army of the Shenandoah would not be 
thus handicapped, for Sheridan was a leader of exceptional 
character. The first encounter took place on the Opequan near 
Winchester. Early was defeated, but not routed(September 19), 
and another "battle took place near Strasburg (Fisher's Hill) on 
the 22nd. Always disposing of superior numbers, Sheridan on 
this occasion won an important victory without much loss. A 
combat which took place, at Mount Jackson, during the pursuit, 
again ended successfully, and the triumphant Federals retired 
down the Valley, ruthlessly destroying everything which might 
be of the slightest value to the enemy. Early sharply followed 
them up, his men infuriated by the devastation of the " Granary 
of the Confederacy." At Cedar Creek (q.v.), during a momentary 
absence of the Federal commander, his camps were surprised by 
Early (October 19). The Army of the Shenandoah was routed 
and driven towards the Potomac. But the gallant stand of the 
old Potomac troops of the VI. Corps checked the Confederates. 
Sheridan arrived on the scene to find a new battle in progress. 
He was at his best at such a moment, and the rallied Federals 
under his command swept all before them. The victory was 
decisive, and, the country being now bare of supplies, the Army 
of the Shenandoah was sent to reinforce Grant, while the remnant 
of Early's forces also went to Petersburg. Sheridan's campaign 
was a famous episode of the war. It was conducted with skill, 
though, with twice the numbers of the enemy at his command, 
Sheridan's victory was a foregone conclusion. But he had at 
least shown that he possessed to an unusual degree the real 
attribute of a great captain power over men. 

29. Sherman and Johnston. Meanwhile Sherman had fought his 
Atlanta campaign. General Johnston opposed him almost on the 
old Chickamauga battle-ground, where the Federal commander, 
after a brief campaign in Mississippi and Alabama, the result 
of which was to clear his right flank (February 3-March 6, 
1864), collected his armies the Army of the Tennessee under 
McPherson, the Army of the CumberlandunderThomas (Hooker's 
troops had now become part of this army) and the Army of the 
Ohio under Schofield. In the celebrated campaign of Atlanta the 
highest manoeuvring skill was displayed by both the famous 
commanders. Whilst Grant, with his avowed object of crushing 
Lee's army, lost no opportunity of fighting a battle cofite que cotite, 
Sherman, intent rather on the conquest of territory, acted on 
different lines. Johnston, than whom there was no better soldier 
in the Confederate service when a careful defence was required, 
disposed of sensibly inferior forces, and it was to be expected that 
the 18th-century methods of making war by manceuvring and by 
combats, not battles, would receive a modern illustration in 
Georgia. Operations began early in May 1864, and five days of 
manceuvring and skirmishing about Resaca and Rocky Face 
ended in Johnston's retirement to Resaca. A fortnight later 
the same manceuvres, combined with constant " tapping " at the 
Confederate defences, caused him to fall back again. At Adairs- 
ville the same process was gone through, and Johnston retired to 
Cassville, where he offered battle. Sherman was far too wary to 
be drawn into an action under unfavourable conditions. If each 
general had been able to obtain a great battle upon his own terms, 
each would have fought most willingly, for neither desired a use- 
less prolongation of the war. As it was, both declined to risk a 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



825 



decision. Johnston's inferiority in numbers was now becoming 
lessened as Sherman had to detach more and more troops to his 
ever-lengthening communications with Chattanooga. Another 
manoeuvre brought about a heavy combat near Dallas (Pickett's 
Mills and New Hope Church, May 25-27). After a time 
Johnston fell back, and on the 6th of June the Federals appeared 
before Marietta (q.v.) . Hitherto neither leader had offered a weak 
spot to his opponent, though the constant skirmishing had caused 
a loss of oooo men to Sherman and about two-thirds of that 
number to the Confederates. At this moment Sherman suddenly 
changed his policy and sent his troops straight against the hostile 
entrenchments. The neighbourhood of Marietta witnessed for the 
next fortnight very heavy fighting, notably at Pine Mountain on 
the i4th and Kenesaw on the 27th, both actions being frontal 
assaults gallantly pushed home and as gallantly repulsed. 
Sherman acted thus in order to teach his own men and the enemy 
that he was not " afraid," and the lesson was not valueless. He 
then resumed his manoeuvring, which was now facilitated by 
improved weather and better roads. 

30. Atlanta. Johnston in due time evacuated the Marietta lines. 
On the 7th of July his fortifications on the Chattahoochee river 
were turned, and he fell back into the Atlanta (q.v.) position, 
which was carefully prepared, like all the others, beforehand. 
Here Johnston was deprived of his command. His campaign had 
not been unsuccessful, for Sherman had never succeeded in taking 
him at a disadvantage, but the whole of the South, including 
President Davis and his chief of staff General Bragg, clamoured 
for a more " energetic " policy, and General J. B. Hood was put 
in command on the understanding that he should " fight." The 
new general, whose bold and skilful leading had been conspicuous 
on most of the Virginia battlefields, promptly did so. At first 
successful, the Confederates had in the end to retire. A few days 
after this battle (called Peach Tree Creek) took place the battle 
of Atlanta, which was fiercely contested by the veterans of both 
sides, and in which McPherson, one of the best generals in the 
Union army, was killed. Still, Hood was again beaten. The 
Army of the Tennessee, under its new commander General O. O. 
Howard, fought and won the battle of Ezra Church on the 28th 
of July, and, Atlanta being now nearly surrounded, Hood was 
compelled to adopt the Fabian methods of his predecessor, and 
fell back to the southward. An attack on the Army of the Ohio 
near Jonesboro concluded the Atlanta campaign, which left 
Sherman in control of Atlanta, but hampered by the neces- 
sity of preserving his communications with Chattanooga and 
weakened by a total loss of 30,000 men. In this celebrated 
campaign the American generals rivalled if they did not excel 
the exploits of Marlborough, Eugene and Villars, under allied 
conditions. 

31. The March to the Sea. Although General Canby, with a 
Federal force in the south, had been ordered to capture Mobile 
early in the year after which he was to operate towards Atlanta 
Mobile still flew the Confederate flag, and Hood, about to 
resume the offensive, was thus able to base himself on Mont- 
gomery in order to attack Sherman in flank and rear. But 
the Federal commander was not to be shaken off from his prize. 
He held firmly to Atlanta, clearing the city of non-combat- 
ants and in other ways making ready for a stubborn defence. 
Thomas and the Army of the Cumberland were sent back to 
guard Tennessee. A heavy attack on the post of Allatoona (to 
the garrison of which Sherman sent the famous message, " Hold 
the fort, for I am coming ") was repulsed (October 5). The 
main armies quickly regained contact, each edging away north- 
westwards towards the Tennessee and coming into contact at 
Gaylesville, Alabama, and again at Decatur. General Slocum 
with Hooker's old Potomac troops garrisoned Atlanta, and every 
important post along the railway to Chattanooga was held in 
force. Sherman had now resolved to execute his plan of a march 
through Georgia to the sea and thence through the Carolinas 
towards Virginia, destroying everything of military value en 
route. With the provisos that if Lee turned upon Sherman, Grant 
must follow him up sharply ,"and that Thomas could be left to deal 
with Hood (both of which could be, and were, done), the scheme 



might well be decisive of the war. Preparations were carefully 
made. Fifty thousand picked men were to march through 
Georgia with Sherman, and Thomas was to be reinforced by all 
other forces available. There was no force to oppose the " March 
to the Sea." Hood was far away on the Tennessee, which he 
crossed on the 2gth of October at Tuscumbia, making for 
Nashville. Want of supplies checked the Confederates after a 
few marches, while Schofield was pressing forward to meet them 
at Pulaski and Thomas was gathering, at Nashville, a motley army 
drawn from all parts of the west. It was at this same time that 
Sherman broke up his railway communication, destroying Atlanta 
as a place of arms, and set out on his adventurous expedition. 
There was little in his path. Skirmishes at Macon and Milledge- 
ville alone varied the daily routine of railway-breaking and 
supply-finding, in which a belt of country 60 m. wide was absol- 
utely cleared. On the loth of December the army, thoroughly 
invigorated by its march, appeared before the defences of 
Savannah. On the I3th of December a division stormed Fort 
McAllister, and communication was opened with the Federal 
fleet. The march concluded with the occupation of Savannah 
on the 2oth. 

32. Nashville. Hood, at a loss to divine Sherman's purpose, 
hastened on into Tennessee amidst weather which would have 
stopped most troops. Schofield met him on the Duck river, while 
Thomas was shaping his army in rear. Hood manoeuvred 
Schofield out of his lines and pushed on once more. At Franklin 
Schofield had to accept battle, and thirteen distinct assaults on his 
works were made, all pushed with extraordinary fury and lasting 
far into the night. Thomas ordered his lieutenant to retire on 
Nashville, Hood following him up, impressing recruits, transports 
and supplies, and generally repeating the scenes of Bragg's march 
of 1862. The civil authorities and the lieutenant-general also 
urgently demanded that Thomas should advance. Constancy of 
purpose was the salient feature of Thomas's military character. 
He would not fight till he was ready. But this last great counter- 
stroke of the Confederacy alarmed the whole North. So great was 
the tension that Grant finally sent General J. A. Logan to take 
command. But before Logan arrived, Thomas had on the isth 
and i6th of December fought and won the battle of Nashville 
(q.v.), the most crushing victory of the whole war. Hood's army 
was absolutely ruined. Only a remnant of it reassembled beyond 
the Tennessee. 

33. The Carolinas. From Savannah, Sherman started on his 
final march through the Carolinas. Columbia, his first objective, 
was reached on the i7th of February 1865. As usual, all that 
could be of possible value to the enemy was destroyed and, 
by some accident, the town itself was burned. Sherman, like 
Sheridan, was mucji criticized for his methods of reducing opposi- 
tion, but it does not seem that his " bummers " were guilty pf 
wanton cruelty and destructiveness, at least in general, though 
the cavalry naturally gave more ground for the accusation than 
the main body of the army. And the methods of the Confeder- 
ates had on occasion been somewhat similar. The Confederate 
general Hardee managed to gather some force (chiefly from the 
evacuated coast towns) wherewith to oppose the onward progress 
of the Federals. As commander-in-chief, Lee now reappointed 
Johnston to command, and the latter soon attacked and very 
nearly defeated his old opponent at Bentonville (March 10-20). 
But the " bummers " were no mere marauders, but picked 
men from the armies that had won Vicksburg and Chatta- 
nooga, and, though surrounded, held their ground stoutly and 
successfully. Advancing once more, they were joined at Golds- 
boro by the forces lately besieging Fort Fisher (see below), and 
nearly 90,000 men marched northward towards Virginia, pushing 
Johnston's weak army before them. Meanwhile the bulk of the 
forces at Nashville had been sent to the north-east to close Lee's 
escape to the mountains, and in March the final campaign had 
opened at Petersburg. 

34. The Final Campaign. At last Lee's men had lost heart in 
the unequal struggle. Sheridan raided the upper James and 
destroyed all supplies. Grant lay in front of the Army of 
northern Virginia with 125,000 men, and when active operations 



826 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



began Lee had no resource but to try and escape to the south- 
west in order to join Johnston. The western movement was 
covered by a furious sortie from the lines of Petersburg, which 
was repulsed with heavy loss. Grant felt that this was a mere 
feint to screen some other move, and instantly carried the Army 
of the Potomac to the westward, leaving a bare screen of troops 
in his lines. On the 2pth of March the movement began, followed 
in rapid succession by the combats of White Oak Road and Din- 
widdie Court House and Sheridan's great victory of Five Forks. 
At the same time the VI. Corps at last carried the Petersburg lines 
by storm. Thereupon Lee and Longstreet evacuated the Peters- 
burg and Richmond lines and began their retreat. Their men 
were practically starving, though their rearguard showed a brave 
front. The remnant of Ewell's corps was cut off at Sailor's Creek, 
and when Sheridan got ahead of the Confederates while Grant 
furiously pressed them in the rear, surrender was inevitable (April 
8). On the pth the gallant remnant of the Army of northern 
Virginia laid down its arms at Appomattox Court House, and the 
Confederacy came to an end. Johnston surrendered to Sherman 
at Durham Station onthe26th,and soon afterwards all the remain- 
ing Confederate soldiers followed their example. So ended the 
gigantic struggle, as to the conduct of which it is only necessary 
to quote, with a more general application, the envoi of a Federal 
historian, " It has not seemed necessary to me to attempt a 
eulogy of the Army of the Potomac or the Army of northern 
Virginia." The general terms of surrender were that the Con- 
federates should give up all material, and sign a parole not to 
take up arms again. There were no manifestations of triumph or 
exultation on the part of the victors, the lot of the vanquished 
was made as easy as possible, and after a short time the armies 
melted into the mass of the people without disturbance or 
disorder. A general amnesty proclaimed by the president of 
the United States on the agth of May was the formal ending of 
the Civil War. 

35. Character of the War. No undisciplined levies could have 
fought as did the armies on both sides. Grave faults the men had, 
from the regular's point of view. They required humouring, and 
their march discipline was very elastic. But in battle the " think- 
ing bayonets " resolutely obeyed orders, even though it were to 
attack a Marye's Hill, or a " Bloody Angle," for they had under- 
taken their task and would carry it through unflinchingly. So 
much may be said of both armies. The great advantage of the 
Confederate an advantage which he had in a less degree as 
against the hardier and country-bred Federal of the west was 
that he was a hunter and rider born and bred, an excellent shot, 
and still not infrequently settled his quarrels by the duel. The 
town-bred soldier of the eastern states was a thoughtful citizen 
who was determined to do his duty, but he had far less natural 
aptitude for war than his enemy from the Carolinas or his comrade 
from Illinois or Kansas. At the same time the more varied con- 
ditions of urban life made him more adaptable to changes of 
climate and of occupation than the " Southron." Irish brigades 
served on both sides and shot each other to pieces as at Fredericks- 
burg. They had the reputation of being excellent soldiers. The 
German divisions, on the other hand, were rarely as good as the 
rest. The leading of these men was in the hands, as a rule, of 
regular or ex-regular officers, who made many mistakes in their 
handling of large masses, but had been taught at West Point and 
on the Indian frontier to command men in danger, and administer 
them in camp. The volunteer officers rarely led more than a 
division. When given high command at once they usually failed, 
but the best of them rose gradually to the superior ranks; Logan, 
for instance, became an army commander, Sickles, Terry and 
others corps commanders. Cleburne, one of the best division 
commanders of the South, had been a corporal in the British army. 
Meagher, the leader of the " Irish brigade " at Fredericksburg, 
was the young orator of the " United Irishmen." But Lee", the 
Johnstons, McClellan, Grant and Sherman had all served in the old 
army. Most of them were young men in 1861. Stuart was 
twenty-eight, Sheridan thirty, Grant and Jackson under forty, 
while some of the subordinate generals were actually fresh from 
West Point. 



36. Strategy and Tactics. The roughness of much of the 
country gave a peculiar tone to the strategy of the combatants. 
Roads were untrustworthy, rivers swelled suddenly, advance 
and retreat were conditioned and compelled, especially in the 
case of the ill-equipped Confederates, by the exigencies of food 
supply. Long forward strides of the Napoleonic type were rarely 
attempted; " changes of base " were indeed made across country, 
and over considerable distances, as by Sherman in 1864, but 
ordinarily either the base and the objective were connected by 
rail or water, or else every forward step was, after the manner of 
Marlborough's time, organized as a separate campaign. Hence 
field fortifications played an unusually prominent part, time and 
material being available as a rule for works of solid construction. 
In isolated instances of more rapid campaigning e.g. Antietam 
and Gettysburg they were of subordinate importance. The 
attack and defence of these entrenchments led to tactical 
phenomena of unusual interest. Cavalry could not bring about 
the decision in such country, and sought a field for its restless 
activity elsewhere. Artillery had fallen, technically, far behind 
the infantry arm, and in face of long-range rifle fire could not 
annihilate the hostile line with case-shot fire as in the days of 
Napoleon. In a battle such as Chancellorsville or the Wilderness 
guns were almost valueless, since there was little open space in 
which they might be used. It thus fell to the infantry to attack 
and defend with its own weapons, and the defence was, locally, 
almost inexpugnable behind its tall breastworks. One line of 
works could be stormed, but there were almost always two or 
three retrenchments behind. The attacking infantry, who found 
it necessary to cross a fire-swept zone 1000 yds. broad, had to be 
used resolutely in masses, line following line, and each carrying 
forward the wrecks of its predecessor. Partial attacks were 
invariably costly failures. The use of masses was never put in 
practice more sternly than by Grant in 1864. At the same time, 
as has been said, the cavalry arm found plenty of work. The 
horses were not trained for European shock-tactics, nor did the 
country offer charging room, and though melees of mounted men 
engaging with sword and pistol were not infrequent, the usual 
method of fighting was dismounted fire action, which was prac- 
tised with uncommon skill by the troopers on both sides. The 
far-ranging strategic " raid " was a notable feature of the war; 
freely employed by both sides, it was sometimes harmful, more 
usually profitable, especially to the South, by reason of the 
captures in material, the information acquired and the alarm and 
confusion created. These raids, and the more ordinary screening 
work, were never executed more brilliantly than by Lee's great 
cavalry general, " Jeb " Stuart, in Virginia, but the Federal 
generals, Pleasonton and Sheridan, did excellent work in the east, 
as also Wheeler and Forrest on the Confederate, Wilson and 
Grierson on the Federal, side in the west. The technical services, 
in which the mechanical skill and ingenuity of the American 
had full play, developed remarkable efficiency. Whether it was 
desired to build a railway bridge, disable a locomotive or cut a 
canal, the engineers were always ready with some happy expedi- 
ent. On one occasion an infantry division of 8000 men repaired 
102 miles of railway and built 182 bridges in 40 days, forging their 
own tools and using local resources. Many novelties, too, such as 
the field telegraph, balloons and signalling, were employed. 

37. The Union and Confederate Navies. The naval war had 
been likewise fruitful of lessons for the future. Though wooden 
ships were still largely employed, the ironclad even then had 
begun to take a commanding place, and the sailing ship at last 
disappeared from naval warfare. Mines, torpedoes and sub- 
marines were all employed, and with the " Monitor " may fairly 
be said to have begun the application of mechanical science to the 
uses of naval war. The Federal navy was enormously expanded. 
Three hundred and thirteen steamers were brought into the 
service. Sloops of an excellent type were built for work on the 
high seas, of which the celebrated " Kearsarge" was one. Gun- 
boats were constructed so fast that they were called " ninety-day 
gunboats." Special reversible paddle steamers (called double- 
enders) were designed for service in the inlets and estuaries, and 
sixty-six ironclads were built and employed during the four 



AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 



827 






years. Mississippi river steamers were armed with heavy guns 
and protected by armour, boiler-plates, cotton bales, &c., and 
some fast cruisers were constructed for ocean work, one of them 
actually reaching the high speed of 17-75 m - P er hour. The 
existing Federal navy of 1861 already included some large 
and powerful modern vessels, such as the " Minnesota " and 
" Powhatan." To oppose them the Confederates, limited as they 
were for means, managed to construct various ironclads, and to 
improvise a considerable fleet of minor vessels, and, though a 
fighting navy never assembled under a Confederate flag-officer, 
the Southern warships found another more damaging and more 
profitable scope for their activity. It has been said that the 
blockade of the Confederate coast became in the end practically 
impenetrable, and that every attempt of the Confederate naval 
forces to break out was checked at once by crushing numerical 
preponderance. The exciting and profitable occupation of 
blockade-running led to countless small fights off the various 
harbours, and sometimes the United States navy had to fight 
a more serious action when some new " rebel " ironclad emerged 
from her harbour, inlet or sound. . 

38. Fort Fisher. Many of the greater combats in which the 
navy was engaged on the coast and inland have been referred to 
above, and thefighting before Charleston,NewOrleans, Mobileand 
Vicksburg is described in separate articles. One of the heaviest 
of the battles was fought at Fort Fisher in 1864. This place 
guarded the approaches to Wilmington, North Carolina. Troops 
under Butler and a large fleet under Admiral Porter were destined 
for this enterprise. An incendiary vessel was exploded close to the 
works without effect on the 23rd-24th of December, and the ships 
engaged on the 24th. The next day the troops were disembarked, 
only to be called off after a partial assault. Butler then withdrew, 
and Porter was informed on the 3ist that " a competent force 
properly commanded " would be sent out. On the 8th of January 
1865 General Terry arrived with the land forces, and the armada 
arrived off Fisher on the I2th. On the I3th, 6000 men were 
landed, covered by the guns of the fleet, and, after Porter had 
subjected the works to a terrific bombardment, Fisher was bril- 
liantly carried by storm on the isth. Reinforcements arriving, 
the whole force then marched inland to meet Sherman. 

39. Other Naval Actions. Apart from this, and other actions 
referred to, two incidents of the coast war call for notice the 
career of the " Albemarle " and the duel between the " Atlanta " 
and the " Weehawken." The ironclad ram " Albemarle," built 
at Edwards' Ferry on the Roanoke river, had done considerable 
damage to the Federal vessels which, since Burnside's expedition 
to Newberne, had cruised in Albemarle Sound, and in 1864 a force 
of double-enders and gunboats, under Captain Melancton Smith, 
U.S.N., was given the special task of destroying the rebel 
ram. A naval battle was fought on the 5th of May 1864, in 
which the double-ender " Sassacus " most gallantly rammed 
the " Albemarle " and was disabled alongside her, and Smith's 
vessel and others, unarmoured as they were, fought the ram at 
close quarters. After this the ironclad retired upstream, where 
she was eventually destroyed in the most daring manner by a 
boat's crew under Lieutenant W. B. Gushing. Making his way 
up the Roanoke as far as Plymouth he there sank the ironclad at 
her wharf by exploding a spar-torpedo (October 27). On the 
1 7th of June 1863 after a brief action the monitor " Weehawken " 
captured the Confederate ironclad " Atlanta " in Wassaw 
Sound, South Carolina. This duel resembled in its attendant 
circumstances the famous fight of the " Chesapeake " and the 
" Shannon." Captain John Rodgers, like Broke, was one of the 
best officers, and the " Weehawken," like the "Shannon," was 
known as one of the smartest ships in the service. Five heavy 
accurate shots from the Federal's turret guns crushed the enemy 
in a few minutes. 

40. The Commerce-Destroyers. Letters of marque were issued 
to Confederate privateers as early as April 1861, and Federal 
commerce at once began to suffer. When, however, surveillance 
became blockade, prizes could only with difficulty be brought into 
port, and, since the parties interested gained nothing by burning 
merchantmen, privateering soon died out, and was replaced by 



commerce-destroying pure and simple, carried out by com- 
missioned vessels of the Confederate navy. Captain Raphael 
Semmes of the C.S.S. " Sumter" made a successful cruise on the 
high seas, and before she was abandoned at Gibraltar had made 
seventeen prizes. Unable to build at home, the Confederates 
sought warships abroad, evading the obligations of neutrality by 
various ingenious expedients. The " Florida " (built at Liverpool 
in 1861-1862) crossed the Atlantic, refitted at Mobile, escaped 
the blockaders, and fulfilled the instructions which, as her 
captain said, " left much to the discretion but more to the 
torch." She was captured by the U.S.S. " Wachusett " in the 
neutral harbour of Bahia (October 7, 1862). The most suc- 
cessful of the foreign-built cruisers was the famous " Alabama," 
commanded by Semmes and built at Liverpool. In the course of 
her career she burned or brought into port seventy prizes, fought 
and sank the U.S.S. " Hatteras " off Galveston, and was finally 
sunk by the U.S.S. " Kearsarge," Captain Winslow, off Cherbourg 
(June 19, 1864). The career of another promising cruiser, the 
" Nashville," was summarily ended by the Federal monitor 
" Montauk " (February 28,1863). The "Shenandoah" was 
burning Union whalers in the Bering Sea when the war came to an 
end. None of the various " rams " built abroad for the " rebel " 
government ever came into action. The difficulties of coaling and 
the obligations of neutrality hampered these commerce-destroyers 
as much as the Federal vessels that were chasing them, but, in 
spite of drawbacks, the guerre de course was the most successful 
warlike operation undertaken by the Confederacy. The mercan- 
tile marine of the United States was almost driven off the high 
seas by the terror of these destructive cruisers. 

41. Cost of the War. The total loss of life in the Union forces 
during the four years of war was 359,528, and of the many 
thousands discharged from the services as disabled or otherwise 
unfit, a large number died in consequence of injuries or disease 
incurred in the army. The estimate of 500,000 in all may be 
taken as approximately correct. The same number is given as 
that of the Southern losses, which of course fell upon a much 
smaller population. The war expenditure of the Federal govern- 
ment has been estimated at $3,400,000,000; the very large sums 
devoted to the pensions of widows, disabled men, &c., are not 
included in this amount (Dodge). In 1879 an estimate made of 
all Federal war expenses up to that date, including pension 
charges, interest on loans, &c., showed a total of $6,190,000,000 
(Dewey, Financial History of the United States). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The United Statesgovernment's Official Records of 
the Union and Confederate Armies (70 vols., most of which are divided 
into two or three " parts," and atlas, 1880-1900) include every im- 
portant official document of either side that it was possible to obtain 
in the course of many years' work. A similar but less voluminous 
work is the Records of the Union and Confederate Navies (1894- ) ; 
The Rebellion Record (1862-1868), edited by F. W. Moore, a contem- 
porary collection, has been superseded to a great extent by the 
official records, but is still valuable as a collection of unofficial docu- 
ments of all kinds. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1887-1889) 
is a series of papers, covering the whole war, written by the prominent 
commanders of both sides. The sixteen volumes of the Campaigns 
of the Civil War (1881-1882) and the Navy in the Civil War (1883) 
(written by various authors) are of very unequal merit, but several 
of the volumes are indispensable to the study of the Civil War. Of 
general works the following are the best : Comte de Paris, History 
of the Civil War in America, translated from the French (1875-1888) ; 
Horace Greeley, The American Conflict (1864-1866); T. Scheibert, 
Der Biirgerkrieg i. d. Nordam. Freistaaten (Berlin, 1874); Wood and 
Edmonds, Civil War in the United States (London, 1905); T. A. 
Dodge, Bird's Eye View of our Civil War (revised edition, 1887) ; 
E. A. Pollard, A Southern History of the War (1866). The con- 
temporary accounts mentioned should be studied with caution. Of 
critical works, J. C. Ropes, The Story of the Civil War (1894-1898); 
G. F. R. Henderson, Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War 
(London, 1 898) and The Science of War, chapters viii. and ix. (London, 
1905) ; C. C. Chesney, Essays in Military Biography (1874) ; Freytag- 
Loringhoven, Studien uber Kriegfuhrung, 1861-186$ (Berlin, 1901- 
1903), are the most important. Publications of the Military Historical 
Society of Massachusetts (vols. i.-x., 1881 onwards) also comprise 
critical accounts of nearly all the important campaigns. A critical 
account of the Virginian operations and the Chickamauga campaign 
is Gen. E. P. Alexander's Military Memoirs of a Confederate (1906). 
C. R. Cooper, Chronological and Alphabetical Record of the Great Civil 
War (Milwaukee, 1904) may be mentioned as a work of reference. 



828 



AMERICAN LAW 



A fairly complete bibliography will be found in J. N. Lamed, Litera- 
ture of American History (Boston, 1902), and useful lists in Ropes, 
op. cit., and in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. vii. p. 812. For 
biographies, memoirs and general works, see the lists appended to the 
various biographical articles and to the articles UNITED STATES 
and CONFEDERATE STATES. (C. F. A.) 

AMERICAN LAW. The laws of the various states and terri- 
tories of the United States rest at bottom on the same foundation 
as those of England, namely, the English common law as it 
existed at the beginning of the I7th century. (See ENGLISH 
LAW.) The only exceptions worth noting are to be found in the 
state of Louisiana, the territory of New Mexico, and the acquisi- 
tions following the Spanish war of 1898. Those derive most of 
their law from France or Spain, and thus remotely from the 
principles of Roman jurisprudence. A part also, but compara- 
tively a small part , of the law of Texas, Missouri, Arizona and the 
Pacific states comes from similar sources. The United States as 
a whole has no common law, except so far as its courts have 
followed the rules of English common-law procedure in determin- 
ing their own. Most of the positive law of the United States 
comes from the several states. It is the right of each state to 
regulate at its pleasure the general relations of persons within its 
territory to each other, as well as all rights to property subject to 
its jurisdiction. Each state has also its own system of adjective 
law. The trial courts of the United States of original jurisdiction 
follow in general the practice of the state in which they sit as to 
procedure in cases of common-law character. As to that in 
equity, or what means the same thing, chancery causes, they 
follow in general the practice of the English court of chancery as 
it existed towards the close of the i8th century, when the original 
Judiciary Act of the United States was adopted. The public 
statutes of the United States are to be found in the Revised Statutes 
of 1873, and in the succeeding volumes of the Statutes at Large, 
enacted by each Congress. Those of each state and territory are 
printed annually or biennially as they are enacted by each legis- 
lature, and are commonly revised every fifteen or twenty years, 
the revision taking the place of all former public statutes, and 
being entitled Revised Statutes, General Statutes, or Public Laws. 
The private or special laws of each state, so far as such legislation 
is permitted by its constitution, are in some states published 
separately, and made the subject of similar compilations or 
revisions; in others they are printed with the public session laws. 
American courts are often given power by statute to make rules 
of procedure which have the force of laws. Municipal sub- 
divisions of a state generally have authority from the legislature 
to make ordinances or by-laws on certain subjects, having the 
character of a local law, with appropriate sanctions, commonly 
by fine or forfeiture. 

Law in the United States has been greatly affected by the 
results of the Civil War. During its course (1861-1865) the powers 
of the president of the United States may be said to 
^ ave ^ een re-defined by the courts. It was its first civil 
meat. war, and thus for the first time the exercise of the 
military authority of the United States within a state 
which had not sought its aid became frequent and necessary. 
Next followed the amendments of the Constitution of the United 
States having for their special purpose the securing beyond 
question of the permanent abolition of slavery and the civil and 
political rights of the coloured race. At the outset the Supreme 
Court of the United States was inclined to treat them as having a 
very limited operation in other directions. One of the provisions 
of the XlVth Amendment is that no state shall deny to any person 
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. The 
benefit of this guarantee was claimed by the butchers of New 
Orleans, in contending against a monopoly in respect of the 
slaughter of cattle granted by the state of Louisiana to a single 
corporation. Their suit was dismissed by the Supreme Court in 
1873, with the expression of a doubt whether any action of a state 
not directed by way of discrimination against the negroes as a 
class, or on account of their race, would ever be held to come 
within the purview of the provision in question. 1 The chief 
justice and three of his associates dissented from the judgment, 
1 The Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wallace's Reports, 36, 8l. 



holding that the XlVth Amendment did protect the citizens of 
the United States against the deprivation of their common rights 
by state legislation. 2 Public sentiment supported the view of the 
minority, and it was not long before changes in the personnel 
of the court, occurring in common course, led it to the same 
conclusions. The protection of the XlVth Amendment is now 
invoked before it more frequently than is that afforded by any 
other article of the Constitution. In one of its recent terms 
twenty-one cases of this nature were decided. 3 Very few of them 
related to the negro. Since the decision in the Slaughter-House 
Cases, the controversies as to the constitutional rights of the negro 
have been comparatively infrequent, but there has been a great 
and steadily increasing number in all the courts in the country, 
involving questions of discrimination in favour of or against 
particular individuals, or of changes affecting the rights of parties 
in the accustomed forms of judicial procedure. 

Down to 1868, when this amendment was adopted, it was, as 
to most matters, for the state alone to settle the civil rights and 
immunities of those subject to its jurisdiction. If they were to 
be free from arbitrary arrests, secure in liberty and property, 
equal in privilege and entitled to an impartial administration, it 
was because the constitution of the state so declared. Now they 
have the guarantee of the United States that the state shall never 
recede from these obligations. This has readjusted and reset the 
whole system of the American law of personal rights. 4 

The Supreme Court of the United States has used the great 
power thus confided to it with moderation. Its general rules of 
decision are well stated in these words of Mr Justice Brown, found 
in one of its recent opinions: 

" In passing upon the validity of legislation, attacked as contrary 
to the XlVth Amendment, it has not failed to recognize the fact that 
the law is, to a certain extent, a progressive science; that in some of 
the states methods of procedure, which at the time the constitution 
was adopted were deemed essential to the protection and safety of 
the people or to the liberty of the citizen, have been found to be no 
longer necessary; that restrictions which had formerly been laid upon 
the conduct of individuals, or of classes of individuals, had proved 
detrimental to their interests; while, upon the other hand, certain 
other classes of persons, particularly those engaged in dangerous or 
unhealthful employments, have been found to be in need of additional 
protection. Even before the adoption of the constitution, much 
had been done toward mitigating the severity of the common law, 
particularly in the administration of its criminal branch. The 
number of capital crimes, in this country at least, had been largely 
decreased. Trial by ordeal and by battle had never existed here, 
and had fallen into disuse in England. The earlier practice of 
the common law, which denied the benefit of witnesses to a person 
accused of felony, had been abolished by statute, though, so far as 
it deprived him of the assistance of counsel and compulsory process 
for the attendance of his witnesses, it had not been changed in 
England. But, to the credit of her American colonies, let it be said 
that so oppressive a doctrine had never obtained a foothold there. 
The loth century originated legal reforms of no less importance. 
The whole fabric of special pleading, once thought to be necessary to 
the elimination of the real issue between the parties, has crumbled 
to pieces. The ancient tenures of real estate have been largely swept 
away, and land is now transferred almost as easily and cheaply as 
personal property. Married women have been emancipated from 
the control of their husbands, and placed upon a practical equality 
with them with respect to the acquisition, possession and trans- 
mission of property. Imprisonment for debt has been abolished. 
Exemptions from executions have been largely added to, and in 
most of the states homesteads are rendered incapable of seizure and 
sale upon forced process. Witnesses are no longer incompetent by 
reason of interest, even though they be parties to the litigation. 
Indictments have been simplified, and an indictment for the most 
serious of crimes is now the simplest of all. In several of the states 
grand juries, formerly the only safeguard against a malicious prosecu- 
tion, have been largely abolished, and in others the rule of unanimity, 
so far as applied to civil cases, has given way to verdicts rendered 
by a three-fourths majority. This case does not call for an expression 
of opinion as to the wisdom of these changes, or their validity under 
the XlVth Amendment, although the substitution of prosecution by 
information in lieu of indictment was recognized as valid in Hurtado 
v. California, 1 10 U.S. 516. They are mentioned only for the purpose 
of calling attention to the probability that other changes of no less 
importance may be made in the future, and that while the cardinal 
principles of justice are immutable, the methods by which justice 

1 Ibid. 89, in, 129. 

8 Guthrie on the Fourteenth Amendment, 27. 
4 Baldwin's Modern Political Institutions, in, 112. 



AMERICAN LAW 



829 



is administered are subject to constant fluctuation, and that the 
Constitution of the United States, which is necessarily and to a large 
extent inflexible and exceedingly difficult of amendment, should not 
be so construed as to deprive the states of the power to amend their 
laws so as to make them conform to the wishes of the citizens as they 
may deem best for the public welfare without bringing them into 
conflict with the supreme law of the land. Of course, it is impossible 
to forecast the character or extent of these changes, but in view of 
the fact that from the day Magna Carta was signed to the present 
moment, amendments to the structure of the law have been made 
with increasing frequency, it is impossible to suppose that they will 
not continue, and the law be forced to adapt itself to new conditions 
of society, and particularly to the new relations between employers 
and employees, as they arise." 1 

The Civil War deeply affected also the course of judicial 
decision in the southern states. During its progress it engaged 
the attention of a very large part of the population, and the 
business of the courts necessarily was greatly lessened. Upon its 
close political power passed, for a time, into new hands, and many 
from the northern and western states took prominent positions 
both at the bar and on the bench. The very basis of society was 
changed by the abolition of slavery. New state constitutions 
were adopted, inspired or dictated by the ideas of the North. The 
transport system was greatly extended, and commerce by land 
took to a large extent the place formerly filled by commerce by 
navigation.' Manufacturing came in to supplement agricultural 
industry. Cities grew and assumed a new importance. Northern 
capital sought investment in every state. It was a natural con- 
sequence of all these things that the jurisprudence of the South 
should come to lose whatever had been its distinctive character. 
The unification of the nation inevitably tended to unify its law. 

An important contribution towards this result was made by 
the organization of the American Bar Association in 1878. Of 
the fourteen signers of the call for the preliminary 
Assotfa- conference, five were from the southern states. Its 
tioa. declared objects were " to advance the science of juris- 

prudence, promote the administration of justice and 
uniformity of legislation throughout the Union, uphold the 
honour of the profession of the law, and encourage cordial 
intercourse among the members of the American Bar." 

Largely through its efforts, the American law schools have taken 
on a new character. The course of study has been both broadened 
and prolonged, and the attendance of students has 
Schools. increased in full proportion to the additions to the 
facilities for obtaining a more thorough training in the 
profession. When the association commenced its labours, those 
studying law in the offices of practising lawyers very largely out- 
numbered those found in the law school. The proportion is now 
reversed. During the year 1900, for instance, the state board 
of law examiners in New York examined 899 applicants for 
admission to the bar of that state. Of these all but 157 had 
received their legal education wholly or in part at a law school. 2 
In 1878 few law schools had adopted any system of examination 
for those desiring to enter them. Such a requirement for 
admission is now common. In only one school were opportunities 
then afforded for advanced studies by graduate students with a 
view to attaining the doctorate in law. Courses of this description 
are now offered by several of the university schools. 

A more scientific character has thus been taken on by American 
law. It is noticeable both in legal text-books and in the opinions 
of the courts of last resort. In the latter precision of 
Reports. s t a t e ment and method in discussion are invited by the 
uniform practice of preparing written opinions. The original 
practice of reading these from the bench has been generally 
discontinued. They are simply handed down to an official 
reporter for publication, which is done at the expense of the 
government by which the court is commissioned. With the 
judicial reports of each state the lawyers of that state are required 
to be familiar; and this is rendered possible, even in the larger 
ones, by state digests,prepared every few years by private enter- 
prise. Outside of the state their circulation is comparatively 
limited, though sets of all are generally found in each state library, 

1 Holden v. Hardy, 169 United States Reports, 336, 385-387. 
2 Columbia Law Review, i. 99. 



and of many in the Bar libraries at the principal county seats. 
The private libraries of lawyers in large practice also often con- 
tain the reports of adjoining and sometimes those of distant states 
as well as those of their own and of the Supreme Court of the 
United States. The decisions of one state, however, are now best 
known in others through unofficial reports. One large publishing 
concern prints every case decided in the courts of last resort. 
They are published in several distinct series, those, for instance, 
coming from the northern Atlantic states being grouped together 
as the Atlantic Reporter, and those from the states on the Pacific 
coast as the Pacific Reporter. Another house has published a 
compilation professing to give all the leading American cases from 
the first to the latest volume of reports. Another makes a 
similar selection from the decisions of each year as they appear, 
and publishes them with critical annotations. There are also 
annual digests of a national character, comprehending sub- 
stantially all American cases and the leading English cases 
reported during the preceding year. 

These various publications are widely diffused, and so the 
American lawyer is enabled, in preparing for the argument of any 
cause involving questions of difficulty, to inform himself with 
ease of such precedents as may apply. A court in Texas is thus 
as likely to be made acquainted with a decision in Maine or 
Oregon as with one in any nearer state, and in the development 
of American law all American courts are brought in close touch 
with each other. 

This tendency has been advanced by the steady growth of 
codification. That is beginning also to serve to bring English 
and American law nearer together in certain directions. English 
A Negotiable Instruments Act, promoted by the and 
American Bar Association, and prepared by a confer- American 
ence of commissioners appointed by the several states 
to concert measures of uniform legislation, has been adopted in 
the leading commercial states. It is founded upon the English 
" Chalmers's Act," and the English decisions giving a construction 
to that have become of special importance. The acts of parlia- 
ment known as the Employers' Liability Act and the Railway 
and Canal Traffic Act have also served as the foundation of 
similar legislation in the United States, and with the same result. 
Modern English decisions are, however, cited less frequently in 
American courts than the older ones; and the older ones them- 
selves are cited far less frequently than they once were. In the 
development of their legislation, England and the United States 
have been in general harmony so far as matters of large com- 
mercial importance are concerned, but as to many others they 
have since 1850 drawn apart. Statutes, at one point or another, 
probably now affect the disposition of most litigated causes in 
both countries. Their application, therefore, must serve more or 
less to obscure or displace general principles, which might other- 
wise control the decision and make it a source of authority in 
foreign tribunals. The movement of the judicial mind in the 
United States, and also its modes and form of expression, have 
a different measure from that which characterizes what comes 
from the English bench. American judges are so numerous, and 
(except as to the Supreme Court of the United States) the extent 
of their territorial jurisdiction so limited, that they can give 
more time to the careful investigation of points of difficulty, and 
also to the methodical statement of their conclusions. Whatever 
they decide upon appeal being announced in writing, and destined 
to form part of the permanent published records of the state, they 
are expected and endeavour to study their words and frame 
opinions not only sound in law but unobjectionable as literary 
compositions. 

The choice of American judges, particularly in the older states, 
has been not uninfluenced by these considerations. Marshall, 
Bushrod Washington, Story, Kent, Ware, Bradley, and many 
of their contemporaries and successors, were put upon the bench 
in part because of their legal scholarship and their power of 
felicitous expression. Hence the better American opinions have 
more elaboration and finish than many which come from the 
English courts, and are more readily accepted as authorities by 
American judges. But the great multiplication of reports has 



8 3 o 



AMERICAN LAW 



so widened the field of citation as in effect to reduce it. Each of 
the larger and older states has now a settled body of legal 
precedent of its own, beyond which its judges in most cases do 
not look. If a prior decision applies, it is controlling. If there be 
none, they prefer to decide the case, if possible, on principle 
rather than authority. 

While the state courts are bound to accept the construction 
placed upon the Constitution and laws of the United States by 
the Supreme Court of the United States, and thus uniformity of 
decision is secured in that regard, the courts of the United States, 
on the other hand, are as a rule obliged to accept in all other 
particulars the construction placed by the courts of _each state 
on its constitution and laws. This often gives a seeming incon- 
gruity to the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States. 
A point in a case coming up from one judicial circuit may be 
determined in a way wholly different from that followed in a 
previous judgment in a cause turning upon the same point, but 
appealed from another circuit, because of a departure from the 
common law in one state which has not been made in another. 
In view of this, a doctrine originally proposed by Mr Justice 
Story in 1842 * has not been infrequently invoked of late years, 
which rests upon the assumed existence of a distinctive federal 
jurisprudence of paramount authority as to certain matters of 
general concern, as for example those intimately affecting 
commerce between the states or with foreign nations. The 
consequence is that a case involving such questions may be 
differently adjudged, according as it is brought in a state or in 
a federal court. 2 

The divergences now most noticeable between English and 
American law are in respect of public control over personal 
liberty and private property, criminal procedure and the scope 
of the powers of municipal corporations. 

Under the constitutional provision that no one shall be 
deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of 
law, American courts frequently declare void statutes which 
in England would be within the acknowledged powers of 
parliament. These provisions are liberally expounded in favour 
of the individual, and liberty is held to include liberty of contract 
as well as of person. Criminal procedure is hedged about with 
more refinements and safeguards to the accused than are found in 
England, and on the other hand, prosecutions are more certain 
to follow the offence, because they are universally brought by a 
public officer at public expense. The artificiality of the proceed- 
ings is fostered by a general right of appeal on points of law to the 
court of last resort. It is in criminal causes involving questions 
of common-law liability and procedure * that English law-books 
and reports are now most frequently cited. American municipal 
corporations are confined within much narrower limits than those 
of England, and their powers more strictly construed. 

Trial by jury in civil causes seems to be declining in public 
esteem. The expenses necessarily incident to it are naturally 
Trialb increasing, and the delays are greater also from a 
liny. y general tendency, especially in cities, where most 
judicial business is transacted, to reduce the number of 
hours a day during which the court is in session. The require- 
ment of unanimity is dispensed with in a few states, and it has 
been thus left without what many deem one of its essential 
features. The judge interposes his authority to direct and 
expedite the: progress of the trial less frequently and less per- 

1 Swift v. Tyson, 16 Peters' Reports, I, 19. 

* See Forepaugh v. Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad 
Company, 128 Pennsylvania State Reports, 267; Faulkner v. Hart, 
82 New York Reports, 313; and Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 
Railway Company v. Prentice, 147 United States Reports, 101. 

* See, as examples, Commonwealth v. Rubin, 165 Massachusetts 
Reports, 453, in which Holmes, C.J., traces the rule that, if a man 
abuse an authority given him by the law, he becomes a trespasser 
ab initio, back to the Year Books ; and Commonwealth v. Cleary, 1 72 
Massachusetts Reports, 175, in which the same judge refers to Glan- 
ville and Fleta as authority for the proposition that the admission in 
evidence, in cases of rape, of complaints made by the woman soon 
after the commission of the offence is a perverted survival of the old 
rule that she could not bring an appeal unless she had made prompt 
hue and cry. 



emptorily than in England. A jury is waived more often than 
formerly, and there is a growing conviction that, with a capable 
and independent judiciary, justice can be looked for more 
confidently from one man than from thirteen. 

The United States entered on the work of simplifying the 
forms of pleading earlier than England, but has not carried it so 
far. Demurrers have not been abandoned, and in some states 
little has been done except to replace one system of formality by 
another hardly less rigid. The general plan has been to codify 
the laws of pleading by statute. In a few states they have 
proceeded more nearly in accordance with the principles of the 
English Judicature Act, and left details to be worked out by the 
judges, through rules of court. 4 

Most of the state constitutions assume that the powers of 
government can be divided into three distinct departments, 
executive, legislative and judicial; and direct such 
a distribution. In thus ignoring the administrative i a tunaad 
functions of the state, they have left a difficult question the court*. 
for the courts, upon which the legislature often seeks 
in part to cast them. The general tendency has been to construe, 
in such circumstances, the judicial power broadly, and hold that 
it may thus be extended over much which is rather to be called 
quasi-judicial. 6 A distinction is taken between entrusting juris- 
diction of this character to the courts, and imposing it upon them. 
Where the statute can be construed as simply permissive, the 
authority may be exercised as a matter of grace, when it would be 
peremptorily declined, were the meaning of the legislature that 
it must be accepted. 6 The courts, for similar reasons, have 
generally declined (in the absence of any constitutional require- 
ment to that effect) to advise the legislature, at its request, 
whether a proposed statute, if enacted, would be valid. While 
its validity, were it to be enacted, might become the subject of a 
judicial decision, it is thought for that reason, if for no other, to 
be improper to prejudge the point, without a hearing of parties 
interested. The constitutions of several states provide for such a 
proceeding, and in these the Supreme Court is not infrequently 
called upon in this way, and gives responses which are always 
considered decisive of legislative action, but would not be treated 
as conclusive in any subsequent litigation that might arise. 

The general trend of opinion in the Supreme Court of the 
United States since 1870, upon questions other than those arising 
under the XIV th Amendment, has been towards recog- - /to 
nizing the police power of the several states as entitled power 
to a broad scope. Even, for instance, in such a matter of states. 
as the regulation of commerce between different states, 
it has been upheld as justifying a prohibition against running any 
goods trains on a Sunday, and a requirement that all railway cars 
must be heated by steam. 7 In the " Granger Cases," 8 the right 
of the state to fix the rate of charges for the use of a grain elevator 
for railway purposes, and for general railway services of trans- 
portation, was supported, and although the second of these was 
afterwards overruled, 9 the principle upon which it was originally 
rested was not shaken. 

On the other hand, reasons of practical convenience have 
necessarily favoured the substantial obliteration of state lines as 
to the enforcement of statutory private rights. Massachusetts 
in 1840, six years before the passage of Lord Campbell's Act, 
provided a remedy by indictment for the negligent killing of a 
man by a railway company, a pecuniary penalty being fixed which 
the state was to collect for the benefit of his family. In most of 
the other states by later statutes a similar result has been reached 
through a civil action brought by the executor or administrator 

4 This has been carried furthest in Connecticut. See Botsford v. 
Wallace, 72 Connecticut Reports, 195. 

6 Norwalk Street Railway Company's Appeal, 69 Connecticut 
Reports, 576; 38 Atlantic Reporter, 708. 

6 Zanesmtte \. Zanesville Telephone Company, 63 Ohio State Re- 
ports, 442; 59 North-Eastern Reporter, 109. 

7 New York Railroad v. New York, 165 United States Reports, 628. 

8 Munn v. Illinois, 94 United States Reports, 113; Chicago 
Railroad Company v. Iowa, ibid. 155. 

9 Wabash Railway Company v. Illinois, 1 18 United States Reports, 
557; Reagan v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Company, 154 United 
States Reports, 362. 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



831 






as an agent of the law. In some, however, the state must be the 
plaintiff; in others the widow, if any there be. The accident 
resulting in death often occurs in a state where the man who was 
killed does not reside, or in which the railway company does not 
have its principal seat. It may therefore be desirable to sue in 
one state for an injury in another. Notwithstanding such an 
action is unknown to the common law, and rests solely on a local 
statute, the American courts uniformly hold that, when civil in 
form, it can be brought under such statutes in any state the 
public policy of which is not clearly opposed to such a remedy. 
In like manner, the responsibilities of stockholders and directors 
of a moneyed corporation, under the laws of the state from which 
the charter is derived, are enforced in any other states in which 
they may be found. Thus a double liability of stockholders to 
creditors, in case of the insolvency of the company, or a full 
liability to creditors of directors who have made false reports or 
certificates regarding its financial condition, is treated as of a 
contractual nature, and not penal in the international sense of 
that term. 1 As a judgment of one state has equal force in another, 
so far as the principle of res adjudicata is concerned, the orders of 
a court in a state to which a corporation owes its charter, made 
in proceedings for winding it up, may be enforced to a large 
extent in any other. The shareholders are regarded as parties by 
representation to the winding-up proceedings, and so bound by 
decrees which are incidental to it. 2 

The provisions of the United States law on different subjects and 
the literature concerning them are given in the separate articles. 
See the bibliography to the article LAW; also Cooley on The Con- 
stitutional Limitations which rest upon the Legislative Power of the 
States of the American Union; Andrews on American Law, and 
Russell on The Police Power of the State, and Decisions thereon as 
illustrating the Development and Value of Case Law. (S. E. B.) 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. The earliest books which are 
commonly described as the beginnings of American literature 
were written by men born and bred in England; 
they were published there; they were, in fact, an 
undivided part of English literature, belonging to 
the province of exploration and geographical description and 
entirely similar in matter and style to other works of voyagers 
and colonizers that illustrate the expansion of England. They 
contain the materials of history in a form of good Elizabethan 
narrative, always vigorous in language, often vivid and pictur- 
esque. John Smith (1570-1631) wrote the first of these, A True 
Relation of such Occurrences and Accidents of Nate as hath happened 
in Virginia (1608), and he later added other accounts of the 
country to the north. William Strachey, a Virginian official of 
whom little is known biographically, described (1610) the ship- 
wreck of Sir Thomas Gates on the Bermudas, which is believed 
to have yielded Shakespeare suggestions for The Tempest. 
Colonel Henry Norwood (d. 1689), hitherto unidentified, of Leck- 
hampton, Gloucestershire, a person eminent for loyalty in the 
reign of Charles I. and distinguished in the civil wars, later 
governor of Tangiers and a member of parliament for Gloucester, 
wrote an account of his voyage to Virginia as an adventurer, in 
1649. These are characteristic works of the earliest period, and 
illustrate variously the literature of exploration which exists in 
numerous examples and is preserved for historical reasons. The 
settlement of the colonies was, in general, attended by such 
narratives of adventure or by accounts of the state of the country 
or by documentary record of events. Thus George Alsop (b. 1638) 
wrote the Character of the Province of Maryland (1666), and 
Daniel Denton a Brief Description of New York (1670), and in 
Virginia the progress of affairs was dealt with by William Stith 
(1689-1755), Robert Beverly (f. 1700), and William Byrd (1674- 
1744). Each settlement in turn, as it came into prominence or 
provoked curiosity, found its geographer and annalist, and here 
and there sporadic pens essayed some practical topic. The 
product, however, is now an indistinguishable mass, and titles 
and authors alike are found only in antiquarian lore. The 

1 Huntington v. Attrill, 146 United States Reports, 657. 

1 Great Western Telegraph Company v. Purdy, 162 United States 
Reports, 329; Fish v. Smith, 73 Connecticut Reports,, 377; 47 
Atlantic Reporter, 710. 



distribution of literary activity was very uneven along the 
sea-board; it was naturally greatest in the more thriving and 
important colonies, and bore some relation to their commercial 
prosperity and political activity and to the closeness of the con- 
nexion with the home culture of England. From the beginning 
New England, owing to the character of its people and its 
ecclesiastical rule, was the chief seat of the early literature, and 
held a position apart from the other colonies as a community 
characterized by an intellectual life. There the first printing 
press was set up, the first college founded, and an abundant 
literature was produced. 

The characteristic fact in the Puritan colonies is that literature 
there was in the hands of its leading citizens and was a chief 
concern in their minds. There were books of exploration and 
description as in the other colonies, such as William Wood's 
(d. 1639) New England's Prospect (1634), and John Josselin's 
New England's Rarities (1672), and tales of adventure in the 
wilderness and on the sea, most commonly described as " re- 
markable providences," in the vigorous Elizabethan narrative; 
but besides all this the magistracy and the clergy normally set 
themselves to the labour of history, controversy and counsel, and 
especially to the care of religion. The governors, beginning with 
William Bradford (1590-1657) of Plymouth, and John Winthrop 
(1588-1649) of Massachusetts Bay, wrote the annals of their 
times, and the line of historians was continued by Winslow, 
Nathaniel Morton, Prince, Hubbard and Hutchinson. The 
clergy, headed by John Cotton (1585-1652), Thomas Hooker 
(i586?-i647), Nathaniel Ward (i579?-i652), Roger Williams 
(1600-1683), Richard Mather (1596-1669), John Eliot (1604- 
1690), produced sermons, platforms, catechisms, theological 
dissertations, tracts of all sorts, and their line also was continued 
by Shepard, Norton, Wise, the later Mathers and scores of other 
ministers. The older clergy were not inferior in power or learning 
to the leaders of their own communion in England, and they 
commanded the same prose that characterizes the Puritan tracts 
of the mother country; nor did the kind of writing deteriorate 
in their successors. This body of divines in successive generations 
gave to early New England literature its overwhelming ecclesi- 
astical character; it was in the main a church literature, and its 
secular books also were controlled and coloured by the Puritan 
spirit. The pervasiveness of religion is well illustrated by the 
three books which formed through the entire colonial period the 
most popular domestic reading of the Puritan home. These were 
The Bay Psalm Book (1640), which was the first book published 
in America; Michael Wigglesworth's (1631-1705) Day of Doom 
(1662), a doggerel poem; and the New England Primer (c. 1690), 
called " the Little Bible." The sole voice heard in opposition was 
Thomas Morton's satirical New English Canaan (1637), whose 
author was sent out of the colony for the scandal of Merrymount, 
but satire itself remained religious in Ward's Simple Cobbler of 
Agawam (1647). Poetry was represented in Anne Bradstreet's 
(1612-1672) The Tenth Muse lately sprung up in America (1650), 
and was continued by a succession of doggerel writers, mostly 
ministers or schoolmasters, Noyes, Oakes, Folger, Tompson, 
Byles and others. The world of books also included a good 
proportion of Indian war narratives and treatises relating to 
the aborigines. The close of the I7th century shows literature, 
however, still unchanged in its main position as the special 
concern of the leaders of the state. It is Chief-Justice Samuel 
Sewall's (1652-1730) Diary (which remained in manuscript until 
1878) that affords the most intimate view of the culture and 
habits of the community; and he was known to his contempor- 
aries by several publications, one of which, The Selling of Joseph 
(1700), was the first American anti-slavery tract. 

The literature of the first century, exemplified by these few 
titles, is considerable in bulk, and like colonial literature else- 
where is preserved for historical reasons. In general, 
it records the political progress and social conditions 
of the Puritan state, and the contents of the Puritan 
mind. The development of the original settlement took place 
without any violent check. Though the colony was continually 
recruited by fresh immigration, the original 20,000 who 



Puritan- 
Ism. 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



arrived before 1640 had established the principles of the 
state, and their will and ideas remained dominant after the 
Restoration as before. It was a theocratic state controlled by 
the clergy, and yet containing the principle of liberty. The second 
and third generations born on the soil, nevertheless, showed 
some decadence; notwithstanding the effort to provide against 
intellectual isolation and mental poverty by the foundation of 
Harvard College, they felt the effects of their situation across the 
sea and on the borders of a wilderness. The people were a hard- 
faring folk and engaged in a material struggle to establish the 
plantations and develop commerce on the sea; their other life 
was in religion soberly practised and intensely felt. They were a 
people of one book, in the true sense, the Bible; it was the 
organ of their mental life as well as of their spiritual feelings. 
For them, it was in the place of the higher literature. But long 
resident there in the strip between the sea and the forest, cut off 
from the world and consigned to hard labour and to spiritual 
ardours, they developed .a fanatical temper; their religious life 
hardened and darkened; intolerance and superstition grew. 
Time, nevertheless, ripened new changes, and the colony was to 
be brought back from its religious seclusion into the normal paths 
of modern development. The sign was contained, perhaps, most 
clearly in the change effected in the new charter granted by King 
William which made property the basis of the franchise in place 
of church-membership, and thus set the state upon an economic 
instead of a religious foundation. It is rather by men than by 
books that these times are remembered, but it is by the men who 
were writers of books. In general, the career of the three Mathers 
coincides with the history of the older Puritanism, and their 
personal characteristics reflect its stages as their writings contain 
its successive traits. Richard Mather, the emigrant, had been 
joint author in the composition of The Bay Psalm Book, and 
served the colony among the first of its leaders. It was in his 
son, Increase Mather (1630-1723), that the theocracy, properly 
speaking, culminated. He was not only a divine, president of 
Harvard College and a prolific writer; but he was dominant in 
the state, the chief man of affairs. It was he who, sent to repre- 
sent the colony in England, received from King William the new 
charter. His son, Cotton Mather (1663-1728), succeeded to his 
father's distinction; but the changed condition is reflected in his 
non-participation in affairs; he was a man of the study and led 
there a narrower life than his father's had been. He was, never- 
theless, the most broadly characteristic figure of the Puritan of 
his time. He was able and learned, abnormally laborious, leaving 
over 400 titles attributed to him; and at the same time he 
was an ascetic and visionary. The work by which he is best 
remembered, the Magnolia Christi Americana, or the Ecclesiastical 
History of , New England from its First Planting in the Year 1620, 
unto the Year of our Lord 1698 (1702), is the chief historical 
monument of the period, and the most considerable literary work 
done in America up to that time. It is encyclopaedic in scope, 
and contains an immense accumulation of materials relating to 
life and events in the colony. There the New England of the 1 7th 
century is displayed. His numerous other works still further 
amplify the period, and taken all together his writings best illus- 
trate the contents of Puritanism in New England. The power 
of the clergy was waning, but even in the political sphere it was 
far from extinction, and it continued under its scheme of church 
government to guard jealously the principles of liberty. In John 
Wise's (1652-1725) Vindication of the Government of New England 
Churches (1717) a precursor of the Revolution is felt. It was in 
another sphere, however, that Puritanism in New England was 
to reach its height, intellectually and spiritually alike, in the 
brilliant personality of Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), its last 
great product. He was free of affairs, and lived essentially the 
private life of a thinker. He displayed in youth extraordinary 
precocity and varied intellectual curiosity, and showed at the 
same early time a temperament of spirtual sensitiveness and 
religious ideality which suggests the youth of a poet rather than 
of a logician. It was not without a struggle that he embraced 
sincerely the Calvinistic scheme of divine rule, but he was able to 
reconcile the doctrine in its most fearful forms with the serenity 



and warmth of his own spirit; for his soul at all times seems as 
lucid as his mind, and his affections were singularly tender and 
refined. He served as minister to the church at Northampton; 
and, driven from that post, he was for eight years a missionary 
to the Indians at Stockbridge; finally he was made president of 
Princeton College, where after a few weeks' incumbency he died. 
The works upon which his fame is founded are Treatise concerning 
the Religious Affections (1746), On the Freedom of the Will (1754), 
Treatise on Original Sin (1758). They exhibit extraordinary 
reasoning powers and place him among the most eminent theo- 
logians. He contributed by his preaching great inspiring force to 
the revival, known as " the Great Awakening," which swept 
over the dry and formal Puritanism of the age and was its last 
great flame. In him New England idealism had come to the 
birth. He illustrates, better than all others, the power of 
Puritanism as a spiritual force; and in him only did that power 
reach intellectual expression in a memorable way for the larger 
world. The ecclesiastical literature of Puritanism, abundant as 
it was, produced no other work of power; nor did the Puritan 
patronage of literature prove fruitful in other fields. If Puritan- 
ism was thus infertile, it nevertheless prepared the soil. It 
impressed upon New England the stamp of the mind; the entire 
community was by its means intellectually as well as morally 
bred; and to its training and the predisposition it established in 
the genius of the people may be ascribed the respect for the book 
which has always characterized that section, the serious temper 
and elevation of its later literature and the spiritual quality of the 
imagination which is so marked a quality of its authors. 

The secularization of life in New England, which went on 
concurrently with the decline of the clergy in social power, was 
incidental to colonial growth. The practical force of p raa ui a ' 
the people had always been strong; material pros- 
perity increased and a powerful class of merchants grew up; 
public questions multiplied in variety and gained in importance. 
The affairs of the world had definitely obtained the upper hand. - 
The new spirit found its representative in the great figure of 
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), who, born in Boston, early 
emigrated to Philadelphia, an act which in itself may be thought 
to forecast the transfer of the centre of interest to the west and 
south and specifically to that city where the congress was to sit. 
Franklin was a printer, and the books he circulated are an index 
to the uses of reading in his generation. Practical works, such 
as almanacs, were plentiful, and it is characteristic that Franklin's 
name is, in literature, first associated with Poor Richard's 
Almanack (1732). The literature of the i8th century outside of 
New England continued to be constituted of works of exploration, 
description, colonial affairs, with some sprinkling of crude science 
and doctrines of wealth; but it yields no distinguished names or 
remembered titles. Franklin's character subsumes the spirit of 
it. In him thrift and benevolence were main constituents; 
scientific curiosity of a useful sort and invention distinguished 
him; after he had secured a competence, public interests filled 
his mature years. In him was the focus of the federating 
impulses of the time, and as the representative of the colonies in 
England and during the Revolution in France, he was in his 
proper place as the greatest citizen of his country. He was, first 
of men, broadly interested in all the colonies, and in his mind the 
future began to be comprehended in its true perspective and 
scale; and for these reasons to him properly belongs the title of 
" the first American." The type of his character set forth in the 
Autobiography (1817) was profoundly American and prophetic of 
the plain people's ideal of success in a democracy. It is by his 
character and career rather than by his works or even by his great 
public services that he is remembered; he is a type of the citizen- 
man. Older than his companions, and plain while they were of 
an aristocratic stamp, he greatens over them in the popular mind 
as age greatens over youth; but it was these companions who 
were to lay the foundations of the political literature of America. 
With the increasing political life lawyers as a class had naturally 
come into prominence as spokesmen and debaters. A young 
generation of orators sprang up, of whom James Otis (1725-1783) 
in the north, and Patrick Henry (1736-1799) in the south, were 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



the most brilliant; and a group of statesmen, of whom the most 
notable were Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), James Madison 
(1751-1836), and Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), held the 
political direction of the times; in the speeches and state-papers 
of these orators and statesmen and their fellows the political 
literature of the colonies came to hold the first place. The chief 
memorials of this literature are The Declaration of Independence 
(1776), The Federalist (1788), a treatise on the principles of free 
government, and Washington's Addresses (1789-1793-1796). 
Thus politics became, in succession to exploration and religion, 
the most important literary element in the latter half of the i8th 
century. 

The more refined forms of literature also began to receive 
intelligent attention towards the close of the period. The Revolu- 
isth-cen- tion in passing struck out some sparks of balladry and 
tury poetry song, but the inspiration of the spirit of nationality 

was first felt in poetry by Philip Freneau (1752-1832), 

whose Poems (1786) marked the best poetical achieve- 
ment up to his time. Patriotism was also a ruling motive in the 
works of the three poets associated with Yale College, John 
Trumbull (1750-1831), Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), and Joel 
Barlow (1754-1812), authors respectively of McFingal (1782), 
a Hudibrastic satire of the Revolution, The Conquest of Canaan 
(1785), an epic, and The Vision of Columbus (1787), later remade 
into The Columbiad, also an epic. These poets gathered about 
them a less talented company, and all were denominated in 
common the " Hartford Wits," by which name rather than by 
their works they are remembered. The national hymn, " Hail 
Columbia," was composed by Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1842) in 
1798. Fiction, in turn, was first cultivated by Charles Brockden 
Brown (1771-1810), a Philadelphian, who wrote six romantic 
novels (1798-1801) after the style of Godwin, but set in the con- 
ditions of the new world and mixing local description and obser- 
vation with the material of mystery and terror. Fiction had been 
earlier attempted by Mrs Susanna Haswell Rowson, whose 
Charlotte Temple (1790) is remembered, and contemporaneously 
by Mrs Hannah Webster Foster in The Coquette (1797) and by 
Royall Tyler (1758-1826) in The Algerian Captive (1799); but 
to Brown properly belongs the title of the first American novelist, 
nor are his works without invention and intensity and a certain 
distinction that secure for them permanent remembrance. The 
drama formally began its career on a regular stage and with an 
established company, in 1786 at New York, with the acting of 
Royall Tyler's comedy The Contrast; but the earliest American 
play was Thomas Godfrey's (1736-1763) tragedy, The Prince of 
Parthia, acted in Philadelphia in 1767. William Dunlap (1766- 
1839) is, however, credited with being the father of the American 
theatre on the New York stage, where his plays were produced. 
One other earlier book deserves mention, John Woolman's 
(1720-1772) Journal (1775), an autobiography with much charm. 
With these various attempts the i8th century was brought to 
an end. In 200 years no literary classic had been produced in 
America. 

The new nation, which with the igth century began its integral 
career, still retained the great disparities which originally existed 

between the diverse colonies. Political unity, the 
nation^ simplest of the social unities, had been achieved; " a 

more perfect union," in the language of the founders, 
had been formed; but even in the political sphere the new state 
bore in its bosom disuniting forces which again and again 
threatened to rive it apart until they were dissipated in the Civil 
War; and in the other spheres of its existence, intellectually, 
morally, socially, its unity was far from being accomplished. 
The expansion of its territory over the continental area brought 
new local diversity and prolonged the contrasts of border con- 
ditions with those of the long-settled communities. This state of 
affairs was reflected in the capital fact that there was no metro- 
politan centre in which the tradition and forces of the nation 
were concentrated. Washington was a centre of political 
administration; but that was all. The "nation grew slowly, 
indeed, into consciousness of its own existence; but it was with- 
out united history, without national traditions of civilization and 

I. 27 



culture, and it was committed to the untried idea of democracy. 
It was founded in a new faith; yet at the moment that it pro- 
claimed the equality of men, its own social structure and habit 
north and south contradicted the declaration, not merely by the 
fact of slavery, but by the life of its classes. The south long 
remained oligarchic; in the north aristocracy slowly melted 
away. The coincidence of an economic opportunity with a 
philosophic principle is the secret of the career of American 
democracy in its first century. The vast resources of an un- 
developed country gave this opportunity to the individual, while 
the nation was pledged by its fundamental idea to material 
prosperity for the masses, popular education and the common 
welfare, as the supreme test of government. In this labour, 
subduing the new world to agriculture, trade and manufactures, 
the forces of the nation were spent, under the complication of 
maintaining the will of the people as the directing power; the 
subjugation of the soil and experience in popular government are 
the main facts of American history. In the course of this task the 
practice of the fine arts was hardly more than an incident. When 
anyone thinks of Greece, he thinks first of her arts; when anyone 
thinks of America, he thinks of her arts last. Literature, in the 
sense of the printed word, has had a great career in America; 
as the vehicle of use, books, journals, literary communication, 
educational works and libraries have filled the land; nowhere has 
the power of the printed word ever been so great, nowhere has the 
man of literary genius ever had so broad an opportunity to affect 
the minds of men contemporaneously. But, in the artistic sense, 
literature, at most, has been locally illustrated by a few eminent 
names. 

The most obvious fact with regard to this literature is that to 
adopt a convenient word it has been regional. It has flourished 
in parts of the country, very distinctly marked, and is in each 
case affected by its environment and local culture; if it incorpor- 
ates national elements at times, it seems to graft them on its own 
stock. The growth of literature in these favoured soils was slow 
and humble. There was no outburst of genius, no sudden move- 
ment, no renaissance; but very gradually a step was taken in 
advance of the last generation, as that had advanced upon its 
forefathers. The first books of true excellence were experiments; 
they seem almost accidents. The cities of Boston, New York 
and Philadelphia were lettered communities; they possessed 
imported books, professional classes, men of education and taste. 
The tradition of literature was strong, especially in New England; 
there were readers used to the polite letters of the past. It was, 
however, in the main the past of Puritanism, both in England and 
at home, and of the i8th century in general, on which they were 
bred, with a touch ever growing stronger of the new European 
romanticism. All the philosophic ideas of the i8th century were 
current. What was most lacking was a standard self-applied by 
original writers; and in the absence of a great national centre of 
standards and traditions, and amid the poverty of such small 
local centres as the writers were bred in, they sought what they 
desired, not in England, not in any one country nor in any one 
literature, but in the solidarity of literature itself, in the republic 
of letters, the world-state itself, the master-works of all European 
lands; they became either actual pilgrims on foreign soil or 
pilgrims of the mind in fireside travels. The foreign influences 
that thus entered into American literature are obvious and make 
a large part of its history; but the fact here brought out is that 
European literature and experience stood to American writers 
in lieu of a national centre; it was there that both standard and 
tradition were found. 

American literature first began to exist for the larger world 
in the persons of Washington Irving (1785-1859) and James 
Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851). Their recognition was g^ 
almost contemporaneous. The Sketch Book (1819) was isth-cen- 
the first American book to win a great reputation in toy- 
England, and The Spy (1821) was the first to obtain a classtcs - 
similar vogue on the continent. The fame of both authors is 
associated with New York, and that city took the first place as 
the centre of the literature of the period. It was not that New 
York was more intellectual than other parts of the country; but 



834 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



Irving. 



it was a highly prosperous community, where a mercantile 
society flourished and consequently a certain degree of culture 
obtained. The first American literature was not the product of a 
raw democracy nor of the new nationality in any sense; there 
was nothing sudden or vehement in its generation; but, as 
always, it was the product of older elements in the society where 
it arose and flourished under the conditions of precedent culture. 
The family of Irving were in trade. Cooper's father was in the 
law. A third writer, William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), is 
associated with them, and though he announced his poetic talent 
precociously by Thanalopsis (1807), his Poems (1832), immedi- 
ately republished in London, were the basis of his true fame. 
Born in Massachusetts, he lived his long life in New York, and 
was there a distinguished citizen. His_ father was a physician. 
All three men were not supremely endowed; they do not show 
the passion of genius for its work which marks the great 
writers; they were, like most American writers, men with the 
literary temperament, characteristically gentlemen, who essayed 
literature with varying power. If the quality of this early 
literature is to be appreciated truly, the fact of its provenance 
from a society whose cultivation was simple and normal, a 
provincial bourgeois society of a prosperous democracy, must 
be borne in mind. It came, not from the people, but from the 
best classes developed under preceding conditions. 

Irving all his life was in the eyes of his countrymen, whatever 
their pride might be in him, more a travelled gentleman than one 
of themselves. He had come home to end his days at 
Sunnyside by the Hudson, but he had won his fame in 
foreign fields. In his youth the beginnings of his literary work 
were most humble light contributions to the press. He was of 
a most social nature, warm, refined, humorous, a man belonging 
to the town. He was not seriously disposed, idled much, and 
surprised his fellow-citizens suddenly by a grotesque History 
of New York (1809), an extravaganza satirizing the Dutch 
element of the province. He discovered in writing this work his 
talent for humour and also one part of his literary theme, the 
Dutch tradition; but he did not so convince himself of his 
powers as to continue, and it was only after the failure of his 
commercial interests that, being thrown on himself for support, 
he published in London ten years later, at the age of thirty-six, 
the volume of sketches which by its success committed him to a 
literary career. In that work he found himself; sentiment and 
distinction of style characterized it, and these were his main 
traits. He remained abroad, always favoured in society and 
living in diplomatic posts in Spain and England, for seventeen 
years, and he later spent four years in Spain as minister. Spain 
gave him a larger opportunity than England for the cultivation 
of romantic sentiment, and he found there his best themes in 
Moorish legend and history. On his return to America he added 
to his subjects the exploration of the west; and he wrote, besides, 
biographies of Goldsmith and Washington. He was, as it turned 
out, a voluminous writer; yet his books successively seem the 
accident of his situation. The excellence of his work lies rather 
in the treatment than the substance; primarily, there is the 
pellucid style, which he drew from his love of Goldsmith, and the 
charm of his personality shown in his romantic interest, his pathos 
and humour ever growing in delicacy, and his familiar touch with 
humanity. He made his name American mainly by creating the 
legend of the Hudson, and he alone has linked his memory locally 
with his country so that it hangs over the landscape and blends 
with it for ever; he owned his nativity, too, by his pictures of 
the prairie and the fur-trade and by his life of Washington, who 
had laid his hand upon his head; but he had spent half his life 
abroad, in the temperamental enjoyment of the romantic sugges- 
tion of the old world, and by his writings he gave this expansion 
of sympathy and sentiment to his countrymen. If his tempera- 
ment was native-born and his literary taste home-bred, and if his 
affections gave a legend to the countryside and his feelings 
expanded with the view of prairie and wilderness, and if he sought 
to honour with his pen the historic associations and memory of 
the land which had honoured him, it was, nevertheless, the trans- 
Atlantic touch that had loosed his genius and mainly fed it, and 



this fact was prophetic of the immediate course of American 
literature and the most significant in his career. 

Cooper's initiation into literature was similar to that of Irving. 
He had received, perhaps, something more of scanty formal 
education, since he attended Yale College for a season, cooper 
but he early took to the sea and was a midshipman. 
He was thirty years old before he began to write, and it was 
almost an accident that after the failure of his first novel he 
finished The Spy, so deterring was the prejudice that no American 
book could succeed. He was, however, a man of great energy of 
life, great force of will; it was his nature to persist. The way 
once opened, he wrote voluminously and with great unevenness. 
His literary defects, both of surface and construction, are patent. 
It was not by style nor by any detail of plot or character that he 
excelled; but whatever imperfections there might be, his work 
was alive; it had body, motion, fire. He chose his subjects from 
aspects of life familiar to him in the woods or on the sea or from 
patriotic memories near to him in the fields of the Revolution. 
He thus established a vital connexion with his own country, and 
in so far he is the most national by his themes of any of the 
American writers. What he gave was the scene of the new world, 
both in the forest and by the fires of the Revolution and on the 
swift and daring American ships; but it was especially by his 
power to give the sense of the primitive wilderness and the ocean 
weather, and adventure there, that he won success. In France, 
where he was popular, this came as an echo out of the real world 
of the west to the dream of nature that had lately grown up in 
French literature; and, besides, of all the springs of interest 
native to men in every land adventure in the wild is, perhaps, the 
easiest to touch, the quickest and most inflaming to respond. 
Cooper stood for a true element in American experience and con- 
ditions, for the romance in the mere presence of primeval things 
of nature newly found by man and opening to his coming; this 
was an imaginative moment, and Cooper seized it by his imagina- 
tion. He especially did so in the Indian elements of his tale, and 
gave permanent ideality to the Indian type. The trait of lofti- 
ness which he thus incorporated belongs with the impression of 
the virgin forest and prairie, the breadth, the silence and the 
music of universal nature. The distinction of his work is to open 
so great a scene worthily, to give it human dignity in rough and 
primitive characters seen in the simplicity of their being, and to 
fill it with peril, resourcefulness and hardihood. It is the only 
brave picture of life in the broad from an American pen. Scott, 
in inventing the romantic treatment of history in fiction, was the 
leader of the historical novel; but Cooper, except in so far as he 
employed the form, was not in a true sense an imitator of Scott; 
he did not create, nor think, nor feel, in Scott's way, and he came 
far short of the deep human power of Scott's genius. He was not 
great in character; but he was great in adventure, manly spirit 
and the atmosphere of the natural world, an Odysseyan writer, 
who caught the moment of the American planting in vivid and 
characteristic traits. 

This same spirit, but limited to nature in her most elemental 
forms and having the simplest generic relations to human life, 
characterizes Bryant. He, too, had slender academic Bryant. 
training, and came from the same social origins as 
Irving and Cooper; but, owing to his extraordinary boyish 
precocity, the family influences upon him and the kind of home 
he was bred in are more clearly seen. He framed his art in his 
boyhood on the model of 18th-century verse, and though he felt 
the liberalizing influences of Wordsworth later there always re- 
mained in his verse a sense of form that suggests a severer school 
than that of his English contemporaries. He lived the life of a 
journalist and public man in New York, but the poet in him was 
a man apart and he jealously guarded his talent in seclusion. 
Though he was at times abroad, he resembled Cooper in being 
unaffected by foreign residence; he remained home-bred. He 
wrote a considerable quantity of verse; but it is by a quality in 
it rather than by its contents that his poetry is recalled, and this 
quality exists most highly in the few pieces that are well known. 
To no verse is the phrase "native wood-notes wild " more 
properly applied. His poetry gives this deep impression of 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



835 



privacy; high, clear, brief in voice, and yet, as it were, as of 
something hidden in the sky or grove or brook, or as if the rock 
spoke, it is nature in her haunts; it is the voice of the peak, the 
forests, the cataracts, the smile of the blue gentian, the distant 
rosy flight of the water-fowl, with no human element less simple 
than piety, death or the secular changes of time. It is, too, an 
expression of something so purely American that it seems that it 
must be as uncomprehended by one not familiar with the scene 
as the beauty of Greece or Italian glows; it is poetry locked in its 
own land. This presence of the pure, the pristine, the virginal in 
the verse, this luminousness, spaciousness, serenity in the land, 
this immemorialness of natural things, is the body and spirit of 
the true wild, such as Bryant's eyes had seen it and as it had 
possessed his soul. In no other American poet is there this near- 
ness to original awe in the presence of nature; nowhere is nature 
so slightly humanized, so cosmically felt, and yet poetized. 
Poetry of this sort must be small in amount; a few hundred lines 
contain it all; but they alone shrine the original grandeur, not 
so much of the American landscape, as of wild nature when first 
felt in the primitive American world., 

American romanticism thus began with these three writers, 
who gave it characterization after all by only a few simple traits. 
There was in it no profound passion nor philosophy nor revolt; 
especially there was no morbidness. It was sprung from a new 
soil. The breath of the early American world was in Bryant's 
poetry; he had freed from the landscape a Druidical nature- 
worship of singular purity, simple and grand, unbound by any 
conventional formulas of thought or feeling but deeply spiritual. 
The new life of the land filled the scene of Cooper; prairie, forest 
and sea, Indians, backwoodsmen and sailors, the human struggle 
of all kinds, gave it diversity and detail; but its life was the 
American spirit, the epic action of a people taking primitive 
possession, battling with its various foes, making its world. 
Irving, more brooding and reminiscent, gave legend to the land- 
scape, transformed rudeness with humour and brought elements 
of picturesqueness into play; and in him, in whom the new race 
was more mature, was first shown that nostalgia for the past, 
which is everywhere a romantic trait but was peculiarly strong 
under American conditions. He was consequently more free in 
imagination than the others, and first dealt with other than 
American subjects, emancipating literature from provinciality of 
theme, while the modes of his romantic treatment, the way he felt 
about his subjects, still owed much to his American birth. In 
all this literature by the three writers there was little complexity, 
and there was no strangeness in their personalities. Irving 
was more genially human, Cooper more vitally intense; Bryant 
was the more careful artist in the severe limits of his art, which 
was simple and plain. Simplicity and plainness characterize 
all three; they were, in truth, simple American gentlemen, 
of the breeding and tastes that a plain democracy produced 
as its best, who, giving themselves to literature for a career, 
developed a native romanticism, which, however obvious and 
uncomplicated with philosophy, passion or moods, represented 
the first stage of American life with freshness of power, an element 
of ideal loftiness and much literary charm. 

Though Irving, Cooper and Bryant were associated with New 
York, there was something sporadic in their germination. They 
have no common source; they stood apart; and 
their work neither overlapped nor blended, but 
remained self-isolated. None of them can be said to 
have founded a school, but Irving left a literary tradition and 
Cooper had followers in the field of historical fiction. The 
literary product up to the middle of the century presents gener- 
ally from its early years the appearance of an indistinguishable 
mass, as in colonial days, in which neither titles nor authors 
are eminent. The association of American literature with the 
periodical press is, perhaps, the most important trait to be 
observed. New York and Philadelphia were book-markets, and 
local presses had long been at work issuing many reprints. 
Magazines in various degrees of importance sprang up in succes- 
sion to the earlier imitations of English iSth-century periodicals, 
which abounded at the beginning of the century; and as time 



General 
progress 



went on these were accompanied by a host of annuals of the 
English Keepsake variety. Philadelphia was especially dis- 
tinguished by an early fertility in magazines, which later reached 
a great circulation, as in the case of Godey's and Graham's; the 
Knickerbocker became prominent in New Yorkfrom 1833, when it 
was founded; Richmond had in The Southern Literary Messenger 
the chief patron of southern writers from 1834, and there were 
abortive ventures still farther south in Charleston. These 
various periodicals and like publications were the literary arena, 
the place of ambition for young and old, for known and unknown, 
and there literary fame and what little money came of its pursuit 
were found. Minor poetry flourished in it; sketches, tales, 
essays, every sort of writing in prose multiplied there. A change 
in the atmosphere of letters is also to be noted. The i8th 
century was fairly left behind. The Philadelphian reprint of 
Galignani's Paris edition of Keats, Shelley and Coleridge had 
brought in the new romantic poetry with wide effect; and 
Disraeli, Bulwer and, later, Dickens are felt in the prose; in 
verse, especially by women, Mrs Hemans and Mrs Browning 
ruled the moment. The product was large. In poetry it was 
displayed on the most comprehensive scale in Rufus Wilmot 
Griswold's (1815-1857) collections of American verse, made in the 
middle of the century. Mrs Lydia Sigourney (1791-1865), a 
prolific writer, and Mrs Maria GowanBrooks (1795-1845), known 
as Southey's " Maria del Occidente," a more ambitious aspirant, 
the " Davidson sisters " (1808-1825 = 1823-1838), and Alice 
(1820-1871) and Phoebe Gary (1824-1871) illustrate the work of 
the women; and Richard Henry Wilde (1789-1847), George Pope 
Morris (1802-1864), Charles Fenno Hoffman (1806-1884) an d 
Willis Gaylord Clark (1810-1841) may serve for that of men. In 
this verse, and in the abundant prose as well, the sentimentality 
of the period is strongly marked; it continued to the times of the 
Civil War. Two poets of a better type, Joseph Rodman Drake 
(1795-1820), distinguished by delicacy of fancy, and Fitz-Greene 
Halleck (1790-1867), who showed ardour and a real power of 
phrase, are remembered from an earlier time for their brother- 
hood in verse, but Drake died young and Halleck was soon 
sterilized, so that the talents of both proved abortive. The 
characteristic figure that really exemplifies this secondary 
literature at its best is Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806-1867) who, 
though born in Portland, Maine, was the chief litterateur of the 
Knickerbocker period. He wrote abundantly in both verse and 
prose, and was the first of the journalist type of authors, a social 
adventurer with facile powers of literary entertainment, a man of 
the town and immensely popular. He was the sentimentalist by 
profession, and his work, transitory as it proved, was typical of a 
large share of the taste, talent and ambition of the contemporary 
crowd of writers. Neighbouring him in time and place are the 
authors of various stripe, known as " the Literati," whom Poe 
described in his critical papers, which, in connexion with Gris- 
wold's collections mentioned above, are the principal current 
source of information concerning the bulk of American literature 
in that period. 

This world of the magazines, the Literati and sentimentalism, 
was the true milieu of Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849). Born in 
Boston, his mother a pleasing English actress and his poe 

father a dissipated stage-struck youth of a Baltimore 
family, left an orphan in childhood, he was reared in the 
Virginian home of John Allan, a merchant of Scottish extraction; 
he received there the stamp of southern character. He was all 
his life characteristically a southerner, with southern ideals of 
character and conduct, southern manners towards both men and 
women and southern passions. He showed precocity in verse, 
but made his real debut in prose as editor of The Southern Literary 
Messenger at Richmond in 1835. He was by his talents com- 
mitted to a literary career, and being usually without definite 
means of support he followed the literary market, first to Phil- 
adelphia and later to New York. He was continuously associated 
with magazines as editor, reviewer or contributor; they were his 
means of sustenance; and, whether as cause or effect, this mode 
of life fell in with the nature of his mind, which was a contempor- 
ary mind. He was perhaps better acquainted with contemporary 



8 3 6 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



work in literature than any of his associates; he took his first 
cues from Disraeli and Bulwer and Moore, and he was earliest to 
recognize Tennyson and Mrs Browning; his principal reading 
was always in the magazines. He was, however, more than a 
man of literary temperament like Irving and Cooper; he was a 
child of genius. As in their case, there was something sporadic 
in his appearance on the scene. He had no American origins, but 
only American conditions of life. In fact he bore little relation 
to his period, and so far as he was influenced, it was for the 
worse; he transcended the period, essentially, in all his creative 
work. He chose for a form of expression the sketch, tale or short 
story, and he developed it in various ways. From the start there 
was a melodramatic element in him, itself a southern trait and 
developed by the literary influence of Disraeli and Bulwer on his 
mind. He took the tale of mystery as his special province; and 
receiving it as a mystery that was to be explained, after the recent 
masters of it, he saw its fruitful lines of development in the fact 
that science had succeeded to superstition as the source of 
wonder, and also in the use of ratiocination as a mode of dis- 
entanglement in the detective story. Brilliant as his success was 
in these lines, his great power lay in the tale of psychological 
states as a mode of impressing the mind with the thrill of terror, 
the thrall of fascination, the sense of mystery. It is by his tales 
in these several sorts that he won, more slowly than Irving or 
Cooper and effectually only after his death, continental repu- 
tation; at present no American author is so securely settled in 
the recognition of the world at large, and he owes this, similarly 
to Cooper, to the power of mystery over the human mind uni- 
versally; that is, he owes it to his theme, seconded by a marvel- 
lous power to develop it by the methods of art. He thus added 
new traits to American romanticism, but as in the case of Irving's 
Spanish studies there is no American element in the theme; he 
is detached from his local world, and works in the sphere of 
universal human nature, nor in his treatment is there any trace 
of his American birth. He is a world author more purely than 
any other American writer. Though it is on his tales that his 
continental reputation necessarily rests, his temperament is more 
subtly expressed in his verse, in which that fond of which his tales 
are the logical and intelligible growth gives out images and 
rhythms, the issue of morbid states, which affect the mind rather 
as a form of music than of thought. Emotion was, in art, his 
constant aim, though it might be only so simple a thing as the 
emotion of colour as in his landscape studies; and in his verse, 
by an unconscious integration and flow of elements within him it 
must be thought, he obtained emotional effects by images which 
have no intellectual value, and which float in rhythms so as to act 
musically on the mind and arouse pure moods of feeling absolutely 
free of any other contents. Such poems must be an enigma to 
most men, but others are accessible to them, and derive from 
them an original and unique pleasure; they belong outside of 
the intellectual sphere. It is by virtue of this musical quality 
and immediacy that his poetry is characterized by genius; in 
proportion as it has meaning of an intelligible sort it begins to 
fade and lower; so far as " Lenore " and " Annie " and " Annabel 
Lee " are human, they are feeble ghosts of that sentimentality 
which was so rife in Poe's time and so maudlin in his own 
personal relations; and except for a half-dozen pieces, in which 
his quality of rhythmical fascination is supreme, his verse as 
a whoj[e is inferior to the point of being commonplace. Small 
as the quantity of his true verse is, it more sustains his peculiar 
genius in American eyes than does his prose; and this is because 
it is so unique. He stands absolutely alone as a poet with none 
like him; in his tales, as an artist, he is hardly less solitary, but 
he has some ties of connexion or likeness with the other masters 
of mystery. Poe lived in poverty and died in misery; but with- 
out him romanticism in America would lose its most romantic 
figure, and American literature the artist who, most of all its 
writers, had the passion of genius for its work. 

Poe left even less trace of himself in the work of others than did 
Irving, Cooper and Bryant. He stands in succession to them, 
and closed the period so far as it contributed to American 
romanticism anything distinguished, original or permanent. 



The ways already opened had, however, been trod, and most 
notably in fiction. The treatment of manners and customs, 
essentially in Irving's vein, was pleasingly cultivated in Maryland 
by John Pendleton Kennedy (1795-1870) in Swallow Barn (1832) 
and similar tales of Old Dominion life. In Virginia, Beverly 
Tucker (1784-1851) in The Partisan Leader (1836), noticeable for 
its prophecy of secession, and John Esten Cooke (1830-1886) 
in The Virginia Comedians (1854), also won a passing reputation. 
The champion in the south, however, was William Gilmore Simms 
(1806-1870), born in Charleston, a voluminous writer of both 
prose and verse, who undertook to depict, on the same scale as 
Cooper and in his manner, the settlement of the southern territory 
and its Indian and revolutionary history; but of his many 
novels, of which the characteristic examples are The Yemassee 
( J 835), The Partisan (1835) and Beauchampe (1842), none 
attained literary distinction. The sea-novel was developed by 
Herman Melville (1810-1891) in Typee (1846) and its successors, 
but these tales, in spite of their being highly commended by 
lovers of adventure, have taken no more hold than the work of 
Simms. Single novels of wide popularity appeared from time to 
time, of which a typical instance was The Wide, Wide World 
(1850) by Susan Warner (1819-1885). The grade of excellence 
was best illustrated, perhaps, for the best current fiction which 
was not to be incorporated in literature, by the novels of 
Catharine Maria Sedgwick (1789-1867), of a western Massa- 
chusetts family, in Hope Leslie (1827) and its. successors. The 
distinct Knickerbocker strain was best preserved by James Kirke 
Paulding (1778-1860) among the direct imitators of Irving; 
but the better part of the Irving tradition, its sentiment, social 
grace and literary flavour, was not noticeable until it awoke in 
George William Curtis (1824-1892), born a New Englander but, 
like Bryant, a journalist and public man of New York, whose 
novels, notes of travel and casual brief social essays brought that 
urbane style to an end, as in Donald Grant Mitchell (born 1822) 
the school of sentiment, descended from the same source, died 
not unbecomingly in the Reveries of a Bachelor (1850) and Dream 
Life (1851). Two poets, just subsequent to Poe, George Henry 
Boker (1823-1890) and Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872), 
won a certain distinction, the former especially in the drama, in 
the Philadelphia group. The single popular songs, " The Star- 
Spangled Banner " (1813), by Francis Scott Key (1779-1843) of 
Maryland, " America " (1832) by Samuel Francis Smith (1808- 
1895) of Massachusetts, and " Home, Sweet Home " (1823) by 
John Howard Payne (1792-1852) of New York, may also be 
appropriately recorded here. The last distinct literary person- 
ality to emerge from the miscellany of talent in the middle of the 
century, in the middle Atlantic states, was James Bayard Taylor 
(1825-1878), who, characteristically a journalist, gained reputa- 
tion by his travels, poems and novels, but in spite of brilliant 
versatility and a high ambition failed to obtain permanent 
distinction. His translation of Faust (1870) is his chief title to 
remembrance; but the later cultivation of the oriental motive 
in American lyrical poetry owes something to his example. 

In New England, which succeeded to New York as the chief 
source of literature of high distinction, the progress of culture in 
the post-Revolutionary period was as normal and Nfw 
gradual as elsewhere in the country; there was no England 
violence of development, no sudden break, but the scholar- 
growth of knowledge and taste went slowly on in con- 
junction with the softening of the Puritan foundation of thought, 
belief and practice. What most distinguished literature in New 
England from that to the west and south was its connexion with 
religion and scholarship, neither of which elements was strong 
in the literature that has been described. The neighbourhood of 
Harvard College to Boston was a powerful influence in. the field of 
knowledge and critical culture. The most significant fact in 
respect to scholarship, however, was the residence abroad of 
George Ticknor (1791-1871), author of The History of Spanish 
Literature (1849), of Edward Everett (1794-1865), the orator, and 
of George Bancroft (1800-1891), author of the History of the 
United States (1834-1874), who as young men brought back new 
ideals of learning. The social connexion of Boston, not only with 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



England but with the continent, was more constant, varied and 
intimate than fell to the fortune of any other city, and owing 
to the serious temper of the community the intellectual com- 
merce with the outer world through books was more profound. 
Coleridge was early deeply influential on the thought of the 
cultivated class, and to him Carlyle, who found his first sincere 
welcome and effectual power there, succeeded. The influence of 
both combined to introduce, and to secure attention for, German 
writers. Translation, as time went on, followed, and German 
thought was also further sustained and advanced in the com- 
munity by Frederick Henry Hedge (1805-1890), a philosophical 
theologian, who conducted a propaganda of German ideas. The 
activity of the group about him is significantly marked by the 
issue of the series of Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature 
(1838), edited by George Ripley (1802-1880), the critic, which 
was the first of its kind in America. French ideas, as time went 
on, were also current, and the field of research extended to the 
Orient, the writings of which were brought forward especially in 
connexion with the Transcendental Movement to which all these 
foreign studies contributed. In New England, in other words, a 
close, serious and vital connexion was made, for the first time, 
with the philosophic thought of the world and with its tradition 
even in the remote past. Unitarianism, which was the form in 
which the old Puritanism dissolved in the cultivated class, came 
in with the beginning of the century, and found its representative 
in the gentle character, refined intelligence and liberal humanity 
of William Ellery Channing (1780-1842), who has remained its 
chief apostle. It was the expression of a moral maturing and 
intellectual enlightenment that took place with as little dis- 
turbance as ever marked religious evolution in any community. 
The people at large remained evangelical, but they also felt in a 
less degree the softening and liberalizing tendency; neverthe- 
less it was mainly in the field of Unitarianism that literature 
flourished, as was natural, and Transcendentalism was a phe- 
nomenon that grew out of Unitarianism, being indeed the excess 
of the movement of enlightenment and the extreme limit of 
intuitionalism, individualism and private judgment. These two 
factors, religion and scholarship, gave to New England literature 
its serious stamp and academic quality; but the preparatory 
stage being longer, it was slower to emerge than the literature of 
the rest of the country. 

The first stirrings of romanticism in New England were felt, as 
in the country to the south, by men of literary temperament in a 
sympathetic enjoyment and feeble imitation of the contemporary 
English romantic school of fiction exemplified by Mrs Radcliffe, 
Lewis and Godwin. Washington Allston (1770-1843), the 
painter, born in South Carolina but by education and adoption a 
citizen of Cambridge, showed the taste in Monaldi (1841), and 
Richard Henry Dana (1787-1879) in Paul Fellon (1833); in his 
poem of the same date, " The Buccaneer," the pseudo-Byronic 
element, which belongs to the conception of character and 
passion in this school of fiction, appears. These elder writers 
illustrate rather the stage of imaginative culture at the period, 
and show by their other works also Allston by his poems " The 
Sylphs of the Seasons" (1813), and Dana by his abortive 
periodical The Idle Man (182^) issued at New York their 
essential sympathy with the literary conditions reigning before 
the time of Irving. They both were post-Revolutionary, and 
advanced American culture in other fields rather than imagina- 
tion, Allston in art and Dana in criticism, as editor of The North 
American Review, which was founded in 1815, and was long the 
chief organ of serious thought and critical learning, influential in 
the dissemination of ideas and in the maintenance of the intel- 
lectual life. The influence of their personality in the community, 
like that of Channing, with whom they were closely connected, 
was of more importance than any of their works. 

The definite moment of the appearance of New England in 
literature in the true sense was marked by Ralph Waldo 
Emerson's (1803-1882) Nature (1836), Nathaniel Hawthorne's 
(1804-1864) Twice-Told Tales (1837) and Henry Wadsworth 
Longfellow's (1807-1882) Voices of the Night (1839). Of this 
group of men Longfellow is the most national figure, and from 



the point of view of literary history the most significant by 
virtue of what he contributed to American romanticism in the 
large. He felt the conscious desire of the people for Emtrsoa- 
an American literature, and he obeyed it in the choice Haw 
of his subjects. He took national themes, and his work thorne: 
is in this respect the counterpart in poetry to that of 
Cooper in prose. In Hiawatha (1855) he poetized the 
Indian life; and, though the scene and figures of the poem are no 
more localized than the happy hunting-grounds, the ideal of the 
life of the aborigines in the wilderness is given with freshness and 
primitive charm and with effect on the imagination. It is the sole 
survivor of many poetic attempts to naturalize the Indian in liter- 
ature, and will remain the classic Indian poem. In Evangeline 
(1847), The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858) and The New 
England Tragedies ( 1 868) , he depicted colonial life. As he thus em- 
bodied national tradition in one portion of his work, he rendered 
national character in another, and with more spontaneity, in 
those domestic poems of childhood and the affections, simple 
moods of the heart in the common lot, which most endeared him 
as the poet of the household. These are American poems as truly 
as his historical verse, though they are also universal for the 
English race. In another large portion of his work he brought 
back from the romantic tradition of Europe, after Irving's 
manner, motives which he treated for their pure poetic quality, 
detached from anything American, and he also translated much 
foreign verse from the north and the south of Europe, including 
Dante's Divine Comedy (1867). He has, more than any other 
single writer, reunited America with the poetic past of Europe, 
particularly in its romance. The same serenity of disposition 
that marked Irving and Bryant characterized his life; and his 
art, more varied than Bryant's or Irving's, has the same refine- 
ment, being simple and so limpid as to deceive the reader into an 
oblivion of its quality and sometimes into an unwitting disparage- 
ment of what seems so plain and natural as to be commonplace. 
In Longfellow, as in Irving, one is struck by that quietude, which 
is so prevailing a characteristic of American literature, and which 
proceeds from its steady and even flow from sources that never 
knew any disturbance or perturbation. The life, the art, the 
moods are all calm; deep passion is absent. 

Hawthorne was endowed with a soul of more intense brooding, 
but he remained within the circle of this peace. He developed in 
solitude exquisite grace of language, and in other respects was an 
artist, the mate of Poe in the tale and exceeding Poe in signifi- 
cance since he used symbolism for effects of truth. He, like 
Longfellow, embodied the national tradition, in this case the 
Puritan past; but he seized the subject, not in its historical 
aspects and diversity of character and event, but psychologically 
in its moral passion in The Scarlet Letter (1850), and less abstractly, 
more picturesquely, more humanly, in its blood tradition, in The 
House of the Seven Gables. In his earlier work, as an artist, he 
shows the paucity of the materials in the environment, especially 
in his tales; but when his residence in Italy and England gave 
into his hands larger opportunity, he did not succeed so well 
in welding Italy with America in The Marble Faun (1860), or 
England with America in his experimental attempts at the work 
which he left uncompleted, as he had done in the Puritan 
romances. He had, however, added a new domain to American 
romanticism; and, most of all these writers, he blended moral 
truth with fiction; he, indeed, spiritualized romance, and with- 
out loss of human reality, a rare thing in any literature. Both 
Longfellow and Hawthorne were happy in reconciling their art 
with their country: both, not less than Poe, were universal 
artists, but they incorporated the national past in their art and 
were thereby more profoundly American. 

Emerson, whose work lay in the religious sphere, not unlike 
Jonathan Edwards at an earlier time of climax but in a different 
way, marked the issue of Puritanism in pure idealism, and was 
more contemporaneously associated with life in the times than 
were the purely imaginative writers. He was the central figure 
of Transcendentalism, and apart from his specific teachings stood 
for the American spirit, disengaged from authority, independent, 
personal, responsible only to himself. He reached a revolutionary 



8 3 8 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



extreme, but he had not arrived at it by revolutionary means; 
without storm or stress, with characteristic peacefulness, he came 
to the great denials, and without much concerning himself with 
them turned to his own affirmations of spiritual reality, methods 
of life and personal results. Serenity was his peculiar trait; amid 
all the agitation about him he was entirely unmoved, lived 
calmly and wrote with placid power, concentrating into the 
slowly wrought sentences of his Essays (1841-1875) the spiritual 
essence and moral metal of a life lived to God, to himself and to his 
fellow-men. He, more than any other single writer, reunited 
American thought with the philosophy of the world; more than 
all others, he opened the ways of liberalism, wherever they may 
lead. He was an emancipator of the mind. In his Poems (1847- 
1867), though the abstract and the concrete often find themselves 
awkward mates, his philosophic ideas are put forth under forms 
of imagination and his personal life is expressed with nobility; 
his poetic originality, though so different in kind, is as unique as 
Poe's, and reaches a height of imaginative faculty not elsewhere 
found in American verse. His poetry belongs more peculiarly 
to universal art, so pure in general is its philosophic content and 
so free from any temporal trait is the style; but it is as dis- 
tinguished for the laconic expression of American ideas, minted 
with one blow, as his prose is for the constant breathing of the 
American spirit. It is the less possible to define the American 
traits in Emerson, because they constituted the man. He was as 
purely an American type as Lincoln. The grain of the man is in 
his work also; and the best that his prose and verse contain is his 
personal force. In him alone is genius felt as power; in the 
others it impresses one primarily as culture, modes of artistic 
faculty, phases of temperament. In this, too, he brings to mind 
Jonathan Edwards, the other climax of the religious spirit in New 
England; in Edwards it was intellectual power, in Emerson it 
was moral power; in both it was indigenous, power springing from 
what was most profound in the historic life of the community. 

Three other names, John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892), 
Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), James Russell Lowell 

(1819-1891), complete the group of the greater writers 
^Holmes- f ^ ew England. Holmes was a more local figure, by 
Lowell'. his humour and wit and his mental acuteness a Yankee 

and having the flavour of race, but neither in his verse 
nor his novels reaching a high degree of excellence and best 
known by The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table (1858), which is the 
Yankee prose classic. His contemporary reputation was largely 
social and owed much to the length of his life, but his actual hold 
on literature already seems slight and his work of little permanent 
value. Whittier stands somewhat apart as the poet of the soil 
and also because of his Quakerism; he was first eminent as the 
poet of the anti-slavery movement, to which he contributed much 
stirring verse, and later secured a broader fame by Snowbound 
(1866) and his religious poems of simple piety, welcome to every 
faith; he was also a balladist of local legends. In general he is 
the voice of the plain people without the medium of academic 
culture, and his verse though of low flight is near to their life and 
faith. Lowell first won distinction by The Bigloiv Papers (1848), 
which with the second series (1886) is the Yankee classic in verse, 
and is second only to his patriotic odes in maintaining his poetic 
reputation; his other verse, variously romantic in theme and 
feeling, and latterly more kindred to English classic style, shows 
little originality and was never popularly received; it is rather 
the fruit of great talent working in close literary sympathy with 
other poets whom from time to time he valued. His prose 
consists in the main of literary studies in criticism, a field in 
which he held the first rank. Together with Holmes and Whittier 
he gives greater body, diversity and illustration to the literature 
of New England; but in the work of none of these is there the 
initiative or the presence of single genius that characterize 
Emerson, Hawthorne and Longfellow. Lowell was a scholar with 
academic ties, a patriot above party, master of prose and verse 
highly developed and finished, and at times of a lofty strain 
owing to his moral enthusiasm; Whittier was a Quaker priest, 
vigorous in a great cause of humanity, with fluent power to 
express in poetry the life of the farm, the roadside and the legends 



that were like folklore in the memory of the settlement; Holmes 
was a town wit and master of occasional verse, with notes here 
and there of a higher strain in single rare poems. 

The secondary literature that accompanied the work of these 
writers was abundant. It was largely the product of Trans- 
cendentalism and much of it gathered about Emerson. 
In The Dial (1840), the organ of Transcendentalism, he c 
introduced to the public his young friend, Henry David 
Thoreau (1817-1862), author of Walden (1854) and the father of 
the nature-writers, who as a hermit-type has had some European 
vogue and shows an increasing hold as an exception among men, 
but whose work has little literary distinction; and together with 
him, his companion, William Ellery Channing (1818-1901), a 
poet who has significance only in the transcendentalist group. 
With them should be named Emerson's coeval, Amos Bronson 
Alcott (1799-1888), the patriarch of the so-called Concord 
philosophers, better esteemed for his powers of monologue than 
as a writer in either prose or verse. Emerson's associate-editor 
in The Dial was Sarah Margaret Fuller, afterwards Marchioness 
d'Ossoli (1810-1850), a woman of extraordinary qualities and 
much usefulness, who is best remembered by her Woman in the 
Nineteenth Century (1844), but contributed no permanent work 
to literature. She was a leading figure at Brook Farm, the 
socialistic community founded by members of the group, and 
especially by Ripley, who like her afterwards emigrated to New 
York and together with her began a distinguished critical career 
in connexion with The New York Tribune. Transcendentalism 
produced also its peculiar poet in Jones Very (1813-1881!, whose 
Poems (1839) have original quality though slight merit, and its 
novelist in Sylvester Judd (1813-1853), whose Margaret (1845) 
is a unique work in American fiction. Other transcendentalist 
poets were Christopher Pearse Cranch (1813-1892), and Charles 
Timothy Brooks (1813-1883), who translated Faust (1856), 
besides a score of minor names. Outside of this group Thomas 
William Parsons (1819-1892), who translated Dante's Inferno 
(1843), was a poet of greater distinction, but his product was 
slight. The prose of the movement, though abundant, yielded 
nothing that is remembered. 

The literary life of Boston was, however, by no means confined 
within this circle of thought. It was most distinguished in the 
field of history, where indeed the writers rivalled the History. 
imaginative authors in public fame. They were, 
besides George Bancroft already mentioned, John Gorham 
Palfrey(i796-i88i), author of TheHistoryofNew England(i&$&), 
William Hickling Prescott (1796-1859), whose field was Spanish 
and Spanish-American history, John Lothrop Motley (1814- 
1877), whose attention was given to Dutch history, and Jared 
Sparks (1780-1866), whose work lay in biography. In the 
writings of Prescott and Motley the romanticism of the period 
is clearly felt, and they attained the highest distinction in the 
literary school of history of the period. Oratory also flourished 
in Daniel Webster (1782-1852), Edward Everett (1794-1865), 
RufusChoate (1790-1859), Wendell Phillips (1811-1884), Charles 
Sumner (1811-1874), and Robert Charles Winthrop (1809-1894), 
the last survivor of a long line of fiery or classic oratory in which 
New England was especially distinguished and had oratory. 
rivalry only from Henry Clay (1777-1852) of Virginia, 
and John Caldwell Calhoun (1782-1850) of South Carolina. The 
church also produced two powerful speakers in Theodore Parker 
(1810-1860), the protagonist of the liberals in Boston, and Henry 
Ward Beecher (1813-1887), who sustained a liberal form of New 
England Congregationalism in Brooklyn, New York, where he 
made Plymouth Church a national pulpit. The single memorable 
novel of the period was Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe's Fiction. 
(1811-1896) Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), which had a 
world-wide vogue; it is the chief contribution of the anti-slavery 
movement to American literature and stands for plantation life 
in the old south. Another female writer, Mrs Lydia Maria Child 
(1802-1880), remembered by her Philothea (1836), deserves 
mention in the line of notable American women who served their 
generation in literary ways and by devotion to public causes. 
Criticism was served excellently by Edwin Percy Whipple (1819- 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



839 



1885), and less eminently by Henry Theodore Tuckerman (1813- 
1871), who emigrated to New York; but scholarship in general 
flourished under the protection of Harvard College, 
where Ticknor, Longfellow and Lowell maintained a 
high ideal of literary knowledge and judgment in the 
chair they successively filled, and were accompanied in English 
by Francis James Child (1825-1896)! whose English and Scottish 
Ballads, first issued in 1858, was brought to its final and monu- 
mental form in 1892. Cornelius Conway Felton (1807-1862), 
president of Harvard College, stood for Greek culture, but the 
classical influence was little in evidence. Elsewhere in New 
England George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882) of Vermont, long 
minister to Italy, and William Dwight Whitney (1827-1894) of 
Yale, were linguistic scholars of high distinction. The develop- 
ment of the colleges into universities was already prophesied 
in the presence and work of these men. Outside of New England 
scholarship had been illustrated in New York by Charles Anthon 
(1797-1867), the classical editor, by the Duyckincks, Evert 
Augustus (1816-1878) and George Long (1823-1863), editors of 
the Cyclopaedia of American Literature (1855), and by Giulian 
Crommelin Verplanck (1786-1870), editor of Shakespeare (1846). 
New England thus, standing somewhat apart, produced a 
characteristic literature, more deeply rooted in the community 
Character- ^ nan was ^ ne case elsewhere; and this literature, blend- 
istics ing with what was produced to the south and west, 

of New became a predominant share of what has been nation- 
fiteraiure a ^ accepted as standard American literature. It is 
also the more profound and scholarly share; and if 
quantity as well as quality be counted, and, as is proper, Bryant 
be included as the product of Puritan culture, it is the more 
artistic share. American standard literature, so constituted, 
belongs to romanticism, and is a phase of the romanticism which 
was -then the general mood of literature; but it is a native 
product, with traits of its own and inward development from 
local conditions, not only apparent by its themes, but by its 
distinct evolution. Though it owed much to contact with Europe 
through its travelled scholars and its intellectual commerce 
by means of translations and imported books, and often dealt 
' with matter detached from America both in prose and poetry, 
it was essentially self-contained. It was, in a marked way, free 
from the passions whose source was the French Revolution and 
its after-throes from 1789 to 1848; it is by this fact that it 
differs most from European romanticism. Just as the Puritan 
Rebellion in England left the colonies untouched to their own 
development, the political revolutions in Europe left the new 
nation unaffected to its normal evolution. There was never any 
revolution, in the French sense, in America, whether social, 
political, religious or literary; its great historical changes, such 
as the termination of English rule, the' passing away of Puritan- 
ism, the abolition of slavery with the consequent destruction of 
the old South, were in a true sense conservative changes, normal 
phases of new life. In literature this state of things is reflected in 
the absence in it of any disturbance, its serenity of mood, its air 
of quiet studies. It is shown especially in its lack of passion. 
The only ardours displayed by its writers are moral, patriotic 
or religious, and in none of them is there any sense of conflict. 
The life which they knew was wholesome, regular, still free from 
urban corruption, the experience of a plain, prosperous and law- 
abiding people. None of these writers, though like Hawthorne 
they might deal with sin or like Poe with horror and a lover's 
despair at death, struck any tragic note. No tragedy was 
written, no love-poetry, no novel of passion. No literature is so 
maiden-pure. It is by refinement rather than power that it is 
most distinguished, by taste and cultivation, by conscientiousness 
in art, in poetic and stylistic craft; it is romance retrospectively 
seen in the national past, or conjured out of foreign lands by 
reminiscent imagination, or symbolically created out of fantasy; 
and this is supplemented by poetry of the domestic affections, 
the simple sorrows, all " that has been and may be again " in 
daily human lives, and by prose similarly related to a well- 
ordered life. If it is undistinguished by any work of supreme 
genius, it reflects broadly and happily and in enduring forms 



the national tradition and character of the land in its dawning 
century. 

The original impulse of this literature had spent its force by 
1 86 1 that is, before the Civil War. The greater writers had, 
in general, already done their characteristic work, and though 
the survivors continued to produce till toward the close of the 
century, their works contained no new element and were at most 
mellow fruits of age. The war itself, like the Revolution, left 
little trace in literature beyond a few popular songs and those 
occasional poems which the older poets wrote in the course of the 
conflict. Their attitude toward it and (with the exception of 
Whittier and Lowell) toward the anti-slavery movement which 
led up to it was rather that of citizens than of poets, though in the 
verse of Longfellow and Emerson there is the noble stamp of the 
hour, the impress of liberty, bravery and sorrow. Lowell is the 
exception; he found in the Commemoration Ode (1865) his loftiest 
subject and most enduring fame. The work began to fall into 
new hands, and a literature since the war grew up, which was, 
however, especially in poetry, a continuation of romanticism and 
contained its declining force. It was contributed to from all 
parts of the older country,'and also from the west, and a genera- 
tion has now added its completed work to the sum. No author, 
in this late period, has received the national welcome to the same 
degree as the men of the elder time; none has had such personal 
distinction, eminence or public affection; and none has found 
such honourable favour abroad, either in England or on the 
continent. Poetry has felt the presence of the art of Tennyson, 
which has maintained an extreme sensitiveness among the poets 
to artistic requirements of both material and technique; and it 
also has taken colour from the later English schools. It has, 
however, yielded its pre-eminent position to prose. The novel 
has displaced romance as the highest form of fiction, and the 
essay has succeeded the review as the form of criticism. The 
older colleges have grown into universities, and public libraries 
have multiplied throughout the north and west. The literature 
of information, meant for the popularization of knowledge of all 
kinds, has been put forth in great quantity, and the annual 
increase in the production of books keeps pace with the general 
growth of the country. Literature of distinction, however, makes 
but a small part of this large mass. 

In poetry the literary tradition was continued in Boston by 
Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1836-1907), essentially a stylist in verse, 
brief, definite, delicate, who carried the lighter graces of 
the art, refinement, wit, polish, to a high point of excel- wr iters. 
lence. His artistic consanguinity is with Herrick and 
Landor, and he takes motive and colour for his verse from every 
land, as his predecessors had done, but with effects less rich. He 
divided attention between drama and lyric, but as his dramas 
look strictly to the stage, it is on the lyrics that his reputation 
rests. He was master also of an excellent prose and wrote 
novels, sketches of travel, and especially stories, strongly marked 
by humour, surprise and literary distinction. In New York, 
Edmund Clarence Stedman (1833-1908) became the chief repre- 
sentative of the literary profession. He was both poet and critic, 
and won reputation in the former and the first rank in the latter 
field. His Victorian Poets (1875) an d Poets of America (1885), 
followed by comprehensive anthologies (1894-1900), together 
with The Nature and Elements of Poetry (1892), are the principal 
critical work of his generation, and indeed the sole work that 
is eminent. His verse, less practised as time went on, was well 
wrought and often distinguished by flashes of spirited song and 
balladry. With him is associated his elder friend, Richard Henry 
Stoddard (1825-1903), who made his appearance before the Civil 
War, and whose verse belongs in general character to the style of 
that earlier period and is as rapidly forgotten. Both Stedman 
and Stoddard were of New England birth, as was also the third 
to be mentioned, William Winter (born 1836) , better known as the 
lifelong dramatic critic of the metropolis. The last of the New 
York poets of established reputation, Richard Watson Gilder 
(b. 1 844 in New Jersey ;d. 1909), was at first affiliated with theschool 
of Rossetti, and his work in general, Five Books of So~ng (1894), 
strongly marked by artistic susceptibility, is in a high degree 



840 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



refined and delicate. In the country at large popular success, 
in England as well as in America, was won by Charles Godfrey 
Leland (1824-1903), in Hans Breitmann's Ballads (1871), 
humorous poems in the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect. Born in 
Philadelphia, he spent the greater part of his mature life abroad 
and wrote numerous works on diverse topics, but his reputation 
is chiefly connected with his books .on gypsy life and lore. 
Another foreign resident who deserves mention was William 
Wetmore Story (1810-1895), the sculptor, of Massachusetts, 
connected with the Boston group, whose verse and prose gave 
him the rank of a litterateur. The South again entered into 
literature with the work of Sidney Lanier (1842-1881), in succes- 
sion to Henry Timrod (1820-1867) and Paul Hamilton Hayne 
(1830-1886), who find a place rather by the affection in which 
they are held at the South than by positive merit. Lanier 
showed originality and a true poetic gift, but his talents were 
little effectual. From the West humorous poetry was produced by 
Francis Bret Harte (1839-1902), born in Albany, in The Heathen 
Chinee (1870) and similar verse, but he is better remembered as 
the artistic narrator of western mining life in his numerous stories 
and novels. Verse of a similar kind also first brought into 
literary notice John Hay (1838-1905), in Pike County Ballads 
(1871), who also wrote in prose; but his reputation was rather 
won as a statesman in the closing years of his life. Minor poets 
of less distinction but with a vein superior to that of the earlier 
period, more excellent in workmanship and more coloured with 
imagination and mood, arose in all parts, of whom the most 
notable are Julia Ward Howe (born 1819), in Boston, the vener- 
able friend of many good causes, Henry Howard Brownell (1820- 
1872) of Rhode Island, author of the most vigorous and realistic 
poetry of the Civil War, War Lyrics (1866), Edward Rowland Sill 
(1841-1887), born in Connecticut but associated with California, 
Henry Van Dyke (born 1852), in New York, better known by his 
prose in tale and essay, Silas Weir Mitchell (born 1830), in 
Philadelphia, whose repute as a novelist has overshadowed his 
admirable verse, Eugene Field (1850-1895) of Chicago, James 
Whitcomb Riley (born 1853) of Indiana, both distinguished for 
their humorous and childhood verse, and Joaquin Miller (born 
1841) of Oregon, whose first work, Songs of the Sierras (1871), 
had in it much of the spirit of the wild land, the colour of 
the desert, the free, adventurous character of the filibuster, all 
strangely mixed with pseudo-Byron^c passions. 

Apart from all these, whether minor or major poets, stands Walt 
Whitman (1819-1892), whose Leaves of Grass (1855) first appeared 
before the war, but whose fame is associated rather 
with its successive editions and its companion volumes, 
and definitely dated, perhaps, from 1867. He received attention 
in England, as did Miller, on an assumption that his works 
expressed the new and original America, the unknown demo- 
cracy, and he has had some vogue in Germany mainly owing to 
his naturalism. His own countrymen, however, steadily refuse 
to accept him as representative of themselves, and his naturalism 
is uninteresting to them, while on the other hand a group appar- 
ently increasing in critical authority treat his work as significant. 
It is, in general, only by those few fine lyrics which have found 
a place in all anthologies of American verse that he is well known 
and highly valued in his own land. 

The chief field of literary activity has been found in the novel, 
and nowhere has the change been so marked as here.' The 
romantictreatmentof the novel practically disappeared, 
and in its place came the realistic or analytic treatment, 
rendering manners by minute strokes of observation or 
dissecting motives psychologically. This amounted to a substitu- 
tion of the French art of fiction, in some of its forms, for the 
English tradition of broad ideality and historical picturesqueness. 
The protagonist of the reform was William Dean Howells (born 
1837), a cultivated literary scholar, and a various writer of essays, 
travel sketches, poetry and plays, editor of many magazines and 
books, whose career in letters has been more laborious and mis- 
cellaneous than any other contemporary, but whose main work 
has been the long series of novels that he has put forth almost 
annually throughout the period. He not only wrote fiction, but 



The later 
novel. 



he endeavoured to make known to Americans fiction as it was 
practised in other lands, Russia, Italy, Spain, and to bring the art 
that was dearest to him into line with the standard of the 
European world. He was an apostle of the realistic school, and 
directed his teaching to the advocacy of the novel of observation, 
which records life in its conditions and attempts to realize what is 
in the daily lives and experience of man rather than what belongs 
to adventure, imagination or the dreaming part of life. Of his 
works, The Lady of the Aroostook (1879), The Rise of Silas 
Lapham (1885), A Hazard of New Fortunes (1889), are character- 
istic examples. He won a popular vogue, and if it is now less than 
it was, it is because after a score of years tastes and fashions 
change. The conscientiousness of his art continues the tradition 
of American writers in that respect, and he is master of an affable 
style. His work, including all its phases, is the most important 
body of work done in his generation. Henry James (born 1843), 
who mainly resided abroad, is his compeer, and in a similar way 
has followed French initiative. He also has been a various writer 
of criticism and travel and the occasional essay; but his equally 
long series of novels sustains his reputation. He has developed 
the psychological treatment of fiction, and of his work The 
Portrait of a Lady (1881), The Princess Casamassima (1886) and 
The Tragic Muse (1890) are characteristic. He has had less vogue 
owing to both matter and style, but in certain respects his power, 
more intellectual than that of Howells, has greater artistic 
elements, while the society with which he deals is more complex. 
He is really a cosmopolitan writer and has no other connexion with 
America than the accident of birth. A third novelist, also a 
foreign resident, Francis Marion Crawford (1854-1909), falls into 
the same category. A prolific novelist, in the beaten track of 
story-telling, he has always a story to tell and excellent narrative 
power. The work regarded as most important from his hand is 
Saracinesca (1887) and its sequels; but his subjects are cosmo- 
politan, his talent is personal, and he has no effectual con- 
nexion with his own country. The romantic tradition of the older 
time was continued by Lew Wallace (1827-1905) of Indiana, 
a distinguished general and diplomat, in his Mexican tale, The 
Fair God (1873), and his oriental romances, Ben Hur (1880), one 
of the most widely circulated of American books, and The Prince 
of India (1893). A mode of the novel which was wholly unique 
was practised by Francis Richard Stockton (1834-1902) in his 
droll tales, of which Rudder Grange (1879) is the best known. 

The principal minor product of the novel lay in the provincial 
tale. The new methods easily lent themselves to the portraiture 
of local conditions, types and colour. Every part of the country 
had its writers who recorded its traits in this way. For New 
England Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe described the older life in 
Old Town Folks (1869), and was succeeded by Sarah Orne Jewett 
(1849-1909) and Mary Eleanor Wilkins (born 1862). The West 
was notably treated by Edward Eggleston (1837-1902) in The 
Hoosier School Master (1871), Mary Hallock Foote (born 1847) in 
Led-Horse Claim (1883) and Hamlin Garland (born 1860) in 
Main Travelled Roads (1891). The South was represented by 
Mary Noailles Murfree ["Charles Egbert Craddock"] (born 
1850) in In the Tennessee Mountains (1884) and its successors, 
by Thomas Nelson Page (born 1853) in Marse Chan (1887) and 
other tales of the reconstruction in Virginia, and with most 
literary grace by George Washington Cable (born 1844), whose 
novels of Louisiana are remarkable for their poetic charm. The 
list is sufficiently illustrative of the general movement, which 
made what was called the dialect novel supreme for the season. 
This was succeeded by a revival of the historical novel in local 
fields, of which Winston Churchill (born 1871) in Richard Carvel 
(1899) is the leading exponent, and together with it the sword and 
dagger tale of the Dumas type, the special contemporary plot 
invented by Anthony Hope, and romance in its utmost forms of 
adventure and extravagance, came in like a flood at the close of 
the Spanish War. There were during the period from 1 870 to 1 900 
many other writers of fiction, who often proceeded in con- 
ventional and time-honoured ways to tell their tale, but none of 
them is especially significant for the general view or as showing 
any tendencies of an original sort. The pietistic novel, fjor 



AMERICAN LITERATURE 



841 



example, was produced with immense popularity by Edward 
Payson Roe (1838-1888), who shared the same vogue as Josiah 
Gilbert Holland (1810-1881), and both fell heir to the same 
audience which in the earlier period had welcomed The Wide, 
Wide World with the same broad acceptance. 

The essay, and the miscellaneous work which may be classed 
with it, was cultivated with most distinction by Thomas Went- 
Essayists wortn Higginson (born 1823), one of the Boston group, 
a writer of the greatest versatility, as in his life he 
followed many employments, from that of preaching in a Uni- 
tarian pulpit to that of commanding a negro regiment in the 
Civil War. He has written good verse and excellent prose, and 
his familiar style, often brilliant with life and wit, especially 
becomes the social essay or reminiscent paper in which he 
excelled, and gives agreeableness to his writings in every form. 
Atlantic Essays (1871) is a characteristic book; and, in general, 
in his volumes is to be found a valuable fund of reminiscence 
about the literature and the times of his long life, not elsewhere 
so abundant or entertaining. Charles Dudley Warner (1820-1 900) 
of Hartford, also in close touch in the later years with the Boston 
group, was more gifted with gentle humour and of a literary 
temperament that made the social essay his natural expression. 
He won popularity by My Summer in a Garden (1870), and was 
the author of many volumes of travel and several novels, but the 
familiar essay, lighted with humour and touched with a reminis- 
cence of the Irving quality in sentiment, was his distinctive work. 
The long life of Edward Everett Hale (1822-1909), minister at 
Boston, was fruitful in many miscellaneous volumes, including 
fiction of note, The Man Without a Country (1868), but the most 
useful writing from his pen falls into prose resembling the essay 
in its form and manner of address, though cousin, too, to the 
sermon. John Burroughs (b. 1837) of .New York carried on in 
essay form the nature tradition of Thoreau, touched with 
Emersonianism in the thought, and after his example books of 
mingled observation, sentiment and literary quality, with an 
out-of-door atmosphere, have multiplied. 

American humour often cultivates a form akin to the essay, 
but it also falls into the mould of the tale or scene from life. In 
Humour. tne P er i o( i before the Civil War, to sum up the whole 
subject in this place, it had the traits which it has 
since maintained, as its local tang, of burlesque, extravaganza, 
violence, but it recorded better an actual state of manners and 
scene of life in raw aspects. Its noteworthy writers were Seba 
Smith (1792-1868) of Maine, author of the Letters of Major Jack 
Downing, which began to appear in the press in 1830; Augustus 
Baldwin Longstreet of Georgia in Georgia Scenes (1835) ; William 
Tappan Thompson (181 2-1882), born in Ohio but associated with 
the South by descent and residence, in Major Jones' Courtship 
(1840), a Georgian publication; Joseph G. Baldwin (1815-1864) 
in Flush Times in Alabama and Mississippi (1853); and 
Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber (1814-1890) in Life and Sayings of 
Mrs Partington (1854). A fresh form, attended by whimsicality, 
appears in George Horatio Derby's (1823-1861) Phoenixiana 
(1855). In the war-times Robert Henry Newell (1836-1901) and 
David Ross Locke (1833-1888), respectively known as " Orpheus 
C. Kerr " and " Petroleum V. Nasby " cultivated grotesque 
orthography in a characteristic vein of wit; and with more 
quaintness and drollery Henry Wheeler Shaw (1818-1885) and 
Charles Farrar Browne (1834-1867), known as " Josh Billings " 
and " Artemus Ward," won immense popularity which extended 
to England. These latter writers were men of Northern birth, but 
of Western and wandering journalistic experience as a rule. Their 
works make up a body of what is known as " American humour," 
a characteristic native product of social conditions and home 
talent. One poet, John Godfrey Saxe (1816-1887) of Vermont, 
attempted something similar in literary verse after the style of 
Tom Hood. The heir to this tradition of farce, drollery and joke 
was Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910), known as "Mark 
Twain," born in Missouri, who raised it to an extraordinary 
height of success and won world-wide reputation as a great and 
original humorist. His works, however, include a broader 
compass of fiction, greater humanity and reality, and ally him to 



the masters of humorous creation. Joel Chandler Harris (1848- 
1908) of Georgia introduced a new variety in Nights with Uncle 
Remus (1883), which is literary negro folklore, and Finley Peter 
Dunne (born 1857) of Chicago, the creator of " Mr Dooley," 
continues the older American style in its original traits. 

History was represented in this period with a distinction not 
inferior to that of the elder group by Francis Parkman (1823- 
1893) of Boston, who, however, really belongs with History. 
the preceding age by his affiliations; his series of 
histories fell after the Civil War by their dates of publication, 
but they began with History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851) ; 
he was the contemporary of Lowell and differed from the other 
members of the elder group, who survived, only by the fact of the 
later maturing of his work. He was not less eminent than Motley 
and Prescott and his history is of a more modern type. In the 
next generation the field of American history was cultivated by 
many scholars, and a large part of local history and of national 
biography was for the first time recorded. James Ford Rhodes's 
(1848) History of the United States (1892) holds standard rank; the 
various writings of John Fiske (1842-1901), distinguished also as a 
philosophical writer, in the colonial and revolutionary periods are 
valued both for scholarship and for excellent literary style; and 
Theodore Roosevelt's (born 1858) The Winning of the West (1889) 
and his several biographical studies deserve mention by their 
merit as well as for his eminent position. The historians, how- 
ever, have seldom sought literary excellence, and their works 
belong rather to learning than to literature. The same state- 
ment is true of the scholarship of the universities in general, where 
the spirit of literary study has changed. In the department of 
scholarship little requires mention beyond Horace Howard 
Furness's (born 1833) lifelong work on his Variorum Edition 
of Shakespeare, the Shakespearian labours of Henry Norman 
Hudson (1814-1886) and Richard Grant White (1821-1885), the 
Chaucerian studies of Thomas Raynesford Lounsbury (born 1838) 
of Yale, and the translations of Dante (1867, 1892) by Charles 
Eliot Norton (1827-1908) of Harvard. 

The period has been one of great literary activity, effort and 
ambition, but it affects one by its mass rather than its details; 
it presents few eminent names. The romantic motives 
fixed in early colonizing history as a taking possession of ideas. 
the land by a race of Puritans, pioneers, river-voyagers, 
backwoodsmen, argonauts, have been exhausted; and no new 
motives have been found. The national tradition has been 
absorbed and incorporated, so far as literature was able to 
accomplish this. The national character on the other hand has 
been expressed rather in local types, the colour of isolated com- 
munities and provincial conditions for their picturesque value 
and human truth, and in commonplace characters of average life; 
but no broadly ideal types of the old English tradition have been 
created, and the great scene of life has not been staged after the 
manner of the imaginative masters of the past. There has been 
no product of ideas since Emerson; he was, indeed, the sole 
author who received and fertilized ideas as such, and he has had no 
successor. America is, in truth, perhaps intellectually more 
remote from Europe than in its earlier days. The contact of its 
romanticism with that of Europe was, as has been seen, imperfect, 
but its touch with the later developments and reactions of the 
movement in Europe is far more imperfect. With Tolstoy, Ibsen, 
d'Annunzio, Zola, Nietzsche, Maeterlinck, Sudermann, the 
American people can have no effectual touch; their social 
tradition and culture make them impenetrable to the present 
ideas of Europe as they are current in literary forms. Nor has 
anything been developed from within that is fertile in literature. 
The political unity of the nation is achieved, but it is not an 
integral people in other respects. It has not the unity of England 
or France or even of the general European mind; it rather 
contains such disparate elements as characterize the Roman or 
the Turkish empire. It is cleft by political tradition and in social 
moral conviction, north and south, and by intellectual strata of 
culture east and west; it is still a people in the making. Its 
literature has been regional, as was said, centred in New England, 
New York, Philadelphia, contributed to sporadically from the 



842 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 



South, growing up in Western districts like Indiana or germinating 
in Louisville in Kentucky, abundant in California, but always 
much dependent on the culture of its localities; it blends to some 
extent in the mind of the national reading public, but not very 
perfectly. The universities have not, on the whole, been its 
sources or fosterers, and they are now filled with research, useful 
for learning but impotent for literature. The intellectual life is 
now rather to be found in social, political and natural science than 
elsewhere; the imaginative life is feeble, and when felt is crude; 
the poetic pulse is imperceptible. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best general histories of American literature 
are by Barrett Wendell (1900) and William P. Trent (1903). 
Histories of particular periods or topics, most serviceable, are 
M. C. Tyler's History of American Literature during the Colonial Time 
(2 vols., 1878), Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., 
1897); J. F. Jameson, History of Historical Writing in America 
(1891); D. D. Addison, The Clergy in American Life and Letters 
(1900); W. H. Venable, Beginnings of Literary Culture in the Ohio 
Valley (1891); M. Nicholson, The Hoosiers (1900); A. H. Smith, 
Philadelphia Magazines and their Contributors, 1741-1850 (1892); 
W. B. Cairns, Development of American Literature, 1815-1833 (1898) ; 
O. B. Frothingham, Transcendentalism in New England (1876); 
L. Swift, Brook Farm (1900); T. W. Higginson, Old Cambridge 
(1900). The entire field is covered encyclopaedically by Stedman and 
Hutchinson, Library of American Literature (ll vols., 1888-1890) and 
the Duyckincks, Cyclopaedia (3rd ed., 1875), and portions of it in 
R. W. Griswold's successive collections, Poets and Poetry of America 
(1842), Prose Writers of America (1847), Female Poets of America 
(1848) ; Trent and Wells, Colonial Prose and Poetry (3 vols., 1901) ; 
Louise Manly, Southern Literature (1900), and E. C. Stedman, 
American Anthology (1900). The American Men of Letters series 
(Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston) and the English Men of Letters, 
American Series (Macmillan, New York), present the biographical 
and critical view in general, to which may be added E. C. Stedman, 
Poets of America (1885); W. C. Lawton, The New England Poets 
(1898), and G.TL.VJpo&terry, America in Literature (1903). Detailed 
and admirable bibliographies for all aspects of the subject are to be 
found in Wendell's and Trent's Histories, and abundant and minute 
biographical detail in Stedman's indexes of authors in his collections. 
See also the separate bibliographies to the articles in this work on 
each individual writer. (G. E. W.) 

AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775-1781). This 
war, by which the United States definitely separated themselves 
from the British connexion, began with the affair of Lexington in 
Massachusetts, on the igth of April 1775, and was virtually ended 
by the capitulation of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, on the 
igth of October 1781. In this article the progress of the war itself 
is alone considered, its political side being treated under UNITED 
STATES : History. From a mili tary standpoint as well as politically 
it was a conspicuous and instructive conflict, conspicuous, or 
even unique, as being the most famous struggle in history where 
colonial dependencies defeated their powerful parent state, and 
instructive as presenting exceptional conditions and consequent 
errors in the attempt to break down the revolt. The reasons for 
Great Britain's failure appear in the progress of the war, which 
assumed two distinct stages, operations in the north followed by 
operations in the south. In point of time and energy military 
activity was about equally divided between these two fields. As 
the naval operations in connexion with the war have a European 
interest as well, they are dealt with in a separate section. 

To strike at the rebellion first in the north was natural and 
inevitable. To King George and his ministry, Massachusetts was 
Lead er- tne not ^ e< ^ ^ disloyalty, the head and front of opposi- 
a*ion. Pe ** tion to their colonial policy, and there coercion should 
begin. It was also a convenient point for a prompt 
display of authority, as the town of Boston was the headquarters 
of General Gage, recently appointed royal governor of Massa- 
chusetts and commander of the king's troops in North America. 
He had with him four regiments of regulars, the initial force with 
which to overawe the restless and defiant population in his 
vicinity. While Gage is to be credited with advising his govern- 
ment thr.t not less than 20,000 men would be necessary for 
the work in hand, he proceeded at once to suppress demon- 
strations around Boston. His principal expedition brought 
about the skirmish of the igth of April 1775 (see LEXINGTON), in 
which a detachment sent to seize some military stores collected 
at Concord suffered heavily at Lexington, Concord and other 



" e 



places, at the hands of the surrounding militia. This encounter 
roused the New England colonies, and in a few days some 16,000 
of their townsmen marched in small bands upon Boston to 
protest against and resist further similar incursions; and in this 
irregular body we have the nucleus of the colonial forces which 
carried the war through. A noteworthy incident of the Concord 
affair, and characteristic of the attitude which the provincials had 
maintained and continued to maintain for another year, was the 
official representation to the king by the Massachusetts people 
that the regulars were the first to fire upon them, and that they 
returned the fire and fought through the day in strict defence of 
their rights and homes as Englishmen. They repeated their 
professions of loyalty to his majesty and the principles of the 
English Constitution. Conscious, nevertheless, that a struggle 
impended, they instantly sent word to all the other colonies, 
whose whig elements sympathetically responded to the alarm. 
The war had opened. 

The home government extended its precautions and prepara- 
tions. General (Sir) William Howe, who succeeded Gage in the 
chief command in October, and Generals (Sir) Henry Clinton 
and John Burgoyne were sent out at once with reinforcements. 
Cornwallis followed a year later. These four generals were 
identified with the conduct of the principal operations on the 
side of the British. The force at Boston was increased to 10,000 
men. The American Congress at Philadelphia, acting for all the 
thirteen colonies, voted general defensive measures, called out 
troops and appointed George Washington of Virginia com- 
mander-in-chief. Before he reached the camp forming around 
Boston, a second and more important collision took place. On 
the i7th of June 1775 occurred the battle of Bunker 
Hill (q.v.), in which, although victorious, the British 
suffered heavily, losing one-third of their force in storm- 
ing the hastily constructed lines of the " rebels." The latter's 
most serious loss was that of General Joseph Warren, one of the 
prominent leaders of the revolutionary movement in Massa- 
chusetts. In moral effect the battle proved anything but a 
defeat to the Americans, who now drew a cordon of works around 
Boston, hemming Howe's army in a contracted, and, as it proved, 
untenable, position. On the 3rd of July Washington took 
command of the American army at Cambridge and proceeded 
with what is known as the " siege of Boston," which was marked 
by no special incident, and closed with the evacuation of the town 
by the British on the i?th of March 1776, Howe sailing away to 
Halifax, Nova Scotia. While the main interest centred at this 
point, the year 1775 was marked by two enterprises elsewhere. 
Fort Ticonderoga, the key to the passage of Lakes George and 
Champlain to Canada, was surprised and taken on the loth of 
May by a small band under Colonel Ethan Allen, while Colonel 
Benedict Arnold headed an expedition through the Maine woods 
to effect the capture of Quebec, where Sir Guy Carle ton com- 
manded. Arnold joined General Richard Montgomery, who was 
already near the city, and the combined force assaulted Quebec 
on the 3ist of December, only to meet with complete defeat. 
Montgomery was killed and many of his men taken prisoners. 
Demonstrations against Canada were soon discontinued, Arnold 
drawing off the remnant of his army in May 1776. 

The events of 1775, though favourable to America, wre but a 
prelude to the real struggle to come. For the campaign of 1776 
both sides made extensive preparations. To the home govern- 
ment the purely military problem, although assuming larger 
dimensions and more difficulties, still seemed to admit of a 
simple solution, namely, to strike hard where the rebellion was 
most active and capable of the longest resistance. Defeated 
there, it would quickly dissipate in all quarters. As much more 
than one-half of the population and resources of the colonists 
lay north of Chesapeake Bay New England alone having an 
estimated population of over 700,000 persons it was only 
a question as to what point in this area should be made the 
future base of operations. Largely upon the representations 
of Howe, Burgoyne and others, it was determined to shift the 
field from Boston to New York city, from there to hold the 
line of the Hudson river in co-operation with a force to move 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 



843 






Long 
Island. 



down from Canada under Carleton and Burgoyne, and thus 
effectually to isolate New England. 

Upon this plan the new campaign opened in June 1776. Howe, 
heavily reinforced from home, sailed on the roth from Halifax 
to New York and on the 5th of July encamped on Staten Island. 
Washington, anticipating this move, had already marched from 
Boston and fortified the city. His left flank was thrown across 
the East river beyond the village of Brooklyn, while his front and 
right on the harbour and North or Hudson river were open to a 
combined naval and military attack. The position proved 
untenable. Howe drove Washington out of it, and forced the 
abandonment of the whole of Manhattan Island by three well- 
directed movements upon the American left. On the 22nd of 
August he crossed the Narrows to the Long Island 
shore with 15,000 troops, increasing the number to 
20,000 on the 25th, and on the 27th surprised the 
Americans, driving them into their Brooklyn works and inflicting 
a loss of about 1400 men. Among the prisoners were Generals 
J. Sullivan and W. Alexander, soi-disant earl of Stirling. 
(See LONG ISLAND.) Howe has been criticized, rightly or 
wrongly, for failing to make full use of his victory. Washington 
skilfully evacuated his Brooklyn lines on the night of the 2Qth, 
and in a measure relieved the depression which the defeat had 
produced in his army. On the isth of September Howe crossed 
the East river above the city, captured 300 of the militia 
defending the lines and occupied the city. Washington had 
withdrawn his main army to the upper part of the island. 
A skirmish, fought the next day, opposite the west front of 
the present Columbia University, and known as the affair of 
Harlem Heights, cost the British a loss of seventy of their 
light infantry. Delaying until the i2th of October, Howe again 
moved forward by water into Westchester county, and marching 
toward White Plains forced another retreat on Washington. 
In the fight on Chatterton Hill at the Plains, on the 28th of 
October, an American brigade was defeated. Instead of pressing 
Washington further, Howe then returned to Manhattan 
Wssft/ Island, and on the i6th of November captured Fort 
ton. Washington with nearly 3000 prisoners. This was 

the heaviest blow to the Americans throughout the 
war in the north. The British then pushed down through 
New Jersey with designs on Philadelphia. Washington, still 
retreating with a constantly diminishing force, suddenly turned 
upon Lieutenant-Colonel Rail's advanced corps of Hessians at 
Trenton on the 26th of December and captured nearly 1000 
prisoners. This brilliant exploit was followed by another on the 
3rd of January, when Washington, again crossing the Delaware, 
outmarched Cornwallis at Trenton, and marching to his rear 
defeated three British regiments and three companies of light 
cavalry at Princeton, New Jersey. Marching on to Morristown, 
Washington encamped there on the flank of the British advance 
in New Jersey, thus ending the first campaign fought on the new 
issue of American Independence, which had been declared on the 
4th of July 1776. 

While these closing successes inspirited the Americans, it was 
undeniable that the campaign had gone heavily against them. 
Having raised a permanent force for the .war called the Conti- 
nental Line, they awaited further operations of the enemy. 
Following up the occupation of New York, Howe proceeded in 
1777 to capture Philadelphia. Complete success again crowned 
his movements. Taking his army by sea from New York to the 
head of the Chesapeake, he marched up into Pennsylvania, 
whither Washington had repaired to watch him, and on the 26th 
of September entered the city. The Americans attempted to 
Brand cneclc tne advance of the British at the river Brandy- 
w la~, y wine, where an action occurred on the nth, resulting 
in their defeat (see BRANDY WINE) ; and on the 4th of 
October Washington directed a well-planned attack upon the 
enemy's camp at Germantown on the outskirts of the city, but 
failed of success. (See GERMANTOWN.) 

Howe's victorious progress in Pennsylvania was neutralized by 
disasters farther north. Burgoyne marched from Canada in June 
1777, with a strong expeditionary force, to occupy Albany and 



put himself in touch with Howe at the other end of the Hudson. 
Driving the Americans under General Arthur St Clair out of 
Ticonderoga, and making his way through the deep woods with 
difficulty, he reached the Hudson at Fort Edward on the 3oth of 
July. General Philip Schuyler, commanding the Americans in 
that quarter, retreated to Stillwater, 30 m. above Albany, 
barricading the roads and impeding Burgoyne's progress. Dis- 
satisfaction with his conduct led Congress to replace him in 
command by General Gates. On the i3th of August Burgoyne 
despatched a force to Bennington, Vermont, under the German 
colonel Friedrich Baurn, to capture stores and overawe the 
country. On the i6th Baum was attacked by General John 
Stark with the militia from the surrounding country, and was 
overwhelmed. Colonel Breyman, marching to his relief, was 
also routed. The misfortune cost the British 1000 men. 
Equally unfortunate was the fate of an expedition sent Saratoga 
under Colonel Barry St Leger to co-operate with 
Burgoyne by way of the Mohawk Valley. On the 6th of August 
he was met at Oriskany by General Nicholas Herkimer and forced 
to retreat. Despite these disasters Burgoyne pushed south to 
Stillwater, where he was defeated by Gates's improvised army 
of continentals and militia in two battles on the ipth of September 
(Freeman's Farm) and the ?th of October (Bemis's Height). 
On the 1 7th he was forced to surrender. (See SARATOGA, BATTLE 
OF.) This disaster was followed by the alliance between America 
and France in 1778, and later by the addition of Spain to 
England's enemies events of far-reaching importance. 

A movement of importance, in 1778-79, was the expedition of 
George Rogers Clark, under the authority of the state of Virginia, 
against the British posts in the north-west. With a company of 
volunteers Clark captured Kaskaskia, the chief post in the 
Illinois country, on the 4th of July 1778, and later secured the 
submission of Vincennes, which, however, was recaptured by 
General Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. 
In the spring of 1779 Clark raised another force, and recaptured 
Vincennes from Hamilton. This expedition did much to free the 
frontier from Indian raids, gave the Americans a hold upon the 
north-west, of which their diplomats duly took advantage in the 
peace negotiations, and later, by giving the states a community 
of interest in the western lands, greatly promoted the idea of 
union. 

In 1778 Sir Henry Clinton succeeded Howe in the chief com- 
mand in America. With fewer resources than his predecessor 
had disposed of, he could accomplish practically nothing in the 
north. In June 1778 he evacuated Philadelphia, with the 
intention of concentrating his force at New York. Washington, 
who had passed the winter at Valley Forge, overtook him at 
Monmouth, N.J., and in an action on the 28th of June both 
. armies suffered about equal loss. Thereafter (except in the winter 
cf 1779, at Morristown) Washington made West Point on the 
Hudson the headquarters of his army, but Clinton avowed 
himself too weak to attack him there. In 1779 he attempted 
to draw Washington out of the Highlands,' with the result that 
in the manoeuvres he lost the garrison at Stony Point, 700 
strong, the position being stormed by Wayne with the American 
light infantry on the i6th of July. During the summer General 
John Sullivan marched with a large force against the Indians (all 
the Iroquois tribes except the Oneidas and part of the Tuscaroras 
siding with the British during the war) and against the Loyalists 
of western New York, who had been committing great depreda- 
tions along the frontier; and on the 2gth of August he inflicted 
a crushing defeat upon them at Newtown, on the site of the 
present Elmira. In addition several Indian villages and the 
crops of the Indians were destroyed in the lake region of western 
New York. 

Meanwhile the co-operation of the French became active. In 
July Count Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island. 
That place had been occupied by the British from 1776 to the 
close of 1779. An unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them 
out in 1778 by the Americans assisted by the French admiral 
d'Estaing and a French corps. The year 1780 is also marked by 
the treason of General Benedict Arnold (?..), and the consequent 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 



execution of Major Andre. Minor battles and skirmishes 
occurred until in August 1781 Washington conceived the pro- 
ject of a combined American-French attack on Cornwallis at 
York town, Va., the success of which was decisive of the war 
(see below). 

The inadequate results of the British campaigns against the 
northern colonies in 1776 and 1777 led the home government to 
turn its attention to the weaker colonies in the south. 
( Ja'aeofgia. Operations in the north were not to cease, but a power- 
ful diversion was now to be undertaken in the south 
with a view to the complete conquest of that section. Success 
there would facilitate further movements in the north. An 
isolated attack on Charleston, South Carolina, had been made by 
Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker as early as June 1776, 
but this was foiled by the spirited resistance of General William 
Moultrie; after 1778 the southern attempts, stimulated in part 
by the activity of the French in the West Indies, were vigor- 
ously sustained. On the 2gth of December of this year Colonel 
Archibald Campbell (1730-1791) with an expeditionary corps of 
3500 men from Clinton's army in New York, captured Savannah, 
Georgia, defeating the American force under General Robert 
Howe. In the following month he pushed into the interior and 
occupied Augusta. General Benjamin Lincoln, succeeding Howe, 
undertook to drive the British out of Georgia, but General 
Augustine Prevost, who had commanded in Florida, moved up 
and compelled Lincoln to retire to Charleston. Prevost, making 
Savannah his headquarters, controlled Georgia. In September 
1779 he was besieged by Lincoln in conjunction with a French 
naval and military force under Admiral d'Estaing, but success- 
fully repelled an assault (October 9) , and Lincoln again fell back 
to Charleston. In this assault Count Casimir Pulaski, on the 
American side, was mortally wounded. 

The prestige thus won by the British in the south in 1779 was 
immensely increased in the following year, when they victoriously 
swept up through South and North Carolina. Failing, as stated, 
to achieve any advantage in the north in 1779, Sir Henry Clinton, 
under instructions from government, himself headed a combined 
military and naval expedition southward. He evacuated New- 
port, R.I. (October 25), left New York in command of the 
German general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, and in December 
sailed with 8500 men to join Prevost at Savannah. Cornwallis 
accompanied him, and later Lord Rawdon joined him with an 
additional force. Marching upon Charleston, Clinton 
cut off the city from relief, and after a brief siege 
compelled Lincoln to surrender on the izth of May. 
(See CHARLESTON.) The loss of this place and of the 50x20 troops 
included in the surrender was a serious blow to the American 
cause. The apparent submission of South Carolina followed. 
In June Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in 
command, with instructions to reduce North Carolina also. 
Meanwhile an active and bitter partisan warfare opened. The 
British advance had been marked by more than the usual 
destruction of war; the Loyalists rose to arms; the whig 
population scattered and without much organization formed 
groups of riflemen and mounted troopers to harass the enemy. 
Little mercy was shown on either side. The dashing rider, 
Colonel Banastre Tarleton, cut to pieces (April 14, 1780) a 
detachment of Lincoln's cavalry, and followed it up by practi- 
cally destroying Buford's Virginia regiment near the North 
Carolina border. On the other hand, daring and skilful leaders 
such as Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter kept the spirit of 
resistance alive by their sudden attacks and surprises of British 
outposts. Hanging Rock, Ninety-Six, Rocky Mount and other 
affairs brought their prowess and devotion into notice. By the 
month of August 1780, with the main British force encamped 
near the North Carolina line, the field seemed clear for the next 
advance. 

The threatening situation in the Carolinas alarmed Congress 
and Washington and measures were taken to protect the dis- 
tressed section. Before Cornwallis could be brought to bay he 
was faced successively by four antagonists Generals Gates, 
Greene, Lafayette and Washington. They found in him the 



Charles- 
ton. 



most capable and dangerous opponent of the war. Greene called 
him " the modern Hannibal." With Lincoln's surrender of 
nearly all the continental soldiers in the south, a new force had to 
be supplied to meet the British veterans. Two thousand men, 
mainly the Maryland line, were hurried down from Washington's 
camp under Johann de Kalb; Virginia and North Carolina put 
new men into the field, and the entire force was placed under 
command of General Gates. Gates marched towards camdea 
Camden, S.C., and on the i6th of August encountered 
Cornwallis near that place. Each army by a night march 
attempted a surprise of the other, but the British tactics prevailed, 
and Gates was utterly routed. The reputation he had won at 
Saratoga was ruined on the occasion by over-confidence and 
incompetence. . De Kalb was killed in the action. General 
Greene, standing next to Washington as the ablest and most 
trusted officer of the Revolution, succeeded Gates. Cornwallis 
marched leisurely into North Carolina, but before meeting Greene 
some months later he suffered the loss of two detachments sent 
at intervals to disperse various partisan corps of the Americans. 
On the 7th of October 1780 a force of noo men under Major 
Patrick Ferguson was surrounded at King's Mountain, S. C., near 
the North Carolina line, by bands of riflemen under Colonels 
Isaac Shelby, James Williams, William Campbell and others, 
and after a desperate fight on the wooded and rocky slopes, 
surrendered. Ferguson himself was killed. On the I7th of 
January 1781 General Daniel Morgan was attacked at Cowpens, 
south-west of King's Mountain, by Colonel Tarleton with his 
legion. Both were leaders of repute, and a most stirring action 
occurred in which Morgan, with Colonel William Washington 
leading his cavalry, practically destroyed Tarleton's corps. 
Despite the weakening his army suffered by these losses, Corn- 
wallis marched rapidly through North Carolina, giving Greene a 
hard chase nearly to the Virginia line. On the i5th of March 
the two armies met at Guilford Court House (near the 
present Greensboro, N.C.), and a virtually drawn court"' 
battle was fought. The British, by holding their House, 
ground with their accustomed tenacity when engaged 
with superior numbers, were tactically victors, but were further 
weakened by a loss of nearly 600 men. Greene, cautiously 
avoiding another Camden, retreated with his forces intact. With 
his small army, less than 2000 strong, Cornwallis declined 
to follow Greene into the back country, and retiring to Hills- 
borough, N.C., raised the royal standard, offered protection 
to the inhabitants, and for the moment appeared to be master 
of Georgia and the two Carolinas. In a few weeks, however, he 
abandoned the heart of the state and marched to the coast at 
Wilmington, N.C., to recruit and refit his command. 

At Wilmington the British general faced a serious problem, the 
solution of which upon his own responsibility unexpectedly led 
to the close of the war within seven months. Instead of remain- 
ing in Carolina he determined to march into Virginia, justifying 
the move on the ground that until Virginia was reduced he could 
not firmly hold the more southern states he had just overrun. 
This decision was subsequently sharply criticized by Clinton as 
unmilitary, and as having been made contrary to his instructions. 
To Cornwallis he wrote in May: " Had you intimated the proba- 
bility of your intention, I should certainly have endeavoured to 
stop you, as I did then as well as now consider such a move likely 
to be dangerous to our interests in the Southern Colonies." The 
danger lay in the suddenly changed situation in that direction; 
as General Greene, instead of following Cornwallis to the coast, 
boldly pushed down towards Camden and Charleston, S.C., with 
a view to drawing his antagonist after him to the points where he 
was the year before, as well as to driving back Lord Rawdon, 
whom Cornwallis had left in that field. In his main object, the 
recovery of the southern states, Greene succeeded by the close of 
the year; but not without hard fighting and repeated reverses. 
" We fight, get beaten, and fight again," were his words. On the 
25th of April 1781 he was surprised in his camp at Hobkirk's 
Hill, near Camden, by Lord Rawdon and defeated, both sides 
suffering about an equal loss. On the 22nd of May he attempted 
to storm the strong British post at Ninety-Six but was repulsed; 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 



845 



vinttate 
campaign, 



and finally on the 8th of September he fought the last battle 
of the war in the lower southern states at Eutaw Springs, S.C. 
In the first part of the action Greene was successful 
Springs. after a desperate conflict; in the pursuit, however, 
the Americans failed to dislodge the British from 
a stone house which they held, and their severe loss in both 
engagements was over 500 men. The British lost about 1000, 
one-half of whom were prisoners. Better success attended the 
American partisan operations directed by Greene and conducted 
by Marion, Sumter, Andrew Pickens, Henry Lee and William 
Washington. They fell upon isolated British posts established 
to protect the Loyalist population, and generally captured or 
broke them up. Rawdon found himself unable with his diminish- 
ing force to cover the country beyond Charleston; and he fell 
back to that place, leaving the situation in the south as it had been 
in the early part of 1780. On the American side, Greene was 
hailed as the deliverer of that section. 

Cornwallis, meantime, pursued his Virginia project. Leaving 
Wilmington, N.C., on the asth of April 1781, he reached Peters- 
k ur S on ^ e 2ot k ^ May. There he found British 
detachments, 2000 strong, composed of troops whom 
Clinton had sent down separately under Generals 
Benedict Arnold and William Phillips to establish a base in the 
Chesapeake, as a diversion in favour of the operations of Corn- 
wallis in the Carolinas. Virginia at the moment presented a 
clear field to the British, and they overran the state as far north 
as Fredericksburg and west to Charlottesville. At the latter 
place Jefferson, governor of the state, barely escaped capture by 
Tarleton's men. A small American force under Lafayette, whom 
Wayne reinforced during the summer, partially checked the 
enemy. At Green Spring, near Jamestown Island, Lafayette 
boldly attacked his antagonist on the 6th of July, but had to save 
himself by a hasty retreat. Early in August Cornwallis retired 
to Yorktown to rest and await developments. There he fortified 
himself, and remained until the American-French military and 
naval combination, referred to above, appeared and compelled 
his surrender. (See YORKTOWN.) 

With this event war operations ceased. Preliminary articles 
of peace, signed on the 3oth of November 1782, were followed 
by a definitive treaty concluded on the 3rd of September 1783. 
Charleston, S.C., was evacuated late in 1782; New York on the 
25th of November 1783. The reasons of Great Britain's mis- 
fortunes and failure may be summarized as follows: Miscon- 
ception by the home government of the temper and reserve 
strength of her colonists, a population mainly of good English 
blood and instincts; disbelief at the outset in the probability of 
a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in America; 
consequent failure to despatch sufficient forces to the field; the 
safe and Fabian generalship of Washington; and finally, the 
French alliance and European combinations by which at the close 
of the conflict England was without a friend or ally on the 
continent. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most exhaustive reference work for this 
period is vol. vi. of Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America 
(Boston, 1887). Its nine chapters, prepared by different writers, give 
a complete review of the struggle, both military and naval, and each 
closes with numerous illustrative notes, editorial criticisms and a full 
list of authorities. The volume is interspersed, far more extensively 
and richly than any other treatise on the war, with reproductions of 
contemporary plans, maps, documents, portraits and prints. Supple- 
menting Winsor and bringing the material down to recent date 
is Prof. C. H. Van Tyne's American Revolution (Harper's " Am. 
Nation " Series, New York, 1905), chap, xviii., on bibliographical 
aids and authorities. General histories of the war are mainly of 
American authorship, such as: George Bancroft's History of the 
United States (Boston, 1883-1885) which, in spite of minor errors of 
fact and judgment, will remain standard ; J. Fiske's A merican Revolu- 
tion (2 vols., Boston, 1891); Carrington's Battles of the American 
Revolution (New York, 1876) is a critical study by a military officer; 
B. J. Lossing's Pictorial Field Book of the Revolution (2 vols., 
New York, 1850-1859), not always accurate, but preserves local 
traditions and details. Monographs on single events or campaigns 
abound: Dawson's papers on Ticonderoga, "Storming of Stony 
Point," &c. (New York, 1866- ); Johnston's "Campaign of 
1776 around New York" (L. I. Hist. Soc., 1877), "Yorktown 
Campaign " (New York, 1881), &c. ; Sargent's Life of Major John 



Andre (Boston, 1861), one of the best of Revolutionary biographies; 
Gen. William Stryker's Battles of Trenton and Princeton (Boston, 
1898); and others mentioned in Winsor and Van Tyne. 

English works of importance are Lord Mahon's History of England, 
vol. vi. ; Sir George O. Trevelyan's American Revolution (New York 
and London; vol. i., 1899; 4 vols. published, 1908), a new study 
of cabinet and parliamentary politics of the period, with review of 
the military events; Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of the British 
Army, vol. iii. (1902); Stedman's American War (2 vols., 1794); 
Col. Tarleton's Southern Campaigns, 1780-1781 (London, 1787); the 
pamphlet controversy between Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Corn- 
wallis (1783), see Winsor, vi., p. 516, n. ; Burgoyne's State of the 
Expedition from Canada in 7777 (London, 1780). (H. P. J.*) 

The naval operations of the War of Independence divide them- 
selves naturally into two periods. ( i ) From 1775 till the summer 
of 1778 the British navy was engaged in co-operating 
with the troops employed against the insurgents, on sea . p ower. 
the coasts, rivers and lakes of North America, or in 
endeavouring to protect British commerce against the enterprise 
of American privateers. (2) During the second period the 
successive interventions of France, Spain and Holland extended 
the naval war till it ranged from the West Indies to the Bay of 
Bengal. This second period lasted from the summer of 1778 to 
the middle of 1783, and it included both such operations as had 
already been in progress in America, or for the protection of 
commerce, and naval campaigns on a great scale carried out by 
the fleets of the maritime powers. 

First Period. The history of the naval war from 1775 to 1778 
was made up of many small operations. The naval force at the 
disposal of the admirals commanding on the station, who until 
Lord Howe took up the command on the i2th of July 1776 
were Samuel Graves and Molyneux Shuldham, was insufficient 
to patrol the long line of coast. A large part of such squadrons 
as there were was necessarily limited to aiding General Gage 
and Sir W. Howe at Boston, in seeking stores for the army and 
in supplying naval brigades. At other points of the coast the 
British navy was employed in punitive expeditions against the 
coast towns as for example the burning of Falmouth (now 
Portland, Maine) in October 1775 which served to exasperate, 
rather than to weaken the enemy, or the unsuccessful attack on 
Charleston, S. C. , in June 1776. It was wholly unequal to the task 
of blockading the many towns from which privateers could be 
fitted out. British commerce therefore suffered severely, even as 
far off as the Irish coasts, where it was found necessary to supply 
convoy to the Belfast linen trade. The Americans were not yet 
in a position to provide a fleet. On the 23rd of March 1776 
Congress did indeed issue letters of marque and reprisal, and 
efforts were made to fit out a national force. But the so-called 
" continental " vessels which sailed with the commission of the 
Congress hardly differed in character, or in the nature of their 
operations, from the privateers. The British navy was able to 
cover the retreat of the army from Boston to Halifax in April 
1776, and to corivey it to New York in June. It assisted in the 
expedition to Philadelphia in July 1777. On the St Lawrence 
and the Lakes it was able to play a more aggressive part. The 
relief of Quebec by Captain afterwards Sir Charles Douglas 
in May 1776 forced the American general Arnold to retreat. 
The destruction of his squadron on Lake Champlain in 
October covered the frontier of Canada, and supplied a basis for 
the march of General Burgoyne in 1777 which ended in the 
surrender at Saratoga. 

Second Period. The disaster at Saratoga was followed in 
1778 by war with France, which had already given much 
private help to the American privateers and to their forces 
in the field. The rupture came in March when the British 
ambassador, Lord Stormont, was recalled from Paris, but as 
neither fleet was ready for service, actual conflict did not take 
place till July. The French government was somewhat more 
ready than the British. On the I3th of April it despatched a 
squadron of twelve sail of the line and four frigates from Toulon 
to America under the command of the Count d'Estaing. As no 
attempt was made to stop him in the Straits of Gibraltar, he 
passed them on the i6th of May, and though the rawness of his 



8 4 6 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 



crews and his own error in wasting time in pursuit of prizes 
delayed his passage, he reached the mouth of the Delaware on 
the 8th of July unopposed. The French government, which by 
the fault of the British administration was allowed to take the 
offensive, had three objects in view to help the Americans, to 
expel the British from the West Indies and to occupy the main 
strength of the naval forces of Great Britain in the Channel. 
Therefore a second and more powerful fleet was fitted out at Brest 
under the command of the Count d'Orvilliers. The British 
government, having neglected to occupy the Straits of Gibraltar 
in time, despatched Admiral Byron from Plymouth on the pth of 
June with thirteen sail of the line to join Admiral (Lord) Howe, 
Sir William's brother, in America, and collected a strong 
force at home, called the Western Squadron, under Viscount 
Keppel. Keppel, after a preliminary cruise in June, brought 
d'Orvilliers to action off Brest on the 27th of July. The fleets 
were equal and the action was indecisive, as the two forces 
merely passed one another, cannonading. A violent quarrel 
exacerbated by political differences broke out among the British 
commands, which led to two courts-martial and to the resignation 
of Keppel, and did great injury to the discipline of the navy. 
No further event of note occurred in European waters. On the 
coast of America the news of the approach of d'Estaing com- 
pelled the British commanders to evacuate Philadelphia on the 
1 8th of June. Howe then concentrated his force of nine small 
line-of -battle ships at Sandy Hook on the zgth of June, and on the 
nth of July he learnt that d'Estaing was approaching. The 
French admiral did not venture to make an attack, and on 
the 22nd of July sailed to co-operate with the Americans in an 
endeavour to expel the British garrison from Rhode Island. 
Howe, who had received a small reinforcement, followed. The 
French admiral, who had anchored above Newport, R.I., came 
to sea to meet him, but both fleets were scattered by storms. 
D'Estaing sailed to Boston on the 2ist of August. Howe 
received no help from Byron, whose badly appointed fleet was 
damaged and scattered by a gale on the 3rd of July in mid- 
Atlantic. His ships dropped in by degrees during September. 
Howe resigned on the 2 sth of that month, and was succeeded by 
Byron. The approach of winter made a naval campaign on the 
coast of North America dangerous. The operations of naval 
forces in the New World were largely dictated by the facts that 
from June to October are the hurricane months in the West 
Indies, while from October to June includes the stormy winter 
of the northern coast. On the 4th of November d'Estaing sailed 
for the West Indies, on the very day that Commodore William 
Hotham was despatched from New York to reinforce the British 
fleet in those waters. On the 7th of September the French 
governor of Martinique, the marquis de Bouille, had surprised 
the British island of Dominica. Admiral Samuel Barrington, the 
British admiral in the Leeward Islands, had retaliated by seizing 
Santa Lucia on the I3th and i4th of December after the arrival 
of Hotham from North America. D'Estaing, who followed 
Hotham closely, was beaten off in two feeble attacks on Barring- 
ton at the Cul-de-Sac of Santa Lucia on the isth of December. 
On the 6th of January 1779 Admiral Byron reached the West 
Indies. During the early part of this year the naval forces in the 
West Indies were mainly employed in watching one another. 
But in June, while Byron had gone to Antigua to guard the trade 
convoy on its way home, d'Estaing first captured St Vincent, 
and then on the 4th of July Grenada. Admiral Byron, who had 
returned, sailed in hopes of saving the island, but arrived too 
late. An indecisive action was fought off Grenada on the 6th 
of July. The war now died down in the West Indies. Byron 
returned 'home in August. D'Estaing, after co-operating un- 
successfully with the Americans in an attack on Savannah, in 
September also returned to Europe. In European waters the 
Channel had been invaded by a combined French and Spanish 
fleet of sixty-six sail of the line, Spain having now joined the coa- 
lition against Great Britain. Only thirty-five sail of the line could 
be collected against them under the command of Sir Charles 
Hardy. But they came late and did nothing. The allies retired 
early in September and were not even able to molest the British 



trade convoys. In the meantime the Spaniards had formed the 
siege of Gibraltar. 

So far the British navy had stood on the defensive, without 
material loss except in the West Indies, but without triumph. 
The operations of 1780 went on much the same lines. The British 
government, not feeling strong enough to blockade Brest and the 
Spanish ports, was compelled to regulate its movements by those 
of its opponents. In the Channel it was saved from disaster by 
the ineptitude of the French and Spanish fleets. The only real 
success achieved by this numerically imposing force was the 
capture on the Sth and gth of August of a large British convoy of 
ships bound for the East and West Indies carrying troops. But 
on the American coast and in the West Indies more vigour was 
displayed. Early in the year Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot was 
sent to take command in North America. On the French side 
the count de Guichen was sent with reinforcements to the West 
Indies to take command of the ships left in the previous year by 
d'Estaing. He arrived in March, and was able to confine the 
small British force under Sir Hyde Parker at Gros Islet Bay in 
Santa Lucia. In May M. d'Arzac de Ternay was sent from Brest 
with seven line-of-battle ships, and a convoy carrying 6000 
French troops to act with the Americans. He had a brush 
with a small British force under Cornwallis near Bermuda on the 
20th of June, and reached Rhode Island on the nth of July. 
During the rest of the year, and part of the next, the British and 
French naval forces in North American waters remained at their 
respective headquarters, New York and Newport, watching 
one another. The West Indies was again the scene of the 
most important operations of the year. In February and March 
a Spanish force from New Orleans, under Don Bernardo de 
Galvez, invaded West Florida with success. But the allies made 
no further progress. At the close of 1779 Sir George Rodney 
had been appointed to command a large naval force which was 
to relieve Gibraltar, then closely blockaded, and send stores to 
Minorca. Rodney was to go on to the West Indies with part of 
the fleet. He sailed on the 2gth of December 1779 with the trade 
for the West Indies under his protection, captured a Spanish 
convoy on his way off Finisterre on the Sth of January, defeated 
a smaller Spanish force near Cape St Vincent on the i6th, 
relieved Gibraltar on the igth, and left for the West Indies on 
the i3th of February. On the 27th of March he joined Sir Hyde 
Parker at Santa Lucia, and Guichen retired to Fort Royal in 
Martinique. Until July the fleets of Rodney and Guichen, of 
equal strength, were engaged .in operations round the island of 
Martinique. The British admiral endeavoured to force on a close 
engagement. But in the first encounter on the i7th of April to 
leeward of the island, Rodney's orders were not executed by his 
captains, and the action was indecisive. He wished to concen- 
trate on the rear of the enemy's line, but his captains scattered 
themselves along the French formation. In two subsequent 
actions, on the isth and igth of May, to windward of Martinique, 
the French admiral would not be brought to close action. The 
arrival of a Spanish squadron of twelve ships of the line in June 
gave a great numerical superiority to the allies, and Rodney 
retired to Gros Islet Bay in Santa Lucia. But nothing decisive 
occurred. The Spanish fleet was in bad health, the French much 
worn-out. The first went on to Havana, the second to San 
Domingo. In July, on the approach of the dangerous hurricane 
season, Rodney sailed for North America, reaching New York on 
the I4th of September. Guichen returned home with the most 
worn-out of his ships. On the 6th of December Rodney was back 
at Barbadoes from the North American station, where he was 
not able to effect anything against the French in Narragansett 
Bay. 

The rambling operations of the naval war till the close of 1780 
directed by the allies to such secondary objects as the capture 
of West Indian islands, or of Minorca and Gibraltar, and by 
Great Britain to defensive movements began to assume a 
degree of coherence in 1781. Holland having now joined the 
allies, the British government was compelled to withdraw part 
of its fleet from other purposes to protect the North Sea trade. 
A desperate battle was fought on the Dogger Bank on the sth 



AMERICAN WAR OF 1812 



847 



of August between Sir Hyde Parker and the Dutch admiral 
Zoutman, both being engaged in protecting trade; but Holland 
did not affect the general course of the war. The allies again 
failed to make a vigorous attack on the British forces in the 
Channel. They could not even prevent Admiral George Darby 
from relieving Gibraltar and Minorca in April. The second of 
these places was closely invested later on, and was compelled to 
surrender on the sth of February 1782. But a vigorous policy 
was carried out by France in the West Indies and America, while 
she began a most resolute attack on the British position in the 
East Indies. 

In the West Indies Rodney, having received news of the 
breach with Holland early in the year, took the island of St 
Eustatius, which had been a great depot of contraband of war, 
on the 3rd of February. The British admiral was accused of 
applying himself so entirely to seizing and selling his booty that 
he would not allow his second in command, Sir Samuel Hood, 
who had recently joined him, to take proper measures to impede 
the arrival of French forces known to be on their way to Martin- 
ique. The French admiral, the count de Grasse, reached the 
island with reinforcements in April. Until July he was engaged 
in a series of skilful operations directed to menacing the British 
islands while he avoided being brought to battle by Rodney. 
In July he sailed for the coast of North America, whither he 
was followed in August by Sir S. Hood, Rodney having been 
compelled to return home in ill-health. 

On the coast of North America the war came to its crisis. In 
the earlier part of the year the British at New York and the 
French at Newport continued to watch one another. In April 
the British admiral Arbuthnot did indeed succeed in baffling 
an attempt of the French to carry reinforcements to the 
American cause in Virginia. The action he fought off the capes 
of Virginia on the i6th of April was ill conducted, but his main 
purpose was achieved. Washington, who was wisely anxious to 
concentrate attack on one or other of the centres of British 
power in Virginia or New York, had to wait till the arrival 
of Grasse before he could see his ideas applied. The French 
admiral gave the allies a superiority of naval strength on the 
coast of Virginia, and Lord Cornwallis, the British commander, 
was beleaguered in Yorktown. Admiral Thomas Graves, 
Arbuthnot's successor, who had been joined by Hood from the 
West Indies, endeavoured to drive off the French fleet. But the 
feeble battle he fought on the sth of September failed to shake 
the French hold on the Chesapeake, and Grasse having been 
reinforced, Graves sailed away. Yorktown fell on the igth of 
October, and the war was settled as far as the coast of North 
America was concerned. 

The French admiral, having rendered this vital service to his 
ally, now returned to the West Indies, whither he was followed 
by Hood, and resumed the attacks on the British islands. In 
January and February 1782 he conquered St Christopher, in 
spite of the most determined opposition of Hood, who with a 
much inferior force first drove him from his anchorage at 
Basseterre, and then repulsed his repeated attacks. The next 
purpose of the French was to combine with the Spaniards for an 
attack on Jamaica. Sir George Rodney, having returned to his 
command with reinforcements, baffled this plan by the series of 
operations which culminated in the battle of the i2th of April 
1782. (See SAINTS, BATTLE or.) No further operations of note 
occurred in the West Indies. At home Howe relieved Gibraltar 
for the last time in September and October 1782. 

The war in the East Indies formed a separate series of episodes. 
In 1778 the British authorities had little difficulty in seizing the 
French settlement of Pondicherry. A naval engagement of a 
very feeble kind took place on the loth of August in the Bay 
of Bengal, between the British naval officer in command and 
M. de Tronjoly. But the French were too weak in these seas 
for offensive movements, and therefore remained quiescent at 
Bourbon and Mauritius till the beginning of 1782. In the spring 
of 1781 the bailli de Suffren was sent to the East with a small 
squadron; on his way he fell upon a British force which had been 
sent to take the Cape from the Dutch, and which he found in 



the Portuguese anchorage of Porto Praya, on the i6th of April. 
Having provided for the security of the Cape, Suffren went on to 
the French islands. He sailed from them early in 1782 to carry 
out a vehement attack on the British forces in the Bay of Bengal. 
From the I7th of February 1782 to the 2oth of June 1783 he 
fought a series of fine actions against Sir Edward Hughes, by 
which he secured a marked superiority on the water. Though 
he had no port in which to refit and no ally save Hyder Ali, 
he kept the sea and did not even return to the French islands 
during the north-easterly monsoon. Suffren failed in his 
main, purpose, which was to make such a capture as would put 
his government in a strong position during the negotiations 
for peace. But his capture of Trincomalee in July 1782 in 
spite of Sir Edward Hughes, and the heavy loss he inflicted 
on the British fleet in several of the actions he fought, consti- 
tute the' most honourable part of the French naval operations 
in the war. 

AUTHORITIES. The Influence of Sea Power upon History, by Captain 
Mahan, gives the best critical examination of the naval aspects of the 
war. The French side will be found in the Histoire de la marine 
jranc,aise pendant la Guerre de V Independence americaine (Paris, 
1877), by Captain Chevalier. For accounts of the American navysee 
C. O. Paullin, The Navy of the American Revolution (Chicago, 1906); 
E. S. Maclay, History of the U.S. Navy, vol. i. (New York, 1897); 
C. H. Lincoln, Naval Records oj the American Revolution (Washington, 
1906) ; and Edward Field, Esek Hopkins, Commander-in-chief of 
the Continental Navy during the American Revolution (Providence, 
R.I., 1898). For details of actions the reader may be referred 
to Beatson's Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain from 
1727 to 1787 (London, 1804), and to Sir W. Laird Clowes's 
The Royal Navy: A History (London, 1897, &c.). (D. H.) 

AMERICAN WAR OF 1812. The war between the United 
States and Great Britain, commonly known as "of 1812," began 
by the American declaration of war on the i8th of June of that 
year, and lasted till the beginning of 1815. The treaty of peace 
signed at Ghent on the 24th of December 1814 was ratified 
by the president of the United States on the i7th of February 
1815. These two years and a half of conflict were filled with 
isolated encounters which can hardly be reduced to coherent 
and ordered operations. Although the outbreak of war had been 
preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, the United States 
were absolutely unready, while Great Britain was still hard 
pressed by the hostility of Napoleon, and was compelled to re- 
tain the greater part of her forces and her best crews in European 
waters, till the ruin of the Grande Armee in Russia and the rising 
of Germany left her free to send an overwhelming force of ships 
to American waters. 

The forces actually available on the American side when the 
war began consisted of a small squadron of very fine frigates and 
sloops in an efficient state. Twenty-two was the extreme limit 
of the naval force the States were able to commission. The 
paper strength of the army was 35,000, but the service was 
voluntary and unpopular, while there was an almost total want 
of trained and experienced officers. The available strength was 
a bare third of the nominal. The militia, called in to aid the 
regulars, proved untrustworthy. They objected to serve beyond 
the limits of their states, were not amenable to discipline, and 
behaved as a rule very ill in the presence of the enemy. On the 
British side, the naval force in American waters under Sir John 
Borlase Warren, who took up the general command on the 26th 
of September 1812, consisted of ninety-seven vessels in all, of 
which eleven were of the line and thirty-four were frigates, a 
power much greater than the national navy of America, but in- 
adequate to the blockade of the long coast from New Brunswick 
to Florida. The total number of British troops present in Canada 
in July 1812 was officially stated to be 5004, consisting in part 
of Canadians. 

The scene of operations naturally divided into three sections: 
(i) the ocean; (2) the Canadian frontier, from Lake Huron, by 
Lakes Erie and Ontario, the course of the St Lawrence and Lake 
Champlain; (3) the coast of the United States. As the opera- 
tions on these three fields had little interaction on one another, 
it will be more convenient to take them separately than to follow 
the confusing chronological order. 



AMERICAN WAR OF 1812 



Operations on the Ocean. These cover all cruises of sea-going 
ships, even when they did not go far from the coast. They again 
subdivide into the actions of national vessels, and the raids of the 
privateers. The first gave to the United States the most brilliant 
successes of the war. When it began two small squadrons were 
getting ready for sea at New York; the frigate " President " (44) 
and sloop " Hornet " (18), under Commodore John Rodgers, who 
had also the general command; and the frigates " United States" 
(44) and " Congress " (38), with the brig " Argus " (16) to which 
two guns were afterwards added, under Captain Stephen Decatur. 
Rodgers would have preferred to keep his command together, and 
to strike with it at the main course of British commerce, but he 
was overruled. He sailed on the 2ist of June, and after chasing 
the British frigate " Belvidera " (36), which escaped into Halifax 
by throwing boats, &c. , overboard, stood across the North Atlantic 
in search of a West Indian convoy, which he failed to sight, re- 
turning by the 3ist of August to Boston. While he was absent, 
Captain Isaac Hull, commanding the " Constitution " (44), sailed 
from the Chesapeake, and after a narrow escape from a British 
squadron, which pursued him from the i8th to the 2oth of July, 
reached Boston. Going to sea again on the 2nd of August he 
captured and burned the British frigate " Guerriere " (38). On 
the 8th of October Rodgers and Decatur sailed the first on a 
cruise to the east, the second to the south. Commodore Rodgers 
met with no marked success, but on the 25th of October Captain 
Decatur in the " United States " captured the British frigate 
" Macedonian " (38) , which he carried back to port. At the close 
of the month Captain Bainbridge sailed with the " Constitution," 
" Essex " (32) and " Hornet " (18) on a southerly cruise. On the 
2Qth of December, when off Bahia, he fell in with the British frigate 
" Java " (38), which was carrying General Hislop, the governor 
of Bombay, to India, and took her after a sharp action. The 
"Essex" and "Hornet" were not in company. The first, under 
the command of Captain David Porter, went on to the Pacific, 
where she did great injury to British trade, till she was captured 
off Valparaiso by the British frigate " Phoebe " (38) and the sloop 
" Cherub " (24) on the 28th of March 1814. In these actions, 
except the last, the Americans had the advantage of greater size 
and a heavier broadside, but they showed excellent seamanship 
and gunnery. The capture of three British frigates one after 
another caused a painful impression in Great Britain and stimu- 
lated her to greater exertions. Vessels were accumulated on the 
American sea-board, and the watch became more strict. On the 
ist of June 1813 the capture of the U.S. frigate " Chesapeake " 
(38), by the British frigate " Shannon " (38), a vessel of equal 
force, counterbalanced the moral effect of previous disasters. The 
blockade of American ports was already so close that the United 
States ships found it continually more difficult to get to sea, or 
to keep the sea without meeting forces of irresistibly superior 
strength. 

The operations of American privateers were too numerous 
and far-ranging to be told in detail. They continued active till 
the close of the war, and were only partially baffled by the strict 
enforcement of convoy by the British authorities. A signal 
instance of the audacity of the American cruisers was the capture 
of the U.S. sloop " Argus " (20) by the British sloop " Pelican " 
(18) so far from home as St David's Head in Wales on the I4th 
of August 1813. The " Pelican's " guns were heavier than those 
of the " Argus." 

Operations on the Lakes. The American people, who had 
expected little from their diminutive navy, had calculated with 
confidence on being able to overrun Canada. As, however, they 
had taken no effectual measures to provide a mobile force they 
were disappointed. The British general, Sir George Prevost, was 
neither able nor energetic, but his subordinate, Major-General 
Isaac Brock, was both. In July, before the Americans were ready, 
Brock seized Mackinac at the head of Lake Huron; and on the 
1 6th of August Detroit in the channel between Huron and Erie 
was surrendered. Kingston was held at the east end of Ontario. 
Montreal on the St Lawrence was a strong position on the British 
side to which, however, the Americans had an easy road of 
approach by Lake Champlain. Sound reasoning would have led 



the Americans to direct their chief attacks on Kingston and 
Montreal, since success at those points would have isolated the 
British posts on Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. But they were 
much influenced by fear of the Indians, who had been won over 
to the British side by the energy of Brock. They therefore 
looked more carefully to the lakes than to the course of the St 
Lawrence, and it may be added that their leaders showed an 
utter want of capacity for the intelligent conduct of war. 

The impracticable character of the communications by land 
made it absolutely necessary for both parties to obtain control 
of the water. Neither had made any preparations, and the 
war largely resolved itself into a race of shipbuilding. The 
Americans, who had far greater facilities for building than 
the British, allowed themselves to be forestalled. In the second 
half of 1812 the British general, Sir Isaac Brock, lieutenant- 
governor of Upper Canada, adopted measures for opposing 
the Americans on the frontier line, between Huron and Erie. 
The American brigadier-general William Hull invaded Canada 
on the 1 2th of July from Detroit, just below the small 
Lake of St Clair between Huron and Erie. His army was 
mainly composed of militiamen, who behaved very badly, and 
his papers having been captured in a boat, his plans were 
revealed. General Brock drove him back and forced him to 
surrender at Detroit on the i6th of August. Brock now promptly 
transferred himself to the western end of Erie, where the 
American general Henry Dearborn was attempting another 
invasion. Brock fell in action on the I3th of October, while 
repulsing Dearborn's subordinate Van Rensselaer, a politician 
named to command by favour, and ignorant of a soldier's 
business. The Americans were driven back. In this field also 
their militia behaved detestably. The Canadians on the other 
hand, both the French who were traditionally amenable to 
authority and those of English descent, who being largely sons 
of loyalists of the War of Independence had a bitter hatred of the 
Americans, did excellent service. The discontent of New England 
with the war both hampered the American generals and also 
aided the British, who drew their supplies to a great extent from 
United States territory. On the 22nd of January 1813, at 
Frenchtown, the American troops under Winchester surrendered 
to a British and Indian force under Procter. 

During the winter both sides were busy in building ships. On 
Ontario the Americans pushed on their preparations at Sackett's 
Harbour under Isaac Chauncey; the English were similarly 
engaged at Kingston. Sir James Lucas Yeo took command on 
the isth of May 1813. On Erie the American headquarters were 
at Presqu' Isle, now the city of Erie; the English at Fort Maiden. 
The American commander was Captain Oliver Perry, the British 
commander, Captain Robert Barclay. On Lake Ontario Yeo 
formed a more mobile though less powerful force than Chauncey's, 
and therefore manoeuvred to avoid being brought to close action. 
Three engagements, on the loth of August, nth of September 
and 28th of September, led to no decisive result. By the close 
of the war Yeo had constructed a ship of 102 guns which gave him 
the superiority, and the British became masters of Lake Ontario. 
On Lake Erie the energy of Captain Perry, aided by what appears 
to have been the misjudgment of Barclay, enabled him to get a 
superior force by the 4th of August, and on the i oth of September 
he fought a successful action which left the Americans masters of 
Lake Erie. The military operations were subordinate to the 
naval. In April 1813 the Americans took York (now Toronto), 
and in May moved on Fort George; but a counter-attack by 
Yeo and Prevost on Sackett's Harbour, on the zgth of May, 
having made the Americans anxious about the safety of their 
base, naval support failed the American generals, and they were 
paralysed. A success was gained by them (October 5) at the 
Thames, where the Indian chief Tecumseh fell, but they made no 
serious progress. The Americans turned to the east of Ontario, 
intending to assail Montreal by the St Lawrence in combination 
with their forces at Lake Champlain. But the combination 
failed; they were severely harassed on the St Lawrence, and the 
invasion was given up. 

The operations of 1814 bear a close resemblance to those of 



AMERICUS AMES 



849 



1813, with, however, one important difference. The American 
generals, having by this time brought their troops to order, were 
able to fight with much better effect. Their attack on the 
Niagara peninsula led to hot fighting at Chippewa (July 5) and 
Lundy's Lane (July 25), the first a success for the Americans, 
the second a drawn battle. The fall of Napoleon having now 
freed the British government from the obligation to retain its 
army in Europe, troops from Spain began to pour in. But on the 
Canadian frontier they made little difference. In August 1814 
Sir George Prevost attacked the American forces at Champlain. 
But his naval support, ill prepared, was hurried into action by 
him at Plattsburg on the nth of September, and defeated. 
Prevost then retired. His management of the war, more 
especially on Lake Champlain, was severely criticized, and he 
was threatened with a court-martial, but died before the trial 
came on. A British occupation of part of the coast of Maine 
proved to be mere demonstration. 

Operations on the American Coast. When the war began the 
British naval forces were unequal to the work of blockading the 
whole coast. They were also much engaged in seeking for 
the American cruisers under Rodgers, Decatur and Bainbridge. 
The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for 
its army in Spain, was willing to benefit by the discontent of the 
New Englanders. No blockade of New England was at first 
attempted. The Delaware and Chesapeake were declared in a 
state of blockade on the 26th of December 1812. This was 
extended to the whole coast south of Narragansett by November 

1813, and to the whole American coast on the 3ist of May 

1814. In the meantime much illicit trade was carried on 
by collusive captures arranged between American traders and 
British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred 
to neutral flags. Eventually the United States government was 
driven to issue orders for the purpose of stopping illicit trading, 
and the commerce of the country was ruined. The now over- 
powering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the 
Chesapeake and to execute innumerable attacks of a destructive 
character on docks and harbours. The burning by the American 
generalMcClure,on the loth of December 1813, of Newark(Niagara 
on the Lake), for which severe retaliation was taken at Buffalo, 
was made the excuse for much destruction. The most famous of 
these destructive raids was the burning of the public buildings at 
Washington by Sir Alexander Cochrane, who succeeded Warren 
in April in the naval command, and General Robert Ross. The 
expedition was carried out between the igth and 2pth of August 
1814, and was well organized and vigorously executed. 1 On the 
24th the American militia, collected at Bladensburg to protect 
the capital, fled almost before they were attacked. A subse- 
quent attack on Baltimore, in which General Ross was killed 
(September 12, 1814), was a failure. The expedition to New 
Orleans (q.v.) is separately dealt with. 

AUTHORITIES. In his Sea Power in its Relations to the War of 1812 
Captain Mahan has given a careful account of the war by land and 
sea with reference to services. The Naval War of 1812, by Theodore 
Roosevelt (New York, 1882), is lively but somewhat passionate, and 
not free from prejudice. A vehement statement of the Canadian 
side will be found in How Canada was held for the Empire, by James 
Hannay (London, Edinburgh.Toronto, 1905). See also The Canadian 
War oj 1812, by Charles P. Lucas (Oxford, 1906). (D. H.) 

AMERICUS, a city and the county-seat of Sumter county, 
Georgia, U.S.A., about 71 m. S.S.W. of Macon. Pop. (1880) 
3635; (1890) 6308; (1900) 7674 (4661 of negro descent); (1910) 
8063. It is served by the Central of Georgia and the Seaboard 
Air Line railways, and is the seat of the Third Congressional 
District Agricultural High School, a branch of the state uni- 
versity of Georgia. The city is in a rich sugar-cane and fruit 
country, is a large cotton and mule and horse market, and has 
division shops of the Seaboard Air Line railway. Among the 
city's manufactures are cotton-seed oil, fertilizers, chemicals, 
iron, carriages and wagons and harness (especially horse 
collars). The city owns the waterworks; the water-supply is 

1 The burning of Washington was an act of vandalism by no means 
approved of by many of the British officers who were compelled to 
take part in it. (See SMITH, Sir HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN.) 



obtained from artesian wells. Americus was settled in 1832, and 
was first chartered as a city in 1855. 

AMERSFOORT, a town in the province of Utrecht, Holland, 
on the navigable Eem, and a junction station 14 m. by rail 
N.E. by E. of Utrecht. Pop. (1900) 19,089. It is situated in the 
midst of picturesque and undulating country, consisting of wide 
sandy heaths and woods, and dotted with many fine country 
houses. One of the most interesting of its few historic monu- 
ments is the Koppelpoort, an old gateway situated at the end of 
a fine avenue of trees bordering the canal. Close by is a lofty 
Gothic tower (1500), which belonged to the ancient church of St 
Mary, which was wrecked by an explosion of gunpowder in 1787. 
The large plain church of St George dates from the first half of the 
I3th century. There is also a Jansenist church, to which a 
seminary is attached. Besides these there are a town hall, a court 
of primary jurisdiction, industrial and other schools. Amersfoort 
has a large garrison, consisting chiefly of artillery, and manu- 
factures woollen goods, cotton, silk, glass and brandy. It has also 
a considerable trade in tobacco, grown in the neighbourhood, 
and in corn and fish. 

AMERSHAM, a market town in the Wycombe parliamentary 
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 24 m. W.N.W. of London 
by the Metropolitan railway. Pop. (1901) 2674. It is pleasantly 
situated in the narrow valley of the Misbourne stream, which is 
flanked by the well-wooded slopes of the Chiltern Hills. The 
church of St Mary is almost entirely Perpendicular, and has a 
beautiful south porch, brasses of the i sth, i6th and 1 7th centuries 
and numerous monuments, several of which, in a chantry, 
commemorate members of the family of Drake, lords of the 
manor. The town hall was built by Sir William Drake in 1642. 
At Coleshill, near Amersham, Edmund Waller the poet was 
born in 1606; he sat in parliament for the former borough of 
Amersham. The town has flour mills and breweries, and some 
straw-plaiting and lace-making are carried on in the vicinity. 
The district is one of the most beautiful near London; the village 
of Chenies, overlooking the valley of the Chess, is especially 
picturesque. 

Amersham (Elmodesham, Agmondesham, Hagmondesham, 
Aumundesham, Homersham) at the time of the Domesday 
Survey was divided into no less than six holdings. The manor, 
or chief of them, was held by Geoffrey de Mandeville. At the 
time of Edward the Confessor it was held by Queen Edith. The 
manor afterwards descended to the families of Fitz Piers, Bohun 
and Strafford, and was granted by Henry VIII. to Sir John 
Russell, ancestor of the earls of Bedford. In 1638 Francis, earl 
of Bedford, conveyed it to William Drake, by whose descendants 
it is still held. The north chapel in the church of St Michael, 
Chenies, has been the burial-place of the Russell family since its 
erection in 1556, and contains a number of fine memorials, notably 
that of Anne, countess of Bedford (d. 1558), who founded the 
chapel. Amersham was formerly a parliamentary borough by 
prescription, and returned two members in 1300, 1306, 1307 and 
1309. In 1623 this privilege was restored, and was only annulled 
by the Reform Bill of 1832. The annual fair, in September, is 
held under a charter secured by Geoffrey Fitz Peter, earl of 
Essex, in 1200, that on Whit Monday under a charter of 1614, 
secured by Edward, earl of Bedford, which transferred the Friday 
market, also granted under the earlier charter, to Tuesday. 

AMES, FISHER (1758-1808), American statesman, orator and 
political writer, son of Nathaniel Ames, a physician, was born at 
Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of April 1758. He graduated 
at Harvard College in 1774, and began the practice of the law 
at Dedham in 1781, but eventually abandoned that profession 
for the more congenial pursuit of politics. He was a prominent 
member of the Massachusetts convention which (February 1788) 
ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and in the same 
year, having entered the lower house in the state legislature, he 
distinguished himself greatly by his eloquence and readiness in 
debate. During the eight years of Washington's administration 
(i 789-1 797) he was a prominent Federalist member of the national 
House of Representatives. On the 28th of April 1796, when the 
Republicans, hostile to the Jay Treaty, were on the point of 
holding up the appropriation necessary for its execution, Ames, 
who had just arisen from a sick-bed, made what has been con- 
sidered the greatest speech of his life; before the delivery of his 



850 



AMES 



speech his opponents had claimed a majority of six, but the 
appropriation was finally passed, in the committee of the whole, 
by the casting vote of the chairman. When Washington retired 
from the presidency, Congress voted him an address and chose 
Ames to deliver it. In 1797 he returned to Dedham to resume 
the practice of the law, which the state of his health after a few 
years obliged him to relinquish. He published numerous essays, 
chiefly in relation to the contest between Great Britain and 
revolutionary France, as it might affect the liberty and prosperity 
of America. Ames was one of the group of New England ultra- 
Federalists known as the " Essex Junto," who opposed the 
French policy of President John Adams in 1798, and were 
conspicuous for their British sympathies. Four years before his 
death he was chosen president of Harvard College, an honour 
which his broken state of health obliged him to decline. He died 
on the 4th of July 1808. 

His writings and speeches, which abound in sparkling passages, 
displaying great fertility of imagination, were collected and pub- 
lished, with a memoir of the author, in 1809, by the Rev. Dr J. T. 
Kirkland, in one large octavo volume. A more complete edition in 
two volumes was published by his son, Seth Ames, at Boston, 
Mass., in 1854. 

AMES.JOSEPH (1680-1759), English author, was born at 
Yarmouth on the 23rd of January 1689. He wrote an account of 
printing in England from 1471 to 1600, Typographical Antiquities 
( 1 749) . Ames sent out circular letters with a list of two hundred 
and fifteen English printers with whose works he intended to deal, 
asking for any available information. He earned the gratitude 
of subsequent bibliographers by disregarding printed lists and 
consulting the title-pages of the books themselves. An inter- 
leaved copy of the work with many notes in the author's hand is 
no w in the B ritish Museum. Editions of his works were published 
with added information by William Herbert (3 vols., 1785-1790), 
and T. F. Dibdin (4 vols., 1810-1819). Ames's occupation is 
variously given. It is uncertain whether he was a ship-chandler, 
a patten-maker, a plane-iron maker or an ironmonger; but he led 
a prosperous life at Wapping, and amassed valuable collections 
of antiquities. He died on the 7th of October 1759. His other 
works are catalogues of English printers, of the collection of coins 
which belonged to the earl of Pembroke, of some two thousand 
English portraits, and Parentalia (1750), a memoir of the Wrens, 
undertaken in conjunction with Sir Christopher Wren's grand- 
son, Stephen Wren. Part of his correspondence in bibliography 
is included in Nichols's Literary Anecdotes and Illustrations. 

AMES, OAKES (1804-1873), American manufacturer, capitalist 
and politician, was born in Easton, Massachusetts, on the loth of 
January 1804. As a manufacturer of shovels, in association with 
his father and his brother Oliver (1807-1877), he amassed a large 
fortune. In 1860 he became a member of the executive council 
of Massachusetts, and from 1863 to 1873 was a republican member 
of the national House of Representatives. As a member of the 
committee on railroads he became interested in the project, 
greatly aided by the government, to build a trans-continental 
railway, connecting the eastern states with California. Others 
having failed, he was induced in 1865 to assume the direction of 
the work, and to him more than to any other one man the credit 
for the construction of the Union Pacific railway was due. The 
execution was effected largely through a construction company, 
the Credit Mobilier Company of America. In disposing of some of 
the stock of this company, Ames in 1867-1871 sold a number of 
shares to members of Congress at a price much below what these 
shares eventually proved to be worth. This, on becoming known , 
gave rise in 1872-1873 to a great congressional scandal. After an 
investigation by a committee of the House, which recommended 
the expulsion of Ames, a resolution was passed on the 28th of 
February 1873, " that the House absolutely condemns the con- 
duct of Oakes Ames ... in seeking to secure congressional atten- 
tion to the affairs of a corporation in which he was interested, and 
whose interest directly depended upon the legislation of Congress, 
by inducing members of Congress to invest in the stocks of said 
corporation." Many have since attributed this resolution to 
partisanship, and the influence of popular clamour, and in 1883 
the legislature of Massachusetts passed a resolution vindicating 



Ames. He died at North Easton, Mass., on the 8th of 
May 1873. His son, OLIVER AMES (1831-1895), was lieutenant- 
governor of Massachusetts from 1883 until 1887, and governor 
from 1887 to 1890. 

See CREDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA and the references there given. 
For a defence of Oakes Ames, see Oakes Ames, A Memorial Volume 
(Cambridge, Mass., 1884). 

AMES, WILLIAM (1576-1633), English Puritan divine, better 
known, especially in Europe, as Amesius, was born of an 
ancient family at Ipswich, Suffolk, in 1576, and was educated at 
the local grammar school and at Christ's College, Cambridge, 
where, as throughout his life, he was an omnivorous student. He 
was considerably influenced by his tutor, the celebrated William 
Perkins, and by his successor, a man of kindred intellect and 
fervour, Paul Bayne. He graduated B.A. and M. A. in due course, 
and was chosen to a fellowship in Christ's College. He was 
universally beloved in the university. His own college (Christ's) 
would have chosen him for the mastership; but a party opposi- 
tion led to the election of Valentine Gary, who had already 
quarrelled with Ames for disapproving of the surplice and other 
outward symbols. One of Ames's sermons became historical in 
the Puritan controversies. It was delivered on St Thomas's day 
(1609) before the feast of Christ's nativity, and in it he rebuked 
sharply " lusory lotts " and the " heathenish debauchery " of the 
students during the twelve days ensuing. The scathing vehem- 
ence of his denunciations led to his being summoned before the 
vice-chancellor, who suspended him " from the exercise of his 
ecclesiastical function and from all degrees taken or to be taken." 
After Gary's election he left the university and would have ac- 
cepted the great church of Colchester, but the bishop of London 
refused to grant institution and induction. Like persecution 
awaited him elsewhere, and at last he passed over to Holland, 
being aided by certain wealthy English merchants who wished 
him to controvert the supporters of the English church in Leiden. 
At Rotterdam, clad in the fisherman's habit donned for the 
passage, he opposed Grevinchovius (Nicholas Grevinckhoven, d. 
163 2) , minister of the Arminian or Remonstrant church, and over- 
whelmed him with his logical reasoning from Phil. ii. 13, " It is 
God that worketh in us both to will and to do." The fisherman- 
controversialist made a great stir, and from that day became 
known and honoured in the Low Countries. Subsequently Ames 
entered into a controversy in print with Grevinchovius on uni- 
versal redemption and election, and cognate problems. He 
brought together all he had maintained in his Coronis ad Collati- 
onem Hagiensem his most masterful book, which figures largely 
i n Dutch church history. At Leiden, Ames became intimate with 
the venerable Mr Goodyear, pastor of the English church there. 
While thus resident in comparative privacy he was sent for to the 
Hague by Sir Horatio Vere, the English governor of Brill, who 
appointed him a minister in the army of the states-general, and 
of the English soldiers in their service, a post held by some of the 
greatest of England's exiled Puritans. He married a daughter of 
Dr Burgess, who was Vere's chaplain, and, on his father-in-law's 
return to England, succeeded to his place. 

It was at this time he began his memorable controversy with 
Episcopius, who, in attacking the Coronis, railed against the 
author as having been " a disturber of the public peace in his 
native country, so that the English magistrates had banished him 
thence; and now, by his late printed Coronis, he was raising new 
disturbances in the peaceable Netherlands." It was a miserable 
libel and was at once rebutted by Goodyear. The Coronis had 
been primarily prepared for the synod of Dort, which sat from 
November 1618 until May 1619. At this celebrated synod the 
position of Ames was a peculiar one. The High Church party in 
England had induced Vere to dismiss him from the chaplaincy; 
but he was still held, deservedly, in such reverence, that it was 
arranged he should attend the synod, and accordingly he was 
retained by the Calvinist party at four florins a day to watch 
the proceedings on their behalf and advise them when necessary. 
A proposal to make him principal of a theological college at 
Leiden was frustrated by Archbishop Abbot; and when later 
invited by the state of Friesland to a professoriate at Franeker, 



AMES AMESBURY 



851 



the opposition was renewed, but this time abortively. He was 
installed at Franeker on the 7th of May 1622, and delivered 
a most learned discourse on the occasion on " Urim and 
Thummin." He soon brought renown to Franeker as pro- 
fessor, preacher, pastor and theological writer. He prepared 
his Medulla Theologiae, a manual of Calvinistic doctrine, for 
his students. His De Conscientia, ejus Jure et Casibus (1632), 
an attempt to bring Christian ethics into clear relation with 
particular cases of conduct and of conscience, was a new thing 
in Protestantism. Having continued twelve years at Franeker 
(where he was rector in 1626), his health gave way, and he 
contemplated removal to New England. But another door was 
opened for him. He yearned for more frequent opportunities of 
preaching to his fellow-countrymen, and an invitation to Rotter- 
dam gave him such opportunity. His friends at Franeker were 
passionately opposed to the transference, but ultimately ac- 
quiesced. At Rotterdam he drew all hearts to him by his elo- 
quence and fervour in the pulpit, and his irrepressible activity as 
a pastor. Home-controversy engaged him again, and he prepared 
his Fresh Suit against Ceremonies the book which made Richard 
Baxter a Nonconformist. It ably sums up the issues between the 
Puritan school and that of Hooker. It was posthumously pub- 
lished. He did not long survive his removal to Rotterdam. 
Having caught a cold from a flood which inundated his house, he 
died in November 1633, at the age of fifty-seven, apparently in 
needy circumstances. He left, by a second wife, a son and a 
daughter. His valuable library found a home in New England. 
Few Englishmen have exercised so formative and controlling an 
influence on European thought and opinion as Ames. He was 
a master in theological controversy, shunning not to cross swords 
with the formidable Bellarmine. He was a scholar among scholars, 
being furnished with extraordinary resources of learning. His 
works, which even the Biographia Brilannica (1778) testifies were 
famous over Europe, were collected at Amsterdam in 5 vols. 4to. 
Only a very small proportion was translated into his mother 
tongue. His Lectiones in omnes Psalmos Da-Mis (1635) is ex- 
ceedingly suggestive and terse in its style, reminding of Bengel's 
Gnomon, as does also his Commentarius utriusque Epist. S. Pelri. 
His " Replies " to Bishop Morton and Dr Burgess on " Cere- 
monies " tell us that even kinship could not prevent him from 
" contending earnestly for the faith." 

See John Quick's MS. Icones Sacrae Anglicanae, which gives the 
fisherman anecdote on the personal authority of one who was 
present; Life by Nethenus prefixed to collected edition of Latin 
works (5 vols., Amsterdam, 1658) ; Winwood's Memorials, vol. i,ii. 
pp. 346-347; Neal's Puritans, i. 532; Fuller's Cambridge (Christ's 
College}; Hanbury's Hist. Memorials, i. 533; Collections of the 
Massachusetts Historical Society, vol. vi., fourth series, 1863, 
pp. 576-577- 

AMES, a city of Story county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 35 m. N. of 
Des Moines, at the intersection of two lines of the Chicago & 
North-Western railway. Pop. (1890) 1276; (1900) 2422; (1910 
U. S. census) 4223. The city is the seat of the state college of 
agriculture and mechanic arts; this institution, opened in 1869, 
has for its use about 1175 acres of land, on which the state has 
erected, at a cost of $1,200,000, thirty-two college buildings, 
besides dwelling-houses and buildings for farm purposes. On the 
college campus are beautiful groves containing several hundred 
varieties of trees, and in a central position stands a campanile with 
excellent chimes. The college offers four-year courses in agronomy, 
animal husbandry, dairying, domestic economy, general science, 
veterinary medicine, and civil, mechanical, electrical and mining 
engineering. In 1909-1910 it had an enrollment of 2631 students 
(including 796 in the winter short course) and a library of 23,000 
volumes. The cost of instruction and experimentation is met by 
the income from national grants (under the Morrill Acts of 1862 
and 1882) and by state appropriations. Ames has a Carnegie 
library, and owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and 
waterworks. It was laid out as a town in 1864 and was named in 
honour of Oakes Ames, at the time one of the proprietors of the 
Cedar Rapids & Missouri River railway (now part of the Chicago 
& North-Western) ; five years later it was incorporated. 



AMESBURY, a small town in the Wilton parliamentary 
division of Wiltshire, England, 8 m. N. of Salisbury, on the London 
& South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1143. It stands on a 
wooded upland, amid the chalk downs of Salisbury Plain. The 
church of St Mary is cruciform, with a low square tower, and is 
largely Early English, with some richly decorated windows in the 
chancel. A curious two-storeyed building which adjoins the 
north transept consists of a chapel with a piscina below and a 
priest's chamber above. Amesbury Abbey, a beautiful house 
built by Inigo Jones for the dukes of Queensberry, stands close to 
the village, in a park watered by the river Avon, here famous for 
its trout. Stonehenge (q.v.), the greatest surviving megalithic 
work in the British Isles, is a mile and a half distant; and on a 
hill near the village is Vespasian's Camp or the Ramparts, a large 
earthwork, which is undoubtedly of British, not Roman, origin. 

At Amesbury (Ambresberia, Aumbresbery) a witenagemot 
was held in 932, while about 980 ^Ifthryth (Ethelfrida), queen- 
dowager of Edgar, erected here a nunnery in expiation of the 
murder of her stepson. The house afterwards acquired such ill 
repute that in 1177 the nuns were dispersed and the house was 
attached to the abbey of Fontevrault, by whom it was re-estab- 
lished. From this date, by a succession of royal charters and 
private gifts, the nunnery amassed vast wealth and privileges, 
and became a fashionable retreat for ladies of high rank, among 
whose number were Eleanor, widow of Henry III., and Mary, 
daughter of Edward I. After the dissolution in 1 540 the site wa s 
granted to Edward, earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerset 
and protector of the kingdom. It subsequently passed to the duke 
of Queensberry. According to the Domesday, Amesbury was a 
royal manor and did not pay geld, but was under the obligation 
of providing one night's entertainment for the king. In 13 1 7 the 
prioress obtained a Saturday market and a three days' fair at the 
feast of St Melor (Meliorus). The market was subsequently 
changed to Friday, and three additional fairs were granted. Pipe- 
clay abounds in the neighbourhood, and in the i7th century 
Amesbury was famous for the best pipes in England, many of 
which are preserved in Salisbury museum. 

See Victoria County History Wiltshire; Sir Richard Colt Hoare, 
History of Modern Wiltshire (1822-1844). 

AMESBURY, a township of Essex county, in N.E. Massa- 
chusetts, U.S. A., situated on the Merrimac river, about 6 m. above 
its mouth. Pop. (1890) 9798; (1900) 9473, of whom 2448 were 
foreign-born; (1910, U. S. census), 9894. Amesbury is served by 
two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, and is connected 
by electric line with Haverhill and Newburyport, Mass., and 
with Hampton Beach, New Hampshire, and Salisbury Beach, 
Mass., two summer resorts. The township covers a land area 
of about 13 sq. m. The surface is hilly. The Powow river, a 
small stream, passes through the centre of the township. There 
is a public library. Among Amesbury's manufactures are hats, 
cotton goods, carriages, automobile bodies, carriage and auto- 
mobile lamps, thermometers, brass castings and motor boats. 
In 1905 the factory products were valued at $3,614,692. Ames- 
bury was settled about 1644 as a separate part of Salisbury, and in 
1634, by mutual agreement of the old and new " towns," became 
practically independent, although not legally a township until 
1666 (named Amesbury, from the English town in Wilts, in 
1667). It suffered repeatedly in the course of the colonial Indian 
wars. Quakers settled here as early as 1701. Josiah Bartlett 
(1729-1795), a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was 
born here, and is commemorated by a statue (1888) by Karl 
Gerhardt. Shipbuilding was an important industry in the i8th 
and especially the first quarter of the igth century, and the 
U.S. frigate " Alliance " was built at Salisburypoint in 1778. 
A nail factory, one of the earliest in the country, was built on the 
Powow in 1796. The manufacture of iron began about 1710, of 
hats in 1769, of carriages in 1800 and of cotton goods in 1812. Paul 
Moody, who with F. C. Lowell constructed in 1814 at Waltham 
the first successful power-loom in America, was engaged in the 
manufacture of cotton goods in Amesbury. The township was the 
home of John G. Whittier from 1836 to 1892; here were written 
most of the poems of his middle and later life, many of which 



AMETHYST AMHERST 



describe the surrounding country. In 1876 Merrimac township 
was created out of the territory of Amesbury; in 1886 the west 
part of the old township of Salisbury was united to Amesbury. 
See Joseph Merrill, History of Amesbury (Haverhill, 1880); S. T. 
Pickard, Whittier-land, A Handbook of North Essex (Boston, New 
York, 1904). 

AMETHYST, a violet or purple variety of quartz used as 
an ornamental stone. The name is generally said to be derived 
from the Gr. A, " not," and pedwuftv, " to intoxicate," 
expressing the old belief that the stone protected its owner 
from strong drink. It was held that wine drunk out of a cup 
of amethyst would not intoxicate. According, however, to the 
Rev. C. W. King, the word may probably be a corruption of 
an Eastern name for the stone. 

The colour of amethyst is usually attributed to the presence of 
manganese, but as it is capable of being much altered and even 
discharged by heat it has been referred by some authorities to an 
organic source. Ferric thiocyanate has been suggested, and 
sulphur is said to have been detected in the mineral. On 
exposure to heat, amethyst generally becomes yellow, and much 
of the cairngorm or yellow quartz of jewellery is said to be merely 
" burnt amethyst." Veins of amethystine quartz are apt to lose 
their colour on the exposed outcrop. 

Amethyst is composed of an irregular superposition of alter- 
nate lamellae of right-handed and left-handed quartz. (See 
QUARTZ.) It has been shown by Prof. J. W. Judd that this 
structure may be due to mechanical stresses. In consequence of 
this composite formation, amethyst is apt to break with a rippled 
fracture, or to show " thumb markings," and the intersection of 
two sets of curved ripples may produce on the fractured surface a 
pattern something like that of " engine turning." Some mineral- 
ogists, following Sir D. Brewster, apply the name of amethyst to 
all quartz which exhibits this structure, regardless of its colour. 

The amethyst was used as a gem-stone by the ancient 
Egyptians, and was largely employed in antiquity for intaglios. 
Beads of amethyst are found in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. 
Amethyst is a very widely distributed mineral, but fine clear 
specimens fit for cutting as ornamental stones are confined to 
comparatively few localities. Such crystals occur either in 
cavities in mineral-veins and in granitic rocks, or as a lining in 
agate geodes. A huge geode, or " amethyst-grotto," from near 
Santa Cruz in southern Brazil, was exhibited at the Diisseldorf 
Exhibition of 1902. Many of the hollow agates of Brazil and 
Uruguay contain a crop of amethyst-crystals in the interior. 
Much fine amethyst comes from Russia, especially from near 
Mursinka in the Ekaterinburg district, where it occurs in drusy 
cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in India yield 
amethyst; and it is found also in Ceylon, chiefly as pebbles. 

Purple corundum, or sapphire of amethystine tint, is called 
Oriental amethyst, but this expression is often applied by jewellers 
to fine examples of the ordinary amethystine quartz, even when 
not derived from Eastern sources. 

Amethyst occurs at many localities in the United States, but 
rarely fine enough for use in jewellery. Among these may be men- 
tioned Amethyst Mountain, Texas; Yellowstone National Park; 
Delaware Co., Pennsylvania; Haywood Co., North Carolina;Deer 
Hill, and Stow, Maine. It is found also in the Lake Superior dis- 
trict. See G. F. Kunz, Gems &c. of North America (1890), and 
Report J 'or izth Census (vol. "Mines and Quarries"). (F.W.R.*) 

AMHARA, the central province of Abyssinia. The chief town, 
Gondar (q.v.), by which name the province is also known, was the 
residence of the negus negusti, or emperor, of Abyssinia from 
the middle ages up to 1854. The speech of the inhabitants, 
Amharic, which differs in several features from the dialects 
spoken in Tigre and Shoa, is the official language of Abyssinia. 

AMHERST, JEFFREY AMHERST, BARON (1717-1797), 
British soldier, was the son of Jeffrey Amherst of Riverhead, 
Kent, and by the interest of the duke of Dorset obtained an 
ensigncy in the Guards in 1731. He served in Germany and the 
Low Countries as aide-de-camp to General (Lord) Ligonier, and 
was present at Dettingen, Fontenoy and Roucoux. He then 
served on Cumberland's staff, and took part with the duke in the 



later campaigns of the Austrian Succession war, in the battle of 
Val, and the North German campaign of 1757, including the 
battle of Hastenbeck. A year previously he had been promoted 
to a lieutenant-colonelcy. In 1758 William Pitt caused Amherst 
to be made a major-general, and gave him command of an 
expedition to attack the French in North America. For the great 
plan of conquering Canada, Pitt chose young and ardent officers, 
with Amherst, distinguished for steadiness and self-control, as 
their commander-in-chief. The first victory of the expedition, 
the capture of Louisburg (July 26, 1758), was soon followed by 
other successes, and Amherst was given the chief command of all 
the forces in the theatre of war. In the campaign of 1759 
Amherst's own share was the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point, while Fort Niagara fell to another column, and Quebec 
was taken by Wolfe. In 1760 a concentric march on Montreal 
was carried out with complete success. Amherst was immedi- 
ately appointed governor-general of British North America, and 
in the following year was made a K.B. His conduct of the 
operations against the Indians under Pontiac was, however, far 
from being as successful as his generalship against regular troops ; 
and he returned to England in 1763, being made governor of 
Virginia and colonel of the 6oth regiment in the same year. In 
1768 the king, who had had a quarrel with Amherst, made 
amends by giving him another colonelcy; in 1770 he was made 
governor of Guernsey; and two years later, though not yet a full 
general, he was made lieutenant-general of the ordnance and 
acting commander-in-chief of the forces. In this capacity he 
was the chief adviser at headquarters during the American War 
of Independence. He was created a peer in 1776, was promoted 
general in 1778 and became colonel of the 2nd Horse Grenadiers 
(2nd Life Guards) two years later. He aided in suppressing the 
Gordon riots of 1780. The rest of his active life, with a short 
interval in 1782-1783, he spent at the Horse Guards as com- 
mander-in-chief, but he was no longer capable of good service, 
and in 1795 he was succeeded by the duke of York. In 1796 
Lord Amherst was made field-marshal; and he died on the 3rd 
of August 1797 at " Montreal," his residence in Kent. 

AMHERST, WILLIAM PITT AMHERST, EARL (1773-1857), 
governor-general of India, was the nephew of Jeffrey, Baron 
Amherst, and succeeded to his title in 1797 by the remainder 
provided when the patent of nobility was renewed in 1788. In 
1816 he was sent as ambassador extraordinary to the court of 
China, with a view of establishing more satisfactory commercial 
relations between that country and Great Britain. On arriving 
in the Peiho he was given to understand that he could only be 
admitted to the emperor's presence on condition of performing 
the ko-tou (kow-tow), a ceremony which Western nations consider 
degrading, and which is, indeed, a homage exacted by a Chinese 
sovereign from his tributaries. To this Lord Amherst, following 
the advice of Sir George T. Staunton, who accompanied him as 
second commissioner, refused to consent, as Lord Macartney had 
done in 1793, unless the admission was made that his sovereign 
was entitled to the .same show of reverence from a mandarin of his 
rank. In consequence of this he was not allowed to enter Pekin, 
and the object of his mission was frustrated. His ship, the 
" Alceste," after a cruise along the coast of Korea and to the Loo- 
Choo Islands, on proceeding homewards was totally wrecked on a 
sunken rock in Caspar Strait. Lord Amherst and part of his 
shipwrecked companions escaped in the ship's boats to Batavia, 
whence relief was sent to the rest. The ship in which he returned 
to England in 1817 having touched at St Helena, he had several 
interviews with the emperor Napoleon (see Ellis's Proceedings of 
the Late Embassy to China, 1817; M'Leod's Narrative of a Voyage 
in H.M.S. "Alceste," 1817). Lord Amherst held the office of 
governor-general of India from August 1823 to February 1828. 
The principal event of his government was the first Burmese war 
of 1824, resulting in the cession of Arakan and Tenasserim to 
Great Britain. He was created Earl Amherst of Arakan in 1826. 
On his return to England he lived in retirement till his death in 
March 1857. 

See A. Thackeray and R. Evans, Lord Amherst (" Rulers of India " 
series), 1894. 



AMHERST AMICABLE NUMBERS 



853 



AMHERST, a town and district in the Tenasserim division of 
Lower Burma. The town is situated about 30 m. S. of Moul- 
mein. It was founded by the British in 1826 on the restoration of 
the town of Martaban to the Burmese, and named in compliment 
to the governor-general of India of that day; but in 1827 the 
headquarters were transferred to Moulmein. Amherst has been 
eclipsed in prosperity by the latter city, and is now merely a 
bathing-place for Moulmein. 

The district forms a narrow strip of land between the Indian 
Ocean and the mountains which separate it from the independent 
kingdom of Siam. It has an area of 7062 sq. m. and had a 
population in 1901 of 300,173; it consists partly of fertile valleys 
formed by spurs of mountain system which divides it from 
Siam, and partly of a rich alluvial tract created by the great rivers 
which issue from them. The most important of these are the 
Salween and the Gyaing, formed by the junction of the Hlaingbwe 
and Haungtharaw rivers. The river highways bring down inex- 
haustible supplies of rice to Moulmein, the chief town of the 
district, as also of the province of Tenasserim. The district is 
subject to very heavy rainfall approaching 1 50 in. in the year, and 
has a uniform temperature of about 80 F. throughout the twelve- 
month. 

AMHERST, a village of Amherst township, Hampshire county, 
Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about 
7 m. N.E. of Northampton. Pop. of the township (1890) 4512; 
(1900) 5028; (1910, U. S. census) 5112. It is served by the 
Boston & Maine and the Central Vermont railways, and by inter- 
urban electric railways to Northampton, Holyoke, Sunderland 
and Pelham. The village is picturesquely situated on a plateau 
within a rampart of hills on the E. side of the Connecticut river 
valley. About 3 m. to the S. are the Holyoke Mountains (so 
called), while on the three remaining sides the land slopes to 
meadows, beyond which rise on the W. the Hampshire and Berk- 
shire Hills, on the N. the Sugar Loaf Mountains and Mt. Toby, 
and on the E. the Pelham Hills, including Mt Lincoln (1246 ft.). 
Two small rivers (Mill and Fort) flow through the township. 
Amherst is a quiet, pleasing, academic village of attractive homes. 
It is noteworthy as the seat of Amherst College, one of the best 
known of the smaller colleges of the United States. Amherst 
Academy (opened about 1814, chartered 1816), a co-educational 
school at which Mary Lyon, the founder of Mt. Holyoke College, 
was educated, preceded the college (not co-educational) ,which was 
opened in 1821 and was chartered in 1825. It was originally a 
collegiate charitable institution, its basis being a fund for the 
schooling of ministers, and the charity element has remained very 
large relatively to other colleges. The principal college buildings 
are College Hall (1828); College Chapel (1828); the Henry T. 
Morgan Library; Willis ton Hall, containing the Mather Art 
Museum, the rooms of the Young Men's Christian Association, 
and several lecture-rooms; Walker Hall, with college offices and 
lecture-rooms; Hitchcock Hall; Barrett Hall (1859), the first 
college gymnasium built in the United States, now used as a lecture 
hall ; the Pratt Gymnasium and Natatorium and the Pratt Health 
Cottage, whose donors also gave to the college the Pratt Field; 
an astronomical observatory; and the two dormitories, North 
College and South College, supplemented by several fraternity 
houses. The natural history collections (including the very large 
ichnological collection of President Hitchcock, and Audubon's 
collection of birds) are of exceptional richness. At Amherst is 
also the Massachusetts Agricultural College (co-educational 51867) 
and experiment station (1887) . Among the presidents of Amherst 
College have been in 1845-1854 and in 1876-1890 respectively 
Edward Hitchcock, the famous geologist, and the Rev. Julius H. 
Seelye (1824-1895), a well-known educationalist. The township 
seems to have been first settled in 1731; it was incorporated in 
1759 as a " district" (i.e. having all the rights of a township save 
corporate representation in the legislature) and in 1776 as a 
" town " (township) . It was originally part of Hadley. Its name 
was given to it in honour of General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797). 
During the Shays' Rebellion Amherst was a centre of disaffection 
and a rallying-point of the insurgents. Noah Webster lived in the 
village from 1812 to 1822, when working on his Dictionary; and 



Emily Dickinson and Helen M. Fiske (later Helen Hunt- Jackson, 
" H. H.") were born here. 

See William Seymour Tyler, A History of Amherst College (New 
York, 1896), and Carpenter and Morehouse, The History of the Town 
of Amherst (New York, 1896). 

AMHERST, the county town of Cumberland county, and port 
of entry in Novia Scotia, Canada, at the head of Chignecto Bay 
and on the Intercolonial railway, 138 m. from Halifax. Pop. 
(1901) 4964. It is situated in a rich agricultural and mining 
district, and contains county and railway buildings and numerous 
mills and factories. It is the distributing centre for the surround- 
ing district, and exports railway carriages, engines, boilers, 
stoves, &c. 

AMHURST, NICHOLAS (1697-1742), English poet and political 
writer, was born at Marden, Kent, on the i6th of October 1697. 
He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School, and received 
an exhibition (i 7 1 6) to St John's College, Oxford. In 1 7 1 9 he was 
expelled from the university, ostensibly for his irregularities of 
conduct, but in reality, according to his own account, because of 
his whig principles, which were sufficiently evident in a congratu- 
latory epistle to Addison, in Protestant Popery; or the Convoca- 
tion (1718), an attack on the opponents of Bishop Hoadly, and in 
The Protestant Session . . . by a member of the Constitution Club 
at Oxford (1719), addressed to James, first Earl Stanhope, and 
printed anonymously, but doubtless by Amhurst. He had satir- 
ized Oxford morals in Strephon's Revenge; a Satire on the Oxford 
Toasts (1718), and he attacked from time to time the administra- 
tion of the university and its principal members. An old Oxford 
custom on public occasions permitted some person to deliver from 
the rostrum a humorous, satirical speech, full of university 
scandal. This orator was known as Terrae filius. In 1721 
Amhurst produced a series of bi-weekly satirical papers under 
this name, which ran for seven months and incidentally provides 
much curious information. These publications were reprinted in 
1726 in two volumes as Terrae Filius; or the secret history of the 
University of Oxford; in several essays. . . . He collected his 
poems in 1720, and wrote another university satire, Oculus Bri- 
tanniae, in 1724. On leaving Oxford for London he became a 
prominent pamphleteer on the opposition side. On the 5th of 
December 1726 he issued the first number of the Craftsman, a 
weekly periodical, which he conducted under the pseudonym of 
Caleb D ' Anvers. The paper contributed largely to the final over- 
throw of Sir Robert Walpole's government, and reached a circu- 
lation of 10,000 copies. For this success Amhurst's editorship was 
not perhaps chiefly responsible. It was the organ of Lord Boling- 
broke and William Pulteney, the latter of whom was a frequent 
and caustic contributor. In 1737 an imaginary letter from Colley 
Gibber was inserted, in which he was made to suggest that many 
plays by Shakespeare and the older dramatists contained passages 
which might be regarded as seditious. He therefore desired to be 
appointed censor of all plays brought on the stage. This was 
regarded as a " suspected " libel, and a warrant was issued for 
the arrest of the printer. Amhurst surrendered himself instead, 
and suffered a short imprisonment. On the overthrow of the 
government in 1742 the opposition leaders did nothing for the 
useful editor of the Craftsman, and this neglect is said to have 
hastened Amhurst's death, which took place at Twickenham on 
the 27th of April 1742. 

AMIANTHUS, a corruption of amiantus (Gr. d/waPTOs, unde- 
filed), a name applied to the finer kinds of asbestos (q.v.), in conse- 
quence, it is said, of the mineral being unaffected by fire. Some 
of the finest amianthus, with long silky flexible fibres, occurs in the 
district of the Tarentaise in Savoy. According to Dr J. W. Evans, 
the ancient amianthus, derived mostly from Karystos in Euboea 
and from Cyprus, was probably a fibrous serpentine, or chrysotile 
(now called locally Tra/nraKOTreTpa, or cotton-stone). 

See Mineralogical Mag. (London) vol. xiv. no. 65 (.1906), art. by 
J. W. Evans. 

AMICABLE NUMBERS, two numbers so related that the sum 
of the factors of the one is equal to the other, unity being con- 
sidered as a factor. Such a pair are 220 and 284; for the factors 
of 220 are 1,2,4,5,10,11,20,22,44,55 and no, of which the sum is 
2 84; and the factors of 284 are 1,2,4,71, and 142, of which the sum 



8 54 



AMICE AMICIS 



is 220. Amicable numbers were known to the Pythagoreans, 
who accredited them with many mystical properties. A general 
formula by which these numbers could be derived was invented 
by the Arabian astronomer Tobit ben Korra (836-901): if 
p = ^-2 m i, 0=3-2 m - 1 i and r=9-2 2m - 1 i, where m is an 
integer and p,q,r prime numbers, then 2 m pq and 2 m r are a pair 
of amicable numbers. This formula gives the pairs 220 and 284, 
17,296 and 18,416, 9,463,584 and 9,437,056. The pair 6232 and 
6368 are amicable, but they cannot be derived from this formula. 
Amicable numbers have been studied by Al Madshritti (d. 1007), 
Rene Descartes, to whom the formula of Tobit ben Korra is some- 
times ascribed, C. Rudolphus and others. 

AMICE (earlier forms: amyt, amys, O. Fr. amit, Lat. amictus, 
from amicire, to throw or wrap round, the change of / to s being 
probably due to an early confusion with the aumuce: see 
ALMUCE), a liturgical vestment of the Western Church. It is a 
rectangular piece of cloth which is wrapped round the neck, 
shoulders and breast. Sometimes, more particularly in Germany, 
it is called the humerale (from humerus, shoulder). According to 
modern Roman use, laid down by the decree of the Congregation 
of Rites in 1819, the amice must be of linen or of a hempen 
material, not wool; and, as directed by the new Roman Missal 
(1570), a small cross must be sewn or embroidered in the middle 
of it. In putting it on it is first laid on the head, then allowed to 
fall on the shoulders, and finally folded round the chest and tied 
with the strings attached for that purpose (see fig. i). The amice 

is now worn under 
the alb, except at 
Milan and Lyons, 
where it is put on 
over it. The vest- 
ment was at first a 
perfectly plain white 
cloth, but in the i2th 
century the custom 
arose of decorating 
the upper border 




From Braun, Liturgisclte Gavandung, by permission 
of the publisher, B. Herder. 

FIG. i. Amice of the Present Day. 



with a band of embroidery, the parure (parura) or " apparel." 
This was abandoned at Rome about the end of the isth 
century and is not prescribed in the Missal; it survived, 
however, in many parts of Europe till much later. This apparel, 
when the vestment has been adjusted, forms a sort of stiff collar 
which appears above the chasuble or dalmatic (see fig. 2). In 




Redrawn from Braun, Liturgwchc Cewandung. 

FIG. 2. Medieval Method of putting on the Amice. 

some exceptional cases, as at Milan, it has become detached from 
the amice and is fixed like a collar to the chasuble. 

The Latin word amictus was applied to any wrap-like garment, 
and, according to Father Braun, the liturgical amice originated 
in the ordinary neck-cloth worn by all classes of Romans. It had 
at the outset no liturgical significance whatever, and was simply 
adopted by the clergy for the same reason that the clergy of the 
i8th century wore wigs because it was part of the full dress of 
ordinary life. The first record of its ecclesiastical use is at Rome 
in the 8th century, when it was worn only with the dalmatic and 
was known as the anabolagium (anagolaium, anagolagium, from 
Gr. &.va()6\aLov), a name it continued to bear at Rome till 
the i3th century. In the 9th century it spread to the other 
countries that adopted the Roman use: it is mentioned in an 
inventory of vestments given by Abbot Angilbert (d. 814) to the 



monastery at Centula (St Riguier) and in the de dericorum insti- 
lutione of Hrabanus Maurus (c. 820). The amice was worn first 
simply as a shoulder-cloth, but at the end of the gth century the 
custom grew up of putting it on over the head and of wearing it 
as a hood, either while the other vestments were being put on or, 
according to the various uses of local churches, during part of 
the Mass, though never during the canon. This ceased at Rome at 
the same time as the apparel disappeared; but two relics of it 
survive (i) in the directions of the Missal for putting on the 
amice, (2) in the ordination of subdeacons, when the bishop lays 
the vestment on the ordinand's head with the words, " Take the 
amice, which symbolizes discipline over the tongue, &c." The 
priest too in putting it on prays, " Place on rny head the helmet 
of salvation, &c." 

The amice, whatever its origin or symbolism, became specific- 
ally a vestment associated with the sacrifice of the Mass, and 
as such it was rejected with the other " Mass vestments " in 
England at the Reformation. Its use has, however, been revived 
in many Anglican churches, the favourite form being the medi- 
eval apparelled amice. (See VESTMENTS.) A vestment akin to 
the amice is also worn in the Armenian and some other oriental 
churches, but it is unknown to the Orthodox Eastern Church. 

Akin to the amice is a vestment peculiar to the popes, the 
fanone (Med. Lat. fano, " cloth," Goth, /ana, " doth," Mod. 
Ger. Fahne, " a flag "), 
also called the male (from 
or a, an edge, border). 
This is at present a 
circular broad collar of 
two thicknesses of silk, 
ornamented with gold 
stripes and a gold-em- 
broidered cross (see fig. 3). , 
It is put on after the alb, ' 
&c., and under the tunicle, 
dalmatic and chasuble, 
but then drawn up so 
as to fall over the latter 
like a collar. The fanone 
was originally a cloth 
like the amice and was 
wrapped round neck and 
shoulders; until the isth 
century, moreover, it was 
not worn with the Amice. Since then, however, both vestments 
have been worn, one under, the other over, the alb. It is worn 
by the popes only on certain special days or occasions, and 
forms part of the vestments in which they are buried. 

See Joseph Braun, S. J., Die liturgische Cewandung, pp. 21-56 
(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907), and bibliography to the article 
VESTMENTS. 

AMICI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1786-1863), Italian astronomer 
and microscopist, was born on the 25thof March 1786 at Modena. 
After studying at Bologna, he became professor of mathematics 
at Modena, and in 1831 was appointed inspector-general of studies 
in the duchy. A few years later he was chosen director of the 
observatory at Florence, where he also lectured at the museum of 
natural history. He died at Florence on the loth of April 1863. 
His name is best known for the improvements he effected in the 
mirrors of reflecting telescopes and especially in the construction 
of the microscope. He was also a diligent and skilful observer, 
and busied himself not only with astronomical subjects, such as 
the double stars, the satellites of Jupiter and the measurement 
of the polar and equatorial diameters of the sun, but also with 
biological studies of the circulation of the sap in plants, the 
fructification of plants, infusoria, &c. 

AMICIS, EDMONDO DE (1846-1908), Italian writer, was born 
at Oneglia, in Liguria, on the 2ist of October 1846. After some 
schooling at Cuneo and Turin, he was sent to the Military School 
at Modena, from which he was appointed to a lieutenancy in the 
3rd regiment of the line in 1865. He fought at the battle of 
Custozza in 1866. In 1867 he became director of the Italia 




From Braun, Liturgische Gewandung. 
FIG. 3. The Papal Fanone. 



AMICUS CURIAE AMIENS 



855 



Militare, Florence. In the following year he published his first 
book, La Vita Militare, which consisted of sketches of military 
life, and attained wide popularity. After the overthrow of the 
pope's temporal power in 1870, De Amicis retired from the army 
and devoted himself to literature, making his headquarters at 
Turin. Always a traveller by inclination, he found opportunity 
for this in his new leisure, and some of his most popular books 
have been the product of his wanderings. Several of these have 
been translated into English and the other principal languages of 
Europe. The most important of these are his descriptions of 
Spain (1873), Holland (1874), Constantinople (1877) andMorocco 
(1879;. These gained him a well-deserved reputation as a 
brilliant depicter of scenery and the external aspects of life; solid 
information is not within their sphere; and much of their success 
is owing to the opportunities they afford for spirited illustration. 
Subsequently De Amicis greatly extended his fame as a writer of 
fiction, especially by // Romanzo d' un Maestro, and the widely 
read // Cuore (translated into English as An Italian Schoolboy's 
Journal) ; later volumes from his pen being La Carozza di tutti 
(centring round an electric tram), Memorie, Speranze e glorie, 
Ricordl d' infanzia e di scuola, L' Idioma gentile, and a volume of 
short stories, Nel Regno dell' Amore. He died suddenly of heart 
disease at Bordighera on the i2th of March 1908. 

AMICUS CURIAE (Lat. for " a friend of the court "), a term 
used primarily in law, signifying a person (usually a member of 
the bar) who, having special knowledge but not being engaged 
in the suit, intervenes during its hearing to give information for 
the assistance of the court, either upon some fact relevant to the 
issue or upon a point of law, such as the hearing of a local custom, 
the precedent of some decided case, &c. 

AMIDINES, in organic chemistry, the name given to compounds 
of general formula R-C: (NH)- NH 2 , which maybe considered as 
derived from the acid-amides by replacement of oxygen by the 
divalent imino ( = NH) group. They may be prepared by the 
action of ammonia or amines on imide chorides, or on thiamides 
(O. Wallach, A. Bernthsen); by the action of ammonium 
chloride or hydrochlorides of amines on nitriles; by condensing 
amines and amides in presence of phosphorus trichloride; by the 
action of hydrochloric acid on acid-amides (O. Wallach, Ber., 

1882, 15, p. 208); and by the action of ammonia or amines on 
imino-ethers (A. Pinner, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 1647; 1884, 17, p. 179). 
They are monacid bases, which are not very stable; they 
readily take up the elements of water (when boiled with acids or 
alkalies) , yielding amides and ammonia. On dry distillation they 
yield nitriles and ammonia. When warmed with sulphuretted 
hydrogen they yield thiamides, R-C : (NH)-NHR+H 2 S = 
R-C(NH 2 )(SH)NHR = R-CSNH 2 +NH 2 -RorRCS-NHR+NH 3 . 
With 0-ketonic esters, HO(CHs)C : CH- CO 2 R, they yield oxy- 
pyrimidines (A. Pinner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 3820). 

Formamidine, HC: (NH)NH 2 , is only known in the form of its 
salts, the hydrochloride being obtained by the action of ammonia 
on the hydrochloride of formimido-ethyl ether (A. Pinner, Ber., 

1883, 16, p. 357). Acetamidine, CHaC : (NH)-NH 2 , is alkaline 
in reaction, and readily splits up into acetic acid and ammonia 
when warmed with acids. Its hydrochloride melts at 163 C., 
and crystallizes from alcohol in colourless deliquescent prisms. 
Acetic anhydride converts the base into an acetamino-dimethyl 
pyrimidine, acetic acid and acetamide being also formed. 

Benzamidine, C 6 H 5 -C: (NH)NH 2 , forms colourless crystals 
which melt at 75-80 C. When warmed it breaks down into 
ammonia and cyanphenine (s-triphenyl triazine). It condenses 
with acetic anhydride to form a methyldiphenyl triazine, acet- 
amide being also formed ; with acetyl-acetone to form dimethyl- 
phenyl pyrimidine (A. Pinner, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2125); and with 
trimethylene bromide to form a phenyl tetrahydropyrimidine 
(Pinner). H. v. Pechmann (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2362) has shown 
that amidines of the type R-C : (NY)-NHZ sometimes react as if 
they possessed the constitution R-C : (NZ)- NHY; but this only 
appears to occur when Y and Z are groups which function in the 
same way. If Y and Z are groups which behave very differently, 
then there is apparently no tautomerism and a definite formula 
can be given to the compound. 



The formulae of the ringed compounds mentioned above are 
here shown : 

N-C (CH,) N-C (CH 3 ) 

R-C/ \CH CH.-C/ \ CH 

N = C (OH) N=C (NHCOCH,) 

Oxypyrimidine. Acetaminodimethyl pyrimidine. 

N-C/ Cl>H6 N - CH 2 

C,H 4 -C/ \j C,H 6 -C/ \CH 2 

N = C/ NH-CH 2 

\CH, 

Methyldiphenyl triazine. Phenyl tetrahydropyrimidine. 

AMIEL, HENRI FR^D^RIC (1821-1881), Swiss philosopher 
and critic, was born at Geneva on the 27th of September 1821. 
He was descended from a Huguenot family driven to Switzerland 
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Losing his parents at 
an early age, he travelled widely, became intimate with the 
intellectual leaders of Europe and made a special study of 
German philosophy in Berlin. In 1849 he was appointed 
professor of aesthetics at the academy of Geneva, and in 1854 
became professor of moral philosophy. These appointments, 
conferred by the democratic party, deprived him of the support 
of the aristocratic party; which comprised nearly all the culture 
of the city. This isolation inspired the one book by which Amiel 
lives, the Journal Intime, which, published after his death, 
obtained a European reputation. It was translated into English 
by Mrs Humphry Ward. Although second-rate as regards 
productive power, Amiel's mind was of no inferior quality, and 
his journal gained a sympathy which the author had failed to 
obtain in his life. In addition to the Journal, he produced 
several volumes of poetry and wrote studies on Erasmus, Madame 
de Stael and other writers. He died in Geneva on the nth 
of March 1881. His chief poetical works are Grains de mil, II 
penseroso, Part du reve, Les Etrangeres, Charles le Temeraire, 
Romancero historique, Jour A jour. 

See Life of Amiel by Mdlle Berthe Vadier (Paris, 1885); Paul 
Bourget, Nouveaux essais (Paris, 1885); E. Scherer, introd. to the 
Journal and in Etudes sur la lilt, conlemp. (vol. viii.). 

AMIENS, a city of northern France, capital of the department 
of Somme, on the left bank of the Somme, 81 m. N. of Paris on the 
Northern railway to Calais. Pop. (1906) 78,407. Amiens was 
once a place of great strength, and still possesses a citadel of the 
end of the i6th century, but the ramparts which surrounded 
it have been replaced by Boulevards, bordered by handsome 
residences. Suburbs, themselves bounded by another line of 
boulevards, have arisen beyond these limits, and the city also 
extends to the right bank of the Somme. The busy quarter of 
Amiens lies between the river and the railway, which for some 
distance follows the inner line of boulevards. The older and 
more picturesque quarter is situated directly on the Somme; its 
narrow and irregular streets are intersected by the eleven arms of 
the river and it is skirted on the north by the canal derived 
therefrom. Besides its boulevards Amiens has the ample park 
or Promenade de la Hotoie to the west and several fine squares, 
notably the Place Longueville and the Place St Denis, in which 
stands the statue of the famous 17th-century scholar Charles 
Ducange. The cathedral (see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and 
Gothic Architecture in France; and CATHEDRAL), which is perhaps 
the finest church of Gothic architecture in France, far exceeds the 
other buildings of the town in importance. Erected on the plans 
of Robert de Luzarches, chiefly between 1220 and 1 288, it consists 
of a nave, nearly 140 ft. in height, with aisles and lateral chapels, 
a transept with aisles, and a choir (with deambulatory) ending 
in an apse surrounded by chapels. The total length is 469 ft., 
the breadth 216 ft. The facade, which is flanked by two square 
towers without spires, has three portals decorated with a pro- 
fusion of statuary, the central portal having a remarkable statue 
of Christ of the i3th century; they are surmounted by two 
galleries, the upper one containing twenty-two statues of the 
kings of Judah in its arcades, and by a fine rose-window. A 
slender spire rises above the crossing. The southern portal 
is remarkable for a figure of the Virgin and other statuary. In the 
interior, which contains beautifully carved stalls, a choir-screen 



8 5 6 



AMINES 



in the flamboyant style and many other works of art, the most 
striking features are the height of the nave and the boldness 
of the columns supporting the vaulting. The chief of the other 
churches of Amiens is St Germain (isth century), which has some 
good stained glass. The h&tel de ville, begun in 1550, a belfry of 
the I4th and i8th centuries and several old mansions are of 
interest. Amiens has a rich library and admirable collections of 
paintings, sculptures and antiquities in the museum of Picardy. 
Its learned associations include the Societe des Antiquaires de 
Picardie, by whom the museum was built in 1854-1864. The 
city is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a 
court of assizes, and headquarters of the II. Army Corps. There 
are also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of 
trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the 
Bank of France. The educational institutions include lycees for 
boys and girls, training-colleges for teachers, a preparatory school 
of medicine, a school of music and a school of iron-working and 
wood- working. The textile industries for which Amiens has been 
celebrated since the middle ages include manufactures of velvet, 
cotton-, wool-, silk-, hemp- and flax-spinning, and the weaving 
of hosiery and a variety of mixed fabrics. Manufactures of 
machinery, chemicals, blacking, polish and sugar, and printing, 
dyeing and iron-founding are also carried on. Market gardens, 
known as hortillonnages, intersected by small canals derived from 
the Somme and Avre, cover a considerable area to the north-east 
of Amiens; and the city has trade in vegetables, as well as in 
grain, sugar, wool, oil-seeds and the duck-pasties and macaroons 
for which it is renowned. 

Amiens occupies the site of the ancient Samarobriva, capital of 
the Ambiani, from whom it probably derives its name. At the 
beginning of the 4th century Christianity was preached there by 
St Firmin, its first bishop. During the middle ages its territory 
formed the countship of Amienois. The authority of the counts 
was, however,balanced by that of the bishops,and early in the 1 2th 
century the citizens, profiting by this rivalry, gained a charter of 
enfranchisement. The fief became for the first time a dependency 
of the French crown in 1185, when Philip of Alsace, count of 
Flanders, ceded it to Philip Augustus. It more than once passed 
out of the power of the French kings, notably in 1435, when, by 
the treaty of Arras, it came into the possession of the dukes of 
Burgundy, to whom it belonged till 1477. Surprised by the 
Spaniards in 1597, the city was recaptured from them after a long 
siege by Henry IV. Till 1790 it was the capital of the gouvernc- 
menl of Picardy (q.v.) . The famous treaty between Great Britain, 
France, Spain and Holland which took its name from Amiens 
was signed in the hdtel de ville on the 25th of March 1802. 
During the war between France and Germany, Amiens, after an 
important action, fell into the hands of the Prussians on the 28th 
of November 1870. (See FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.) 

See A. de Calonne, Histoire de la ville d' Amiens (1900); John 
Ruskin, The Bible of Amiens (1881); La Picardie historique et 
monumentale, tome i., published by the Societe des Antiquaires 
de Picardie (1893). 

AMINES, in chemistry, derivatives of ammonia in which one or 
more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. 
The replacement of one hydrogen atom by one alkyl or aryl group 
gives rise to primary amines; of two hydrogen atoms by two 
groups, to secondary amines; of three hydrogen atoms by three 
groups, to tertiary amines. The tertiary amines possess the power 
of combining with one molecular proportion of an alkyl iodide to 
form quaternary ammonium salts. The structural relations of 
these compounds may be shown thus: NH 3 ; NH 2 R; 

Ammonia ; primary amine ; 
NHR 2 ; NR 3 ; NRJ. 

secondary amine; tertiary amine; quaternary ammonium iodide. 

Aliphatic amines. These compounds possess properties very 
similar to those of ammonia, the lowest members of the series 
being combustible gases readily soluble in water. The next 
higher members of the series are liquids of low boiling point also 
readily soluble in water, the solubility and volatility, however, 
decreasing with the increasing carbon content of the molecule, 
until the highest members of the series are odourless solids of high 
boiling point and are insoluble in water. They are all strong 



bases, readily forming salts with the mineral acids and double 
salts with the chlorides of gold, platinum and mercury. They 
are ionized in aqueous solution to a much greater extent than 
ammonia, the quaternary ammonium bases being the most ionized, 
and the secondary bases being more strongly ionized than the 
primary or tertiary bases. For data concerning the conductivity 
of the organic bases see G. Bredig (Zeit. fiir phys. Chem., 1894, 
13, p. 289). 

Many methods have been devised for the preparation of the 
amines, the first amine having been isolated in 1849 by A. Wurtz 
on boiling methyl isocyanate with caustic potash, CON-CHj-)- 
2KHO = CH 3 NH 2 +K 2 C0 3 . The primary amines may also be 
prepared by heating the alkyl iodides with ammonia (A. W. Hof- 
mann); by the reduction of nitriles with alcohol and sodium 
(A. Ladenburg, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 783); by heating the esters of 
nitric acid with alcoholic ammonia at 100 C. (O. Wallach, Ber., 
1881, 14, p. 421); by the action of reducing agents on nitro- 
paraffins; by the action of zinc and hydrochloric acid on aldehyde 
ammonias (German Patent 73,812); by the reduction of the 
phenylhydrazones and oximes of aldehydes and ketones with 
sodium amalgam in the presence of alcohol and sodium acetate 
(J. Tafel, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1925; 1889, 22, p. 1854; H. Gold- 
schmidt, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 3232); by the action of dilute hydro- 
chloric acid on the isonitriles, R-NC-|-2H 2 O=R-NH 2 +H 2 CO 2 ; 
by heating the mustard oils with a mineral acid, by the hydro- 
lysis of the alkyl phthalimides (S. Gabriel, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2224; 
1891, 24, p. 3104), 

ORI /CO X 2H 2 O /COOH 

NK - C,H 4 <^ ^NR - C 6 H,<^ +NH 2 R; 

by distilling the amino-acids with baryta; by the action of 
bromine and caustic potash on the acid-amides (A. W. Hofmann, 
Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2734; 1886, 19, p. 1822); 
CH 3 CONH 2 -;>CH s CONHBr->CH 3 CONKBr-> 

CH 8 NCO->CH 3 NH 2 ; 

and by the hydrolysis of substituted urethanes (Th. Curtius, Ber., 
1894, 27, p. 779; 1896, 20, p. 1166), 

N 2 H 4 -H 2 O HONO 

R-COOH-^R-COOR 1 ->-> R-CONH-NH 2 -> 

acid ester hydrazide 

C 2 H 6 OH HC1 

R-CON, -> R-NH-CO 2 C 2 H 6 -> R-NH, 
azide urethane 

The secondary amines are prepared, together with the primary 
and tertiary, by the action of ammonia on the alkyl iodides (see 
below) , or by the hydrolysis of para-nitroso derivatives'of tertiary 
aromatic amines, such as para-nitrosodimethylaniline, thus: 
NO-C 6 H4-N(CH 3 ) 2 + H 2 O = NO-CH 4 -OH + NH(CH 3 ) 2 . By 
the action of ammonia on the alkyl iodides a complex mixture of 
primary, secondary and tertiary amines, along with a quaternary 
ammonium salt, is obtained, the separation of which is difficult. 
The method worked out by A. W. Hofmann is as follows: the 
mixture is distilled with caustic potash, when the primary, 
secondary and tertiary amines distil over, and the quaternary 
ammonium salt remains behind unaffected. The aqueous solu- 
tion of the amines is now shaken up with diethyl oxalate, when 
the primary amine forms a crystalline dialkyl oxamide and the 
secondary amine an insoluble liquid, which is an ethyl dialkyl 
oxamate, the tertiary amine not reacting: (CO 2 C 2 H 5 )o-r- 
2NH 2 R = (CO-NHR) 2 + 2C 2 H 6 OH; (CO 2 C 2 H 6 ) 2 + NHR 2 = 
C 2 H 5 O 2 C-CONR 2 +C 2 H 6 OH. The tertiary amine is then dis- 
tilled off, the residual products separated by filtration and finally 
hydrolysed by a caustic alkali. 

The primary, secondary and tertiary amines may be readily dis- 
tinguished by their behaviour with various reagents. Primary 
amines when heated with alcoholic potash and chloroform yield 
isonitriles, which are readily detected by their offensive smell. 
The secondary and tertiary amines do not give this reaction. 
With nitrous acid, the primary amines yield alcohols, the 
secondary amines yield nitrosamines and the tertiary amines 
do not react: R-NH 2 +ONOH = R-OH+N 2 +H 2 0; R 2 NH+ 
ONOH = R 2 N-NO+H 2 O. With benzene sulphochloride in the 
presence of alkali, the primary amines yield compounds of the type 
CH 6 SO 2 NHR, soluble in alkalies, whilst the secondary amines 



AMINES 



857 



yield compounds of the type C6H 5 S0 2 NR2, insoluble in alkalies 
(O. Hinsberg, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2963). Primary amines heated 
with carbon bisulphide in alcoholic solution are converted into 
mustard oils, when the dithiocarbamate first produced is 
heated with a solution of mercuric chloride. 

Methylamine, CHaNHj, occurs in Mercurialis perennis, in 
bone-oil, and herring brine. It is also a decomposition product of 
many alkaloids. At ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but may be 
condensed to a liquid which boils at - 6 C. It has a strong am- 
moniacal smell, burns readily and is exceedingly soluble in water. 
Its critical temperature is 155 C. and critical pressure 72 atmos. 
(C. Vincent, J. Chappuis, Jahresb., 1886, p. 202). Dimethylamine, 
(CHs^NH, is found in Peruvian guano. It is a heavy vapour 
which condenses at 7 C. to a liquid, having a pronounced fish-like 
smell. Trimethylamine, (CH 3 ) 3 N, is very similar to dimethyl- 
amine, and condenses to a liquid which boils at 3-2-3-8 C. It 
is usually obtained from " vinasses," the residue obtained from 
the distillation of beet sugar alcohol, and is used in the manufac- 
ture of potassium bicarbonate by the Solvay process, since its 
hydrochloride is much more soluble than potassium carbonate. 
Tetramethylammonium iodide, NCCHs)^, is the chief product 
obtained by the action of methyl iodide on ammonia (Hofmann). 
It crystallizes in quadratic prisms and has a bitter taste. By 
warming its aqueous solution with an excess of silver oxide it is 
converted into tetramethylammonium hydroxide, N(CH 3 )40H, 
which crystallizes in hygroscopic needles, and has a very alkaline 
reaction. It forms many crystalline salts and absorbs carbon 
dioxide. It precipitates many metallic hydroxides. On dry dis- 
tillation it is resolved into trimethylamine and methyl alcohol. 
If the nitrogen atom in the quaternary ammonium salts be in 
combination with four different groups, then the molecule is 
asymmetrical, and the salt can be resolved into optically active 
enantiamorphous isomerides. W. J. Pope (Jour. Chem. Soc., 
1901, 79, p. 828) has resolved benzyl-allyl-phenyl-methylamine 
iodide by boiling with silver rf-camphorsulphonate in a nearly 
anhydrous mixture of acetone and ethyl acetate. The silver 
iodide is separated and the solvent distilled off. The residue 
crystallizes slowly, and the crystalline product is almost wholly 
d-benzyl-allyl-phenyl-ammonium-d-sulphonate, the correspond- 
ing /-compound remaining as a syrupy residue. The correspond- 
ing iodides are obtained by the addition of potassium iodide to 
solutions of the sulphonates, and are optically active antipodes. 

Diamines. The diamines contain two amino groups and bear 
the same relation to the glycols that the primary monamines bear 
to the primary alcohols. They are of importance, since the higher 
homologues are identical in many cases with the ptomaines pro- 
duced by the putrefactive action of some bacteria on albumen 
and other related substances. Ethylene diamine, CoH4(NH2)2, 
may be prepared by heating ethylene dibromide with alcoholic 
ammonia to 100 C. (F. S. Cloez, Jahresb., 1853, p. 468) ; or by 
the action of tin and hydrochloric aci'd on cyanogen (T. Fairley, 
Ann. SuppL, 3, 1864, p. 372). It is an alkaline liquid, which 
when anhydrous boils at 116-5 C. Nitrous acid converts it into 
ethylene oxide. It combines directly with many metallic salts. 
(See S. F. Jorgensen, Jour. pr. Chem., 1889 (2), 39, p. 8.) Tri- 
methylene diamine, NH2-(CH 2 )3-NH 2 , is prepared by the action 
of ammonia on trimethylene bromide (E. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17, 
p. 1799). It is a liquid which boils at 135-136 C., and is readily 
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and benzene. Tetramethyl- 
ene diamine (putrescine), NH 2 -(CH 2 )4-NH 2 , is prepared by re- 
ducing ethylene dicyanide (succinonitrile) with sodium in absolute 
alcoholic solution (A. Ladenburg, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 780). It 
melts at 27 C., and is easily soluble in water. Pentamethylene 
diamine (cadaverine) , NH2-(CH 2 ) E -NH 2 ,is prepared by reducing 
trimethylene cyanide in ether solution by zinc and hydrochloric 
acid (A. Ladenburg, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 1151). J. v. Braun (Ber., 
1904, 37, p. 3583) has prepared pentamethylene derivatives from 
piperidine by the action of phosphorus pentachloride. On heat- 
ing piperidine with phosphorus pentachloride to 2ooC. in a sealed 
tube pentamethylene dichloride is obtained, and this on treat- 
ment with potassium phthalimide gives a condensation product 
of composition, CeHjCOjjNtCHj^NlCOliAH^ which is finally 



hydrolysed by hydrochloric acid. Cadaverine is a syrup at ordin- 
ary temperatures, and boils at 178-179 C. It is readily soluble 
in water and alcohol, but only slightly soluble in ether. 

Aromatic Amines. The aromatic amines in some respects 
resemble the aliphatic amines, since they form salts with acids, 
and double salts with platinum chloride, and they also distil 
without decomposition. On the other hand, they are much 
weaker bases than the aliphatic amines, their salts undergoing 
hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous solution. The primary 
aromatic amines may be prepared by the reduction of the 
nitro-hydrocarbons, the reducing agents used being either 
alcoholic-ammonium sulphide (N. Zinin), zinc and hydrochloric 
acid (A. W. Hofmann), an alcoholic solution of stannous chloride 
(containing hydrochloric acid) (R. Anschutz, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 
2161), tin and hydrochloric acid, or, on the manufacturing scale, 
iron and hydrochloric acid. They may also be obtained by the 
reduction of nitroso compounds and of hydrazo compounds and 
of hydrazones (J. Tafel, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1924), by distilling 
the amido-acids with lime, by heating phenols with zinc chloride 
ammonia (V. Merz, Ber., 1880, 13, p. 1298), and by heating the 
secondary and tertiary bases with concentrated hydrochloric acid 
to about 180 C. 

At a temperature of about 300-400 C. the alkyl chloride 
formed in this reaction attacks the benzene nucleus and replaces 
hydrogen by an alkyl group or groups, forming primary amines 
homologous with the original amine; thus methylaniline hydro- 
chloride is converted into para- and ortho-toluidine hydro- 
chloride, and trimethyl phenyl ammonium iodide is converted 
into mesidine hydriodide. It is to be noted that only traces of the 
aromatic amines are produced by heating the halogen substituted 
benzenes with ammonia, unless the amino group be situated in 
the side chain, as in the case of benzylamine. 

The primary amines are colourless liquids or crystalline solids, 
which are insoluble in water, but readily soluble in the common 
organic solvents. When heated with alkyl or aryl iodides, they 
are converted into secondary and tertiary amines. Concentrated 
nitric acid attacks them violently, producing various oxidation 
products, but if the amino group be " protected " by being 
previously acetylated, then nitro derivatives are obtained. When 
heated with concentrated sulphuric acid for some time, they 
are sulphonated. They form condensation products with alde- 
hydes, benzaldehyde and aniline forming benzylidene aniline, 
CeHsN: CHCeHs, and when heated with acids they form 
anilides. They give the isonitrile reaction (see above) when 
warmed with chloroform and a caustic alkali, and form alkyl 
thioureas when heated with an alcoholic solution of carbon 
bisulphide. When warmed with a solution of nitrous acid, they 
are converted into phenols; if, however, nitrous acid be added to 
an ice-cold solution of a primary amine in excess of mineral acid, 
a diazonium salt is formed (see Azo COMPOUNDS and DIAZO 
COMPOUNDS), or in absence of excess of acid, a diazoamine is 
produced. 

The secondary amines may be of two types namely , the purely 
aromatic amines, and the mixed secondary amines, which contain 
an aromatic residue and an alkyl group. The purely aromatic 
amines result upon heating the primary amines with their 
hydrochlorides, and, in some cases, by heating a phenol with 
a primary amine and anhydrous zinc chloride. The mixed 
secondary amines are prepared by the action of alkyl iodides on 
the primary amines, or by heating salts of the primary amine 
with alcohols under pressure. The mixed secondary amines have 
basic properties, but the purely aromatic secondary amines are 
only very feeble bases. Both classes readily exchange the imide 
hydrogen for acid radicals, and give nitrosamines with nitrous 
acid. The secondary amines do not give the isonitrile reaction. 

The tertiary amines may also be of two types, the purely 
aromatic and the mixed type. The mixed tertiary amines are 
produced by the action of alkyl halides on the primary amines. 
The simplest aromatic tertiary amine, triphenylamine, is prepared 
by the action of brombenzene on sodium diphenylamine (C. 
Heydrich, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2156). The simplest aromatic 
monamine is aniline (q.v.), and the simplest mixed amines are 



858 



AMIOT AMIS ET AMILES 



mono- and di-methyl aniline. These substances are treated in 
the article ANILINE. 

The aromatic amine resembling the aliphatic amines is ben- 
zylamine, CeHs-CHrNft, which may be prepared by reducing 
benzonitrile in alcoholic solution by means of zinc and acetic acid 
(O. Mendius, Ann. 1862, 121, p. 144), or by metallic sodium 
(E. Bamberger, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1709). It can also be obtained 
by the action of ammonia on benzyl chloride (S. Cannizzaro, 
Ann., 1865, 134, p. 1 2 8), but di- and tri-benzylamines are simul- 
taneously formed. It is a liquid, which boils at 183 C., and 
is miscible in all proportions with water, alcohol and ether. It 
is basic in character, and has a strongly alkaline reaction. Di- 
phenylamine, (CeHs^NH, is the simplest representative of the 
true aromatic secondary amines. It is prepared by heating 
aniline and aniline hydrochloride for some hours to 210-240 C, 
(Ch. Girard and G. de Laire, Zeit fur. Chem., 1866, p. 438). It 
crystallizes in white plates, which melt at 45 C. and boil at 302 C. 
It is almost insoluble in water, but readily volatilizes in steam. 
When heated with monobasic saturated acids and zinc chloride it 
yields acridines. 

Aromatic Diamines. The diamines are prepared by reducing 
the nitranilines or the dinitrohydrocarbons. They crystallize 
in plates, and for the most part distil without decomposition. 
Orthophenylene diamine, Celi (NH 2 ) 2 , crystallizes from water in 
plates, which melt at 102-103 C. and boil at 256-258 C. When 
heated with 10% hydrochloric acid to 180 C. it yields pyro- 
catechin (Jacob Meyer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2569). The ortho- 
diamines are characterized by the large number of condensation 
products they form. (See IMIDAZOLES, QUINOXALINES, &c.). 
Metaphenylene diamine crystallizes in rhombic plates which melt 
at 63 C. and boil at 287 C. It is easily soluble in water and 
alcohol. When heated with 10 % hydrochloric acid to i8oC. 
it yields resorcin (J. Meyer). Paraphenylene diamine may be 
prepared as above, and also by the reduction of amidoazobenzene. 
It crystallizes in tables which melt at 140 C. and boil at 267 C. 
When heated with 10 % hydrochloric acid to 180 C. it yields 
hydroquinone (J. Meyer). Manganese dioxide and dilute sul- 
phuric acid oxidize it to quinone. The three classes of diamines 
may be distinguished by their behaviour towards nitrous acid. 
The ortho-compounds condense to azimido benzenes, the meta- 
compounds yield azo-dyestuffs, and the para-compounds yield 
bis-diazo compounds of the type X^-CeH^NjX. 

AMIOT, JEAN JOSEPH MARIE (1718-1793), French Jesuit 
missionary, was born at Toulon in February 1718. He entered 
the Society of Jesus in 1737 and was sent in 1750 as a missionary 
to China. He soon won the confidence of the emperor Kien-lung 
and spent the remainder of his life at Pekin, where he died on the 
gth of October 1793. Amiot was eminently fitted to make good 
use of the advantages which his situation afforded, and his works 
did more than had ever been done before to make known to 
the Western world the thought and life of the Far East. His 
Dictionnaire tatare-m.antchou-franc.ais (Paris, 1789) was a work of 
great value, the language having been previously quite unknown 
in Europe. His other writings are to be found chiefly in the 
Memoires concernant I'hisloire, les sciences et les arts de Chinois 
(15 vols., Paris, 1776-1791). The Vie de Confucius, the twelfth 
volume of that collection, is complete and accurate. 

For full bibliography see De Backer and C. Sommervogel, 
Bibliotheque de la Cie. de Jesus, i. 294-303; for his works on Chinese 
music see F. J. Fetis, Biog. univers. des musiciens (Brussels, 1837- 
1844). 

AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," 
from the root amr, " commanding "), a title common in the 
Mahommedan East. The form emir is also commonly employed 
in English. The word originally signified a military commander, 
but very early came to be extended to anyone bearing rule, 
Mahomet himself being styled by the pagan Arabs amir of 
Mecca. Thus the term gradually came to be applied to any high 
office-bearer, or to any lord or chief. The caliph has the style of 
Amir ul Omara, " lord of lords. " The title Amir ul Muminim, 
or " commander of the faithful," now borne by the sultan of 
Turkey, was first assumed by Abu Bekr, and was taken by most of 



the various dynasties which claimed the caliphate, including the 
Fatimites, the Spanish Omayyads and the Almohades. The 
Almoravides and the Merinides assumed the style of Amir ul 
Muslimin, " commander of the Mussulmans." 

The use of the word is, in fact, closely akin to that of the 
English " lord," sometimes connoting office, as in Amir ul- 
ahghal ( minister of finance) under the Almohades (cf. " lord of 
the treasury "), sometimes mere dignity, as in the case of the title 
of honour borne by all descendants of the Prophet, or of the title 
Mir assumed by men of great rank in the Far East. Sometimes 
it implies a temporary office of dignity and command e.g. 
the Amir ul-haj, " commander of the pilgrimage " (to Mecca). 
Sometimes again it connotes the meaning of " sovereign lord," 
in which sense it was early assumed by the princes of Sind and by 
the rulers of Afghanistan and Bokhara, the title implying a lesser 
dignity than that of sultan. Thus too it is very generally 
applied in the East to the chiefs of independent or semi-inde- 
pendent tribes. In the Lebanon both the Christian clans and the 
Druses are ruled by hereditary amirs. Finally the word (con- 
fused not unnaturally with the particle usually attached to it) 
was borrowed by the West, and is the origin of the English 
" admiral." 

AMIS ET AMILES, the title of an old French romance based on 
a widespread legend of friendship and sacrifice. In its earlier 
and simpler form it is the story of two friends, one of whom, Amis, 
was smitten with leprosy because he had committed perjury to 
saye his friend. A vision informed him that he could only be 
cured by bathing in the blood of Amiles's children. When 
Amiles learnt this he killed the children, who were, however, 
miraculously restored to life after the cure of Amis. The tale 
was probably of Oriental origin, and introduced to the West by 
way of Byzantium. It found its way into French literature 
through the medium of Latin, as the names Amicus and Amelius 
indicate, and was eventually attached to the Carolingian cycle 
in the 12th-century chanson de geste of Amis et Amiles. This 
poem is written in decasyllabic assonanced verse, each stanza 
being terminated by a short line. It belongs to the heroic 
period of French epic, containing some passages of great beauty, 
notably the episode of the slaying of the children, and maintains 
a high level of poetry throughout. Amis has married Lubias 
and become count of Blaives (Blaye), while Amiles has become 
seneschal at the court of Charlemagne, and is seduced by the 
emperor's daughter, Bellisant. The lovers are betrayed, and 
Amiles is unable to find the necessary supporters to enable 
him to clear himself by the ordeal of single combat, and fears, 
moreover, to fight in a false cause. He is granted a reprieve, 
and goes in search of Amis, who engages to personate him in the 
combat. He thus saves his friend, but in so doing perjures him- 
self. Then follows the leprosy of Amis, and, after a lapse of years, 
his discovery of Amiles and cure. There are obvious reminis- 
cences in this story of Damon and Pythias, and of the classical 
instances of sacrifice at the divine command. The legend of 
Amis and Amiles occurs in many forms with slight variations, the 
names and positions of the friends being sometimes reversed. 
The crown of martyrdom was not lacking, for Amis and Amiles 
were slain by Ogier the Dane at Novara on their way home from 
a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Jourdain de Blaives, a chanson 
de gesle which partly reproduces the story of A pollonius of Tyre, 
was attached to the geste of Amis by making Jourdain his 
grandson. 

The versions of Amis and Amiles include (a) numerous Latin 
recensions in prose and verse, notably that given by Vincent de 
Beauvais in his Speculum historiale (lib. xxiii. cap. 162-166 and 169); 
(b) an Anglo-Norman version in shert rhymed couplets, which is 
not attached to the Charlemagne legend and agrees fairly closely with 
the English Amis and Amiloun (Midland dialect, I3th century); 
these with the old Norse version are printed by E. Kolbing, Altengl. 
Bibl. vol. ii. (1889), and the English romance also in H. Weber, 
Metrical Romances, vol. ii. (1810); (c) the 12th-century French 
chanson de geste analysed by P. Paris in Hist. litl. de la France (vol. 
xxii.), and edited by K. Hofmann (Erlangen, 1882) with the addition 
of Jourdain de Blaives; (d) the Latin Vita Sanct. Amid et Amelii 
(pr. by Kolbing, op. cit.) and its Old-French translation, Li amitiez 
de Ami et Amile, ed. L. Moland and C. d'H6ricault in Nouvelles . . . 



AMITERNUM AMMIANUS 



859 



du xiii' siecle (Paris, 1856) ; (e) a 14th-century drama, Un Miracle 
de Notre Dame d'Amis et Amile, ed. L. J. N. Monmerque and 

F. Michel in Thedtrefr.au moyendge (1839) ; (/) old Norse, Icelandic, 
Danish versions, &c. (see K. Hofmann, op. cit.) ; (g) an imitation 
which under the name of Oliver and Artus was current in many 
languages and was the subject of Hans Sachs's comedy, Die treuen 
Gesellen (1556); (h) Engelhart und Engeltrut, by the minnesinger 
Conrad von Wiirzburg (ed. M. Haupt, Leipzig, 1844, 2nd ed., 1900) ; 
(i) the late prose romances, with many changes and additions, Milles 
et Amys, printed by A. Verard (Pans, c. 1503), &c., for which see 

G. Brunet, Manuel du libraire, s.v. " Milles." A different version of 
the legend is inserted at considerable length in L' Ystoire des sept sages 
(ed. G. Paris, Soc. des anc. textes fr., 1876), in which the friends are 
called Alexandre and Louis, and Bellisant Florentine. For a further 
bibliography see L. Gautier, Bibl. des chansons de geste (Paris, 1897). 
William Morris's version of the French romance was printed at the 
Kelmscott Press in 1894. See also the essay by W. Pater in The 
Renaissance, 1893. 

AMITERNUM, an ancient town of the Sabines, situated about 
5 m. N. of Aquila, in the broad valley of the Aternus, from which, 
according to Varro, it took its name. It was stormed by the 
Romans in 293 B.C., and though it suffered from the wars of the 
Republican period, it seems to have risen to renewed prosperity 
under the empire. This it owed largely to its position. It lay 
at the point of junction of four roads the Via Caecilia, the Via 
Claudia Nova and two branches of the Via Salaria, which joined 
it at the 64th and 8gth miles respectively. The fertility of its 
territory was also praised by ancient authors. There are con- 
siderable remains of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre and a theatre 
(the latter excavated in 1880 see Notizie degli scavi, 1880, 290, 
35) 379)i all f which belong to the imperial period, while 
in the hill on which the village of S. Vittorino is built are some 
Christian catacombs. Amiternum was the birthplace of the 
historian Sallust. In a gorge ij m. east are massive remains 
of Cyclopean walls (i.e. in rough blocks), probably intended to 
regulate the flow of the stream (N. Persichetti in Romische 
Milteilungen, 1902, 134 seq.). 

AMLWCH (llu>ch= " lake "), a market town of Anglesey, North 
Wales, situated on slightly rising ground on the N. coast of the 
island, 15 m. N.W. of Beaumaris and 262 m. from London, by 
the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district 
(1901) 2994. Originally it owed its whole importance to the copper 
mines of the Parys (probably, Parry's) mountain, as, before ore 
was discovered in March 1 768, it was a small hamlet of fishermen. 
The mines once produced 3000 tons of metal annually, copper 
smelting being largely carried on, but have now almost ceased 
working. Though apparently not mentioned by Ptolemy, they 
were perhaps Roman. Robert Parys, chamberlain of North 
Wales under Henry IV., is often given as their godfather. The 
poor harbour called the " port," protected by a breakwater, has 
been cut out of the rock (shingle). Amlwch is the terminus of the 
branch railway from Gaerwen to Amlwch, formerly the Anglesey 
Central Railway Company. Porthllechog, or Bull Bay (so 
called from the Bull Rock), at a mile's distance, is a small but 
favourite watering-place. Beyond, on the coast, some 3 m. 
distant, are the remains of a British fort and of the Llanllaianau 
monastery, opposite the Middle Mouse islet and close to Llanba- 
drig old church and Cemmaes. Industries include slate quarry- 
ing, shipbuilding, iron and brass foundries, alum, vitriol, manure, 
guano and tobacco works. At Llanllaianau was found, in 1841, 
a stone coffin, holding a well-preserved skeleton of 75 ft. in length. 
The coffin was apparently of Aberdovey (Aberdyfi) limestone, 
much corroded. At Llangefni, not far from Amlwch, in 1829, and 
at Llangristiolus, 3 m. distant from Llangefni, about 1770, were 
found human bones of a high antiquity, between Glan Hwfa and 
Fron, and at Capel, respectively. The town has an old Anglican 
church (St Eleth's). 

AMMAN, JOHANN CONRAD (i669-c.i73o), Swiss physician, 
was born at Schaffhausen in 1669. After graduating at Basel in 
1687 he began to practise at Amsterdam, where he gained a great 
reputation. He was one of the earliest writers on the instruction 
of the deaf and dumb, and first called attention to his method in 
his Surdus loquens (Amsterdam, 1692) , which was often reprinted, 
and was reproduced by John Wallis in the Philosophical Trans- 
actions (1698). His process consisted principally in exciting the 



attention of his pupils to the motions of his lips and larynx while 
he spoke, and then inducing them to imitate these movements, till 
he brought them to repeat distinctly letters, syllables and words. 
The edition of Caelius Aurelianus, which was undertaken by the 
Wetsteins in 1 709, was superintended by Amman. He died about 
1 730 at Warmoud, near Leiden. 

AMMAN, JOST (1530-1591), Swiss artist, celebrated chiefly for 
his engravings on wood, was born at Zurich. Of his personal 
history little is known beyond the fact that he removed in 1 560 
to Nuremberg, where he continued to reside until his death in 
March 1591. His productiveness was very remarkable, as may be 
gathered from the statement of one of his pupils, that the draw- 
ings he made during a period of four years would have filled a hay 
wagon. A large number of his original drawings are contained 
in the Berlin collection of engravings. The genuineness of not a 
few of the specimens to be seen elsewhere is at least questionable. 
A series of copperplate engravings by Amman of the kings of 
France, with short biographies, appeared at Frankfort in 1576. 
He also executed many of the woodcut illustrations for the Bible 
published at Frankfort by Sigismund Feierabend. Another serial 
work, the Panoplia Omnium Liberalium Mechanicarum et Seden- 
tariarum Artium Genera Conlinens, containing 115 plates, is of 
great value. Amman's drawing is correct and spirited, and his 
delineation of the details of costume, &c., is minute and accurate. 
He executed too much, however, to permit of his reaching the 
highest style of art. Paintings in oil and on glass are attributed 
to him, but no specimen of these is known to exist. 

AMMAN, PAUL (1634-1691), German physician and botanist, 
was born at Breslau in 1634. In 1662 he received the degree of 
doctor of physic from the university of Leipzig, and in 1664 was 
admitted a member of the society Naturae Curiosorum, under the 
name of Dryander. Shortly afterwards he was chosen extra- 
ordinary professor of medicine in the above-mentioned university; 
and in 1674 he was promoted to the botanical chair, which he 
again in 1682 exchanged for the physiological. He died at 
Leipzig in 1691. He seems to have been a man of critical mind 
and extensive learning. His principal works were: Medicina 
Critica (1670) ; Paraenesis ad Docentes occupata circa Institutionum 
Medicarum Emendationem (1673) ; Irenicum Numae Pompilii cum 
Hippocrate (1689); Supellex Botanica (1675); an d Character 
Naluralis Plantarum (1676). 

AMMANATI, BARTOLOMEO (1511-1592), Florentine architect 
and sculptor. He studied under Bandinelli and Jacopo Sanso- 
vino, and closely imitated the style of Michelangelo. He was 
more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture. He de- 
signed many buildings in Rome, Lucca and Florence, an addition 
to the Pitti Palace in the last-named city being one of his most 
celebrated works. He was also employed in 1569 to build the 
beautiful bridge over the Arno, known as Ponte della Trinita 
one of his celebrated works. The three arches are elliptic, and 
though very light and elegant, have resisted the fury of the river, 
which has swept away several other bridges at different times. 
Another of his most important works was the fountain for the 
Piazza della Signoria. In 1550 Ammanati married Laura 
Battiferri, an elegant poet and an accomplished woman. 

AMMIANUS, MARCELLINUS, the last Roman historian of 
importance, was born about A.D. 325-330 at Antioch; the 
date of his death is unknown, but he must have lived till 391, as 
he mentions Aurelius Victor as the city prefect for that year. He 
was a Greek, and his enrolment among the protectores domestici 
(household guards) shows that he was of noble birth. He entered 
the army at an early age, when Constantius II. was emperor of the 
East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis 
and magislcr militiae. He returned to Italy with Ursicinus, when 
he was recalled by Constantius, and accompanied him on the 
expedition against Silvanus the Frank, who had been forced by 
the unjust accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself 
emperor in Gaul. With Ursicinus he went twice to the East, and 
barely escaped with his life from Amida or Amid (mod.Diarbekr), 
when it was taken by the Persian king Shapur (Sapor) II. When 
Ursicinus lost his office and the favour of Constantius, Ammianus 
seems to have shared his downfall ; but under Julian, Constantius's 



86o 



AMMIRATO AMMON 



successor, he regained his position. He accompanied this em- 
peror, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his 
campaigns against the Alamanni and the Persians; after his 
death he took part in the retreat of Jovian as far as Antioch, where 
he was residing when the conspiracy of Theodorus (371) was dis- 
covered and cruelly put down. Eventually he settled in Rome, 
where, at an advanced age, he wrote (in Latin) a history of the 
Roman empire from the accession of Nerva to the death of Valens 
(96-378), thus forming a continuation of the work of Tacitus. 
This history (Rerum Geslarum Libri XXXI.) was originally in 
thirty-one books; of these the first thirteen are lost, the eighteen 
which remain cover the period from 353 to 378. As a whole it is 
extremely valuable, being a clear, comprehensive and impartial 
account of events by a contemporary of soldierly honesty, 
independent judgment and wide reading. "Ammianus is an 
accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own 
times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually 
affect the mind of a contemporary"(Gibbon). AlthoughAmmianus 
was no doubt a heathen, his attitude towards Christianity is that 
of a man of the world, free from prejudices in favour of any form 
of belief. If anything he himself inclined to neo-Platonism. His 
style is generally harsh, often pompous and extremely obscure, 
occasionally even journalistic in tone, but the author's foreign 
origin and his military life and training partially explain this. 
Further, the work being intended for public recitation, some 
rhetorical embellishment was necessary, even at the cost of 
simplicity. It is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a pro- 
fessional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic 
problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the 
empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like Livy and 
Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited 
are peculiarly interesting. In his description of the empire the 
exhaustion produced by excessive taxation, the financial ruin of 
the middle classes, the progressive decline in the morale of the 
army we find the explanation of its fall before the Goths 
twenty years after his death. 

The work was discovered by Poggio, who copied the original MS. 
Editio princeps (bks. 14-26) by Sabinus, 1474; completed by 
Accursius, 1533; with variorum notes, by Wagner- Erf urdt, 1808; 
latest edition of text, Gardthausen, 1874-1875. English translations 
by P. Holland, 1609; Yonge (Bohn's Classical Library), 1862; 
also Max Biidinger, Ammianus Marcellinus und die Eigenart seines 
Geschichtswerkes (1895); F. Liesenberg, Die Sprache des Ammianus 
Marcellinus (1888-1890) ; T. R. Glover, Life and Letters in the Fourth 
Century (1901); Abbe Gimazane, Ammianus Marcellinus, sa vie et 
son (Buvre (Toulouse, 1889), a work containing a number of very 
doubtful theories. For a criticism of his views on Roman society see 
S. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire 
(London, 1898). 

AMMIRATO, SCIPIONE (1531-1601), Italian historian, born at 
Lecce, in the kingdom of Naples. His father, intending him for the 
profession of law, sent him to study at Naples, but his own decided 
preference for literature prevented him from fulfilling his father's 
wishes. Entering the church, he resided for a time at Venice, and 
afterwards engaged in the service of Pope Pius IV. In 1569 
he went to Florence, where he was fortunate in securing the 
patronage and support of Duke Cosimo I., who gave him a resid- 
ence at the Medici Palace and the Villa Zopaja on the understand- 
ing that he should write his I slorie Florentine ( 1600), the work by 
which he is best known. In 1 595 he was made a canon of the 
cathedral of Florence. Hediedin 1601. Among the other works 
of Ammirato, some of which were first published after his death, 
may be mentioned discourses on Tacitus and genealogies of the 
families of Naples and Florence. 

AMMON, the Graecized name of an Egyptian deity, in the 
native language Amun, connected by the priests with a root 
meaning " conceal." He was, to begin with, the local deity of 
Thebes, when it was an unimportant town on the east bank of the 
river, about the region now occupied by the temple of Karnak. 
The Xlth dynasty sprang from a family in the Hermonthite nome 
or perhaps at Thebes itself, and adorned the temple of Karnak 
with statues. Amenemhe, the name of the founder of the Xllth 
dynasty, was compounded with that of Amun and was borne by 
three of his successors. Several Theban kings of the later part 



of the Middle Kingdom adopted the same name; and when the 
Theban family of the XVIIth dynasty drove out the Hyksos, 
Ammon, as the god of the royal city, was again prominent. 
It was not, however, until the rulers of the XVIIIth dynasty 
carried their victorious arms beyond the Egyptian frontiers in 
every direction that Ammon began to assume the proportions of 
a universal god for the Egyptians, eclipsing all their other deities 
and asserting his power over the gods of all foreign lands. 
To Ammon the Pharaohs attributed all their successful enter- 
prises, and on his temples they lavished their wealth and 
captured spoil. 

Ammon is figured of human form, wearing on his head a plain 
deep circlet from which rise two straight parallel plumes, perhaps 
representing the tail feathers of a hawk. Two main types are 
seen : in the one he is seated on a throne, in the other he is stand- 
ing, ithyphallic, holding a scourge, precisely like Min, the god of 
Coptos and Chemmis (Akhmim). The latter may be his original 
form, as a god of fertility, before whom the king ceremoniously 
breaks up the ground for sowing or cuts the ripe corn. His 
consort was sometimes called Amaune (feminine of Amun), but 
more usually Mut, " mother ": she was human-headed, wearing 
the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, and their son was 
Khons (Chon or Chons), a lunar god, represented as a youth 
wearing the crescent and disk of the moon. A great temple was 
built to Mut at Karnak not later than the XVIIIth dynasty, and 
another to Khons not later than the XXth dynasty. 

The name of Re, the sun-god, was generally joined to Ammon, 
especially in his title as " king of the gods ": the rule of heaven 
belonged to the sun-god in the Egyptian cosmos, and this identifi- 
cation with Re was only logical for a supreme deity. Ammon 
was entitled " lord of the thrones of the two lands," or, more 
proudly still, " king of the gods." Such indeed was his un- 
questioned position when suddenly he was overthrown and his 
worship proscribed. Not even a henotheist fervently worshipping 
one of many gods, Amenophis (Amenhotp) IV. of the XVIIIth 
dynasty became the monotheist Akhenaton; discarding all the 
gods of Egypt, and especially persecuting Ammon the arch-god, 
he devoted himself to the purer and more sublime worship of Aton, 
the sun. But he failed to win the permanent adhesion of the 
people to his reform, or to conciliate or entirely crush the enor- 
mously powerful priesthood of Ammon. A few years after the 
reformer's death, the old cults were re-established and the monu- 
ments of Aton studiously defaced. Hymns were then addressed 
to Amen-re, which are almost monotheistic in expression. The 
cult of the supreme god spread throughout Egypt and was 
carried by the Egyptian conquerors into other lands, Syria, 
Ethiopia and Libya, and was accepted by the natives both in 
Ethiopia and in the Libyan cases, where civilization was low and 
Egyptian influence permanent. After the XXth dynasty the 
centre of power was removed from Thebes, and the authority of 
Ammon began to wane. In the XXIst dynasty the secondary 
line of priest kings of Thebes upheld his dignity to the best of their 
power, and the XXIInd dynasty favoured Thebes: but as the 
sovereignty weakened the division between Upper and Lower 
Egypt asserted itself, and thereafter Thebes would have rapidly 
decayed had it not been for the piety of the kings of Ethiopia 
towards Ammon, whose worship had long prevailed in their 
country. Thebes was at first their Egyptian capital, and they 
honoured Ammon greatly, although their wealth and culture were 
not sufficient to effect much. Ammon (Zeus) continued to be the 
great god of Thebes in its decay, and notwithstanding that a 
nome-capital in the north of the Delta and many lesser temples, 
from El Hibeh in Middle Egypt to Canopus on the sea, acknow- 
ledged Ammon as their supreme divinity, he probably in some 
degree represented the national aspirations of Upper Egypt as 
opposed to Middle and Lower Egypt: he also remained the 
national god of Ethiopia, where his name was pronounced Amane. 
The priests of Amane at Meroe and Napata, in fact, regulated 
through his oracle the whole government of the country, choosing 
the king, directing his military expeditions (and even compelling 
him to commit suicide, according to Diodorus) until in the 3rd 
century B.C. Arkamane (Ergamenes) broke through the bondage 



AMMON AMMONIA 



861 



and slew the priests. Ammon had yet another outburst of glory. 
There was an oracle of Ammon established for some centuries 
. in Libya, in the distant oasis of Siwa. Such was its reputation 
among the Greeks that Alexander journeyed thither, after the 
battle of Issus, and during his occupation of Egypt, in order to be 
acknowledged the son of the god. The Egyptian Pharaohs of the 
XVIIIth dynasty had likewise been proclaimed mystically sons 
of this god, who, it was asserted, had impregnated the queen- 
mother; and on occasion wore the ram's horns of Ammon, even 
as Alexander is represented with them on coins. 

The Egyptian goose (chenalopex) is figured in the XVIIIth 
dynasty as sacred to Ammon; but his most frequent and cele- 
brated incarnation was the woolly sheep with curved (" Ammon") 
horns (as opposed to the oldest native breed with long horizontal 
twisted horns and hairy coat, sacred to Khnum or Chnumis) . 
It is found as representing Ammon from the time of Amenophis 
III. onwards. 

As king of the gods Ammon was identified by the Greeks with 
Zeus and his consort Mut with Hera. Khnum was likewise 
identified with Zeus probably through his similarity to Ammon; 
his proper animal having early become extinct, Ammon horns in 
course of time were attributed to this god also. 

See Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion (London, 1907) ; Ed. 
Meyer, art. " Ammon " in Roscher's Lexikon der griechischen und 
romischen Mythologie ; Pietschmann, arts. " Ammon,' " Ammoneion" 
in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie ; and works on Egyptian religion 
quoted under EGYPT, section Religion. (F. LL. G.) 

AMMON, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1766-1850), 
German theological writer and preacher, was born at Baireuth. 
He studied at Erlangen, held various professorships in the 
philosophical and theological faculties of Erlangen and Gottingen, 
succeeded Franz Reinhard (1753-1812) in 1813 as court preacher 
and member of the consistorial court at Dresden, retired from 
these offices in 1849, and died on the 2ist of May 1850. Seeking 
to establish for himself a middle position between rationalism 
and supernaturalism, he declared for a "rational supernatural- 
ism," and contended that there must De a gradual development 
of Christian doctrine corresponding to the advance of knowledge 
and science. But at the same time he sought, like other repre- 
sentatives of this school of thought, such as K. G. Bretschneider 
and Julius Wegscheider, to keep in close touch with the historical 
theology of the Protestant churches. He was a man of great 
versatility and extensive learning, a philologist and philosopher 
as well as a theologian, and a very voluminous author. His 
principal theological work was the Fortbildung des Christenthums 
zur Weltreligion, in 4 volumes (Leipzig, 1833-1840). Entwurf 
einer reinbiblischen Theologie appeared in 1792 (znd ed., 1801), 
Summa Theologiae Christianae in 1803 (other editions, 1808, 
1816, 1830); Das Leben Jesu in 1842, and Die wahre und falsche 
Orthodoxie in 1849. Von Ammon's style in preaching was terse 
and lively, and some of his discourses are regarded as models of 
pulpit treatment of political questions. 

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie ; Otto Pfleiderer, The Develop- 
ment of Theology in Germany since Kant, pp. 89 ff . 

AMMONIA (NH 3 ). Salts of ammonia have been known from 
very early times; thus the term Hammoniacus sal appears in the 
writings of Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxi. 39), although it is not known 
whether the term is identical with the more modern sal-ammoniac 
(q.v.). In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known, how- 
ever, to the alchemists as early as, the i3th century, being 
mentioned by Albertus Magnus, whilst in the i5th century Basil 
Valentine showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action 
of alkalies on sal-ammoniac. At a later period when sal-ammoniac 
was obtained by distilling the hoofs and horns of oxen, and 
neutralizing the resulting carbonate with hydrochloric acid, the 
name spirits of hartshorn was applied to ammonia. Gaseous 
ammonia was first isolated by J. Priestley in 1774 and was termed 
by him " alkaline air." In 1777 K. W. Scheele showed that it 
contained nitrogen, and C. L. Berthollet, in about 1785, ascer- 
tained its composition. 

Ammonia is found in small quantities as the carbonate in the 
atmosphere, being produced from the putrefaction of nitrogenous 



animal and vegetable matter; ammonium salts are also found 
in small quantities in rain-water, whilst ammonium chloride 
(sal-ammoniac) and ammonium sulphate are found in volcanic 
districts; and crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been 
found in Patagonian guano. Ammonium salts too are found 
distributed through all fertile soil, in sea- water, and in most plant 
and animal liquids, and also in urine. 

Ammonia can be synthesized by submitting a mixture of 
nitrogen and hydrogen to the action of the silent electric dis- 
charge, the combination, however, being very imperfect. It is 
obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous vegetable and 
animal products; by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites 
with nascent hydrogen; and also by the decomposition of 
ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by slaked lime, the 
salt most generally used being the chloride (sal-ammoniac, 
q.v.) thus 2NH 4 Cl+Ca(OH) 2 =CaCl 2 +2H 2 O+2NH 3 . It also 
results on decomposing magnesium nitride (Mg 3 Nz) with water, 
Mg 3 N 2 + 6H 2 = 3Mg(OH) 2 + 2NH 3 . Large quantities of 
ammonia and ammonium salts are now obtained from the am- 
moniacal liquor of gas-works. 

Ammonia is a colourless gas possessing a characteristic pungent 
smell and a strongly alkaline reaction; it is lighter than air, its 
specific gravity being 0-589 (air= i). It is easily liquefied and the 
liquid boils at 33 7 C., and solidifies at 7 5 C. to a mass of white 
crystals. It is extremely soluble in water, one volume of water 
at o C. and normal pressure absorbs 1 148 volumes of ammonia 
(Roscoe and W. Dittmar). All the ammonia contained in an 
aqueous solution of the gas may be expelled by boiling. It does 
not support combustion; and it does not burn readily unless 
mixed with oxygen, when it burns with a pale yellowish-green 
flame. Ammonia gas has the power of combining with many 
substances, particularly with metallic halides; thus with calcium 
chloride it forms the compound CaCl 2 -8NH 3 , and consequently 
calcium chloride cannot be used for drying the gas. With silver 
chloride it forms two compounds (F. Isambert, Comptes rendus, 
1868, Ixvi. p. 1259) one, AgCl-3NH 3 at temperatures below 
1 5 C. ; the other, 2AgCl- 3NH 3 at temperatures above 20 C. On 
heating these substances, ammonia is liberated and the metallic 
chloride remains. It was by the use of silver chloride ammonia 
compounds that in 1823 M. Faraday was first able to liquefy 
ammonia. It can be shown by Isambert's results that the com- 
pound AgCl-SNHs cannot be formed above 20 C., by the action 
of ammonia on silver chloride at atmospheric pressure; whilst 
2AgCl-3NH3, under similar conditions, cannot be formed above 
about 68 C. Liquid ammonia is used for the artificial prepara- 
tion of ice. It readily dissolves sodium and potassium, giving in 
each case a dark blue solution. At a red heat ammonia is easily 
decomposed into its constituent elements, a similar decomposi- 
tion being brought about by the passage of electric sparks through 
the gas. Chlorine takes fire when passed into ammonia, nitrogen 
and hydrochloric acid being formed, and unless the ammonia be 
present in excess, the highly explosive nitrogen chloride NCls is 
also produced. With iodine it reacts to form nitrogen iodide. 
This compound was discovered in 181 2 by Bernard Courtois, and 
was originally supposed to contain nitrogen and iodine only, but 
in 1840 R.F.Marchand showed that it contained hydrogen, whilst 
R. Bunsen showed that no oxygen was present. As regards its 
constitution, it has been given at different times the formulae 
NI 3 , NHI 2 , NH 2 I, N 2 H 3 I 3 , &c., these varying results being due 
to the impurities in the substance, owing to the different investi- 
gators working under unsuitable conditions, and also to the 
decomposing action of light. F. D. Chattaway determined its 
composition as N 2 H 3 I 3 , by the addition of excess of standard 
sodium sulphite solution, in the dark, and subsequent titration 
of the excess of the sulphite with standard iodine. The con- 
stitution has been definitely determined by O. Silberrad (Jour, 
of Chem. Soc., 1905, Ixxxvii. p. 55) by the interaction of 
nitrogen iodide with zinc ethyl, the products of the reaction being 
triethylamine and ammonia; the ammonia liberated was ab- 
sorbed in hydrochloric acid, and 95 % of the theoretical amount 
of the ammonium chloride was obtained. On these grounds 
O. Silberrad assigns the formula NH 3 -NI 3 to the compound, 



862 



AMMONIA 



and explains the decomposition as taking place, 2NHrNI 3 + 
6Zn(C 2 Hs) 2 = 6ZnC 2 H 6 -I-f-2NH s -r-2N(C 2 H 6 ) 3 . The hydrogen in 
ammonia is capable of replacement by metals, thus magnesium 
burns in the gas with the formation of magnesium nitride Mg 3 N 2 , 
and when the gas is passed over heated sodium or potassium, 
sodamide, NaNH 2 , and potassamide, KNH 2 , are formed. 

One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its 
power of combining directly with acids to form salts; thus with 
hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac); 
with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, &c. It is to be noted that 
H. B. Baker (Journal of Chem. Soc., 1894, Ixv. p. 612) has 
shown that perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with per- 
fectly dry hydrochloric acid, moisture being necessary to bring 
about the reaction. The aqueous solution of ammonia is very 
basic in its reactions, and since it is a weak electrolyte, one must 
assume the solution to contain a certain amount of ammonium 
hydroxide NELiOH, although it is probably chiefly composed 
of a solution of ammonia in water. (On the constitution of 
aqueous ammonia solutions see also Carl Frenzel, Zeit fur angew. 
Chemie, xxxii. 3, p. 319.) Ammonia finds a wide application in 
organic chemistry as a synthetic reagent; it reacts with alkyl 
iodides to form amines (q.v.), with esters to form acid 'amides 
(q.v.), with halogen fatty acids to form amino-acids; while it 
also combines with isocyanic esters to form alkyl ureas and 
with the mustard oils to form alkyl thioureas. Aldehydes also 
combine directly with ammonia. 

Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionizing powers, and solutions 
of salts in liquid ammonia have been much studied. For details 
see E. C. Franklin and C. A. Kraus, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1899, 
xxi. p. 8; 1900, xxiv. p. 83; 1902, xxviii. p. 277; also Carl 
Frenzel, Zeils filr Eleklrochemie, 19(50, vi. p. 477. 

The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are 
known as the ammonium salts and all contain the compound 
radical ammonium (NHj) . Numerous attempts have been made 
to isolate this radical, but so far none have been successful. 
By the addition of sodium amalgam to a concentrated solution 
of ammonium chloride, the so-called ammonium amalgam is 
obtained as a spongy mass which floats on the surface of the 
liquid; it decomposes readily at ordinary temperatures into 
ammonia and hydrogen; it does not reduce silver and gold salts, 
a behaviour which distinguishes it from the amalgams of the 
alkali metals, and for this reason it is regarded by some chemists 
as being merely mercury inflated by gaseous ammonia and 
hydrogen. M. le Blanc has shown, however, that the effect of 
ammonium amalgam on the magnitude of polarization of a battery 
is comparable with that of the amalgams of the alkali metals. 

Many of the ammonium salts are made from the ammoniacal 
liquor of gas-works, by heating it with milk of lime and then 
absorbing the gas so liberated in a suitable acid. (See GAS: 
Manufacture.) 

Ammonium bromide, NH^Br, can be prepared by the direct 
action of bromine on ammonia. It crystallizes in colourless 
prisms, possessing a saline taste; it sublimes on heating 
and is easily soluble in water. On exposure to air it gradually 
assumes a yellow colour and becomes acid in its reaction. 

Ammonium chloride, NH4C1. (See SAL-AMMONIAC.) 

Ammonium fluoride, NH 4 F, may be obtained by neutralizing 
ammonia with hydrofluoric acid. It crystallizes in small prisms, 
having a sharp saline taste, and is exceedingly soluble in water. 
It decomposes silicates on being heated with them. 

Ammonium iodide, NHJ, can be prepared by the action of 
hydriodic acid on ammonia. It is easily soluble in water, from 
which it crystallizes in cubes, and also in alcohol. It gradually 
turns yellow on standing in moist air, owing to decomposition 
with liberation of iodine. 

Ammonium chlorate, NI^ClOs, is obtained by neutralizing 
chloric acid with either ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or 
by precipitating barium, strontium or calcium chlorates with 
ammonium carbonate. It crystallizes in small needles, which are 
readily soluble in water, and on heating, decompose at about 
102 C., with liberation of nitrogen, chlorine and oxygen. It is 
soluble in dilute aqueous alcohol, but insoluble in strong alcohol. 



Ammonium carbonates. The commercial salt is known as sal- 
volatile or salt of hartshorn and was formerly obtained by the dry 
distillation of nitrogenous organic matter such as hair, horn, 
decomposed urine, &c., but is now obtained by heating a mixture 
of sal-ammoniac, or ammonium sulphate and chalk, to redness in 
iron retorts, the vapours being condensed in leaden receivers. 
The crude product is refined by sublimation, when it is obtained 
as a white fibrous mass, which consists of a mixture of hydrogen 
ammonium carbonate, NH^HCOs, and ammonium carbamate, 
NH 2 COONH4, in molecular proportions; on account of its 
possessing this constitution it is sometimes called ammonium 
sesquicarbonate. It possesses a strong ammoniacal smell, and on 
digestion with alcohol the carbamate is dissolved and a residue 
of ammonium bicarbonate is left; a similar decomposition taking 
place when the sesquicarbonate is exposed to air. Ammonia gas 
passed into a strong aqueous solution of the sesquicarbonate con- 
verts it into normal ammonium carbonate, (NH^zCOs, which can 
be obtained in the crystalline condition from a solution prepared 
at about 30 C. This compound on exposure to air gives off 
ammonia and passes back to ammonium bicarbonate. 

Ammonium bicarbonate, NH^HCOa, is formed as shown above 
and also by passing carbon dioxide through a solution of the 
normal compound, when it is deposited as a white powder, which 
has no smell and is only slightly soluble in water. The aqueous 
solution of this salt liberates carbon dioxide on exposure to air or 
on heating, and becomes alkaline in reaction. The aqueous solu- 
tions of all the carbonates when boiled undergo decomposition 
with liberation of ammonia and of carbon dioxide. 

Ammonium nitrate, NH|NO 3 , is prepared by neutralizing nitric 
acid with ammonia, or ammonium carbonate, or by double 
decomposition between potassium nitrate and ammonium 
sulphate. It can be obtained in three different crystalline forms, 
the transition points of which are 35 C., 83 C. and 125 C. It 
is easily soluble in water, a considerable lowering of tempera- 
ture taking place during the operation; on this account it is 
sometimes used in the preparation of freezing mixtures. On 
gentle heating, it is decomposed into water and nitrous oxide. 
P. E. M. Berthelot in 1883 showed that if ammonium nitrate 
be rapidly heated the following reaction takes place with 
explosive violence : 2NH 4 NO 3 = 4H 2 O+ 2N 2 + O 2 . 

Ammonium nitrite, NH4NO 2 , is formed by oxidizing ammonia 
with ozone or hydrogen peroxide; by precipitating barium or 
lead nitrites with ammonium sulphate, or silver nitrite with 
ammonium chloride. The precipitate is filtered off and the 
solution concentrated. It forms colourless crystals which are 
soluble in water and decompose on heating, with the formation 
of nitrogen. 

Ammonium phosphates. The normal phosphate, (NH^aPO^is 
obtained as a crystalline powder, on mixing concentrated solu- 
tions of ammonia and phosphoric acid, or on the addition of ex- 
cess of ammonia to the acid phosphate (NH) 2 HPO.i. It is soluble 
in water, and the aqueous solution on boiling loses ammonia and 
the acid phosphate NH|H 2 PO4 is formed. Diammonium hydro- 
gen phosphate, (NHi) 2 HP04, is formed by evaporating a solution 
of phosphoric acid with excess of ammonia. It crystallizes in 
large transparent prisms, which melt on heating and decompose, 
leaving a residue of metaphosphoric acid, (HPO 3 ). Ammonium 
dihydrogen phosphate, NIi|-H 2 PO4, is formed when a solution of 
phosphoric acid is added to ammonia until the solution is dis- 
tinctly acid. It crystallizes in quadratic prisms. 

Ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, NH4-NaHPO4-4H 2 O. 
(See MICROCOSMIC SALT.) 

Ammonium sulphate (NH)) 2 SO4 is prepared commercially from 
the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works (see GAS: Manufacture) and 
is purified by recrystallization. It forms large rhombic prisms, 
has a somewhat saline taste and is easily soluble in water. The 
aqueous solution on boiling loses some ammonia and forms an acid 
sulphate. It is used largely as an artificial manure, and also for 
the preparation of other ammonium salts. 

Ammonium persulphate (NH4) 2 S 2 Os has been prepared by 
H. Marshall (Jour, of Chem. Soc., 1891, lix. p. 777) by the method 
used for the preparation of the corresponding potassium salt 



AMMONIACUM AMMONITES 



863 



(see SULPHUR) . Pure specimens are difficult to obtain. It is very 
soluble in cold water, a large fall of temperature accompanying 
solution. 

Ammonium sulphide, (NH 4 ) 2 S, is obtained, in the form of 
micaceous crystals, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen mixed with 
a slight excess of ammonia through a well-cooled vessel; the 
hydrosulphide NHi-HS is formed at the same time. It dissolves 
readily in water, but is probably partially dissociated in solution. 
The hydrosulphide NH 4 -HS can be obtained as a white solid, by 
mixing well-cooled ammonia with a slight excess of sulphuretted 
hydrogen. According to W. P. Bloxam (Jowr. ofChem.Soc., 1895, 
Ixvii. p. 283), if sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into strong 
aqueous ammonia at ordinary temperature, the compound 
(NH 4 ) 2 S-2NH 4 HS is obtained, which, on cooling to o C. and 
passing more sulphuretted hydrogen, forms the compound 
(NH 4 ) 2 S-i2NH 4 HS. An ice-cold solution of this substance kept 
at o C. and having sulphuretted hydrogen continually passed 
through it gives the hydrosulphide. Several complex poly- 
sulphides of ammonium have been isolated, for details of which 
see Bloxam's paper quoted above. Compounds are known which 
may be looked upon as derived from ammonia by the replacement 
of its hydrogen by the sulpho-group (HSOs); thus potassium 
ammon-trisulphonate,N(SO3K) 3 -2H 2 0,is obtained as a crystalline 
precipitate on the addition of excess of potassium sulphite to a 
solution of potassium nitrite, KNO 2 +3K2SO3+2H 2 O = N(SO3K)3 
+4.KHO. It can be recrystallized by solution in alkalies. On 
boiling with water, it is converted, first into the disulphonate 
NH(SO a K)s thus, N(SO 3 K) 3 +H 2 O = NH(SO3K) 2 +KHSO 4 , and 
ultimately into the monosulphonate NH2-SOsK. The disulphon- 
ate is more readily obtained by moistening the nitrilosulphonate 
with dilute sulphuric acid and letting it stand for twenty-four 
hours, after which it is recrystallized from dilute ammonia. It 
forms monosymmetric crystals which by boiling with water 
yield amidosulphonic acid. (See also E. Divers, Jour, of Chem. 
Soc., 1892, Ixi. p. 943.) Amidosulphoi ic acid crystallizes in 
prisms, slightly soluble in water, and is a stable compound. 

Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very 
minute traces, by the addition of Nessler's solution, which gives a 
distinct yellow coloration in the presence of the least trace of 
ammonia or ammonium salts. Larger quantities can be detected 
by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime, when 
the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. 
The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated 
quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium or potassium 
hydroxide, the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known 
volume of standard sulphuric acid and the excess of acid then 
determined volumetrically; or the ammonia may be absorbed 
in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed pre- 
cipitated as ammonium chlorplatinate, (NH^PtCle. 

AMMONIACUM, or GUM AMMONIAC, a gum-resin exuded from 
the stem of a perennial herb (Dorema ammoniacuni) , natural order 
Umbelliferae. The plant grows to the height of 8 or 9 ft., and 
its whole stem is pervaded with a milky juice, which oozes out on 
an incision being made at any part. This juice quickly hardens 
into round tears, forming the " tear ammoniacuni " of commerce. 
" Lump ammoniacum," the other form in which the substance is 
met with, consists of aggregations of tears, frequently incorporat- 
ing fragments of the plant itself, as well as other foreign bodies. 
Ammoniacum has a faintly fetid, unpleasant odour, which 
becomes more distinct on heating; externally it possesses a 
reddish-yellow appearance, and when the tears or lumps are 
freshly fractured they exhibit a waxy lustre. It is chiefly collected 
in central Persia, and comes to the European market by way of 
Bombay. Ammoniacum is closely related to asafetida and gal- 
banum (from which, however, it differs in yielding no umbelli- 
ferone) both in regard to the plant which yields it and its thera- 
peutical effects. Internally it is used in conjunction with squills 
in bronchial affections; and in asthma and chronic colds it is 
found useful, but it has no advantages over a number of other 
substances of more constant and active properties (Sir Thomas 
Fraser). Only the " tear ammoniacum " is official. 

African amrooniacum is the product of a plant said to be 



Ferula tingitana, which grows in North Africa; it is a dark 
coloured gum-resin, possessed of a very weak odour and a 
persistent acrid taste. 

AMMONITES, or the " children of Ammon," a people of east 
Palestine who, like the Moabites, traced their origin to Lot, the 
nephew of the patriarch Abraham, and must have been regarded, 
therefore, as closely related to the Israelites and Edomites. Both 
the Ammonites and Moabites are sometimes spoken of under the 
common name of the children of Lot (Deut. ii. 19; Ps. Ixxxiii. 8) ; 
and the whole history shows that they preserved throughout the 
course of their national existence a sense of the closest brother- 
hood. According to the traditions, the original territory of the 
two tribes was the country lying immediately on the east of the 
Dead Sea, and of the lower half of the Jordan, having the Jabbok 
for its northern boundary; and of this tract the Ammonites laid 
claim to the northern portion between the Arnon and the Jabbok, 
out of which they had expelled the Zamzummim (Judg. xi. 13; 
Deut. ii. 20 sqq.; cf. Gen. xiv. 5), though apparently it had been 
held, in part at least, conjointly with the Moabites, or perhaps 
under their supremacy (Num. xxi. 26, xxii. i; Josh. xiii. 32). 
From this their original territory they had been in their turn ex- 
pelled by Sihon, king of the Amorites, who was said to have been 
found by the Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, in 
possession of both Gilead and Bashan, that is, of the whole country 
on the left bank of the Jordan, lying to the north of the Arnon 
(Num. xxi. 13). By this invasion, as the Moabites were driven to 
the south of the Arnon, which formed their northern boundary 
from that time, so the Ammonites were driven out of Gilead 
across the upper waters of the Jabbok where it flows from south 
to north, which henceforth continued to be their western boundary 
(Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16). The other limits of the 
Ammonitis, or country of the Ammonites ('Aju/uai'iTts X^P a > 2 
Mac. iv. 26), there are no means of exactly defining. On the south 
it probably adjoined the land of Moab; on the north it may have 
met that of the king of Geshur (Josh. xii. 5) ; and on the east it 
probably melted away into the desert peopled by Amalekites and 
other nomadic races. 

The chief city of the country, called Rabbah, or Rabbath of the 
children of Ammon, i.e. the metropolis of the Ammonites (Deut. iii. 
Ii), and Rabbathammana by the later Greeks (Polyb, v. 7. 4), whose 
name was changed into Philadelphia by Ptolemy Philadelphus, a 
large and strong city with an acropolis, was situated on both sides of 
a branch of the Jabbok, bearing at the present day the name of 
Nahr 'Amman, the river of Ammon, whence the designation " city of 
waters " (2 Sam. xii. 27; see Survey of E. Pal (Pal. Explor. Fund), 
pp. 19 sqq. The ruins called Amman by the natives are extensive and 
imposing. The country to the south and east of Amman is distin- 
guished by its fertility ; and ruined towns are scattered thickly over 
it, attesting that it was once occupied by a population which, however 
fierce, was settled and industrious, a fact indicated also by the tribute 
of corn paid annually to Jotham (2 Chron. xxvii. 5). 

The traditional history of Ammon as related in the Old Testa- 
ment is not free from obscurity, due to the uncertain date of 
the various references and to the doubt whether the individual 
details belong to the particular period to which each is ascribed. 
(See further MOAB.) From the Assyrian inscriptions we learn 
that the Ammonite king Ba'sa (Baasha) (son) of Ruhubi, 
with 1000 men joined Ahab and the Syrian allies against 
Shalmaneser II. at the battle of Karkar in 854. In 734 their 
king Sanip(b)u was a vassal of Tiglathpileser IV., and his 
successor, P(b)udu-ilu, held the same position under Senna- 
cherib and Esarhaddon. Somewhat later, their king Amminadab 
was among the tributaries who suffered in the course of the 
great Arabian campaign of Assurbanipal. With the neighbour- 
ing tribes, the Ammonites helped the Babylonian monarch 
Nebuchadrezzar against Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiv. 2); and 
if they joined Zedekiah's conspiracy (Jer. xxvii. 3), and were 
threatened by the Babylonian army (Ezek. xxi. 20 sqq.), they do 
not appear to have suffered punishment at that period, perhaps 
on account of a timely submission. When, after the destruction 
of Jerusalem, the fugitive Jews were again gathered together, it 
was at the instigation of Baalis, king of Ammon, that Gedaliah, 
the ruler whom Nebuchadrezzar had appointed over them, was 
murdered, and new calamities were incurred (Jer. xl. 14); and 



AMMONIUS GRAMMATICUS AMMUNITION 



when Nehemiah prepared to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem an 
Ammonite was foremost in opposition (Neh. ii. 10,19, iv. i-z). 1 
True to their antecedents, the Ammonites, with some of the 
neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the re- 
vival of the Jewish power under Judas Maccabaeus ( i Mace. v. 6 ; 
cf. Jos. Ant. Jud. xii. 8. i.). The last notice of them is in Justin 
Martyr (Did. cum Tryph. 119), where it is affirmed that they 
were still a numerous people. The few Ammonite names that 
have been preserved (Nahash, Hanun, and those mentioned 
above, Zelek in 2 Sam. xxiii. 37 is textually uncertain) testify, in 
harmony with other considerations, that their language was 
Semitic, closely allied to Hebrew and to the language of the 
Moabites. Their national deity was Molech or Milcon. (See 
MOLOCH.) (S. A. C.) 

AMMONIUS GRAMMATICUS, the supposed author of a 
treatise entitled Hfpl dfwitav Kal dia.<t>6piav \eeuv (On the 
Differences of Synonymous Expressions), of whom nothing is 
known. He was formerly identified with an Egyptian priest who, 
after the destruction of the pagan temple at Alexandria (389), 
fled to Constantinople, where he became the tutor of the ecclesi- 
astical historian Socrates. But it seems more probable that the 
real author was Herennius Philo of Byblus, who was born during 
the reign of Nero and lived till the reign of Hadrian, and that the 
treatise in its present form is a revision prepared by a later 
Byzantine editor, whose name may have been Ammonius. 

Text by Valckenaer, 1739, Schafer, 1822; Kopp, De Ammonii . . . 
Distinctionibus Synonymicis, 1883. 

AMMONIUS HERMIAE (sth century A.D.), Greek philosopher, 
the son of Hermias or Hermeias, a fellow-pupil of Proclus. 
He taught at Alexandria, and had among his scholars Asclepius, 
John Philoponus, Damascius and Simplicius. His commen- 
taries on Plato and Ptolemy are lost. Those on Aristotle are 
all that remain of his reputedly numerous writings. Of the 
commentaries we have (i) one on the Isagoge of Porphyry 
(Venice, 1500 fol.); (2) one on the Categories (Venice, 1503 fol.), 
the authenticity of which is doubted by Brandis; (3) one on 
the De Interpretations (Venice, 1503 fol.). They are printed in 
Brandis's scholia to Aristotle, forming the fourth volume of the 
Berlin Aristotle; they are also edited (1891-1899) in A. Busse's 
Commentaria in Aristot. Graeca. The special section on fate 
was published separately by J. C. Orelli, Alex. Aphrod., Ammonii, 
ft aliorum de Fato quae supersunt (Zurich, 1824). A life of 
Aristotle, ascribed to Ammonius, but with more accuracy to John 
Philoponus, is often prefixed to editions of Aristotle. It has been 
printed separately, with Latin translation and scholia, at Leiden, 
1621, at Helmstadt, 1666, and at Paris, 1850. Other com- 
mentaries on the Topics and the first six books of the Meta- 
physics still exist in manuscript. Of the value of the logical 
writings of Ammonius there are various opinions. K. Prantl 
speaks of them with great, but hardly merited, contempt. 

For a list of his works see J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graced, 
v. 704-707 ; C. A. Brandis, Uber d. Reihenf. d. Biicher d. Aristot. Org., 
283 f. ; K. Prantl, Gesch. d. Logik, i. 642. 

AMMONIUS SACCAS (3rd century A.D.), Greek philosopher of 
Alexandria, often called the founder of the neo-Platonic school. 
Of humble origin, he appears to have earned a livelihood as a 
porter; hence his nickname of " Sack-bearer " (Sax/cos, for 
o-acKO$6pos). The details of his life are unknown, insomuch 
that he has frequently been confused with a Christian philosopher 
of the same name. Eusebius (Church History, vi. 19), who is 
followed by Jerome, asserts that he was born a Christian, 
remained faithful to Christianity throughout his life, and even 

1 The allusions in Jer. xlix. 1-6; Zeph. ii. 8-n ; Ezek. xxi. 28-32; 
Judg. xi. 12-28, have been taken to refer to an Ammonite occupa- 
tion of Israelite territory after the deportation of the east Jordanic 
Israelites in 734, but more probably belong to a later event. The 
name Chephar-Ammoni (in Benjamin; Josh, xviii. 24) seems to imply 
that the village " became a settlement of " Ammonites." Some 
light is thrown upon the obscure history of the post-exile period by 
the references to the mixed marriages which aroused the reformin; 
zeal of Ezra and culminated in the exclusion of Ammon and Moal 
from the religious community on the ground of incidents which 
were ascribed to the time of the "exodus" (Deut. xxiii. 3 sqq.; 
Ezr. ix. I sqq. ; Neh. xiii. I sqq.). 



produced two works called The Harmony of Moses and Jesus 
and The. Diatessaron, or Harmony of the Four Gospels, which is 
said by some to exist in a Latin version by Victor, bishop of 
Capua. Porphyry, quoted by Eusebius, ib. vi. 19. 6, however, 
says that he apostatized in later life and left no writings behind 
him. There seems no reason, therefore, to doubt that Eusebius 
is here referring to the Christian philosopher. After long study 
and meditation, Ammonius opened a school of philosophy in 
Alexandria. His principal pupils were Herennius, the two 
Origens, Cassius Longinus and Plotinus. As he designedly wrote 
nothing, and, with the aid of his pupils, kept his views secret, 
after the manner of the Pythagoreans, his philosophy must be 
inferred mainly from the writings of Plotinus. As Zeller points 
out, however, there is reason to think that his doctrines were 
rather those of the earlier Platonists than those of Plotinus. 
Hierocles, writing in the 5th century A.D., states that his funda- 
mental doctrine was an eclecticism, derived from a critical study 
of Plato and Aristotle. His admirers credited him with having 
reconciled the quarrels of the two great schools. His death is 
variously given between A.D. 240 and 245. See NEO-PLATONISM, 
ORJGEN. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. Rosier, De commentitiis philosophiae Am- 
moniaceae fraudibus et noxis (Tubingen, 1786); L. J. Dehaut, Essai 
historique sur la vie et la doctrine d' Ammonius Saccas (Brussels, 1836); 
E. Zeller, " Ammonius Saccas und Plotinus," Arch. f. Gesch. d. 
Philos. vii., 1894, pp. 295-312; E. Vacherot, Hist. crit. de I'ecole 
d'Alexandrie (Paris, 1846) ; T. Whittaker, The Neo-platonists (Camb., 
1901); Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., trans. A. C. M'Giffert (Oxford and 
New York, 1890), notes on passages quoted above. 

AMMUNITION, a military term (derived, through the French, 
from Lat. munire, to provide), for consumable stores used in 
attack or defence, such as rifle cartridges, cartridges, projectiles, 
igniting tubes and primers for ordnance, &c. 

The components of ammunition intended for rifles and ordnance 
may be divided into (a) explosives and propellants (see EX- 
PLOSIVES and GUNPOWDER), (6) projectiles of all kinds, and (c) 
cartridges. The military classification of explosives differs some- 
what from that of the Explosives Act 1875, but, broadly speaking, 
they are divided into two groups. The first of these comprises 
explosives in bulk, made-up cartridges for cannon, and filled quick- 
firing cartridges; Group II. contains small-arm cartridges, fuzes, 
primers, tubes, filled shells (fuzed or unfuzed), &c. Each group 
is subdivided, and arrangements are made for storing certain 
divisions of Group I. in a magazine in separate compartments. 
All the divisions of Group II. are, and the remaining divisions 
of Group I. (comprising wet gun-cotton, picric acid and Q.F. 
cartridges) may be, stored in ammunition stores. 

These general conditions apply to the storage of ammunition in 
fortresses. Here the positions for the magazine and ammunition 
stores are so chosen as to afford the best means of protection from 
an ememy's fire. Huge earth parapets cover these buildings, 
which are further strengthened, where possible, by traverses 
protecting the entrances. For the purpose of filling, emptying 
and examining cannon cartridges and shell, a laboratory is gener- 
ally provided at some distance from the magazine. The various 
stores for explosives are classified into those under magazine 
conditions (viz. magazines, laboratories and cartridge stores) and 
those with which these restrictions need not be observed (viz. 
ammunition and shell stores). The interior walls of a magazine 
are lined and the floors laid so that there may be no exposed iron 
or steel. At the entrance there is a lobby or barrier, inside which 
persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes for a 
special suit, and their boots for a pair made without nails. In an 
ammunition or shell store these precautions need not be taken 
except where the shell store and the adjacent cartridge store 
have a common entrance; persons entering may do so in their 
ordinary clothes. A large work may have a main magazine and 
several subsidiary magazines, from which the stock of cartridges 
is renewed in the cartridge stores attached to each group of guns 
or in the expense cartridge stores and cartridge recesses. The 
same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the shell 
stores, expense stores and recesses. 

The supply of ammunition may be divided roughly into (a) that 



AMMUNITION 



865 



for guns forming the movable armament, (b) that for guns placed 
in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of 
guns and howitzers of small and medium calibre, and it is neces- 
sary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores and shell stores 
in close proximity to the available positions. They can generally 
be constructed to form part of the permanent work in the pro- 
jected face of traverses or other strong formations, and should be 
arranged for a twenty-four hours' supply of ammunition. These 
stores are refilled from the main magazine every night under 
cover of darkness. Light railways join the various positions. 
The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into 
groups of two or three guns each, and usually each group will 
require but one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell 
store and a general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for the 
especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store 
the cylinders containing the cartridges are so placed and labelled 
that the required charge, whether reduced or full, can be immedi- 
ately selected. In the shell store also for the same reason the 
common shell are separated from the armour-piercing or shrapnel. 
Each nature of projectile is painted in a distinctive manner to 
render identification easy. The fuzes, tubes, &c., are placed in 
the general store with the tools and accessories belonging to the 
guns. The gun group is distinguished by some letter and the guns 
of the group by numerals; thus, f is No. i gun of group A. The 
magazine and shell stores are also indicated by the group letter, 
and so that mistakes, even by those unaccustomed to the fort, 
may be avoided, the passages are pointed out by finger posts and 
direction boards. For the immediate service of each gun a few 
cartridges and projectiles are stored in small receptacles called 
cartridge and shell recesses respectively built in the parapet as 
near the gun position as practicable. In some cases a limited 
number of projectiles may be placed close underneath the parapet 
if this is conveniently situated near the breech of the gun and not 
exposed to hostile fire. 

In order to supply the ammunition sufficiently rapidly for the 
'efficient service of modern guns, hydraulic, electric or hand- 
power hoists are employed to raise the cartridges and shell from 




AMMUNITION 
PASSAGE 



FIG. i. Ammunition Hoist. 

the cartridge store and shell store to the gun floor, whence they 
are transferred to a derrick or loading tray attached to the 
mounting for loading the gun. 

Projectiles for B.L. guns above 6-in. calibre are stored in shell 
stores ready filled and fuzed standing on their bases, except 

I. 28 



shrapnel and high-explosive shell, which are fuzed only when about 
to be used. Smaller sizes of shells are kid on their sides in layers, 
each layer pointing in the opposite direction to the one below 
to prevent injury to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in 
brass corrugated cases or in zinc cylinders. The corrugated cases 
are stacked in layers in the magazine with the mouth of the case 
towards a passage between the stacks, so that it can be opened 
and the cartridges removed and transferred to a leather case when 
required for transport to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when 
possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to 
the gun in these cylinders, and provision is made for the rapid 
removal of the empty cylinders. 

The number and nature of rounds allotted to any fortress 
depends on questions of policy and location, the degrees of resist- 
ance the nature of the works and personnel could reasonably 
be expected to give, and finally on the nature of the arma- 
ment. That is to say, for guns of large calibre three hundred 
to four hundred rounds per gun might be sufficient, while for 
light Q.F. guns it might amount to one thousand or more rounds 
per gun. (A. G. H.) 

With every successive improvement in military arms there has 
necessarily been a corresponding modification in the method of 
supplying ammunition and in the quantity required to supply of 
be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons were the ammuai- 
principal implements of battle, there was, of course, no <*>* '" 
such need, but even in the middle ages the archers and the Bela - 
crossbowmen had to replenish the shafts and bolts expended in 
action, and during a siege stone bullets of great size, as well as 
heavy arrows, were freely used. The missiles of those days were, 
however, interchangeable, and at the battle of Towton (1461) 
the commander of the Yorkist archers, by inducing the enemy to 
waste his arrows, secured a double supply of ammunition for his 
own men. This interchangeability of war material was even 
possible for many centuries after the invention of firearms. 
At the battle of Liegnitz (1760) a general officer was specially 
commissioned by Frederick the Great to pack up and send away, 
for Prussian use, all the muskets and ammunition left on the 
field of battle by the defeated Austrians. ' Captured material is, 
of course, utilized whenever possible, at the present time, and in 
the Chino-Japanese War the Japanese went so far as to prepare 
beforehand spare parts for the Chinese guns they expected to 
capture (Wei-Hai-Wei, 1895), but it is rare to find a modern army 
trusting to captures for arms and ammunition; almost the only 
instance of the practice is that of the Chilean civil war of 1891, 
in which the army of one belligerent was almost totally dependent 
upon this means of replenishing stores of arms and cartridges. 
But what was possible with weapons of comparatively rough 
make is no longer to be thought of in the case of modern arms. 
The Lee-Metford bullet of -303 in. diameter can scarcely be used 
in a rifle of smaller calibre, and in general the minute accuracy 
of parts in modern weapons makes interchangeability almost 
impossible. Further, owing to the rapidity with which, in 
modern arms, ammunition is expended, and the fact that, as 
battles are fought at longer ranges than formerly, more shots have 
to be fired in order to inflict heavy losses, it is necessary that 
the reserves of ammunition should be as close as possible to the 
troops who have to use them. This was always the case even with 
the older firearms, as, owing to the great weight of the ammuni- 
tion, the soldier could carry but few rounds on his person. 
Nevertheless it is only within the past seventy years that there 
has grown up the elaborate system of ammunition supply which 
now prevails in all regularly organized armies. That which is 
described in the present article is the British, as laid down in the 
official Combined Training (1995) and other manuals. The new 
system designed for stronger divisions, and others, vary only in 
details and nomenclature. 

Infantry. The infantry soldier generally carries, in pouches, 
bandoliers, &c., one hundred rounds of small-arms ammunition 
(S.A.A.), and it is usual to supplement this, when an action is 
imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below). It is to be 
noticed that every reduction in the calibre of the rifle means an 
increase in the number of rounds carried. One hundred rounds of 



866 



AMMUNITION 



the Martini-Henry ammunition weighed iclb 10 oz.; the same 
weight gives 155 with -303 ammunition (incl. charges), and if a -256 
calibre is adopted the number of rounds will be still greater. It 
is, relatively, a matter of indifference that the reserves of ammuni- 
tion include more rounds than formerly; it is of the highest im- 
portance that the soldier should, as far as possible, be independent 
of fresh supplies, because the bringing up of ammunition to troops 
closely engaged is laborious and costly in lives. The regimental 
reserves are carried in S.A.A. carts and on pack animals. Of the 
former each battalion has six, of the latter eight. The six carts are 
distributed, one as reserve to the machine gun, three as reserve 
to the battalion itself, and two as part of the brigade reserve, 
which consists therefore of eight carts. The brigade reserve 
communicates directly with the brigade ammunition columns of 
the artillery (see below). The eight pack animals follow the 
eight companies of their battalion. These, with two out of the 
three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the firing line, 
the remaining cart being with the reserve companies. Men also 
are employed as carriers, and this duty is so onerous that picked 
men only are detailed. Gallantry displayed in bringing up 
ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The 
amount of S.A.A. in regimental charge is 100 rounds in the 
possession of each soldier, 2000 to 2200 on each pack animal, 
and 16,000 to 17,600 in each of four carts, with, in addition, about 
4000 rounds with the machine gun and 16,000 more in the fifth 
cart. 

Artillery. The many vehicles which accompany batteries (see 
ARTILLERY) carry a large quantity of ammunition, and with the 
contents of two wagons and the limber each gun may be con- 
sidered as well supplied, more especially as fresh rounds can be 
brought up with relatively small risk, owing to the long range at 
which artillery fights and the use of cover. Each brigade of 
artillery has its own ammunition column, from which it draws its 
reserve in the first instance. 

Ammunition Columns. An ammunition column consists of 
military vehicles carrying gun and S.A. ammunition for the 
combatant unit to which the column belongs. Thus the am- 
munition columns of a division, forming part of the brigades of 
field artillery, carry reserve ammunition for the guns, the machine 
guns of the infantry and the rifles of all arms. Generally speak- 
ing, the ammunition column of each of the artillery brigades 
furnishes spare ammunition for its own batteries and for one 
of the brigades of infantry. All ammunition columns are 
officered and manned by the Royal Artillery. They are not 
reserved exclusively to their own brigades, divisions, &c., 
but may be called upon to furnish ammunition to any unit 
requiring it during an action. The officers and men of the R.A. 
employed with the ammunition column are, as a matter of course, 
immediately available to replace casualties in the batteries. 
Teams, wagons and materiel generally are also available for the 
same purpose. The horse artillery, howitzer and heavy brigades 
of artillery have each their own ammunition columns, organ- 
ized in much the same way and performing similar duties. The 
ammunition column of the heavy brigade is divisible into three 
sections, so that the three batteries, if operating independently, 
have each a section at hand to replenish the ammunition 
expended. The horse artillery brigade ammunition columns 
carry, besides S.A.A. for all corps troops other than artillery, the 
reserve of pom-pom ammunition. In action these columns are on 
the battlefield itself. Some miles to the rear are the divisional and 
corps troops columns, which on the one hand replenish the empty 
wagons of the columns in front, and on the other draw fresh 
supplies from the depots on the line of communication. These 
also are in artillery charge; a divisional column is detailed to 
each division(i.e. to replenish each set of brigade ammuni- 
tion columns), and the corps troops column supplies the columns 
attached to the heavy, howitzer and horse artillery .brigades. 
The ammunition thus carried includes ordinarily seven or eight 
kinds at least. S.A.A., field, horse, howitzer and heavy gun 
shrapnel, howitzer and heavy gun lyddite shells, cartridges for 
the four different guns employed and pom-pom cartridges for the 
cavalry, in all twelve distinct types of stores would be carried 



Shot. 



for a complete army corps. Consequently the rounds of each kind 
in charge of each ammunition column must vary in accordance 
with the work expected of the combatant unit to which it belongs. 
Thus pom-pom ammunition is out of place in the brigade 
ammunition columns of field artillery, and S.A.A. is rektively 
unnecessary in that attached to a heavy artillery brigade. 
Under these circumstances a column may be unable to meet the 
particular wants of troops engaged in the vicinity ; for instance, 
a cavalry regiment would send in vain to a heavy artillery 
ammunition section for pom-pom cartridges. The point to be 
observed in this is that the fewer the natures of weapons used, 
the more certain is the ammunition supply. (C. F. A.) 

The first projectiles fired from cannon were the darts and stone 
shot which had been in use with older weapons. These darts 
(" garros ") had iron heads or were of iron wrapped 
with leather to fit the bore of small guns, and con- 
tinued in use up to nearly the end of the i6th century. Spherical 
stone shot were chosen on account of cheapness; forged iron, 
bronze and lead balls were tried, but the expense prevented their 
general adoption. Further, as the heavy metal shot necessitated 
the use of a correspondingly large propelling charge, too great 
a demand was made on the strength of the feeble guns of the 
period. Stone shot being one-third the weight of those of iron 
the powder charge was reduced in proportion, and this also 
effected an economy. Both iron and stone shot were occasionally 
covered with lead, probably to preserve the interior of the bore of 
the gun. Cast iron, while known in the i4th century, was not 
sufficiently common to be much used for the manufacture of shot, 
although small ones were made about that time. They were used 
more frequently at the latter part of the following century. 
Towards the end of the i6th century nearly all shot were of iron, 
but stone shot were still used with guns called Petrieroes (hence 
the name) or Patararoes, for attacking weak targets like ships at 
short range. 

Case shot are very nearly as ancient as spherical shot. They 
can be traced back to the early part of the 1 5th century, and they . 

have practically retained their orig- 

j na j Qrm up to ,-jjg p resent date. 

They are intended for use at close 
quarters when a volley of small shot 
is required. With field guns they are 
not of much use at ranges exceeding 
about four hundred yards; those for 
heavy guns are effective up to one 
thousand yards. In the earlier 
forms lead or iron shot were packed 
in wood casks or in canvas bags tied 
up with twine like the later quilted 
shot. In the present (fig. 2) type 
small shot are placed in a cylindri- 
cal case of sheet iron, with iron 
ends, one end being provided with 
handles. For small guns the bullets 
are made of lead and antimony 
like shrapnel bullets while for 
larger calibres they are of cast 
iron weighing from two ounces to three and a half pounds 
each. 

Grape shot, is now obsolete. It consisted generally of three tiers 
of cast-iron balls separated by iron plates and held in place by an 
iron bolt which passed through the centre of the plates. 

There was also another type called quilted shot which consisted 
of a number of small shot in a canvas covering tied up by rope. 
Chain shot, in the days of sailing ships, was much in favour as a 
means of destroying rigging. Two spherical shot were fastened 
together by a short length of chain. On leaving the gun they 
began gyrating around each other and made a formidable missile. 
Red-hot shot were invented in 1579 by Stephen Batory, king 
of Poknd. They were used with great effect by the English 
during the siege of Gibraltar, especially on the 1 3th of September 
1782, when the French floating batteries were destroyed, together 
with a large part of the Spanish fleet. Martin's shell was a 




FIG. 2. Case Shot. 



AMMUNITION 



867 



modified form; here a cast-iron shell was filled with molten cast 
iron and immediately fired. On striking the side of a ship the 
shell broke up, freeing the still molten iron, which set fire to the 
vessel. 

Rotation. Projectiles intended for R.M.L. guns were at first 
fitted with a number of gun-metal studs arranged around them 
in a spiral manner corresponding to the twist of rifling. This was 
defective, as it allowed, as in the old smooth-bore guns, the 
powder gas to escape by the clearance (called " windage " 
between the projectile and the bore, with a consequent loss of 
efficiency; it also quickly eroded the bore of the larger guns. 
Later the rotation was effected by a cupped copper disc called a 
" gas check " attached to the base end of the projectile. The 
powder gas pressure expanded the rim of the gas check into the 
rifling grooves and prevented the escape of gas; it also firmly 
fixed the gas check to the projectile, thus causing it to rotate. 
A more regular and efficient action of the powder gas was thus 
ensured, with a corresponding greatei; range and an improvement 
in accuracy. With the earlier Armstrong (R.B.L.) guns the 
projectiles were coated with lead (the late Lord Armstrong's 
system), the lead being forced through the rifling grooves by the 
pressure of the exploded powder gas. The lead coating is, how- 
ever, too soft with the higher velocities of modern B.L. guns. 
Mr Vavasseur, C.B., devised the plan of fitting by hydraulic 
pressure a copper " driving band " into a groove cut around the 
body of the projectile. This is now universal. It not only fulfils 
the purpose of rotating the projectile, but renders possible the 
use of large charges of slow-burning explosive. The copper 
band, on being forced through the gun, gives rise to considerable 
resistance, which allows the propelling charge to burn properly 
and thus to exert its enormous force pn the projectile. 

The laws which govern the designs of projectiles are not well 
defined. Certain formulae are used which give the thickness of 
the walls of the shell for a known chamber pressure in the gun, 
and for a particular stress on the material of the shell. The exact 
proportions of the shell depend, however, greatly on experi- 
mental knowledge. 

Armour-piercing Shot and Shell. On the introduction of iron 
ships it was found that the ordinary cast-iron projectile readily 
pierced the thin plating, and in order to protect the vital parts 
of the vessel wrought-iron armour of considerable thickness was 
placed on the sides. It then became necessary to produce a 
projectile which would pierce this armour. This was effected 
by Sir W. Palliser, who invented a method of hardening the head 
of the pointed cast-iron shot. By casting the projectile point 
downwards and forming the head in an iron mould, the hot metal 
was suddenly chilled and became intensely hard, while the 
remainder of the mould being formed of sand allowed the metal 
to cool slowly and the body of the shot to be made tough. 

These shot proved very effective against wrought-iron armour, 
but were not serviceable against compound and steel armour. 
A new departure had, therefore, to be made, and forged steel 
shot with points hardened by water, &c., took the place of the 
Palliser shot. At first these forged steel shot were made of 
ordinary carbon steel, but as armour improved in quality the 
projectiles followed suit, and, for the attack of the latest type of 
cemented steel armour, the projectile is formed of steel either 
forged or cast containing both nickel and chromium. Tungsten 
steel has also been used with success. 

Armour-piercing shot or shell are generally cast from a special 
mixture of chrome steel melted in pots; they are afterwards 
forged into shape. The shell is then thoroughly annealed, the 
core bored and the exterior turned up in the lathe. The shell is 
finished in a similar manner to others described below. The final 
or tempering treatment is very important, but details are kept 
strictly secret. It consists in hardening the head of the projectile 
and tempering it in a special manner, the rear portion being 
reduced in hardness so as to render it tough. The cavity of these 
projectiles is capable of receiving a small bursting charge of about 
2 % of the weight of the complete projectile, and when this is 
used the projectile is called an armour-piercing shell. The shell, 
whether fuzed or unfuzed, will burst on striking a medium thick- 



ness of armour. Armour-piercing shells, having a bursting 
charge of about 3 % of the weight of the complete projectile, are 
now often fitted with a soft steel cap (fig. 3) for the perforation of 




Shell. 



.-Fuze HOLE. 



FIG. 3. Capped A.P. Shell. 

hard steel armour. For the theory of the action of the cap see 
ARMOUR PLATES. 

Even with these improvements the projectile cannot, with a 
reasonable velocity, be relied upon to pierce one calibre in thick- 
ness of modern cemented steel armour. 

Explosive shells do not appear to have been in general use 
before the middle of the i6th century. About that time hollow 
balls of stone or cast iron were fired from mortars. The 
balls were nearly filled with gunpowder and the remain- 
ing space with a slow-burning composition. This plan was 
unsatisfactory, as the composition was not always ignited by the 
flash from the discharge of the gun, and moreover the amount 
of composition to 
burn a stipulated 
time could not easily 
be gauged. The shell 
was, therefore, fitted 
with a hollow forged 
iron or copper plug, I 
filled with slow-burn- 
ing powder. It was! 
impossible to ignite ' 
with certainty this 
primitive fuze simply 
by firing the gun; 
the fuze was con- 
sequently first ignited 
and the gun fired 
immediately after- 
wards. This entailed 




SABOT. 



RIVET 
FIG. 4. Spherical Common Shell. 



the use of a mortar or a very short piece, so that the fuze could 
be easily reached from the muzzle without unduly endangering 
the gunner. Cast-iron spherical common* shell (fig. 4) were in 
use up to 1871. For guns they were latterly fitted with a 

wooden disc called a sabot, 

/Fuze HOLE attached by a copper rivet, 

intended to keep the fuze 
-LIFTING EYE. central when loading. They 
were also supposed to reduce 
the rebounding tendency of 
the shell as it travelled 
along the bore on discharge. 
Mortar shell (fig. 5) were not 
fitted with sabots. 

Cast iron held its own as 
the most convenient material 
FIG. s.-Mortar Shell. f()r pro je ctaes U p to recent 

years, steel supplanting it, first for projectiles intended for 
piercing armour, and afterwards for common shell for high- 
velocity guns where the shock of discharge has been found too 
severe for cast iron. 

Common shell is essentially a material destructor. Filled with 
ordinary gunpowder, the larger natures are formidable projectiles 
for the attack of fortifications and the unarmoured portions of 
warships. On bursting they break up into somewhat large pieces, 
which carry destruction forward to some distance from the point 
of burst. For the attack of buildings common shell are superior 
to shrapnel and they are used to attack troops posted behind 
cover where it is impossible for shrapnel to reach them; their 
effect against troops is, however, generally insignificant. When 




868 



AMMUNITION 



filled with lyddite, melinite, &c., they are called high-explosive 
(H.E.) shell (see below) . Common shell for modern high- velocity 
guns may be made of cast steel or forged steel; those made of 
cast iron are now generally made for practice, as they are found to 
break up on impact, even against earthworks, before the fuze has 
time to act; the bursting charge is, therefore, not ignited or only 
ignited after the shell has broken up, the effect of the bursting 
charge being lost in either case. So long -as the shell is strong 
enough to resist the shocks of discharge and impact against earth 
or thin steel plates, it should be designed to contain as large a 
bursting charge as possible and to break up into a large number 
of medium-sized pieces. Their effect between decks is generally 
more far-reaching than lyddite shell, but the purely local effect is 
less. Light structures, which, at a short distance from the point 
of burst, successfully resist lyddite shell and confine the effect of 
the explosion, may be destroyed by the shower of heavy pieces 
produced by the burst of a large common shell. 

To prevent the premature explosion of the shell, by the friction 
of the grains of powder on discharge, it is heated and coated intern- 
ally with a thick lacquer, which on cooling presents a smooth 
surface. Besides this the bursting charge of all shell of 4-in. 
calibre and upwards (also with all other natures except shrapnel) 
is contained in a flannel or canvas bag. The bag is inserted 
through the fuze hole and the bursting charge of pebble and fine 
grain powder gradually poured in. The shell is tapped on the out- 
side by a wood mallet to settle the powder down. When all the 
powder has been got in, the neck of the bag is tied and pushed 
through the fuze hole. A few small shalloon primer bags, filled 
with seven drams of fine grain powder, are then inserted to fill up 
the shell and carry the flash from the fuze through the burster 
bag. 

In the United States specially long common shell called 
torpedo shell, about 4-7 calibres in length, are employed with the 
coast artillery i2-in. mortars. They weie made of cast steel, 
but owing to a premature explosion in a mortar, supposed to be 
due to weakness of the shell, they are now made of forged steel. 
The weight of the usual projectile for this mortar is 850 Ib. 
The torpedo shell, however, weighs 1000 Ib and contains 137 Ib 
of high explosive; it is not intended for piercing armour but for 
producing a powerful explosion on the armoured deck of a war- 
ship. The compression, and consequent generation of heat on 
discharge of the charge in these long shell, render them liable to 
premature explosion if fired with high velocities. Some inventors 
have, therefore, sought to overcome this by dividing the shell 
transversely into compartments and so making each portion of 
the charge comparatively short. 

Cast-steel common shell (fig. 6) are cast in sand moulds head 
downwards from steel of the required composition to give the 
proper tenacity. A large head, which 
is subsequently removed, is cast on the 
x-x \ base to give solidity and soundness to 

/ \\ the castings. The castings are annealed 

\ \ by placing them in a furnace or oven 

until red hot, then allowing them to 
cool gradually. The process of casting 
is very similar to that for the old cast- 
iron commonshell, which, however, were 
cast base downwards. The steel cast- 
ings after being annealed are dressed 
and carefully examined for defects. 
The exterior of the body is generally 
ground by an emery wheel or turned 
in a lathe; the groove for the driving 
band is also turned and the fuze hole 
ind fi tte d w i tQ a gun-metal bush. Forged- 
Base Plug steel common shell are made from solid 
steel billets. These are heated to red- 
FIG. 6. Pointed Com- ness and shaped by a series of punches 
mon Shell (cast steel), which force the heated metal through 
steel dies by hydraulic pressure. If the 

shell is intended for a nose fuze the base end is shaped by the 
press and the head subsequently formed by a properly shaped die, 





_n 




FIG. 7. Lyddite 
Shell (forged steel). 



or, in the case of small shell, the head can, when red hot, be spun 
up in a lathe by a properly formed tool. For a base fuze shell 
the head is produced by the punches and dies, and the base is 
subsequently formed by pressing in the metal to the desired 
shape. The shell is then completed as described above. 

High-explosive shell (fig. 7), as used in the English service, are 
simply forged-steel common shell filled with lyddite and having a 
special nose fuze and exploder. The base 
end of lyddite shell is made solid to prevent 
the possibility of the gas pressure in the gun 
producing a premature explosion. In filling 
the shell great precautions are necessary to 
prevent the melted lyddite (picric acid) from 
coming in contact with certain materials 
such as combinations of lead, soda, &c., which 
produce sensitive picrates. The shell are 
consequently painted externally with a 
special non-lead paint and lacquered inside 
with special lacquer. The picric acid is 
melted in an oven, the temperature being 
carefully limited. The melted material is 
poured into the shell by means of a bronze 
funnel, which also forms the space for the 
exploder of picric powder. On cooling, 
the material solidifies into a dense, hard 
mass (density 1-6), in which state it is called 
lyddite. The fuze on striking ignites the 
exploder and in turn the lyddite. When 
properly detonated a dense black smoke 
is produced and the projectile is broken up 
into small pieces, some of which are almost 
of the fineness of grains of sand. The radius 
of the explosion is about 25 yds., but the 
local effect is intense, and hence on light 
structures in a confined space the destruction 
is complete. The shell is only of use against 
thin plates; against modern armour it is ineffective. When 
detonation has not been complete, as sometimes happens with 
small shells, the smoke is yellowish and the pieces of the exploded 
shell are as large as when a powder burster is used. 

The French high-explosive shell obus torpille or obus d melinite 
was adopted in 1886. The melinite was originally filled into the 
ordinary cast-iron common shell (obus ordinaire) with thick walls, 
but soon afterwards a forged-steel thin- walled shell (obus allonge) 
was introduced. To explode the shell a steel receptacle (called a 
gatne) is screwed into the nose of the shell. It is filled with 
explosive and fitted with a detonator which is exploded by a 
percussion fuze. Except for the means adopted to ensure 
detonation this shell is practically the same as the lyddite shell. 

Picric acid in some form or other is used in nearly all countries 
for filling high-explosive shell. In some the explosive is melted 
and poured into cardboard cases instead of being poured directly 
into the shell. The cases are placed in the shell either by the head 
of the shell unscrewing from the body or by a removable base 
plug. The French melinite and the Italian pertite are believed to 
be forms of picric acid. Russia and the United States use com- 
pressed wet gun-cotton (density 1-2) as the charge for their high- 
explosive shell. The gun-cotton is packed in a thin zinc or copper 
case and is placed in the shell either by the head or base of the 
shell being removable. The gun-cotton is detonated by a power- 
ful exploder, the form of which differs in each country. Ammonal 
is also used in high-explosive shell, but owing to its light density 
it is not in great favour. For field-gun and other small high- 
explosive shells, ordinary smokeless powder is often used. 

Double shell is a term given to a common shell which was made 
abnormally long, so as to receive a large bursting charge. They 
were intended to be fired with a reduced charge at short range. 
They are now practically obsolete; their place with modern B.L. 
guns has been taken by high-explosive shell. Star shell are 
intended for illuminating the enemy's position. They are very 
similar to shrapnel shell, composition stars made up in cylindrical 
paper cases taking the place of the bullets. The shell on bursting, 



AMMUNITION 



869 



blows off the head and scatters the ignited stars. This shell is 
only supplied to mountain guns and howitzers, and takes the 
place of the older types of illuminating shell, viz. the ground light 
ball and the parachute light ball. 

Hand grenades were used at the assault of entrenchments or in 
boat attacks. Although generally regarded as obsolete, they 
were much used by the Japanese at the siege of Port Arthur, 1904. 
In the British service they were small, thin, spherical common 
shell weighing 3 ft for land service and 6 Ib for sea service, 
filled with powder. They were fitted with a small wood time 
fuze to burn 7-5 seconds. The grenade was held in the hand and 



FUZE 



FILLING 
HOLE 




BURSTING CHARGE . 
DIAPHRAGM 

BULLETS 
WEAKENING GROOVE 

SABOT 



RIVET. 
FIG. 8. Boxer Shrapnel. 

the fuze lighted by a port-fire. It was then thrown some 20 to 
30 yds. at the enemy's works or boats. Sometimes a number 
were fired from a mortar at an elevation of about 30 so that none 
should strike the ground too near the mortar. New types of 
grenades filled with high explosives deton- 
ated by a percussion fuze have been pro- 
duced of late years, and it is probable that 
they will be again introduced into most 
countries. 

Shrapnel shell were invented by Lieu- 
tenant (afterwards Lieutenant-General) Henry 
Shrapnel, R.A. (1761-1842), in 1784. They 
were spherical common shell with lead bullets 
mixed with the bursting charge. Although 
far superior to common shell in man-killing 
effect, their action was not altogether satis- 
factory, as the shell on bursting projected 
the bullets in all directions, and there was a 
liability of premature explosion. In order to 
overcome these defects Colonel Boxer, R.A., 
separated the bullets from the bursting charge 
by a sheet-iron diaphragm hence the name 
of " diaphragm shell " (fig. 8). The bullets 
were hardened by the addition of antimony, 
and, as the bursting charge was small, the 
shell was weakened by four grooves made 
inside the shell extending from the fuze hole 
to the opposite side. 
FIG. 9. Shrapnel With rifled' guns the form of the shell 
Shell. altered, but its character remained. The 

body of the shell was still made of cast iron with a cavity at 
the base for the bursting charge; on this was placed a thick 
steel diaphragm with a hollow brass tube which communi- 
cated the flash from the nose fuze to the bursting charge. The 
body was filled with hard lead bullets, and a wood head covered 





with sheet iron or steel surmounted it and carried the fuze. By 
making the body of toughened steel (fig. 9) and by slightly 
reducing the diameter of the bullets, the number of bullets 
contained was much increased. In the older field shrapnel, 
bullets of 18 and 34 to the Ib were used; for later patterns see 





Burst 



FIG. 10. 



7 of 
iBurst 



table in ORDNANCE: Field Equipments. 
Thus with the cast-iron body the percentage 
of useful weight, i.e. the proportion of the 
weight of the bullets to the total weight of 
the shell, was from 26 to 28 %, while with 
modern steel shell it is from 47 to 53 %. 
The limit of the forward effect of shrapnel 
at effective range is about 300 yds. and the 
extent of front covered 25 yds. 

Fig. 10 shows in plan the different effects of (a) shrapnel and of 
(ft) high-explosive, burst in the air with a time fuze in the usual 
way. It will be seen that the shrapnel bullets sweep an area of 
about 250 yds. by 30 yds., half the bullets falling on the first 
50 yds. of the beaten zone. With the high-explosive shell, 
however, the fragments strike the 
ground closer to the point of burst 
and beat a shallow, but broad, area 
of ground (about 7 yds. by 55 yds.). 
These areas show the calculated 
performance of the German field 
gun (96 N.A.), firing at a range of 
3300 yds. In the case of the high- 
explosive shell, the concussion of 
the burst is highly dangerous, quite 
apart from the actual distribution 
of the fragments of the shell.] 

The term " shooting shrapnel " 
is given to certain howitzer shrap- 
nel, which are designed to contain 
a large bursting charge for the pur- 
pose of considerably augmenting 
the velocity of the bullets when the 
shell bursts. 

High-explosive shell of a com- 
pound type have also lately ap- 
peared. Messrs Krupp have made 
a kind of ring shell with a steel 
body; a central tube conveys the 
flash from the fuze to a base maga- 
zine containing a smoke-producing 
charge, while surrounding the 
central tube is a bursting charge of 
ordinary smokeless nitro-powder. 
A shrapnel on somewhat similar 
lines has been made by Ehrhardt; 
in form (fig. u) it is an ordinary 
shrapnel with base burster, but 
near the head is a second magazine 
filled with a high-explosive charge; 
this is attached to the end of the 
fuze and is so arranged that when 
the shell is burst as time shrapnel 
the flash from the fuze passes clear 
of the high-explosive magazine and 




FIG. 11. High-Explosive 
Shrapnel (Ehrhardt). 



ignites only the base magazine, the bullets being blown out in 
the usual manner. When, however, the fuze acts on graze, the 
percussion part detonates the high-explosive charge and the 
bullets are blown out sideways and thus reach men behind 
shields, &c. (fig. 10). There is some loss of bullet capacity in 
this shell, and it appears likely that the bullets will be materially 



870 



AMMUNITION 



deformed when detonation occurs; the advantages may, how- 
ever, counterbalance their objections. 

Segment and ring shell are varieties of shrapnel, the interior of 
the shell being built-up of cast-iron segments or rings (which 
break up into segments) about a tinned-iron cylinder which 
formed the magazine of the shell. The shell was completed by 
a cast-iron body formed around the segments or rings. The 
German army in 1870 employed ring shell almost exclusively 
against the French. The French found that common shell (obus 
ordinaire) when made of cast iron broke up on bursting into a 
small number of irregularly shaped pieces, and in order to obtain a 
systematic fragmentation for small shells they adopted a variety 
of projectiles of the segment and shrapnel types. With the 
improvements made latterly these have become obsolete, and the 
French system does not'now materially differ from that employed 
in England and other countries. The old shell are, however, of 
sufficient interest to be enumerated; thus the " double-walled 
shell " (obus a, double paroi) was built up of two shells, the 
internal portion had a cylindrical chamber for the bursting charge, 
but on the outside it was so shaped as to break up into well- 
defined pieces; the external portion of the shell was cast around 
the internal part, and also broke up into a number of pieces; this 
shell was liable to premature explosion. The obus A couronnes de 
balles (1879) was practically a segment shell with cast-iron balls 
in Heu of segments; thin iron partitions separated each layer, 
and the balls were flattened where they came in contact with the 
plates. The obus a balles libres, adopted in 1 880, were of the same 
type, but there were no separating plates. The obus a anneaux 
was simply a ring shell of the same type as used in England. 
The obus d mitraille adopted in 1883 for field and siege guns had a 
cast-iron disc for its base with the body built up of segments and 
steel balls; a hollow ogival head surmounted this and a thin steel 
envelope bound all together. The head was filled with powder 
and fitted with a fuze; on explosion the head burst and ruptur- 
ing the envelope set free the balls and segments. 

It is of importance in firing shrapnel shell that the position of 
the burst shall be plainly seen. With the larger patterns of shell 
this presents no difficulty, but with the shrapnel for field guns 
which contain a small bursting charge only, and at long range 
in certain states of the atmosphere, the difficulty becomes 
pronounced. The problem has been solved in some cases by 
packing the bullets in fine grain black powder (instead of resin) 
and compressing both bullets and powder in order to prevent 
the generation of heat when the bullets set back on the discharge 
of the gun. In Germany a mixture of red amorphous phosphorus 
and fine grain powder is used for the same purpose and produces 
a dense white cloud of smoke. In Russia a mixture of magnesium 
and antimony sulphide is used. 

Fuzes. The fuzes first used were short iron or copper tubes 
filled with slow-burning composition. They were roughly screwed 
on the exterior to fit a similar thread in the fuze hole of the shell. 
There was no means of regulating the length of time of burning, 
but later, about the end of the I7th century, the fuze case was 
made of paper or wood, so that, by boring a hole through the outer 
casing into the composition, the fuze could be made to burn 
approximately for a given time before exploding the shell or the 
fuze could be cut to the correct length for the same purpose. 

Early attempts to produce percussion fuzes were unsuccessful, 
but the discovery of fulminate of mercury in 1799 finally afforded 
the means of attaining this object. Some fifty years, however, 
elapsed before a satisfactory fuze was made. This was the 
Pettman fuze, in which a roughened ball covered with detonating 
composition was released by the discharge of the gun. When the 
shell hit any object, the ball struck against the interior walls of 
the fuze, the composition was exploded and thence the bursting 
charge of the shell. At present there are three types of per- 
cussion fuzes (i) those which depend on the gas pressure in the 
gun setting the pellet of the fuze free this type is necessarily a 
base fuze; (2) those which rely on the shock of discharge or the 
rotation of the shell setting the pellet free, as in various kinds of 
nose and base fuzes; (3) those relying on direct impact with the 
object. 



The British base percussion fuze (fig. 12) illustrates type (i). 
In this, before firing, the' needle pellet is held back by a central 

Powder Pellet s P indle with a P res - 
-'' sure plate attached 

..Detonating-cap to its rear end. For 
additional safety a 
Spring centrifugal bolt is 

added which is re- 
leased by the rota- 
tion of the shell. 
On discharge, the 
gas pressure pushes 
the pressure plate 
in, the central 
spindle is carried 
forward with it and 
unlocks the centri- 
fugal bolt; this is 
withdrawn by the 
rotation of the 
shell, and the needle 




A . Needle- Pellet 

.. Body 

Locking N-it 
Centrifugal Bolt 

Spindle 
.$..-. Pressure Plate 



Holes for Key 
FIG. 12. Base Percussion Fuze (scale I). 



pellet is then free to move forward and explode the detonating 
cap when the shell strikes. 

Type (2) is that usually adopted in small base fuzes and in the 
percussion part of " time and percussion " fuzes. Here the 
ferrule, on shock of discharge, moves back relatively to the per- 
cussion pellet by collapsing the stirrup spring; this leaves the 
pellet free to move forward, on the shell striking, and its detonator 
to strike the needle fixed in the fuze body. A spiral spring 
prevents any movement of the pellet during flight. 

The direct-action or impact fuzes of type (3) are very simple 
(see fig. 13 of direct-action fuze). They are made of such 
a strength that during dis- 
charge nothing happens, 
but on striking an object 
the needle disc is crushed 
in and the needle explodes 
the detonating composition 
and thence the powder. 

The action of all time 
fuzes is started by the 



discharge of the gun. By 
this the pellet strikes the 
detonator and so ignites 




Safety 



..-Heedlc & Needle Disc 
- - Detonating Composition 



_ A Powder 



--Bottom Plug 



FIG. 13. Direct-Action Percussion 

Fuze (scale I). 
a length of slow-burning 

composition which is pressed into a wood tube or into a 
channel formed in a metal ring. To regulate the time of 
burning of the wood fuze, a hole is bored through into the 
composition as before stated, so that when it has burnt down to 
this hole one of the side channels filled with powder is ignited and 
explodes the shell. Wood fuzes are now only used for R. M.L. guns. 

With modern long-burning fuzes (fig. 14), two composition time 
rings are used. The lower of these rings is made movable so that 
it can be turned to bring any desired place over a hole in the body 
of the fuze, which is filled with powder and communicates with 
the magazine. On the gun being fired the detonator is exploded 
and its flash ignites the upper time ring. This burns round to a 
passage made in the lower ring, when the lower ring begins to burn 
and continues to do so until the channel to the magazine is 
reached. The gases from the ignited composition escape from an 
external hole made in each time ring. 

Mechanical time fuzes depending on the rotation of the shell to 
give a regular motion to clockwork have been tried, but so far no 
practicable form of these fuzes has been found. 

It is important that all fuzes should be rigidly guarded against 
dampness, which tends to lengthen their time of burning; hence 
they are protected either by being kept in hermetically sealed 
tins holding one or more fuzes, or by some similar means. 

Tubes and Primers. In ancient times various devices were 
adopted to ignite the charge. Small guns were fired by thrusting 
a hot wire down the vent into the charge, or slow-burning 
powder was poured down the vent and ignited by a hot wire. 



AMMUNITION 



871 



Later the priming powder was ignited by a piece of slow match 
held in a lint-stock (often called linstock). About A.D. 1700 this 
was effected by means of a port-fire (this was a paper case about 



Time pellet ** 



Screta cap 



Stirrup spring for 
time pellet 



Top composition 
ring 




Base D/uj7 



FIG. 14. Fuze, Time and Percussion, No. 80, Mk. I. 



16 in. long filled with slow-burning composition which burnt 
rather more than i in. per minute). Later again the charge 
was exploded by paper tubes (sometimes called Dutch tubes) 
filled with powder and placed in the vent and ignited by a port- 
fire. In comparatively modern times friction tubes have been 
used, while in the latest patterns percussion or electric tubes are 
employed. 

In most B.L. guns it is essential to stop the erosion of the metal 
of the vent by preventing the escape of gas through it when the 
gun is fired. For this purpose the charges in such guns are 
ignited by " vent-sealing tubes." For M.L. guns and small B.L. 
guns radially vented, especially those using black powder, the 
amount of erosion in the vent is not so serious. The charge is 
fired by ordinary friction tubes, which are blown away by the 
escape of gas through the vent. In all guns axially vented, vent- 
sealing tubes, which are not blown out, must be employed so that 
the men serving the gun may not be injured. 

The common friction tube is a copper tube, driven with powder, 
having at the upper end a short branch (called a nib piece) at 
right angles. This branch is filled with friction composition in 
which a friction bar is embedded. On the friction bar being 
sharply pulled out, by means of a lanyard, the composition is 
ignited and sets fire to the powder in the long tube; the flash is 
conveyed through the vent and explodes the gun charge. For 



Half round copper wire 
twisted and roughened 
Gun Me fa/ Head 



- -Loop dipped in solder 



'-Shearing wire ft'n one/ antimony 

Sof! copper bs/l 
3 Hales 

Brass Body 
loose porvr/tr 



sSSs. - Corfi plug she//ocee/ 

HI - Shct/oc cement 

FIG. 15. T-headed Friction Tube. 

naval purposes, in order that the sailors should not be cut about 
the face or hurt their feet, tubes of quill instead of copper were 
used. If friction tubes are employed when cordite or other 
smokeless powder charges are used, the erosion of the vent is very 
rapid unless the escape of the gas is prevented; in this case 
T-headed tubes (fig. 15) are used. They are similar in action to 




the ordinary type, but are fixed to the vent by the head fitting a 
bayonet joint formed with the vent. The explosion blows a small 



. Right hand spiral 



.Sarcenet 





Plan of Head 



..Oiled si'/k 



..I. Copper wire insulated with sift 
-"Brass body 

. .Copper poles coated with pure Hn 

. . Platinum silver wire 
^.Sneef iar>ife 

~ -Composition frim'ng 
Paper discs 



-Powder 



\-jCork disc 
FIG. 16. Electric Tube. 

ball upwards and blocks the coned hole at the top of the tube and 
so prevents any rush of gas. 

The vent-sealing tube accurately fits into a chamber formed at 
the end of the vent, and is held 
in place by the gun lock or some 
similar means. The force of 
the explosion expands the tube 
against the walls of its chamber, 
while the internal structure of 
the tube renders it gas-tight, 
any escape of gas through the 
vent being thus prevented. 

In the English service electric 
tubes (in the United States 
called " primers ") are mostly 
used, but percussion or friction 
tubes are in most favour on the 
continent, and electric tubes are 



\.Con, 

T.^ Insulated Wire 
Brass Body 

Ebonite Insulation 

_ - Brass Cone 

Composition Priminrf 

-.Platinum S/'/rer Bridge 



i 



m 



,-.'. 

m 

fffr- 



..'P.aperDisc 



. . Powder 



. . Copper Pole 



...CorfiP/uy 



seldom or never used. There are 
two types of electric tube, one 

with long wires (fig. 16) for join- _ , 

ing up with the electric circuit FlG ' '7.-W,reless Tube, 
and the other without external wires. The first type has two insu- 
lated wires led into the interior and attached to two insulated 



8 7 2 



AMMUNITION 



brass cones which are connected by a wire "bridge " of platinum 
silver. This bridge is surrounded by a priming composition of gun- 
cotton dust and mealed powder and the remainder of the tube is 
filled with powder. On an electric current passing, the bridge is 
heated to incandescence and ignites the priming composition. 

In the wireless tube (fig. 17) the lock of the gun makes the 
electric contact with an insulated disc in the head of the 
tube. This disc is connected by an insulated wire to a 
brass cone, also insulated, the bridge being formed from 
an edge of the cone to a brass wire which is soldered to the 
mouth of the tube. Priming composition surrounds the bridge 
and the tube is filled with powder. The electric circuit passes 
from the gun lock to the disc, thence through the bridge to the 

body of the tube, returning through 
the metal of the gun and mounting. 
The percussion tube (fig. 18) has 
a similarly shaped body to the wire- 
less electric tube, but the internal 
construction differs; it is fitted 
with a striker, below which is a 
percussion cap on a hollow brass 
anvil, and the tube is filled with 
powder. 

With Q.F. guns (that is, strictly, 
Gran Powder those using metallic cartridge cases) 
the case itself is fitted with the 
igniting medium; in England these 
are called primers. For small gun s 
the case contains a percussion 
primer, usually a copper cap filled 
with a chlorate mixture and resting 
against an anvil. The striker of 
the gun strikes the cap and fires 
the mixture. For larger guns an 




_ ___ Brass Via f her 



{..Brass Body 
... BrassSlriker 

. Percuss/on Cap 
_ Anvil 



...Cork Plug 



FIG. 1 8. Primer. 



electric primer (fig. 19) is used, the internal construction and 
action of which are precisely similar to the wireless tube already 
described; the exterior is screwed for the case. For percussion 

Waterproof Cement 

, Glaze board Disc 
Gun-cotton Oust 
and Mea/act Powder 




silver wire 
**Tuft of gun-cotton yarn 
mufure tin 
-a, Crown metal pok 
^, Brass screw collar 
(/.Ebon/re washer 
^ Oiled Silk 
-Brass Cone 
4* Black Thread 

-m Copper wire insulated 
with silk, bared at end 
with one turn in head 

mbonite ciyi. screwed 
* White metal contact 



Section Full Size 



FIG. 19. Electric Primer. 

firing an ordinary percussion tube is placed in an adapter 
screwed into the case. In some foreign services a combined 
electric and percussion primer is used; the action of this will 
be understood from fig. 20. 

The first cartridges for cannon were made up of gunpowder 
packed in a paper bag or case. For many years after the intro- 
^^ duction of cannon the powder was introduced into the 

tridge*. bore by means of a scoop-shaped ladle fixed to the 
end of a long stave. The ladle was made of the same 
diameter as the shot, and it had a definite length so that it was 
filled once for the charging of small guns but for larger guns the 



ladle had to be filled twice or even thrice. The rule was to 
make the powder charge the same weight as that of the shot. 

Cartridges made up in paper or canvas bags were after- 
wards used in forts at ^ 

night-time or on board 
ship, so that the guns 
could be more rapidly 
loaded and with less risk 
than by using a ladle. 
Before loading, a piece 
of the paper or canvas 
covering had to be cut 
open immediately under 
the vent; after the shot 
had been rammed home 
the vent was filled with 




._ MAGAZINE 

PLATINUM WIRE 

^INSULATION 

.. PERCUSSION CAP 

ANVIL 

FIG. 20. Combined Primer. 



powder from a priming horn, and the gun was then fired by 
means of a hot iron, quick match or port-fire. 

The ancient breech-loading guns were not so difficult to load, as 
the powder chamber of the gun was removable and was charged 
by simply filling it up with powder and ramming a wad on top 
to prevent the escape of the powder. 

Paper, canvas and similar materials are particularly liable to 
smoulder after the gun has been fired, hence the necessity of well 
sponging the piece. Even with this precaution accidents often 
occurred owing tc a cartridge being ignited by the still glowing 
debris of the previous round. In order to prevent this, bags of 
non-smouldering material, such as flannel, serge or silk cloth are 
used; combustible material such as woven gun-cotton cloth has 
also been tried, but there are certain disadvantages attending this. 

All smokeless powders are somewhat difficult to ignite in a 
gun, so that in order to prevent hang-fires every cartridge has a 
primer or igniter, of ordinary fine grain gunpowder, placed so as 
to intercept the flash from the tube; the outside of the bag con- 
taining this igniter is made of shalloon, to allow the flash to pene- 
trate with ease. The charge for heavy guns (above 6 in.) is 
made up in separate cartridges containing half and quarter 
charges, both for convenience of handling, and to allow of a 
reduced charge being used. 

The cartridges are made of a bundle of cordite, or other smoke- 
less powder, tightly tied with silk, placed in a silk cloth bag with 
the primer or igniter stitched on the unclosed end; the exterior 
is taped with silk cloth tape so as to form a stiff cartridge. For 

f Millboard Disc 
steeped in Shellac 
Silk cloth attached 
to millboard disc 
-iPrimcr stitched across 
in 4 places 



Plan of Top shewing 
disc to be torn off 




"*"Silk braid becket 
FIG. 21. lo-inch B.L. Gun Cartridge. 

some of the longer guns, the exterior of the cartridge is conven- 
iently made of a coned shape, the coned form being produced by 
building up layers outside a cylindrical core. In these large 
cartridges a silk cord becket runs up the centre with a loop at the 
top for handling (fig. 21). 



AMMUNITION 



873 



For howitzers, variable charges are used, and are made up so 
that the weight can be readily altered. The following typical 
instance (fig. 22) will serve to show the general method *of making 



2oz ring of cordite covered 

'utfcon 



--Silk [Hist 
,.[10 01 bandit 
I of cordite 




. R.F.C.* Powder 

* -4of. ring of cordite round bufidte 

FIG. 22. 6-inch B.L. Howitzer Cartridge. 

up such charges, whether for B.L. or Q.F. howitzers. Small size 
cordite is used, and the charge is formed of a mushroom-shaped 
core, made up in a shalloon bag; on the stalk, so as to be easily 
removed, three rings of cordite are placed. The bottom of the 
core contains the primer, and the rings can be attached to the core 
by two silk braids. The weight of the rings is graduated so that 
by detaching one or more the varying charges required can be 
obtained. 

For quick-firing guns the charge is contained in a brass case to 
which is fitted a primer for igniting the charge. This case is 




^.Bursting Chans 
4 01 Powder ' 



,iHoKhliiss fuze III. 
\I2 Threads per 
WA left hand 



Paper trad 



Cordite 



Silk twist 

ISM twist far 

!* {securing primer 
\to botienfof cordite 
Igniter or 
7 Prime.r 

Percussion Cap 
Section 

FIG. 23. 6-pr. Q.F. Cartridge (scale \). 

inserted into the gun, and when fired slightly expands and tightly 
fits the chamber of the gun, thus acting as an obturator and 
preventing any escape of gas from the breech. This class of 
ammunition is especially useful for the smaller calibres of 
guns, such as 3-pr., 6-pr. and field guns, but Messrs Krupp 
also employ metallic cartridge cases for the largest type of 



gun, probably on account of the known difficulty of ensuring 
trustworthy obturation by any other means practicable with 
sliding wedge guns. 

The charges for these cases are made up in a very similar 
manner to those already de- 
scribed for B.L. guns. Where 
necessary, distance pieces 
formed of papier-m&che tubes 
and felt wads are used to 
fill up the space in the case 
and so prevent any move- 
ment of the charge. The 
mouth of the case is closed 
either by the base end of 
the projectile (fig. 23), in 
which case it is called " fixed 
ammunition " or " simultane- 



or 

ous loading ammunition," or 
by a metallic cap (fig. 24), 
when it is called " separate 
loading ammunition," the 
projectile and charge being 




...Lubricating Lid 
Felt Wad y 



Silk Braids 



..... Brass Cast) 



..... Silk Braid 
..... Cordite Charge 
5 Hi. 7 02.. Sat 20 

----- Cordite Cylinder 
----- Powder Igniter 



Shalloon Bag 
j-..- Electric Primer 



FIG. 24. 4-7-inch Q.F. Cartridge 
(greatly reduced scale) . 



thus loaded by separate operations. (A. G. H.) 

The Bullet,. The original musket bullet was a spherical leaden 
ball two sizes smaller than the bore, wrapped in a loosely fitting 
paper patch which formed the cartridge. The loading 
was, therefore, easy with the old smooth-bore Brown s ~ tm . 
Bess and similar military muskets. The original munition. 
muzzle-loading rifle, on the other hand, with a closely 
fitting ball to take the grooves, was loaded with difficulty, particu- 
larly when foul, and for this reason was not generally used for 
military purposes. 

In 1826 Delirque, a French infantry officer, invented a breech 
with abrupt shoulders on which the spherical bullet was rammed 
down until it expanded and filled the grooves. The objection in 
this case was that the deformed bullet had an erratic flight. The 
Brunswick rifle, introduced into the British army in the reign of 
William IV., fired a spherical bullet weighing 557 grs. with a belt 
to fit the grooves. The rifle was not easily loaded, and soon 
fouled. In 1835 W. Greener produced a new expansive bullet, 
an oval ball, a diameter and a half in length, with a flat end, 
perforated, in which a cast metallic taper plug was inserted. 
The explosion of the charge drove the plug home, expanded the 
bullet, filled the grooves and prevented windage. A trial of the 
Greener bullet in August 1835, at Tynemouth, by a party of the 
6oth (now King's Royal) Rifles, proved successful. The range and 
accuracy of the rifle were retained, while the loading proved as 
easy as with a smooth-bore musket. The invention was, however, 
rejected by the military authorities on the ground that the bullet 
was a compound one. In 1852 the government awarded Minie, 
a Frenchman, 20,000 for a bullet of the same principle, adopted 
into the British service. Subsequently, in 1857, Greener was 
also awarded 1000 for " the first public suggestion of the 
principle of expansion, commonly called the Minie principle, in 
1836." The Minie bullet contained an iron cup in a cavity in 
the base of the bullet. The form of the bullet was subsequently 
changed from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal, with a hemispherical 
iron cup. This bullet was used in the Enfield rifle introduced 
into the British army in 1855. It weighed 530 grs., and was 
made up into cartridges and lubricated as for the Minie rifle. A 
boxwood plug to the bullet was also used. The bullet used in the 
breech-loading Martini-Henry rifle, adopted by the British 
government in 1871 in succession to the Snider-Enfield rifle, 
weighed 480 grs., and was fired from an Eley-Boxer cartridge- 
case with a wad of wax lubrication at the base of the bullet. 

Between 1854 and 1857 Sir Joseph Whitworth conducted a long 
series of rifle experiments, and proved, among other points, the 
advantages of a smaller bore and, in particular, of an elongated 
bullet. The Whitworth bullet was made to fit the grooves of the 
rifle mechanically. The Whitworth rifle was never adopted by 
the government, although it was used extensively for match 
purposes and target practice between 1857 and 1866, when 



8 74 



AMMUNITION 



it was gradually superseded by Metford's system mentioned 
below. 

The next important change in the history of the rifle bullet 
occurred in 1883, when Major Rubin, director of the Swiss 
Laboratory at Thun, invented the small-calibre rifle, one of 
whose essential features was the employment of an elongated 
compound bullet, with a leaden core in a copper envelope. 
About 1862 and later, W. E. Metford had carried out an ex- 
haustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling, and had 
invented the important system of light rifling with increasing 
spiral, and a hardened bullet. The combined result of the above 
inventions was that in December 1888 the Lee-Metford small-bore 
303 rifle, Mark I., was finally adopted for the British army. The 
latest development of this rifle is now known as the -303 Lee- 
Enfield, which fires a long, thin, nickel-covered, leaden-cored 
bullet 1-25 in. long, weighing only 215 grs., while the Martini- 
Henry bullet, 1-27 in. in length and -45 in. in diameter, weighed 
480 grs. 

The adoption of the smaller elongated bullet, necessitated by 
the smaller calibre of the rifle, entailed some definite disad- 
vantages. The lighter bullet is more affected by wind. Its 
greater relative length to diameter necessitates a shaiper pitch 
of rifling in order properly to revolve the bullet (one turn in 10 in. 
for the -303 rifle as compared with one turn in 22 in. for the 
Martini-Henry). This, in its turn, necessitates a hard nickel 
envelope for the leaden bullet in order to prevent its " stripping," 
or being forced through the barrel without rotation. The general 
result is that, while the enveloped bullet has a much higher 
penetrative power than one of lead only, it does not usually 
inflict so severe a wound, nor has it such a stunning effect as the 
old lead bullet. It cuts a small clean hole, but does not deform. 
This fact is of some military importance, as, for example, in 
warfare with savages, in which the chief danger is usually a rush 
of large numbers at close quarters. The advantages, however, 
of the smaller calibre and the lighter bullet and ammunition are 
considered to outweigh the disadvantages, and they have been 
universally adopted for all military rifles. 

Bullets for target and sporting-rifles have, in the main, 
followed, or occasionally preceded, the line of progress of military 
rifle bullets. In 1861 Henry introduced a modification of the 
grooving of the cylindrical Whitworth bullet, and in 1864 and 
1865 the Rigby mechanically fitting bullet was used with success 
at the National Rifle Association meeting, and in the second stage 
of the Queen's prize. The bullets of sporting rifles, and particu- 
larly those of Express rifles, are often lighter than military 
bullets, and made with hollow points to ensure the expansion of 
the projectile on or after impact. The size and shape of the 
hollow in the point vary according to the purpose required and 
the nature of the game hunted. If greater penetration is needed, 
the leaden bullet is hardened with mercury or tin, or the military 
nickel-coated bullet is used with the small-bore, smokeless- 
powder rifles. Explosive bullets filled with detonating powder 
were at one time used in Express and large-bore rifles for large 
game. The use of these bullets is now practically abandoned 
owing to their uncertainty of action and the danger involved in 
handling them. Their use in warfare is prohibited by inter- 
national law. 

The nickel-covered bullet, when used in a modern small-bore 
rifle for sporting purposes, is made into an expanding bullet, 
either by leaving the leaden core uncovered at the nose of the 
bullet, with or without a hollow point, or by cutting transverse 
or longitudinal nicks of varying depth in the point or circumfer- 
ence of the bullet. 

A cone-shaped sharp-pointed bullet, named the Spitzer bullet, 
has been tried in the United States under the auspices of the 
Ordnance Department, in a Springfield rifle, which is practically 
identical with the British service -303 Lee-Enfield. This bullet 
is lighter than the Lee-Enfield bullet (150 grs. as against 
215 grs.), and when fired with a heavier charge of powder (51 
grs. as against 31 grs.) gives, it is claimed, better results in 
muzzle-velocity, trajectory, deflexion from wind and wear and 
tear of rifling, than the present universally used cylinder-shaped 



bullet. In 1906 details of its prototype, the German " S " bullet 
(Spitzgeschoss), and of the French " D " bullet, were published. 
The Cartridge. The original cartridge for military small arms 
dates from 1 586. It consisted of a charge of powder and a bullet 
in a paper envelope. This cartridge was used with the muzzle- 
loading military firearm, the base of the cartridge being ripped or 
bitten off by the soldier, the powder poured into the barrel, and 
the bullet then rammed home. Before the invention of the fire- 
lock or flint-lock, about 1635, the priming was originally put into 
the pan of the wheel-lock and snaphance muskets from a flask 
containing a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder. 
Later the pan was filled from the cartridge above described before 
loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket, in which the 



r\ * 



/ \ 




A 




i, 




\ 

| 


C- 0-311 "-> 
British 
.303 bulle 


* 

, 


rJ T 

* 0-373 > 
German 
'S" bullet 



r\ 



Lee Metford 
303 in. 



-f .440 + 

Rumanian 
256 in. 



FIG. 25. 



pan was covered by the furrowed steel struck by the flint, 
rendered this method of priming unnecessary, as, in loading, a 
portion of the charge of powder passed from the barrel through 
the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover and 
hammer. 

The next important advance in the method of ignition was the 
introduction of the copper percussion cap. This was only gener- 
ally applied to the British military musket (the Brown Bess) in 
1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of percussion 
powder and after an elaborate government test at Woolwich in 
1834. The invention which made the percussion cap possible 
was patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807, and consisted of 
priming with a fulminating powder made of chlorate of potash, 
sulphur and charcoal, which exploded by concussion. This 
invention was gradually developed, and used, first in a steel cap, 
and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers and private 
individuals before coming into general military use nearly thirty 
years later. The alteration of the military flint-lock to the per- 
cussion musket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder 
pan by a perforated nipple, and by replacing the cock or hammer 
which held the flint by a smaller hammer with a hollow to fit on 
the nipple when released by the trigger. On the nipple was 
placed the copper cap containing the detonating composition, 
now made of three parts of chlorate of potash, two of fulminate 
of mercury and one of powdered glass. The detonating cap thus 
invented and adopted, brought about the invention of the 
modern cartridge case, and rendered possible the general adop- 
tion of the breech-loading principle for all varieties of rifles, shot 
guns and pistols. Probably no invention connected with fire- 
arms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun construc- 
tion as those effected by the expansive cartridge case. This 
invention has completely revolutionized the art of gunmaking, 



AMNESTY AMOEBA 



875 



has been successfully applied to all descriptions of firearms, and 
has produced a new and important industry that of cartridge 
manufacture. 

Its essential feature is the prevention of all escape of gas at the 
breech when the weapon is fired, by means of an expansive 
cartridge case containing its own means of ignition. Previous to 
this invention shot guns and sporting rifles were loaded by 
means of powder flasks and shot flasks, bullets, wads and copper 
caps, all carried separately. The earliest efficient modern 
cartridge case was the pin-fire, patented, according to some 
authorities, by Houiller, a Paris gunsmith, in 1847; and, 
according to others, by Lefaucheux, also a Paris gunsmith, in or 
about 1850. It consisted of thin weak shell made of brass and 
paper which expanded by the force of the explosion, fitted 
perfectly into the barrel, and thus formed an efficient gas check. 
A small percussion cap was placed in the middle of the base of the 
cartridge, and was exploded by means of a brass pin projecting 
from the side and struck by the hammer. This pin also afforded 
the means of extracting the cartridge case. This cartridge was 
introduced in England by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London, 
about 1855. 

The central-fire cartridge was introduced into England in 1861 
by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet of Paris, 
improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to much litigation in 
respect of its patent rights. Daw was subsequently defeated in 
his control of the patents by Eley Bros. In this cartridge the cap 
in the centre of the cartridge base is detonated by a striker 
passing through the standing breech to the inner face, the 
cartridge case being withdrawn, or, in the most modern weapons, 
ejected by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech end of the 
barrel, which catches the rim of the base of the cartridge. 

This is practically the modern cartridge case now in universal 
use. In the case of shot guns it has been gradually inproved in 
small details. The cases are made either of paper of various 
qualities with brass bases, or entirely of thin brass. The wadding 
between powder and shot has been thickened and improved in 
quality; and the end of the cartridge case is now made to fit 
more perfectly into the breech chamber. These cartridges vary 
in size from 3 2 bore up to 4 bore for shoulder guns. They are also 
made as small as -410 and -360 gauge: their length varies from 
if in. to 4 in. Cartridges for punt guns are usually 15 in. in 
diameter and gf in. in length. 

In the case of military rifles the breech-loading cartridge case 
was first adopted in principle by the Prussians about 1841 in the 
needle-gun (q.v.) breech-loader. In this a conical bullet rested 
on a thick wad, behind which was the powder, the whole being 
enclosed in strong lubricated paper. The detonator was in the 
hinder surface of the wad, and fired by a needle driven forward 
from the breech, through the base of the cartridge and through 
the powder, by the action of a spiral spring set free by the pulling 
of the trigger. 

In 1867 the British war office adopted the Eley-Boxer metallic 
central-fire cartridge case in the Enfield rifles, which were 
converted to breech-loaders on the Snider principle. This con- 
sisted of a block opening on a hinge, thus forming a false breech 
against which the cartridge rested. The detonating cap was in 
the base of the cartridge, and was exploded by a striker passing 
through the breech block. Other European powers adopted 
breech-loading military rifles from 1866 to 1868, with paper 
instead of metallic cartridge cases. The original Eley-Boxer 
cartridge case was made of thin coiled brass. Later the solid- 
drawn, central-fire cartridge case, made of one entire solid piece of 
tough hard metal, an alloy of copper, &c., with a solid head of 
thicker metal, has been generally substituted. 

Central-fire cartridges with solid-drawn metallic cases contain- 
ing their own means of ignition are now universally used in all 
modern varieties of military and sporting rifles and pistols. 
There is great variety in the length and diameter of cartridges for 
the different kinds and calibres of rifles and pistols. Those for 
military rifles vary from 2-2 in. to 2-25 in. in length, and from 
256 to -315 gauge. For sporting rifles from zi in. to 35 in. in 
length, and through numerous gauges from -256 in. to -600 in. 



For revolvers, pistols, rook and rabbit rifles, and for Morris tubes, 
cartridges vary from -22 in. to -301 in. in gauge. All miniature 
cartridges with light charges are made for breech adapters to 
enable -303 military rifles to be used on miniature rifle ranges. 
All the above cartridges are central-fire. Rim-fire cartridges for 
rifles, revolvers and pistols vary from -22 in. to -56 in. gauge 
according to the weapon for which they are required. The 
cartridge for the British war office miniature rifle is -22 calibre, 
with 5 grs. of powder and a bullet weighing 40 grs. Most 
modern military rifles are supplied with clip or charger loading 
arrangements, whereby the magazine is filled with the required 
number of cartridges in one motion. A clip is simply a case of 
cartridges which is dropped into the magazine; a charger is a 
strip of metal holding the bases of the cartridges, and is placed 
over the magazine, the cartridges being pressed out into the 
latter. Both clips and chargers, being consumable stores, may be 
considered as ammunition. (H. S.-K.) 

AMNESTY (from the Gr. anvnoria, oblivion), an act of 
grace by which the supreme power in a state restores those 
who may have been guilty of any offence against it to the 
position of innocent persons. It includes more than pardon, 
inasmuch as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offence. 
Amnesties, which may be granted by the crown alone, or by act 
of parliament, were formerly usual on coronations and similar 
occasions, but are chiefly exercised towards associations of 
political criminals, and are sometimes granted absolutely, though 
more frequently there are certain specified exceptions. Thus, in 
the case of the earliest recorded amnesty, that of Thrasybulus at 
Athens, the thirty tyrants and a few others were expressly 
excluded from its operation; and the amnesty proclaimed on 
the restoration of Charles II. did not extend to those who had 
taken part in the execution of his father. Other celebrated 
amnesties are that proclaimed by Napoleon on the 1 3th of March 
1815, from which thirteen eminent persons, including Talleyrand, 
were excepted; the Prussian amnesty of the icth of August 
1840; the general amnesty proclaimed by the emperor Francis 
Joseph of Austria in 1857; the general amnesty granted by 
President Johnson after the Civil War in 1868; and the French 
amnesty of 1905. The last act of amnesty passed in Great 
Britain was that of 1 747, which proclaimed a pardon to those who 
had taken part in the second Jacobite rebellion. 

AMOEBA, the Greek equivalent of the name " Amibe " given 
by Bery St Vincent to the Proteus animalcule of earlier natural- 
ists, used as a quasi-popular term for any simple naked protist 
the sole external organs of which are pseudopodia, i.e. temporary 
outgrowths of the clearer outer layer of the soft protoplasmic 
body. It is also used as a generic name, and in its present 
limitations by E. Penard includes only those the pseudopodia 
of which are constantly changing, blunt outgrowths. In the 
former wider sense, amoebae are found in sluggish waters, fresh 
and salt, all over the world; they readily make their appearance 
in infusions putrefying after infection from aerially carried germs, 
and the leucocytes or colourless blood corpuscles of Metazoa 
are essentially amoebae in their structure and behaviour. The 
protoplasm of the individual is divided into a centrally placed 
body, the nucleus, of relatively stable shape, and the cytoplasm, 
itself divided into an outer, clearer ectoplasm (" ectosarc ") and 
an inner, more granular endoplasm (" endosarc "), passing into 
one another. The movements of amoebae are of several kinds, 
(i) The amoeba may grow out irregularly into blunt lobes, the 
pseudopodia, some being emitted while others are retracted, and 
so may advance in any direction by the emission of pseudopodia 
thitherward, and the enlargement of these by the passage of the 
organism into them. (2) Again, it may advance by a sort of 
rolling: the lower surface, or that in contact with the sub- 
stratum over or under which it is passing, is viscid and adheres 
to the substratum, the superficial dorsal layer passing forward 
and bending over to the ventral side; whilst the converse action 
takes place at the hinder end; (3) or again, the pseudopodia, 
when long, well marked and relatively permanent, may serve as 
actual limbs on which the body is supported and on which it 
moves. In the outgrowth of a pseudopod the process may take 



8y6 



AMOL AMORT 



place gradually, the ectoplasm growing as it stretches, or it may 
take place by the limiting layer of the ectosarc bursting, as it 
were, and a rounded prominence of the endosarc protruding and 
at once forming a new " skin " or pellicle. This last mode, 
termed " eruptive," is common in the case of the enormous, 
multinucleate amoeba termed Pelomyxa palmtris, which attains 
a diameter when contracted and spherical of as much as a line 
(over 2 mm.). From the ease with which amoebae are obtained 
and kept alive under the microscope, as well as from their identity 
in structure with the primitive elements of Metazoa, they have 
always been favourite objects of study for protoplasmic physi- 
ology under its simplest conditions. Among the investigators of 
protoplasmic movements we may cite F. Dujardin, O. Butschli, 
L. Rhumbler and H. S. Jennings. The opening to the exterior 
of the contractile vesicle has been found here. Pelomyxa has 
yielded to A. E. Dixon and M. Hartog a peptic ferment, such as 
has been extracted by C. F. W. Krukenbergfromthe Myxomycete 
Fuligo (Flowers of Tan), which is the largest known naked mass 
of protoplasm without cellular differentiation. 

Amoeba shows also the multiplication by fission, so character- 
istic of the cell: for the study of other modes of reproduction, 
spore formation and syngamic (or so-called fertilization) pro- 
cesses, fresh-water or salt-water amoebae are ill suited, and up to 
this date we do not know the life cycle of any free-living naked 
amoeba, though that of some parasitic forms and shell-bearers 
have been fully made out. Some amoebae are certainly young 
states of Myxomycetes. ^Encystment, the excretion of a mem- 
brane around the cell to tide over unfavourable circumstances, 
has been noted in almost all species. 

Amoeba coli and A. histolytica are parasites in the gut of man, 
the former relatively harmless, the latter the cause of severe 
dysentery and hepatic abscess, common in India. 

H. S. Jennings has recently made a full study of the move- 
ments of Amoeba, and of its general behaviour, and found therein 
many indications that these are on the whole such as we should 
expect of an organism working by " trial and error " rather than 
the uniform modes of non-living beings. Thus the operations of 
an amoeba ingesting a round, encysted Euglena are summed up 
thus: " One seems to see that the amoeba is trying to obtain 
this cyst for food, that it shows remarkable pertinacity in 
continuing its attempts to put forth efforts to accomplish this 
in various ways, and that it shows remarkable pertinacity in 
continuing its attempts to ingest the food when it meets with 
difficulties. Indeed the scene could be described in a much 
more vivid and interesting way by the use of terms still more 
anthropomorphic in tendency." (M. HA.) 

AMOL, or AMTJL, a town of Persia, in the province of Mazan- 
daran, 23 m. W. of Barfurush, in 36 28' N. Lat. and 52 23' E. 
long. Pop. about 10,000. It is situated on both banks of the 
Heraz, or Herhaz river, which is crossed here by a very narrow 
stone bridge of twelve arches and flows into the Caspian Sea 1 2 m. 
lower down. Amol is not walled and is now a place of little 
importance, but in and around it there are ruins and ancient 
buildings which bear witness to its former greatness. Of these 
the most conspicuous is the mausoleum of Seyed Kawam ud-din, 
king of Mazandaran, who died in 1379, and one old mosque dates 
from A.D. 793. The town has spacious and well-supplied bazaars 
and post and telegraph offices. 

AMONTONS, GUILLAUME (1663-1705), French experimental 
philosopher, the son of an advocate who had left his native 
province of Normandy and established himself at Paris, was born 
in that city on the 3ist of August 1663. He devoted himself 
particularly to the improvement of instruments employed in 
physical experiments. In 1687 he presented to the Academy of 
Sciences an hygrometer of his own invention, and in 1695 he 
published his only book, Remarques et experiences physiques sur la 
construction d'une nowoelle clepsydre, sur les baromeires, les 
thermometres et les hygrometres. In 1699 he published some in- 
vestigations on friction, and in 1702-1703 two noteworthy papers 
on thermometry. He experimented with an air-thermometer, 
in which the temperature was defined by measurement of 
the length of a column of mercury; and he pointed out that 



the extreme cold of such a thermometer would be that which 
reduced the " spring " of the air to nothing, thus being the first to 
recognize that the use of air as a thermometric substance led to 
the inference of the existence of a zero of temperature. In 1704 
he noted that barometers are affected by heat as well as by the 
weight of the atmosphere, and in the following year he described 
barometers without mercury, for use at sea. Amontons, who 
through disease was rendered almost completely deaf in early 
youth, died at Paris on the nth of October 1705. 

'AMORA (Hebrew for " speaker " or " discourser "), a title 
applied to the rabbis of the 2nd to 5th centuries, i.e. to the com- 
pilers of the Talmud. Each tana or rabbi of the earlier period 
had a spokesman, who repeated to large audiences the discourses 
of the tana. But the 'amora soon ceased to be a mere repeater, 
and developed into an original expounder of scripture and 
tradition. 

AMORITES, the name given by the Israelites to the earlier 
inhabitants of Palestine. They are regarded as a powerful people, 
giants in stature " like the height of the cedars," who had 
occupied the land east and west of the Jordan. The Biblical 
usage appears to show that the terms " Canaanites " and 
" Amorites " were used synonymously, the former being char- 
acteristic of Judaean, the latter of Ephraimite and Deuteronomic 
writers. A distinction is sometimes maintained, however, when 
the Amorites are spoken of as the people of the past, whereas the 
Canaanites are referred to as still surviving. The old name is an 
ethnic term, evidently to be connected with the terms Amurru 
and Amar, used by Assyria and Egypt respectively. In the 
spelling Mar-tu, the name is as oldasthefirstBabylonian dynasty, 
but from the I5th century B.C. and downwards its syllabic 
equivalent Amurru is applied primarily to the land extending 
northwards of Palestine as far as Kadesh on the Orontes. The 
term " Canaan," on the other hand, is confined more especially 
to the southern district (from Gebal to the south of Palestine). 
But it is possible that the terms at an early -date were inter- 
changeable, Canaan being geographical and Amorite ethnical. 
The wider extension of the use of Amurru by the Babylonians and 
Assyrians is complicated by the fact that it was even applied to a 
district in the neighbourhood of Babylonia. If the people of the 
first Babylonian dynasty (about 2ist century B.C.) called them- 
selves " Amorites," as Ranke seems to have shown, it is possible 
that some feeling of common origin was recognized at that early 
date. 

See Ranke, Bab. Exped. Pennsylvania, series D, iii. 33 sqq. ; and for 
general information, W. M . M tiller, A sien u. Europa,2 1 7 sqq. ; Pinches, 
Old Testament, Index (s.v.). The people of Amar are represented on 
the Egyptian monuments with yellow skin, blue eyes, red eyebrows 
and beard, whence it has been conjectured that they were akin to 
the Libyans (Sayce, Expositor, July 1888). Senir, the " Amorite " 
name of Hermon (Deut. iii. 9), appears to be identical with Saniru in 
the Lebanon, mentioned by Shalmaneser II. In the Old Testament 
the chief references may be classified as follows : primitive inhabit- 
ants generally, Is. xvii. 9 (on text see comm.), Ezek. xvi. 3; a people 
W. of Jordan, Josh. x. 5; Judg. i. 34-36; Deut. i. 7, 44; Gen. xiv. 7, 
xlviii. 22; E. of Jordan, Num. xxi. 13, 21 sqq.; Josh. ii. 10, xxiv. 8; 
Judg. x. 8. See further CANAAN, PALESTINE. 

AMORPHISM (from a, privative, and nop<t>r), form), a term 
used in chemistry and mineralogy to denote the absence of 
regular or crystalline structure in a body; the adjective " amor- 
phous," formless or of irregular shape, being also used technically 
in biology, &c. 

AMORT, EUSEBIUS (1692-1775), German Catholic theologian, 
was born at Bibermuhle, near Tolz, in Upper Bavaria, on the 
1 5th of November 1692. He studied at Munich, and at an early 
age joined the Canons Regular at Polling, where, shortly after 
his ordination in 1717, he taught theology and philosophy. In 
1733 he went to Rome as theologian to Cardinal Niccolo Maria 
Lercari (d. 1757). He returned to Polling in 1735 and devoted 
the rest of his life to the revival of learning in Bavaria. He died 
at Polling on the sth of February 1775. Amort, who had the 
reputation of being the most learned man of his age, was a 
voluminous writer on every conceivable subject, from poetry 
to astronomy, from dogmatic theology to mysticism. His best 
known works are: a manual of theology in 4 vols., Theologia 



AMORTIZATION AMOS 



877 



eclectica, moralis et scholastica (Augsburg, 1752; revised by 
Benedict XIV. for the 1753 edition published at Bologna); 
a defence of Catholic doctrine, entitled Demonstratio critica 
religionis Catholicae (Augsburg, 1751); a work on indulgences, 
which has of ten been criticized by Protestant writers, DeOrigine, 
Progressu, Valore, et Fructu Indulgentiorum (Augsburg, 1735); 
a treatise on mysticism, De Reoelationibus et Visionibus, &c. 
(2 vols., 1744); and the astronomical work Nova philosophiae 
planetarum et artis criticae systemata (Nuremberg, 1723). The 
list of his other works, including his three erudite contributions to 
the question of authorship of the Imitatio Christi, will be found in 
C. Toussaint's scholarly article in A. Vacant's Diet, de Mologie 
(1900, cols. 1115-1117). 

AMORTIZATION (derived through the French from Lat. ad, 
and mortem, to death), literally an extinction or doing to death, 
a word formerly used of alienating lands in mortmain, and now 
for the paying off of a debt, particularly by means of a regular 
sinking-fund; thus " amortization " and " amortization fund " 
generally refer to the latter method of extinguishing some 
pecuniary liability. 

AMORY, THOMAS (c. 1691-1788), British author, was born 
about 1691, his father being the secretary for the forfeited estates 
in Ireland. He was an eccentric character and seems to have 
lived a very secluded life. He published Memoirs; containing 
the lives of several Ladies of Great Britain; a History of Antiquities 
^.(1755) and Life of John Bunch Esq. (1756 and 1766). Both 
books are an extraordinary mixture of fiction, autobiography, 
scenic description and theological discussion. Amory died on the 
25th of November 1788. 

AMOS, in the Bible, an Israelitish prophet of the 8th century B.C. 
He was a native of Tekoa, i.e. as most suppose, a place which still 
bears the same name 6 m. S. of Bethlehem. He was a shepherd, 
or perhaps a sheep-breeder, but combined this occupation with 
that of a tender of sycomore figs. It is true, the Tekoa just 
mentioned lies too high for sycomores; so it has been almost too 
ingeniously supposed that Amos may have owned a plantation of 
sycomores in the hill country leading down to Philistia, techni- 
cally called the Shephelah (R. V. , " lowland ") . Here there were 
sycomores in abundance (i Kings x. 27). That this was his usual 
occupation we learn from a better source than the heading (i. i), 
viz. a narrative (vii. 10, 1.7), evidently of early origin, which 
interrupts the series of prophetic visions on the fall of the 
kingdom of Israel. Amos, it appears, though himself a Judahite, 
had been prophesying in the northern kingdom, when his activity 
was brought to an abrupt close by the head priest of the royal 
sanctuary at Bethel, Amaziah, who bade him escape to the land 
of Judah and get his living there. The reply of Amos is full of 
instruction. "No prophet am I; no prophet's son am I; a 
shepherd am I, and one who tends sycomore-figs. And Yahweh 
took me from behind the flock; and Yahweh said to me, Go, 
prophesy against my people Israel." The following words show 
that a prophet in ancient Israel had the utmost freedom of speech. 
It was far otherwise in the period of the fall of Judah. (See 
JEREMIAH.) 

But what had Amos said that appeared so dangerous to the 
head priest ? Amaziah summarizes it thus, "Jeroboam shall die 
by the sword, and Israel shall go away into captivity from his 
own land " (vii. n; cf. vii. gb, v. 27, vi. 7). He omits all the 
reasons for this stern prophecy. The reasons are that the good 
old Israelitish virtue of brotherliness is dying away, that oppres- 
sion and injustice are rampant (ii. 6-8, iii. 9, 10, iv. i, v. n, 12, 
viii. 4-6), and that rites are practised in the name of religion 
which are abhorrent to Yahweh, because they either have no 
moral meaning at all, and are mere forms (v. 21-23), or else, 
judged from Amos's purified point of view, are absolutely 
immoral (ii. 7; cf. viii. 14). On the details of the captivity 
Amos preserves a mysterious vagueness. The fact, however, he 
puts forward with the confidence of one who is intimate with his 
God (iii. 7), and mdst probably it was at some great festival that 
he spoke the words which so perturbed Amaziah. The priest 
may not indeed himself have believed them, but he probably 
feared their effect on the moral courage of the people. And it is 



perhaps not arbitrary to suppose that the splendour of the ritual 
in Amos's time implies a tremulous anxiety that Israel's seeming 
prosperity under Jeroboam II. (see JEWS) may not be as secure 
as could be wished. For Amos cannot have been quite alone 
either in Israel or in Judah; there must have been a little 
flock of those who felt with Amos that there was small reason 
indeed to " desire the day of Yahweh " (v. 18; see Harper's 
note). 

But why did Amos so emphatically decline to be called a 
prophet ? A prophet in some true sense he certainly was, a 
prophet who, within his own range, has not been surpassed. He 
means this that he is no mere ecstatic enthusiast or " dervish," 
whose primary aim is to keep up the warlike spirit of the people, 
taking for granted that Yahweh is on the people's side, and that 
he is perfectly free from the taint of selfishness, not having to 
support himself by his prophesying. He could not indeed tell 
Amaziah this, but it is nevertheless true that he was the founder, 
or one of the founders, of a new type of prophet. He was also 
either the first, or one of the first, to write down, or to get 
written down, the substance of his spoken prophecies, and perhaps 
also prophecies which he never delivered at all. This was the 
consequence of his ill success as a public preacher. The other 
prophets of the same order may be presumed to have been hardly 
less unsuccessful. Hence the new phenomenon of written 
prophecies. The literary skill of Amos leads one to suppose that 
he had prepared in advance for this, perhaps we may say, not 
altogether unfortunate necessity. 

That there are many hard problems connected with the fascin- 
ating book of Amos cannot be denied. The one point on which 
we have indicated a doubt, viz. as to the situation of Tekoa, 
ought strictly to be accompanied by others. For instance, how 
came Amos to transfer himself to northern Israel ? How hard it 
must have been to obtain a footing there while he was a mere 
student and observer! And how came he by his wide knowledge 
of people outside the limits of Israel ? The most recent and 
elaborate commentator even calls him an " ethnologist." And 
lastly, whence came his mastery of the poetical and literary arts ? 
Is he really the Columbus of written prophecy ? And behind 
these questions is the fundamental problem of the text, which has 
been somewhat too slightly treated. The text of Hosea may be 
in a much worse condition, but a keen scrutiny discloses many 
an uncertainty, not to say impossibility, in the traditional form 
of Amos. That the text has been much adapted and altered is 
certain; not less obvious are the corruptions due to carelessness 
and accident. 

The main divisions of the book are plain, viz. chaps, i.-ii., 
chaps, iii.-vi., and chaps, vii.-ix. This arrangement, however, 
is probably not due to Amos himself, or to his immediate disciples, 
but to some later redactor. A number of passages seem to have 
been inserted subsequently to the time of Amos, on which see 
Ency. Bib., " Amos," and the introduction to Robertson Smith's 
Prophets of Israel ( 2 ), though in some cases the final decision will 
have to be preceded by a more thorough examination of the 
traditional text. The most obvious non-Amosian passage in the 
book is the concluding passage, ix. 8-15, which has evidently 
supplanted the original close of the section. The meaning of the 
phrase " the tabernacle (booth) of David that is fallen " (ver. n) 
is not perfectly clear. Beyond reasonable doubt, however, the 
writer seeks to take out the sting of the preceding passage in 
which Israel is devoted to utter destruction. The penitent and 
God-fearing Jews of the post-exilic age needed some softening 
appendix, and this the editor provided. 

English readers are now well supplied with books on Amos. 
Driver's Joel and Amos (see JOEL) (1897) and G. A. Smith's Twelve 
Prophets, vol. i. (1896), supplement and illustrate each other. Harper's 
Amos and Hosea (see HOSEA) (1905) gives the cream of all the good 
things that have been said before, with a generally sound judgment ; 
it is addressed to advanced students, and is perhaps less cautious 
than the two former. The German commentaries on the Minor 
Prophets by Nowack (2nd ed., 1903) and (especially) Marti (1904) 
must not, however, be neglected. Wellhausen's briefer work (3rd 
ed., 1898) is especially suggestive for textual criticism. Cheyne's 
Critica Biblica (1904), cf. his review of Harper in Hibbert Journal, 
iii. 824 ff., breaks new ground. (T. K. C.) 



8 7 8 



AMOS AMPERE 



AMOS. SHELDON (1835-1886), English jurist, was educated 
at Clare College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar as a 
member of the Middle Temple in 1862. In 1869 he was appointed 
to the chair of jurisprudence in University College, London, and 
in 1872 became reader under the council of legal education and 
examiner in constitutional law and history to the university of 
London. Failing health led to his resignation of those offices, 
and he took a voyage to the South Seas. He resided for a short 
time at Sydney, and finally settled in Egypt, where he practised 
as an advocate. After the bombardment of Alexandria, and the 
reorganization of the Egyptian judicature, he was appointed 
judge of the court of appeal, but being without any previous 
experience of administrative work he found the strain too great 
for his health. He came to England on leave in the autumn of 
1885, and on his return to Egypt he died suddenly at Alexandria 
on the 3rd of January 1886. His principal publications are: 
Systematic View of the Science of Jurisprudence (1872); Lectures 
on International Law (1873); Science of Law (1874); Science of 
Politics (1883); History and Principles of the Civil Law of Rome 
as Aid to the Study of Scientific and Comparative Jurisprudence 
(1883), and numerous pamphlets. His wife, Mrs Sheldon Amos 
(Sarah Maclardie Bunting), took a prominent part in Liberal 
Nonconformist politics and in movements connected with the 
position of women. She died at Cairo on the 2ist of January 
1908. 

AMOY, a city and treaty-port in the province of Fuh-kien, 
China, situated on the slope of a hill, on the south coast of a small 
and barren island named Hiamen, in 24 28' N. and 118 10' E. 
It is a large and exceedingly dirty place, about 9 m. in 
circumference, and is divided into two portions, an inner and an 
outer town, which are separated from each other by a ridge of 
hills, on which a citadel of considerable strength has been built. 
Each of these divisions of the city possesses a large and com- 
modious harbour, that of the inner town, or city proper, being 
protected by strong fortifications. There are dry-docks and an 
excellent anchorage. Amoy may be regarded as the port of the 
inland city of Chang-chow, with which it has river communication, 
and its trade, both foreign and coastwise, is extensive and valuable. 
The chief articles imported are sugar, rice, raw cotton and opium, 
as well as cotton cloths, iron goods and other European manu- 
factures. The chief exports are tea, porcelain and paper. The 
trade carried on by means of Chinese junks is said to be large, 
and the native merchants are considered to be among the 
wealthiest and most enterprising in China. By other vessels the 
trade in 1870 was: imports, '1,915,427; exports, 1,440,000. 
In 1904 the figures were: imports, 2,081,494; exports, 
384,494. The falling off of exports is due to the decreased 
demand for China tea, for which Amoy was one of the chief 
centres. The native population is now estimated at 300,000, and 
the foreign residents number about 280. A large part of the trade 
is that carried on with the neighbouring Japanese island of 
Formosa. The province of Fuh-kien is claimed by the Japanese 
as their particular sphere of influence. Amoy was captured by 
the British in 1841, after a determined resistance, and is one of the 
five ports that were opened to British commerce by the treaty of 
1842; it is now open to the ships of all nations. 

AMPELIUS, LUCIUS, possibly a tutor or schoolmaster, and 
author of an extremely concise summary a kind of index of 
universal history (Liber Memorialis) from the earliest times to 
the reign of Trajan. Its object and scope are sufficiently indi- 
cated in the dedication to a certain Macrinus: " Since you desire 
to know everything, I have written this ' book of notes/ that 
you may learn of what the universe and its elements consist, 
what the world contains, and what the human race has done." 
It seems to have been intended as a text-book to be learnt by 
heart. The little work, in fifty chapters, gives a sketch of cosmo- 
graphy, geography, mythology (chaps, i.-x.), and history (chap, 
x.-end). The historical portion, dealing mainly with the 
republican period, is untrustworthy, and the text in many places 
corrupt; the earlier chapters are more valuable, and contain 
some interesting information. In chap. viii. (Miracula Mundi) 
occurs the oflly reference in an ancient writer to the famous 



sculptures of Pergamum, discovered in 1871, excavated-in 1878, 
and now at Berlin: " At Pergamum there is a great marble altar, 
40 ft. high, with colossal sculptures, representing a battle of the 
giants." Nothing is known of the author or of the date at which 
he lived: the times of Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, the 
beginning of the 3rd century, and the age of Diocletian and 
Constantine have all been suggested. The Macrinus to whom 
the work is dedicated may have been the emperor, who reigned 
217-218, but the name is not uncommon, and it seems more 
likely that he was a young man with a thirst for universal know- 
ledge, which the Liber Memorialis was compiled to satisfy. 

There is no English edition or translation. The first edition of 
Ampelius was published in 1638 by Salmasius (Saumaise) from the 
Dijon MS., now lost, together with the Epitome of Florus; the latest 
edition is by Wolfflin (1854), based on Salmasius's copy of the lost 
codex. 

See Glaser, Rheinisches Museum, ii. (1843); Zink, Eos, ii. (1866); 
Wolfflin, De L. Ampelii Libra Memoriali (1854). 

AMPELOPSIS (from Gr. ajuireXos , vine, and mffis, appear- 
ance, as it resembles the grape-vine in habit), a genus of 
the vine order Ampelideae and nearly allied to the grape-vine. 
The plants are rapidly-growing, hardy, ornamental climbers, 
which flourish in common garden soil, and are readily propagated 
by cuttings. They climb by means of tendrils. A . quinquefolia, 
Virginian creeper, a native of North America, introduced to 
Europe early in the I7th century, has palmately compound 
leaves with three to five leaflets. A. tricuspidata, better known 
as A. Veitchii, a more recent introduction (1868) from Japan, 
has smaller leaves very variable in shape; it clings readily to 
stone or brick work by means of suckers at the ends of the 
branched tendrils. 

AMPERE, ANDRlS MARIE (1775-1836), French physicist, 
was born at Polemieux, near Lyons, on the 22nd of January 
1775. He took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge 
from his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out long 
arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit crumbs before 
he knew the figures. His father began to teach him Latin, but 
ceased on discovering the boy's greater inclination and aptitude 
for mathematical studies. The young Ampere, however, soon 
resumed his Latin lessons, to enable him to master the works of 
Euler and Bernouilli. In later life he was accustomed to say that 
he knew as much about mathematics when he was eighteen as 
ever he knew; but his reading embraced nearly the whole round 
of knowledge history, travels, poetry, philosophy and the 
natural sciences. When Lyons was taken by the army of the 
Convention in 1793, the father of Ampere, who, holding the 
office oijuge de paix, had stood out resolutely against the previous 
revolutionary excesses, was at onc^ thrown into prison, and soon 
after perished on the scaffold. This event produced a profound 
impression on his susceptible mind, and for more than a year he 
remained sunk in apathy. Then his interest was aroused by 
some letters on botany which fell into his hands, and from botany 
he turned to the study of the classic poets, and to the writing of 
verses himself. In 1796 he met Julie Carron, and an attachment 
sprang up between them, the progress of which he naively recorded 
inajournal(/l0nm). In 1799 they were married. Fromabout 
1796 Ampere gave private lessons at Lyons in mathematics, 
chemistry and languages; and in 1801 he removed to Bourg, as 
professor of physics and chemistry, leaving his ailing wife and 
infant son at Lyons. She died in 1804, and he never recovered 
from the blow. In the same year he was appointed professor of 
mathematics at the lycee of Lyons. His small treatise, Considera- 
tions sur la theorie mathimatique dujeu, which demonstrated that 
the chances of play are decidedly against the habitual gambler, 
published in 1802, brought him under the notice of J. B. J. 
Delambre, whose recommendation obtained for him the Lyons 
appointment, and afterwards (1804) a subordinate position in 
the polytechnic school at Paris, where he was elected professor of 
mathematics in 1809. Here he continued to prosecute his scientific 
researches and his multifarious studies with unabated diligence. 
He was admitted a member of the Institute in 1814. It is on the 
service that he rendered to science in establishing the relations 
between electricity and magnetism, and in developing the 



AMPERE AMPEREMETER 



879 



science of electromagnetism, or, as he called it, electrodynamics, 
that Ampere's fame mainly rests. On the nth of September 
1820 he heard of H. C. Oersted's discovery that a magnetic needle 
is acted on by a voltaic current. On the i8th of the same month 
he presented a paper to the Academy, containing a far more 
complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena. (See 
ELECTROKINETICS.) The whole field thus opened up he explored 
with characteristic industry and care, and developed a mathe- 
matical theory which not only explained the electromagnetic 
phenomena already observed but also predicted many new ones. 
His original memoirs on this subject may be found in the Ann. 
Chim. Phys. between 1820 and 1828. Late in life he prepared a 
remarkable Essai sur la philosophic des sciences. In addition, he 
wrote a number of scientific memoirs and papers, including 
two on the integration of partial differential equations (Jour. 
Ecole Polytechn. x., xi.). He died at Marseilles on the loth of 
June 1836. The great amiability and childlike simplicity of 
Ampere's character are well brought out in his Journal et corre- 
spondance (Paris, 1872). 

AMPERE, JEAN JACQUES (1800-1864), French philologist 
and man of letters, only son of Andre Marie Ampere, was born at 
Lyons on the i2th of August 1800. He studied the folk-songs 
and popular poetry of the Scandinavian countries in an extended 
tour in northern Europe. Returning to France, he delivered in 
1830 a series of lectures on Scandinavian and early German poetry 
at the Athenaeum in Marseilles. The first of these was printed as 
De I'Histoire de la poesie (1830) , and was practically the first intro- 
duction of the French public to the Scandinavian and German 
epics. In Paris he taught at the Sorbonne, and became professor 
of the history of French literature at the College de France. A 
journey in northern Africa (1841) was followed by a tour in 
Greece and Italy, in company with Prosper Merimee and others. 
This bore fruit in his Voyage dantesque (printed in his Grece, 
Rome et Dante, 1848), which did much to popularize the study of 
Dante in France. In 1848 he became a member of the French 
Academy, and in 1851 he visited America. From this time he 
was occupied with his chief work, L'Histoire romaine a Rome 
(4 vols., 1861-1864), until his death at Pau on the 27th of March 
1864. 

The Correspondence et souvenirs (2 vols.) of A. M. and J. J. Ampere 
(1805-1854) was published in 1875. Notices of J. J. Ampere are 
to be found in Sainte-Beuve's Portraits litteraires, vol. iy., and 
Nouveaux Lundis, vol. xiii.; and in P. Merimee's Portraits his- 
toriques et litteraires (2nd ed., 1875). 

AMPEREMETER, or AMMETER, an instrument for the 
measurement of electric currents in terms of the unit called the 
ampere. (See ELECTROKINETICS; CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC; and 
UNITS, PHYSICAL.) Since electric currents may be either con- 
tinuous, i.e. unidirectional, or alternating, and the latter of high 
or of low frequency, amperemeters may first be divided into 
those (i) for continuous or direct currents, (2) for low frequency 
alternating currents, and (3) for high frequency alternating 
currents. A continuous electric current of one ampere is defined 
to be one which deposits electrolytically 0-001118 of a gramme 
of silver per second from a neutral solution of silver nitrate. 1 An 
alternating current of one ampere is defined to be one which 
produces the same heat in a second in a wire as the unit continu- 
ous current defined as above to be one ampere. These definitions 
provide a basis on which the calibration of amperemeters can 
be conducted. Amperemeters may then be classified according 
to the physical principle on which they are constructed. An 
electric current in a conductor is recognized by its ability (a) to 
create heat in a wire through which it passes, (b) to produce a 
magnetic field round the conductor or wire. The heat makes 
itself evident by raising the temperature and therefore elongating 
the wire, whilst the magnetic field creates mechanical forces 
which act on pieces of iron or other conductors conveying electric 
currents when placed in proximity to the conductor in question. 
Hence we may classify ammeters into (i) Thermal; (2) Electro- 
magnetic, and (3) Electrodynamic instruments. 

1 See J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and 
Testing Room, vol. i. p. 341 (1901), also A. Gray, Absolute Measure- 
ments in Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 412 (1893). 




i. Thermal Ammeters. These instruments are also called 
hot-wire ammeters. In their simplest form they consist of a wire 
through which passes the current to be measured, some arrange- 
ment being provided for measuring the small expansion produced 
by the heat generated in the wire. This may consist simply in 
attaching one end of the wire to an index lever and the other to a 
fixed support, or the elongation of the wire may cause a rotation 
in a mirror from which a ray of light is reflected, and the move- 
ment of this ray over a scale will then provide the necessary 
means of indication. It is found most convenient to make use of 
the sag of the wire produced when it is stretched between two 
fixed points (KiK 2 , fig. i) and then heated. To render the elonga- 
tion evident, another wire 
is attached to its centre J a 

82, this last having a thread 
fixed to its middle of which 
the other end is twisted 
round the shaft of an in- 
dex needle or in some way 
connected to it through a 
multiplying gear. The ex- 
pansion of the working wire 
when it is heated will then 
increase or create a sag in 
it owing to its increase in F IG. i. Diagram showing the arrange- 
length, and this is multi- ^"1^"" and BraUn ' S Hot ' 
plied and rendered evi- 
dent by the movement of the index needle. In order that 
this may take place, the heated wire must be flexible and 
must therefore be a single fine wire or a bundle of fine wires. In 
ammeters for small currents it is customary to pass the whole 
current through the heating wire. In instruments for larger 
currents the main current passes through a metallic strip acting 
as a bye-pass or shunt, and to the ends of this shunt are attached 
the ends of the working wire. A known fraction of the current 
is then indicated and measured. This shunt is generally a strip 
of platinoid or constantin, and the working wire itself is of the 
same metal. There is therefore a certain ratio in which any 
current passing through the ammeter is divided between the 
shunt and the working wire. 

Thermal ammeters recommend themselves for the following 
reasons: (i) the same instrument can be used for continuous 
currents and for alternating currents of low frequency; (2) there 
is no temperature correction; (3) if used with alternating currents 
no correction is necessary for frequency, unless that frequency is 
very high. It is, however, requisite to make provision for the 
effect of changes in atmospheric temperature. This is done by 
mounting the working wire on a metal plate made of the same 
metal as the working wire itself; thus if the working wire is of 
platinoid it must be mounted on a platinoid bar, the supports 
which carry the ends of the working wire being insulated from 
this bar by being bushed with ivory or porcelain. Then no 
changes of external temperature can affect the sag of the wire, 
and the only thing which can alter its length relatively to the 
supporting bar is the passage of a current through it. Hot-wire 
ammeters are, however, liable to a shift of zero, and means are 
always provided by some adjusting screw for slightly altering the 
sag of the wire and so adjusting the index needle to the zero of 
the scale. Hot-wire ammeters are open to the following objec- 
tions: The scale divisions for equal increments of current are not 
equal in length, being generally much closer together in the lower 
parts of the scale. The reason is that the heat produced in a 
given time in a wire is proportional to the square of the strength 
of the current passing through it, and hence the rate at which the 
heat is produced in the wire, and therefore its temperature, 
increases much faster than the current itself increases. From 
this it follows that hot-wire ammeters are generally not capable 
of giving visible indications below a certain minimum current 
for each instrument. The instrument therefore does not begin to 
read from zero current, but from some higher limit which, gener- 
ally speaking, is about one-tenth of the maximum, so that an 
ammeter reading up to 10 amperes will not give much visible 



88o 



AMPEREMETER 



indication below i ampere. On the other hand, hot-wire instru- 
ments are very " dead-beat," that is to say, the needle does not 
move much for the small fluctuations in the current, and this 
quality is generally increased by affixing to the index needle a 
small copper plate which is made to move in a strong magnetic 
field (see fig. 2). Hot-wire instruments working on the sag 

principle can be used in 
any position if properly 
constructed, and are very 
portable. In the construc- 
tion of such an instrument 
it is essential that the wire 
should be subjected to a 
process of preparation or 
" ageing," which consists 
in passing through it a 
fairly strong current, at 
least the maximum that 
it will ever have to carry, 
and starting and stopping 
this current frequently. 
The wire ought to be so 
treated for many hours 
before it is placed in 




? i 



6 Inches 



FIG. 2. Hot-wire Ammeter. 



the instrument. It is also necessary to notice that shunt 
instruments cannot be used for high frequencies, as then the 
relative inductance of the shunt and wire becomes important 
and affects the ratio in which the current is divided, whereas for 
low frequency currents the inductance is unimportant. In con- 
structing a hot-wire instrument for the measurement of high 
frequency currents it is necessary to make the working wire of a 
number of fine wires placed in parallel and slightly separated 
from one another, and tofpass the whole of the current to be 
measured through this strand. 

In certain forms, hot-wire instruments are well adapted for the 
measurement of very small alternating currents. One useful 
form has been made as follows: Two fine wires of diameter not 
greater than -ooi in. are stretched parallel to one another and 
2 or 3 mm. apart. At the middle of these parallel wires, which 
are preferably about i m. in length, rests a very light metallic 
bridge to which a mirror is attached, the mirror reflecting a ray 
of light from a lamp upon a screen. If a small alternating 
current is passed through one wire, it sags down, the mirror is 
tilted, and the spot of light on the screen is displaced. Changes 
of atmospheric temperature affect both wires equally and do 
not tilt the mirror. The instrument can be calibrated by a 
continuous current. Another form of hot-wire ammeter is a 
modification of the electric thermometer originally invented by 
Sir W. Snow Harris. It consists of a glass bulb, in which there is 
a loop of fine wire, and to the bulb is attached a U-tube in which 
there is some liquid. When a current is passed through the wire, 
continuous or alternating, it creates heat, which expands the air 
in the bulb and forces the liquid up one side of the U-tube to a 
certain position in which the rate of loss of heat by the air is 
equal to the rate at which it is gaining heat. The instrument can 
be calibrated by continuous currents and may then be used for 
high frequency alternating currents. 

2. Electromagnetic Ammeters. Another large class of ammeters 
depend for their action upon the fact that an electric current create 5 
an electric field round its conductor, which varies in strength from 
point to point, but is otherwise proportional to the current. A 
small piece of iron placed in this field tends to move from weak to 
strong places in the field with a force depending on the strength 
of the field and the rate at which the field varies. In its simplest 
form an electromagnetic ammeter consists of a circular coil of 
wire in which is pivoted eccentrically an index needle carrying at 
its lower end a small mass of iron. The needle is balanced so that 
gravity compels it to take a certain position in which the fragment 
of iron occupies a position in the centre of the field of the coil 
where it is weakest. When a current is passed through the coil 
the iron tends to move nearer to the coil of the wire where the 
field is stronger and so displaces the index needle over the scale. 



Such an instrument is called a soft-iron gravity ammeter. 
Another type of similar instrument consists of a coil of wire 
having a fragment of iron wire suspended from one arm of an 
index needle near the mouth of a coil. When a current is passed 
through the wire forming the coil, the fragment of iron is drawn 
more into the aperture of the coil where the field is stronger and 
so displaces an index needle over a scale. In the construction of 
this soft-iron instrument it is essential that the fragment of iron 
should be as small and as well annealed as possible and not 
touched with tools after annealing; also it should be preferably 
not too elongated in shape so that it may not acquire permanent 
magnetization but that its magnetic condition may follow the 
changes of the current in the coil. If these conditions are not 
fulfilled sufficiently, the ammeter will not give the same indica- 
tions for the same current if that current has been reached (a) by 
increasing from a smaller current, or (b) by decreasing from a 
larger current. In this case there is said to be hysteresis in the 
readings. Although therefore most simple and cheap to construct, 
such soft-iron instruments are not well adapted for accurate work. 
A much better form of electromagnetic ammeter can be con- 
structed on a principle now extensively employed, which consists 
in pivoting in the strong field of a permanent magnet a small 
coil through which a part of the current to be measured is sent. 
Such an instrument is called a shunted movable coil ammeter, 
and is represented by a type of instrument shown in fig. 3. The 




FIG. 3. Shunted Movable Coil Ammeter, Isenthal & Co. 

construction of this instrument is as follows: Within the 
instrument is a horseshoe magnet having soft-iron pole pieces 
so arranged as to produce a uniform magnetic field. In this 
magnetic field is pivoted a small circular or rectangular coil 
carried in jewelled bearings, the current being passed into and 
out of the movable coil by fine flexible conductors. The coil 
carries an index needle moving over a scale, and there is generally 
an iron core in the interior of the coil but fixed and independent 
of it. The coil is so situated that, in its zero position when no 
current is passing through it, the plane of the coil is parallel to the 
direction of the lines of force of the field. When a current is 
passed through the coil it rotates in the field and displaces the 
index over the scale against the control of a spiral spring like the 
hairspring of a watch. Such instruments can be made to have 
equidivisional scales and to read from zero upwards. It is 
essential that the permanent magnet should be subjected to a 
process of ageing so that its field may not be liable to change 
subsequently with time. 

In the case of ammeters intended for very small currents, 
the whole current can be sent through the coil, but for larger 
currents it is necessary to provide in the instrument a shunt which 
carries the main current, the movable coil being connected to 
the ends of this shunt so that it takes a definite small fraction of 
the current passed through the instrument. Instruments of this 
type with a permanent magnetic field are only available for the 
measurement of continuous currents, but soft-iron instruments of 



AMPEREMETER 



881 



the above-described gravity type can be employed with certain 
restrictions for the measurement of alternating currents. Direct 
reading equidivisional movable coil ammeters can be made in 
various portable forms, and are very much employed as laboratory 
instruments and also as ammeters for the measurement of large 
electric currents in electric generating stations. In this last 
case the shunt need not be contained in the instrument itself 
but may be at a considerable distance, wires being brought 
from the shunt which carries the main current to the movable 
coil ammeter itself, which performs the function simply of an 
indicator, 

3. Electrodynamic Ammeters. Instruments of the third class 
depend for their action on the fact discovered by Ampere, that 
mechanical forces exist between conductors carrying electric 
currents when those conductors occupy certain relative positions. 
If there be two parallel wires through which currents are passing, 
then these wires are drawn together if the currents are in the same 
direction and pressed apart if they are in opposite directions. 
(See ELECTROKINETICS.) Instruments of this type are called 
Electrodynamometers, and have been employed both as 
laboratory research instruments and for technical purposes. In 
one well-known form, called a Siemens Electrodynamometer, 
there is a fixed coil (fig. 4), which is surrounded by another 
coil having its axis at right angles to that of the fixed coil. This 
second coil is suspended by a number of silk fibres, and to the 
coil is also attached a spiral spring the other end of which is 
fastened to a torsion head. If then the torsion head is twisted, 
the suspended coil experiences a torque and is displaced through 




FIG. 4. Siemens Electrodynamometer. 

F, Fixed coil; D, Movable coil; S, Spiral spring; 7", Torsion 
head; MM, Mercury cups; /, Index needle. 

an angle equal to that of the torsion head. The current can be 
passed into and out of the movable coil by permitting the ends of 
the coil to dip into two mercury cups. If a current is passed 
through the fixed coil and movable coil in series with one another, 
the movable coil tends to displace itself so as to bring the axes of 
the coils, which are normally at right angles, more into the same 
direction. This tendency can be resisted by giving a twist to the 
torsion head and so applying to the movable coil through the 
spring a restoring torque, which opposes the torque due to the 
dynamic action of the currents. If then the torsion head is 
provided with an index needle, and also if the movable coil is 
provided with an indicating point, it is possible to measure the 
torsional angle through which the head must be twisted to bring 
the movable coil back to its zero position. In these circum- 
stances the torsional angle becomes a measure of the torque and 
therefore of the product of the strengths of the currents in the 
two coils, that is to say, of the square of the strength of the 
current passing through the two coils if they are joined up in 
series. The instrument can therefore be graduated by passing 
through it known and measured continuous currents, and it then 
becomes available for use with either continuous or alternating 
currents. The instrument can be provided with a curve or table 
showing the current corresponding to each angular displacement 



of the torsion head. It has the disadvantage of not being direct 
reading when made in the usual form, but can easily be converted 
into a direct reading instrument by appropriately dividing the 
scale over which the index of the torsion head moves. 

Ampere Balance. Very convenient and accurate instruments 
based on the above principles have been devised by Lord Kelvin, 
and a large variety of these ampere balances, as they are called, 
suitable for measuring currents from a fraction of an ampere up 
to many thousands of amperes, have been constructed by that 
illustrious inventor. The difficulty which has generally pre- 
sented itself to those who have tried to design instruments on the 




FIG. 5. Kelvin Flexible Metallic Ligament. 

electrodynamometer principle for use with large currents has 
been that of getting the current into and out of the movable 
conductor, and yet permitting that conductor to remain free to 
move under very small force.. The use of mercury cups is open 
to many objections on account of the fact that the mercury 
becomes oxidized, and such instruments are not very convenient 
for transportation. The great novelty in the ampere balances of 
Lord Kelvin was a joint or electric coupling, which is at once 
exceedingly flexible and yet capable of being constructed to carry 
with safety any desired current. This he achieved by the intro- 
duction of a device which is called a metallic ligament. The 
general principle of its construction is as follows: Let+A, A 
(fig. 5), be a pair of semi-cylindrical fixed trunnions which are 
carried on a supporting frame and held with flat sides downwards. 
Let + B, B, be two smaller trunnions which project out from 
the sides of the two strips connecting together a pair of rings CC. 
The rings and the connecting strips constitute the circuit which 
is to be rendered movable. A current entering by the trunnion 
+ B flows round the two halves of the circuit, as shown by 
the arrows, and comes out at the trunnion B. In fig. 5 the 
current is shown dividing round the two rings; but in all 
the balances, except those intended for the largest currents, the 
current really circulates first round one ring and then round the 
other. To make the ligament, a very large number of exceedingly 
fine copper wires laid close together are soldered to the upper 
surface of the upper trunnion. The movable circuit CC thus 
hangs by two ligaments which are formed of very fine copper 
wires. This mode of suspension enables the conductor CC to 
vibrate freely like a balance, but at the same time very large 
currents can easily be passed through this perfectly flexible joint. 
Above and below these 
movable coils, which form 
as it were the two scale- 
pans of a balance, are fixed 
other stationary coils, and 
the connexions of all these 
six coils (shown in fig. 6) 
are such that when a cur- 
rent is passed through the 
whole of the coils in series, 




FIG. 6. Connexions of Kelvin 
Ampere Balance. 



forces of attraction and repulsion are brought into existence which 
tend to force one movable coil upwards and the other movable 
coil downwards. This tendency is resisted by the weight of a 
mass of metal, which can be caused to slide along a tray attached 
to the movable coils. The appearance of the complete instru- 
ment is shown by fig. 7. When a current is passed through the 
instrument it causes one end of the movable system to tilt down- 
wards, and the other end upwards; the sliding weight is then 
moved along the tray by means of a silk cord until equilibrium is 
again established. The value of the current in amperes is then 



882 



AMPERSAND AMPHIARAUS 



obtained approximately by observing the position of the weight 
on the scale, or it may be obtained more accurately in the follow- 





FIG. 8. Slider of Kelvin Ampere 
Balance. 



FIG. 7. Lord Kelvin's Ampere Balance. 

ing manner: The upper edge of the shelf on which the weights 
slide (see fig. 8) is graduated into equal divisions, and the weight 

is provided with a sharp 
tongue of metal in order 
that its position on the 
shelf may be accurately 
determined. Since the cur- 
rent passing through the 
balance when equilibrium 
is obtained with a given 
weight is proportional to 
the square root of the 
couple due to this weight, 
it follows that the current 
strength when equilibrium 
is obtained is proportional 
to the product of the square 
root of the weight used 
and the square root of the 
displacement distance of this weight from its zero position. Each 
instrument is accompanied by a pair of weights and by a square 
root table, so that the product of the square root of the number 
corresponding to the position of the sliding weight and the 
ascertained constant for each weight, gives at once the value of 
the current in amperes. Each of these balances is made to cover 
a certain range of reading. Thus the centi-ampere balance ranges 
from i to loocenti-amperes, the deci-ampere balance from i to too 
deci-amperes, the ampere balance from i to too amperes, the 
deka-ampere balance from i to 100 amperes, the hecto-ampere 
balance from 6 to 600 amperes, and the kilo-ampere balance from 
100 to 2500 amperes. They are constructed for the measurement 
not only of continuousorunvaryingbutalsoof alternating currents. 
In those intended for alternating currents, the main current 
through the movable coil, whether consisting of one turn or more 
than one turn, is carried by a wire rope, of which each component 
strand is insulated by silk covering, to prevent the inductive 
action from altering the distribution of the current^ across the 
transverse section of the conductor. To avoid the creation of 
induced currents, the coil frames and the base boards are con- 
structed of slate. Kelvin ampere balances are made in two 
types (i) a variable weight type suitable for obtaining the 
ampere value of any current within their range; and (2) a fixed 
weight type intended to indicate when a current which can be 
varied at pleasure has a certain fixed value. An instrument of 
the latter type of considerable accuracy was designed by Lord 
Kelvin for the British Board of Trade Electrical Laboratory, and 
it is there used as the principal standard ampere balance. A 
fixed weight is placed on one coil and the current is varied gradu- 
ally until the balance is just in equilibrium. In these circum- 
stances the current is known to have a fixed value in amperes 
determined by the weight attached to the instrument. 

Calibration. The calibration of ammeters is best conducted 
by means of a series of standard low resistances and of a potentio- 




meter (q.v.). The ammeter to be calibrated is placed in series 
with a suitable low resistance which may be -i ohm, -01 ohm, 
ooi ohm or more as the case may be. A steady continuous 
current is then passed through the ammeter and low resistance, 
placed in series with one another and adjusted so as to give any 
required scale reading on the ammeter. The potential difference 
of the ends of the low resistance is at the same time measured on 
the potentiometer, and the quotient of this potential difference by 
the known value of the low resistance gives the true value of the 
current passing through the ammeter. This can be then compared 
with the observed scale reading and the error of the ammeter 
noted. 1 

A good ammeter should comply with the following qualifica- 
tions: (i) its readings should be the same for the same current 
whether reached by increasing from a lower current or decreasing 
from a higher current; (2) if used for alternating currents its 
indications should not vary with the frequency within the range 
of frequency for which it is likely to be used; (3) it should not be 
disturbed by external magnetic fields; (4) the scale divisions 
should, if possible, be equal in length and there should be no dead 
part in the scale. In the use of ammeters in which the control is 
the gravity of a weight, such as the Kelvin ampere balances and 
other instruments, it should be noted that the scale reading or 
indication of the instrument will vary with the 
latitude and with the height of the instrument 
above the mean sea-level. Since the difference 
between the acceleratiqn of gravity at the pole and 
at the equator is about % %, the correction for 
latitude will be quite sensible in an instrument 
which might be used at various times in high 
and low latitudes. If G is the acceleration of 
gravity at the equator and g that at any lati- 
tude X, ithen g = 0(1+0-00513 sin 2 X). In the 
case of an instrument with gravity control, the FIG. 9. 
latitude at which it is calibrated should there- Edgewise 
fore be stated. Switchboard 

Switchboard Ammeters. For switchboard use in Kelvin &' 
electric supply stations where space is valuable, James White 
instruments of the type called edgewise ammeters Ltd. 
are much employed. In these the indicating needle moves over 
a graduated cylindrically shaped scale, and they are for the 
most part electromagnetic instruments (see fig. 9). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), " New Standard 
and Inspectorial Electrical Measuring Instruments," Proc. Soc. 
Telegraph Engineers, 1888, 17, p. 540; J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for 
the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (2 vols., London, 1901, 
1903) ;G.D.Aspinall Parr, Electrical Measuring Instruments (Glasgow, 
1903) ; J. Swinburne, " Electric Light Measuring Instruments," 
Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1891-1892, no, pt. 4; K. Edgcumbe and 
F. Punga, " Direct Reading Measuring Instruments for Switchboard 
Use," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1904, 33, p. 620. (J. A. F.) 

AMPERSAND (a corruption of the mixed English and Latin 
phrase, " and per se and," of which there are many dialect forms, 
as " ampussyand," or " amperseand "), the name of the sign & 
or &, which is a combination of the letters e, t, of the Lat. et = 
and. The sign is now usually called " short and." In old- 
fashioned primers and nursery books the name and sign were 
always added at the end of the alphabet. 

AMPHIARAUS, in Greek mythology, a celebrated seer and 
prince of Argos, son of Oi'cles (or Apollo) and Hypermestra, and 
through his father descended from the prophet Melampus 
(Odyssey, xv. 244). He took part in the voyage of the Argonauts 
and in the chase of the Calydonian boar; but his chief fame is 
in connexion with the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, 
organized by Adrastus, the brother of his wife Eriphyle, for the 
purpose of restoring Polyneices to the throne. Amphiaraus, fore- 
seeing the disastrous issue of the war, at first refused to share in 
it; he had, however, promised Eriphyle when he married her 
that, in the event of any dispute arising between her brother and 

1 See "' The Electrolysis of Copper Sulphate in Standardizing 
Electrical Instruments, by A. W. Meikle, read before the Physical 
Society of Glasgow University on the 27th of January 1888, or J. A. 
Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room, 
vol. i. p. 343. 



AMPHIBIA AMPHIBOLE 



883 



himself, she should decide between them; and now Eriphyle, 
bribed by Polyneices with the fatal necklace given by Cadmus 
to Harmonia, persuaded him against his better judgment to set 
out on the expedition. Knowing his doom, he bade his sons, 
Alcmaeon and Amphilochus, avenge his death upon their mother, 
upon whom, as he stepped into his chariot, he turned a look of 
anger. This scene was represented upon the chest of Cypselus 
described by Pausanias (v. 17). 

The assault on Thebes was disastrous for the Seven; and 
Amphiaraus, pursued by Periclymenus, would have been slain 
with his spear, had not Zeus with a thunderbolt opened a chasm 
into which the seer, with his chariot, horses and charioteer, 
disappeared. Henceforth he was numbered with the immortals 
and worshipped as a god. Near Oropus, on the supposed site of 
his passing, his sanctuary arose, with healing springs, and an 
oracle famous for its interpretation of dreams (Pausanias i. 34). 
The ruins of this temple, with inscriptions which identify it, have 
been discovered and preserved at Mavrodilisi, in the provinces of 
Boeotia and Attica. There was another temple dedicated to him 
on the road from Thebes to Potniae, and here was the oracle of 
Amphiaraus consulted by Croesus and Mardonius. 

Homer, Odyssey, xi. 326; Herodotus viii. 134; Pindar, Olympic, 
vL, Nemea, ix. ; Apollodorus iii. 6. 

AMPHIBIA, a zoological term originally employed by Linnaeus 
to denote a class of the Animal Kingdom comprising crocodiles, 
lizards and salamanders, snakes and Caeciliae, tortoises and turtles 
and frogs; to which, in the later editions of the Sy sterna Naturae 
he added some groups of fishes. In the Tableau Elementaire, 
published in 1795, Cuvier adopts Linnaeus's term in its earlier 
sense, but uses the French word " Reptiles," already brought into 
use by Brisson, as the equivalent of Amphibia. In addition 
Cuvier accepts the Linnaean subdivisions of Amphibia- Reptilia 
for the tortoises, lizards (including crocodiles), salamanders and 
frogs; and Amphibia-Serpentes for the snakes, apodal lizards 
and Caeciliae. 

In 1 799' Alexandre Brongniart pointed out the wide differences 
which separate the frogs and salamanders (which he terms 
Batrachia} from the other reptiles; and in 1804 P. A. Latreille, 2 
rightly estimating the value of these differences, though he was 
not an original worker in the field of vertebrate zoology, proposed 
to separate Brongniart's Batrachia from the class of Reptilia 
proper, as a group of equal value, for which he retained the 
Linnaean name of Amphibia. 

Cuvier went no further than Brongniart, and, in the Regne 
Animal, he dropped the term Amphibia, and substituted Reptilia 
for it. J. F. Meckel, 3 on the other hand, while equally accepting 
Brongniart's classification, retained the term Amphibia in its 
earlier Linnaean sense; and his example has been generally 
followed by German writers, as, for instance, by H. Stannius, in 
that remarkable monument of accurate and extensive research, 
the Handbuch der Zootomie (and ed., 1856). 

In 1816, de Blainville, 4 adopting Latreille's view, divided the 
Linnaean Amphibia into Squamiferes and Nudipelliferes, or 
Amphibiens; though he offered an alternative arrangement, in 
which the class Reptiles is preserved and divided into two sub- 
classes, the Ornithoid.es and the Ichthyoides. The latter are 
Brongniart's Batrachia, plus the Caeciliae, whose true affinities 
had, in the meanwhile, been shown by A. M. C. Dumeril; and, 
in this arrangement, the name Amphibiens is restricted to Proteus 
and Siren. 

B. Merrem's Pholidota and Batrachia (1820), F. S. Leuckart's 
Monopnoa and Dipnoa (1821), J. Muller's Squamata and Nuda 
(1832), are merely new names for de Blainville's Ornithoides and 
Ichthyoides, though Mtiller gave far better anatomical characters 
of the two groups than had previously been put forward. More- 

1 Brongniart's Essai d'une classification naturelle des reptiles 
was not published in full till 1803. It appears in the volume of the 
Memoires presences a I Institut par divers savans for 1805. 

* Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, xxiv., cited in 
Latreille's Families naturelles du regne animal. 

* System der vergleichenden A natomie (1821). 

4 " Prodrome d'une Nouvelle Distribution du Regne Animal," 
Bulletin des sciences par la Societe Philomatique de Paris (1816), p. 1 13. 



over, following the indications already given by K. E. von Baer 
in 1828, 6 MUller calls the attention of naturalists to the important 
fact, that while all the Squamata possess an amnion and an 
allantois, these structures are absent in the embryos of all the 
Nuda. An appeal made by Miiller for observations on the 
development of the Caeciliae, and of those Amphibia which re- 
tain gills or gill-clefts throughout life, has unfortunately yielded 
no fruits. 

In 1825 P. A. Latreille 8 published a new classification of 
the Vertebrata, which are primarily divided into Haematherma, 
containing the three classes of Mammifera, Monolremata and 
Aves; and Haemacryma, also containing three classes Reptilia, 
Amphibia and Pisces. This division of the Vertebrata into hot 
and cold blooded is a curiously retrograde step, only intelligible 
when we reflect that the excellent entomologist had no real 
comprehension of vertebrate morphology; but he makes some 
atonement for the blunder by steadily upholding the class 
distinctness of the Amphibia. In this he was followed by Dr 
J. E. Gray; but Dumeril and Bibron in their great work, 7 and 
Dr Giinther in his Catalogue, in substance, adopted Brongniart's 
arrangement, the Batrachia being simply one of the four orders of 
the class Reptilia. Huxley adopted Latreille's view of the dis- 
tinctness of the Amphibia, as a class of the Vertebrata, co-ordinate 
with the Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia and Pisces; and the same 
arrangement was accepted by Gegenbaur and Haeckel. In the 
Hunterian lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 
1863, Huxley divided the Vertebrata into Mammals, Sauroids 
and Ichthyoids, the latter division containing the Amphibia and 
Pisces. Subsequently he proposed the names of Sauropsida and 
Ichthyopsida for the Sauroids and Ichthyoids respectively. 

Sir Richard Owen, in his work on The Anatomy of Vertebrates, 
followed Latreille in dividing the Vertebrata into Haematotherma 
and Haematocrya, and adopted Leuckart's term of Dipnoa for the 
Amphibia. T. H. Huxley, in the ninth edition of this Encyclo- 
paedia, treated of Brongniart's Batrachia, under the designation 
Amphibia, but this use of the word has not been generally 
accepted. (See BATRACHIA.) (T. H. H.; P. C. M.) 

AMPHIBOLE, an important group of rock-forming minerals, 
very similar in chemical composition and general characters to 
the pyroxenes, and like them falling into three series according to 
the system of crystallization. They differ from the pyroxenes, 
however, in having an angle between the prismatic cleavage of 
56 instead of 87; they are specifically lighter than the corre- 
sponding pyroxenes; and, in their optical characters, they are 
distinguished by their stronger pleochroism and by the wider 
angle of extinction on the plane of symmetry. 

They are minerals of either original or secondary origin; in 
the former case occurring as constituents (hornblende) of igneous 
rocks, such as granite, diorite, andesite, &c. Those of secondary 
origin have either been developed (tremolite) in limestones by 
contact-metamorphism, or have resulted (actinolite) by the 
alteration of augite by dynamo-metamorphism. Pseudomorphs. 
of amphibole after pyroxene are known as uralite. 

The name amphibole (from the Gr. o/^t/foXos, ambiguous) 
was used by R. J. Haiiy to include tremolite, actinolite and 
hornblende; this term has since been applied to the whole group. 
Numerous sub-species and varieties are distinguished, the more 
important of which are tabulated below in three series. The 
formulae of each will be seen to conform to the general meta- 
silicate formula R"SiOs. 

ORTHORHOMBIC SERIES. 

(Mg,Fe)SiO 3 . 
MONOCLINIC SERIES. 
CaMg 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 . 
Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (SiO,)<. 
(Fe,Mg)SiO 3 . 
(K 2 ,Na 2 ,Mg,Ca,Mn)SiO 3 . 
( Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (SiO 3 ) 4 with 
? NaAl(SiO3)2 and (Mg.Fe) (Al,Fe) 2 SiO. 



Anthophyllite . 

Tremolite 
Actinolite 
Cummingtonite 
Richterite 

Hornblende 



* Entwickelungs-Geschichte der Thiere, p. 262. 

6 Families naturelles du regne animal. 

7 Erpetologie generale, ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles 
(1836). 



88 4 



AMPHIBOLITE AMPHIBOLOGY 



MONOCLINIC SERIES continued. 
Glaucophane . . NaAl(SiO s ) 2 -(Fe,Mg)SiO 3 . 
Crocidolite . . NaFe(SiO,) 2 -FeSiO 3 . 
Riebeckite . . 2NaFe(SiO 3 )2-FeSiO 3 . 
Arfvedsonite . . Nas(Ca,Mg) 3 (Fe,Mn)i 4 (Al,Fe),Si:iO. 

ANORTHIC SERIES. 
Aenigmatite . . Na 4 Fe' 9 Al Fe" (Si,Ti)iz O as- 

Of these, tremolite, hornblende and crocidolite, as well as 
the important varieties, asbestos and jade, are treated under 
their own headings. Brief mention only need be here made 
of some of the others. Naturally, on account of the wide 
variations in chemical composition, the different members vary 
considerably in characters and general appearance; the specific 
gravity, for example, varies from 2-9 in tremolite to 3-8 in 
aenigmatite. 

Anthophyllite occurs as brownish, fibrous or lamellar masses 
with hornblende in mica-schist at Kongsberg in Norway and some 
other localities. An aluminous variety is known as gedrite, and a 
deep green, Russian variety containing little iron as kupfferite. 

Actinolite is an important member of the monoclinic series, 
forming radiating groups of acicular crystals of a bright green or 
greyish-green colour. It occurs frequently as a constituent of 
crystalline schists. The name (from dxris, a ray, and \idos, 
a stone) is a translation of the old German word Strahlstein, 
radiated stone. 

Glaucophane, crocidolite, riebeckite and arfvedsonite form 
a somewhat special group of alkali-amphiboles. The two former 
are blue fibrous minerals occurring in crystalline schists, and are 
the result of dynamo-metamorphic processes; the two latter 
are dark green minerals which occur as original constituents 
of igneous rocks rich in soda, such as nepheline-syenite and 
phonolite. 

Aenigmatite and its variety cossyrite are rare minerals forming 
constituents of igneous rocks of the nepheline-syenite and 
phonolite groups. (L. J. S.) 

AMPHIBOLITE, the name given to a rock consisting mainly of 
amphibole (hornblende), the use of the term being restricted, 
however, to metamorphic rocks. Holocrystalline plutonic 
igneous rocks composed essentially of hornblende are known 
as hornblendites. As is the case with most petrological terms 
the exact connotation is not very strictly defined; most authors 
allow that accessory minerals such as felspar, garnet, augite and 
quartz may be present in variable and often considerable amount. 
A foliated or schistose structure, though often developed in these 
rocks, is not universal. The hornblende is usually dark green 
(actinolite) but may be nearly black in the hand specimen; in the 
microscopic slide it is commonly green of various shades, but 
may be brown, blue or nearly colourless. It frequently occurs 
in elongated bladed prisms, but rarely shows good crystal faces. 
The term hornblende-schist is employed by many writers as 
nearly synonymous with amphibolite; most hornblende-schists 
contain felspar and iron oxides, while sphene, rutile, quartz and 
apatite are rarely absent. Reddish garnets are often conspicu- 
ous in the rocks of this group (garnet-amphibolites), and when 
in addition a green-coloured augite occurs the rocks are inti- 
mately allied to the hornblende-eclogites. Epidote also, in yellow 
grains, is common (epidote-amphibolites), and in these rocks the 
hornblende may be of the blue and richly pleochroic variety 
known as glaucophane (glaucophane-epidote-schists) . Horn- 
blende-schists containing dark green ferriferous hornblende 
(griinerite-schists) are abundant in some parts of North America. 
Tremolite-schists consist essentially of white or very pale green 
amphibole; occasionally they are black from the presence of 
numerous minute grains of iron oxide or of graphite. Many 
tremolite-schists contain much talc and chlorite, and as these 
rocks have been derived from peridotites they not infrequently 
show residual grains of olivine. Nephrite (Gr. i>f<t>pos, a kidney) 
is a very compact, hardly schistose amphibolite, consisting of 
fine interwoven fibres of hornblende. Among other accessory 
minerals biotite, chlorite, talc, scapolite and tourmaline may be 
mentioned; if abundant they give rise to special varieties such as 
biotite-amphibolite, &c. 



The amphibolites are typical rocks of the metamorphic group 
and as such attain a large development in all regions of crystalline 
schists and gneisses such as the Alps, Ardennes, Harz, Scottish 
Highlands, and the Lakes district of North America. They 
occur in two ways, viz. as large circular or elliptical areas which 
mark the site of old plutonic stocks or bosses of basic rock, and as 
long narrow strips intercalated among outcrops of other meta- 
morphic rocks. Regarded from the point of view of their origin 
they fall into two groups, the ortho-amphibolites, which are 
modified igneous rocks, and the para-amphibolites, which are 
altered sediments. The former are far the more common. 
Igneous rocks which contain much augite (e.g. dolerites, gabbros, 
diabases, pyroxenites and many peridotites) are usually con- 
verted into amphibolites when they are subjected to pressure 
and interstitial movements during earth-folding. If felspar be 
present also, epidote may form, while part of the felspar recrystal- 
lizes as a species of the same mineral richer in alkalies or as mica. 
Olivine and ilmenite, the other common constituents of these 
rocks, may, alone or in conjunction with the above-named 
minerals, yield garnet, talc, sphene, rutile, &c. There is little 
or no ajteration in the bulk composition of the rock, but its 
component elements enter into new combinations. Chemical 
analysis, accordingly, will often enable us to identify an igneous 
rock (diabase, &c.) under the guise of an amphibolite. The trans- 
formation of the rock may be complete, so that no trace is left of 
the original structures or minerals. Very often, however, it is 
only partial, and by obtaining a sufficiently large number of 
specimens a series of intermediate or transitional stages may be 
studied; these prove conclusively the nature of the process, 
though its causes are less clearly understood. Green hornblende 
may be seen gradually replacing augite, at first in needle-like 
crystals, for which gradually more compact masses are substi- 
tuted. The felspar breaks up into a mosaic in which albite, 
epidote or zoisite, quartz and garnet may often be identified. 
Biotite and primary hornblende suffer comparatively little 
change; olivine disappears, and garnet, talc and tremolite or 
anthophyllite take its place. The original structures of this group 
of rocks (ophitic, porphyritic, poikilitic, vesicular, &c.) gradually 
fade away, and merge into those of the metamorphic amphi- 
bolites. Even when the greater part of the rock mass has suffered 
complete reconstruction, kernels or phacoids may remain, show- 
ing the old igneous structures, though the minerals are greatly 
altered. The transitional stages from gabbro or diabase to 
amphibolite are so common that they form a widespread and 
important group of rocks, which have been described under the 
names greenstone, greenstone-schist, flaser-gabbro, saussurite- 
gabbro, meta-diabase, &c. The ortho-amphibolites also include 
a small group of igneous rocks, which have a foliated or banded' 
structure due to movements and pressure during consolidation, 
e.g. foliated diorite or diorite-schist. 

The sedimentary amphibolites or para-amphibolites, less 
common than those above described, are frequent in some 
districts, such as the northern Alps, southern highlands of 
Scotland, Green Mountains, U.S.A. Many of them have been 
ash-beds, and their conversion into hornblende-schists follows 
exactly similar stages to those exemplified by basic crystalline 
igneous rocks. Others have been greywackes of varied com- 
position with epidote, chlorite, felspar, quartz, iron oxides, &c., 
and may have been mixed with volcanic materials, or may be 
partly derived from the disintegration of basic recks. When 
they are most metamorphosed they are often very hard to 
distinguish from igneous hornblende-schists; yet they rarely 
fail to reveal signs of bedding, pebbly structure, sedimentary 
banding and gradual transition into undoubtedly sediment- 
ary types of gneiss and schist. Deposits containing dolomite 
and siderite also readily yield amphibolites (tremolite-schists, 
griinerite-schists, &c.) especially where there has been a cer- 
tain amount of contact metamorphism by adjacent granitic 
masses. (J. S. F.) 

AMPHIBOLOGY, or AMPHIBOLY (Gr. d)u<^t/3oXio) , in logic, 
a verbal fallacy arising from ambiguity in the grammatical 
structure of a sentence (Aristot., Organon,Soph., EL, chap. iv.). 



AMPHICTYONY 



885 



It occurs frequently in poetry, owing to the alteration for metrical 
reasons of the natural order of words; Jevons quotes as an 
example Shakespeare, Henry VI.: "The duke yet lives that 
Henry shall depose." 

AMPHICTYONY (Gr. Aja^ucrMpto, i.e. a body composed of 
afjufriKriovts, a.n<t>iKTVoves, " dwellers around "), an association of 
ancient Greek communities centring in a shrine. As the extant 
sources do not define the term, and as they apply it to but five or 
six associations, the majority of which are little known, modern 
scholars are in doubt as to the essential character of the 
institution, and hesitate therefore to extend the name beyond 
this limited list. The word itself indicates that the association 
primarily comprised neighbours, though the Delphic amphictyony 
came in time to include relatively distant communities (Strabo 
ix. 3, 7). For the origin of the institution it is safe to assume 
that neighbouring communities, whether tribes (Wvrf) or cities, 
desiring friendly intercourse with one another chose the sanctu- 
ary of some deity conveniently situated, at which to hold their 
periodical festival for worship and their fair for the interchange 
of goods. If the limited use of the word according to our sources 
is not purely accidental, at all events there were many Greek 
leagues, not expressly termed amphictyonies, which had the 
characteristics here stated. 

The Delian amphictyony probably reached the height of its 
splendour early in the 7th century B.C. The Hymn to the Delian 
Apollo, composed about that time, celebrates the gathering of the 
lonians with their wives and children at the shrine of their god on 
the island of Delos, to worship him with music, dancing and 
gymnastic contests (w. 146-164; cf. Thuc. iii. 104). The later 
. misfortunes of the lonians caused a decline of the festival. 
Peisistratus, taking possession of Delos, seems to have used the 
sanctuary as a means of extending his political influence. When 
after the great war with Persia the Aegean cities under the 
leadership of Athens united in a political league (477 B.C.), they 
chose as its centre the temple of the Delian Apollo, doubtless 
through a desire to connect the new alliance with the associations 
of the old amphictyony. How far the council and other institu- 
tions of the Delian confederacy were based upon the amphictyonic 
organization cannot be determined. The removal of the treasury 
to Athens in, 454 B.C. deprived Delos of political importance^ 
though the amphictyony continued. The council gradually 
dwindled, and probably came to an end without formal abolition. 
In 426 B.C. the Athenians purified the island and instituted a 
great festival to be held under their presidency every four years 
(Thuc. iii. 104). In 422 they expelled the Delians (Thuc. v. i). 
At the end of the Peloponnesian War Athens was deprived of 
Delos along with her other possessions, but she appears to have 
regained control of the island after the victory of Cnidus (394). 
An inscription of 390 B.C. proves that at this date Athenian 
authority had been restored. The affairs of the temple were 
managed by a board of five Athenian amphictyons, assisted by 
some Delian officials (inscrr. in Bull. Hell. viii. 284, 304, 307 f .) ; 
and in the 4th century we again hear of a council in addition to 
the board (CIG. i. 158). At this time the amphictyony is known 
to have embraced both the Athenians and the inhabitants of the 
Cyclades; but a strong Delian party bitterly opposed Athenian 
rule (cf. inscr. in Bull. Hell. iii. 473 f.), which came to an end with 
the supremacy of Macedon. The dissolution of the amphictyony 
soon followed. 

Far more famous is the Delphic, or more strictly, the 
Pylaeic-Delphic, amphictyony. It was originally composed 
of twelve tribes dwelling round Thermopylae the Thessalians, 
Boeotians, Dorians, lonians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, 
Oetaeans, Phthiotes, Malians, Phocians (Aeschin. ii. 116), and 
Dolopians (Paus. x. 8. 2). The name of the council (pylaea) and 
of one set of deputies (pylagori), together with the important 
place held in the amphictyony by the temple of Demeter at 
Anthela, near Thermopylae, suggests that this shrine was the 
original centre of the association. How and when Delphi 
became a second centre is quite uncertain. The council of the 
league included deputies of two different kinds pylagori and 
hieromnemones. The latter were twenty-four in number, two 



from each tribe. As the league was originally made up of 
neighbours, the Dorian tribe must have comprised simply the 
inhabitants of Doris; the Locrians were probably the eastern 
(Opuntian) branch; and the lonians were doubtless limited to 
the adjacent island of Euboea. Afterwards, by affiliating them- 
selves to Doris, the Peloponnesian Dorians gained admission, and 
Athens must have entered as an Ionian city before the first 
Sacred War. Henceforth Athens monopolized one of the two 
Ionian votes, while the other passed in rotation among the 
remaining Ionic, perhaps only among the Euboeic, cities. In the 
same way Doris held one Dorian vote and the other passed in 
rotation among the Dorian cities of Peloponnesus; and the east 
and west Locrians came to have one each. When after the second 
Sacred War the Phocians were expelled, Macedon received their 
two votes (346 B.C.), About the same time the Perrhaebians and 
the Dolopians were deprived of half their representation, and the 
two votes were transferred to the Delphians (inscrr. in N. Jahrb. 
f. cl. Philol. civ. 742, cf. 743, 753; Bull. Hell. xxi. 322, cf. 325; 
Bourguet, Sanct. Pyth. 145, 147). In the following century the 
Aetolians gained such dominance in the amphictyony as to 
convert the council into an organ of their league. Recent 
research has made it appear certain (cf. Pomptow, ib. 754 ff.) 
that they were never formally admitted to membership, but that 
they maintained their supremacy in the council (Livy xxxi. 32.3; 
Polyb. iv. 25. 8) by controlling the votes of their allies, who 
called Aetolians in the inscriptions were often in the majority. 
They made no material change in its composition, which, accord- 
ingly, after the dissolution of their league by the Romans is 
found to be nearly as it was after the second Sacred War. A 
few minor changes came in under the supremacy of the Roman 
republic; and finally Augustus increased the number of votes to 
thirty, and distributed them according to his pleasure. In the 
age of the Antonines the association was still in existence (Paus. 
x. 8. 4 f-). 

Although the hieromnemones of the Thessalians, who held the 
presidency, and perhaps of a few other communities, must have 
been elected, the office was ordinarily, as at Athens, filled by lot. 
As a rule they were renewed annually (Aristoph. Clouds, 623 f. ; 
Foucart, in Bull. Hell. vii. 411, 413 f.). Each hieromnemon was 
accompanied by two pylagori, elected semi-annually (Demosth. 
xviii. 149; Aeschin. iii. 115; Tim. Lex. Plat., s.v.'A.fjt&KTVoves), 
and representing the same tribe, though not necessarily the 
same city. On one occasion Athens is known to have sent three. 
The hieromnemones were formally superior, but because of the 
method of appointment they were necessarily men of mediocre 
ability, inexperienced in speaking and public business, and for 
that reason they readily became the tools of the pylagori, who 
were orators and statesmen. In the literary sources, accordingly, 
the latter are rightly given credit for the acts of the council; it 
was the pylagori who set a price on the head of the traitor 
Ephialtes (Herod, vii. 2 13) , and who on the motion of Themistocles 
rejected the proposition of Lacedaenion for the expulsion of the 
states which had sided with Persia (Plut. Them. 20) . The pylagori 
had a right to propose measures and to take part in the delibera- 
tions; they as well as the hieromnemones were required to take 
the juror's oath; and the acts of the council were inscribed 
officially as resolutions of the hieromnemones and pylagori 
conjointly. The hieromnemon, however, cast the vote of his 
community, though in the record his two pylagori were made 
equallyresponsiblefor it. Thenecessaryinferencefrom these facts 
is that the vote was determined by a majority of the three 
deputies (inscr. in Bull. Hell, xxvii. 106-111, A 20-33; B i-io). 
The council decided all questions which fell within its competence. 
Matters of greater importance, as the levy of an extraordinary 
fine on a state or the declaration of a sacred war, it presented 
in the form of a resolution to an assembly (KXi7crio), com- 
posed of the deputies, the amphictyonic priests, and any other 
citizens of the league who chanced to be present (Aeschin. iii. 
124; cf. Hyp. iv. 7, 26 f.). This assembly was relatively unim- 
portant, however, and is mentioned only by the two authorities 
here cited. 

It is now well established by epigraphic evidence (Bull. Hell. 



886 



AMPHILOCHUS AMPHIOXUS 



vii. 412 f., 417; Pomp tow, in N. Jahrb. f. cl. Philol. cxlix. 
826-829) that the amphictyons met both in the spring and in 
the autumn at Delphi, and the literary sources should alone 
be sufficient authority for meetings in the same seasons at 
Thermopylae (Hyp. iv. 7, 25 ff.; Strabo ix. 3, 7, 4, 17; 
Harpocration, s.v. IliiXai). It is known, too, that the meeting 
at Thermopylae followed that at Delphi (inscr. in Bull. Hell. 
xxiv. 136 f.). 

The primary function of the council was to administer the 
temporal affairs of the two shrines, of which the sanctuary of 
Apollo at Delphi claimed by far the greater share of attention. 
The hieromnemones were required periodically to inspect the 
lands belonging to this god, to punish those who encroached, and 
to see that the tenants rendered their quota of produce; and the 
council held the states responsible for the right performance of 
such duties by their respective deputies (CIA. ii. 545; inscr. in 
Bull. Hell. vii. 428 f.). Another task of the council was to super- 
vise the treasury, to protect it from thieves, and by investments to 
increase the capital (Strabo ix. 3, 7; Isoc. xv. 232; Demosth. 
xxi. 144; Plut. Sull. 12). Naturally, too, it controlled the 
expenditure. We find it, accordingly, in the 6th century B.C. 
contracting for the rebuilding of the Delphic temple after it had 
been destroyed by fire (Herod, v. 62; Paus. x. 5. 13), and in the 
4th century creating an Hellenic college of temple-builders for 
the purpose (inscrr. in Bull. Hell. xx. 202 f., 206, xxi. 478, 
xxiv. 464), adorning the interior with statues and pictures (Diod. 
xv i- 33)> inscribing the proverbs of the Seven Sages on the walls 
(Paus. x. 24. i), bestowing crowns on benefactors of the god 
(CIG. i. 1689 b), preparing for the Pythian games, awarding the 
prizes (Find. Pyth. iv. 66, x. 8 f.), instituting a board of 
treasurers (inscr. in Bourguet, Sanct. Pyth. 175 ff.) and issuing 
coins. It was also in the material interest of Apollo that the 
council passed a law which forbade the Greeks to levy tolls on 
pilgrims to the shrine (Aeschin. iii. 107; Strabo ix. 3, 4), and 
another requiring the amphictyonic states to keep in repair their 
own roads which led towards Delphi (CIA. ii. 545). A law of 
great interest, dating from the beginning of the institution, 
imposed an oath upon the members of the league not to destroy 
an amphictyonic city or to cut it off from running water in war 
or peace; but to wage war upon those who transgressed this 
ordinance, to destroy their cities, and to punish any others who 
by theft or plotting sought to injure the god (Aeschin. ii. 115). 
In this regulation, which was intended to mitigate the usages of 
war amongst the members of the league, we have one of the 
origins of Greek interstate law. Though other regulations were 
made to secure peace at the time of the festival (Dion. Hal. iv. 
25. 3), and though occasionally the council was called upon to 
arbitrate in a dispute (cf. Demosth. xviii. 135), no provision was 
made to compel arbitration. 

For the enforcement of such laws and for administrative effi- 
ciency in general it was necessary that the council should have 
judicial power. As jurors the deputies took an oath to decide 
according to written law, or in cases not covered by law, accord- 
ing to their best will and judgment (CIA. ii. 545). The earliest 
known amphictyonic penalty was the destruction of Crisa for 
having levied tolls on pilgrims (Aeschin. iii. 107; Strabo ix. 3, 4; 
cf . Paus. x. 37. 5-8) . This offence was the cause of the first Sacred 
War. The second and third Sacred Wars, fought in the 4th 
century B.C., were waged by the amphictyons against the 
Phocians and the Amphissaeans respectively for alleged tres- 
passing on the sacred lands (Aeschin. iii. 124, 128; Diod. xvi. 
2 3> 3 1 f-)- In the 5th century the council fined the Dolopians for 
having disturbed commerce by their piracy (Plut. Cim. 8), and 
in the 4th century the Lacedaemonians for having occupied the 
citadel of Thebes in time of peace (Diod. xvi. 23, 29). 

The judgments of the council were sometimes considered 
unfair, and were occasionally defied by the states affected. The 
Lacedaemonians refused to pay the fine above mentioned; the 
Athenians protested against the treatment of Amphissa, and were 
slow in accepting the decisions given under the influence of Mace- 
don. The inability of the council to enforce its resolutions was 
chiefly due to its composition; the majority of the communities 



represented were even in combination no match for individual 
cities like Athens, Sparta or Thebes. The council was a power in 
politics only when manipulated by a great state, as Thebes, 
Macedon or Aetolia, and in such a case its decrees were most 
likely to give offence by their partisanship. Although the 
council sometimes championed the Hellenic cause, as could 
any association or individual, it never acquired a recognized 
authority over all Greece; and notwithstanding its frequent par- 
ticipation in political affairs, it remained essentially a religious 
convocation. 

In addition to the three associations thus far mentioned there 
was an amphictyony of Onchestus (Strabo ix. 2, 33). It may be 
inferred from a comparison of Paus. iv. 5. 2 with Herod, vi. 92 
that there was an amphictyony of Argos of which Epidaurus and 
Aegina were members. An amphictyony of Corinth has, with 
less justification, been assumed on the strength of a passage in 
Pindar (Nem. Od. vi. 40-42). 

AUTHORITIES. Foucart, " Amphictyones," in Daremberg and 
Saglio, Diet. d. antiq. grecq. el rom. (1873) i. 235-238; F. Cauer, 
" Amphiktyonia," in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencycl. a. cl. Altertumswiss. 
(1894) ' I 94- J 935; Pomptow, Fasti Delphici, ii. in Neue Jahrb. 
f. cl. Philol. (1894) cxlix. 497-558, civ. (1897) 737-765, 785-848; 
E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy 
(2nd ed., London and New York, 1895), 95-111; W. S. Ferguson, 
" Delian Amphictyony," in Classical Review (1901), xv. 38-40; 
Schomann-Lipsius, Griechische Alterthumer (1902), ii. 29-44; E. 
Bourguet, L' 'Administration financiere du sanctuaire pythique au IV' 
siecle avant J.-C. (Paris, 1905). The earlier literature has been 
deprived of a great part of its value by recent discoveries of inscrip- 
tions, many of which may be found in the Bulletin de correspondance 
hellenique, iii. vii. viii. x. xx. xxi. xxiv. xxvi. xxvii., edited with 
commentary chiefly by Bourguet, Colin, Foucart and Homolle. 
See also H. Collitz, Sammlung d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften, ii. p. 643 
ff. and Nos. 2508 ff., edited by Baunack. (G. W. B.) 

AMPHILOCHUS, in Greek legend, a famous seer, son of 
Amphiaraus and Eriphyle and brother of Alcmaeon. According 
to some he assisted in the murder of Eriphyle, which, according 
to others, was carried out by Alcmaeon alone (Apollodorus iii. 
6, 7). He took part in the expedition of the Epigoni against 
Thebes and in the Trojan War. After the fall of Troy he founded, 
in conjunction with Mopsus, another famous seer, the oracle of 
Mallos in Cilicia. The two seers afterwards fought for its posses- 
sion, and both were slain in the combat. Amphitochus is also 
said to have been killed by Apollo (Strabo xiv. 675, 676). Accord- 
ing to another story, he returned to Argos from Troy, but, being 
dissatisfied with the condition of things there, left it for Acarnania, 
where he founded Amphilochian Argos on the Ambracian gulf. 
He was worshipped at Oropus, Athens and Sparta. 

Strabo xiv. pp. 675, 676; Thucydides ii. 68; Pausanias i. 34, 
iii. 15- 

AMPHION and ZETHUS, in ancient Greek mythology, the 
twin sons of Zeus by Antiope. When children, they were exposed 
on Mount Cithaeron, but were found and brought up by a 
shepherd. Amphion became a great singer and musician, Zethus. 
a hunter and herdsman (Apollodorus iii. 5). After punishing 
Lycus and Dirce for cruel treatment of Antiope (q.i>.), they built 
and fortified Thebes, huge blocks of stone forming themselves into 
walls at the sound of Amphion 's lyre (Horace, Odes, iii. n). 
Amphion married Niobe, and killed himself after the loss of his 
wife and children (Ovid, Melam. vi. 270). The brothers were 
buried in one grave and worshipped as the Dioscuri " with white 
horses " (Eurip. Phoen. 609). 

AMPHIOXUS, or LANCELET, the name of small, fish-like, 
marine creatures, forming the class Cephalochorda, of the phylum 
Vertebrata. Lancelets are found in brackish or salt water, 
generally near the coast, and have been referred to several genera 
and many species. They were first discovered by P. S. Pallas 
in 1778, who took them to be slugs and described them under 
the name Limax lanceolatus. The true position in the animal 
kingdom was first recognized in 1834 by O. G. Costa, who named 
the genus Branchiosloma, and it has since been dealt with by 
many writers. 

The theoretical interest of Amphioxus depends upon a variety 
of circumstances. In its manner of development from the egg, 



AMPHIOXUS 



887 



and in the constitution of its digestive, vascular, respiratory 
(branchial), excretory, skeletal, nervous and muscular systems 
it exhibits what appears to be a primordial condition of vertebrate 
organization, a condition which is, in fact, partly recapitulated 
in the course of the embryonic stages of craniate vertebrates. In 
comparative morphology it provides many illustrations of im- 
portant biological principles (such, for example, as substitution 
and change of function of organs), and throws new light upon, or 
at least points the way to new ideas of, the primitive relations of 
different organic systems in respect of their function and topo- 
graphy. One of the most puzzling features in its structure, and, 
at the same time, one of the greatest obstacles to the view that it 
is essentially primitive and not merely a degenerate creature, is 
the entire absence of the paired organs of special sense, olfactory, 
optic and auditory, which are so characteristic of the higher 
vertebrates. Although it is true that there is a certain amount 
of gradation 'in the degree of development to which these organs 
have attained in the various orders, yet it is hardly sufficient to 
enable the imagination to bridge over the gap which separates 
Amphioxus from the lowest fishes in 'regard to this feature of 
organization. 

Classification. On account of the absence of anything in the 
nature of a skull, Amphioxus has been regarded as the type of a 
division, Acrania, in contrast with the Craniata which comprise 
all the higher Chordata. The ordinal name for the genera and 
species of Amphioxus is Cephalochorda, the term referring to the 
extension of the primary backbone or nolochord to the anterior 
extremity of the body; the family name is Branchiostomidae. 
The amount of generic divergence exhibited by the members of 
this family is not great in the mass, but is of singular interest in 
detail. There are two principal genera i. Branchiostoma Costa, 
having paired sexual organs (gonadic pouches) ; 2. Heteropleuron 
Kirkaldy, with unilateral gonads. Of these, the former includes 
two subgenera, Amphioxus (s. str.) Yarrell and Dolichorhynchus 
Willey. The species belonging to the genus Heteropleuron are 
divided among the three subgenera Paramphioxus Haeckel, 
Epigonichthys Peters, and Asymmetron Andrews. The generic 
characters are based upon definite modifications of form which 
affect the entire facies of the animals, while the specific diagnoses 
depend upon minor characters, such as the number of myotomes 
or muscle-segments. 

Habits and Distribution. With regard to its habits, all that 
need be said here is that while Amphioxus is an expert swimmer 
when occasion requires, yet it spends most of its time burrowing 
in the sand, in which, when at rest, it lies buried with head pro- 
truding and mouth wide agape. Its food consists of microscopic 
organisms and organic particles; these are drawn into the mouth 




rgo 



FIG. i. Epigonichthys cultellus from below and from the left side. 
(Slightly altered from Kirkaldy.) rm and Im, Right and left meta- 
pleur; at, atriopore; an, anus; e, " eyespot " at anterior end of 
neurochord projecting beyond the myotomes (my) ; n, notochord ; 
rgo, gonads of right side only showing through by transparency; 
go 20, the last gonad; dfr, dorsal fin with fin chambers and fin rays; 
vfc, ventral fin chambers. 

together with currents of water induced by the action of the 
vibratile cilia which are abundant along special tracts on the 
sides and roof of the vestibule of the mouth and in the walls of the 
perforated pharynx ("ciliary ingestion"). Amphioxus favours a 
littoral habitat, and rarely if ever descends below the so-fathom 
line. Species occur in all seas of the temperate, tropical and 
subtropical zones. The European species, A. lanceolatus, is found 



in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, and on the coasts of France, 
Great Britain and Scandinavia, while a closely allied species or 
subspecies, A. caribaeus, frequents the Caribbean region from 
Chesapeake to La Plata. A. californiensis occurs on the coast of 
California, and A. belcheri extends its area of distribution from 
Queensland through Singapore to Japan. A recently described 
species, Dolichorhynchus indicus, characterized by the great length 
of the praeoral lobe or snout, has been dredged in the Indian Ocean. 
Paramphioxus bassanus occurs on the coast of Australia from 
Port Phillip to Port Jackson; P. cingalensis at Ceylon. Epigon- 
ichthys cultellus (fig. i) inhabits Torres Strait, and has also been 




FIG. 2. Amphioxus lanceolatus, Yarrell (Branchiostoma lubricum, 
Coste). (From Ray Lankester.) (i) Lateral view of adult, to show 
general form, the myomeres, fin rays and gonads. A, Oral tentacles 
(28 to 32 in full-grown animals, 20 to 24 in half-grown specimens) ; 
B, praeoral hood or praeoral epipleur; C, plicated ventral surface of 
atnal chamber; D 1 , D 17 , D 26 , gonads, twenty-six pairs, coincident 
with myotomes 10 to 36; E, metapleur or lateral ridge on atrial 
epipleur; F, atripore, coincident with myotome 36; G 1 , G 16 , G 34 , 
double ventral fin rays, extending from myotomes 37 to 52, but 
having no numerical relation to them ; H, position of anus, between 
myotomes 51 and 52; I, notochord, projecting beyond myotomes; 
K 7 , K 27 , K 62 , myotomes or muscular segments of body-wall, 62 in 
number; L 100 , L 230 , L 263 , dorsal fin rays, about 250 in number, the 
hard substance of the ray being absent at the extreme ends of the 



888 



AMPHIOXUS 



body (these have no constant numerical relation to the myomeres) ; 
M, notochord as seen through the transparent myotomes, the thin 
double-lined spaces being the connective-tissue septa and the 
broader spaces the muscular tissue of the myotomes; N, position 
of brown funnel of left side (atrio-coelomic canal) ; O, nerve tube 
resting on notochord. 

(2) Dissection of A mphioxus. By a horizontal incision on each side 
of the body a large ventral area has been separated and turned over, 
as it were on a hinge, to the animal's left side. The perforated 
pharyngeal region has then been detached from the adherent epi- 
pleura or opercular folds (wall of atrial or branchial chamber) by 
cutting the fluted pharyngo-pleural membrane d, and separated by 
a vertical cut from the intestinal region, a, Edge of groove formed 
by adhesion of median dorsal surface of alimentary canal to sheath 
of notochord; b, median dorsal surface of alimentary canal; c, left 
dorsal aorta; cc, single dorsal aorta, formed by union of the two 
anterior vessels; cc', same vessel resting on intestine; d, cut edge 
of pharyngo-pleural folds of atrial tunic, really the original outer 
body- wall before the downgrowth of epipleura; d', atrial tunic 
(original body-wall) at non-perforate region, cut and turned back 
so as to expose peri-enteric coelom and intestine r; e', upstanding 
folds of body-wall (pharyngo-pleural folds) on alternate bars of per- 
forate region of body; /, atrio-coeiomic canals or brown funnels 
(collar-pores of Balanoglossus) ; g, cavity of a gpnad-sac; m, cut 
musculature of body- wall; ra, anus; o, post-atrioporal extension 
of atrial chamber in form of a tubular caecum; *, atriopore; q, 
hepatic caecum; r, intestine; s, coelom; I, area of adhesion between 
alimentary canal and sheath of notochord; v, atrial chamber or 
branchial cavity; w, post-atrioporal portion of intestine; x, canals 
of metapleura exposed by cutting; E, probe passing through atrio- 
pore into atrial or branchial chamber; FF , probe passing from 
coelom, where it expands behind the atriopore, into narrower peri- 
enteric coelom of praeatrioporal region. 

(3) Portion of (2) enlarged to show atrio-coelomic canals ("brown 
funnels " of Lankester). Lettering as in (2). 

(4) Section taken transversely through praeoral region near ter- 
mination of nerve tube, a. Olfactory ciliated pit on animal's left 
side, its wall confluent with substance of nerve tube; b, pigment 
spot (rudimentary eye) on anterior termination of nerve tube ; c, first 
pair of nerves in section ; d, fin ray ; e, myotome ; /, notochord ; 
g, space round myotome (Partifact or coelom) ; ft, subchordal 



canal (? blood-vessel) ; 
hood. 



a symmetrical epipleura of praeoral 



found at Ternate. Asymmelron lucayanum is the Bahaman 
representative of the family, with a subspecies, A. caudatum, 
in the South Pacific from New Guinea to the Loyalty Islands. 
The Peruvian species, Branchiostoma elongatum, with nearly 
eighty myotomes, cannot at present be assigned to its proper 
subgenus. 

External Form. The following description, unless otherwise 
stated, refers to A. lanceolatus. Amphioxus is a small fish-like 
creature attaining a maximum length of about 3 in., semi- 
transparent in appearance, showing iridescent play of colour. 
The body is narrow, laterally compressed and pointed at both 
ends. The main musculature can be seen through the thin skin 
to be divided into about sixty pairs of muscle-segments (myo- 
tomes) by means of comma-shaped dissepiments, the myocommas, 
which stretch between the skin and the central skeletal axis of the 
body. These myotomes enable it to swim rapidly with char- 
acteristic serpentine undulations of the body, the movements 
being effected by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the 
longitudinal muscles on both sides. Apparently correlated with 
this peculiar locomotion is the anatomical fact of the alteration 
of the myotomes on the two sides. Symmetrical at their first 
appearance in the embryo, the somites (from which the myotomes 
are derived) early undergo a certain distortion, the effect of which 
is to carry the somites of the left side forwards through the length 
of one half-segment. For example, the twenty-seventh myotome 
of the left side is placed opposite to the twenty-sixth myocomma 
of the right side. The back of the body is occupied by a crest, 
called the dorsal fin, consisting of a hollow ridge, the cavity of 
which is divided into about 250 compartments or fin chambers, 
into each of which, with the exception of those near the anterior 
and posterior end of the body, projects a stout pillar composed of 
characteristic laminar tissue, the fin ray. The dorsal crest is 
continued round both extremities, becoming expanded to form 
the rostral fin in front and the caudal fin behind. Even in 
external view, careful inspection will show that the body is 
divisible into four regions, namely, cephalic, atrial, abdominal 
and caudal. The cephalic region includes the rostrum or praeoral 



U 




fifGHT 



FIG. 3. T ransverse sections of A mphioxus. (From Lankester.) A. 
Section through region of atrio-coelomic canals, v. B. Section in front of 
mouth ; the right and left sides are transposed, a, Cavity surround- 
ing fin ray; a , fin ray; b, muscular tissue of myotome; c, nerve- 
cord; d, notochord; c, left aorta; /, thickened ridges of epithelium 
of praeoral chamber (Rader organ) ; g, coiled tube lying in a 
coelomic space on right side of praeoral hood, apparently an artery ; 
h, cuticle of notochord; i, connective-tissue sheath of notochord; 
k, median ridge of skeletal canal of nerve-cord; /, skeletal canal 
protecting nerve-cord; m, inter-segmental skeletal septum of 
myotome; n, subcutaneous skeletal connective tissue; o, ditto of 
metapleur (this should be relatively thicker than it is) ; q, sub- 
cutaneous connective tissue of ventral surface of atrial wall (not a 
canal, <is supposed by Stieda and others) ; r, epiblastic epithelium ; 
s, gonad-sac containing ova ; t, pharyngeal bar in section, one of the 
" tongue " bars alternating with the main bars and devoid of 
pharyngo-pleural fold and coelom; , atrio-coelomic funnel; w, so- 
called dorsal " coelom; x, lymphatic space or canal of metapleur; 
y, sub-pharyngeal vascular trunk; z, blood-vessel (portal vein) on 
wall of hepatic caecum; aa, space of atrial or branchial chamber; 
bb, ventral groove of pharynx (anteriorly this takes the form of a 
ridge); cc, hyperbranchial groove of pharynx; dd, lumen or space 
of hepatic caecum ; ee, narrow coelomic space surrounding hepatic 
caecum ; ff, lining cell-layer of hepatic caecum ; gg, inner face of a 
pharyngeal bar clothed with hypoblast, the outer face covered 
with epiblast (represented black) ; hh, a main pharyngeal bar with 
projecting pharyngeal fold (on which the reference line rests) 
in section, showing coelomic space beneath the black epiblast; 
ii, transverse ventral muscle of epipleura; kk, raphe or plane of 
fusion of two down-grown epipleura; II, space and nucleated cells 
on dorsal face of notochord; mm, similar space and cells on its 
ventral face. 



AMPHIOXUS 



lobe and the mouth. As already stated, the jiotochord extends 
beyond the mouth to the tip of the rostrum. The mouth consists 
of two portions, an outer vestibule and an inner apertura oris; 
the latter is surrounded by a sphincter muscle, which forms the 
so-called velum. The vestibule of the mouth is the space bounded 
by the oral hood; this arises by second- 
ary downgrowth of lid-like folds over 
the true oral aperture, and is provided 
with a fringe of tentacular cirri, each of 
which is supported by a solid skeletal 
axis. The oral hood with its cirri has 
a special nerve supply and musculature 
by which the cirri can be either spread 
out, or bent inwards so that those of one 
side may interdigitate with those of the 
other, thus completely closing the en- 
trance to the mouth. The velum is also 
provided withacircletof twelve tantacles 
(in some species sixteen) which hang 
backwards into the pharynx; these are 
the velar tentacles. The atrial region 
extends from the mouth over about two- 
thirds of the length of the body, terminat- 
ing at a large median ventral aperture, 
the atriopore; this is the excurrent 
orifice for the respiratory current of 
water and also serves for the evacuation 
of the generative products. This region 
is really the branchiogenital region, al- 
though the fact is not apparent in exter- 
nal view. The ventral side of the body 
in the atrial region is broad and convex, 
so that the body presents the appearance 
of a spherical triangle in transverse sec- 
tion, the apex being formed by the dorsal 
fin and the angles bordered by two hollow 
folds, the metapleural folds, each of 
which contains a continuous longitudi- 
nal lymph-space, the metapleural canal. 
In the genus Branchiostoma the meta- 
pleural folds terminate symmetrically 
shortly behind the atriopore, but in 




FIG. 4. Amphioxus 
lanceolatus laid open ven- 
trally. (After Rathke, 
slightly altered.) m, 
Mouth appearing as an 
elongated slit when 
relaxed (as in the 
lamprey) ; p, perforated 
pharynx; e, endostyle; 
g, gonads; /, liver; at, 
level of atriopore; *', 
intestine; an, anus. In 
this species the atrium 
is produced as an asym- 
metrical blind pouch 
behind the atriopore as 
far as the anus. 



Heteropleuron the right metapleur passes uninterruptedly into 
the median crest of the ventral fin (fig. i). In this connexion it 
may also be mentioned that in all cases the right half of the oral 
hood is directly continuous with the rostral fin (fig. 2). The 
abdominal region comprises a short stretch of body between 
atriopore and anus, the termination of the alimentary canal. It 
is characterized by the presence of a special development of the 
lophioderm or median fin-system, namely, the ventral fin, which 
is composed of two portions, a lower keel-like portion, which 
underlies an upper chambered portion, each chamber containing 
typically a pair of gelatinous fin rays. Finally, the caudal region 
comprises the post-anal division of the trunk. The keel of the 
ventral fin is continued past the anus into the expanded caudal 
fin, and so it happens that the anal opening is displaced from the 
middle line to the left side of the fin. In Asymmetron the caudal 
region is remarkable for the curious elongation of the notochord, 
which is produced far beyond the last of the myotomes. 

Alimentary, Respiratory and Excretory Systems. Although the 
function of the two latter systems of organs is the purification 
of the blood, they are not usually considered together, and it is 
therefore the more remarkable that their close association in 
Amphioxus renders it necessary to treat them in common. The 
alimentary canal is a perfectly straight tube lined throughout by 
ciliated epithelium. As food particles pass in through the mouth 
they become enveloped in a slimy substance (secreted by the 
endostyle) and conveyed down the gut by the action of the 
vibratile cilia as a continuous food-rope, the peristaltic move- 
ments of the gut-wall being very feeble. The first part of the 
alimentary canal consists of the pharynx or branchial sac, the side 
walls of which are perforated by upwards of sixty pairs of elongated 



slits, the gill-clefts. Each primary gill-cleft becomes divided into 
two by a tongue-bar which grows down secondarily from the 
upper wall of the cleft and fuses with the ventral wall. New 
clefts continue to form at the posterior end of the pharynx during 
the adult life of the animal. The gill-clefts open directly from the 
cavity of the pharynx into that of the atrium, and so give egress 
to the respiratory current which enters the mouth with the food 
(fig. 4) . The atrium or atrial chamber is a peripharyngeal cavity 
of secondary origin effecting the enclosure of the gill-clefts, which 
in the larva opened directly to the exterior. The atrium is thus 
analogous to the opercular cavity of fishes and tadpoles, and, as 
stated above, remains in communication with the exterior by 
means of the atriopore. The primary and secondary bars which 
separate and divide the successive gill-clefts from one another are 
traversed by blood-vessels which run from a simple tubular con- 
tractile ventral branchial vessel along the bars into a dorsal aorta. 
The ventral branchial vessel lies below the hypobranchial groove 
or endostyle, and is the representative of a heart. As water for 
respiration streams through the clefts, gaseous interchange takes 
place between the circulating colourless blood and the percolat- 
ing water. The pharynx projects freely into the atrium; it is 
surrounded at the sides and below by the continuous atrial 
cavity, but dorsally it is held in position in two ways. First, 
its dorsal wall (which is grooved to form the hyperpharyngeal 
groove) is closely adherent to the sheath of the notochord; and 
secondly, the pharynx is attached through the intermediation 
of the primary bars. These are suspended to the muscular body- 
wall by a double membrane, called the ligamentum denticidatum, 
which forms at once the roof of the atrial chamber and the floor 
of a persistent portion of the original body-cavity or coelom (the 
dorsal coelomic canal on each side of the pharynx). The liga- 
mentum denticulatum is thus lined on one side by the epiblastic 
atrial epithelium, and on the other by mesoblastic coelomic 
epithelium. Now this ligament is inserted into the primary bars 
some distance below the upper limits of the gill-clefts, and it 
therefore follows that, corresponding with each tongue-bar, the 
atrial cavity is produced upward beyond the insertion of the 
ligament into a series of bags or pockets, which may be called the 
atrial pouches. At the top of each of these pouches there is a 
minute orifice, the aperture of a small tubule lying above each 
pouch in the dorsal coelom. These tubules are the excretory 
tubules or nephridia. They communicate with the coelom by 
several openings or nephrostomes, and with the atrium by a 
single opening in each case, the nephridiopore. It is important 
to emphasize the fact that in Amphioxus the excretory tubules 
are co-extensive with the gill-clefts. The perforated pharynx 
terminates some distance in front of the atriopore. At the level 
of its posterior end a pair of funnel-shaped pouches of the atrium 
are produced forwards into the dorsal coelom. These are the atrial 
coelomic funnels or brown funnels, so called on account of the 
characteristic pigmentation of their walls. There are reasons for 
supposing that these funnels are vestiges of an ancient excretory 
system, which has given way by substitution to the excretory 
tubules described above. In the same region of the body, namely, 
close behind the pharynx, a large diverticulum is given off from 
the ventral side of the gut. This is the hepatic caecum (fig. 2, 2, q, 
fig. 4, /), which is quite median at its first origin, but, as it grows 
in length, comes to lie against the right wall of the pharynx. 
Although within the atrial cavity, it is separated from the latter by 
a narrow coelomic space, bounded towards the atrium by coelomic 
and atrial epithelium. No food passes into the hepatic caecum, 
which has been definitely shown on embryological and physiological 
grounds to be the simplest persistent form of the vertebrate liver. 
Nervous System. As has already been indicated, a solid sub- 
cylindrical elastic rod, the notochord, surrounded by a sheath of 
laminar connective tissue, the cordal sheath, lies above the ali- 
mentary canal in contact with its dorsal wall, and extends beyond 
it both in front and behind to the obtusely pointed extremities of 
the body. This notochord represents the persistent primordial 
skeletal axis which, in the higher Craniata (though not so in the 
lower), gives way by substitution to the segmented vertebral 
column. Immediately above the notochord there lies another 



890 



AMPHIOXUS 



subcylindrical cord, also surrounded by a sheath of connective 
tissue. This cord is neither elastic nor solid, but consists of nerve 
tissue, fibres and ganglion cells, surrounding a small central canal. 
For the sake of uniformity in nomenclature this nerve-cord may 
be called the neurochord. It is the central nervous system, and 
contains within itself the elements of the brain and spinal marrow 
of higher forms. The neurochord tapers towards its posterior end, 
where it is coextensive with the notochord, but ends abruptly in 
front, some distance behind the tip of the snout. The neurochord 
attains its greatest thickness not at its anterior end but some way 
behind this region; but the central canal dilates at the anterior 
extremity to form a thin-walled cerebral vesicle, in the front wall 
of which there is an aggregation of dark pigment cells constituting 
an eyespot, visible through the transparent skin (fig. i). There 
are two pairs of specialized cerebral nerves innervating the 
praeoral lobe, and provided with peripheral ganglia placed near 
the termination of the smaller branches. Corresponding with each 
pair of myotomes, and subject to the same alternation, two pairs 
of spinal nerves arise from the neurochord, namely, a right and 
left pair of compact dorsal sensory roots without ganglionic 
enlargement, and a right and left pair of ventral motor roots 
composed of loose fibres issuing separately from the neurochord 
and passing directly to their termination on the muscle-plates 
of the myotomes. The first dorsal spinal nerve coincides in 
position with the myocomma which separates the first myotome 
from the second on each -side, and thereafter the successive dorsal 
roots pass through the substance of the myocommata on their 
way to the skin; they are therefore septal or intersegmental in 
position. The ventral roots, on the contrary, are myal or seg- 
mental in position. In addition to the cerebral eyespot there are 
large numbers of minute black pigmented bodies beside and 

below the central canal of theneuro- 
chord, commencing from the level 
of the third myotome. It has been 
determined that these bodies are of 
the nature of eyes (Becker augen, R. 
Hesse), each consisting of two cells, 
a cup-shaped pigment cell and a 
triangular retinal cell. These may 
be called the spinal eyes, and it is 
said that they are disposed in such 
a way as to receive illumination 
preferentially from the right side, 
although this fact has no relation 
with the side upon which Amphi- 
oxus may lie upon the sand. When 
kept in captivity the animal often 
lies upon one side on the surface of 
the sand, but on either side indiffer- 
ently. Over the cerebral eye there 
is a small orifice placed to the left of 
the base of the cephalic fin, leading 
into a pit which extends from the 
surface of the body to the surface of 
the cerebral vesicle; this is known 
as A. von Kolliker's olfactory pit. 

Reproductive System. The sexes 
are separate, and the male or female 
FIG. 5. Diagram of embryo gonads, which are exactly similar 
of Amphioxus seen from above j n outward appearance, occur as a 
fcSrfetSS- r a p P rae- series of gonadic pouches project- 
chordal head-cavity of em- "g nto the atnal cavity at the 
bryo; cc, collar-cavity (first base of the myotomes (figs. 2, 3, 4). 
somite) ; my, mesodermic At the breeding season the walls of 

the pouches burst and the sexual 
elements pass into the atrium, 




Tie 



somites (myocoelomic or 
archenteric pouches) ; ch, 
notochord with the neural 



tube (neurochord) lying upon whence they are discharged through 
it; np, anterior neuropore; the atriopore into the water, where 
ne position of posterior neur- fertiUzation takla place . 
enteric canal. _K . 

Development. The development 

of Amphioxus possesses many features of interest, and cannot 
fail to retain its importance as an introduction to the study of 



embryology. The four principal phases in the development 
are: (i) Blastula, (2) Gastrula, (3) Flagellate Embryo, (4) 
Larva. The segmentation or cleavage of the ovum which follows 
upon fertilization terminates in the achievement of the blastula 
form, a minute sphere of cells surrounding a central cavity. 
Then follows the phenomenon of gastrulation, by which one- 
half of the blastula is invaginated into the other, so as to 
obliterate the segmentation cavity. The embryo now consists 
of two layers of cells, epiblast and hypoblast, surrounding a 
cavity, the archenteron, which opens to the exterior by the 
orifice of invagination or blastopore. One important fact should 

tmp Sri. cc 1ps cm n 




FIG. 6. Anterior region of two pelagic larvae of A. lanceolatus ob- 
tained by the tow-net in 8-10 fathoms, showing the asymmetry of 
the large lateral sinistral mouth with its ciliated margin cm and the 
dextral series of simple primary gill-slits (ips-i^ps). The larvae 
swim normally like the adult or suspend themselves by their flagella 
(not shown in the figures) vertically in mid-water. There is nothing 
in their mode of life which will afford an explanation of the asym- 
metry which is a developmental phenomenon. Lettering of upper 
figure. anp, Anterior neural pore; be, rudiment of buccal skeleton; 
c, cilia; cb, ciliated band; cc, cijiated groove; cm, cilia at margin 
of mouth; gl, external opening of club-shaped gland; Hn, 
Hatschek's nephridium; Im, left metapleur; n, notochord; pp, 
praeoral pit; ps, primary gill-slits, I, 5, and 13; rm, right meta- 
pleur showing through. Lettering of lower figure. a, Atrium ; al, 
alimentary canal; bv, blood-vessel; cv, cerebral vesicle; df, 
dorsal section of myocoel ( = fin spaces); e, "eyespot"; end, 
endostyle; gl, club-shaped gland; Im, edge of left metapleur; m, 
lower edge of mouth; n, notochord; nt, pigmented nerve tube; 
ps, primary gill-slits, I, 9, and 14; re, renal cells on atrial floor; 
rm, edge of right metapleur; so, sense organ opening into praeoral 
pit ; M, thickenings, the rudiments of the row of secondary gill-slits. 

be noted with regard to the gastrula, in which it seems to 
differ from the gastrulae of invertebrata. After invagination 
is completed, the embryo begins to elongate, the blastopore 
becomes narrower^ and the dorsal wall of the gastrula loses 
its convexity, and becomes flattened to form the dorsal 
plate, the outer layer of which is the primordium of the 
neurochord and the inner layer the primordium of the noto- 
chord. While still within the egg-membrane the epiblastic 
cells become flagellated, and the gastrula rotates within the 
membrane. About the eighth hour after commencement of 
development the membrane ruptures and the oval embryo 
escapes, swimming by means of its flagella at the surface of the 
sea for another twenty-four hours, during which the principal 
organs are laid down, although the mouth does not open until the 
close of this period. The primordium of the neurochord (neural 
or medullary plate) referred to above becomes closed in from 
the surface by the overgrowth of surrounding epiblast, and its 
edges also bend up, meet, and finally fuse to form a tube, the 
medullary or neural tube. An important fact to note is that the 
blastopore is included in this overgrowth of epiblast, so that the 
neural tube remains for some time in open communication with 
the archenteron by means of a posterior neurenteric canal. It is 
still longer before the neural tube completes its closure in front, 
exhibiting a small orifice at the surface, the anterior neuropore. 
It is thus possible that the neurenteric canal is due to the con- 
junction of a posterior neuropore with the blastopore, i.e. it is a 
complex and not a simple structure. Paired archenteric pouches 



AMPHIPOLIS AMPHITHEATRE 



891 



meanwhile appear at the sides of the axial notochordal tract, the 
mesoblastic somites. The first of these differs in several respects 
from those which succeed, and has been called the collar cavity 
(MacBride). In front of the latter there remains a portion of the 
archenteron, which becomes constricted off as the head cavity. 
This becomes divided into two, the right half forming the cavity 
of the rostrum, while the left acquires an opening to the exterior, 
and forms the praeoral pit of the larva, which subsequently gives 
rise to special ciliated tracts in the vestibule of the mouth 
mentioned above. The larval period commences at about the 
thirty-sixth hour with the perforation of the mouth, first gill-cleft 
and anus. The larva is curiously asymmetrical, as many as 
fourteen gill-clefts appearing in an unpaired series on the right 
side, while the mouth is a large orifice on the left side, the anus 
being median. The adult form is achieved by metamorphosis, 
which cannot be further described here. One point must not be 
omitted, namely, the homogeny of the endostyle of Amphioxus 
and the thyroid gland of Craniata. 

REFERENCES. T. Boveri, " Die Nierencanalchen des Amphi- 
oxus," Zool Jahrb. Anal. v. (1892), p.- 429; T. Felix, " Beitrage 
zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Salmoniden," Anal Hefte Arb. 
viii. 1897; Amphioxus, p. 333; T. Garbowski, "Amphioxus als 
Grundlage der Mesodermtheorie," Anal Anz. xiv. (1898), p. 473; 
R. Hesse, " Die Sehorgane des Amphioxus," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 
Ixiii. (1898), p 456; J. W. Kirkaldy, " A Revision of the Genera and 
Species of the Branchiostomidae," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxvii. (1895), 
p. 303; E. R. Lankester, " Contributions to the Knowledge of 
Amphioxus lanceolatus (Yarrell)," op. cit., xxix. (1889), p. 365; 
Lwoff, " Die Bildung der primaren Keimblatter und die Ent- 
stehung der Chorda und des Mesoderms bei den Wirbelthieren," Bull. 
Sac. Moscow (1894); E. W. MacBride, " The early Development of 
Amphioxus," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. (1897), p. 589, and xliii. (1900) ; 
T. H. Morgan and A. P. Hazen, " The Gastrulation of Amphioxus," 
J. Morphol. xvi. (1900), p. 569; P. Sammassa, " Studien uber den 
Einfluss des Dotters auf die Gastrulation und die Bildung der 
primaren Keimblatter der Wirbelthiere : iv. Amphioxus," Arch. f. 
Entwick. Mech. vii. (1898), p. I ; G. Schneider, " Einiges iiber 
Resorption und Excretion bei Amphioxus lanceolatus," Anal. Anz. 
xvi. (1899), p. 601 ; J. Sobotta, " Die Reifung und Befruchtung des 
Eies von Amphioxus lanceolatus," Arch. mikr. Anal. 1. (1897), p. 15; 
F. E. Weiss, " Excretory tubules in Amphioxus lanceolatus," 
Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxi. (1890), p. 489; A. Willey, Amphioxus 
and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates (1894) ; " Remarks on some recent 
Work on the Protochorda," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xliii. (1899), p. 223; 
" Dolichorhynchus indicus," ib. (1901) ; W. B. Benham, " Hetero- 
pleuron of New Zealand," ib. (1901); E. Burchardt, "Finer 
Anatomy of Amphioxus," with bibliography, Jena Zeitschr. xxxiv. 
(1900), p. 719. (A. W.*) 

AMPHIPOLIS (mod. Yeni Kem), an ancient city of Macedonia, 
on the east bank of the river Strymon, where it emerges from Lake 
Cercinitis, about 3 m. from the sea. Originally a Thracian town, 
known as 'Evvea '06ot (" Nine Roads "), it was colonized by 
Athenians with other Greeks under Hagnon in 437 B.C., previous 
attempts in 497, 476 (Schol. Aesch. De fals. leg. 31) and 465 
having been unsuccessful. In 424 B.C. it surrendered to the 
Spartan Brasidas without resistance, owing to the gross negli- 
gence of the historian Thucydides, who was with the fleet at 
Thasos. In 422 B.C. Cleon led an unsuccessful expedition to 
recover it, in which both he and Brasidas were slain. The im- 
portance of Amphipolis in ancient times was due to the fact that 
it commanded the bridge over the Strymon, and consequently the 
route from northern Greece to the Hellespont; it was important 
also as a depot for the gold and silver mines of the district, 
and for timber, which was largely used in shipbuilding. This 
importance is shown by the fact that, in the peace of Nicias 
(421 B.C.), its restoration to Athens is made the subject of a 
special provision, and that about 417, this provision not having 
been observed, at least one expedition was made by Nicias with 
a view to its recovery. Philip of Macedon made a special point of 
occupying it (357), and under the early empire it became the 
headquarters of the Roman propraetor, though it was recognized 
as independent. Many inscriptions, coins, &c., have been found 
here, and traces of the ancient fortifications and of a Roman 
aqueduct are visible. 

AMPHIPROSTYLE (from the Gr. a^i, on both sides, and 
TrpooruXos, a portico), the term for a temple (q.v.) with a portico 
both in the front and in the rear. 



AMPHISBAENA (a Greek word, from aftcfris, both ways, and 
fialvtiv, to go), a serpent in ancient mythology, beginning or 
ending at both head and tail alike. Its fabled existence has been 
utilized by the poets, such as Milton, Pope and Tennyson. In 
modern zoology it is the name given to the main genus of a 
family of worm-shaped lizards, most of which inhabit the tropical 
parts c-f America, the West Indies and Africa. The commonest 
species in South America and the Antilles is the sooty or dusky 
A. fuliginosa. The body of the amphisbaena, from 18 to 20 in. 
long, is of nearly the same thickness throughout. The head is 
small, and there can scarcely be said to be a tail, the vent being 
close to the extremity of the body. The animal lives mostly 
underground, burrowing in soft earth, and feeds on ants and 
other small animals. From its appearance, and the ease with 
which it moves backwards, has arisen the popular belief that the 
amphisbaena has two heads, and that when the body is cut in 
two the parts seek each other out and reunite. From this has 
arisen another popular error, which attributes extraordinary 
curative properties to its flesh when dried and pulverized. 

AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. a/ji<j>i, around, and Okarpov, a place 
for spectators), a building in which the seats for spectators 
surround the scene of the performance. The word was doubtless 
coined by the Greeks of Campania, since it was here that the 
gladiatorial shows for which the amphitheatre was primarily 
used were first organized as public spectacles. The earliest 
building of the kind still extant is that at Pompeii, built after 
80 B.C. It is called spectacula in a contemporary inscription. 
The word amphitheatrum is first found in writers of the 
Augustan age. 

In Italy, combats of gladiators at first took place in the 
forums, where temporary wooden scaffoldings were erected for 
the spectators; and Vitruvius gives this as the reason why 
in that country the forums were in the shape of a parallelo- 
gram instead of being squares as in Greece. Wild beasts 
were also hunted in the circus. But towards the end of the 
Roman republic, when the shows increased both in frequency 
and in costliness, special buildings began to be provided for 
them. 

The first amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed, 59 B.C., 
by C. Scribonius Curio. Pliny tells us that 'Curio built two 
wooden theatres, which were placed back to back, and that after 
the dramatic representations were finished, they were turned 
round, with all the spectators in them, so as to make one circular 
theatre, in the centre of which gladiators fought; but the story 
is incredible, and must have arisen from the false translation 
of a./j.<t>i6ta.Tpov by " double theatre." It is uncertain whether 
Caesar, in 46 B.C., constructed a temporary amphitheatre of wood 
for his shows of wild beasts; at any rate, the first permanent 
amphitheatre was built by C. Statilius Taurus in 29 B.C. Probably 
the shell only was of stone. It was burnt in the great fire of 
A.D. 64. 

We hear of an amphitheatre begun by Caligula and of a wooden 
structure raised in the year A.D. 57 by Nero; but these were 
superseded by the Amphitheatrum Flavium (known at least since 
the 8th century as the Colosseum, from its colossal size), which 
was begun by Vespasian on the site of an artificial lake included 
in the Golden House of Nero, and inaugurated by Titus in 
A.D. 80 with shows lasting one hundred days. It was several 
times restored by the emperors, having been twice struck by 
lightning in the 3rd century and twice damaged by earthquake 
in the 5th. Gladiatorial shows were suppressed by Honorius in 
A.D. 404, and wild beast shows are not recorded after the reign of 
Theodoric (d. A.D. 526). In the 8th century Bede wrote Quamdiu 
stabit Coliseus, stabit et Roma; quando cadet Coliseus, cadet et 
Roma. A large part of the western arcades seem to have 
collapsed in the earthquake of A.D. 1349, and their remains were 
used in the Renaissance as a quarry for building materials (e.g. 
for the Palazzo di Venezia, the Cancelleria and the Palazzo 
Farnese). 

Rome possesses the remains of a second amphitheatre on the 
Esquiline, called by the chronologist of A.D. 354 Amphitheatrum 
Castrense, which probably means the " court " or " imperial " 



892 



AMPHITHEATRE 



amphitheatre. Its fine brickwork seems to date from Trajan's 
reign. It was included by Aurelian in the circuit of his wall. 
The remains of numerous amphitheatres exist in the various 
provinces of the empire. The finest are in Italy, those of 
Verona (probably of the Flavian period), Capua (built under 
Hadrian) and Pozzuoli; in France, at Nimes, Aries and Frejus; 
in Spain, at Italica (near Seville); in Tunisia, at Thysdrus 
(El- Jem); and at Pola, in Dalmatia. The builders often took 
advantage of natural features, such as a depression between hills; 
and ruder structures, mainly consisting of banked-up earth, are 
found, e.g. at Silchester (Calleva). The amphitheatre at Pompeii 
(length 444 ft., breadth 342 ft., seating capacity 20,000) is formed 
by a huge embankment of earth supported by a retaining wall 
and high buttresses carrying arches. The stone seats (of which 
there are thirty-five rows in three divisions) were only gradu- 
ally constructed as the means of the community allowed. 
Access to the highest seats was given by external staircases, 
and there was no system of underground chambers for wild 
beasts, combatants, &c. 

In contrast to this simple structure the Colosseum represents 
the most elaborate type of amphitheatre created by the architects 
of the empire. Its external elevation consisted of four storeys. 
The three lowest had arcades whose piers were adorned with 
engaged columns of the three Greek orders. The arches numbered 
eighty. Those of the basement storey served as entrances; 
seventy-six were numbered and allotted to the general body of 
spectators, those at the extremities of the major axis led into the 
arena, and the boxes reserved for the emperor and the presiding 
magistrate were approached from the extremities of the minor 
axis. The higher arcades had a low parapet with (apparently) a 
statue in each arch, and gave light and air to the passages which 
surrounded the building. The openings of the arcades above the 
principal entrances were larger than the rest, and were adorned 
with figures of chariots. The highest stage was composed of a 
continuous wall of masonry, pierced by forty small square 
windows, and adorned with Corinthian pilasters. There was also 
a series of brackets to support the poles on which the awning was 
stretched. 

The interior may be naturally divided into the arena and the 
cavea (see annexed plan, which shows the Colosseum at two 
different levels). 




The arena was the portion assigned to the combatants, and 
derived its name from the sand with which it was strewn, to 
absorb the blood and prevent it from becoming slippery. Some 
of the emperors showed their prodigality by substituting precious 
powders, and even gold dust, for sand. The arena was generally 
of the same shape as the amphitheatre itself, and was separated 
from the spectators by a wall built perfectly smooth, that the wild 
beasts might not by any possibility climb it. At Rome it was 
faced inside with polished marble, but at Pompeii it was simply 
painted. For further security, it was surrounded by a metal 
railing or network, and the arena was sometimes surrounded also 
by a ditch (euripus), especially on account of the elephants. 



Below the arena were subterranean chambers and passages, from 
which wild beasts and gladiators were raised on movable plat- 
forms (pegmata) through trap-doors. Such chambers have been 
found in the amphitheatres of Capua and Pozzuoli as well as in 
the Colosseum. Means were also provided by which the arena 
could be flooded when a sea-fight (naumachia) was exhibited, as 
was done by Titus at the inauguration of the Colosseum. 

The part assigned to the spectators was called cavea. It was 
divided into several galleries (maeniana) concentric with the 
outer walls, and therefore, like them, of an elliptical form. The 
place of honour was the lowest of these, nearest to the arena, and 
called the podium. The divisions in it were larger, so as to be 
able to contain movable seats. At Rome it was here that the 
emperor sat, his box bearing the name of suggestus, cubiculum or 
pulmnar. The senators, principal magistrates, vestal virgins, 
the provider (editor) of the show, and other persons of note, 
occupied the rest of the podium. At Nimes, besides the high 
officials of the town, the podium had places assigned to the 
principal gilds, whose names are still seen inscribed upon it, with 
the number of places reserved for each. In the Colosseum there 
were three maeniana above the podium, separated from each 
other by terraces (praecinctiones) and walls (baltei), and divided 
vertically into wedge-shaped blocks (cunei) by stairs. The lowest 
was appropriated to the equestrian order, the highest was 
covered in with a portico, whose roof formed a terrace on which 
spectators found standing room. Numerous passages (vomiloria) 
and small stairs gave access to them; while long covered 
corridors, behind and below them, served for shelter in the event 
of rain. At Pompeii each place was numbered, and elsewhere 
their extent is defined by little marks cut in the stone. The 
spectators were admitted by tickets (tesserae) , and order preserved 
by a staff of officers appointed for the purpose. 

The height of the Colosseum is about 160 ft.; but the fourth 
storey in its present form is not earlier in date than the 3rd 
century A.D. It seems to have been originally of wood, since an 
inscription of the year A.D. 80 mentions the summunt maenianum 
in ligneis. It is stated in the Notilia Urbis Romae (4th century) 
that the Colosseum contained 87,00x3 places; but Huelsen calcu- 
lates that the seats would accommodate 45,000 persons at most, 
besides whom 5000 could find standing room. The exaggerated 
estimate is due to the fact that space was allotted to corporate 
bodies, whose numbers were taken as data. The greatest length 
is about 615 ft., and the length of the shorter axis of the ellipse 
about 510 ft. The dimensions of the arena were 281 ft. by 177 ft. 

The following table, giving the dimensions of some of the 
principal amphitheatres, is based mainly on the figures given by 
Friedlander (I.e.) : 





ENTIRE BUILDING. 


ARENA. 




Greater 


Shorter 


Greater 


Shorter 




Axis. 


Axis. 


Axis. 


Axis. 


Rome (Colosseum) 


615 


5ii 


281 


'77 


Capua 


557 


458 


250 


148 


Julia Caesarea 


55' 


289 


459 


97 


Italica (Seville) 


5H 


439* 






Verona 


502 i 


403 


248 


145* 


Thysdrus 


488 


406 


308 


'97 


Tarraco 


486 


390 


277 


ill 


Pozzuoli 


482 


383 


236* 


137! 


Tours. 


472 


406 


223 


98 i 


Pola . 


449i 


367 \ 


230 


I44i 


Aries . 


448 


352 


229 


129 


Pompeii 


444 


342 


2I8J 


"5, 


Nimes 


440 


336 


227 


126$ 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. Arts. " Amphitheatrum " in Smith's Dictionary 
of Greek and Roman Antiquities (yA ed., 1890), and in Daremberg 
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des ant^uites; Friedlander, Darstellungen 
aus der Sittengeschichte Roms (6th ed., 1 888-1 890) , vol. ii. pp. 55 ' -620 ; 
Durm, Geschichte der Baukunst, II. 2 (1905), 360 ff. Of older works, 
J. Lipsius, De Amphitheatris (1585); Carlo Fontana, L'Anfiteatro 
Flavio (1725); and Maffei, Verona Illustrata, vol. ii. (1826), are 
worthy of mention. For the amphitheatre at Pompeii, see Mau-Kelsey. 



AMPHITHEATRE 




EXTERIOR OF THE AMPHITHEATRE AT POLA (Pietas Julia), ISTRIA. 



Photo, Dr. T. Ashby. 




EXTERIOR OF THE AMPHITHEATRE AT NlMES (NEMAUSUS). 



1. 892. 



PLATE II. 



AMPHITHEATRE 




INTERIOR OF THE AMPHITHEATRE AT POMPEII. 



Photo, Brogi. 




INTERIOR OF THE AMPHITHEATRE AT POZZUOLI (PUTEOLI). 



Plwto, Brogi. 






AMPHITRITE AMPTHILL 



893 



Pompeii, its Life and Art (2nd ed. 1904), chap. 30; for the Colos- 
seum, Middleton, Remains of Ancient Rome, ii. pp. 78-110, and 
Huelsen's art. " Flavium Amphitheatrum " in Pauly-Wissowa, 



Realencydopddie. 



(H. s. j.) 



AMPHITRITE, in ancient Greek mythology, a sea-goddess, 
daughter of Nereus (or Oceanus) and wife of Poseidon. She 
was so entirely confined in her authority to the sea and the 
creatures in it, that she was never associated with her husband 
either for purposes of worship or in works of art, except when he 
was to be distinctly regarded as the god who controlled the sea. 
She was one of the Nereids, and distinguishable from the others 
only by her queenly attributes. It was said that Poseidon saw 
her first dancing at Naxos among the other Nereids, and carried 
her off (Schol. on Od. iii. 91). But in another version of the myth, 
she then fled from him to the farthest ends of the sea, where the 
dolphin of Poseidon found her, and was rewarded by being placed 
among the stars (Eratosthenes, Catast. 31). In works of art 
she is represented either enthroned beside him, or driving with 
him in a chariot drawn by sea-horses or other fabulous creatures 
of the deep, and attended by Tritons and Nereids. In poetry her 
name is often used for the sea. 

AMPHITRYON, in Greek mythology, son of Alcaeus, king of 
Tiryns in Argolis. Having accidentally killed his uncle Electryon, 
king of Mycenae, he was driven out by another uncle, Sthenelus. 
He fled with Alcmene, Electryon's daughter, to Thebes, where he 
was cleansed from the guilt of blood by Creon, his maternal uncle, 
king of Thebes. Alcmene, who had been betrothed to Amphi- 
tryon by her father, refused to marry him until he had avenged 
the death of her brothers, all of whom except one had fallen in 
battle against the Taphians. It was on his return from this 
expedition that Electryon.had been killed. Amphitryon accord- 
ingly took the field against the Taphians, accompanied by Creon, 
who had agreed to assist him on condition that he slew the 
Teumessian fox which had been sent by Dionysus to ravage 
the country. The Taphians, however, remained invincible until 
Comaetho, the king's daughter, out of love for Amphitryon cut 
off her father's golden hair, the possession of which rendered 
him immortal. Having defeated the enemy, Amphitryon put 
Comaetho to death and handed over the kingdom of the Taphians 
to Cephalus. On his return to Thebes he married Alcmene, who 
gave birth to twin sons, Iphicles being the son of Amphitryon, 
Heracles of Zeus, who had visited her during Amphitryon's 
absence. He fell in battle against the Minyans, against whom 
he had undertaken an expedition, accompanied by the youthful 
Heracles, to deliver Thebes from a disgraceful tribute. Accord- 
ing to Euripides (Hercules Furens) he survived this expedition, 
and was slain by his son in his madness. Amphitryon was the 
title of a lost tragedy of Sophocles; the episode of Zeus and 
Alcmene forms the subject of comedies by Plautus and Moliere. 
From Moliere's line " Le veritable Amphitryon est 1'Amphitryon 
ou Ton dine" (Amphitryon, iii. 5), the name Amphitryon has 
come to be used in the sense of a generous entertainer, a good 
host. 

Apollodorus ii. 4; Herodotus v. 59; Pausanias viii. 14, ix, 10, 
II, 17; Hesiod, Shield, 1-56; Pindar, Pythia, ix. 81. 

AMPHORA (a Latin word from Gr. an<t>opevs, derived from 
OM0', on both sides, and (fripeiv, to bear), a large big-bellied 
vessel used by the ancient Greeks and Romans for preserving 
wine, oil, honey, and fruits; and in later times as a cinerary urn. 
It was so named from usually having an ear or handle on each 
side of the neck (diota). It was commonly made of earthenware, 
but sometimes of stone, glass or even more costly materials. 
Amphorae either rested on a foot, or ended in a point so that 
they had to be fixed in the ground. The older amphorae were 
oval-shaped, such as the vases filled with oil for prizes at the 
Panathenaic festival, having on one side a figure of Athena, on 
the other a representation of the contest; the latter were tall 
and slender, with voluted handles. The first class exhibits black 
figures on a reddish background, the second red figures on a black 
ground. The amphora was a standard measure of capacity 
among both Greeks and Romans, the Attic containing nearly 
nine gallons, and the Roman about six. In modern botany it is a 



technical term sometimes denoting the lower part of the capsule 
called pyxidium, attached to the flower stalk in the form of an 
urn. 

AMPLIATIVE (from Lat. ampliare, to enlarge), an adjective 
used mainly in logic, meaning " extending " or " adding to that 
which is already known." In Norman law an " ampliation " 
was a postponement of a sentence in order to obtain further 
evidence. 

AMPLITUDE (from Lat. amplus, large), in astronomy, the 
angular distance of the rising or setting sun, or other heavenly 
body, from the east or west point of the horizon; used mostly by 
navigators in finding the variation of the compass by the setting 
sun. In algebra, if a be a real positive quantity and w a root 
of unity, then a is the amplitude of the product ao>. In elliptic in- 
tegrals, the amplitude is the limit of integration when the integral is 

expressed in the form f * > V I -N 2 sin 2 <f> d<j>. The hyperbolic or 

i 

Gudermannian amplitude of the quantity x is tan (sinh x). 

In mechanics, the amplitude of a wave is the maximum ordinate. 
(See WAVE.) 

AMPSANCTUS, or AMSANCTUS (mod. Sorgente Mefila), a small 
lake in the territory of the Hirpini, 10 m. S.E. of Aeclanum, 
close to the Via Appia. There are now two small pools which 
exhale carbonic acid gas and sulphuretted hydrogen. Close by 
was a temple of the goddess Mephitis, with a cave from which 
suffocating vapours rose, and for this reason the place was 
brought into connexion with the legends of the infernal regions. 
Virgil's description (Aeneid, vii. 563) is not, however, very 
accurate. 

AMPTHILL, ODO WILLIAM LEOPOLD RUSSELL, isx BARON 
(1829-1884), British diplomatist and ambassador, was born in 
Florence on the 2oth of February 1 8 29. He was the son of Major- 
General Lord George William Russell, by Elizabeth Ann, niece of 
the marquess of Hastings, who was governor-general of India 
during the final struggle with the Mahrattas. His education, 
like that of his two brothers Hastings, who became eventually 
9th duke of Bedford, and Arthur, who sat for a generation in the 
House of Commons as member for Tavistock was carried on 
entirely at home, under the general direction of his mother, whose 
beauty was celebrated by Byron in Beppo. Lady William 
Russell was as strong-willed as she was beautiful, and certainly 
deserved to be described as she was by Disraeli, who said in con- 
versation, " I think she is the most fortunate woman in England, 
for she has the three nicest sons." If it had not been for her strong 
will it is as likely as not that all the three would have gone through 
the usual mill of a public school, and have lost half their very 
peculiar charm. In March 1849 Odo was appointed by Lord 
Malmesbury attache at Vienna. From 1850 to 1852 he was 
temporarily employed in the foreign office, whence he passed to 
Paris. He remained there, however, only about two months, 
when he was transferred to Vienna. In 1853 he became second 
paid attache at Paris, and in August 1854 he was transferred 
as first paid attache to Constantinople, where he served under 
Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. He had charge of the embassy 
during his chief's two visits to the Crimea in 1855, but left the 
East to work under Lord Napier at Washington in 1857. In the 
following year he became secretary of legation at Florence, but 
was detached from that place to reside in Rome, where he 
remained for twelve years, till August 1870. During all that 
period he was the real though unofficial representative of England 
at the Vatican, and his consummate tact enabled him to do all, 
and more than all, that an ordinary man could have done in a 
stronger position. A reference, however, to his evidence before 
a committee of the House of Commons in 1871 will make it dear 
to any unprejudiced reader that those were right who, during the 
early 'fifties, urged so strongly the importance of having a duly 
accredited agent at the papal court. The line taken by him 
during the Vatican council has been criticized, but no fault can 
justly be found with it. Abreast as he was of the best thought of 
his time the brother of Arthur Russell, who, more perhaps than 
any other man, was its most ideal representative in London 
society he sympathized strongly with the views of those who 



8 94 



AMPTHILL AMRAOTI 



laboured to prevent the extreme partisans of papal infallibility 
from having everything their own way. But in his capacity of 
clear-headed observer, whose business it was to reflect the actual 
truth upon the mind of his government, he was obliged to make 
it quite clear that they had no chance whatever, and in conversing 
with those whose opinions were quite unlike his own, such as 
Cardinal Manning, he seems to have shown that he had no illusions 
about the result of the long debate. In 1868 Odo Russell 
married Lady Emily Theresa Villiers, the daughter of Lord 
Clarendon. In 1870 he was appointed assistant under-secretary 
at the foreign office, and in November of that year was sent on a 
special mission to the headquarters of the German army, where he 
remained till 1871. 

It was in connexion with this mission that an episode occurred 
which at ,the time threw much discredit upon Gladstone's 
government. Russia had taken advantage of the collapse of 
France and her own cordial relations with Prussia to denounce 
the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris of 1856. Russell, in 
an -interview with Bismarck, pointed out that unless Russia 
withdrew from an attitude which involved the destruction of a 
treaty solemnly guaranteed by the powers, Great Britain would 
be forced to go to war " with or without allies." This strong 
attitude was effective, and the question was ultimately referred 
to and settled by the conference which met at London in 1871. 
Though the result was to score atiistinct diplomatic success for 
the Liberal government, the bellicose method employed wounded 
Liberal sentiment and threatened to create trouble for the 
ministry in parliament. On the i6th of February 1871, accord- 
ingly, Gladstone, in answer to a question, said that " the argu- 
ment used by Mr Odo Russell was not one which had been 
directed by her Majesty's government," that it was used by him 
" without any specific instructions or authority from the govern- 
ment," but that, at the same time, no blame was to be attached 
to him, as it was " perfectly well known that the duty of diplo- 
matic agents requires them to express themselves in that mode 
in which they think they can best support and recommend the 
propositions of which they wish to procure acceptance." This 
Gladstonian explanation was widely criticized as an illegitimate 
attack on Russell. What is certain is that the foreign office 
and the country profited by Russell's firmness. (See Morley's 
Gladstone, ii. 534.) 

A little later in the same year he received the well-deserved 
reward of his labours by being made ambassador at Berlin. 

During the months he passed at the foreign office he was 
examined before the committee of the House of Commons, 
already alluded to, and had an opportunity of stating very dis- 
tinctly in public some of his views with regard to his profession. 
" If you could only organize diplomacy properly," he said, " you 
would create a body of men who might influence the destinies of 
mankind and ensure the peace of the world." In these words 
we have the key to the thought and habitual action of one of the 
best and wisest public servants of the time. 

Russell remained at Berlin, with only brief intervals of 
absence, from the i6th of October 1871 till his death at Potsdam 
on the 25th of August 1884. He was third plenipotentiary at the 
Berlin congress, and is generally credited with having prevented, 
by his tact and good sense, the British prime minister from 
making a speech in French, which he knew very imperfectly and 
pronounced abominably. In 1874 Odo Russell received a patent 
of precedence raising him to the rank of a duke's son, and after 
the congress of Berlin he was offered a peerage by the Conservative 
government. This he naturally declined, but accepted the 
honour in 1881 when it was offered by the Liberals, taking the 
title of Baron Ampthill. He became a privy councillor in 1872 
and was made a G.C.B . somewhat later. At the conference about 
the Greek frontier, which followed the congress of Berlin, he was 
the only British representative. During all his long sojourn in 
the Prussian capital, he did everything that in him lay to bring 
about close and friendly relations between Great Britain and 
Germany. He kept on the best of terms with Bismarck, carefully 
avoiding everything that could give any cause of offence to that 
most jealous and most unscrupulous minister, whom he, however, 



did not hesitate to withstand when his unscrupulousness went 
the length of deliberately attempting to deceive. . 

He was succeeded as and baron by his son, ARTHUR OLIVER 
VILLIERS RUSSELL (b. 1869), who rowed in the Oxford eight (1889, 
1890, 1891) and became a prominent Unionist politician. He 
was private secretary to Mr Chamberlain, 1895-1897, and 
governor of Madras, 1899-1906. In 1904 he acted temporarily 
as Viceroy of India. (M. G. D.) 

AMPTHILL, a market town in the northern parliamentary 
division of Bedfordshire, England, 44 m. N.N.W. of London by 
the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2177. It 
lies on the southern slope of a low range of hills, in a well-wooded' 
district. The church of St Andrew ranges in date from Early 
English to Perpendicular. It contains a monument to Richard 
Nicolls (1624-1672), who, under the patronage of the duke of 
York, brother to Charles II., to whom the king had granted the 
Dutch North American colony of New Netherland, received the 
submission of its chief town, New Amsterdam, in 1664, and 
became its first English governor, the town taking the name of 
New York. Nicolls perished in the action between the English 
and Dutch fleets at Solebay, and the ball which killed him is 
preserved on his tomb. Houghton Park, in the vicinity, contains 
!he ruins of Houghton House, built by Mary, countess of Pem- 
broke, in the time of James I. To this countess Sir Philip Sidney 
dedicated the Arcadia. Ampthill Park became in 1818 the seat of 
that Lord Holland in whose time Holland House, in Kensington, 
London, became famous as a resort of the most distinguished 
intellectual society. In the park a cross marks the site of Ampthill 
Castle, the residence of Catherine of Aragon while her divorce 
from Henry VIII. was pending. A commemorative inscription 
on the cross was written by Horace Walpole. Brewing, straw- 
plaiting and lace-making are carried on in Ampthill. 

AMPULLA (either a diminutive of amphora, or from Lat. ambo, 
both, and olla, a pot), a small, narrow-necked, round-bodied vase 
for holding liquids, especially oil and perfumes. It is the Latin 
term equivalent to the Greek Ai?/cu0os. It was used in ancient 
times for toilet purposes and anointing the bodies of the dead, being 
then buried with them. Gildas mentions the use of ampullae as 
established among the Britons in his time, and St Columba is said 
to have employed one in the coronation of King Aidan. Both 
the name and the function of the ampulla have survived in the 
Western Church, where it still signifies the vessel containing the oil 
consecrated by the bishop for ritual uses, especially in the sacra- 
ments of Confirmation, Orders and Extreme Unction. The word 
occurs repeatedly in the service of coronation of the English 
sovereign in connexion with the ancient ceremony of anointing 
by the archbishop of Canterbury, which is still observed. The 
ampulla of the regalia of England takes the form of a golden eagle 
with outspread wings. The most celebrated ampulla in history 
was that known as la sainte ampoule, in the abbey of St Remi at 
Reims, from which the kings of France were anointed. Accord- 
ing to the legend it had been brought from heaven by a dove for 
the coronation of Clovis, and at one period the kings of France 
claimed precedence over all other sovereigns on account of it. It 
was destroyed at the Revolution. The word " ampulla " is used 
in biology, by analogy from the shape, for a certain portion of the 
anatomy of a plant or animal. 

AMRAM (d. 875), a famous gaon or head of the Jewish 
Academy of Sura (Persia) in the 9th century. He was author of 
many " Responsa," but his chief work was liturgical. He was 
the first to arrange a complete liturgy for the synagogue, and his 
Prayer-Book (Siddur Rab 'Amram) was the foundation of most 
of the extant rites in use among the Jews. The Siddur was 
published in Warsaw in two parts (1865). 

AMRAOTI, or UMRAWATTEE, a town and district of India, in 
Berar, Central Provinces. The district was reconstituted in 
1905, when that of Ellichpur was incorporated with it. The 
town has a station 6 m. from Badnera junction on the 
Great Indian Peninsula line. Pop. (1901) 34,216, showing an 
increase of 22% in the decade. It is the richest town of Berar, 
with the most numerous and substantial commercial population. 
It possesses a branch of the Bank of Bombay, and has the largest 



AMRAVATI AMRITSAR 



895 



cotton mart, where an average of 80, 593 bojas of cotton are bought 
and sold annually. It has also a large grain market, cotton 
presses, ginning factories and oil mills. Amraoti raw cotton is 
quoted on the Liverpool Exchange. 

The district of Amraoti has an area of 4754 sq. m. In 1001 
the population was 630,245, showing a decrease of 4% in the 
decade; on the area as now constituted it was 809,499. The 
district is an extensive plain, about 800 ft. above sea-level, the 
general flatness being only broken by a small chain of hills, 
running in a north-westerly direction between Amraoti and 
Chandor, with an average height from 400 to 500 ft. above the 
lowlands. The principal towns, besides Amraoti, are Karinja, 
Kolapur, and Badnera, which lies on the Great Indian Peninsula 
railway, the main line of which crosses the district. Severe 
drought visited Amraoti in 1899-1900. 

AMRAVATI, or AMARAVATI, a ruined city of India in the 
Guntur district of the Madras presidency, on the south bank 
of the Kistna river, 62 m. from its mouth. The town is of 
great interest for the antiquary as one of the chief centres of 
the Buddhist kingdom of Vengi, and, for its stupa (sepulchral 
monument). Amravati has been identified with Hsiian Tsang's 
To-na-kie-tse-kia and with the Rahmi of Arab geographers. 
Subsequent to the disappearance of Buddhism from this region 
the town became a centre of the Sivaite faith. When Hsiian 
Tsang visited Amravati in A.D. 639 it had already been deserted 
for a century, but he speaks in glowing terms of its magnificence 
and beauty. Very careful and artistic representations of the stupa 
with its daghoba and interesting rail, pillars and sculptures will 
be found in Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, and in his 
History of Indian Architecture (1876). Its elaborate carvings 
illustrate the life of Buddha. Some are preserved in the 
British Museum; others in the museum at Madras. 

An account by Dr James "Burgess was published in 1877 as one of 
the volumes of the Archaeological Survey of Southern India. 

>'AMR-IBN-EL-ASS, or 'AMR (strictly 'AMR B. 'As), one of the 
most famous of the first race of the Saracen leaders, was of the 
tribe of Koreish (Qureish). In his youth he was an antagonist of 
Mahomet. His zeal prompted him to undertake an embassy to 
the king of Ethiopia, in order to stimulate him against the con- 
verts whom he had taken under his protection, but he returned a 
convert to the Mahommedan faith and joined the fugitive prophet 
at Medina. When Abu Bekr resolved to invade Syria, he en- 
trusted 'Amr with a high command. 'Amr soon perceived that 
his troops were not sufficient for a serious battle. Reinforced by 
Khalid b. al-Walid, whom Abu Bekr sent in all haste from Irak to 
Syria, he defeated the imperial troops, commanded by Theodoras, 
the brother of Heraclius, not far from Ramleh in Palestine, on 
the 3ist of July 634. When Omar became caliph he made 
Khalid chief commander of the Syrian armies, 'Amr remaining in 
Palestine to complete the submission of that province. It is not 
certain that 'Amr assisted Khalid in the siege of Damascus, but 
very probable that he took part in the decisive battle of Yarmuk, 
2oth of August 636. After this battle he laid siege to Jerusalem, 
in which enterprise he was seconded a year later by Abu Obeida, 
then chief commander. After the surrender of Jerusalem 'Amr 
began the siege of Caesarea, which, however, was brought to a 
successful end in September or October 640 by Moawiya, 'Amr 
having obtained Omar's sanction for an expedition against 
Egypt. Towards the end of 639 he led an army of 4000 Arabs 
into that country. During his march a messenger from Omar 
arrived with a letter containing directions to return if he should 
have received it in Syria, but if in Egypt to advance, in which 
case all needful assistance would be instantly sent to him. The 
contents of the letter were not made known to his officers until he 
was assured that the army was on Egyptian soil, so that the 
expedition might be continued under the sanction of Omar's 
orders. Having taken Farama (Pelusium) , he advanced to Misr, 
north of the ancient Memphis, and besieged it and the strong 
fortress of Babylon for seven months. Although numerous rein- 
forcements arrived, he would have found itjvery difficult to storm 
the place previous to the inundation of the Nile but for treachery 
within the citadel; the Greeks who remained there were either 



made prisoners or put to the sword. On the same spot 'Amr 
built a city named Fostat (" the encampment "), the ruins of 
which are known by the name of Old Cairo. The mosque which 
he erected and called by his own name is described in Asiatic 
Journal (1890), p. 759. 'Amr pursued the Greeks to Alexandria, 
but finding that it was impossible to take the place by storm, he 
contented himself with blockading it with the greater part of his 
army, and reducing the Delta to submission with the rest. At 
the end of twelve months Alexandria sued for peace, and a treaty 
was signed on the 8th of November 641. To 'Amr acting on 
Omar's command has been attributed the burning of the famous 
Alexandrian library. (See LIBRARIES and ALEXANDRIA.) Not 
only is this act of barbarism inconsistent with the characters of 
Omar and his general, but the earliest authority for the story is 
Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus), a Christian writer, who lived six 
centuries later. After the conquest of Egypt 'Amr carried his 
conquests eastward along the North African coast as far as Barca 
and even Tripolis. His administration of Egypt was moderate 
and statesmanlike, and under his rule the produce of the Nile 
Valley was a constant source of supply to the cities of Arabia. 
He even reopened a canal at least 80 m. long from the Nile to the 
Red Sea with the object of renewing communication by sea. 
Removed from his office by Othman in 647, who replaced him by 
Ibn abi Sarh, he sided with Moawiya in the contest for the cali- 
phate, and was largely responsible for the deposition of Ali (q.v.) 
and the establishment of the Omayyad dynasty. (See CALIPHATE, 
section B.) In 658 he reconquered Egypt in Moawiya's interest, 
and governed it till his death on the 6th of January 664. In a 
pathetic speech to his children on his deathbed, he bitterly 
lamented his youthful offence in opposing the prophet, although 
Mahomet had forgiven him and had frequently affirmed that 
" there was no Mussulman more sincere and steadfast in the 
faith than 'Amr." 

Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate (London, 1891) ; E. Gibbon's Decline 
and Fall ; M. J. de Goeje, Memoire sur la conquete de la Syrie (Leiden, 
1900) ; Butler, Arab Conquest of Egypt (Oxford, 1902) ; art. EGYPT, 
History, Mahommedan Period. 

'AMR IBN KULTHUM, Arabian poet, author of one of the 
Mo'allakat. Little or nothing is known of his life save that he 
was a member of the tribe of Taghlib and that he is said to have 
died of excessive wine-drinking. Some stories of him are told in 
the Book of Songs (see'AsuLFARAj), vol. ix. pp. 181-185. 

AMRITSAR, or UMRITSAR, a city and district of British India, 
in the Lahore division of the Punjab. The city has a station on 
the North Western railway 32 m. E. of Lahore, its position on 
which has greatly assisted its development. Amritsar is chiefly 
notable as the centreof the Sikh religion and the site of the Golden 
Temple, the chief worshipping place of the Sikhs. Ram Das, the 
fourth guru, laid the foundations of the city upon a site granted 
by the emperor Akbar. He also excavated the holy tank from 
which the town derives its name of Amrita Turas, or Pool of 
Immortality. It is upon a small island in the middle of this 
tank that the Golden Temple is now situated. About two 
centuries afterwards, in the course of the struggle between the 
Sikhs and the Mahommedans, Ahmad Shah Durani routed the 
Sikhs at the great battle of Panipat, and on his homeward march 
he destroyed the town of Amritsar, blew up the temple with 
gunpowder, filled in the sacred tank with mud, and defiled, the 
holy place by the slaughter of cows. But when Ahmad Shah 
returned to Kabul the Sikhs rose once more and re-established 
their religion. Finally the city and surrounding district fell under 
the sway of Ranjit Singh at Lahore, and passed with the rest of 
the Punjab into the possession of the British after the second 
Sikh war; The Golden Temple is so called on account of its 
copper dome, covered with gold foil, which shines brilliantly in 
the rays of the Indian sun, and is reflected back from the waters 
of the lake; but the building as a whole is too squat to have 
much architectural merit apart from its ornamentation. Marble 
terraces and balustrades surround the tank, and a marble cause- 
way leads across the water to the temple, whose gilded walls, 
roof, dome and cupolas, with vivid touches of red curtains, 
are reflected in the still water. The temple was considerably 



8 9 6 



AMROHA AMSTERDAM 



enriched by the spoils taken by Ranjit Singh in his conquests. 
The population of Amritsar in 1901 was 162,429. A Sikh college 
for university education was opened in 1897. The other public 
buildings include two churches, a town hall and a hospital. 
Amritsar is famous for its carpet-weaving industry. It was the 
first mission station of the church of England in the Punjab. 

The district is bounded on the N.W. by the river Ravi, on the 
S.E. by the river Beas, on the N.E. by the district of Gurdaspur, 
and on the S.W. by the district of Lahore. Amritsar district is a 
nearly level plain, with a very slight slope from east to west. 
The banks of the Beas are high, and on this side of the district 
well-water is not found except at 50 ft. below the surface; while 
towards the Ravi wells are less than 20 ft. in depth. The only 
stream passing through the district is the Kirni or Saki, which 
takes its rise in a marsh in the Gurdaspur district, and after 
traversing part of the district empties itself into the Ravi. 
Numerous canals intersect the district, affording ample means of 
irrigation. The Sind, Punjab and Delhi railway (North Western) 
and Grand Trunk road, which runs parallel with it, afford the 
principal means of land communication and traffic. The area 
of the district is 1601 sq. m. ; pop. (1901) 1,023,828, showing an 
increase of 3 % on the previous decade. It is the headquarters of 
the Sikh religion, containing 264,329 Sikhs as against 280,985 
Hindus and 474,976 Mahommedans. The principal crops are 
wheat, pulse, maize, millet, with some cotton and sugar-cane. 
There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton. 

AMROHA, a town of British India, in the Moradabad dis- 
trict of the United Provinces. It contains the tomb of a Mahom- 
medan saint, Shaikh Saddu, and has been for many centuries 
a Mahommedan centre. Pop. (1901) 40,077. 

AMRUM, or AMROM, a German island in the North Sea, off the 
coast of Schleswig-Holstein to the south of Sylt. Pop. (1900) 900. 
It is 6 m. long and 3 m. broad, with an area of 105 sq. m., and is 
reached from the mainland by a regular steamboat service to 
Wittdiin, a favourite sea-bathing resort; or at low water by 
carriage from Fohr. The larger part of Amrum consists of a 
treeless sandy expanse, but a fringe of rich marshes affords 
good pasture-land. The principal place is Nebel, connected by a 
light railway with Wittdiin. (See also FRISIAN ISLANDS.) 

AMRU'-UL-QAIS, or IMRU'-UL QAIS, IBN HUJR, Arabian 
poet of the 6th century, the author of one of the Mo'allakat (q.v.), 
was regarded by Mahomet and others as the most distinguished 
poet of pre-Islamic times. He was of the kingly family of Kinda, 
and his mother was of the tribe of Taghlib. While he was still 
young, his father was killed by the Bani Asad. After this his life 
was devoted to the attempt to avenge his father's death. He 
wandered from tribe to tribe to gain assistance, but his attempts 
were always foiled by the persistent following of the messengers 
of Mundhir of Hira (Hlra). At last he went to the Jewish 
Arabian prince, Samu'al, left his daughter and treasure with 
him, and by means of Harith of Ghassan procured an introduc- 
tion to the Byzantine emperor Justinian. After a long stay in 
Constantinople he was named phylarch of Palestine, and received 
a body of troops from Justin II. With these he started on his 
way to Arabia. It is said that a man of Asad, who had followed 
him to Constantinople, charged him before the emperor with the 
seduction of a princess, and that Justin sent him a poisoned 
cloak, which caused his death at Ancyra. 

His poems are contained in W. Ahlwardt's The Divans of the six 
ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and have been published 
separately in M'G. de Slane's Le Diwan d' Amro'lkats (Paris, 1837) ; 
a German version with life and notes in F. Riickert's Amrilkais der 
Dichter und Konig (Stuttgart, 1843). Many stories of his life are told 
in the Kitdb ul-Aghani, vol. viii. pp. 62-77. (G. W. T.) 

AMSDORF, NICOLAUS VON (1483-1565), German Protestant 
reformer, was born on the 3rd of December 1483 at Torgau, on 
the Elbe. He was educated at Leipzig, and then at Wittenberg, 
where he was one of the first who matriculated (1502) in the 
recently founded university. He soon obtained various academi- 
cal honours, and became professor of theology in 1511. Like 
Andreas Carlstadt, he was at first a leading exponent of the older 
type of scholastic theology, but under the influence of Luther 
abandoned his Aristotelian positions for a theology based on the 



Augustinian doctrine of grace. Throughout his life he remained 
one of Luther's most determined supporters; was with him at 
the Leipzig conference (1519), and the diet of Worms (1521); 
and was in the secret of his Wartburg seclusion. He assisted the 
first efforts of the Reformation at Magdeburg (1524), at Goslar 
(1531) and at Einbeck (1534) ; took an active part in the debates 
at Schmalkalden (1537), where he defended the use of the sacra- 
ment by the unbelieving; and (1539) spoke out strongly against 
the bigamy of the landgrave of Hesse. After the death of the 
count palatine, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, he was installed 
there (January 20, 1542), though in opposition to the chapter, by 
the elector of Saxony and Luther. His position was a painful one, 
and he longed to get back to Magdeburg, but was persuaded 
by Luther to stay. After Luther's death (1546) and the battle of 
Miihlberg (1547) he had to yield to his rival, Julius von Pflug, and 
retire to the protection of the young duke of Weimar. Here he 
took part in founding Jena University (1548); opposed the 
" Augsburg Interim " (1548); superintended the publication of 
the Jena edition of Luther's works; and debated on the freedom 
of the will, original sin, and, more noticeably, on the Christian 
value of good works, in regard to which he held that they were 
not only useless, but prejudicial. He urged the separation of the 
High Lutheran party from Melanchthon (1557), got the Saxon 
dukes to oppose the Frankfort Recess (1558) and continued to 
fight for the purity of Lutheran doctrine. He died at Eisenach on 
the i4th of May 1565, and was buried in the church of St George 
there, where his effigy shows a well-knit frame and sharp-cut 
features. He was a man of strong will, of great aptitude for 
controversy, and considerable learning, and thus exercised a 
decided influence on the Reformation. Many letters and other 
short productions of his pen are extant in MS., especially five 
thick volumes of Amsdorfiana, in the Weimar library. They are 
a valuable source for our knowledge 'of Luther. A small sect, 
which adopted his opinion on good works, was called after him; 
but it is now of mere historical interest. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Life, in Th. Pressel, Leben u. ausgewahlte Schrift. 
der Voter der luth. Kirche, vol. viii. (published separately Elberfeld, 
1862, 8vo); J. Meier in Das Leben der Altvdter der luth. Kirche, vol. 
iii. ed. M. Meurer (1863); art. by G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, 
Realencyk. fur prot. Theologie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1896). 

AMSLER, SAMUEL (1791-1849), Swiss engraver, was born at 
Schinznach, in the canton of Aargau. He studied his art under 
Johan Heinrich Lips (1758-1817) and Karl Ernst Hess, at 
Munich, and from 1816 pursued it in Italy, and chiefly at Rome, 
till in 1829 he succeeded his former master Hess as professor 
of copper engraving in the Munich academy. The works he 
designed and engraved are remarkable for 'the grace of the 
figures, and for the wonderful skill with which he retains and 
expresses the characteristics of the original paintings and 
statues. He was a passionate admirer of Raphael, and had great 
success in reproducing his works. Amsler's principal engravings 
are: " The Triumphal March of Alexander the Great," and 
a full-length " Christ," after the sculptures of Thorwaldsen 
and Dannecker; the " Entombment of Christ," and two 
" Madonnas " after Raphael; and the " Union between Religion 
and the Arts," after Overbeck, his last work, on which he spent 
six years. 

AMSTERDAM, the chief city of Holland, in the province of 
North Holland, on the south side of the Y or Ij, an arm of the 
Zuider Zee, in 52 22' N. and 4 53' E. Pop. (1900) 523,557. 
It has communication by railway and canal in every direction; 
steam-tramways connect it with Edam, Purmerend, Alkmaar 
and Hilversum, and electric railways with Haarlem and the sea- 
side resort of Zandvoort. Amsterdam, the " dam or dyke of the 
Amstel," is so called from the Amstel, the canalized river which 
passes through the city to the Y. Towards the land the city is 
surrounded by a semicircular fosse or canal, and was at one time 
regularly fortified; but the ramparts have been demolished and 
are replaced by fine gardens and houses, and only one gateway, 
the Muiderpoort, is still standing. Within the city are four 
similar canals (grachten) with their ends resting on the Y, extend- 
ing in the form of polygonal crescents nearly parallel to each 



AMSTERDAM 



897 



other and to the outer canal. Each of these canals marks the 
line of the city walls and moat at different periods. Lesser 
canals intersect the others radially, thus virtually dividing the 
city into a number of islands; whence it has been compared with 
Venice. The nucleus of the town lies within the innermost 
crescent canal, and, with the large square, the Dam, in the centre, 
represents the area of Amsterdam about the middle of the I4th 
century. At one extremity of the enclosing canal is the Schrei- 
jerstoren (1482) or " Weepers' Tower," so called on account of 
its being at the head of the ancient harbour, and the scene in 
former days of sorrowful leave-takings. Between this and the 
next crescent of the Heeren Gracht sprang up, on the east, the 
labyrinthine quarter where for more than three centuries the 
large Jewish population has been located, and in the middle of 
which the painter Rembrandt lived (1640-1656) and the philo- 
sopher Spinoza was born (1632). Beyond the Heeren Gracht lie 
the Keizers Gracht and the Prinsen Gracht respectively, and these 
three celebrated canals, with their tree-bordered quays and plain 
but stately old-fashioned houses, form the principal thorough- 
fares of the city. West of the Prinsen ' Gracht lies the region 
called De Jordaan, a corruption of Le Jardin, the name which it 
acquired from the fact of its streets being called after various 
flowers. It was formed by the settlement of French refugees here 
after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The outermost 
crescent canal is called the Singel Gracht (girdle canal), and 
marks the boundary of the city at the end of the I7th century. 
The streets in the oldest part of Amsterdam are often narrow and 
irregular, and the sky-line is picturesquely broken by fantastic 
gables, roofs and towers. The site of the city being originally a 
peat bog, the foundations of the houses have to be secured by 
driving long piles (4-20 yds.) into the firm clay below, the palace 
on the Dam being supported on nearly 14,000 piles. As late 
as 1822, however, an overladen corn magazine sank into the 
mud. Modern Amsterdam extends southward beyond the Singel 
Gracht, and here the houses are often very handsome, while 
the broad streets are planted with rows of large trees. In the 
middle of this new region lies the Vondel Park, named after the 
great national poet Joost van den Vondel (d. 1679), whose statue 
stands in the park. The Willems Park adjoining was added 
in later times. In the older part of the town the chief open space 
is the Zoological Gardens in the north-eastern corner. They 
belong to a private society called Natura Artis Magistra, and came 
into existence in 1838. They have, however, been much enlarged 
since then, and bear a high reputation. In connexion with the 
gardens there are an aquarium (1882), a library, and an ethno- 
graphical and natural history museum. Concerts are given here 
in summer as well as in the Vondel Park. Close to the Zoological 
Gardens are the Botanical Gardens, and a small park, also the 
property of a private society, in which there is a variety theatre. 
The public squares of the city include the Sophiaplein, with the 
picturesque old mint-tower; the Rembrandtplein, with a monu- 
ment (1852) to the painter by Lodswyk Royer; the Thorbecke- 
plein, with a monument to the statesman, J. R. Thorbecke 
(1798-1872), and the Leidscheplein, with the large town theatre, 
rebuilt in 1890-1894 after a fire. 

Buildings and Institutions. The Dam is the vital centre of 
Amsterdam. All the tramways meet here, and some of the 
busiest streets, and here too are situated the Nieuwe Kerk and 
the palace. In the middle of the Dam stands a monument to 
those who fell in the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831, and called 
the Metal Cross after the war medals struck at that time. The 
palace is an imposing building in the classical style, originally 
built as a town-hall in 1648-1655 by the architect Jacob van 
Kempen. It was first given up to royalty on the occasion of the 
visit of the Stadtholder William V. in 1 768, and forty years later 
was appropriated as a royal palace by Louis Bonaparte, king of 
Holland. But King William I. afterwards formally returned the 
palace to the city, and the sovereign is therefore actually the 
city's guest when residing in it. Beautifully decorated on the 
exterior with gable reliefs by Artus Quellinus (1609-1668) of 
Antwerp, its great external defect is the absence of a grand 
entrance. The architectural and ornamental sculpture of the 
I. 29 



interior is mostly by the same artist, and there are a few interest- 
ing pictures, as well as some realistic wall paintings by the i8th- 
century artist Jacob de Wit similar to those in the Huis ten 
Bosch near the Hague. The great hall is one of the most splendid 
of its kind in Europe. Like most of the lesser apartments, it is 
lined with white Italian marble, and in spite of its enormous 
dimensions the roof is unsupported by pillars. Ancient flags 
captured in war decorate the walls, and in the middle of themarble 
floor is a representation of the firmament inlaid in copper. The 
Nieuwe Kerk (St Catherine's), in which the sovereigns of Holland 
are crowned, is a fine Gothic building dating from 1408. Inter- 
nally it is remarkable for its remains of ancient stained glass, 
fine carvings and interesting monuments, including one to 
the famous Admiral de Ruyter (d. 1676). A large stained-glass 
window commemorates the taking of the oath by Queen Wilhel- 
mina in 1898. The new exchange (1901) is a striking building 
in red brick and stone, and lies a short distance away between the 
Dam and the fine central station (1889). The Oude Kerk (St 
Nicholaas), so called, was built about the year 1300, and contains 
some beautiful stained glass of the i6th and I7th centuries, by 
Pieter Aertsen of Amsterdam (1508-1575) and others. One 
window contains the arms of the burgomasters of Amsterdam 
from 1578 to 1767. Among the monuments are those to various 
naval heroes, including Admirals van Heemskerk (d. 1607), 
Sweers (d. 1673) and van der Hulst (d. 1666). The North 
Church was the last work of the architect Hendrik de Keyser 
(1565-1621) of Utrecht. The Roman Catholic church of St 
Nicholaas (1886) was built to replace the accommodation 
previously afforded by a common dwelling-house, now the 
Museum Amstelkring of ecclesiastical antiquities. Among the 
numerous Jewish synagogues, the largest is that of the Portuguese 
Jews (1670), which is said to be an imitation of the temple of 
Solomon. Other buildings of interest are the St Antonieswaag, 
built as a town gate in 1488-1585, and now containing the city 
archives; the Trippenhuis, built as a private house in 1662, and 
now the home of the Royal Society of Science, Letters and Fine 
Arts; the Netherlands Bank (1865-1869), built by the architect 
W. A. Froger; the new building (1860) of the Seamen's Institute, 
founded in 1785; the cellular prison; and the so-called Paleis 
van Volksvlijt, an immense building of iron and glass with a fine 
garden, built by Dr Samuel Sarphati, and used for industrial 
exhibitions, the performance of operas, &c. The museums and 
picture galleries of Amsterdam are of great interest. The Ryks 
Museum, or state museum, is the first in Holland. It is a large, 
handsome and finely situated building designed by Dr P. J. H. 
Cuyper in the Dutch Renaissance style, and erected in 1876-1885. 
The exterior is decorated with sculptures and tile-work, and 
internally it is divided, broadly speaking, into a museum of 
general antiquities below, and the large gallery of pictures of 
the Dutch and Flemish schools above. The nucleus of this 
unsurpassed national collection of pictures was formed out 
of the collections removed hither from the Pavilion at Haarlem, 
consisting of modern paintings, and from the town-hall, the van 
der Hoop Museum and the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam. The 
important van der Hoop collection arose out of bequests by 
Adrian van der Hoop and his widow in 1854 and 1880; but the 
most famous pictures in the Ryks Museum are perhaps the three 
which come from the Trippenhuis, namely, the so-called " Night- 
watch " and the " Syndics of the Cloth Hall " by Rembrandt, 
and the " Banquet of the Civic Guard," by van der Heist. The 
Trippenhuis gallery consisted of the pictures brought from the 
Hague by Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and belonging 
to the collection of the Orange family dispersed during the 
Napoleonic period. The municipal museum contains a collection 
of furniture, paintings, &c., bequeathed by Sophia Lopez-Suasso 
(1890), a medico-pharmaceutical collection, and the National 
Guard Museum. The Joseph Fodor Museum (1860) contains 
modern French and Dutch pictures. The private collection 
founded by Burgomaster Jan Six (d. 1702), the friend and patron 
of Rembrandt, was sold to the state in 1907; the pictures, except 
the family Rembrandts, are in the Ryks Museum. Close to this is 
the Willet-Holthuysen Museum (1895) of furniture, porcelain, &c. 



AMSTERDAM 



Education and Charities. There are two universities in 
Amsterdam: the Free University (1880), and the more ancient 
state university of Amsterdam, originally founded in 1632, but 
reconstructed in 1887. In addition to the numerous science 
laboratories the state university possesses a very fine library 
of about 100,000 volumes, including the Rosenthal collection 
of over 8000 books on Jewish literature. Modern educational 
institutions include a school of engineering (1879), a school for 
teachers (1878) and a school of industrial art(i879). Amsterdam 
is also remarkable for the number and high character of its 
benevolent institutions, which are to a large extent supported 
by voluntary contributions. Among others may be mentioned 
hospitals for the sick, the aged, the infirm, the blind, the deaf, 
the dumb, the insane, and homes for widows, orphans, foundlings 
and sailors. The costumes of the children educated at the 
different orphanages are varied and picturesque, those of the 
municipal orphanage being dressed in the city colours of red and 
black. In the Walloon orphanage are some interesting pictures 
by van der Heist and others. The Society for Public Welfare 
(Maatschappij tot nut van het Algemeen), founded in 1785, has for 
its object the promotion of the education and improvement of 
all classes, and has branches in every part of Holland. Among 
other Amsterdam societies are the Felix Mentis (1776), and the 
Arti et Amicitiae (1839), whose art exhibitions are of a high 
order. 

Harbour and Commerce. The first attempt which the city of 
Amsterdam made to overcome the evils wrought to its trade by 
the slow formation of the Pampus sandbank at the entrance to 
the Y from the Zuider Zee, was the construction of the North 
Holland canal to the Helder in 1825. But the route was too 
long and too intricate, and in 1876 a much larger and more 
direct ship canal was built across the isthmus to the North 
Sea at Ymuiden. The serious rivalry of Rotterdam, especially 
with regard to the transit trade, and the inadequacy of the 
Keulsche Vaart, which connected the city with the Rhine, led to 
the construction in 1892 of the Merwede canal to Gorinchem. 
Meanwhile a complete transformation took place on the Y to suit 
the new requirements of the city's trade. The three islands built 
out into the river serve to carry the railway across the front of the 
city, and form a long series of quays. On either side are the large 
East and West docks (1825-1834), and beyond these stretch the 
long quays at which the American and East Indian liners are 
berthed. On the west of the West dock is the timber dock, 
and east of the East dock is another series of islands joined 
together so as to form basins and quays, one of which is the State 
Marine dock (1790-1795) with the arsenal and admiralty offices. 
Opening out of one of the crescent canals which penetrate the 
city from the Y is the State Entrep6t dock (1900), the free 
harbour of Amsterdam, where the produce from the Dutch 
East Indies is stored. On the north side of the Y are the dry 
docks and the petroleum dock (1880-1890). The principal 
imports are timber, coal, grain, ore, petroleum and colonial 
produce. Under the last head fall tobacco, tea, coffee, cocoa, 
sugar, Peruvian bark and other drugs. Diamond-cutting has 
long been practised by the Jews and forms one of the most 
characteristic industries of the city. Other industries include 
sugar refineries, soap, oil, glass, iron, dye and chemical works; 
distilleries, breweries, tanneries; tobacco and snuff factories; 
shipbuilding and the manufacture of machinery and stearine 
candles. Although no longer the centre of the banking transac- 
tions of the world, the Amsterdam exchange is still of considerable 
importance in this respect. The celebrated Bank of Amsterdam, 
founded in 1609, was dissolved in 1796, and the present Bank of 
the Netherlands was established in 1814 on the model of the 
Bank of England. The money market is the headquarters of 
companies formed to promote the cultivation of colonial produce. 

History. In 1204, when Giesebrecht II. of Amstel built a 
castle there, Amsterdam was a fishing hamlet held in fee by the 
lords of Amstel of the bishops of Utrecht, for whom they acted 
as bailiffs. In 1240 Giesebrecht III., son of the builder of the 
castle, constructed a dam to keep out the sea. To these two, 
then, the origin of the city may be ascribed. The first mention 



of the town is in 1275, in a charter of Floris IV., count of Holland, 
exempting it from certain taxes. 

In 1 296 the place passed out of the hands of the lords of Amstel, 
owing to the part taken by Giesebrecht IV. in the murder of 
Count Floris V. of Holland. Count John (d. 1304), after coming 
to an understanding with the bishop of Utrecht, bestowed the 
fief on his brother, Guy of Hainaut. Guy gave the town its 
first charter in 1300. It established the usual type of govern- 
ment under a bailiff (schout) and judicial assessors (scabini,oi 
schoppenen), the overlord's supremacy being guarded, and an 
appeal lying from the court of the scabini, in case of their dis- 
agreement, to Utrecht. In 1342 more extensive privileges were 
granted by Count William IV., including freedom from tolls by 
land and water in return for certain annual dues. In 1482 the 
town was surrounded with walls; and in the i6th century, during 
the religious troubles, it received a great increase of prosperity 
owing to the influx of refugees from Antwerp and Brabant. 
Amsterdam, influenced by its trading interests, did not join the 
other towns in revolt against Spain until 1578. In 1587 the earl 
of Leicester made an unsuccessful attempt to seize it. The great 
development of Amsterdam was due, however, to the treaty of 
Westphalia in 1648, by which its rival, Antwerp, was ruined, 
owing to the closing of the Scheldt. The city held out obstin- 
ately against the pretensions of the stadtholders, and in 1650 
opened the dykes in order to prevent William II. from seizing it. 
The same device was successful against Louis XIV. in 1672; and 
Amsterdam, now reconciled with the stadtholder, was one of the 
staunchest supporters of William III. against France. After the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 it opened its gates to 
numerous French refugees; but this hardly compensated it for 
its losses during the war. In 1787 Amsterdam was occupied by 
the Prussians, and in 1795 by the French under Pichegru. It 
was now made the capital of the Batavian Republic and after- 
wards of the kingdom of Holland. When, in 1810, this was 
united with the French empire, Amsterdam was recognized 
officially as the third town of the empire, ranking next after Paris 
and Rome. 

See J. ter Gouw, Geschiedeniss van Amsterdam (3 vols., Amsterdam, 
1879-1881), a full history with documents. 

AMSTERDAM (NEW AMSTERDAM), an uninhabited and 
almost inaccessible island in the Indian Ocean, in 3747'S., 
and 77 34' E., about 60 m. N. of St Paul Island, and nearly 
midway between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It is 
an extinct volcano, rising 2989 ft. from the sea. It was dis- 
covered by Anthony- van Diemen in 1633, and annexed by France 
in 1893. It may have been sighted by the companions of 
Magellan returning to Europe in 1522, and by a Dutch vessel, the 
" Zeewolf , "011617. In 1871 the British frigate "Megaera" was 
wrecked here, and most of the 400 persons on board had to remain 
upwards of three months on the island. The Mfmoires of a 
Frenchman, Captain Francois Peron (Paris, 1824), who was 
marooned three years on the island (1792-1795), are of much 
interest. 

AMSTERDAM, a city of Montgomery county, New York, 
U.S.A., on the north bank of the Mohawk river, about 33 m. N.W. 
of Albany. Pop. (1890) 17,336; (1900) 20,929, of whom 5575 
were foreign-born; (1910) 31,267. It is served by the New 
York Central & Hudson River and the West Shore railways, 
and by the Erie Canal. Hills on both sides of the river command 
fine views of the Mohawk- Valley. Amsterdam has two hospitals, 
a free public library and St Mary's Institute (Roman Catholic). 
Manufacturing is the most important industry, and carpets and 
rugs, hosiery and knit goods are the most important products. 
In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $15,007,276 
(an increase of 41 % over their value in 1900) ; carpets and rugs 
being valued at $5,667,742, and hosiery and knit goods (in the 
manufacture of which Amsterdam ranked third among the cities 
of the country) at $4,667,022, or 3-4 % of the total product of 
the United States. Among the other manufactures are brushes, 
brooms, buttons, silk gloves, paper boxes, electrical supplies, 
dyeing machines, cigars, and wagon and carriage springs. 
Amsterdam was settled about 1775, and was called Veedersburg 



AMUCK AMUR 



899 



until 1 804, when its present name was adopted. It was incorpor- 
ated as a village in 1830, and was chartered as a city in 1885. 

AMUCK, RUNNING (or more properly AMOK) , the native term 
for the homicidal mania which attacks Malays. A Malay will 
suddenly and apparently without reason rush into the street 
armed with a kris or other weapon, and slash and cut at every- 
body he meets till he is killed. These frenzies were formerly 
regarded as due to sudden insanity. It is now, however, certain 
that the typical amok is the result of circumstances, such as 
domestic jealousy or gambling losses, which render a Malay des- 
perate and weary of his life. It is, in fact, the Malay equivalent 
of suicide. " The act of running amuck is probably due to causes 
over which the culprit has some amount of control, as the custom 
has now died out in the British possessions in the peninsula, the 
offenders probably objecting to being caught and tried in cold 
blood " (W. W. Skeat). 

Though so intimately associated with the Malay there is some 
ground for believing the word to have an Indian origin, and the 
act is certainly far from unknown in Indian history. Some 
notable cases have occurred among the Rajputs. Thus, in 1634, 
the eldest son of the raja of Jodhpur ran amuck at the court of 
Shah Jahan, failing in his attack on the emperor, but killing five 
of his officials. During the i8th century, again, at Hyderabad 
(Sind), two envoys, sent by the Jodhpur chief in regard to a 
quarrel between the two states, stabbed the prince and twenty- 
six of his suite before they themselves fell. 

In Malabar there were certain professional assassins known 
to old travellers as Amouchi or Amuco. The nearest modern 
equivalent to these words would seem to be the Malayalim Amar- 
khan, " a warrior " (from amar, " fight ") The Malayalim term 
chaver applied to these ruffians meant literally those " who 
devote themselves to death." In Malabar was a custom by 
which the zamorin or king of Calicut had to cut his throat in 
public when he had reigned twelve years. In the lyth century 
a variation in his fate was made. He had to take his seat, after 
a great feast lasting twelve days, at a national assembly, 
surrounded by his armed suite, and it was lawful for anyone 
to attack him, and if he succeeded in killing him the murderer 
himself became zamorin (see Alex. Hamilton, " A new Account of 
the East Indies," in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 374). 
In 1600 thirty would-be assassins were killed in their attempts. 
These men were called Amar-khan, and it has been suggested that 
their action was " running amuck " in the true Malay sense. 
Another proposed derivation for amouchi is Sanskrit amokshya, 
" that cannot be loosed," suggesting that the murderer was 
bound by a vow, an explanation more than once advanced for 
the Malay amuck; but amokshya in such a sense is unknown 
in Malayalim. 

See Sir F. A. Swettenham, Malay Sketches (1895); H. Clifford, 
Studies in Brown Humanity (1898). 

AMULET (Late Lat. amuletum, origin unknown; falsely con- 
nected with the Arab, himdlah, a cord used to suspend a small 
Koran from the neck), a charm, generally, but not invariably, 
hung from the neck, to protect the wearer against witch- 
craft, sickness, accidents, &c. Amulets have been of many 
different kinds, and formed of different substances, stones, 
metals, and strips of parchment being the most common, with or 
without characters or legends engraved or written on them. 
Gems have often been employed and greatly prized, serving for 
ornaments as well as for charms. Certain herbs, too, and animal 
preparations have been used in the same way. In setting them 
apart to their use as amulets, great precautions have been taken 
that fitting times be selected, stellar and other magic influences 
propitious, and everything avoided that might be supposed 
to destroy or weaken the force of the charm. From the earliest 
ages the Oriental races have had a firm belief in the prevalence of 
occult evil influences, and a superstitious trust in amulets and 
similar preservatives against them. There are references to, and 
apparently correctives of, these customs in the Mosaic injunctions 
to bind portions of the law upon the hand and as frontlets be- 
tween the eyes, as well as write them upon the door-posts and the 
gates; but, among the later Jews especially, the original design 



and meaning of these usages were lost sight of; and though it has 
been said that the phylacteries were not strictly amulets, there is 
no doubt that they were held in superstitious regard. Amulets 
were much used by the ancient Egyptians, and also among 
the Greeks and Romans. We find traces of them too in the early 
Christian church, in the emphatic protests of Chrysostom, 
Augustine and others against them. The fish was a favourite 
symbol on these charms, from the word IxOvs being the 
initials of 'iTjo-ous Xpttrros Qeov vU>s ffurrip. A firm faith in 
amulets still prevails widely among Asiatic nations. Talisman, 
also from the Arabic, is a word of similar meaning and use, 
but some distinguish it as importing a more powerful charm. 
A talisman, whose " virtues are still applied to for stopping blood 
and in cases of canine madness," figures prominently in, and gives 
name to, one of Sir Walter Scott's novels. 

See also Arpe, T>e Prodigiis Naturae el Artis Operibus Talismanes 
et Amuleta dictis (Hamburg, 1717) ; Ewele, Ueber Amulete (1827) ; and 
Koop's Palaeographica Critica, vols. iii. and iv. (1829). 

AMUR (known also as the Sakhalin-ula), a river of eastern 
Asia, formed by the confluence of the Argun and the Shilka, at 
Ust-Stryelka, in 53 19' N. lat. and 120 30' E. long. Both these 
rivers come from the south-west: the Argun, or Kerulen as it is 
called above Lake Kulun (Dalai-nor) , through which it flows about 
half way between its source and Ust-Stryelka, rises in 49 N. 
lat. and 109 E. long.; the Shilka is formed by the union of the 
Onon and the Ingoda, both of which have their sources a little 
farther north-east than the Kerulen (Argun). The Amur proper 
flows at first in a south-easterly direction for about 800 m., as far 
as long. 132' E., separating Manchuria from the Amur govern- 
ment; it then turns to the north-east, cuts its way through the 
Little Khingan mountains in a gorge 2000 ft. wide and 140 m. 
long, and after a total course of over 1700 m. discharges into the 
Sea of Okhotsk, opposite to the island of Sakhalin. It is esti- 
mated to drain an area of 7 7 2 ,000 sq. m. Its principal tributaries 
from the south are the Sungari, which the Chinese consider to be 
the true head-river of the Amur, and the Usuri; from the north 
it receives the Oldoi, Zeya, Bureya, Kur, Gorin and Amgun. 
As the mouth is choked with sandbanks, goods are disembarked at 
Mariinsk and carried by train (9 m.) to Alexandrovsk at the head 
of the Gulf of Tartary. Navigation on the river is open from 
April to early in November. 

See T. W. Atkinson, Travels in the Region of the Amoor (1860); 
Collins, Exploration of the Amoor (ed. 1864) and Voyage down the 
Amoor (1866); Andree, Das Amurgebiet (ed. 1876); and Grum- 
Grshimaylo, Account of the Amur (Russian, 1894). 

AMUR, a government of East Siberia, stretching from the 
Stanovoi (Yablonoi) mountains southwards to the left bank of 
the Amur river. It includes the basins of the Oldoi, Zeya and 
Bureya, left-bank tributaries of the river Amur, and has the 
governments of Transbaikalia on the W., Irkutsk and Yakutsk on 
the N., the Maritime province on the E., and Manchuria on the 
S.W. and S. Area, 172,848 sq. m. Immense districts are quite 
uninhabited. All the north-western part is occupied by a high 
plateau, bordered by the Great Khingan range, whose exact 
position in the region is not yet definitely settled. Next comes 
a belt of fertile plateaus bounded on the east by the Little 
Khingan, or Dusse-alin, a picturesque well-wooded range, which 
stretches in a north-easterly direction from Kirin across Man- 
churia, is pierced by the Amur, and continues on its left bank, 
separating the Bureya from the Amgun. To the east of it 
stretches in the same direction a strip of marshy lowlands. In 
the ranges which rise above the high plateau in the north-west, 
in the vicinity of the Stanovoi watershed, gold mines of great 
richness are worked. Coal of inferior quality is known to exist 
on the Oldoi, Zeya and Bureya. The Russians are represented 
by the Amur Cossacks, whose villages, e.g. Albazin, Kumara, 
Ekaterino-Nikolsk and Mikhailo-Semenovsk, are strung at 
intervals of 17 to 20 m. along the whole course of the river; 
by peasant immigrants, chiefly nonconformists, who are the 
wealthiest part of the population; and by a floating population 
of gold miners. Nomadic Tungus (Orochons), Manegres and 
Golds hunt and fish along the rivers. Steamers ply regularly 



900 



AMYGDALIN AMYNTAS 



along the Amur for 6| months, from Khabarovsk to Stryetensk, 
on the Shilka terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway; but only 
light steamers with 2 to 3 ft. draught can navigate the upper 
Amur and Shilka. In the winter the frozen river is the usual 
highway. Rough roads and bridle-paths only are found in the 
interior. The great engineering difficulties in building a railway 
along the Amur induced the Russian government to obtain from 
China permission to build a railway through Manchuria, but 
the project for a railway from Khabarovsk to Stryetensk 
received imperial sanction in the supimer of 1906. The Amur 
government has a continental climate, the yearly average at 
Blagovyeshchensk (50 N. lat.) being 30 Fahr. (January, 17; 
July, 70). It benefits from the influence of the monsoons. Cold 
north-west winds prevail from October to March, while in July 
and August torrential rains fall, resulting in a sudden and very 
considerable rise in the Amur and its right-bank tributaries. The 
only town is Blagovyeshchensk, but the centre of the adminis- 
tration is Khabarovsk in the Maritime province. The settled 
population in 1897 was 119,009, of whom 31,515 lived in towns. 

The governor-generalship of Amur includes this government 
and the Maritime province, the total area being 888,830 sq. m., 
and the total population in 1897, 339,127. This region became 
known to the Russians in 1639. In 1649-1651 a party of 
Cossacks, under Khabarov, built a fort at Albazin on the Amur 
river, but in 1689 they withdrew in favour of the Chinese. From 
1847 onwards they once more turned their attention to this 
region, and began to make settlements, especially after 1854, 
when a powerful flotilla sailed from Ust-Stryelka down to the 
mouth of the river. Four years later China ceded to Russia the 
whole left bank of the Amur, and also the right bank below the 
confluence of the Ussuri, and in 1860 all the territory between the 
Ussuri and the Eastern Sea. (P. A. K.) 

AMYGDALIN (from the Gr. &nvy8a\ri, almond), CmHjjNOn, 
a glucoside isolated from bitter almonds by H. E. Robiquet 
and A. F. Boutron-Charlard in 1830, and subsequently 
investigated by Liebig and Wohler, and others. It is extracted 
from almond cake by boiling alcohol; on evaporation of the 
solution and the addition of ether, amygdalin is precipitated 
as white minute crystals. Sulphuric acid decomposes it into 
d-glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid; while hydrochloric 
acid gives mandelic acid, rf-glucose and ammonia. The decom- 
position induced by enzymes may occur in two ways. Maltase 
partially decomposes it, giving rf-glucose and mandelic nitrile 
glucoside, CsHsCH^NJO-CeHnOs; this compound is isomeric 
with sambunigrin, a glucoside found by E. E. Bourquelot and 
Danjou in the berries of the common elder, Sambucus nigra. 
Emulsin, on the other hand, decomposes it into benzaldehyde, 
prussic acid, and two molecules of glucose; this enzyme occurs 
in the bitter almond, and consequently the seeds invariably 
contain free prussic acid and benzaldehyde. An " amorphous 
amygdalin " is said to occur in the cherry-laurel. Closely 
related to these glucosides is dhurrin, CMHiyOyN, isolated by 
W. Dunstan and T. A. Henry from the common sorghum or 
" great millet," Sorghum intlgare; this substance is decom- 
posed by emulsin or hydrochloric acid into <f-glucose, prussic 
acid, and />-hydroxybenzaldehyde. 

AMYGDALOID, a term meaning " almond-shaped," used in 
anatomy and geology. 

AMYL ALCOHOLS (C 6 H U OH). Eight amyl alcohols are 
known: normal amyl alcohol CH 3 -(CH 2 ) 4 -OH, isobutyl carbinol 
or isoamyl alcohol (CH 3 ) 2 -CH-CH 2 -CH 2 OH, active amyl alcohol 
(CH,) (C 2 H 6 ):CH- CH 2 OH,tertiary butyl carbinol(CH 3 ) 3 C- CH 2 OH, 
diethyl carbinol (C2H5) 2 CH-OH, methyl (n) propyl carbinol 
(CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 )(CH 3 ):CH:OH, methyl isopropyl carbinol 
(CH,) 2 :CH(CH 3 ) :CHOH, and dimethyl ethyl carbinol 
(CH 3 ) 2 -(C 2 H 6 )-C-OH. Of these alcohols, the first four are 
primary, the last one a tertiary, the other three secondary 
alcohols; three of them, viz. active amyl alcohol, methyl (n) 
propyl carbinol, and methyl isopropyl carbinol, contain an asym- 
metric carbon atom and can consequently each exist in two 
optically active, and one optically inactive form. 

The most important is isobutyl carbinol, this being the chief 



constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol, and consequently a 
constituent of fusel (?..) oil. It may be separated from fusel 
oil by shaking with strong brine solution, separating the oily 
layer from the brine layer and distilling it, the portion boiling 
between 125 and i4oC. being collected. For further purification 
it may be shaken with hot milk of lime, the oily layer separ- 
ated, dried with calcium chloride and fractionated, the fraction 
boiling between 128 and i32C. only being collected. It may be 
synthetically prepared from isobutyl alcohol by conversion into 
isovaleryl-aldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobutyl 
carbinol by means of sodium amalgam. 

It is a colourless liquid of specific gravity 0-8248 (oC.), boiling 
at i3i-6C., slightly soluble in water, easily soluble in alcohol, 
ether, chloroform and benzene. It possesses a characteristic 
strong smell and a sharp burning taste. When perfectly pure, it 
is not a poison, although the impure product is. On passing its 
vapour through a red-hot tube, it undergoes decomposition with 
production of acetylene, ethylene, propylene, &c. It is oxidized 
by chromic acid mixture to isovaleryl-aldehyde; and it forms 
crystalline addition compounds with calcium and stannic 
chlorides. 

The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. Of 
these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the most difficult to 
obtain, its synthesis having only been accomplished in 1891, by 
L. Tissier (Comptes Rendus, 1891, 112, p. 1065) by the reduction 
of a mixture of trimethyl acetic acid and trimethylacetyl chloride 
with sodium amalgam. It is a solid which'melts at 48-so C. 
and boils at 112-3 C. 

AMYL NITRITE (isoamyl nitrite), C 6 H U -ONO, a liquid 
prepared by passing nitrous fumes (from starch and concen- 
trated nitric acid) into warm isoamyl alcohol; or by distilling 
a mixture of 26 parts of potassium nitrite in 15 parts of water 
with 30 parts of isoamyl alcohol in 30 parts of sulphuric acid 
(Renard, Jahresb., 1874, p. 352). It is a yellow-coloured liquid 
of specific gravity 0-877, boiling at about 95-96 C. It has a 
characteristic penetrating odour, and produces marked effects 
on the system when its vapour is inhaled. It is insoluble in 
water, but dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, glacial acetic acid, 
chloroform and benzene. On heating with methyl alcohol it is 
converted into isoamyl alcohol, methyl nitrite being produced at 
the same time; a similar reaction takes place with ethyl alcohol, 
but the change is less complete. It is readily decomposed by 
nascent hydrogen, with the formation of ammonia and isoamyl 
alcohol; and on hydrolysis with caustic potash it forms 
potassium nitrite and isoamyl alcohol. When the liquid is 
dropped on to fused caustic potash, it forms potassium valerate. 
Amyl nitrite finds application in medicine, and in the prepara- 
tion of anhydrous diazonium salts (E. Knoevenagel, Berichte, 
1890, 23, p. 2094). 

AMYMONE, in ancient Greek legend, daughter of Danaiis. 
With her sisters, she had been sent to look for water, the district 
of Argos being then parched through the anger of Poseidon. 
Amymone having thrown her spear at a stag, missed it, but hit 
a satyr asleep in the brake. The satyr pursued her, and she 
called for help on Poseidon, who appeared, and for love of her 
beauty caused a spring to well up, which received her name. 
Aeschylus wrote a satyric drama on the subject. By the god 
Amymone became the mother of Nauplius, the wrecker. Her 
meeting with Poseidon at the spring is frequently represented on 
ancient coins and gems. 

Apollodorus ii. 1,4; Hyginus, Fab. 169; Propertius ii. 26. 

AMYNTAS L, king of Macedonia (c. 540-498 B.C.), was a 
tributary vassal of Darius Hystaspes. With him the history of 
Macedonia may be said to begin. He was the first of its rulers to 
have relations with other countries; he entered into an alliance 
with the Peisistratidae, and when Hippias was driven out of 
Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on the Thermalc 
Gulf, with the object of turning the Greek party feuds to his own 
advantage (Herodotus v. 17, 94; Justin vii. 2; Thucydides 
ii. 100; Pausanias ix. 40). See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

AMYNTAS II. (or III.), son of Arrhidaeus, great-grandson of 
Alexander I., king of Macedonia from 393 (or 389) to 369 B.C. 



AMYOT AMYRAUT 



goi 



He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which 
followed the death of Archelaus, the patron of art and literature, 
and showed the same taste for Greek culture and its representa- 
tives. But he had many enemies at home; in 383 he was driven 
out by the Illyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the 
Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. He concluded a treaty 
with the Spartans, who assisted him to reduce Olynthus (379). 
He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assidu- 
ously cultivated the friendship of Athens. By his wife, Eurydice, 
he had three sons, the youngest of whom was the famous Philip 
of Macedon. 

Diodorus xiv. 89, xv. 19, 60; Xenophon, Hellenica, v. 2; Justin 
vii. 4. 

AMYOT, JACQUES (1513-1393), French writer, was born of 
poor parents, at Melun, on the 3Oth of October 1513. He found 
his way to the university of Paris, where he supported himself 
by serving some of the richer students. He was nineteen when he 
became M.A. at Paris, and later he graduated doctor of civil law 
at Bourges. Through Jacques Colure (or Colin), abbot of St 
Ambrose in Bourges, he obtained a tutorship in the family of a 
secretary of state. By the secretary he was recommended to 
Marguerite de Valois, and through her influence was made 
professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. Here he translated 
Theagene et Chariclee from Heliodorus (1547 fol.), for which he 
was rewarded by Francis I. with the abbey of Bellozane. He was 
thus enabled to go to] Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch, 
on the translation on whose Lilies (1559; 1565) he had been some 
time engaged. On the way he turned aside on a mission to the 
council of Trent. Returning home, he was appointed tutor to 
the sons of Henry II., by one of whom (Charles IX.) he was after- 
wards made grand almoner (1561) and by the other (Henry III.) 
was appointed, in spite of his plebeian origin, commander of the 
order of the Holy Ghost. Pius I. promoted him to the bishopric 
of Auxerre, and here he continued to live in comparative quiet, 
repairing his cathedral and perfecting his translations, for the 
rest of his days, though troubled towards the close by the insub- 
ordination and revolts of his clergy. He was a devout and 
conscientious churchman, and had the courage to stand by his 
principles. It is said that he advised the chaplain of Henry III. 
to refuse absolution to the king after the murder of the Guise 
princes. He was, nevertheless, suspected of approving the 
crime. His house was plundered, and he was compelled to leave 
Auxerre for some time. He died on the 6th of February 1593, 
bequeathing, it is said, 1 200 crowns to the hospital at Orleans for 
the twelve " deniers " he received there when " poor and naked " 
on his way to Paris. He translated seven books of Diodorus 
(1554), the Daphnis et Chloe of Longus (1559) and the Opera 
Moralia of Plutarch (1572). His vigorous and idiomatic version 
of Plutarch, Vies des hommes illustres, was translated into 
English by Sir Thomas North, and supplied Shakespeare with 
materials for his Roman plays. Montaigne said of him," I give 
the palm to Jacques Amyot over all our French writers, not only 
for the simplicity and purity of his language in which he surpasses 
all others, nor for his constancy to so long an undertaking, nor for 
his profound learning . . . but I am grateful to him especially 
for his wisdom in choosing so valuable a work." It was indeed 
to Plutarch that Amyot devoted his attention. His other trans- 
lations were subsidiary. The version of Diodorus he did not 
publish, although the manuscript had been discovered by him- 
self. Amyot took great pains to find and interpret correctly 
the best authorities, but the interest of his books to-day lies 
in the style. His translation reads like an original work. The 
personal method of Plutarch appealed to a generation ad- 
dicted to memoirs and incapable of any general theory of history. 
Amyot's book, therefore, obtained an immense popularity, and 
exercised great influence over successive generations of French 
writers. 

There is a good edition of the works of Amyot from the firm of 
Didot (25vols., 1818-1821). See also AugustedeBlignieres,woiittr 
Amyot et Us traducteurs frangais au xvi sttcle (Paris, 1851). 

AMYRAUT, MOSES (1596-1664), also known as AMYRALDUS, 
French Protestant theologian and metaphysician, was born at 



Bourgueil, in the valley of Anjou, in 1596. His father was a 
lawyer, and, designing Moses for his own profession, sent him on 
the completion of his study of the humanities at Orleans to the 
university of Poitiers. Here he took the degree of licentiate 
(B.A.) of laws. On his way home from the university he passed 
through Saumur, and, having visited the pastor of the Protestant 
church there, was introduced by him to Philippe de Mornay, 
governor of the city. Struck with young Amyraut's ability and 
culture, they both urged him to change from law to theology. 
His father advised him to revise his philological and philosophical 
studies, and read over Calvin's Institutions, before finally deter- 
mining. He did so, and decided for theology. He thereupon 
removed to Saumur destined to be for ever associated with his 
name and s.tudied under J. Cameron, who ultimately regarded 
him as his greatest scholar. He had a brilliant course, and was 
in due time licensed as a minister of the French Protestant 
Church. The contemporary civil wars and excitements hindered 
his advancement. His first church was in St Aignan, in the 
province of Maine. There he remained two years. The eminent 
theologian, Jean Daille, being then removed to Paris, advised the 
church at Saumur to secure Amyraut as his successor, praising 
him " as above himself." The university of Saumur at the same 
time had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology. The 
great churches of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and 
to win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of Anjou. 
Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was appointed 
to Saumur in 1633, and to the professor's chair along with the 
pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he maintained 
for thesis De Sacerdotio Christi. His co-professors were Louis 
Cappel and Josue de la Place, who also were Cameron's pupils. 
Very beautiful was the lifelong friendship of these three remark- 
able men, who collaborated in the Theses Salmurienses, a collec- 
tion of theses propounded by candidates in theology prefaced by 
the inaugural addresses of the three professors. Full of energy, 
Amyraut very speedily gave to French Protestantism a new force. 
In 1631 he published his Trails des religions, a book that still 
lives; and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the 
church. Chosen to represent the provincial synod of Anjou, 
Touraine and Maine at the national synod held in 1631 et 
Charenton, he was appointed as orator to present to the king 
" The Copy of their Complaints and Grievances for the Infrac- 
tions and Violations of the Edict of Nantes." Previous deputies 
had addressed the king on their bended knees, whereas the repre- 
sentatives of the Catholics had been permitted to stand. Amy- 
raut consented to be orator only if the assembly authorized him 
to stand. There was intense resistance. Cardinal Richelieu 
himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit 
Amyraut privately, to persuade him to kneel; but Amyraut 
held resolutely to his point and carried it. His " oration " on 
this occasion, which was immediately published in the French 
Mercury, remains a striking landmark in the history of French 
Protestantism. During his absence on this matter the assembly 
debated " Whether the Lutherans who desired it, might be 
admitted into communion with the Reformed Churches of France 
at the Lord's Table." It was decided in the affirmative previous 
to his return; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, and 
thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining inter- 
communication between all churches holding the main doctrines 
of the Reformation. P. Bayle recounts the title-pages of no 
fewer than thirty-two books of which Amyraut was the author. 
These show that he took part in all the great controversies on 
predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and 
harassed all Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism 
of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, 
by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of 
misconstruction. In 1634 he published his Traite de la prt- 
deslination, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of 
predestination by his " Universalismus hypotheticus." God, 
he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their 
having faith. This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he 
was acquitted at the national synod held at Alenjon in 1637, 
and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580-1652). The 



902 



ANA 



charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton 
in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A third attack at the 
synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success. The 
university of Saumur became the university of French Pro- 
testantism. Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in 
attendance upon his prelections. Another historic part filled by 
Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz 
de la Berchere (1600-1653), first president of the parlement 
of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and 
reunion of the Catholics of France with the French Protestants. 
Very large were the concessions made by Richelieu in his personal 
interviews with Amyraut; but, as with the Worcester House 
negotiations in England between the Church of England and 
nonconformists, they inevitably fell through. On all sides the 
statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were conceded. His 
De I' elevation de lafoy et de I'abaissement de la raison en la creance 
des mysteres de la religion (1641) gave him early a high place as a 
metaphysician. Exclusive of his controversial writings, he left 
behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical 
books, which have long remained the fireside favourites of the 
peasantry of French Protestantism. Amongst these are Estat 
des fideles apres la mart; Sur I'oraison dominicale; Du merite 
des asuvres; Traite de la justification; and paraphrases of books 
of the Old and New Testament. His closing years were 
weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He died on the 
1 8th of January 1664. 

See Edm. Saigey, Moses Amyrattt, sa vie et ses ecrits (1849) ; Alex. 
Schweizer in Tub. theol. Jahrbb., 1852, pp. 41 ff. 155 ft., Protestant. 
Central-Doi>men(i854 ff.), ii. 225 ff., and in Herzog-Hauck, Real- 
encyklopddte; Bayle, s.v. ; Biog. Univ., s.v. ; John Quick's Synod, 
in Gall. Reform, pp. 352-357; Ibid. MS. Itones Sacrae Gallicanae; 
Life of Cameron. 

ANA, a Latin neuter plural termination appropriated to various 
collections of the observations and criticisms of eminent men, 
delivered in conversation and recorded by their friends, or dis- 
covered among their papers after their decease. Though the 
term Ana is of comparatively modern origin, the introduction 
of this species of composition is not of recent date. It appears, 
from d'Herbelot's Bibliotheque Orienlale, that from the earliest 
periods the Eastern nations were in the habit of preserving the 
maxims of their sages. From them the practice passed to the 
Greeks and Romans. Plato and Xenophon treasured up and 
recorded the sayings of their master Socrates; and Arrian, in 
the concluding books of his Enchiridion, now lost, collected the 
casual observations of Epictetus. The numerous apophthegms 
scattered in Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius and other writers, 
show that it was customary in Greece to preserve the colloquially 
expressed ideas of illustrious men. It appears that Julius Caesar 
compiled a book of apophthegms, in which he related the bans 
mots of Cicero; and Quintilian informs us that a freedman 
of that celebrated wit and orator composed three books of a 
work entitled De Jocis Ciceronis. We are told by Suetonius 
that Caius Melissus, originally the slave but afterwards the 
freedman and librarian of Maecenas, collected the sayings of 
his master; and Aulus Gellius has filled his Nodes Atticae with 
anecdotes which he heard from the eminent scholars and critics 
whose society he frequented in Rome. 

But though vestiges of Ana may be traced in the classical 
ages, it is only in modern times that they have come to be 
regarded as constituting a distinct species of composition, 
comprising literary anecdotes, critical reflexions, and historical 
incidents, mingled with the detail of bens mots and ludicrous tales. 
The term Ana seems to have been applied to such collections 
as far back as the beginning of the isth century. Francesco 
Barbaro, in a letter to Poggio, says that the information and 
anecdotes which Poggio and Bartolommeo of Montepulciano had 
picked up during a literary excursion through Germany will be 
called Ana: " Quemadmodum mala ab Appio e Claudia gente 
Appiana, et pira a Mallio Malliana cognominata sunt, sic haec 
literarum quae vestra ope et opera Germania in Italiam defe- 
rentur, aliquando et Poggiana et Montepolitiana vocabuntur." 

Poggio Bracciolini, to whom this letter is addressed, and to 
whom the world is indebted for the preservation of so many 



classical remains, is the first eminent person of modern times 
whose jests and opinions have been transmitted to posterity. 
Poggio was secretary to five successive popes. During the 
pontificate of Martin V., who was chosen in 1417, Poggio and 
other members of the Roman chancery were in the habit of 
assembling in a common hall adjoining the Vatican, in order 
to converse freely on all subjects. Being more studious of wit 
than of truth, they termed this apartment Buggiale, a word which 
Poggio himself interprets Mendaciorum Officina. Here Poggio 
and his friends discussed the news and scandal of the day; 
communicated entertaining anecdotes; attacked what they 
did not approve (and they approved of little); and indulged 
in the utmost latitude of satiric remark, not sparing even the 
pope and cardinals. The jests and stories which occurred in 
these unrestrained conversations were collected by Poggio, and 
formed the chief materials of his Facetiae, first printed, according 
to de Bure, in 1470. This collection, which forms a principal 
part of the Poggiana, is chiefly valuable as recording interesting 
anecdotes of eminent men of the i4th and isth centuries. It 
also contains a number of quibbles or jeux de mots, and a still 
greater number of facetiae, idle and licentious stories. These 
Facetiae form, upon the whole, the most amusing and interesting 
part of the Poggiana printed at Amsterdam in 1720; but this 
collection also comprehends additional anecdotes of Poggio's 
life, and a few extracts from his graver compositions. 

Though Poggio was the first person whose remarks and bans 
mots were collected under the name of Ana, the Scaligerana, 
which contains the opinions of Joseph Scaliger, was the first 
worked published under that appellation, and accordingly may be 
regarded as having led the way to that class of publications. 
There are two collections of Scaligerana the Prima and Secunda. 
The first was compiled by a physician named Francois Vertunien, 
sieur de Lavau, who attended a family with whom Joseph 
Scaliger resided. He, in consequence, had frequent opportunities 
of meeting the celebrated critic, and was in the custom of com- 
mitting to writing the observations which dropped from him in 
the course of conversation, to which he occasionally added 
remarks of his own. This collection, which was chiefly Latin, 
remained in manuscript many years after the death of the com- 
piler. It was at length'purchased by M. de Sigogne, who published 
it in 1669, under the title of Prima Scaligerana, nusquam antehac 
edita, calling it prima in order to preserve its claim of priority 
over another Scaligerana, which, though published three years 
before, had been more recently compiled. This second work, 
known as Secunda Scaligerana, was collected by two brothers 
of the name of Vassan, students of the university of Leiden, 
of which Scaliger was one of the professors. Being particularly 
recommended to Scaliger, they were received in his house, and 
enjoyed his conversation. Writing down what they had heard, 
particularly on historical and critical subjects, they soon made 
up a large manuscript volume, in which, however, there was 
neither connexion nor arrangement of any description. After 
passing through various hands this manuscript came into the 
possession of M. Daill6, who for his own use arranged in alpha- 
betical order the articles which it contained. Isaac Vossius, 
obtaining the manuscript in loan from M. Daill6, transcribed it, 
and afterwards published it at the Hague, under the title of 
Scaligerana, sive Excerpta ex Ore Josephi Scaligeri. This edition 
was full of inaccuracies and blunders, and a more correct im- 
pression was afterwards published by M. Daille, with a preface 
complaining of the use that Vossius had made of the manuscript, 
which he declares was never intended for publication, and was 
not of a nature to be given to the world. Indeed, most literary 
men in that age conceived that the Scaligerana, particularly 
the second, detracted considerably from the reputation of the 
great scholar. Joseph Scaliger, with more extensive erudition, 
but, as some think, less genius than his father Julius Caesar 
Scaliger, had inherited his vanity and dogmatical spirit. Con- 
versing with two young students, he would probably be but little 
cautious in the opinions he expressed, as his literary errors could 
not be detected or exposed. Unfortunately the blind admiration 
of his pupils led them to regard his opinions as the responses 



ANABAPTISTS 



903 



of an oracle, and his most unmerited censures as just condemna- 
tions. The Scaligerana, accordingly, contains many falsehoods, 
with much unworthy personal abuse of the most distinguished 
characters of the age. 

In imitation of the Scaligerana, a prodigious number of 
similar works appeared in France towards the end of the i7th 
and beginning of the i8th century. At first these collections 
were confined to what had fallen from eminent men in con- 
versation ; but they were afterwards made to embrace fragments 
found among their papers, and even passages extracted from 
their works and correspondence. Of those which merely record 
the conversations of eminent men, the best known and most 
valuable is the Menagiana. Gilles Menage was a person of good 
sense, of various and extensive information and of a most 
communicative disposition. A collection of his oral opinions 
was published in 1693, soon after his death; and this collection, 
which was entitled Menagiana, was afterwards corrected and 
enlarged by Bernard de la Monnoye, in an edition published by 
him in 1715. 

The Perroniana, which exhibits the' opinions of Cardinal du 
Perron, was compiled from his conversation by C. Dupuy, and 
published by Vossius in 1666, by the same contrivance which put 
him in possession of the Scaligerana. The Thuana, or observa- 
tions of the president de Thou, have usually been published along 
with the Perroniana, but first appeared in 1669. 

The Valesiana is a collection of the literary opinions of the 
historiographer Adrien de Valois, published by his son. M. de 
Valois was a great student of history, and the Valesiana accord- 
ingly comprehends many valuable historical observations, par- 
ticularly on the works of du Cange. 

The Fureteriana (1696) contains the bans mots of Antoine 
Furetiere, the Academician, the stories which he was in the habit 
of telling, and a number of anecdotes and remarks found in his 
papers after his decease. 

TheChevraeana (1697), so called from Urbain Chevreau, ismore 
scholarly than most works of a similar description, and probably 
more accurate, as it differs from the Ana proper, of which the 
works described above are instances, in having been published 
during the life of the author and revised by himself. 

Parrhasiana (1699-1 701) is the work of Jean le Clerc, a professor 
of Amsterdam, who bestowed this appellation on his miscel- 
laneous productions with the view of discussing various topics 
of philosophy and politics with more freedom than he could have 
employed under his own name. 

The Huetiana contains the detached thoughts and criticisms of 
P. D. Huet, bishop of Avranches, which he himself committed to 
writing when he was far advanced in life. Huet was born in 1630, 
and in 1712 he was attacked by a malady which impaired his 
memory, and rendered him incapable of the sustained attention 
necessary for the completion of a long or laborious work. In this 
situation he employed himself in putting his detached observa- 
tions on paper. These were published by the Abb6 d'Olivet the 
year after his death (1722). 

The Casauboniana presents us with the miscellaneous observa- 
tions, chiefly philological, of the celebrated Isaac Casaubon. 
During the course of a long life that eminent commentator was 
in the daily practice of committing to paper anything remarkable 
which he heard in conversation with his friends, especially if it 
bore on the studies in which he was engaged. He also made 
annotations from day to day on the works he read, with which 
he connected his judgments concerning the authors and their 
writings. This compilation was styled Ephemerides. His Adver- 
saria, and materials amassed for a refutation of the Ecclesiastical 
Annals of Baronius, were bequeathed by his son Meric Casaubon 
to the Bodleian Library at Oxford. These were shown to J. C. 
Wolf during a visit which he paid to that university; and having 
been transcribed by him, were published in 1710 under the title 
of Casauboniana. 

Besides the above a great many works under the title of Ana 
appeared in France about the same period. Thus, the opinions 
and conversation of Charpentier, Colomesius and St Evremond 
were recorded in the Carpenteriana, Colomesiana and St Evre- 



moniana; and those of Segrais in the Segraisiana, a collection 
formed by a person stationed behind the tapestry in a house 
where Segrais was accustomed to visit, of which Voltaire declared, 
" que de tous les Ana c'est celui qui m6rite le plus d'etre mis au 
rang des mensonges imprimes, et surtout des mensonges 
insipides." The Ana, indeed, from the popularity which they 
now enjoyed, were compiled in such numbers and with so little 
care that they became almost proverbial for inaccuracy. 

In 1743 the Abbe d'Olivet spoke indignantly of " ces ana, dont 
le nombre se multiple impunement tous les jours a. la honte de 
notre siecle." About the middle of the i8th century, too, they 
were sometimes made the vehicles of revolutionary and heretical 
opinions. Thus the evil naturally began to cure itself, and by a 
reaction the French Ana sank in public esteem as much below 
their intrinsic value as they had formerly been exalted above it. 

Of the examples England has produced of this species of 
composition, perhaps the most interesting is the Walpoliana, 
a transcript of the literary conversation of Horace Walpole, earl 
of Orford. Most other works which in England have been 
published under the name of Ana, as Baconiana, Atterburyana, 
&c., are rather extracts from the writings and correspondence of 
eminent men than memorials of their conversation. 

There are some works which, though they do not bear the title, 
belong more strictly to the class of Ana than many of the collec- 
tions which are known under that appellation. Such are the 
Melanges d'histoire et de litterature, published under the name of 
Vignewl Mantille, though the work of a Benedictine, d'Argonne ; 
and the Locorum Communium Collectanea, ex Lectionibus Philippi 
Melanchthonis, a work of considerable reputation on account 
of its theological learning, and the information it communi- 
cates concerning the early state of the Reformed Church. But 
of those productions which belong to the class, though they 
do not bear the name, of Ana, the most celebrated are the 
Colloquia Mensalia of Luther and Selden's Table-Talk. The 
former, which comprehends the conversation of Luther with his 
friends and coadjutors in the great work of the Reformation, was 
first published in 1566. Captain H. Bell, who translated it into 
English in the time of the Commonwealth, informs us that, an 
edict having been promulgated commanding the works of Luther 
to be destroyed, it was for some time supposed that all the copies 
of the Colloquia Mensalia had been burned; but in 1626, on the 
foundation of a house being removed, a printed copy was found 
lying in a deep hole and wrapped up in a linen cloth. The book, 
translated by Bell, and again by the younger Hazlitt in 1847, 
was originally collected by Dr Anton Lauterbach (1502-1569) 
" out of the holy mouth of Luther." It consists chiefly of 
observations and discussions on idolatry, auricular confession, 
the mass, excommunication, clerical jurisdiction, general councils, 
and all the points agitated by the reformed church in those 
early periods. The Table- Talk of Selden con tains a more genuine 
and undisguised expression of the sentiments of that eminent 
man than we find in his more studied productions. It was 
published after his death by Richard Milward, his amanuensis, 
who affirms that for twenty years he enjoyed the opportunity 
of daily hearing his discourse, and made it his practice faithfully 
to commit to writing " the excellent things that usually fell from 
him." 

The most remarkable collection of Ana in the English language 
and, indeed, in any language is to be found in a work which 
does not correspond to the normal type either in name or in form. 
In his Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., Boswell relates that to his 
remark, a propos of French literature, " Their Ana are good," 
Johnson replied, " A few of them are good; but we have one 
book of that kind better than any of them Selden's Table- Talk." 
Boswell's own work, however, is incomparably superior to all. 

J. C. Wolf has given a history of the Ana in a preliminary dis- 
course to his edition of the Casauboniana, published in 1710. In 
the Repertoire de bibliographies speciales, curieuses, et instructives, by 
Peignot, there is a Notice bibliographique of these collections; but 
many of the books there enumerated consist of mere extracts from 
the writings of popular authors. 

ANABAPTISTS (" re-baptizers," from Gr. 6.va and /Sairrif w), a 
name given by their enemies to various sects which on the 



94 



ANABAPTISTS 



occasion of Luther's revolt from Romanism denied the validity 
of infant baptism, and therefore baptized those whom they quite 
logically regarded as not having received any Christian initiation 
at all. 

On the 27th of December 1521 three "prophets" appeared 
in Wittenberg from Zwickau, Thomas Mtinzer, Nicolas Storch 
and Mark Thomas Stiibner. Luther's reform was not thorough 
enough for them. He professed to rest all upon Scripture, yet 
accepted from the Babylon of Rome a baptism neither scriptural 
nor primitive, nor fulfilling the chief conditions of admission into 
a visible brotherhood of saints, to wit, repentance, faith, spiritual 
illumination and free surrender of self to Christ. Melanchthon, 
powerless against the enthusiasts with whom his co-reformer 
Carlstadt sympathized, appealed to Luther, still concealed in the 
Wartburg. He had written to the Waldenses that it is better 
not to baptize at all than to baptize little children; now Jie was 
cautious, would not condemn the new prophecy off-hand; but 
advised Melanchthon to treat them gently and to prove their 
spirits, less they be of God. There was confusion in Wittenberg, 
where schools and university sided with the " prophets " and 
were closed. Hence the charge that Anabaptists were enemies 
of learning, which is sufficiently rebutted by the fact that the 
first German translation of the Hebrew prophets was made and 
printed by two of them, Hetzer and Denk, in 1527. The 
first leaders of the movement in Zurich Grebel, Manz, Blaurock, 
Hubmaier were men learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew. On 
the 6th of March Luther returned, interviewed the prophets, 
scorned their " spirits," forbade them the city, and had their 
adherents ejected from Zwickau and Erfurt. Denied access to 
the churches, the latter preached and celebrated the sacrament 
in private houses. Driven from the cities they swarmed over 
the countryside. Compelled to leave Zwickau, Miinzer visited 
Bohemia, resided two years at Alltstedt in Thuringia, and in 
1524 spent some time in Switzerland. During this period he 
proclaimed his revolutionary doctrines in religion and politics 
with growing vehemence, and, so far as the lower orders were 
concerned, with growing success. The crisis came in the so- 
called Peasants' War in South Germany in 1525. In its origin 
a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under the leader- 
ship of Munzer, a war against all constituted authorities, and an 
attempt to establish by force his ideal Christian commonwealth, 
with absolute equality and the community of goods. The total 
defeat of the insurgents at Frankenhausen (May 15, 1325), 
followed as it was by the execution of Munzer and several other 
leaders, proved only a temporary check to the Anabaptist move- 
ment. Here and there throughout Germany, Switzerland and 
the Netherlands there were zealous propagandists, through 
whose teaching many were prepared to follow as soon as another 
leader should arise. A second and more determined attempt 
to establish a theocracy was made at Miinster, in Westphalia 
(1532-1535). Here the sect had gained considerable influence, 
through the adhesion of Rothmann, the Lutheran pastor, and 
several prominent citizens; and the leaders, Johann Matthys- 
zoon or Matthiesen, a baker of Haarlem, and Johann Bockholdt, 
a tailor of Leiden, had little difficulty in obtaining possession 
of the town and deposing the magistrates. Vigorous prepara- 
tions were at once made, not only to hold what had been gained, 
but to proceed from Miinster as a centre to the conquest of the 
world. The town being besieged by Francis of Waldeck, its 
expelled bishop (April 1534), Matthiesen, who was first in 
command, made a sally with only thirty followers, under the 
fanatical idea that he was a second Gideon, and was cut off with 
his entire band. Bockholdt, better known in history as John of 
Leiden, was now supreme. Giving himself out as the successor 
of David, he claimed royal honours and absolute power in the 
new " Zion." He justified the most arbitrary and extrava- 
gant measures by the authority of visions from heaven, as 
others have done in similar circumstances. With this pre- 
tended sanction he legalized polygamy, and himself took four 
wives, one of whom he beheaded with his own hand in the 
market-place in a fit of frenzy. As a natural consequence of 
such licence, Miinster was for twelve months a scene of unbridled 



profligacy. After an obstinate resistance the town was taken 
by the besiegers on the 24th of June 1535, and in January 
1536 Bockholdt and some of his more prominent followers, after 
being cruelly tortured, were executed in the market-place. The 
outbreak at Miinster was the crisis of the Anabaptist movement. 
It never again had the opportunity of assuming political im- 
portance, the civil powers naturally adopting the most stringent 
measures to suppress an agitation whose avowed object was to 
suppress them. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the 
sect as a religious body. The fact that, after the Miinster insurrec- 
tion the very name Anabaptist was proscribed in Europe, is a 
source of twofold confusion. The enforced adoption of new names 
makes it easy to lose the historical identity of many who really 
belonged to the Miinster Anabaptists, and, on the other hand, 
has led to the classification of many with the Miinster sect who 
had no real connexion with it. The latter mistake, it is to be 
noted, has been much more common than the former. The 
Mennonites, for example, have been identified with the earlier 
Anabaptists, on the ground that they included among their 
number many of the fanatics of Miinster. But the continuity 
of a sect is to be traced in its principles, and not in its adherents, 
and it must be remembered that Menno and his followers 
expressly repudiated the distinctive doctrines of the Miinster 
Anabaptists. They have never aimed at any social or political 
revolution, and have been as remarkable for sobriety of conduct 
as the Miinster sect was for its fanaticism (see MENNONITES). 
In English history frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists 
during the i6th and I7th centuries, but there is no evidence 
that any considerable number of native Englishmen ever 
adopted the principles of the Miinster sect. Many of the 
followers of Munzer and Bockholdt seem to have fled from 
persecution in Germany and the Netherlands to be subjected 
to a persecution scarcely less severe in England. The mildest 
measure adopted towards these refugees was banishment from 
the kingdom, and a large number suffered at the stake. It was 
easier to burn Anabaptists than to refute their arguments, 
and contemporary writers were struck with the intrepidity and 
number of their martyrs. Thus Stanislaus Hosius (1504-1579), 
a Polish cardinal and bishop of Warmie, wrote (Opera, Venice, 
1573, p. 202): 

" They are far readier than followers of Luther and Zwingli to 
meet death, and bear the harshest tortures for their faith. For they 
run to suffer punishments, no matter how horrible, as if to a banquet ; 
so that if you take that as a test either of the truth of doctrine or of 
their certitude of grace, you would easily conclude that in no other 
sect is to be found a faith so true or grace so certain. But as Paul 
wrote: ' Even if I give my body up to be burned and have not 
charity, it avails me naught.' But he has not charity who divides 
the unity. . . . He cannot be a martyr who is not in the Church." 

The excesses of John of Leiden, the Brigham Young of that 
age, cast an unjust stigma on the Baptists, of whom the vast 
majority were good, quiet people who merely carried out in 
practice the early Christian ideals of which their persecutors 
prated. They have been reckoned an extreme left wing of the 
Reformation, because for a time they followed Luther and 
Zwingli. Yet their Christology and negative attitude towards 
the state rather indicate, as in the case of Wicklif, Hus and the 
Fraticelli, an affinity to the Cathari and other medieval sects. 
But this affiliation is hard to establish. The earliest Anabaptists 
of Zurich allowed that the Picardi or Waldensians had, in contrast 
with Rome and the Reformers, truth on their side, yet did not 
claim to be in their succession; nor can it be shown that their 
adult baptism derived from any of the older Baptist .sects, which 
undoubtedly lingered in parts of Europe. Later on Hermann 
Schyn claimed descent for the peaceful Baptists from the 
Waldensians, who certainly, as the records of the Flemish inquisi- 
tion, collected by P. Fredericq, prove, were wide-spread during 
the isth century over north France and Flanders. It would 
appear from the way in which Anabaptism sprang up everywhere 
independently, as if more than one ancient sect took in and 
through it a new lease of life. Ritschl discerned in it the leaven 
of the Fraticelli or Franciscan Tertiaries. In Moravia, if what 
Alex. Rost related be true, namely that they called themselves 



ANABASIS ANACHRONISM 



905 



Aposlolici, and went barefooted healing the sick, they must have 
at least absorbed into themselves a sect of whom we hear in the 
1 2th century in the north of Europe as deferring baptism to the 
age of 30, and rejecting oaths, prayers for the dead, relics and 
invocation of saints. The Moravian Anabaptists, says Rost, 
went bare-footed, washed each other's feet (like the Fraticelli), 
had all goods in common, worked everyone at a handicraft, had 
a spiritual father who prayed with them every morning and 
taught them, dressed in black and had long graces before and 
after meals. Zeiler also in his German Itinerary (1618) describes 
their way of life. The Lord's Supper, or bread-breaking, was a 
commemoration of the Passion, held once a year. They sat at 
long tables, the elders read the words of institution and prayed, 
and passed a loaf round from which each broke off a bit and ate, 
the wine being handed round in flagons. Children in their 
colonies were separated from the parents, and lived in the school, 
each having his bed and blanket. They were taught reading, 
writing and summing, cleanliness, truthfulness and industry, and 
the girls married the men chosen for them. In the following 
points Anabaptists resembled the medieval dissenters: (i) 
They taught that Jesus did not take the flesh from his mother, 
but either brought his body from heaven or had one made for him 
by the Word. Some even said that he passed through his mother, 
as water through a pipe, into the world. In pictures and sculp- 
tures of the i sth century and earlier, we often find represented 
this idea, originated by Marcion in the 2nd century. The 
Anabaptists were accused of denying the Incarnation of Christ: 
they did, but not in the sense that he was not divine; they rather 
denied him to be human. (2) They condemned oaths, and also 
the reference of disputes between believers to law-courts. 
(3) The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance 
to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus 
gladii, (4) Civil government belongs to the world, is Caesar. The 
believer who belongs to God's kingdom must not fill any office, 
nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively 
obeyed. (5) Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated, 
and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with 
believers unless they repent, according to Matt, xviii. 15 seq. 
But no force is to be used towards them. 

Some sects calling themselves Spirituales or Perfecli also held 
that the baptized cannot sin, a very ancient tenet. 

They seem to have preserved among them the primitive manual 
called the Teaching of the Apostles, for Bishop Longland in Eng- 
land condemned an Anabaptist for repeating one of its maxims 
" that alms should not be given before they did sweat in a man's 
hand." This was between 1518 and 1521. 

On the 1 2th of April 1 549, certain London Anabaptists brought 
before a commission of bishops asserted: 

" That a man regenerate could not sin; that though the outward 
man sinned, the inward man sinned not ; that there was no Trinity 
of Persons; that Christ was only a holy prophet and not at all 
God; that all we had by Christ was that he taught us the way to 
heaven; that he took no flesh of the Virgin, and that the baptism 
of infants was not profitable." 

The Anabaptists were great readers of Revelation and of the 
Epistle of James, the latter perhaps by way of counteracting 
Luther's one-sided teaching of justification by faith alone. Luther 
feebly rejected this scripture as " a right strawy epistle." English 
Anabaptists often knew it by heart. Excessive reading of 
Revelation seems to have been the chief cause of the aberrations 
of the Miinster fanatics. 

In Poland and Holland certain of the Baptists denied the 
Trinity, hence the saying that a Socinian was a learned Baptist 
(see SOCINUS). With these Menno and his followers refused to 
hold communion. 

One of the most notable features of the early Anabaptists is 
that they regarded any true religious reform as involving social 
amelioration. The socialism of the i6th century was necessarily 
Christian and Anabaptist. Lutheranism was more attractive to 
grand-ducal patriots and well-to-do burghers than to the poor 
and oppressed and disinherited. The Lutherans and Zwinglians 
never converted the Anabaptists. Those who yielded to stress 



of persecution fell back into Papalism and went to swell the tide 
of the Catholic reaction. 

AUTHORITIES. Fiissli, Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie der mittlern 
Zeit (contains Bullinger); Zwinglius, In catabaptistarum strophas 
elenchus (1527) (Opera iii. 351) ; Bullinger, Der Wiedertdufer Ursprung 
(1560); Gieseler, Ecclesiastical History, Engl. tr. v. 344; Spanheim, 
De origine Anabapt. (Lugd. 1643); Ranke's History of the Re- 
formation; Melanchthon, Die Historic von Th. Muntzer (1525) (in 
Luthers Werke, ed. Walch, xvi. 199) ; Strobel, Leben Th. Miintzers 
(1795); C. A. Cornelius, Die niederldndischen Wiedertdufer, in 
publications of Bavarian Academy (1869); J, G. Walch, Hist. u. 
theolog. Einleitung (Jena, 1733); Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History; 
Gerbert, Gesch. d. Strassb. Sektenbewegung (Strassburg, 1889) ; 
W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, tr. by Freese, 1900; 
Jos. v. Beck, Die Geschichtsbucher der Wiedertdufer in Osterr.-Ung. 
(Wien, 1883), (Fontes rerum Austr. II. xliii., a valuable history of 
the sect from their own early documents) ; Ritschl, Geschichie des 
Pietismus, vol. i. (Bonn, 1880); Loserth, B. Hubmaier und die 
Anfange der Wiedertdufer^ in Mdhren (Brunn, 1893); Kolde, in 
Kirchengesch. Studien (Leipzig, 1888); Kessler, Sabbata; Leendertz 
and Zur Linden, M. Hofmann (Haarlem, 1883-1885); Erbkam, 
Gesch. der prot. Sekten der Reform. (1848) ; Justus Menius, Der 
Wiedertdufer Lehre (Wittenberg, 1534) ; Johann Cloppenburg and 
Fred. Spanheim, Gangraena theologiae Anabaptisticae (Franekerd, 
1656) ; Balthasar Lydius, Waldensia, id est conservatio verae Ecclesiae 
(Rotterdam, 1616) ; Herman Schyn, Historiae Mennonitarum 
(Amsterdam, 1729); Joh. Henr. Ottius, Annales Anabaptistici 
(Basileae. 1772); Karl Rembert, Die Wiedertdufer in Herzogtum 
Julich (Munster, 1873) ; Universal Lexicon, art. " Wiedertaufer " 
(Leipzig. 1748); Tielmann Janssen van Bracht, Martyrologia 
Mennonitarum (Haarlem, 1615-1631); Joh. Gastii, Tractat. de 
Anabapt. Exordia (Basel, 1545); Jehring, History of the Baptists; 
Auss Bundt, or hymns written by and of the Baptist martyrs 
from 1526-1620, first printed without date or place, reprinted 
Basel, 1838. (F. C. C.) 

ANABASIS (dvd/Jao-is, a march up country), the title given by 
Xenophon (q.v.) to his narrative of the expedition of Cyrus the 
younger against his brother, Artaxerxes of Persia, 401 B.C., and 
adopted by Arrian for his history of the expedition of Alexander 
the Great. 

ANABOLISM (Gr. &v&, up, 0X17, a throw), the biological term 
for the building up in an organism of more complex from simpler 
substances, constructive metabolism. (See PHYSIOLOGY.) 

ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher, who lived about 600 
B.C. He was the son of Gnurus, chief of a nomadic tribe of the 
Euxine shores, and a Greek woman. Instructed in the Greek 
language by his mother, he prevailed upon the king to entrust 
him with an embassy to Athens about 589 B.C. He became 
acquainted with Solon, from whom he rapidly acquired a know- 
ledge of the wisdom and learning of Greece, and by whose influence 
he was introduced to the principal persons in Athens. He was 
the first stranger who received the privileges of citizenship. He 
was reckoned one of the Seven Sages, and it is said that he was 
initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. After he had resided 
several years at Athens, he travelled through different countries 
in quest of knowledge, and returned home filled with the desire 
of instructing his countrymen in the laws and the religion of the 
Greeks. According to Herodotus he was killed by his brother 
Saulius while he was performing sacrifice to the goddess Cybele. 
It was he who compared laws to spiders' webs, which catch small 
flies and allow bigger ones to escape. His simple and forcible 
mode of expressing himself gave birth to the proverbial expression 
" Scythian eloquence," but his epigrams are as unauthentic as 
the letters which are often attributed to him. According to 
Strabo he was the first to invent an anchor with two flukes. 
Barthelemy borrows his name as the title for his Anacharsis en 
Grece. 

Herodotus iv. 76; Lucian, Scytha; Cicero, Tusc. Disp. v. 32; 
Diog. Laert. i. 101. 

ANACHRONISM (from &va, back, and xporos, time), a neglect 
or falsification, whether wilful or undesigned, of chronological 
relation. Its commonest use restricts it to the ante-dating of 
events, circumstances or customs; in other words, to the 
introduction, especially in works of imagination that rest on a 
historical basis, of details borrowed from a later age. Ana- 
chronisms may be committed in many ways, originating, for 
instance, in disregard of the different modes of life and thought 
that characterize different periods, or in ignorance of the progress 



906 



ANACOLUTHON ANACREON 



of the arts and sciences and the other ascertained facts of history, 
and may vary from glaring inconsistency to scarcely perceptible 
misrepresentation. Much of the thought entertained about the 
past is so deficient in historical perspective as to be little better 
than a continuous anachronism. It is only since the close of the 
1 8th century that this kind of untruthfulness has jarred on the 
general intelligence. Anachronisms abound in the works of 
Raphael and Shakespeare, as well as in those of the meanest 
daubers and playwrights of earlier times. In particular, the 
artists, on the stage and on the canvas, in story and in song, 
assimilated their dramatis personae to their own nationality and 
their own time. The Virgin was represented here as an Italian 
contadina, and there as a Flemish frow; Alexander the Great 
appeared on the French stage in the full costume of Louis 
XIV. down to the time of Voltaire; and in England the 
contemporaries of Addison could behold, without any suspicion 
of burlesque, 

" Cato's long wig, flower'd gown, and lacquer'd chair." 

Modern realism, the progress of archaeological research, and 
the more scientific spirit of history, have made an anachronism 
an offence, where our ancestors saw none. 

ANACOLUTHON (Gr. for " not following on "), a grammatical 
term, given to a defectively constructed sentence which does not 
run on as a continuous whole; this may occur either, in a text, 
by some corruption, or, in the case of a writer or speaker, simply 
through his forgetting the way in which he started. In the case 
of a man who is full of his subject, or who is carried along by the 
passion of the moment, such inconsequents are very apt to occur. 
Of Niebuhr it is told that his oral lectures consisted almost 
entirely .of anacoluthic constructions. To this kind of licence 
some languages, as Greek and English, readily lend themselves; 
while the grammatical rigidity of others., as Latin and French, 
admits of it but sparingly. In Herodotus, Thucydides, Aeschylus, 
Pindar and Plato, abundant specimens are to be found; and the 
same is true of the writers of the Elizabethan age in English. 
The following is an example: " And he charged him to tell no 
man; but go show thyself," &c. (Luke v. 14). 

ANACONDA, a city and the county-seat of Deer Lodge county, 
Montana, U.S.A., situated in the mountains on the W. side of 
Deer Lodge Valley, in the S.W. part of the state, about 26 m. 
N.W. of Butte, and at an altitude of about 5300 ft. Pop. (1890) 
3975; (1900) 9453, of whom 3478 were foreign-born; (1910, 
census) 10,134. It is connected with Butte by the Butte, 
Anaconda & Pacific railroad. Among its public buildings are the 
county court-house and the Hearst free public library (1898). 
Industrially, Anaconda is essentially a smelting camp for the 
copper ores from the Butte mines, probably the largest copper- 
smelter in the world being located here; the principal copper-mine 
at Butte one of the most famous copper-mines in the world is 
called the Anaconda. In 1905 the capital invested in manu- 
facturing was $13,728,456, and the factory product was valued at 
$28,581,530. Electric power generated at the Helena Power 
Transmission Company's plant on the Missouri river, 18 m. from 
Helena, comes to Anaconda over 1 10 m. of wire at 70,000 voltage. 
Anaconda is to a large degree the market and trading-place of the 
Big Hole Basin cattle country in the north-western part of 
Beaverhead county; with Wisdom, in the Big Hole Basin, it 
was connected in 1905 by a 65 m. telephone line. Anaconda was 
first settled in 1884 and was chartered as a city in 1888. 

ANACONDA, an aquatic boa, inhabiting the swamps and 
rivers of the dense forests of tropical South America. It is the 
largest of all modern snakes, said to attain over 30 ft. in length. 
The Eunectes murinus (formerly called Boa murina) differs from 
Boa by the snout being covered with shields instead of small 
scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with 
that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-brown, with 
large oval black spots arranged in two alternating rows along the 
back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The 
belly is whitish, spotted with black. The anaconda combines an 
arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon birds and 
mammals, mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the 
water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, 



waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the 
branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of 
game. Being eminently aquatic this snake is viviparous. It is 
the only large boa which is decidedly ill-tempered. 

ANACREON, Greek lyric poet, was born about 560 B.C., 
at Teos, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor. Little is 
known of his life, except a lew scattered notices, not in all cases 
certainly authentic. He probably shared the voluntary exile 
of the mass of his fellow-townsmen, who, when Cyrus the Great 
was besieging the Greek cities of Asia (545) , rather than surrender 
their city to his general Harpagus, sailed to Abdera in Thrace, 
where they founded a colony. Anacreon seems to have taken 
part in the fighting, in which, on his own admission, he did not 
distinguish himself, but, like Alcaeus and Horace, threw away 
his shield and fled. From Thrace he removed to the court of 
Polycrates of Samos, one of the best of those old " tyrants," 
who by no means deserved the name in its worst sense. He is 
said to have acted as tutor to Polycrates; that he enjoyed the 
tyrant's confidence we learn on the authority of Herodotus 
(iii. 121), who represents the poet as sitting in the royal chamber 
when audience was given to the Persian herald. In return for 
his favour and protection, Anacreon wrote many complimentary 
odes upon his patron. Like his fellow-lyrist, Horace, who was one 
of his great admirers, and in many respects of a kindred spirit, 
Anacreon seems to have been made for the society of courts. 
On the death of Polycrates, Hipparchus, who was then in power 
at Athens and inherited the literary tastes of his father Peisis- 
tratus, sent a special embassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens 
in a galley of fifty oars. Here he became acquainted with the 
poet Simonides, and other members of the brilliant circle which 
had gathered round Hipparchus. When this circle was broken 
up by the assassination of Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have 
returned to his native town of Teos, where, according to a 
metrical epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and 
was buried. According to others, before returning to Teos, 
he accompanied Simonides to the court of Echecrates, a Thessalian 
dynast of the house of the Aleuadae. Lucian mentions Anacreon 
amongst his instances of the longevity of eminent men, as having 
completed eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by Pliny 
(Nat. Hist. vii. 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by a 
grape-stone, but the story has an air of mythical adaptation 
to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat apocryphal. 
Anacreon was for a long time popular at Athens, where his 
statue was to be seen on the Acropolis, together with that of his 
friend Xanthippus, the father of Pericles. On several coins 
of Teos he is represented, holding a lyre in his hand, sometimes 
sitting, sometimes standing. A marble statue found in 1835 
in the Sabine district, and now in the Villa Borghese, is said 
to represent Anacreon. Anacreon had a reputation as a composer 
of hymns, as well as of those bacchanalian and amatory lyrics 
which are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns 
to Artemis and Dionysus, consisting of eight and eleven lines 
respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed remains, 
as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, especially 
when addressed to such deities as Aphrodite, Eros and Dionysus, 
are not so very unlike what we call " Anacreontic " poetry as 
to make the contrast of style as great as the word might seem 
to imply. The tone of Anacreon's lyric effusions has probably 
led to an unjust estimate, by both ancients and moderns, of the 
poet's personal character. The " triple worship " of the Muses, 
Wine and Love, ascribed to him as his religion in an old Greek 
epigram (Anthol. iii. 25,51), may have been as purely professional 
in the two last cases as in the first, and his private character on 
such points was probably neither much better nor worse than 
that of his contemporaries. Athenaeus remarks acutely that he 
seems at least to have been sober when he wrote; and he him- 
self strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal characteristics 
of intoxication as fit only for barbarians and Scythians (Fr. 64). 
Of the five books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which Suidas 
and Athenaeus mention as extant in their time, we have now 
but the merest fragments, collected from the citations of later 
writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them first printed 



ANACREONTICS ANAESTHESIA 



907 



from the MSS. by Henry Stephens in 1554), which long passed 
among the learned for the songs of Anacreon, and which are 
well-known to many English readers in the translations of 
Cowley and Moore, are really of much later date, though possibly 
here and there genuine fragments of the poet are included. 
Modern critics, however, regard the entire collection as 
imitations belonging to different periods the oldest probably 
to Alexandrian times, the most recent to the last days of 
paganism. They will always retain a certain popularity from 
their lightness and elegance, and some of them are fair copies 
of Anacreon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a 
clever imitator. A strong argument against their genuineness 
lies in the fact that the peculiar forms of the Ionic Greek, in which 
Anacreon wrote, are not to be found in these reputed odes, 
while the fragments of his poems quoted by ancient writers are 
full of lonicisms. Again, only one of the quotations from 
Anacreon in ancient writers is to be found in these poems, which 
further contain no references to contemporaries, whereas Strabo 
(xiv. p. 638) expressly states that Anacreon's poems included 
numerous allusions to Polycrates. The character of Love as a 
mischievous little boy is quite different from that given by 
Anacreon, who describes him as " striking with a mighty axe, 
like a smith," and is more akin to the conceptions of later 
literature. 

The best edition of the genuine fragments of Anacreon, as well as 
of the Anacreontea, is by Bergk (Poetae lyrici graeci, 1882). He 
includes in an appendix a similar collection of imitations from the 
Anecdota graeca of P. Matranga (1850), which had their origin in the 
beginning of the middle ages, and resemble the Christian anacreontics 
of Sophronius. 

ANACREONTICS (from the name of the Greek poet Anacreon), 
the title given to short lyrical pieces, of an easy kind, dealing 
with love and wine. The English word appears to have been 
first used in 1656 by Abraham Cowley, who called a section 
of his poems " anacreontiques," because they were paraphrased 
out of the so-called writings of Anacreon into a familiar measure 
which was supposed to represent the metre of the Greek. Half 
a century later, when the form had been much cultivated, John 
Phillips (1631-1706) laid down the arbitrary rule that an ana- 
creontic line " consists of seven syllables, without being tied to 
any certain law of quantity." In the i8th century, the antiquary 
William Oldys (1696-1761) was the author of a little piece which 
is the perfect type of an anacreontic: this begins: 

" Busy, curious, thirsty fly, 
Drink with me, and drink as I ; 
Freely welcome to my cup_, 
Could'st thou sip and sip it up. 
Make the most of life you may; 
Life is short and wears away.' 

In 1800 Tom Moore published a collection of erotic anacreontics 
which are also typical in form; Moore speaks of the necessity 
of catching " the careless facility with which Anacreon appears 
to have trifled," as a reason why anacreontics are often tame 
and worthless. He dwells, moreover, on the absurdity of writing 
" pious anacreontics," a feat, however, which was performed 
by several of the Greek Christian poets, and in particular by 
Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus. (E. G.) 

ANADYOMENE ('AvaSvofievi)), an epithet of Aphrodite 
(Venus), expressive of her having sprung from the foam of the 
sea. In a famous picture by Apelles she was represented under 
this title as if just emerged from the sea and in the act of wringing 
her tresses. This painting was executed for the temple of 
Asclepius at Cos, from which it was taken to Rome by Augustus 
in part payment of tribute, and set up in the temple of Caesar. 
In the time of Nero, owing to its dilapidated condition, it was 
replaced by a copy made by the painter Dorotheus (Pliny, Nat. 
Hist. xxxv. 36). There are several epigrams on it in the Greek 
anthology. 

ANADYR, (i) a gulf, and (2) a river, in the extreme N.E. of 
Siberia, in the Maritime Province. The gulf extends from Cape 
Chukchi on the north to Cape Navarin on the south, forming part, 
of the Bering Sea. The river, taking its rise in the Stanovoi 
mountains as the Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67 N. lat. and 173 



E. long., flows through the Chukchi country, at first south-west 
and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr after a course of 
about 500 m. The country through which it passes is thinly 
populated, barren and desolate. For nine months of the year the 
ground is covered with snow. Reindeer, upon which the in- 
habitants subsist, are found in considerable numbers. 

ANAEMIA (from Gr. &v-, privative, and alpa, blood), literally 
" want of blood," a word used as a generic term for various forms 
of disease characterized by a defective constitution of the blood. 
For different types of anaemia see the article BLOOD, section 
Pathology. 

ANAESTHESIA and ANAESTHETICS (Gr. dccu^ffia, from 
&v-, privative, and cu.aOri<n.s, sensation), terms used in medicine 
to describe a state of local or general insensibility to external 
impressions, and the substances used for inducing this state. 
In diseases of the brain or spinal cord anaesthesia is an occasional 
symptom, but in such cases it is usually limited in extent, 
involving a limb or a definite area of the body's surface. Com- 
plete anaesthesia occurs in a state of catalepsy or trance 
conditions associated with no definite lesion of the nervous 
system. 

The artificial induction of anaesthesia has come to occupy a 
foremost place in modern medicine, but there is abundant 
evidence to show that it is a practice of great antiquity. Besides 
the mention by Homer of the anaesthetic effects of nepenthe, and 
the reference by Herodotus to the practice of the Scythians of 
inhaling the vapours of a certain kind of hemp to produce 
intoxication, the employment of anaesthetics in surgery by the 
use of mandragora is particularly alluded to by Dioscorides and 
Pliny. It also appears, from an old Chinese manuscript laid 
before the French Academy by Stanislas Julien, that a physician 
named Hoa-tho, who lived in the 3rd century, gave his patients 
a preparation of hemp, whereby they were rendered insensible 
during the performance of surgical operations. Mandragora was 
extensively used as an anaesthetic by Hugo de Lucca, who 
practised in the i3th century. The soporific effects of mandrake 
are alluded to by Shakespeare, who also makes frequent mention 
of anaesthetizing draughts, the composition of which is not 
specified. 

In the Medical Gazelle, vol. xii. p. 515, Dr Sylvester, quoting 
from a German work by Meissner, published in 1782, mentions 
the case of Augustus, king of Poland, who underwent amputation 
while rendered insensible by a narcotic. But the practice of 
anaesthesia never became general, and surgeons appear to have 
usually regarded it with disfavour. When, towards the close of 
the 1 8th century, the discoveries of Priestley gave an impetus to 
chemical research, the properties of gases and vapours began to 
be more closely investigated, and the belief was then entertained 
that many of them would become of great medicinal value. In 
1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experimenting on nitrous oxide (the 
so-called " laughing gas "), discovered its anaesthetic properties, 
and described the effects it had on himself when inhaled with 
the view of relieving local pain. He suggested its employment 
in surgery in the following words: " As nitrous oxide, in its 
extensive operation, seems capable of destroying physical pain, 
it may probably be used with advantage in surgical operations 
in which no great effusion of blood takes place." His suggestion, 
however, remained unheeded for nearly half a century. The 
inhalation of sulphuric ether for the relief of asthma and other 
lung affections had been employed by Dr Pearson of Birmingham 
as early as 1785; and in 1805 Dr J. C. Warren of Boston, U.S.A., 
used this treatment in the laterstagesof pulmonary consumption. 

In 1818 Faraday showed that the inhalation of the vapour of 
ether produced anaesthetic effects similar to those of nitrous 
oxide; and this property of ether was also shown by the 
American physicians, John D. Godman (1822), James Jackson 
(1833), Wood and Bache (1834). 

These observations, however, appear to have been regarded 
in the light of mere scientific curiosities and subjects for lecture- 
room experiment, rather than as facts capable of being applied 
practically in the treatment of disease, till December 1844, when 
Dr Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, underwent 



908 



ANAESTHESIA 



in his own person the operation of tooth-extraction while rendered 
insensible by nitrous oxide. Satisfied, from further experience, 
that teeth could be extracted in this way without pain, Dr Wells 
proposed to establish the practice of painless dentistry under the 
influence of the gas; but in consequence of an unfortunate failure 
in an experiment at Boston he abandoned the project. On the 
30th of September 1846 Dr W. T. G. Morton, a dentist of Boston, 
employed the vapour of ether to procure general anaesthesia 
in a case of tooth-extraction, and thereafter administered it in 
cases requiring surgical operation with complete success. This 
great achievement marked a new era in surgery. Operations were 
performed in America in numerous instances under ether in- 
halation, the result being only to establish more firmly its value 
as a successful anaesthetic. The news of the discovery reached 
England on the i7th of December 1846. On the igth of December 
Mr Robinson, a dentist in London, and on the 2ist Robert Liston, 
the eminent surgeon, operated on patients anaesthetized by 
ether; and the practice soon became general both in Great 
Britain and on the continent. 

Sir James Simpson was the first to apply anaesthesia by eftier 
to midwifery practice; this he did in 1847, and found that the 
pains of labour could be abolished without interference with 
uterine contractions or injury to the child. On the 8th of March 
1847 M. J. P. Flourens read a paper before the Academic des 
Sciences on the effect of chloroform on the lower animals, but no 
notice was taken of what has since proved to be a discovery of 
epoch-making importance. In November of the same year 
Simpson announced his discovery of the anaesthetic properties 
of chloroform, the trial of which had been suggested to him 
by Waldie, a chemist of Liverpool. As the result, chloroform 
came to be widely used instead of ether, though it was found 
by several casualties that it was not the absolutely safe anaes- 
thetic that had at first been hoped. It, however, remained the 
drug that was chiefly used till Dr J. T. Clover (1825-1882) 
of London introduced his regulating ether-inhaler in 1876, 
embodying a new principle that of limiting the quantity of 
air during etherization and regulating the strength of the vapour. 

During the intervening period, as the results of the labours of 
John Snow, Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson, Thomas Nunnely, 
and Colton amongst others, several drugs were found to possess 
anaesthetic properties. Of these one, ethyl chloride, which was 
speedily given up, has come into deserved prominence at the 
present time; and another, nitrous oxide, which had been lost 
sight of since Wells's failure at Boston, was reintroduced, and 
it became and has remained the most popular anaesthetic in 
dental practice. 

Since 1876 no new drugs have been introduced; the progress 
has been in the direction of improvements in the technique of 
anaesthetization. The most important of these is the administra- 
tion of oxygen with nitrous oxide, resulting from the recogni- 
tion of the fact that this drug does not owe its anaesthetic 
properties to partial asphyxia, as was thought till the contrary 
was shown by Edmund Andrews of Chicago in 1868. It was not 
till twenty years later that this knowledge was put to practical 
use, when F. W. Hewett introduced his regulating stopcock, 
which enabled the anaesthetist to exhibit the nitrous oxide and 
oxygen in such proportions as were demanded by the patient's 
condition. At the present time the anaesthetics in common 
use are the following: 

(i) Nitrous oxide gas, or laughing gas, N 2 O. This is a colour- 
less, odourless gas, which for convenience is carried about in 
liquid form in iron cylinders. When about to be used, it is 
allowed to escape into a large rubber bag, connected with a closely- 
fitting face-piece, which covers up the nose and mouth, and allows 
of inspiration only from the bag of gas, expiration being into the 
air. When thus given the patient is exposed to a certain degree 
of asphyxia. This asphyxia is not only not necessary but is 
harmful, and may be obviated by giving oxygen in small amounts 
simultaneously by means of Hewett's regulating stopcock. This 
drug is used chiefly for dental operations, and for minor surgery 
where absolute muscular relaxation is not required. When 
nyxed with oxygen, it can be given if necessary for an hour or 



longer. It has an induction period of a few breaths only, and 
the recovery is as a rule unaccompanied by excitement or 
nausea. It is also used as a preliminary to ether; the gas is 
given till unconsciousness is reached, the unpleasant taste of the 
ether being thus avoided and the induction period shortened. 
The mortality from nitrous oxide is small, and from the gas 
and oxygen in expert hands nil. 

(2) Ethyl chloride, CjHsCl, a colourless liquid of a pleasant 
odour, boiling at 12.5 C. It is used in the same class of operations 
as the last anaesthetic. It is best given in an apparatus that 
consists of a mask closely adapted to the face, and a rubber bag 
of small capacity, with which is connected the bottle containing 
the ethyl chloride. The vapour supplied from the bottle is 
breathed backwards and forwards from the bag, fresh air being 
admitted in small quantities only. The period of induction 
is shorter than in the case of nitrous oxide, the patient losing 
consciousness in two or three breaths; the stage of recovery 
is not so uniformly pleasant, headache, nausea and vomiting 
occurring not infrequently. It is difficult at present to estimate 
the mortality, as it has only recently come into general use, but 
it seems to occupy an intermediate position between ether and 
chloroform. 

(3) Ether, or ethyl oxide, (C 2 H 5 ) 2 O, a colourless, volatile 
liquid, boiling at 36.5 C. It has a pungent odour. It is best 
administered, as in the case of ethyl chloride, by limiting the 
amount of air during inhalation. The induction is much slower 
than in the case of the last two drugs, and it is accompanied by 
a feeling of suffocation, owing to the pungent odour of the ether. 
On that account the anaesthetic is best started with nitrous 
oxide or ethyl chloride. The recovery is always marked by some 
nausea and very frequently by vomiting. The mortality is small 
during the actual operation, but fatalities from respiratory 
complications later on are not uncommon. 

(4) Chloroform, CHCls, a colourless liquid of a penetrating 
odour, boiling at 63 C. It is administered in such a way as to 
ensure the free admixture of air. To secure this the face-piece 
must be loosely-fitting, and the strength of the vapour so 
gradually increased that the patient is never inconvenienced or 
impelled to hold the breath. The induction is slow, occupying 
two or more minutes, but it is not at all unpleasant; nausea 
and vomiting during recovery are rarer than in the case of ether, 
but if they do occur they last longer. The mortality on the table 
is about i in 2500. 

The question as to which is the better anaesthetic, ether or 
chloroform, for long operations, is a moot point. In the hands 
of an experienced anaesthetist there is probably nothing to 
choose as regards safety, and the anaesthetic advantages of the 
latter are incontestable. In the hands of the less-experienced 
anaesthetist, ether is the more suitable drug. At the extremes of 
life, chloroform is well taken, as it is also by women in labour, 
and it is indicated where there has been recent inflammation of 
the air passages. In operations, too, about the mouth, chloroform 
must be the drug used, as a closely-fitting mask is obviously 
impossible. 

The introduction by inhalation of any of the above drugs 
into the organism produces an anaesthesia, the degree of which 
at any moment varies directly as the amount or tension of the 
vapour in the blood, and therefore also as the tension of the 
vapour in the inspired air. The organism in this case may be 
compared to an electric lamp, of which the voltage is, say 100; 
a current of any less voltage will only produce a red heat, however 
many amperes are forced through; with the voltage at 100 the 
filament will be white hot, at over 100 the filament will fuse. 
So with these drugs: with the vapour at a low tension a certain 
low depth of anaesthesia is obtained; if the administrator 
increases the tension, true surgical anaesthesia is produced; 
if he increases it again, the filament fuses and the patient dies. 
This is the principle which guides the anaesthetist; it is the 
quality of the vapour that decides the depth of the anaesthesia, 
not the quantity. An infinite quantity of chloroform may be 
absorbed with impunity if the tension be low, but a few drops 
will kill if the tension be high. For practical purposes four 



ANAESTHESIA 



909 



degrees of anaesthesia are described, through which a patient 
passes from unconsciousness to (in the last resort) death: 

(1) A state of disordered consciousness, with analgesia; the 
patient's ideas are confused, the special senses are disturbed, 
and though the application of stimuli to the skin causes no 
mental impression, yet in response to them there may be what 
look like purposeful movements. 

(2) In the second stage there is complete loss of consciousness, 
and though the reflexes persist, the movements in response to 
the stimuli are purposeless. The muscles generally act strongly. 

(3) The stage of surgical anaesthesia; there is a general 
muscular relaxation, with the loss of many of the reflexes, i.e. 
an operation may be performed without evoking any movement 
on the part of the patient, while the vital reflexes and the vital 
centres in the medulla are still active, and the heart muscle 
is not paralysed. 

(4) Finally, the stage of paralysis of the medulla, when the 
respiratory and circulatory centres are paralysed, and the heart 
muscle itself is poisoned and death ensues. 

The aim of the anaesthetist is to keep the patient in the third 
degree of anaesthesia, thus avoiding the movements of the 
second and the dangers of the fourth; he therefore keeps the 
patient under close observation, and by watching the respiration, 
pulse and facial aspect, is able to judge the condition of the 
respiration and circulation. He has a further guide in the lid- 
reflex, i.e. the movement of the eyelid when the globe is touched; 
this and the size of the pupil tell him to what extent the central 
nervous system is depressed and complete the information he 
requires. 

It will have been observed that the administration of the above 
drugs is by inhalation, and has to be continued throughout the 
operation, the reason being that all the drugs are as rapidly 
excreted as they are absorbed, especially by the lungs, and 
therefore no other method would be of any avail. That there 
are drugs which are sufficiently slowly eliminated to allow of an 
operation being performed between the moment of induction 
and that of recovery, cannot be doubted, and their discovery and 
use can only be a matter of time. Even at the present time 
there is one, urethane, which, if injected with a hypodermic needle, 
soon produces a profound general anaesthesia. It has only been 
used on the lower animals, as its depressing effect on the re- 
spiratory centre centra-indicates its use in human beings. 

Local Anaesthesia. Much attention has recently been devoted 
to the discovery of methods by which the insensibility may be 
confined to the area of operation and the loss of consciousness 
avoided. Such a procedure has been common for many years 
for small operations, but it is only lately that it has been success- 
fully applied to the severer ones. It is very doubtful whether 
local anaesthesia will ever replace general in the latter class. 
Though the preliminary starvation is avoided, and the patient 
has the shock of operation alone to recover from, without the 
cardiac depression resulting from the anaesthetic during 
the operation, the patient, unless of a very apathetic tempera- 
ment, is in that state of severe nervous strain, when any un- 
expected movement or remark, or sight of a soiled instrument, 
may produce an alarming or fatal syncope. The earliest local 
anaesthetic was cold, produced by a mixture of ice and salt. In 
place of this cumbersome method, the skin is now frozen by 
means of a fine spray of ether or ethyl chloride directed upon 
it. The spraying is discontinued when the skin becomes white, 
and it is then allowed to regain its colour. The moment this 
occurs the incision is made and will be quite painless. The 
recovery, like that from any other frost-bite, is very painful, and 
the time during which an operation can be done is very short; con- 
sequently this method has been very largely superseded by the 
use of drugs. The drugs chiefly used are cocaine and its de- 
rivatives. Cocaine has by far the highest anaesthetic properties ; 
it is, however, in certain individuals a most powerful cardiac 
depressant and has caused numerous fatalities, and further, it 
cannot be sterilized by heat, as it undergoes decomposition. 
Eucaine has now largely taken its place, though its anaesthetic 
properties are less; it is, however, less toxic, and can be 



sterilized by heat. In combination with these drugs there is 
usually given some of the extract of the suprarenal body of the 
sheep; this substance increases and prolongs the anaesthetic 
effect by constricting the blood-vessels, the result of which is to 
reduce the haemorrhage, and also to prevent the too rapid 
absorption of the drug into the general system, confining it to 
the area of operation. 

The chief methods of bringing about local anaesthesia are as 
follows: 

(1) Painting or spraying a solution of the drugs on to the area 
on which it is proposed to operate. 

(2) Injection by means of a needle of the solution into the skin 
and the deeper structures. 

(3) Spinal analgesia. The method of inducing analgesia by 
injecting solutions into the sheath surrounding the spinal cord 
was devised by Bier in 1898, and for the purpose he employed a 
solution of cocaine. It was found, however, that there was con- 
siderable danger with this drug, so the method was not adopted 
to any great extent, until Fourneau discovered stovaine in 1904. 

The principle involved in spinal anaesthesia is this: that a 
substance in solution is injected into the sac containing the 
spinal cord in the lumbar region. The spinal cord as such ends 
at the level of the first lumbar vertebra in a leash of nerves 
termed the cauda eguina. When giving an injection there is 
little danger of injuring these nerves because in this situation 
there is a space filled with fluid between the wall of the sac and 
the nerves. The substances injected, by virtue of their specific 
action on nervous tissues, cause loss of painful sensations in the 
lower limbs and for a variable distance up the trunk. It has 
been found that the specific gravity of the solution injected has 
some influence on the height to which the analgesia will extend up 
the trunk, and this distance can also be controlled by altering the 
position of the patient. The canal in which the cord is situated 
is not a straight tube, but is curved backwards in the sacral 
and upper dorsal regions, and forwards in the lower dorsal and 
lumbar regions. Therefore with the patient lying on his back, any 
solution injected that has a greater specific gravity than that 
of the cerebrospinal fluid which bathes the cord, tends to gravitate 
towards the sacral and upper dorsal regions; and, conversely, 
any solution of lower specific gravity than that of the cerebro- 
spinal fluid tends to rise and produce analgesia at a still higher 
level. In this way the situation of the fluid producing analgesia 
can be controlled to some extent. It has been found that a very 
serious danger exists if the solution passes, up to the brain, or even 
if it passes higher than the sixth cervical nerve. It is important 
that the osmotic pressure of the solutions employed should be 
as nearly as possible that of the cerebrospinal fluid, that is to say, 
the nearer the solution is isotonic with the cerebrospinal fluid, 
the better will be the analgesia, and the less will be the harmful 
effects. At present it has not been found possible to separate 
in any of the substances employed the radicle which produces 
motor effects from that which 'blocks the advent of sensory 
stimuli. Although both effects last only a short time there 
seems to be a certain risk due to the temporary muscular par- 
alysis, and in a patient with a tendency to bronchitis this is a 
matter of considerable moment. 

The fluid is injected in the following manner. A puncture is 
made with a special trocar and canula in the lumbar region be- 
tween the second and third or third and fourth lumbar spines. The 
sheath of the sac having been entered, as is evidenced by the loss 
of resistance to the point of the trocar, and by the fact that 
cerebrospinal fluid escapes when the trocar is withdrawn, the dose 
of the fluid selected is injected through the canula, which is then 
withdrawn. An important point is that the operation must be 
absolutely aseptic; great care is taken to sterilize thoroughly 
the instruments, site of operation and fluid used. The patient 
is placed in that position which will yield the best and safest 
analgesia for the operation; it is essential, however, that the 
patient's head be raised well above the level of the spine. The 
injection is followed very quickly, generally within three to five 
minutes, by the production of analgesia, which lasts for a period 
varying from half an hour to two hours. Various substances have 



910 



ANAGNIA ANAGRAM 



been used for the injection, of which the following are the chief 
tropacocaine, stovaine, novocaine, cocaine, eucaine and alypin. 
All of these have been combined with adrenalin hydrochloride 
with a view to limiting their action in one degree or another; 
and also with other inert substances in such quantity as will 
produce isotonic solutions of relatively high specific gravity. 

The points in favour of this method of producing analgesia are 
as follows: (a) The patient is not rendered unconscious, and is 
often able to assist at his own operation, such as by coughing or 
moving his limbs in any way as may be desired, (b) There are 
no troublesome after-effects, such as nausea, vomiting and thirst. 
(c) The formation of haematoma is less frequent, (d) Surgical 
shock is considerably lessened, especially in such operations as 
amputations and severe abdominal emergencies, (e) The risk 
attending a general anaesthetic is avoided. 

The disadvantages at present attending the method are: (a) 
A severe form of headache may sometimes follow, but this has 
seemed to depend on the kind of fluid injected, and in the recent 
cases has not been so frequent as in the early ones, (b) The 
paralysis of muscles. In a very few cases this has been permanent. 
The temporary paralysis of the muscles of respiration is apt to be 
a serious matter, (c) Occasionally incontinence of urine and 
faeces occurs; this, however, has not been permanent except in 
a few of the earlier cases, (d) The uncertainty of the method, so 
that the analgesia is not always as complete as is desirable, (e) 
The analgesia for safety must be limited to a line below the level 
of the second rib in front. (/) The use of the Trendelenburg 
position is impossible, or indeed the use of any position which 
involves lowering the patient's head. 

It would appear that the method undoubtedly has its uses, and 
that it will take its place in surgery and find its proper level. A 
large amount of work is being done on the subject, with a view of 
determining the limitations and possibilities of the method, the 
best kind of substance to use and the proper dose to employ. 

Finally, a large number of operations have been performed 
under a local anaesthesia produced by hypnotism (q.v.), but this 
is a method that can only be used on selected cases. (H. C. C.) 

ANAGNIA [mod. Anagni; pop. (1901) 10,059], an ancient 
town of the Hernici, situated on a hill (1558 ft.) above the valley 
of the Trerus and the Via Labicana (the post-station 3 m. below 
the town, from which a branch road ascended to it, was Com- 
pitum Anagninum, which was 40 m. E.S.E. of Rome: see T. 
Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 215). In 1880 
a pre-Aryan grave was found between the town and the river, 
with a skeleton painted red, stone implements and a bronze 
dagger. After the Italian immigration, its position in a fertile 
district soon gave it importance, and it became the seat of the 
assembly of the Hernican towns. In the war of 306 B.C. it was 
conquered by Q. Marcius Tremulus and lost its independence. 
Its inhabitants had certainly acquired Roman citizenship before 
the Social War and it continued to be a municipium throughout 
the Roman period. It was besieged by the Saracens in 877, but 
in the nth century was a place of considerable importance, the 
Conti and Gaetani being the chief families; Pope Boniface VIII., 
a member of the latter, was there made prisoner in 1303. The 
ancient city walls are in some points still existing, in others they 
have been much restored; they are built of rectangular blocks 
of porous limestone about ijft. high. On the north of the town 
they are especially well-preserved, and at one point the area 
within them is slightly extended by a terrace supported by three 
lofty pillars. Within the city there are no ancient remains, 
except some massive substruction walls which supported build- 
ings on the hillside. The present town still preserves in parts its 
medieval aspect. The cathedral, constructed in 1074 at the 
summit of the hill, is externally plain; it has a fine Gothic 
interior, somewhat spoilt by restoration, with a good Cosmati 
pavement, and a canopy and paschal candlestick in the same 
style. The crypt contains frescoes of the i3th century, and in 
the treasury are valuable vestments. Lower down is the Palazzo 
Civico, belonging to the nth or early I2th century, which is 
supported on arches of a single span, under which the road passes. 
Its posterior facade is fine. Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas Break- 



speare) died here, and there is a chapel of St Thomas Becket in 
the crypt of the cathedral. 

See L. Pigorini, in Bullettino di Paletnologia Ilaliana (1880, 8 seq.) ; 
J. Kulakowski, in Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche 
(Rome, 1904), v. 673 seq. (T. As.) 

ANAGRAM (Gr. ava, back, and ypafaiv, to write), the result 
of transposing the letters of a word or words in such a manner as 
to produce other words that possess meaning. The construction 
of anagrams is an amusement of great antiquity, its invention 
being ascribed without authority to the Jews, probably because 
the later Hebrew writers, particularly the Kabbalists, were fond 
of it, asserting that " secret mysteries are woven in the numbers 
of letters." Anagrams were known to the Greeks and also to the 
Romans, although the known Latin examples of words of more 
than one syllable are nearly all imperfect. They were popular 
throughout Europe during the middle ages and later, particularly 
in France, where a certain Thomas Billon was appointed " ana- 
grammatist to the king " by Louis XIII. W. Camden (Remains, 
7th ed., 1674) defines " Anagrammatisme " as " a dissolution of 
a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new 
connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, 
subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making 
some perfect sence applyable to the person named." Dryden 
disdainfully called the pastime the " torturing of one poor word 
ten thousand ways," but many men and women of note have 
found amusement in it. A well-known anagram is the change of 
Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum into Virgo serena, pia, 
munda el immactdala. Among others are the anagrammatic 
answer to Pilate's question, "Quid est veritas?" namely, " Es 
vir qui adest "; and the transposition of " Horatio Nelson " into 
" HonorestaNilo "; and of " Florence Nightingale " into " Flit 
on, cheering angel." James I.'s courtiers discovered in " James 
Stuart " " A just master," and converted " Charles James 
Stuart " into " Claimes Arthur's seat." " Eleanor Audeley," 
wife of Sir John Davies, is said to have been brought before the 
High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the 
discovery that her name could be transposed to " Reveale, O 
Daniel," and to have been laughed out of court by another 
anagram submitted by the dean of the Arches, " Dame Eleanor 
Davies," " Never soe mad a ladie." There must be few names 
that could furnish so many anagrams as that of " Augustus de 
Morgan," who tells that a friend had constructed about 800 on his 
name, specimens of which are given in his Budget of Paradoxes, 
p. 82. The pseudonyms adopted by authors are often transposed 
forms, more or less exact, of their names; thus " Calvin us " 
becomes "Alcuinus"; "Francois Rabelais," " Alcofribas 
Nasier "; " Bryan Waller Proctor," " Barry Cornwall, poet "; 
" Henry Rogers," " R. E. H. Greyson," &c. It is to be noted 
that the last two are impure anagrams, an " r " being left out in 
both cases. " Telliamed," a simple reversal, is the title of a well- 
known work by " De Maillet." The most remarkable pseudonym 
of this class is the name " Voltaire," which the celebrated 
philosopher assumed instead of his family name, " Francois Marie 
Arouet," and which is now generally allowed to be an anagram of 
" Arouet, l.j.," that is, Arouet the younger. Perhaps the only 
practical use to which anagrams have been turned is to be found 
in the transpositions in which some of the astronomers of the i7th 
century embodied their discoveries with the design apparently 
of avoiding the risk that, while they were engaged in further veri- 
fication, the credit of what they had found out might be claimed 
by others. Thus Galileo announced his discovery that Venus 
had phases like the moon in the form, " Haec immalura a me 
jamfrustra leguntur oy," that is, " Cynthiae figuras aemulatur 
Mater Amorum." 

Another species of anagram, called " palindrome " (Gr. ir&\iv, 
back, and 5po/w>s, running), is a word or sentence which may be 
read backwards as well as forwards, letter by letter, while pre- 
serving the same meaning; for example, the words " Anna," 
"noon," " tenet," or the sentence with which Adam is humorously 
supposed to have greeted Eve: "Madam, I'm Adam!" 

A still more complicated variety is the " logogram " (Gr. 
\6yos, word), a versified puzzle containing several words derived 



ANAH ANAHUAC 



911 



from recombining the letters of the original word, the difficulty 
lying in the fact that synonyms of the derived words may be 
used. Thus, if the original word be " curtain," the word " dog " 
may be used instead of " cur." 

ANAH, or 'ANA, a town on the Euphrates, about mid-way 
between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Persian Gulf. It is 
called Hanat in a Babylonian letter (about 2200 B.C.), and An-at 
by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.), 'A.vadu (Isidore 
Charax), Anatha (Ammianus Marcelh'nus) by Greek and Latin 
writers in the early Christian centuries, 'ANA (sometimes, as if 
plural, 'Anat) by Arabic writers. The name has been connected 
with that of the deity Anat. Whilst 'Ana has thus retained its 
name for forty-one centuries the site is variously described. 
Most early writers concur in placing it on an island; so Assur- 
nasir-pal, Isidore, Ammianus Marcellinus, Ibn Serapion, al- 
Istakri, Abulfeda and al-Karamani. Ammianus (lib. 24, c. 2) 
calls it a munimentum, Theophylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. i, 2) 
TO 'Avaduv <j>povpi.ov, Zosimus (iii. 14) a <t>povptov, opp. QaOvacu., 
which may be the Be0(0)wa of Ptolemy (v. ig). 1 Leonhart 
Rauwolff, in A.D. 1574, found it " divided . . . into two towns," 
the one " Turkish," " so surrounded by the river, that you cannot 
go into it but by boats," the other, much larger, on the Arabian 
side of the river. 2 G. A. Olivier in the beginning of the igth 
century describes it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to 
the right bank of the Euphrates some 100 yards from the 
water's edge and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the 
Arabian desert with, over against its lower part, an island 
bearing at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451). 

This southernmost town of Mesopotamia proper (Gezira) must 
have shared the chequered history of that land (see MESOPO- 
TAMIA). Of 'Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian empire 
the records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter dating 
from the third millennium B.C., six men of Hanat (Ha-na-at KI ) 
are mentioned in a statement as to certain disturbances which 
had occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian Resident of Suhi, 
which would include the district of 'Ana. How 'Ana fared at the 
hands of the Mitanni and others is unknown. The suggestion 
that Amenophis (Amenhotep) I. (i6th century B.C.) refers to it 
is improbable; but we seem to be justified in holding 'Ana to be 
the town " in the middle of the Euphrates " opposite (ina put) 
to which Assur-nair-pal halted in his campaign of 879 B.C. The 
supposed reference to 'Ana in the speech put into the mouth 
of Sennacherib's messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings xix. 13, 
Is. xxxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable. The town 'may be 
mentioned, however, in four 7th century documents edited by 
C. H. W. Johns. 3 It was at 'Ana that the emperor Julian met the 
first opposition on his disastrous expedition against Persia (363), 
when he got possession of the place and transported the people; 
and there that Ziyad and Shureih with the advanced guard of 
'Ali's army were refused passage across the Euphrates (36/657) 
to join 'Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari i. 3261). Later 'Ana was 
the place of exile of the caliph Qaim (al-Qaim bi-amr-illah) 
when Basisiri was in power (450/1058). In the I4th century 
'Ana was the seat of a Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin 
Sanuto). In 1610 Delia Valle found a Scot, George Strachan, 
resident at 'Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir 
(i. 671-681). In 1835 the steamer " Tigris " of the English 
Euphrates expedition went down in a hurricane just above 
"Ana, near where Julian's j.orce had suffered from a similar storm. 
Delia Valle described 'Ana as the chief Arab town on the 
Euphrates, an importance which it owes to its position on one of 
the routes from the west to Bagdad; Texeira said that the power 
of its amir extended to Palmyra (early I7th century); but 
Olivier found the ruling prince with only twenty-five men in his 
service, the town becoming more depopulated every day from 
lack of protection from the Arabs of the desert. Von Oppenheim 
(1893) reported that Turkish troops having been recently 
stationed at the place, it had no longer to pay blackmail (hu-wwa) 

1 Steph. Byz. (sub Tupos) says that Arrian calls Anatha Tipos. 

2 Texeira (1610) says that "Anna" lay on both banks of the river, 
and so Delia Valle (i. 671). 

' Ass. Deeds and Doc. nos. 23, 168, 228, 385. The characters 
used are DlS TU, which may mean Ana-tu. 



to the Arabs. F. R. Chesney reported some 1800 houses, 2 
mosques and 16 water-wheels; W. F. Ainsworth (1835) reported 
the Arabs as inhabiting the N. W. part of the town, the Christians 
the centre, and the Jews the S.E.; Delia Valle (1610) found some 
sun-worshippers still there. 

Modern 'Ana lies from W. to E. on the right bank along a bend 
of the river just before it turns S. towards Hit, and presents an 
attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly as a single street, for 
several miles along a narrow strip of land between the river and 
a ridge of rocky hills. The houses are separated from one another 
>y fruit gardens. 'Ana marks the boundary between the olive 
[N.) and the date (S.). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yaqut, 
ii. 593 f.), and Mustaufi (8/i4th century) tells of the fame of its 
jalm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession of 
equally productive islands. The most easterly contains the 
ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the ancient Anatho 
xtend from this island for about 2 m. down the left bank. 
Coarse cloth is almost the only manufacture. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to the authorities cited above may 
>e mentioned: G. A. Olivier, Voyage dans I' empire othoman, &c., 
ii. 450-459 (1807) ; Carj Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, yii. b., pp. 716- 
26 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth, Euphrates Expedition, i. 401-418 
1888). For a map see sheet 5 of the atlas accompanying Chesney's 
work. (H. W. H.) 

ANAHEIM, a city of Orange county, California, U.S.A., about 
24 m. S.E. of Los Angeles, about 12 m. from the Pacific Ocean, 
and about 3 m. from the Santa Ana river. (1900) 1456; 
(1910) 2628. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, 
and the Southern Pacific railways. It lies in a fine fruit region, in 
which oranges, lemons, apricots, grapes and walnuts are raised. 
The plain on which it is laid out, now fertile and well-watered, 
was originally an arid waste. Water for irrigation is obtained 
from the Santa Ana river, about 15 m. above the nearest point 
along the river to the city. The city itself has an area of only 

5 sq. m., and in 1908 the population of the district, including 
that of the city, was estimated at 5000. The principal manu- 
factures are dried and canned fruits, wine, beer, and agricultural 
implements. Anaheim is of particular interest as the earliest 
of various settlements in southern California in which co-opera- 
tion has made possible the establishment of intensive fruit 
culture in semi-desert regions. In 1857 fifty Germans (mostly 
mechanics) organized in San Francisco the Los Angeles Vineyard 
Association and bought 1165 acres of land here which could be 
irrigated from the Santa Ana river; each member took posses- 
sion of a 20 acre share only when gradual improvement had made 
everything ready for occupancy and the tracts had been dis- 
tributed by lot, with bonuses or rebates to equalize them in value 
to the drawers. This ended the co-operative feature of the 
enterprise, which was never communistic except that its irrigat- 
ing canal remained -common property. The settlement was 
uninterruptedly successful, and was influential as a pioneer 
experiment. Anaheim was incorporated as a town in 1870; this 
incorporation was revoked in 1872; in 1878 the town was incor- 
porated again; and in 1888 Anaheim received a city charter. 

ANAHUAC, a geographical district of Mexico, limited by the 
traditional and vaguely defined boundaries of an ancient Indian 
empire or confederation of that name previous to the Spanish 
conquest. The word is said to signify " country by the waters " 
in the old Aztec language; hence the theory that Anahuac was 
located on the sea coast. One of the theories relating to the 
location of Anahuac describes it as all the plateau region of 
Mexico, with an area equal to three-fourths of the republic, and 
extending between the eastern and western coast ranges from 
Rio Grande to the isthmus of Tehuantepec. A more exact 
description, however, limits it to the great plateau valley in 
which the city of Mexico is located, between 18 40' and 20 30' 
N. lat., about 200 m. long by 75 m. wide, with an average eleva- 
tion of 7500 ft., and a mean temperature of 62. The accepted 
meaning of the name fits this region as well as any on the sea 
coast, as the lakes of this valley formerly covered one-tenth of its 
area. The existence of the name in southern Utah, United 
States, and on the gulf coast of Mexico, has given rise to theories 
of other locations and wider bounds for the old Indian empire. 



912 



ANALCITE ANALYSIS 



ANALCITE, a commonly occurring mineral of the zeolite 
group. It crystallizes in the cubic system, the common form 
being the icositetrahedron (211), either alone (fig. i) or in 
combination with the cube (100); sometimes the faces of the 
cube predominate in size, and its corners are each replaced by 
three small triangular faces representing the icositetrahedron 
(fig. 2). Although cubic in form, analcite usually shows feeble 
double refraction, and is thus optically anomalous. This 
feature of analcite has been much studied, Sir David Brewster 
in 1826 being. the earliest investigator. Crystals of analcite are 
often perfectly colourless and transparent with a brilliant glassy 
lustre, but some are opaque and white or pinkish-white. The 
hardness of the mineral is 5 to 55, and its specific gravity is 2-25. 
Chemically, analcite is a hydrated sodium and aluminium 
silicate, NaAlSijOe+HjO; small amounts of the sodium being 
sometimes replaced by calcium or by potassium. The water of 
crystallization is readily expelled by heat, with modification of 
the optical characters of the crystals. Before the blowpipe 
the mineral readily fuses with intumescence to a colourless glass. 
It is decomposed by acids with separation of gelatinous silica. 




FIG. i. 



FIG. 2. 



Analcite usually occurs, associated with other zeolitic minerals, 
lining amygdaloidal cavities in basic volcanic rocks such as 
basalt and melaphyre, and especially in such as have undergone 
alteration by weathering; the Tertiary basalts of the north 
of Ireland frequently contain cavities lined with small brilliant 
crystals of analcite. Larger crystals of the same kind are found 
in the basalt of the Cyclopean Islands (Scogli de' Ciclopi or 
Faraglioni) N.E. of Catania, Sicily. Large opaque crystals 
of the pinkish-white colour are found in cavities in melaphyre 
at the Seisser Alpe near Schlern in southern Tirol. In all such 
cases the mineral is clearly of secondary origin, but of late years 
another mode of occurrence has been recognized, analcite having 
been found as a primary constituent of certain igneous rocks 
such as monchiquite and some basalts. The irregular grains, 
of which it has the form, had previously been mistaken for glass. 

Owing to the fact that analcite often crystallizes in cubes, 
it was long known as cubic zeolite or as cuboite. The name now 
in use was proposed in 1797 in the form analcime, by R. J. Haiiy, 
in allusion to the weak (ebaX/us) electrification of the 
mineral produced by friction. Euthallite is a compact, greenish 
analcite, produced by the alteration of elaeolite at various 
localities in the Langesund-fjord in southern Norway. Eudno- 
phite, from the same region, was originally described as an 
orthorhombic mineral dimorphous with analcite, but has since 
been found to be identical with it. Cluthalite, from the Clyde 
(Clutha) valley, is an altered form of the mineral. (L. J. S.) 

ANALOGY (Gr. &va\oyia, proportion), a term signifying, 
(i) in general, resemblance which falls short of absolute similarity 
or identity. Thus by analogy, the word " loud," originally 
applied to sounds, is used of garments which obtrude themselves 
on the attention; all metaphor is thus a kind of analogy. (2) 
Euclid used the term for proportionate equality; but in mathe- 
matics it is now obsolete except in the phrase, " Napier's 
Analogies " in spherical trigonometry (see NAPIER, JOHN). 
(3) In grammar, it signifies similarity in the dominant character- 
istics of a language, derivation, orthography and so on. (4) In 
logic, it is used of arguments by inference from resemblances 
between known particulars to other particulars which are not 
observed. Under the name of " example " (irap&StLyfM) 
the process is explained by Aristotle (Prior Anal. ii. 4) as an 



inference which differs from induction (q.v.) in having a particular, 
not a general, conclusion; i.e. if A is demonstrably like B in 
certain respects, it may be assumed to be like it in another, 
though the latter is not demonstrated. Kant and his followers 
state the distinction otherwise, i.e. induction argues from the 
possession of an attribute by many members of a class that all 
members of the class possess it, while analogy argues that, 
because A has some of B's qualities, it must have them all (cf. 
Sir Wm. Hamilton, Lectures on Logic, ii. 165-174, for a slight 
modification of this view). J. S. Mill very properly rejects this 
artificial distinction, which is in practice no distinction at all; he 
regards induction and analogy as generically the same, though 
differing in the demonstrative validity of their evidence, i.e. 
induction proceeds on the basis of scientific, causal connexion, 
while analogy, in absence of proof, temporarily accepts a probable 
hypothesis. In this sense, analogy may obviously have a 
universal conclusion. This type of inference is of the greatest 
value in physical science, which has frequently and quite legiti- 
mately used such conclusions until a negative instance has 
disproved or further evidence confirmed them (for a list of typical 
cases see T. Fowler's edition of Bacon's Nov. Org. Aph. ii. 27 
note). The value of such inferences depends on the nature of 
the resemblances on which they are based and on that of the 
differences which they disregard. If the resemblances are small 
and unimportant and the differences great and fundamental, 
the argument is known as " False Analogy." The subject is 
dealt with in Francis Bacon's Novum Organum, especially ii. 27 
(see T. H. Fowler's notes) under the head of Instantiae conformes 
sive proportionatae. Strictly the argument by analogy is based 
on similarity of relations between things, not on the similarity 
of things, though it is, in general, extended to cover the latter. 
See works on Logic, e.g. J. S. Mill, T. H. Fowler, W. S. Jevons. 
For Butler's Analogy and its method see BUTLER, JOSEPH. 

The term was used in a special sense by Kant in his phrase, 
" Analogies of Experience," the third and most important group 
in his classification of the a priori elements of knowledge. By 
it he understood the fundamental laws of pure natural science 
under the three heads, substantiality, causality, reciprocity 
(see F. Paulsen, 7. Kant, Eng. trans. 1902, pp. 188 ff.). 

ANALYSIS (Gr. &.va and Xiiew, to break up into parts), in 
general, the resolution of a whole into its component elements; 
opposed to synthesis, the combining of separate elements or 
minor wholes into an inclusive unity. It differs from mere 
" disintegration " in proceeding on a definite scientific plan. 
In grammar, analysis is the breaking up of a sentence into subject, 
predicate, object, &c. (an exercise introduced into English schools 
by J. D. Morell about 1852) ; so the analysis of a book or a lecture 
is a synopsis of the main points. The chief technical uses of the 
word, which retains practically the same meaning in all the 
sciences, are in (i) philosophy, (2) mathematics, (3) chemistry. 

(1) Logical analysis is the process of examining into the 
connotation of a concept or idea, and separating the attributes 
from the whole and each other. It, therefore, does not increase 
knowledge, but merely clarifies and tests it. In this sense Kant 
distinguished an analytic from a synthetic judgment, as one in 
which the predicate is involved in the essence of the subject. 
Such judgments are also known as verbal, as opposed to real 
or ampliative judgments. The processes of synthesis and 
analysis though formally contradictory are practically supple- 
mentary; thus to analyse the connotation is to synthesize the 
denotation of a term, and vice versa; the process of knowledge 
involves the two methods, analysis being the corrective of 
synthetic empiricism. In a wider sense the whole of formal 
logic is precisely the analysis of the laws of thought. Ana- 
lytical psychology is distinguished from genetic and empirical 
psychology inasmuch as it proceeds by the method of introspective 
investigation of mental phenomena instead of by physiological 
or psycho-physical experiment. For the relation between 
analysis and synthesis on the one hand, and deduction and 
induction on the other, see INDUCTION. 

(2) In mathematics, analysis has two distinct meanings, 
conveniently termed ancient and modern. Ancient analysis, 



ANALYST ANAPA 



as described by Pappus, related chiefly to geometrical problems, 
and is the method of reasoning from the solution, as taken for 
granted, to consequences which are known to be true, whereas 
synthesis reasons from known data to the solution. (See 
GEOMETRY.) 

Modern analysis is practically coeval with Descartes, the 
founder of " analytical geometry," although the calculus of 
general quantities had previously been termed analysis. Many 
mathematical subjects are now included under this name, and 
are treated in the following articles: GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL; 
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION; VARIA- 
TIONS, CALCULUS OF; CURVE; SURFACE; FUNCTION; SPHERI- 
CAL HARMONICS; SERIES; FOURIER'S SERIES; GROUPS, 
THEORY OF; PROBABILITY. 

(3) In Chemistry, the word analysis was introduced by Robert 
Boyle to denote the determination of the composition of sub- 
stances. (See CHEMISTRY, Analytical). 

ANALYST, in modern times, a person professionally skilled in 
chemical analysis. He may be called upon, in the discharge of 
his profession, to analyse a wide range of substances. Apart 
from private practitioners and those engaged in large manufac- 
turing concerns, analysts employed by public bodies are termed 
public analysts. In most large manufacturing establishments 
there is usually a staff of analysts, whose duty it is primarily to 
exercise constant watchfulness over the processes of manufacture, 
to test the purity of the substances used, as well as that of the 
final products. The services of analysts are constantly required 
in judicial enquiries, sometimes in purely criminal cases, some- 
times in civil proceedings, such as offences against the customs 
or excise or under the various British Food and Drugs Acts. In 
the case of criminal proceedings, the services of the official analyst 
attached to the British Home Office are employed. The inland 
revenue department has a laboratory at Somerset House, with 
a staff of analysts, who are engaged in analysing for excise and 
other purposes. Under the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act 
1893, the Board of Agriculture employs an agricultural chemist, 
whose duty is the analysis of fertilizers and feeding stuffs. 

A " public analyst " is an analyst appointed by a local authority 
for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. He 
must be possessed of competent medical, chemical >and micro- 
scopical knowledge to analyse all articles of food and drink (see 
ADULTERATION). 

ANALYTIC (the adjective of " analysis," <?..), according with, 
or consisting in, the method of separating a whole into its parts, 
the opposite of synthetic. For analytic chemistry, analytic 
language, &c., see the articles under the noun-headings. The 
title of ava\VTiK.a or Analytics was given by Aristotle to his 
treatises on logic. 

ANAMALAI HILLS, a range of mountains in southern India, 
in the Coimbatore district of Madras, lying between 10 13' and 
10 31' N. lat., and between 76 52' and 77 23' E. long., forming 
a portion of the Western Ghats, after this range has been broken 
by the Palghat Pass, south of the Nilgiris. They really consist of 
a forest-clad and grassy tableland, with summits rising about 
8000 ft.; the Anaimudi mountain, which is the highest in 
southern India, having an altitude of 8850 ft. Their geological 
formation is metamorphic gneiss, veined with felspar and quartz, 
and interspersed with reddish porphyrite. The lower slopes yield 
valuable teak and other timber; and some land has been taken 
up for coffee planting. The only inhabitants are a few wild tribes 
who live by hunting and collecting jungle produce. 

ANAMORPHOSIS (a Gr. word, derived from &v&, back, 
and Mop^ 1 ?; form: the second o in the Greek is long, but in 
English the pronunciation varies), a deformation or distortion of 
appearance; in drawing, the representation of an object as seen, 
for instance, altered by reflexion in a mirror; in botany, e.g. in 
the case of fungi or lichens,- an abnormal change giving the 
appearance of a different species. 

'ANAN BEN DAVID, a Persian Jew of the 8th century, and 
founder within Judaism of the sect of Qaraites (Karaites) which 
set itself in opposition to the rabbinic tradition. 'Anan was an 
unsuccessful candidate for the dignity of Exilarch, and thus his 



opposition to the rabbanite Jews was political as well as theo- 
logical. His secession occurred at a moment when the time was 
ripe for a reaction against rabbinism, and 'Anan became the 
rallying point for many opponents of tradition. (See QARAITES.) 

ANANDA, one of the principal disciples of the Buddha (<?..). 
He has been called the beloved disciple of the Buddhist story. 
He was the first cousin of the Buddha, and was devotedly 
attached to him. Ananda entered the Order in the second year 
of the Buddha's ministry, and became one of his personal 
attendants, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and 
being the interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is 
the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the Buddha just 
before his death (Book of the Great Decease, v. 38) ; but it is the 
panegyric of an unselfish man, kindly, thoughtful for others and 
popular; not of the intellectual man, versed in the theory and 
practice of the Buddhist system of self-culture. So in the long 
list of the disciples given in the Anguttara (i. xiv.) where each of 
them is declared to be the chief in some gift, Ananda is mentioned 
five times (which is more often than any other), but it is as chief 
in conduct and in service to others and in power of memory, 
not in any of the intellectual powers so highly prized in the 
community. This explains why he had not attained to arahat- 
ship; and in the earliest account of the convocation said to have 
been held by five hundred of the principal disciples immediately 
after the Buddha's death, he was the only one who was not an 
arahat (Cullavagga, book xi.). In later accounts this incident 
is explained away. Thirty-three verses ascribed to Ananda are 
preserved in a collection of lyrics by the principal male and 
female members of the order (Thera Gatha, 1017-1050). They 
show a gentle and reverent but simple spirit. (T. W. R. D.) 

ANANIAS, the Gr. form of Hananiah, or Ananiah, a name 
occurring several times in the Old Testament and Apocrypha 
(Neh. iii. 23, i Ch. xxv. 23, Tob. v. 12. &c.), and three times 
in the New Testament. Special mention need be made only of 
the bearers of the name in the New Testament, (i) A member 
of the first Christian community, who, with his wife Sapphira, 
was miraculously punished by Peter with sudden death for 
hypocrisy and falsehood (Acts v. i-io; cf. Josh. vii. i ff.). 

(2) A disciple at Damascus who figures in the story of the con- 
version and baptism of Paul (Acts ix. 10-17, xxii- 12-16). 

(3) Son of Nedebaios (Jos. Ant. xx. 5. 2), a high priest who 
presided during the trial of Paul at Jerusalem and Caesarea 
(Acts xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1-5). He officiated as high priest from about 
A.D. 47 to 59. Quadratus, governor of Syria, accused him of 
being responsible for acts of violence. He was sent to Rome 
for trial (A.D. 52), but was acquitted by the emperor Claudius. 
Being a friend of the Romans, he was murdered by the people at 
the beginning of the Jewish war. 

ANANTAPUR, a town and district of India, in the Madras 
presidency. The town has a station on the Madras railway, 62m. 
S.E. from Bellary. Pop. (1901) 7938. 

The district of Anantapur was constituted in 1882 out of the 
unwieldy district of Bellary. It has an area of 5557 sq. m., and 
in its northern and central portions is a high plateau, generally 
undulating, with large granite rocks or low hill ranges rising 
here and there above its surface. In the southern portion of 
the district the surface is more hilly, the plateau there 
rising to 2600 ft. above the sea. There is a remarkable 
fortress rock at Gooty, 2171 ft. above the sea, and a similar but 
larger rock at Penukonda, with an elevation equal to that of 
Bangalore, about 3100 ft. Gooty fortress was a stronghold of 
the Mahrattas, but was taken from them by Hyder M. In 1 789 
it was ceded by Tippoo to the nizam, and in 1800 the nizam 
ceded the district of Anantapur with others to the British in pay- 
ment for a subsidiary British force. The population in 1901 was 
788,254, showing an increase of 8 % in the decade. Theprincipal 
crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil seeds and 
cotton. There are several steam factories for pressing cotton. 
Two railways traverse the district. 

ANAPA, a seaport town of Russia, in the government of 
Kuban, on the N. coast of the Black Sea, 45 m. S.E. from the 
Strait of Yenikale or Kerch, giving access to the Sea of Azov. It 



9*4 



ANAPAEST ANARCHISM 



was originally built in 1781 as a frontier fortress of the Turks 
against Russia. Three times captured by the Russians, in 1791, 
1807 and 1828, and twice restored by them, in 1792 and 1812, 
it was finally left in their hands by the treaty of Adrianople in 
1829. During the Crimean War its fortifications were destroyed 
(1855) by the Russians themselves. Pop. (1897) 6676. 

ANAPAEST (from Gr. Avdiroicrros, reversed), a metrical foot 
consisting of three syllables, the first two short and the third 
long and accented; so called as the reverse of a dactyl, 
which has the first a long syllable, followed by two short ones. 
An anapaestic verse is one which only contains, or is mostly 
made up of, anapaestic feet. 

ANARCHISM (from the Gr. &.V-, and apxt, contrary to 
authority), the name given to a principle or theory of life and 
conduct under which society is conceived without government 
harmony in such a society being obtained, not by submission 
to law, or by obedience to any authority, but by free agreements 
concluded between the various groups, territorial and professional, 
freely constituted for the sake of production and consumption, 
as also for the satisfaction of the infinite variety of needs and 
aspirations of a civilized being. In a society developed on these 
lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to 
cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater 
extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its 
functions. They would represent an interwoven network, com- 
posed of an infinite variety of groups and federations of all sizes 
and degrees, local, regional, national and international 
temporary or more or less permanent for all possible purposes: 
production, consumption and exchange, communications, 
sanitary arrangements, education, mutual protection, defence 
of the territory, and so on; and, on the other side, for the 
satisfaction of an ever-increasing number of scientific, artistic, 
literary and sociable needs. Moreover, such a society would 
represent nothing immutable. On the contrary as is seen in 
organic life at large harmony would (it is contended) result 
from an ever-changing adjustment and readjustment of equili- 
brium between the multitudes of forces and influences, and this 
adjustment would be the easier to obtain as none of the forces 
would enjoy a special protection from the state. 

If, it is contended, society were organized on these principles, 
man would not be limited in the free exercise of his powers in 
productive work by a capitalist monopoly, maintained by the 
state; nor would he be limited in the exercise of his will by a 
fear of punishment, or by obedience towards individuals or 
metaphysical entities, which both lead to depression of initiative 
and servility of mind. He would be guided in his actions by 
his own understanding, which necessarily would bear the impres- 
sion of a free action and reaction between his own self and the 
ethical conceptions of his surroundings. Man would thus be 
enabled to obtain the full development of all his faculties, 
intellectual, artistic and moral, without being hampered by 
overwork for the monopolists, or by the servility and inertia 
of mind of the great number. He would thus be able to reach 
full individualization, which is not possible either under the 
present system of individualism, or under any system of state- 
socialism in the so-called Volkstaal (popular state). 

The Anarchist writers consider, moreover, that their conception 
is not a Utopia, constructed on the a priori method, after a few 
desiderata have been taken as postulates. It is derived, they 
maintain, from an analysis of tendencies that are at work already, 
even though state socialism may find a temporary favour with 
the reformers. The progress of modern technics, which wonder- 
fully simplifies the production of all the necessaries of life; 
the growing spirit of independence, and the rapid spread of free 
initiative and free understanding in all branches of activity 
including those which formerly were considered as the proper 
attribution of church and state are steadily reinforcing the 
no-government tendency. 

As to their economical conceptions, the Anarchists, in common 
with all Socialists, of whom they constitute the left wing, maintain 
that the now prevailing system of private ownership in land, and 
our capitalist production for the sake of profits, represent a 



monopoly which runs against both the principles of justice and 
the dictates of utility. They are the main obstacle which 
prevents the successes of modern technics from being brought into 
the service of all, so as to produce general well-being. The 
Anarchists consider the wage-system and capitalist production 
altogether as an obstacle to progress. But they point out also 
that the state was, and continues to be, the chief instrument 
for permitting the few to monopolize the land, and the capitalists 
to appropriate for themselves a quite disproportionate share of 
the yearly accumulated surplus of production. Consequently, 
while combating the present monopolization of land, and 
capitalism altogether, the Anarchists combat with the same 
energy the state, as the main support of that system. Not this 
or that special form, but the state altogether, whether it be a 
monarchy or even a republic governed by means of the referendum. 

The state organization, having always been, both in ancient 
and modern history (Macedonian empire, Roman empire, modern 
European states grown up on the ruins of the autonomous cities), 
the instrument for establishing monopolies in favour of the ruling 
minorities, cannot be made to work for the destruction of these 
monopolies. The Anarchists consider, therefore, that to hand 
over to the state all the main sources of economical life the land, 
the mines, the railways, banking, insurance, and so on as also 
the management of all the main branches of industry, in addition 
to all the functions already accumulated in its hands (education, 
state-supported religions, defence of the territory, &c.), would 
mean to create a new instrument of tyranny. State capitalism 
would only increase the powers of bureaucracy and capitalism. 
True progress lies in the direction of decentralization, both 
territorial and functional, in the development of the spirit of 
local and personal initiative, and of free federation from the 
simple to the compound, in lieu of the present hierarchy from the 
centre to the periphery. 

In common with most Socialists, the Anarchists recognize 
that, like all evolution in nature, the slow evolution of society 
is followed from time to time by periods of accelerated evolution 
which are called revolutions; and they think that the era of 
revolutions is not yet closed. Periods of rapid changes will 
follow the periods of slow evolution, and these periods must be 
taken advantage of not for increasing and widening the powers 
of the state, but for reducing them, through the organization 
in every township or commune of the local groups of producers 
and consumers, as also the regional, and eventually the 
international, federations of these groups. 

In virtue of the above principles the Anarchists refuse to be 
party to the present state organization and to support it by 
infusing fresh blood into it. They do not seek to constitute, 
and invite the working men not to constitute, political parties 
in the parliaments. Accordingly, since the foundation of the 
International Working Men's Association in 1864-1866, they 
have endeavoured to promote their ideas directly amongst the 
labour organizations and to induce those unions to a direct 
struggle against capital, without placing their faith in parlia- 
mentary legislation. 

The Historical Development of Anarchism. The conception of 
society just sketched, and the tendency which is its dynamic 
expression, have always existed in mankind, in opposition to 
the governing hierarchic conception and tendency now the 
one and now the other taking the upper hand at different periods 
of history. To the former tendency we owe the evolution, by 
the masses themselves, of those institutions the clan, the 
village community, the gild, the free medieval city by means 
of which the masses resisted the encroachments of the con- 
querors and the power-seeking minorities. The same tendency 
asserted itself with great energy in the great religious movements 
of medieval times, especially in the early movements of the 
reform and its forerunners. At the same time it evidently found 
its expression in the writings of some thinkers, since the times 
of Lao-tsze, although, owing to its non-scholastic and popular 
origin, it obviously found less sympathy among the scholars 
than the opposed tendency. 

As has been pointed out by Prof. Adler in his Geschichte des 



ANARCHISM 



Sozialismus und Kommunismus, Aristippus (b. c. 430 B.C.), 
one of the founders of the Cyrenaic school, already taught that 
the wise must not give up their liberty to the state, and in reply 
to a question by Socrates he said that he did not desire to belong 
either to the governing or the governed class. Such an attitude, 
however, seems to have been dictated merely by an Epicurean 
attitude towards the life of the masses. 

The best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece 
was Zeno (342-267 or 270 B.C.), from Crete, the founder of the 
Stoic philosophy, who distinctly opposed his conception of a 
free community without government to the state-Utopia of 
Plato. He repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its inter- 
vention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the 
moral law of the individual remarking already that, while the 
necessary instinct of self-preservation leads man to egotism, 
nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with 
another instinct that of sociability. When men are reasonable 
enough to follow their natural instincts, they will unite across 
the frontiers and constitute the Cosmos. They will have no need 
of law-courts or police, will have no temples and no public 
worship, and use no money free gifts taking the place of the 
exchanges. Unfortunately, the writings of Zeno have not 
reached us and are only known through fragmentary quotations. 
However, the fact that his very wording is similar to the wording 
now in use, shows how deeply is laid the tendency of human 
nature of which he was the mouth-piece. 

In medieval times we find the same views on the state 
expressed by the illustrious bishop of Alba, Marco Girolamo Vida, 
in his first dialogue De dignitate reipublicae (Ferd. Cavalli, in 
Mem. dell' Istituto Veneto, xiii.; Dr E. Nys, Researches in the 
History of Economics). But it is especially in several early 
Christian movements, beginning with the pth century in Armenia, 
and in the preachings of the early Hussites, particularly Chojecki, 
and the early Anabaptists, especially Hans Denk (cf. Keller, 
Ein A pastel der Wiedertiiufer) , that one finds the same ideas 
forcibly expressed special stress being laid of course on their 
moral aspects. 

Rabelais and Fenelon, in their Utopias, have also expressed 
similar ideas, and they were also current in the i8th century 
amongst the French Encyclopaedists, as may be concluded from 
separate expressions occasionally met with in the writings of 
Rousseau, from Diderot's Preface to the Voyage of Bougainville, 
and so on. However, in all probability such ideas could not be 
developed then, owing to the rigorous censorship of the Roman 
Catholic Church. 

These ideas found their expression later during the great 
French Revolution. While the Jacobins did all in their power 
to centralize everything in the hands of the government, it 
appears now, from recently published documents, that the 
masses of the people, in their municipalities and " sections," 
accomplished a considerable constructive work. They appro- 
priated for themselves the election of the judges, the organization 
of supplies and equipment for the army, as also for the large 
cities, work for the unemployed, the management of charities, 
and so on. They even tried to establish a direct correspondence 
between the 36,000 communes of France through the inter- 
mediary of a special board, outside the National Assembly (cf. 
Sigismund Lacroix, Actes de la commune de Paris'). 

It was Godwin, in his Enquiry concerning Political Justice 
(2 vols., 1793), who was the first to formulate the political and 
economical conceptions of Anarchism, even though he did not 
give that name to the ideas developed in his remarkable work. 
Laws, he wrote, are not a product of the wisdom of our ancestors: 
they are the product of their passions, their timidity, their 
jealousies and their ambition. The remedy they offer is worse 
than the evils they pretend to cure. If and only if all laws and 
courts were abolished, and the decisions in the arising contests 
were left to reasonable men chosen for that purpose, real justice 
would gradually be evolved. As to the state, Godwin frankly 
claimed its abolition. A society, he wrote, can perfectly well 
exist without any government: only the communities should 
be small and perfectly autonomous. Speaking of property, he 



stated that the rights of every one " to every substance capable of 
contributing to the benefit of a human being " must be regulated 
by justice alone: the substance must go " to him who most 
wants it." His conclusion was Communism. Godwin, however, 
had not the courage to maintain his opinions. He entirely 
rewrote later on his chapter on property and mitigated his 
Communist views in the second edition of Political Justice 
(8vo, 1796). 

Proudhon was the first to use, in 1840 (Qu'est-ce que la pro- 
priete? first memoir), the name of Anarchy with application to 
the no-government state of society. The name of " Anarchists " 
had been freely applied during the French Revolution by the 
Girondists to those revolutionaries who did not consider that the 
task of the Revolution was accomplished with the overthrow 
of Louis XVI., and insisted upon a series of economical measures 
being taken (the abolition of feudal rights without redemption, 
the return to the village communities of the communal lands 
enclosed since 1669, the limitation of landed property to 120 
acres, progressive income-tax, the national organization of 
exchanges on a just value basis, which already received a begin- 
ning of practical realization, and so on). 

Now Proudhon advocated a society without government, and 
used the word Anarchy to describe it. Proudhon repudiated, 
as is known, all schemes of Communism, according to which 
mankind would be driven into communistic monasteries or 
barracks, as also all the schemes of state or state-aided Socialism 
which were advocated by Louis Blanc and the Collectivists. When 
he proclaimed in his first memoir on property that " Property 
is theft," he meant only property in its present, Roman-law, 
sense of " right of use and abuse "; in property-rights, on the other 
hand, understood in the limited sense of possession, he saw the 
best protection against the encroachments of the state. At the 
same time he did not want violently to dispossess the present 
owners of land, dwelling-houses, mines, factories and so on. He 
preferred to attain the same end by rendering capital incapable 
of earning interest; and this he proposed to obtain by means of 
a national bank, based on the mutual confidence of all those who 
are engaged in production, who would agree to exchange among 
themselves their produces at cost-value, by means of labour 
cheques representing the hours of labour required to produce 
every given commodity. Under such a system, which Proudhon 
described as " Mutuellisme," all the exchanges of services would be 
strictly equivalent. Besides, such a bank would be enabled to 
lend money without interest, levying only something like i %, 
or even less, for covering the cost of administration. Every one 
being thus enabled to borrow the money that would be required 
to buy a house, nobody would agree to pay any more a yearly 
rent for the use of it. A general " social liquidation " would 
thus be rendered easy, without violent expropriation. The same 
applied to mines, railways, factories and so on. 

In a society of this type the state would be useless. The chief 
relations between citizens would be based on free agreement and 
regulated by mere account keeping. The contests might be 
settled by arbitration. A penetrating criticism of the state and 
all possible forms of government, and a deep insight into all 
economic problems, were well-known characteristics of Proudhon's 
work. 

It is worth noticing that'French mutualism had its precursor 
in England, in William Thompson, who began by mutualism 
before he became a Communist, and in his followers John Gray 
(A Lecture on Human Happiness, 1825; The Social System, 1831) 
and J. F. 'Bray (labour's Wrongs and Labour's Remedy, 1839). 
It had also its precursor in America. Josiah Warren, who was 
born in 1798 (cf. W. Bailie, Josiah Warren, the First American 
Anarchist, Boston, 1900), and belonged to Owen's " New 
Harmony," considered that the failure of this enterprise was 
chiefly due to the suppression of individuality and the lack of 
initiative and responsibility. These defects, he taught, were 
inherent to every scheme based upon authority and the com- 
munity of goods. He advocated, therefore, complete individual 
liberty. In 1827 he opened in Cincinnati a little country store 
which was the first " Equity Store," and which the people called 



916 



ANARCHISM 



" Time Store," because it was based on labour being exchanged 
hour for hour in all sorts of produce. " Cost the limit of 
price," and consequently " no interest," was the motto of his 
store, and later on of his " Equity Village," near New York, 
which was still in existence in 1865. Mr Keith's " House of 
Equity " at Boston, founded in 1855, is also worthy of notice. 

While the economical, and especially the mutual-banking, 
ideas of Proudhon found supporters and even a practical applica- 
tion in the United States, his political conception of Anarchy 
found but little echo in France, where the Christian Socialism 
of Lamennais and the Fourierists, and the State Socialism of 
Louis Blanc and the followers of Saint-Simon, were dominating. 
These ideas found, however, some temporary support among the 
left-wing Hegelians in Germany, Moses Hess in 1843, and Karl 
Griin in 1845, who advocated Anarchism. Besides, the authori- 
tarian Communism of Wilhelm Weitling having given origin to 
opposition amongst the Swiss working men, Wilhelm Marr gave 
expression to it in the 'forties. 

On the other side, Individualist Anarchism found, also in 
Germany, its fullest expression in Max Stirner (Kaspar Schmidt), 
whose remarkable works (Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum and 
articles contributed to the Rheinische Zeitung) remained quite 
overlooked until they were brought into prominence by John 
Henry Mackay. 

Prof. V. Basch, in a very able introduction to his interesting 
book, L'lndividualisme anarchiste: Max Stirner (1904), has 
shown how the development of the German philosophy from Kant 
to Hegel, and " the absolute " of Schelling and the Geist of 
Hegel, necessarily provoked, when the anti-Hegelian revolt began, 
the preaching of the same " absolute " in the camp of the rebels. 
This was done by Stirner, who advocated, not only a complete 
revolt against the state and against the servitude which authori- 
tarian Communism would impose upon men, but also the full 
liberation of the individual from all social and moral bonds the 
rehabilitation of the " I," the supremacy of the individual, 
complete " a-moralism," and the " association of the egotists." 
The final conclusion of that sort of Individual Anarchism has 
been indicated by Prof. Basch. It maintains that the aim of all 
superior civilization is, not to permit all members of the com- 
munity to develop in a normal way, but to permit certain better 
endowed individuals " fully to develop," even at the cost of the 
happiness and the very existence of the mass of mankind. It is 
thus a return towards the most common individualism, advocated 
by all the would-be superior minorities, to which indeed man owes 
in his history precisely the state and the rest, which these 
individualists combat. Their individualism goes so far as to end 
in a negation of their own starting-point, to say nothing of the 
impossibility for the individual to attain a really full development 
in the conditions of oppression of the masses by the " beautiful 
aristocracies." His development would remain uni-lateral. 
This is why this direction of thought, notwithstanding its un- 
doubtedly correct and useful advocacy of the full development 
of each individuality, finds a hearing only in limited artistic and 
literary circles. 

Anarchism in the International Working Men's Association. 
A general depression in the propaganda of all fractions of 
Socialism followed, as is known, after the defeat of the uprising 
of the Paris working men in June 1848 and the fall of the 
Republic. All the Socialist press was gagged during the reaction 
period, which lasted fully twenty years. Nevertheless, even 
Anarchist thought began to make some progress, namely in the 
writings of Bellegarrique (Coeurderoy) , and especially Joseph 
Dejacque (Les Lazareennes, L'Humanisphere, an Anarchist- 
Communist Utopia, lately discovered and reprinted). The 
Socialist movement revived only after 1864, when some French 
working men, all " mutualists," meeting in London during the 
Universal Exhibition with English followers of Robert Owen, 
founded the International Working Men's Association. This 
association developed very rapidly and adopted a policy of direct 
economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in 
the political parliamentary agitation, and this policy was followed 
until 1871. However, after the Franco-German War, when the 



International Association was prohibited in France after the 
uprising of the Commune, the German working men, who had 
received manhood suffrage for elections to the newly constituted 
imperial parliament, insisted upon modifying the tactics of the 
International, and began to build up a Social-Democratic 
political party. This soon led to a division in the Working Men's 
Association, and the Latin federations, Spanish, Italian, Belgian 
and Jurassic (France could not be represented), constituted 
among themselves a Federal union which broke entirely with the 
Marxist general council of the International. Within these 
federations developed now what may be described as modern 
Anarchism. After the names of " Federalists " and " Anti- 
authoritarians " had been used for some time by these federations 
the name of " Anarchists," which their adversaries insisted upon 
applying to them, prevailed, and finally it was revindicated. 

Bakunin (q.v.) soon became the leading spirit among these 
Latin federations for the development of the principles of 
Anarchism, which he did in a number of writings, pamphlets 
and letters. He demanded the complete abolition of the state, 
which he wrote is a product of religion, belongs to a lower 
state of civilization, represents the negation of liberty, and spoils 
even that which it undertakes to do for the sake of general well- 
being. The state was an historically necessary evil, but its 
complete extinction will be, sooner or later, equally necessary. 
Repudiating all legislation, even when issuing from universal 
suffrage, Bakunin claimed for each nation, each region and each 
commune, full autonomy, so long as it is not a menace to its 
neighbours, and full independence for the individual, adding 
that one becomes really free only when, and in proportion as, 
all others are free. Free federations of the communes would 
constitute free nations. 

As to his economical conceptions, Bakunin described himself, 
in common with his Federalist comrades of the International 
(Cesar De Paepe, James Guillaume Schwitzguebel) , a " Collecti- 
vist Anarchist " not in the sense of Vidal and Pecqueur in the 
'forties, or of their modern Social-Democratic followers, but to 
express a state of things in which all necessaries for production 
are owned in common by the Labour groups and the free com- 
munes, while the ways of retribution of labour, Communist or 
otherwise, would be settled by each group for itself. Social 
revolution, the near approach of which was foretold at that time 
by all Socialists, would be the means of bringing into life the new 
conditions. 

The Jurassic, the Spanish, and the Italian federations and 
sections of the International Working Men's Association, as also 
the French, the German and the American Anarchist groups, 
were for the next years the chief centres of Anarchist thought 
and propaganda. They refrained from any participation in 
parliamentary politics, and always kept in close contact with the 
Labour organizations. However, in the second half of the 
'eighties and the early 'nineties of the ipth century, when the 
influence of the Anarchists began to be felt in strikes, in the 
ist of May demonstrations, where they promoted the idea of a 
general strike for an eight hours' day, and in the anti-militarist 
propaganda in the army, violent prosecutions were directed 
against them, especially in the Latin countries (including physical 
torture in the Barcelona Castle) and the United States (the 
execution of five Chicago Anarchists in 1887). Against these 
prosecutions the Anarchists retaliated by acts of violence which 
in their turn were followed by more executions from above, and 
new acts of revenge from below. This created in the general 
public the impression that violence is the substance of Anarchism, 
a view repudiated by its supporters, who hold that in reality 
violence is resorted to by all parties in proportion as their open 
action is obstructed by repression, and exceptional laws render 
them outlaws. (Cf . Anarchism andOutrage, by C. M. Wilson, and 
Report of the Spanish Atrocities Committee, in " Freedom Pam- 
phlets "; A Concise History of the Great Trial of the Chicago 
Anarchists, by Dyer Lum (New York, 1886); The Chicago. 
Martyrs: Speeches, &C.). 1 

1 It is important to remember that the term " Anarchist " is 
inevitably rather loosely used in public, in connexion with the authors 



ANARCHISM 



917 



Anarchism continued to develop, partly in the direction of 
Proudhonian " Mutuellisme," but chiefly as Communist-Anar- 
chism, to which a third direction, Christian-Anarchism, was 
added by Leo Tolstoy, and a fourth, which might be ascribed as 
literary-Anarchism, began amongst some prominent modern 
writers. 

The ideas of Proudhon, especially as regards mutual banking, 
corresponding with those of Josiah Warren, found a considerable 
following in the United States, creating quite a school, of which 
the main writers are Stephen Pearl Andrews, William Grene, 
Lysander Spooner (who began to write in 1850, and whose 
unfinished work, Natural Law, was full of promise), and several 
others, whose names will be found in Dr Nettlan's Bibliographic 
de I'anarchie. 

A prominent position among the Individualist Anarchists 
in America has been occupied by Benjamin R. Tucker, whose 
journal Liberty was started in 1881 and whose conceptions are 
a combination of those of Proudhon with those of Herbert Spencer. 
Starting from the statement that Anarchists are egotists, strictly 
speaking, and that every group of individuals, be it a secret league 
of a few persons, or the Congress of the United States, has the right 
to oppress all mankind, provided it has the power to do so, that 
equal liberty for all and absolute equality ought to be the law, 
and " mind every one your own business " is the unique moral 
law of Anarchism, Tucker goes on to prove that a general and 
thorough application of these principles would be beneficial and 
would offer no danger, because the powers of every individual 
would be limited by the exercise of the equal rights of all others. 

of a certain class of murderous outrages, and that the same looseness 
of definition often applies to the professions of " Anarchism " made 
by such persons. As stated above, a philosophic Anarchist would 
repudiate the connexion. And the general public view which 
regards Anarchist doctrines indiscriminately is to that extent a 
confusion of terms. But the following resume of the chief modern 
so-called " Anarchist " incidents is appended for convenience in 
stating the facts under the heading where a reader would expect to 
find them. 

Between 1882 and 1886, in France, Prince Kropotkin, Louise 
Michel and others were imprisoned. In England, Most, one of the 
German Anarchist leaders, founded Die Freiheit, and, for defending 
in it the assassination of Alexander II. at St Petersburg, was sen- 
tenced to eighteen months' imprisonment with hard labour. After 
this he moved to the United States, and re-established his paper there 
in New York, in May 1886. During this period there were several 
Anarchist congresses in the United States. In one at Albany, in 
1878, the revolutionary element, led by Justus Schwab, broke away 
from the others; at Allegheny City, in 1879, again there was a 
rupture between the peaceful and the revolutionary sections. The 
Voice of the People at St Louis, the Arbeiter Zeitung at Chicago, and 
the Anarchist at Boston, were the organs of the revolutionary 
element. In 1883, at Pittsburg, a congress of twenty-eight delegates, 
representing twenty-two towns, drew up an address to the working 
men of America. The programme it proposed was as follows: 

First, Destruction of the existing class rule by all means, i.e. 
energetic, relentless, revolutionary and international action. 

Second, Establishment of a free society, based upon co-operative 
organization of production. 

Third, Free exchange of equivalent products by and between the 
productive organizations, without commerce and profit-mongery. 

Fourth, Organization of education on a secular, scientific and 
equal basis for both sexes. 

Fifth, Equal rights for all, without distinction of sex or race. 

Sixth, Regulation of all public affairs by free contracts between 
the autonomous (independent) communes and associations, resting 
on a federalistic basis. 

This, together with an appeal to the working men to organize, 
was published in Chicago, November 1883, by a local committee of 
four, representing French, Bohemian, German and English sections, 
the head of the last being August Spies, who was hanged in 1887 for 
participation in the Hay market affair in Chicago, 4th May 1886. 
This affair was the culmination of a series of encounters between 
the Chicago working men and the police, which had covered several 
years. The meeting of 4th May was called by Spies and others to 
protest against the action of the police, by whom several working 
men had been killed in collisions growing out of the efforts to intro- 
duce the eight hours' day. The mayor of the city attended the 
meeting, but, finding it peaceful, went home. The meeting was 
subsequently entered by the police and commanded to disperse. 
A bomb was thrown, several policemen being killed and a number 
wounded. For this crime eight men were tried in one panel and 
condemned, seven Spies, Parsons, Engel, Fischer, Fielden, Schwab, 
and Ling to death, and one Neebe to imprisonment for fifteen 



He further indicated (following H. Spencer) the difference which 
exists between the encroachment on somebody's rights and 
resistance to such an encroachment; between domination and 
defence: the former being equally condemnable, whether it be 
encroachment of a criminal upon an individual, or the encroach- 
ment of one upon all others, or of all others upon one; while 
resistance to encroachment is defensible and necessary. For 
their self-defence, both the citizen and the group have the right 
to any violence, including capital punishment. Violence is also 
justified for enforcing the duty of keeping an agreement. Tucker 
thus follows Spencer, and, like him, opens (in the present writer's 
opinion) the way for reconstituting under the heading of 
" defence " all the functions of the state. His criticism of the 
present state is very searching, and his defence of the rights of 
the individual very powerful. As regards his economical views 
B. R. Tucker follows Proudhon. 

The Individualist Anarchism of the American Proudhonians 
finds, however, but little sympathy amongst the working masses. 
Those who profess it they are chiefly " intellectuals " soon 
realize that the individualization they so highly praise is not 
attainable by individual efforts, and either abandon the ranks of 
the Anarchists, and are driven into the Liberal individualism 
of the classical economists, or they retire into a sort of Epicurean 
a-moralism, or super-man-theory, similar to that of Stirner and 
Nietzsche. The great bulk of the Anarchist working men prefer 
the Anarchist-Communist ideas which have gradually evolved out 
of the Anarchist Collectivism of the International Working Men's 
Association. To this direction belong to name only the better 

years. The sentences on Fielden and Schwab were commuted by 
Governor Oglesby to imprisonment for life, on the recommendation 
of the presiding judge and the prosecuting attorney. Ling com- 
mitted suicide in jail, and Spies, Parsons, Engel and Fischer were 
hanged, nth November 1887. On 26th June 1893 an unconditional 
pardon was granted the survivors, Fielden, Schwab and Neebe, by 
Governor Altgeld. The reasons for the pardon were stated by the 
governor to be that, upon an examination of the records he found 
that the jury had not been drawn in the usual manner, but by a 
special bailiff, who made his own selection and had summoned a 

prejudiced jury "; that the " state had never discovered who it 
was that threw the bomb which killed the policemen, and the 
evidence does not show any connexion whatever between the de- 
fendants and the man who did throw it," ... or that this man 
" ever heard or read a word coming from the defendants, and conse- 
quently fails to show that he acted on any advice given by them." 
Judge Gary, the judge at the trial, published a defence of its pro- 
cedure in the Century Magazine, vol. xxiii p. 803. 

A number of outbreaks in later years were attributed to the propa- 
ganda of reform by revolution, like those in Spain and France in 
1892, in which Ravachol was a prominent figure. Ii> 1893 a bomb 
was exploded in the French Chamber of Deputies by Vaillant. The 
spirit of these men is well illustrated by the reply which Vaillant 
made to the judge who reproached him for endangering the lives 
of innocent men and women: " There can be no innocent bour- 
geois." In 1894 there was an explosion in a Parisian caf6, and 
another in a theatre at Barcelona. For the latter outrage six men 
were executed. President Carnot of the French Republic was 
assassinated by an Italian at Lyons in the same year. The empress 
Elizabeth of Austria was assassinated in September 1898. These 
events, all associated by the public with " Anarchism," led to the 
passage by the United States Congress of a law, in 1894, to keep 
out foreign Anarchists, and to deport any who might be found in the 
country, and also to the assemblage of an international conference 
in Rome, in 1898, to agree upon some plan for dealing with these 
revolutionists. It was proposed that their offences should no longer 
be classed as political, but as common-law crimes, and be made 
subject to extradition. The suppression of the revolutionary press 
and the international co-operation of the police were also suggested. 
The results of the conference were not, however, published; and 
the question of how to deal with the campaign against society fell 
for a while into abeyance. The attempt made by the youth Sipido 
on the (then) prince of Wales at Brussels in 1900 recalled attention 
to the subject. The acquittal of Sipido, and the failure of the 
Belgian government to see that justice was done in an affair of such 
international importance, excited considerable feeling in England, 
and was the occasion of a strongly-worded note from the British 
to the Belgian government. The murder of King Humbert of Italy 
in July 1900 renewed the outcry against Italian Anarchists. Even 
greater horror and indignation were excited by the assassination 
of President McKinley by Czolgoscz on the 6th of September 1901, 
at Buffalo, U.S.A. And a particularly dastardly attempt was 
made to blow up the young king and queen of Spain on their 
wedding-day in 1906. (Eo. E.B.) 



918 



ANARCHISM 



known exponents of Anarchism Elisee Reclus, Jean Grave, 
Sebastien Faure, Emile Pouget in France; Enrico Malatesta and 
Covelli in Italy; R. Mella, A. Lorenzo, and the mostly unknown 
authors of many excellent manifestos in Spain ; John Most amongst 
the Germans; Spies, Parsons and their followers in the United 
States, and so on; while Domela Nieuwenhuis occupies an 
intermediate position in Holland. The chief Anarchist papers 
which have been published since 1 880 also belong to that direc tion ; 
while a number of Anarchists of this direction have joined 
the so-called Syndicalist movement the French name for the 
non-political Labour movement, devoted to direct struggle 
with capitalism, which has lately become so prominent in 
Europe. 

As one of the Anarchist-Communist direction, the present 
writer for many years endeavoured to develop the following 
ideas: to show the intimate, logical connexion which exists 
between the modern philosophy of natural sciencesandAnarchism ; 
to put Anarchism on a scientific basis by the study of the tendencies 
that are apparent now in society and may indicate its further 
evolution; and to work out the basis of Anarchist ethics. As 
regards the substance of Anarchism itself, it was Kropotkin's 
aim to prove that Communism at least partial has more 
chances of being established than Collectivism, especially in 
communes taking the lead, and that Free, or Anarchist-Com- 
munism is the only form of Communism that has any chance 
of being accepted in civilized societies; Communism and 
Anarchy are therefore two terms of evolution which complete 
each other, the one rendering the other possible and acceptable. 
He has tried, moreover, to indicate how, during a revolutionary 
period, a large city if its inhabitants have accepted the idea 
could organize itself on the lines of Free Communism; the city 
guaranteeing to every inhabitant dwelling, food and clothing to 
an extent corresponding to the comfort now available to the 
middle classes only, in exchange for a half-day's, or a five-hours' 
work; and how all those things which would be considered as 
luxuries might be obtained by every one if he joins for the other 
half of the day all sorts of free associations pursuing all possible 
aims educational, literary, scientific, artistic, sports and so on. 
In order to prove the first of these assertions he has analysed the 
possibilities of agriculture and industrial work, both being 
combined with brain work. And in order to elucidate the main 
factors of human evolution, he has analysed the part played in 
history by the popular constructive agencies of mutual aid and 
the historical role of the state. 

Without naming himself an Anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, like his 
predecessors in the popular religious movements of the isth and 
1 6th centuries, Chojecki, Denk and many others, took the 
Anarchist position as regards the state and property rights, 
deducing his conclusions from the general spirit of the teachings 
of the Christ and from the necessary dictates of reason. With 
all the might of his talent he made (especially in The Kingdom 
of God in Yourselves) a powerful criticism of the church, the 
state and law altogether, and especially of the present property 
laws. He describes the state as the domination of the 
wicked ones, supported by brutal force. Robbers, he says, 
are far less dangerous than a well-organized government. He 
makes a searching criticism of the prejudices which are current 
now concerning the benefits conferred upon men by the church, 
the state and the existing distribution of property, and from the 
teachings of the Christ he deduces the rule of non-resistance 
and the absolute condemnation of all wars. His religious 
arguments are, however, so well combined with arguments 
borrowed from a dispassionate observation of the present evils, 
that the anarchist portions of his works appeal to the religious 
and the non-religious reader alike. 

It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the 
penetration, on the one hand, of Anarchist ideas into modern 
literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the 
libertarian ideas of the best com temporary writers have exercised 
upon the development of Anarchism. One ought to consult 
the ten big volumes of the Supplement litteraire to the paper 
La rivolle and later the Temps nouveaux, which contain repro- 



ductions from the works of hundreds of modern authors express- 
ing Anarchist ideas, in order to realize how closely Anarchism 
is connected with all the intellectual movement of our own times. 
J. S. Mill's Liberty, Spencer's Individual versus The Stale, Marc 
Guyau's Morality without Obligation or Sanction, and Fouillee's 
La morale, I' art et la religion, the works of Multatuli (E. Douwes 
Dekker), Richard Wagner's Art and Revolution, the works of 
Nietzsche, Emerson, W. Lloyd Garrison, Thoreau, Alexander 
Herzen, Edward Carpenter and so on; and in the domain of 
fiction, the dramas of Ibsen, the poetry of Walt Whitman, 
Tolstoy's War and Peace, Zola's Paris and Le travail, the latest 
works of Merezhkovsky, and an infinity of works of less known 
authors, are full of ideas which show how closely Anarchism is 
interwoven with the work that is going on in modern thought 
in the same direction of enfranchisement of man from the bonds 
of the state as well as from those of capitalism. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. William God win, An Enquiry concerning Political 
Justice and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness, 1st edition, 
2 vols. (1793). Mutualism: John Gray, A Lecture on Human 
Happiness (1825); The Social System, a Treatise on the Principles 
of Exchange (1831) ; Proudhon,'Qu'est-ce que la propriete ? ler memoire 
(1840) (Eng. trans, by B. Tucker); Idee generate sur la revolution 
(1851); Confession d'un revolutionnaire (1849); Contradictions 
economiques (1846); Josiah Warren, Practicable Details of Equitable 
Commerce (New York, 1852); True Civilization (Boston, 1863); 
Stephen Pearl Andrews, The Science of Society (1851); Cost, the 
Limit of Price; Moses Hess, " Sozialismus und Communismus, 
Philosophic der That " (on Herwegh's Ein-und-Zwanzig Bogen aus 
der Schweiz, 1843); Karl Griin, Die soziale Bewegung in Frankreich 
und Belgien(i845) ; W. Marr, .Dasjunge Deutschland (1845). Anarch- 
ist Individualism: Max Stirner (J. K. Schmidt), Der Einzige und 
sein Eigenthum (1845) (Fr. trans., 1900); J. H. Mackay, Max 
Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk (1898) ; V. Basch, L' Individualisme 
anarchists (1904). Transition period : J. Dejacque, Les Lazareennes 
(1851); Le Libertaire, weekly, New York, 1858-1861, containing 
L 'Humanisphere (re-edited at Brussels, Bibl. des temps nouveaux). 
Anarchist Collectivism of the International: The papers Egalite, 
Progres (Locle), Solidarite; James Guillaume, Idees sur I organisation 
sociale (1876); Bulletin de la federation jurassienne (1872-1879); 
A. Schwitzguebel, (Euvres; Paul Brousse, Le Suffrage universel 
(1874) ; L'Etat d Versailles et dans I' association internationale (1874) > 
newspaper L' Avant-garde (suppressed 1878); Arthur Arnould, 
L'Etat et la revolution (1877) ; Histoire populaire de la commune 
(3 vols., 1878); Cesar de Paepe, in Rive gauche and La liberte (1867- 
1883). Many others are in the Comptes rendus of the congresses of 
the International Working Men's Association. All these ideas, 
conceived as a whole, may be found in Bakunin's Federalisme, 
socialisme et anti-theologisme, published first in portions under the 
names of L'Empire knouto-germanique, Dieu et I'etat, The State-Idea 
and Anarchy (Russian), and only now reproduced in full in his 
(Euvres (Paris, 1905 and seq.); Sozialpolitischer Briefwechsel (1894); 
Statuts de I' alliance internationale (1868); Proposition motivee au 
comite central de la ligue de la paix etdela Iiberte(i868). The famous 
Revolutionary Catechism attributed to Bakunin, was not his work. 
B.iographie von Michael Bakunin, by Dr M. Nettlan, 3 large vols., 
contains masses of letters, &c. (hectographed in 50 copies; in all 
chief libraries). 

MODERN ANARCHISM. The best sources are the collections of 
newspapers which, although compelled sometimes to change their 
names, were run for considerable lengths of time and are appearing 
still: J. Most, Freiheit, since 1878; Le Revolte La Revolte Temps 
nouveaux, since 1878; Domela Nieuwenhuis, Recht voor Allen, 
since 1878; Freedom, since 1886; Le Libertaire; Pouget's Pere 
Pesuard; Reveil-Risveglio; see Nettlan's Bibliographte. These 
papers and a great number of pamphlets are indispensable for 
those who intend to know anarchism, as the works published in 
book form are not numerous. Of the latter only a few will be 
mentioned : Elisee Reclus, Evolution and Revolution, many editions 
in all languages; " Anarchy by an Anarchist," in Contemp. Review 
(May, 1884); The Ideal and Youth (1895); Jean Grave, La Societe 
au lendemain de la revolution, many editions since 1882; La Societe 
mourante et I'anarchie (1893); L'Autonomie selon la science (1882); 
La Societe future (1895); L'Anarchie, son but, ses moyens; Sebastien 
Faure, La Douleur universelle (1892) ; A. Hamon, Les Hpmmes et les 
theories de I'anarchie (1893); Psycholpgie de I'anarchisle-socialiste 
('895); Enrico Malatesta, Fra Contadini, transl. in all languages 
Eng. trans. A Talk about Anarchist Communism, in "Freedom 
Pamphlets" (1891); Anarchy (do. 1892); Au cafe; and many 
other Italian pamphlets, as also several papers started at various 
times in Italy under different names: F. S. Merlino, Socialismo o 
Monopolismof (1887). Pamphlets, reviews and papers by P. Gori, 
L. Molinari, E. Covelli, &c. The manifestos of the Spanish Federa- 
tions contain excellent expositions of Anarchism; cf. also many 
books, pamphlets and papers by J. Llunas y Finals, J. Serrano y 
Oteiza, Ricardo Mella, A. Lorenzo, &c. John Most, the paper 



ANASTASIUS ANATASE 



919 



Freiheit, of which a few articles only have been reprinted as 
pamphlets in the Internationale Bibliothek (" The Deistic Pestilence," 
"The Beast of Property" in English); Memoiren, 3 fascicules. 
F. Domela Nieuwenhuis, Le Socialisme en danger (1895) ; C. Malato, 
Philosophic de I'anarchie (1890); Charlotte Wilson, Anarchism 
(" Fabian Tracts," 4); Anarchism and Violence (" Freedom Pam- 
phlets ") ; Albert Parsons, Anarchism, its Philosophy and Scientific 
Basis (Chicago, 1888); The Chicago Martyrs: Speeches in Court; 
P. Kropotkin, Paroles d'un revolts (1884) ; Conquest of Bread (1906) 
(ist French ed. in 1890) ; Anarchist Morality ; Anarchy, its Philosophy 
and Ideals', Anarchist Communism', The State, its Historic R6le; 
and other " Freedom Pamphlets "; Fields, Factories and Workshops 
(5th popular edition, 1807) ; Mutual Aid: a Factor of Evolution 
(1904). Modern Individualist Anarchists: B. Tucker, the paper 
Liberty (1892 sqq.); Instead of a Book, by one too busy to write one 
(Boston, 1893); Dyer Lum, Social Problems (1883); Lysander 
Spooner, Natural Law, or the Science of Justice (Boston, 1891). 
Religious Anarchists : Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God in Your- 
selves; My Faith; Confession; &c. 

The best work on Anarchism, and in fact the only one written with 
full knowledge of the Anarchist literature, and quite fairly, is by a 
German judge Dr Paul Eltzbacher, Anarchismus (transl. in all chief 
European languages, except English). Prof. Adler's article " Anarch- 
ismus " in Conrad's Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, vol. i., 
is less accurate for modern times than for the earlier periods. G. v. 
Zenker, Der Anarchismus (1895); and Prof. Edmund Bernatzik, 
" Der Anarchismus," in Schmoller's Jahrbuch, may also be men- 
tioned the remainder being written with absolute want of know- 
ledge of the subject. 

A most important work is the reasoned Bibliographie de I'anarchie, 
by Dr M. Nettlan (Brussels, 1897, 8vo, 294. ff.), written with a full 
knowledge of the subject and its immense literature. (P. A. K.) 

ANASTASIUS, the name of four popes. 

ANASTASIUS I., pope from 399-401. He it was who condemned 
the writings of Origen shortly after their translation into Latin. 

ANASTASIUS II., pope from 496-498. He lived in the time of 
the schism of Acacius of Constantinople. He showed some 
tendency towards conciliation, and thus brought upon himself 
the lively reproaches of the author of the Liber pontificalis. On 
the strength of this tradition, Dante has placed this pope in hell. 

ANASTASIUS III., pope from 911-913, was a Roman by birth. 
Practically nothing is recorded of him, his pontificate falling 
in the period when Rome was in the power of the Roman nobles. 

ANASTASIUS IV. was pope from 1153 to 1154. He was a 
Roman named Conrad, son of Benedictus, and at the time of 
his election, on the 9th of July 1153, was cardinal bishop of 
Sabina. He had taken part in the double election of 1130, 
had been one of the most determined opponents of Anacletus II. 
and, when Innocent II. fled to France, had been left behind 
as his vicar in Italy. During his short pontificate, however, 
he played the part of a peacemaker; he came to terms with 
the emperor Frederick I. in the vexed question of the appoint- 
ment to the see of Magdeburg and closed the long quarrel, which 
had raged through four pontificates, about the appointment 
of William Fitzherbert (d. 1 1 54) commonly known as St William 
of York to the see of York, by sending him the pallium, in 
spite of the continued opposition of the powerful Cistercian 
order. Anastasius died on the 3rd of December 1154, and was 
succeeded by Cardinal Nicholas of Albano as Adrian IV. 

ANASTASIUS I. (c. 430-518), Roman emperor, was born at 
Dyrrhachium not later than A.D. 430. At the time of the death 
of Zeno (491), Anastasius, a palace official (silentiarius) , held a 
very high character, and was raised to the throne of the Roman 
empire of the East, through the choice of Ariadne, Zeno's widow, 
who married him shortly after his accession. His reign, though 
afterwards disturbed by foreign and intestine wars and religious 
distractions, commenced auspiciously. He gained the popular 
favour by a judicious remission of taxation, and displayed great 
vigour and energy in administering the affairs of the empire. 
The principal wars in which Anastasius was engaged were those 
known as the Isaurian and the Persian. The former (492-496) 
was stirred up by the supporters of Longinus, the brother of 
Zeno. The victory of Cotyaeum in 493 " broke the back " of 
the revolt, but a guerilla warfare continued in the Isaurian 
mountains for some years longer. In the war with Persia (502- 
505), Theodosiopolis and Amida were captured by the enemy, 
but the Persian provinces also suffered severely and the Romans 
recovered Amida. Both adversaries were exhausted when 



peace was made (506) on the basis of status quo. Anastasius 
afterwards built the strong fortress of Daras to hold Nisibis in 
check. The Balkan provinces were devastated by invasions of 
Slavs and Bulgarians; to protect Constantinople and its vicinity 
against them he built the " Anastasian wall," extending from 
the Propontis to the Euxine. The emperor was a convinced 
Monophysite, but his ecclesiastical policy was moderate; he 
endeavoured to maintain the principle of the Henotikon of 
Zeno and the peace of the church. It was the uncompromising 
attitude of the orthodox extremists, and the rebellious demonstra- 
tions of the Byzantine populace, that drove him in 5 1 2 to abandon 
this policy and adopt a monophysitic programme. His con- 
sequent unpopularity in the European provinces was utilized 
by an ambitious man, named Vitalian, to organize a dangerous 
rebellion, in which he was assisted by a horde of " Huns " 
(514-515); it was finally suppressed by a naval victory won by 
the general Marinus. The financial policy of Anastasius was 
so prudent and economical that it gained him a reputation for 
avarice and contributed to his unpopularity. He died in 518. 

AUTHORITIES. Sources: Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, ed. 
Wright, with English translation, Cambridge, 1882; Marcellinus, 
Chronicle; Zachariah of Mytilene, Chronicle (Eng. trans, by Hamilton 
and Brooks, London, 1899); Evagrius, Ecclesiastical History; 
John Lydus, De Magistratibus ; John Malalas, Chronicle. Modern 
works : Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. iv. (ed. Bury) ; Bury, Later 
Roman Empire, vol. i. 

ANASTASIUS II. (d. 721), Roman emperor in the East, whose 
original name was Artemius, was raised to the throne of Con- 
stantinople by the voice of the senate and people in A.D. 713, 
on the deposition of Philippicus, whom he had served in the 
capacity of secretary. The empire was threatened by the 
Saracens both by land and sea, and Anastasius sent an army 
under Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to defend Syria; 
adopted wise and resolute measures for the defence of his 
capital; attempted to reorganize the discipline of the army; 
and equipped and despatched to Rhodes a formidable naval 
force, with orders not only to resist the approach of the enemy, 
but to destroy their naval stores. The troops of the Opsikian 
province, resenting the emperor's strict measures, mutinied, 
slew the admiral, and proclaimed Theodosius, a person of low 
extraction, emperor. After a six months' siege, Constantinople 
was taken by Theodosius; and Anastasius, who had fled to 
Nicaea, was compelled to submit to the new emperor, and, 
retiring to Thessalonica, became a monk (716). In72ihe headed 
a revolt against Leo, who had succeeded Theodosius, and 
receiving a considerable amount of support, laid siege to Con- 
stantinople; but the enterprise failed, and Anastasius, falling 
into Leo's hands, was put to death by his orders. 

AUTHORITIES. Sources: Theophanes, Chronicle; Nicephorus 
Patriarches, Breviarium. Modern works: Gibbon, Decline and Fall, 
vol. v. (ed. Bury) ; Bury, Later Roman Empire, vol. ii. 

ANASTOMOSIS (a Greek word in which the second o is long, 
from avaaronovv, to furnish with a mouth or outlet) , the inter- 
communication between two vessels; a word used in vegetable 
and animal anatomy for the communication between channels 
(arteries and veins) containing fluid, and also for the crossing 
between the veins or branches of leaves, trees, insect-wings or 
river-connexions, and by analogy in art-design. 

ANATASE, one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide. 
It is always found as small, isolated and sharply developed 
crystals, and like rutile, a more commonly occurring modification 
of titanium dioxide, it crystallizes in the tetragonal system; 
but, although the degree of symmetry is the same for both, there 
is no relation between the interfacial angles of the two minerals, 
except, of course, in the prism-zone of 45 and 90. The common 
pyramid {inj (fig. i) of anatase, 1 parallel to the faces of which 
there are perfect cleavages, has an angle over the polar edge of 
82 9', the corresponding angle (i 1 1) : (i 1 1) of rutile being 56 52}'. 
It was on account of this steeper pyramid of anatase that the 
mineral was named, by R. J. Haiiy in 1801, from the Gr. 
a.vina.ais, " extension," the vertical axis of the crystals being 
longer than in rutile. There are also important differences 
1 For the notation see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 



920 



ANATHEMA ANATOMY 




between the physical characters of anatase and rutile; the former 
is not quite so hard (H = 5j-6) or dense (sp. gr. = 3'9); it is 
optically negative, rutile being positive; and its lustre is even 
more strongly adamantine or metallic-adamantine than that 
of rutile. 

Two types or habits of anatase crystals may be distinguished. 
The commoner occurs as simple acute double pyramids (in) 
(fig. i) with an indigo-blue to black colour and steely lustre. 
Crystals of this kind are abundant at Le Bourg d'Oisans in 
Dauphin6, where, they are associated with rock-crystal, felspar 
and axinite in crevices in granite and mica-schist. Similar 
crystals, but of microscopic size, are widely distributed in sedi- 
mentary rocks, such as sandstones, clays and slates, from which 

they may be separ- 
ated by washing 
away the lighter 
constituents of the 
powdered rock. 
Crystals of the 
second type have 
numerous pyra- 
midal faces de- 
veloped, and they 
are usually flatter 
or sometimes pris- 
matic in habit (fig. 
FIG. i. FIG. 2. '2); the colour is 

honey - yellow to 

brown. Such crystals closely resemble xenotime in appearance 
and, indeed, were for a long time supposed to belong to this 
species, the special name wiserine being applied to them. They 
occur attached to the walls of crevices in the gneisses of the 
Alps, the Binnenthal near Brieg in canton Valais, Switzerland, 
being a well-known locality. 

When strongly heated, anatase is converted into rutile, 
changing in specific gravity to 4-1; naturally occurring pseudo- 
morphs of rutile after anatase are also known. Crystals of 
anatase have been artificially prepared by several methods; 
for instance, by the interaction of steam and titanium chloride 
or fluoride. 

Another name commonly in use for this mineral is octahedrite, 
a name which, indeed, is earlier than anatase, and given because 
of the common (acute) octahedral habit of the crystals. Other 
names, now obsolete, are oisanite and dauphinite, from the 
well-known French locality. (L. J. S.) 

ANATHEMA (from Gr. &.va.TiBtvai, to lift up), literally 
an offering, a thing set aside. The classical Greek form bvaiSrina. 
(Lat. anathema) was the technical term for a gift (cf. 
donarium, oblatio) made to a god either in gratitude or with a 
view to propitiation. Thus at Athens the Thesmothetae (perhaps 
all the archons) made a vow that, should they break any law, 
they would dedicate a life-size gilt statue in the temple at 
Delphi. Similarly, of spoils taken in war, a part, generally a 
tenth, was dedicated to the god of the city (e.g. to Athena); 
to this class probably belong the trophies erected by the victors 
on the field of battle; sometimes a captured ship was placed 
upon a hill as an offering to Poseidon (Neptune). Persons who 
had recovered from an illness offered analhemata in the temples 
of Asclepius (Aesculapius); those who had escaped from ship- 
wreck offered their clothes, or, if these had been lost, a lock of 
hair, to Neptune (Hor. Odes, i. 5. 13; Virg. Aeneid, xii. 768). 
The latter offering was very commonly made by young men and 
girls, especially young brides. Works of art of all kinds and the 
implements of a craftsman giving up his work were likewise 
dedicated. Such presents were far more common, as also more 
valuable, among the Greeks than among the Romans. Similar 
practices were prevalent, to an extent hardly realized, among 
the Christians up to the middle ages and even later. Just as 
the ancients hung their offerings on trees, temple columns and 
the images of the gods, so offerings were made to the Cross, to the 
Virgin Mary and on altars generally. 
In the form anathlma, the word is used in the Septuagint, 



the New Testament and ecclesiastical writers as the equivalent 
of the Hebrew faerfm, which is commonly translated " accursed 
thing" (A.V.) or "devoted thing" (R.V.; cf. the Roman 
devotio). In Hebrew the root fr-r-m means to " set apart," 
" devote to Yahweh," for destruction; but in Arabic it means 
simply to separate or seclude (cf. " harem "). The idea of 
destruction or perdition is thus a secondary meaning of the word, 
which gradually lost its primary sense of consecration. In the 
New Testament, though it is used in the sense of " offering " 
(Luke xxi. 5), it generally signifies " separated " from the church, 
i.e. " accursed " (cf. Gal. i. 8 ff.; i Cor. xvi. 22), and it became 
the regular formula of excommunication from the time of the 
council of Chalcedon in 451, especially against heretics, e.g. in 
the canons of the council of Trent and those of the Vatican council 
of 1870. See EXCOMMUNICATION; PENANCE. The expression 
maranatha (" the Lord cometh "), which follows anathema 
in i Cor. xvi. 22, is often erroneously quoted as though it were 
an amplification of the curse. 

ANATOLI, JACOB (c. 1194-1256), Hebrew translator from 
the Arabic. He was invited to Naples by the enlightened ruler 
Frederick II., and under this royal patronage and in association 
with Michael Scot, made Arabic learning accessible to Western 
readers. Among his most important services were translations 
of works by Averroes. 

ANATOLIA (Gr. dfaroX^, sunrise, i.e. eastern land), in 
ancient geography, the country east of the Aegean, i.e. Asia Minor. 
It was the name of one of the three themes (provinces) into which 
Phrygia was divided in the military reorganization of the East 
Roman empire. It is now used (by the Turks in the form 
(Anaddli) to denote a division of the Turkish empire, practically 
coincident with Asia Minor (q.v.). 

ANATOMY (Gr. avaTOfifi, from &.va-Tt^vtu>, to cut up), 
literally dissection or cutting asunder, a term always used to 
denote the study of the structure of living things; thus there is 
animal anatomy (zootomy) and vegetable anatomy (phytotomy). 
Animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of 
different animals, when it is called comparative anatomy or animal 
morphology, or it may be limited to one animal only, in which 
case it is spoken of as special anatomy. From a utilitarian point 
of view the study of Man is the most important division of special 
anatomy, and this human anatomy may be approached from 
different points of view. From that of the medical ma it 
consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size and 
relationship of the various structures of the human body in 
health, and to this study the term descriptive or topographical 
human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spoken 
of as Anthropolomy. An accurate knowledge of all the details of 
the human body takes years of patient observation to gain and 
is possessed by only a few. So intricate is man's body that only 
a small number of professional human anatomists are complete 
masters of all its details, and most of them specialize on certain 
parts, such as the brain, viscera, &c.; contenting themselves 
with a good working knowledge of the rest. Topographical 
anatomy must be learned by each person for himself by the 
repeated dissection and inspection of the dead human body. 
It is no more a science than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that 
knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency. 

From the morphological point of view, however, human 
anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study, having for its 
object the discovery of the causes Which have brought about the 
existing structure of Man, and needing a knowledge of the allied 
sciences of embryology or ontogeny, phytogeny and histology. 

Pathological or morbid anatomy is the study of diseased 
organs, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various, 
purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical, 
gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy. The com- 
parison of the anatomy of different races of mankind is part of 
the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy. 
In the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is 
treated systematically rather than topographically. Each 
anatomical article contains first a description of the structures 
of an organ or system (such as nerves, arteries, heart, &c.), as it 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



921 



is found in Man; and this is followed by an account of the 
development or embryology and comparative anatomy or 
morphology, as far as vertebrate animals are concerned; but 
only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in 
explaining Man's structure are here dealt with. The articles 
have a twofold purpose; first, to give enough details of man's 
structure to make the articles on physiology, surgery, medicine 
and pathology intelligible; and, secondly, to give the non-expert 
inquirer, or the worker in some other branch of science, the chief 
theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy 
is built. 

The following separate anatomical articles will be found under 
their own headings: 



Alimentary canal. 

Arteries. 

Brain. 

Coelom and serous membranes. 

Connective tissues. 

Diaphragm. 

Ductless glands. 

Ear. 



Nervous system. 
Nerve. 

Olfactory system. 
Pharynx. 
Pancreas. 
Placenta. 

Reproductive system. 
Respiratory system. 



Epithelial, endothelial and glan- Scalp. 

dular tissues. Skeleton. 

Eye Skin and Exoskeleton. 

Heart. Skull. 

Joints. Spinal cord. 

Liver. Teeth. 

Lymphatic system. Tongue. 

Mammary gland. Urinary system. 

Mouth and salivary glands. Vascular system. 

Muscular system. Veins. 

HISTORY or ANATOMY* 

In tracing the history of the origin of anatomy, it may be 
justly said that more learning than judgment has been displayed. 
Some writers claim for it the highest antiquity, and pretend to 
find its first rudiments alternately in the animal sacrifices of the 
shepherd kings, the Jews and other ancient nations, and in the art 
of embalming as practised by the Egyptian priests. 2 Even the 
descriptions of wounds in the Iliad have been supposed adequate 
to prove that in the time of Homer mankind had distinct notions 
of the structure of the human body. Of the first it may be said 
that the rude information obtained by the slaughter of animals 
for sacrifice does not imply profound anatomical knowledge; 
and those who adduce the second as evidence are deceived by 
the language of the poet of the Trojan War, which, distinguishing 
certain parts by their ordinary Greek epithets, as afterwards used 
by Hippocrates, Galen and all anatomists, has been rather too 
easily supposed to prove that the poet had studied systematically 
the structure of the human frame. 

With not much greater justice has the cultivation of anatomical 
knowledge been ascribed to Hippocrates, who, because he is 
universally allowed to be the father of medicine, has also been 
thought to be the creator of the science of anatomy. Of 

1 The article in the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia, dealing with 
the history of anatomy, and written by the late Dr Craigie of Edin- 
burgh, has gained such a just reputation as the classical work on 
the subject in the English language that it is substantially repro- 
duced. Here and there points of special or biographical interest 
are drawn attention to in the shape of footnotes, but any reader 
interested in the subject would do well to consult, with this article, 
the work of R. R. von Toply, Studien zur Geschichte der Anatomie 
im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1898). In addition to this Professor A. 
Macalister has published a series of articles, under the head of 
" Archaeologia Anatomica," in the Journal of Anatomy and Physi- 
ology. These are written from a structural rather than a biblio- 
graphical point of view, and will be found under the following 
headings: " Atlas and Epistropheus," /. Anal. vol. xxxiii. p. 204; 
"Veins of Forearm," vol. xxxiii. p. 343; " Poupart's Ligament," 
vol. xxxiii. p. 493; " Tendo-Achillis," vol. xxxiii. p. 676; " Parotid," 
vol. xxxv. p. 117; " Trochanter," vol. xxxv. p. 269. 

1 The oldest anatomical treatise extant is an Egyptian papyrus 
probably written sixteen centuries before our era. It shows that the 
heart, vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, ureters and bladder were recog- 
nized, and that the blood-vessels were known to come from the heart. 
Other vessels are described, some carrying air, some mucus, while 
two to the right ear are said to carry the breath of life, and two to the 
left ear the breath of death. See A. Macalister, " Archaeologia 
Anatomica," /. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxxii. p. 775. But see also 
the article OMEN. 



the seven individuals of the family of the Heracleidae who 
bore this celebrated name, the second, who was the son of 
Heraclides and Phenarita, and grandson of the first Hlppo . 
Hippocrates, was indeed distinguished as a physician of crates. 
great observation and experience, and the first who 
appreciated the value of studying accurately the phenomena, 
effects and terminations of disease. It does not appear, however, 
notwithstanding the vague and general panegyrics of J. Riolan, 
Bartholin, D. le Clerc, and A. Portal, that the anatomical know- 
ledge of this illustrious person was either accurate or profound. 
Of the works ascribed to Hippocrates, five only are genuine. 
Most of them were written either by subsequent authors of the 
same name, or by one or other of the numerous impostors who 
took advantage of the zealous munificence of the Ptolemies, 
by fabricating works under that illustrious name. Of the few 
which are genuine, there is none expressly devoted to anatomy; 
and of his knowledge on this subject the only proofs are to be found 
in the exposition of his physiological opinions, and his medical 
or surgical instructions. From these it appears that Hippocrates 
had some accurate notions on osteology, but that of the structure 
of the human body in general his ideas were at once superficial 
and erroneous. In his book on injuries of the head, and in that on 
fractures, he shows that he knew the sutures of the cranium and 
the relative situation of the bones, and that he had some notion of 
the shape of the bones in general and of their mutual connexions. 
Of the muscles, of the soft parts in general, and of the internal 
organs, his ideas are confused, indistinct and erroneous. 
The term $Xei/' he seems, in imitation of the colloquial Greek, 
to have used generally to signify a blood-vessel, without being 
aware of the distinction of vein and artery; and the term 
aprTjpto, or air-holder, is restricted to the windpipe. He appears 
to have been unaware of the existence of the nervous chords; and 
the term nerve is used by him, as by Grecian authors in general, 
to signify a sinew or tendon. On other points his views are 
so much combined with peculiar physiological doctrines, that 
it is impossible to assign them the character of anatomical facts; 
and even the works in which these doctrines are contained are 
with little probability to be ascribed to the second Hippocrates. 
If, however, we overlook this difficulty, and admit what is con- 
tained in the genuine Hippocratic writings to represent at least 
the sum of knowledge possessed by Hippocrates and his immediate 
descendants, we find that he represents the brain as a gland, 
from which exudes a viscid fluid; that the heart is muscular 
and of pyramidal shape, and has two ventricles separated 
by a partition, the fountains of life and two auricles, receptacles 
of air; that the lungs consist of five ash-coloured lobes, the 
substance of which is cellular and spongy, naturally dry, but 
refreshed by the air; and that the kidneys are glands, but 
possess an attractive faculty, by virtue of which the moisture 
of the drink is separated and descends into the bladder. He 
distinguishes the bowels into colon and rectum (6 <xpx<k). 

The knowledge possessed by the second Hippocrates was 
transmitted in various degrees of purity to the descendants and 
pupils, chiefly of the family of the Heracleidae, who succeeded 
him. Several of these, with feelings of grateful affection, appear 
to have studied to preserve the written memory of his instructions, 
and in this manner to have contributed to form part of that 
collection of treatises which have long been known to the learned 
world under the general name of the Hippocratic writings. 
Though composed, like the genuine remains of the physicians of 
Cos, in the Ionian dialect, all of them differ from these in being 
more diffuse in style, more elaborate in form, and in studying 
to invest their anatomical and medical matter with the fanciful 
ornaments of the Platonic philosophy. Hippocrates had the 
merit of early recognizing the value of facts apart from opinions, 
and of those facts especially which lead to general results; and 
in the few genuine writings which are now extant it is easy to 
perceive that he has recourse to the simplest language, expresses 
himself in terms which, though short and pithy, are always 
precise and perspicuous, and is averse to the introduction of 
philosophical dogmas. Of the greater part of the writings 
collected under his name, on the contrary the general character 



922 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



is verboseness, prolixity and a great tendency to speculative 
opinions. For these reasons, as well as for others derived from 
internal evidence, while the Aphorisms, the Epidemics and the 
works above mentioned, bear distinct marks of being the genuine 
remains of Hippocrates, it is impossible to regard the book Kepi 
<t>vtru>s bvOpaiirov as entirely the composition of that physician; 
and it appears more reasonable to view it as the work of some 
one of the numerous disciples to whom the author had communi- 
cated the results of his observation, which they unwisely 
attempted to combine with the philosophy of the Platonic school 
and their own mysterious opinions. 

Among those who aimed at this distinction, the most fortunate 
in the preservation of his name is Polybus, the son-in-law of the 
Pol 'b physician of Cos. This person, who must not be 
confounded with the monarch of Corinth, immortalized 
by Sophocles in the tragic story of Oedipus, is represented as a 
recluse, severed from the world and its enjoyments, and devoting 
himself to the study of anatomy and physiology, and to the 
composition of works on these subjects. To him has been 
ascribed the whole of the book on the Nature of the Child and 
most of that On Man; both physiological treatises interspersed 
with anatomical sketches. His anatomical information, with 
which we are specially concerned, appears to have been rude and 
inaccurate, like that of his preceptor. He represents the large 
vessels of the body as consisting of four pairs; the first proceeding 
from the head by the back of the neck and spinal cord to the hips, 
lower extremities and outer ankle; the second, consisting of the 
jugular vessels (at fffayiTiSts), proceeding to the loins, thighs, 
hams and inner ankle; the third proceeding from the temples 
by the neck to the scapula and lungs, and thence by mutual 
intercrossings to the spleen and left kidney, and the liver and 
right kidney, and finally to the rectum; and the fourth from the 
fore-part of the neck to the upper extremities, the fore-part of 
the trunk, and the organs of generation. 

This specimen of the anatomical knowledge of one of the most 
illustrious of the Hippocratic disciples differs not essentially 
from that of Syennesis, the physician of Cyprus, and Diogenes, 
the philosopher of Apollonia, two authors for the preservation 
of whose opinions we are indebted to Aristotle. They may be 
admitted as representing the state of anatomical knowledge 
among the most enlightened men at that time, and they only show 
how rude and erroneous were their ideas on the structure of the 
animal body. It may indeed, without injustice, be said that the 
Anatomy of the Hippocratic school is not only erroneous, but 
fanciful and imaginary in often substituting mere supposition 
and assertion for what ought to be matter of fact. From this 
censure it is impossible to exempt even the name of Plato himself, 
for whom some notices in the Timaeus on the structure of the 
animal body, as taught by Hippocrates and Polybus, have pro- 
cured a place in the history of the science. 

Amidst the general obscurity in which the early history of 
anatomy is involved, only two leading facts may be admitted 
^^ with certainty. The first is, that previous to the time 

of Aristotle there was no accurate knowledge of 
anatomy; and the second, that all that was known was derived 
from the dissection of the lower animals only. By the appearance 
of Aristotle this species of knowledge, which was hitherto 
acquired in a desultory and irregular manner, began to be 
cultivated systematically and with a definite object ; and 
among the services which the philosopher of Stagira rendered 
to mankind, one of the greatest and most substantial is, that he 
was the founder of Comparative Anatomy, and was the first to 
apply its facts to the elucidation of zoology. The works of this 
ardent and original naturalist show that his zootomical know- 
ledge was extensive and often accurate; and from several of his 
descriptions it is impossible to doubt that they were derived 
from frequent personal dissection. Aristotle, who was born 384 
years before the Christian era, or in the first year of the poth 
Olympiad, was at the age of thirty-nine requested by Philip to 
undertake the education of his son Alexander. During this 
period it is said he composed several works on anatomy, which, 
however, are now lost. The military expedition of his royal 



pupil into Asia, by laying open the animal stores of that vast 
and little-known continent, furnished Aristotle with the means 
of extending his knowledge, not only of the animal tribes, but 
of their structure, and of communicating more accurate and 
distinct notions than were yet accessible to the world. A sum 
of 800 talents, and the concurrent aid of numerous intelligent 
assistants in Greece and Asia, were intended to facilitate his 
researches in composing a system of zoological knowledge; but 
it has been observed that the number of instances in which he 
was thus compelled to trust to the testimony of other observers 
led him to commit errors in description which personal observa- 
tion might have enabled him to avoid. 

The first three books of the History of Animals, a treatise 
consisting of ten, books, and the four books on the Parts of 
Animals, constitute the great monument of the Aristotelian 
Anatomy. From these we find that Aristotle was the first who 
corrected the erroneous statements of Polybus, Syennesis and 
Diogenes regarding the blood-vessels, which they made, as we 
have seen, to arise from the head and brain. These he represents 
to be two in number, placed before the spinal column, the larger 
on the right, the smaller on the left, which, he also remarks, is by 
some called aorta (aoprii), the first time we observe that this 
epithet occurs in the history. Both he represents to arise from 
the heart, the larger from the largest upper cavity, the smaller 
or aorta from the middle cavity, but in a different manner and 
forming a narrower canal. He also distinguishes the thick, firm 
and more tendinous structure of the aorta from the" 1 thin and 
membranous structure of vein. In describing the distribution 
of the later, however, he confounds the vena cava and pulmonary 
artery, and, as might be expected, he confounds the ramifications 
of]the former with those of the arterial tubes'in general. While 
he represents the lung to be liberally supplied with blood, he 
describes the brain as an organ almost destitute of this fluid. 
His account of the distribution of the aorta is wonderfully correct. 
Though he does not notice the coeliac, and remarks that the aorta 
sends no direct branches to the liver and spleen, he had observed 
the mesenteric, the renal and the common iliac arteries. It is 
nevertheless singular that though he remarks particularly that 
the renal branches of the aorta go to the substance and not the 
pelvis (/coiXto) of the kidney, he appears to mistake the ureters 
for branches of the aorta. Of the nerves (vtvp&) he appears to 
have the most confused notions. Making them arise from the 
heart, which he says has nerves (tendons) in its largest cavity, 
he represents the aorta to be a nervous or tendinous vein 
(wyptbSijs 0X^). By and by, afterwards saying that all the 
articulated bones are connected by nerves, he makes them the 
same as ligaments. 

He distinguishes the windpipe or air-holder (aprripia) from 
the oesophagus, because it is placed before the latter, because food 
or drink passing into it causes distressing cough and suffocation, 
and because there is no passage from the lung to the stomach. 
He knew the situation and use of the epiglottis, seems to have 
had some indistinct notions of the larynx, represents the windpipe 
to be necessary to convey air to and from the lungs, and appears 
to have a tolerable understanding of the structure of the lungs. 
He repeatedly represents the heart, the shape and site of which 
he describes accurately, to be the origin of the blood-vessels, in 
opposition to those who made them descend from the head; yet, 
though he represents it as full of blood and the source and fountain 
of that fluid, and even speaks of the blood flowing from the heart 
to the veins, and thence to every part of the body, he say. nothing 
of the circular motion of the blood. The diaphragm he distin- 
guishes by the name Siaf w/ta, and wrifw^a. With the liver 
and spleen, and the whole alimentary canal, he seems well 
acquainted. The several parts of the quadruple stomach of the 
ruminating animals are distinguished and named; and he even 
traces the relations between the teeth and the several forms of 
Stomach, and the length or brevity, the simplicity or complication 
of the intestinal tube. Upon the same principle he distinguishes 
the jejunum (ft vrjara), or the empty portion of the small 
intestines in animals (ri> Ivrtpov \firr6v), the caecum (rv<f>\6v TL 
Kal 6yKO)8es), the colon (ri> KU>\OV), and the sigmoid flexure 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



923 



(artvurepov KOJ. el\iy fikvov) . The modern epithet of rectum 
is the literal translation of his description of the straight 
progress (u0u) of the bowel to the anus (irpoHcroj). He knew 
the nasal cavities and the passage from the tympanal cavity of 
the ear to the palate, afterwards described by B. Eustachius. 
He distinguishes as " partes similares " those structures, such 
as bone, cartilage, vessels, sinews, blood, lymph, fat, flesh, which, 
not confined to one locality, but distributed throughout the body 
generally, we now term the tissues or textures, whilst he applies 
the term " partes dissimilares " to the regions of the head, neck, 
trunk and extremities. 

Next to Aristotle occur the names of Diocles of Carystus and 
Praxagoras of Cos, the last of the family of the Asclepiadae. The 
latter is remarkable for being the first who distinguished the 
arteries from the veins, and the author of the opinion that the 
former were air-vessels. 

Hitherto anatomical inquiry was confined to the examination of 
the bodies of brute animals. We have, indeed, no testimony of the 

human body being submitted to examination previous 

* tne ^ me ^ Erasistratus. and Herophilus; and it is 
school. vain to look for authentic facts on this point before the 

foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty of sovereigns in 
Egypt. This event, which, as is generally known, succeeded the 
death of Alexander, 320 years before the Christian era, collected 
into one spot the scattered embers of literature and science, 
which were beginning to languish in Greece under a weak and 
distracted government and an unsettled state of society. The 
children of her divided states, whom domestic discord and the 
uncertainties of war rendered unhappy at home, wandered into 
Egypt, and found, under the fostering hand of the Alexandrian 
monarchs, the means of cultivating the sciences, and repaying 
with interest to the country of Thoth and Osiris the benefits 
which had been conferred on the infancy of Greece by Thales 
and Pythagoras. Alexandria became in this manner the reposi- 
tory of all the learning and knowledge of the civilized world; and 
while other nations were sinking under the effects of internal 
animosities and mutual dissensions, or ravaging the earth with 
the evils of war, the Egyptian Greeks kept alive the sacred flame 
of science, and preserved mankind from relapsing into their 
original barbarism. These happy effects are to be ascribed in 
an eminent degree to the enlightened government and liberal 
opinions of Ptolemy Soter, and his immediate successors Phila- 
delphus and Euergetes. The two latter princes, whose authority 
was equalled only by the zeal with which they patronized science 
and its professors, were the first who enabled physicians to dissect 
the human body, and prevented the prejudices of ignorance and 
superstition from compromising the welfare of the human race. 
To this happy circumstance Herophilus and Erasistratus are 
indebted for the distinction of being known to posterity as the 
first anatomists who dissected and described the parts of the 
human body. Both these physicians flourished under Ptolemy 
Soter, and probably Ptolemy Philadelphus, and were indeed the 
principal supports of what has been named in medical history the 
Alexandrian School, to which their reputation seems to have 
attracted numerous pupils. But though the concurrent testi- 
mony of antiquity assigns to these physicians the merit of dis- 
secting the humon body, time, which wages endless war with the 
vanity and ambition of man, has dealt hardly with the monu- 
ments of their labours. As the works of neither have been 
preserved, great uncertainty prevails as to the respective merits 
of these ancient anatomists; and all that is now known of their 
anatomical researches is obtained from the occasional notices of 
Galen, Oribasius and some other writers. From these it appears 

that Erasistratus recognized the valves of the heart, 
tratus". anc * distinguished them by the names of tricuspid and 

sigmoid; that he studied particularly the shape and 
structure of the brain, and its divisions, and cavities, and 
membranes, and likened the convolutions to the folds of the 
jejunum ; that he first formed a distinct idea of the nature of the 
nerves, which he made issue from the brain; and that he 
discovered lymphatic vessels in the mesentery, first in brute 
animals, and afterwards, it is said, in man. He appears also to 






have distinguished the nerves into those of sensation and those 
of motion. 

Of Herophilus it is said that he had extensive anatomical 
knowledge, acquired by dissecting not only brutes but human 
bodies. Of these he probably dissected more than 
any of his predecessors or contemporaries. Devoted 
to the assiduous cultivation of anatomy, he appears 
to have studied with particular attention those parts which were 
least understood. He recognized the nature of the pulmonary 
artery, which he denominates arterious vein; he knew the vessels 
of the mesentery, and showed that they did not go to the vena 
portae, but to certain glandular bodies; and he first applied 
the name of twelve-inch or duodenum (d<a8tKada.KTV\os) to 
that part of the alimentary canal which is next to the stomach. 
Like Erasistratus, he appears to have studied carefully the 
configuration of the brain; and though, like him, he distinguishes 
the nerves into those of sensation and those of voluntary motion, 
he adds to them the ligaments and tendons. A tolerable descrip- 
tion of the liver by this anatomist is preserved in the writings 
of Galen. He first applied the name of choroid or vascular 
membrane to that which is found in the cerebral ventricles; 
he knew the straight venous sinus which still bears his name; 
and to him the linear furrow at the bottom of the fourth ventricle 
is indebted for its name of calamus scriptorius. 

The celebrity of these two great anatomists appears to have 
thrown into the shade for a long period the names of all other 
inquirers; for, among their numerous and rather celebrated 
successors in the Alexandrian school, it is impossible to recognize 
a name which is entitled to distinction in the history of anatomy. 
In a chasm so wide it is not uninteresting to find, in one who 
combined the characters of the greatest orator and philosopher 
of Rome, the most distinct traces of attention to anatomical 
knowledge. Cicero, in his treatise De Natura Deorum, in a short 
sketch of physiology, such as it was taught by Aristotle and his 
disciples, introduces various anatomical notices, from which the 
classical reader may form some idea of the state of anatomy at 
that time. The Roman orator appears to have formed ; pretty 
distinct idea of the shape and connexions of the windpipe and 
lungs; and though he informs his readers that he knows the 
alimentary canal, he omits the details through motives of 
delicacy. In imitation of Aristotle, he talks of the blood being 
conveyed by the veins (venae), that is, blood-vessels, through the 
body at large; and, like Praxagoras, of the air inhaled by the 
lungs being conveyed through the arteries. 

Aretaeus, though chiefly known as a medical author, makes 
some observations on the lung and the pleura, maintains the 
glandular structure of the kidney, and describes the anastomosis 
or communications of the capillary extremities of the vena, cava 
with those of the portal vein. 

The most valuable depository of the anatomical knowledge 
of these times is the work of Celsus, one of the most judicious 
medical authors of antiquity. He left, indeed, no 
express anatomical treatise; but from the introductions 
to the 4th and 8th books of his work, De Medicina, with incidental 
remarks in the 7th, the modern reader may form very just ideas 
of his anatomical attainments. From these it appears that 
Celsus was well acquainted with the windpipe and lungs and the 
heart; with the difference between the windpipe and oesophagus 
(stomachus) , which leads to the stomach (iientriculus) ; and with 
the shape, situation and relations of the diaphragm. He 
enumerates also the principal facts relating to the situation of the 
liver, the spleen, the kidneys and the stomach. He appears, 
however, to have been unaware of the distinction of duodenum 
or twelve-inch bowel, already admitted by Herophilus, and 
represents the stomach as directly connected by means of the 
pylorus with the jejunum or upper part of the small intestine. 

The 7th and 8th books, which are devoted to the consideration 
of those diseases which are treated by manual operation, contain 
sundry anatomical notices necessary to explain the nature of the 
diseases or mode of treatment. Of these, indeed, the merit is 
unequal; and it is not wonderful that the ignorance of the day 
prevented Celsus from understanding rightly the mechanism of 



Celsus. 



924 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



the pathology of hernia. He appears, however, to have formed 
a tolerably just idea of the mode of cutting into the urinary 
bladder; and even his obstetrical instructions show that his 
knowledge of the uterus, vagina and appendages was not con- 
temptible. It is in osteology, however, that the information of 
Celsus is chiefly conspicuous. He enumerates the sutures and 
several of the holes of the cranium, and describes at great length 
the superior and inferior maxillary bones and the teeth. With 
a good deal of care he describes the vertebrae and the ribs, and 
gives very briefly the situation and shape of the scapula, humerus, 
radius and ulna, and even of the carpal and metacarpal bones, 
and then of the different bones of the pelvis and lower extremities. 
He had formed a just idea of the articular connexions, and is 
desirous to impress the fact that none is formed without cartilage. 
From his mention of many minute holes (multa et tenuia foramina) 
in the recess of the nasal cavities, it is evident that he was 
acquainted with the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone; 
and from saying that the straight part of the auditory canal 
becomes flexuous and terminates in numerous minute cavities 
(multa et tenuia foramina diducUur), it is inferred by Portal that 
he knew the semicircular canals. 

Though the writings of Celsus show that he cultivated ana- 
tomical knowledge, it does not appear that the science was much 
studied by the Romans; and there is reason to believe that, 
after the decay of the school of Alexandria, it languished in 
neglect and obscurity. It is at least certain that the appearance 
of Marinus during the reign of Nero is mentioned by authors 
as an era remarkable for anatomical inquiry, and that this person 
is distinguished by Galen as the restorer of a branch of knowledge 
which had been before him suffered to fall into undeserved 
neglect. From Galen also we learn that Marinus gave an accurate 
account of the muscles, that he studied particularly the glands, 
and that he discovered those of the mesentery. He fixed the 
number of nerves at seven; he observed the palatine nerves, 
which he rated as the fourth pair; and described as the fifth 
the auditory and facial, which he regards as one pair, and the 
hypoglossal as the sixth. 

Not long after Marinus appeared Rufus (or Ruffus) of Ephesus, 
a Greek physician, who in the reign of Trajan was much attached 
Kufus to physiology, and as a means of cultivating this science 
studied Comparative Anatomy and made sundry 
experiments on living animals. Of the anatomical writings of 
this author there remains only a list or catalogue of names of 
different regions and parts of the animal body. He appears, 
however, to have directed attention particularly to the tortupus 
course of the uterine vessels, and to have recognized even at 
this early period the Fallopian tube. He distinguishes the nerves 
into those of sensation and those of motion. He knew the re- 
current nerve. His name is further associated with the ancient 
experiment of compressing in the situation of the carotid arteries 
the pneumogastric nerve, and thereby inducing insensibility 
and loss of voice. 

Of all the authors of antiquity, however, none possesses so 
just a claim to the title of anatomist as Claudius Galenus, the 
Oa/en celebrated physician of Pergamum, who was born 
about the isoth year of the Christian era, and lived 
under the reigns of Hadrian, the Antonines, Commodus and 
Severus. He was trained by his father Nicon (whose memory he 
embalmsas an eminent mathematician, architect and astronomer) 
in all the learning of the day, and initiated particularly into the 
mysteries of the Aristotelian philosophy. In an order somewhat 
whimsical he afterwards studied philosophy successively in the 
schools of the Stoics, the Academics, the Peripatetics and the 
Epicureans. When he was seventeen years of age, his father, 
he informs us, was admonished by a dream to devote his son to 
the study of medicine; but it was fully two years after that 
Galen entered on this pursuit, under the auspices of an instructor 
whose name he has thought proper to conceal. Shortly after he 
betook himself to the study of anatomy under Satyrus, a pupil of 
Quintus, and of medicine under Stratonicus, a Hippocratic 
physician, and Aeschrion, an empiric. He had scarcely attained 
the age of twenty when he had occasion to deplore the loss of the 



first and most affectionate guide of his studies; and soon after 
he proceeded to Smyrna to obtain the anatomical instructions 
of Pelops, who, though mystified by some of the errors of Hip- 
pocrates, is 'commemorated by his pupil as a skilful anatomist. 
After this he appears to have visited various cities distinguished 
for philosophical or medical teachers; and, finally, to have gone 
to Alexandria with the view of cultivating more accurately and 
intimately the study of anatomy under Heraclianus. Here he 
remained till his twenty-eighth year, when he regarded himself 
as possessed of all the knowledge then attainable through the 
medium of teachers. He now returned to Pergamum to exercise 
the art which he had so anxiously studied, and received, in his 
twenty-ninth year, an unequivocal testimony of the confidence 
which his fellow-citizens reposed in his skill, by being intrusted 
with the treatment of the wounded gladiators; and in this 
capacity he is said to have treated wounds with success which 
were fatal under former treatment. A seditious tumult appears 
to have caused him to form the resolution of quitting Pergamum 
and proceeding to Rome at the age of thirty-two. Here, how- 
ever, he remained only five years; and returning once more to 
Pergamum, after travelling for some time, finally settled in 
Rome as physician to the emperor Commodus. The anatomical 
writings ascribed to Galen, which are numerous, are to be viewed 
not merely as the result of personal research and information, 
but as the common depository of the anatomical knowledge of 
the day, and as combining all that he had learnt from the several 
teachers under whom he successively studied with whatever 
personal investigation enabled him to acquire. It is on this 
account not always easy to distinguish what Galen had himself 
ascertained by personal research from that which was known by 
other anatomists. This, however, though of moment to the 
history of Galen as an anatomist, is of little consequence to the 
science itself; and from the anatomical remains of this author 
a pretty just idea may be formed both of the progress and of 
the actual state of the science at that time. 

The osteology of Galen is undoubtedly the most perfect of the 
departments of the anatomy of the ancients. He names and 
distinguishes the bones and sutures of the cranium nearly in the 
same manner as at present. Thus, he notices the quadrilateral 
shape of the parietal bones; he distinguishes the squamous, the 
styioid, the mastoid and the petrous portions of the temporal 
bones; and he remarks the peculiar situation and shape of the 
sphenoid bone. Of the ethmoid, which he omits at first, he after- 
wards speaks more at large in another treatise. The malar he 
notices under the name of zygomatic bone; and he describes at 
length the upper maxillary and nasal bones, and the connexion 
of the former with the sphenoid. He gives the first clear account 
of the number and situation of the vertebrae, which he divides 
into cervical, dorsal and lumbar, and distinguishes from the 
sacrum and coccyx. Under the head Bones of the Thorax, he 
enumerates the sternum, the ribs (at irXeupai), and the dorsal 
vertebrae, the connexion of which with the former he designates 
as a variety of diarthrosis. The description of the bones of the 
extremities and their articulations concludes the treatise. 

Though in myology Galen appears to less advantage than in 
osteology, he nevertheless had carried this part of anatomical 
knowledge to greater perfection than any of his predecessors. 
He describes a frontal muscle, the six muscles of the eye and a 
seventh proper to animals; a muscle to each ala nasi, four 
muscles of the lips, the thin cutaneous muscle of the neck, which 
he first termed platysma myoides or muscular expansion, two 
muscles of the eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the lower jaw 
the temporal to raise, the masseter to draw to one side, and two 
depressors, corresponding to the digastric and internal pterygoid 
muscles. After speaking of the muscles which move the head and 
the scapula, he adverts to those by which the windpipe is opened 
and shut, and the intrinsic or proper muscles of the larynx and 
hyoid bone. Then follow those of the tongue, pharynx and 
neck, those of the upper extremities, the trunk and the lower 
extremities successively; and in the course of this description 
he swerves so little from the actual facts that most of the names 
by which he distinguishes the principal muscles have been 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



925 



retained by the best modern anatomists. It is chiefly in the 
minute account of these organs, and especially in reference to 
the minuter muscles, that he appears inferior to the moderns. 

The angiological knowledge of Galen, though vitiated by the 
erroneous physiology of the times and ignorance of the separate 
uses of arteries and veins, exhibits, nevertheless, some ac- 
curate facts which show the diligence of the author in dissection. 
Though, in opposition to the opinions of Praxagor^s and Erasis- 
tratus, he proved that the arteries in the living animal contain 
not air but blood, it does not appear to have occurred to him to 
determine in what direction the blood flows, or whether it was 
movable or stationary. Representing the left ventricle of the 
heart as the common origin of all the arteries, though he is 
misled by the pulmonary artery, he nevertheless traces the 
distribution of the branches of the aorta with some accuracy. 
The vena azygos also, and the jugular veins, have contributed to 
add to the confusion of his description, and to render his angiology 
the most imperfect of his works. 

In neurology we find him to be the author of the dogma that 
the brain is the origin of the nerves of sensation, and the spinal 
cord of those of motion; and he distinguishes the former from 
the latter by their greater softness or less consistence. Though 
he admits only seven cerebral pairs, he has the merit of distin- 
guishing and tracing the distribution of the greater part of both' 
classes of nerves with great accuracy. His description of the 
brain is derived from dissection of the lower animals, and his 
distinctions of the several parts of the organ have been retained 
by modern anatomists. His mode of demonstrating this organ, 
which indeed is clearly described, consists of five different steps. 
In the first the bisecting membrane i.e. the falx (itfjviyl- 
5ixoTOftoO(7a) and the connecting blood-vessels are removed; 
and the dissector, commencing at the anterior extremity of the 
great fissure, separates the hemispheres gently as far as the 
torcular, and exposes a smooth surface (rr\v Tt&pav TV\w8r) TTUS 
ovffav), the mesolobe of the moderns, or the middle band. In 
the second he exposes by successive sections the ventricles, the 
choroid plexus and the middle partition. The third exhibits 
the pineal body (owjuo. Kcavoeidts) or conarium, concealed by a 
membrane with numerous veins, meaning that part of the plexus 
which is now known by the name of velum interpositum, and a 
complete view of the ventricles. The fourth unfolds the third 
ventricle (ns ftXXi? rplrn /cotXta), the communication between 
the two lateral ones, the arch-like body (oxijua ^-aXi&mSes) 
fornix, and the passage from the third to the fourth ventricle. 
In the fifth he gives an accurate description of the relations of the 
third and fourth ventricle, of the situation of the two pairs of 
eminences, nates (j^ovra) and testes (&5iyua or opx), the 
scolecoid or worm-like process, anterior and posterior, and lastly 
the linear furrow, called by Herophilus calamus scriptorius. 

In the account of the thoracic organs equal accuracy may be 
recognized. He distinguishes the pleura by the name of inclosing 
membrane (vpriv wref co/ccos, membrana succingens), and remarks 
its similitude in structure to that of the peritoneum, and the 
covering which it affords to all the organs. The pericardium 
also he describes as a membranous sac with a circular basis 
corresponding to the base of the heart and a conical apex; and 
after an account of the tunics of the arteries and veins, he speaks 
shortly of the lung, and more at length of the heart, which, 
however, he takes some pains to prove not to be muscular, because 
it is harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action is 
incessant, whereas that of muscle alternates with the state of 
rest; he gives a good account of the valves and of the vessels; 
and notices especially the bony ring formed in the heart of the 
horse, elephant and other large animals. 

The description of the abdominal organs, and of the kidneys 
and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and in general 
accurate. Our limits, however, do not permit us to give any 
abstract of them; and it is sufficient in general to say that 
Galen gives correct views of the arrangement of the peritoneum 
and omentum, and distinguishes accurately the several divisions 
of the alimentary canal and its component tissues. In the liver, 
which he allows to receive an envelope from the peritoneum, he 



admits, in imitation of Erasistratus, a proper substance or 
parenchyma, interposed between the vessels, and capable of 
removal by suitable dissection. His description of the organs 
of generation is rather brief, and is, like most of his anatomical 
sketches, too much blended with physiological dogmas. 

This short sketch may communicate some idea of the condition 
of anatomical knowledge in the days of Galen, who indeed is 
justly entitled to the character of rectifying and digesting, if not 
of creating, the science of anatomy among the ancients. Though 
evidently confined, perhaps entirely by the circumstances of 
the times, to the dissection of brute animals, so indefatigable and 
judicious was he in the mode of acquiring knowledge, -that many 
of his names and distinctions are still retained with advantage 
in the writings of the moderns. Galen was a practical anatomist, 
and not only describes the organs of the animal body from actual 
dissection, but gives ample instructions for the proper mode of 
exposition. His language is in general clear, his style as correct 
as in most of the authors of the same period, and his manner is 
animated. Few passages in early science are indeed so interesting 
as the description of the process for demonstrating the brain 
and other internal organs which is given by this patient and 
enthusiastic observer of nature. To some it may appear absurd 
to speak of anything like good anatomical description in an 
author who writes in the Greek language, or anything like an 
interesting and correct manner in a writer who flourished at a 
period when taste was depraved or extinct and literature cor- 
rupted when the philosophy of Antoninus and the mild virtues 
of Aurelius could do h'ttle to soften the iron sway of Lucius Verus 
and Commodus; but the habit of faithful observation in Galen 
seems to have been so powerful that in the description of material 
objects, his genius invariably rises above the circumstances of 
his age. Though not so directly connected with this subject, it is 
nevertheless proper to mention that he appears to have been 
the first anatomist who can be said, on authentic grounds, to 
have attempted to discover the uses of organs by vivisection 
and experiments on living animals. In this manner he ascertained 
the position and demonstrated the action of the heart; and he 
mentions two instances in which, in consequence of disease or 
injury, he had an opportunity of observing the motions of this 
organ in the human body. In short, without eulogizing an 
ancient author at the expense of critical justice, or com- 
mending his anatomical descriptions as superior to those of the 
moderns, it must be admitted that the anatomical writings of 
the physician of Pergamum form a remarkable era in the history 
of the science; and that by diligence in dissection and accuracy 
in description he gave the science a degree of importance and 
stability which it has retained through a lapse of many centuries. 

The death of Galen, which took place at Pergamum in the 
seventieth year of his age and the 2Ooth of the Christian era, may 
be regarded as the downfall of anatomy in ancient times. After 
this period we recognize only two names of any celebrity in the 
history of the science those of Soranus and Oribasius, with the 
more obscure ones of Meletius and Theophilus, the latter the 
chief of the imperial guard of Heraclius. 

Soranus, who was an Ephesian, and flourished under the 
emperors Trajan and Hadrian, distinguished himself by his 
researches on the female organs of generation. He appears to 
have dissected the human subject; and this perhaps is one reason 
why his descriptions of these parts are more copious and more 
accurate than those of Galen, who derived his knowledge from 
the bodies of the lower animals. He denies the existence of the 
hymen, but describes accurately the clitoris. Soranus the 
anatomist must be distinguished from the physician of that 
name, who was also a native of Ephesus. 

Oribasius, who was born at Pergamum, is said to have been 
at once the friend and physician of the emperor Julian, and to 
have contributed to the elevation of that apostate to 
the imperial throne. For this he appears to have 
suffered the punishment of a temporary exile under Valens and 
Valentinian; but was soon recalled, and lived in great honour till 
the period of his death (387). By le Clerc, Oribasius is regarded 
as a compiler; and indeed his anatomical writings bear so close 



926 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



a correspondence with those of Galen that the character is not 
altogether groundless. In various points, nevertheless, he has 
rendered the Galenian anatomy more accurate; and be has 
distinguished himself by a good account of the salivary glands, 
which were overlooked by Galen. 

To the same period generally is referred the Anatomical 
Introduction of an anonymous author, first published in 1618 by 
Lauremberg, and afterwards by C. Bernard. It is to be regarded 
as a compilation formed on the model of Galen and Oribasius. 
The same character is applicable to the treatises of Meletius and 
Theophilus. 

The decline indicated by these languid efforts soon sank into 
a state of total inactivity; and the unsettled state of society 
during the latter ages of the Roman empire was extremely 
unfavourable to the successful cultivation of science. The 
sanguinary conflicts in which the southern countries of Europe 
were repeatedly engaged with their northern neighbours between 
the 2nd and 8th centuries tended gradually to estrange their 
minds from scientific pursuits; and the hordes of barbarians 
by which the Roman empire was latterly overrun, while they 
urged them to the necessity of making hostile resistance, 
and adopting means of self-defence, introduced such habits of 
ignorance and barbarism, that science was almost universally 
forgotten. While the art of healing was professed only by some 
few ecclesiastics or by itinerant practitioners, anatomy was 
utterly neglected; and no name of anatomical celebrity occurs 
to diversify the long and uninteresting period commonly dis- 
tinguished as the dark ages. 

Anatomical learning, thus neglected by European nations, 
is believed to have received a temporary cultivation from the 
Arabian Asiatics. Of these, several nomadic tribes, known 
Physi- to Europeans under the general denomination of Arabs 
elans. anc j s aracenSj na( j gradually coalesced under various 
leaders; and by their habits of endurance, as well as of enthusi- 
astic valour in successive expeditions against the eastern division 
of the Roman empire, had acquired such military reputation as 
to render them formidable wherever they appeared. After a 
century and a half of foreign warfare or internal animosity, 
under the successive dynasties of the Omayyads and Abbasids, 
in which the propagation of Islam was the pretext for the 
extinction of learning and civilization, and the most remorseless 
system of rapine and destruction, the Saracens began, under the 
latter dynasty of princes, to recognize the value of science, and 
especially of that which prolongs life, heals disease and alleviates 
the pain of wounds and injuries. The caliph Mansur combined 
with his official knowledge of Moslem law the successful cultiva- 
tion of astronomy; but to his grandson Mamun, the seventh 
prince of the line of the Abbasids, belongs the merit of under- 
taking to render his subjects philosophers and physicians. By 
the directions of this prince the works of the Greek and Roman 
authors were translated into Arabic; and the favour and muni- 
ficence with which literature and its professors were patronized 
speedily raised a succession of learned Arabians. The residue 
of the rival family of the Omayyads, already settled in Spain, 
was prompted by motives of rivalry or honourable ambition to 
adopt the same course; and while the academy, hospitals 
and library of Bagdad bore testimony to the zeal and liberality 
of the Abbasids, the munificence of the Omayyads was not less 
conspicuous in the literary institutions of Cordova, Seville 
and Toledo. 

Notwithstanding the efforts of the Arabian princes, however, 
and the diligence of the Arabian physicians, little was done for 
anatomy, and the science made no substantial acquisition. 
The Koran denounces as unclean the person who touches a 
corpse; the rules of Islam forbid dissection; and whatever 
their instructors taught was borrowed from the Greeks. Abu- 
Bekr Al-Rasi, Abu-Ali Ibn-Sina, Abul-Qasim and Abul Walid 
ibn Rushd, the Rhazes, Avicenna, Abulcasis and Averroes of 
European authors, are their most celebrated names in medicine; 
yet to none of these can the historian with justice ascribe any 
anatomical merit. Rhazes has indeed left descriptions of the 
eye, of the ear and its mealus, and of the heart; and Avicenna, 



Abul-Qasim and Averroes give anatomical descriptions of the 
parts of the human body. But of these the general character 
is, that they are copies from Galen, sometimes not very just, 
and in all instances mystified with a large proportion of the 
fanciful and absurd imagery and inflated style of the Arabian 
writers. The chief reason of their obtaining a place in anatomical 
history is, that by the influence which their medical authority 
enabled them to exercise in the European schools, the nomen- 
clature which they employed was adopted by European ana- 
tomists, and continued till the revival of ancient learning restored 
the original nomenclature of the Greek physicians. Thus, the 
cervix, or nape of the neck, is nucha; the oesophagus is meri; the 
umbilical region is sumen or sumac; the abdomen is myrach; 
the peritoneum is siphac; and the omentum, zirbus. 

From the general character now given justice requires that 
we except Abdallatif, the annalist of Egyptian affairs. This 
author, who maintains that it is impossible to learn anatomy 
from books, and that the authority of Galen must yield to 
personal inspection, informs us that the Moslem doctors did not 
neglect opportunities of studying the bones of the human body 
in cemeteries; and that he himself, by once examining a 
collection of bones in this manner, ascertained that the lower 
jaw is formed of one piece; that the sacrum, though sometimes 
composed of several, is most generally of one; and that Galen 
is mistaken when he asserts that these bones are not single. 

The era of Saracen learning extends to the I3th century; 
and after this we begin to approach happier times. The univer- 
sity of Bologna, which, as a school of literature and 
law, was already celebrated in the 12th century, Bologna. 
became, in the course of the following one, not less 
distinguished for its medical teachers. Though the misgovern- 
ment of the municipal rulers of Bologna had disgusted both 
teachers and students, and given rise to the foundation of similar 
institutions in Padua and Naples, and though the school of 
Salerno, in the territory of the latter, was still in high repute, 
it appears, from the testimony of M. Sard, that medicine was 
in the highest esteem in Bologna, and that it was in such per- 
fection as to require a division of its professors into physicians, 
surgeons, physicians for wounds, barber-surgeons, oculists and 
even some others. Notwithstanding these indications of refine- 
ment, however, anatomy was manifestly cultivated rather as 
an appendage of surgery than a branch of medical science; 
and according to the testimony of Guy de Chauliac, the cultiva- 
tion of anatomical knowledge was confined to Roger of Parma, 
Roland, Jamerio, Bruno, and Lanfranc or Lanfranchi of Milan; 
and this they borrowed chiefly from Galen. 

In this state matters appear to have proceeded with the 
medical school of Bologna till the commencement of the I4th 
century, when the circumstance of possessing a teacher 
of originality enabled this university to be the agent 
of as great an improvement in medical science as she had already 
effected in jurisprudence. This era, indeed, is distinguished 
for the appearance of Mondino (Mundinus), under whose zealous 
cultivation the science first began to rise from the ashes in 
which it had been buried. This father of modern anatomy, 
who taught in Bologna about the year 1315, quickly drew the 
curiosity of the medical profession by well-ordered demonstra- 
tions of the different parts of the human body. In 1315 he dis- 
sected and demonstrated the parts of the human body in two 
female subjects; and in the course of the following year he 
accomplished the same task on the person of a single female. 
But while he seems to have had sufficient original force of 
intellect to direct his own route, J. Riolan accuses him of copying 
Galen; and it is certain that his descriptions are corrupted 
by the barbarous leaven of the Arabian schools, and his Latin 
defaced by the exotic nomenclature of Avicenna and Rhazes. 
He died, according to G. Tiraboschi, in 1325. 

Mondino divides the body into three cavities (venires), the 
upper containing the animal members, as the head, the lower 
containing the natural members, and the middle containing 
the spiritual members. He first describes the anatomy of the 
lower cavity or the abdomen, then proceeds to the middle or 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



927 



thoracic organs, and concludes with the upper, comprising the 
head and its contents and appendages. His general manner 
is to notice shortly the situation and shape or distribution of 
textures or membranes, and then to mention the disorders to 
which they are subject. The peritoneum he describes under the 
name of siphac, in imitation of the Arabians, the omentum under 
that of zirbus, and the mesentery or eucharus as distinct from 
both. In speaking of the intestines he treats first of the rectum, 
then the colon, the left or sigmoid flexure of which, as well as 
the transverse arch and its connexion with the stomach, he 
particularly remarks; then the caecum or monocidus, after this 
the small intestines in general under the heads of ileum and 
jejunum, and latterly the duodenum, making in all six bowels. 
The liver and its vessels are minutely, if not accurately, ex- 
amined; and the cava, under the name chilis, a corruption from 
the Greek KoiXr/, is treated at length, with the emulgents and 
kidneys. His anatomy of the heart is wonderfully accurate; 
and it is a remarkable fact, which seems to be omitted by all 
subsequent authors, that his description contains the rudiments 
of the circulation of the blood. " Postea vero versus pulmonem 
est aliud orificium venae arterialis, quae portal sanguinem ad 
pulmonem a corde; quia cum pulmo deserviat cordi secundum 
modum dictum, ut ei recompenset, cor ei transmittit sanguinem 
per hanc venam, quae vocatur vena arterialis; est vena, quia 
portat sanguinem, et arterialis, quia habet duas tunicas; et 
habet duas tunicas, primo quia vadit ad membrum quod existit 
in continue motu, et secundo quia portat sanguinem valde 
subtilem et cholericum." The merit of these distinctions, 
however, he afterwards destroys by repeating the old assertion 
that the left ventricle ought to contain spirit or air, which it 
generates from the blood. His osteology of the skull is erroneous. 
In his account of the cerebral membranes, though short, he notices 
the principal characters of the dura mater. He describes shortly 
the lateral ventricles, with their anterior and posterior cornua, 
and the choroid plexus as a blood-red substance like a long worm. 
He then speaks of the third or middle ventricle, and one posterior, 
which seems to correspond with the fourth; and describes the 
infundibulum under the names of lacuna and embolon. In the 
base of the organ he remarks, first, two mammillary caruncles, 
the optic nerves, which he reckons the first pair; the oculo- 
muscular, which he accounts the second; the third, which appears 
to be sixth of the moderns; the fourth; the fifth, evidently 
the seventh; a sixth, the nervus vagus; and a seventh, which 
is the ninth of the moderns. Notwithstanding the misrepresenta- 
tions into which this early anatomist was betrayed, his book is 
valuable, and has been illustrated by the successive commentaries 
of Alessandro Achillini, Jacopo Berengario and Johann Dryander 
(1500-1560). 

Matthew de Gradibus, a native of Gradi, a town in Friuli, near 
Milan, distinguished himself by composing a series of treatises 
on the anatomy of various parts of the human body (1480). 
He is the first who represents the ovaries of the female in the 
correct light in which they were subsequently regarded by 
Nicolas Steno or Stensen (1638-1687). 

Objections similar to those already urged in speaking of 
Mondino apply to another eminent anatomist of those times. 
Gabriel de Zerbis, who flourished at Verona towards the con- 
clusion of the i sth century, is celebrated as the author of a 
system in which he is obviously more anxious to astonish his 
readers by the wonders of a verbose and complicated style than 
to instruct by precise and faithful description. In the vanity 
of his heart he assumed the title of Medicus Theoricus; but 
though, like Mondino, he derived his information from the 
dissection of the human subject, he is not entitled to the merit 
either of describing truly or of adding to the knowledge previously 
acquired. He is superior to Mondino, however, in knowing the 
olfactory nerves. 

Eminent in the history of the science, and more distinguished 

than any of this age in the history of cerebral anatomy, Achillini 

4c/i////n/ of B lg na (1463-1512), the pupil and commentator of 

Mondino, appeared at the close of the isth century. 

Though a follower of the Arabian school, the assiduity with 



which he cultivated anatomy has rescued his name from the 
inglorious obscurity in which the Arabian doctors have in 
general slumbered. He is known in the history of anatomical 
discovery as the first who described the two tympanal bones, 
termed malleus and incus. In 1503 he showed that the tarsus 
consists of seven bones; he rediscovered the fornix and the 
infundibulum; and he was fortunate enough to observe the 
course of the cerebral cavities into the inferior cornua, and to 
remark peculiarities to which the anatomists of a future age did 
not advert. He mentions the orifices of the ducts, afterwards 
described by Thomas Wharton (1610-1673). He knew the 
ileo-caecal valve; and his description of the duodenum, ileum 
and colon shows that he was better acquainted with the site and 
disposition of these bowels than any of his predecessors or 
contemporaries. 

Not long after, the science boasts of one of its most distin- 
guished founders. Berengario, commonly called Berenger of 
Carpi, in the Modenese territory, flourished at Bologna Berea er 
at the beginning of the i6th century. In the annals 
of medicine his name will be remembered not only as the most 
zealous and eminent in. cultivating the anatomy of the human 
body, but as the first physician who was fortunate enough to 
calm the alarms of Europe, suffering under the ravages of 
syphilis, then raging with uncontrollable virulence. In the 
former character he surpassed both predecessors and contem- 
poraries; and it was long before the anatomists of the following 
age could boast of equalling him. His assiduity was indefatig- 
able; and he declares that he dissected above one hundred 
human bodies. He is the author of a compendium, of several 
treatises which he names Introductions (Isagogae), and of com- 
mentaries on the treatise of Mondino, in which he not only 
rectifies the mistakes of that anatomist, but gives minute and 
in general accurate anatomical descriptions. 

He is the first who undertakes a systematic view of the several 
textures of which the human body is composed; and in a pre- 
liminary commentary he treats successively of the anatomical 
characters and properties of fat, of membrane in general (pan- 
niculus), of flesh, of nerve, of wllus or fibre (filum), of ligament, 
of sinew or tendon, and of muscle in general. He then proceeds 
to describe with considerable precision the muscles of the 
abdomen, and illustrates their site and connexions by woodcuts 
which, though rude, are spirited, and show that anatomical 
drawing was in that early age beginning to be understood. In 
his account of the peritoneum he admits only the intestinal 
division of that membrane, and is at some pains to prove that 
Gentilis Fulgineus, who justly admits the muscular division also, 
is in error. In his account of the intestines he is the first who 
mentions the vermiform process of the caecum; he remarks the 
yellow tint communicated to the duodenum by the gall-bladder; 
and he recognizes the opening of the common biliary duct into 
the duodenum (quidam porus portans choleram). In the account 
of the stomach he describes the several tissues of which that 
organ is composed, and which he represents to be three, and a 
fourth from the peritoneum; and afterwards notices the rugae 
of its villous surface. He is at considerable pains to explain the 
organs of generation in both sexes, and gives a long account of 
the anatomy of the foetus. He was the first who recognized the 
larger proportional size of the chest in the male than in the 
female, and conversely the greater capacity of the female than 
of the male pelvis. In the larynx he discovered the two arytenoid 
cartilages. He gives the first good description of the thymus; 
distinguishes the oblique situation of the heart; describes the 
pericardium, and maintains the uniform presence of pericardial 
liquor. He then describes the cavities of the heart; but perplexes 
himself, as did all the anatomists of that age, about the spirit 
supposed to be contained. The aorta he properly makes to arise 
from the left ventricle; but confuses himself with the arteria 
venalls, the pulmonary vein, and the vena arterialis, the pul- 
monary artery. His account of the brain is better. He gives a 
minute and clear account of the ventricles, remarks the corpus 
striatum, and has the sagacity to perceive that the choroid plexus 
consists of veins and arteries; he then describes the middle or 



928 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



third ventricle, the infundibulum or lacuna of Mondino, and the 
pituitary gland; and lastly, the passage to the fourth ventricle, 
the conarium or pineal gland, and the fourth or posterior ventricle 
itself, the relations of which he had studied accurately. He 
rectifies the mistake of Mondino as to the olfactory or first pair 
of nerves, gives a good account of the optic and others, and is 
entitled to the praise of originality in being the first observer 
who contradicts the fiction of the wonderful net and indicates 
the principal divisions of the carotid arteries. He enumerates 
the tunics and humours of the eye, and gives an account of the 
internal ear, in which he notices the malleus and incus. 

Italy long retained the distinction of giving birth to the first 
eminent anatomists in Europe, and the glory she acquired in the 
names of Mondino, Achillini, Berenger and N. Massa, 
was destined to become more conspicuous in the labours 
of R. Columbus, G. Fallopius and Eustachius. While 
Italy, however, was thus advancing the progress of science, the 
other nations of Europe were either in profound ignorance or in 
the most supine indifference to the brilliant career of their zealous 
neighbours. The i6th century had commenced before France 
began to acquire anatomical distinction ;n the names of Jacques 
Dubois, Jean Fernel and Charles Etienne; and even these cele- 
brated teachers were less solicitous in the personal study of the 
animal body than in the faithful explanation of the anatomical 
writings of Galen. The infancy of the French school had to 
contend with other difficulties. The small portion of knowledge 
which had been hitherto diffused in the country was so inadequate 
to eradicate the prejudices of ignorance, that it was either difficult 
or absolutely impossible to procure human bodies for the purposes 
of science; and we are assured, on the testimony of A. Vesalius 
and other competent authorities, that the practical part of ana- 
tomical instruction was obtained entirely from the bodies of the 
lower animals. The works of the Italian anatomists were un- 
known; and it is a proof of the tardy communication of know- 
ledge that, while the structure of the human body had been 
taught in Italy for more than a century by Mondino and his 
followers, these anatomists are never mentioned by Etienne, who 
flourished long after. 

Such was the aspect of the times at the appearance of Jacques 
Dubois (1478-1555), who, under the Romanized name of Jacobus 
Dubois Sylvius, according to the fashion of the day, has been 
fortunate in acquiring a reputation to which his re- 
searches do not entitle him. For the name of Dubois the history 
of anatomy, it is said, is indebted to his inordinate love of money. 
At the instance of his brother Francis, who was professor of 
eloquence in the college of Tournay at Paris, he devoted himself 
to the study of the learned languages and mathematics; but 
discovering that these elegant accomplishments do not invariably 
reward their cultivators with the goods of fortune, Dubois betook 
himself to medicine. After the acquisition of a medical degree 
in the university of Montpellier, at the ripe age of fifty-one Dubois 
returned to Paris to resume a course of anatomical instruction. 
Here he taught anatomy to a numerous audience in the college 
of Trinquet; and on the departure of Vidus Vidius for Italy was 
appointed to succeed that physician as professor of surgery to the 
Royal College. His character is easily estimated. With greater 
coarseness in his manners and language than even the rude state 
of society in his times can palliate, with much varied learning and 
considerable eloquence, he was a blind, indiscriminate and ir- 
rational admirer of Galen, and interpreted the anatomical and 
physiological writings of that author in preference to giving 
demonstrations from the subject. Without talent for original 
research or discovery himself, his envy and jealousy made him 
detest every one who gave proofs of either. We are assured by 
Vesalius, who was some time his pupil, that his manner of 
teaching was calculated neither to advance the science nor to 
rectify the mistakes of his predecessors. A human body was 
never seen in the theatre of Dubois; the carcases of dogs and 
other animals were the materials from which he taught; and so 
difficult even was it to obtain human bones, that unless Vesalius 
and his fellow-students had collected assiduously from the 
Innocents and other cemeteries, they must have committed 



numerous errors in acquiring the first principles. This assertion, 
however, is contradicted by J. Riolan, and afterwards by K. P. J. 
Sprengel and T. Lauth, the last of whom decidedly censures 
Vesalius for this ungrateful treatment of his instructor. It is 
certain that opportunities of inspecting the human body were by 
no means so frequent as to facilitate the study of the science. 
Though his mention of injections has led some to suppose him the 
discoverer of that art, he appears to have made no substantial 
addition to the information already acquired; and the first 
acknowledged professor of anatomy to the university of Paris 
appears in history as one who lived without true honour and 
died without just celebrity. He must not be confounded with 
Franciscus Sylvius (de le Boe), who is mentioned by F. Ruysch 
and M. V. G. Malacarne as the author of a particular method of 
demonstrating the brain. 

Almost coeval may be placed Charles Etienne (1503-1564), a 
younger brother of the celebrated printers, and son to Henry, 
who Hellenized the family name by the classical Etieane 
appellation of Stephen (Sr^avos). It is uncertain 
whether he taught publicly. But his tranquillity was disturbed, 
and his pursuits interrupted, by the oppressive persecutions 
in which their religious opinions involved the family; and 
Charles Etienne drew the last breath of a miserable life in a 
dungeon in 1564. Etienne, though sprung of a family whose 
classical taste has been their principal glory, does not betray the 
same servile imitation of the Galenian anatomy with which 
Dubois is charged. He appears to have been the first to detect 
valves in the orifice of the hepatic veins. He was ignorant, 
however, of the researches of the Italian anatomists; and his 
description of the brain is inferior to that given sixty years before 
by Achillini. His comparison of the cerebral cavities to the human 
ear has persuaded F. Portal that he knew the inferior cornua, the 
hippocampus and its prolongations; but this is no reason for 
giving him that honour to the detriment of the reputation of 
Achillini, to whom, so far as historical testimony goes, the first 
knowledge of this fact is due. The researches of Etienne into the 
structure of the nervous system are, however, neither useless nor 
inglorious; and the circumstance of demonstrating a canal 
through the entire length of the spinal cord, which had neither 
been suspected by contemporaries nor noticed by successors till 
J. B. Senac (1693-1770) made it known, is sufficient to place him 
high in the rank of anatomical discoverers. 

The French anatomy of the i6th century was distinguished by 
two circumstances unfavourable to the advancement of the science 
extravagant admiration of antiquity, with excessive veaaiius 
confidence in the writings of Galen, and the general 
practice of dissecting principally the bodies of the lower animals. 
Both these errors were much amended, if not entirely removed, 
by the exertions of a young Fleming, whose appearance forms a 
conspicuous era in the history of anatomy. Andreas Vesalius, 
(1514-1564), a native of Brussels, after acquiring at Louvain the 
ordinary classical attainments of the day, began at the age of 
fourteen to study anatomy under the auspices of Dubois. Though 
the originality of bis mind soon led him to abandon the prejudices 
by which he was environed, and take the most direct course for 
attaining a knowledge of the structure of the human frame, he 
neither underrated the Galenian anatomy nor was indolent in 
the dissection of brute animals. The difficulties, however, with 
which the practical pursuit of human anatomy was beset in 
France, and the dangers with which he had to contend, made him 
look to Italy as a suitable field for the cultivation of the science; 
and in 1536 we find him at Venice, at once pursuing the study of 
human anatomy with the utmost zeal, and requested, ere he had 
attained his twenty-second year, to demonstrate publicly in the 
university of Padua. After remaining here about seven years, 
Vesalius went by express invitation to Bologna, and shortly 
afterwards to Pisa; and thus professor in three universities, he 
appears to have carried on his anatomical investigations and 
instructions alternately at Padua, Bologna and Pisa, in the 
course of the same winter. It is on this account that Vesalius, 
though a Fleming by birth and trained originally in the French 
school, belongs, as an anatomist, to the Italian, and may be 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



929 



viewed as the first of an illustrious line of teachers by whom the 
anatomical reputation of that country was in the course of the 
1 6th century raised to the greatest eminence. 

Vesalius is known as the first author of a comprehensive and 
systematic view of human anatomy. The knowledge with which 
his dissections had furnished him proved how many errors were 
daily taught and learned under the broad mantle of Galenian 
authority; and he perceived the necessity of a new system of 
anatomical instruction, divested of the omissions of ignorance 
and the misrepresentations of prejudice and fancy. The early 
age at which he effected this object has been to his biographers the 
theme of boundless commendation; and we are told that he began 
at the age of twenty-five to arrange the materials he had collected, 
and accomplished his task ere he had completed his 28th year. 

Soon after this period we find him invited as imperial physician 
to the court of Charles V., where he was occupied in the duties 
of practice and answering the various charges which were un- 
ceasingly brought against him by the disciples of Galen. After 
the abdication of Charles he continued at court in great favour 
with his son Philip II. To this he seems to have been led princi- 
pally by the troublesome controversies in which his anatomical 
writings had involved him. It is painful to think, however, that 
even imperial patronage bestowed on eminent talents does not 
ensure immunity from popular prejudice; and the fate of Vesalius 
will be a lasting example of the barbarism of the times, and of 
the precarious tenure of the safety even of a great physician. 
On the preliminary circumstances authors are not agreed; but 
the most general account states that when Vesalius was dissecting, 
with the consent of his kinsmen, the body of a Spanish grandee, 
it was observed that the heart still gave some feeble palpitations 
when divided by the knife. The immediate effects of this outrage 
to human feelings were the denunciation of the anatomist to 
the Inquisition; and Vesalius escaped the severe treatment of 
that tribunal only by the influence of the king, and by promising 
to perform a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He forthwith pro- 
ceeded to Venice, from which he sailed with the Venetian fleet, 
under James Malatesta, for Cyprus. When he reached Jerusalem, 
he received from the Venetian senate a message requesting him 
again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become 
vacant by the death of his friend and pupil Fallopius. His 
destiny, however, which pursued him fast, suffered him not 
again to breathe the Italian air. After struggling for many days 
with the adverse winds in the Ionian Sea, he was wrecked on 
the island of Zante, where he quickly breathed his last in such 
penury that unless a liberal goldsmith had defrayed the funeral 
charges, his remains must have been devoured by beasts of prey. 
At the time of his death he was scarcely fifty years of age. 

To form a correct estimate of the character and merits of 
Vesalius, we must not compare him, in the spirit of modern 
perfection, with the anatomical authors either of later times or 
of the present day. Whoever would frame a just idea of this 
anatomist must imagine, not a bold innovator without academical 
learning, not a genius coming from a foreign country, unused 
to the forms and habits of Cathoh'c Europe, nor a wild reformer, 
blaming indiscriminately everything which accorded not with his 
opinion; but a young student scarcely emancipated from the 
authority of instructors, whose intellect was still influenced 
by the doctrines with which it had been originally imbued, 
a scholar strictly trained in the opinions of the time, living 
amidst men who venerated Galen as the oracle of anatomy and 
the divinity of medicine, exercising his reason to estimate 
the soundness of the instructions then in use, and proceeding, 
in the way least likely to offend authority and wound prejudice, 
to rectify errors, and to establish on the solid basis of observation 
the true elements of anatomical science. Vesalius has been 
denominated the founder of human anatomy; and though we 
have seen that in this career he was preceded with honour by 
Mondino and Berenger, still the small proportion of correct 
observation which their reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines 
allowed them to communicate, will not in a material degree 
impair the original merits of Vesalius. The errors which he 
rectified and the additions which he made are so numerous, 
1.30 



that it is impossible, in such a sketch as the present, to com- 
municate a just idea of them. 

Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone, he 
showed that the sternum consists of three portions and the 
sacrum of five or six; and described accurately the vestibule 
in the interior of the temporal bone. He not only verified the 
observation of Etienne on the valves of the hepatic veins, but 
he described well the vena azygos, and discovered the canal 
which passes in the foetus between the umbilical vein and the 
vena cava, since named ductus venosus. He described the 
omentum, and its connexions with the stomach, the spleen 
and the colon; gave the first correct views of the structure of 
the pylorus; remarked the small size of the caecal appendix 
in man; gave the first good account of the mediastinum and 
pleura and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain 
yet advanced. He appears, however, not to have understood 
well the inferior recesses; and his account of the nerves is con- 
fused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the 
fifth and the fifth as the seventh. 

The labours of Vesalius were not limited to the immediate 
effect produced by his own writings. His instructions and 
examples produced a multitude of anatomical inquirers of 
different characters and varied celebrity, by whom the science 
was extended and rectified. Of these we cannot speak in detail; 
but historical justice requires us to notice shortly those to whose 
exertions the science of anatomy has been most indebted. 

The first that claims attention on this account is Bartolomeo 
Eustachi of San Severino, near Salerno, who though greatly 
less fortunate in reputation than his contemporary 
Vesalius, divides with him the merit of creating the C hius' 
science of human anatomy. He extended the knowledge 
of the internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the 
tube which bears his name; and if we admit that G. F. Ingras- 
sias anticipated him in the knowledge of the third bone of the 
tympanal cavity, the stapes, he is still the first who described 
the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus, as also the 
stapedius, and the complicated figure of the cochlea. He is the 
first who studied accurately the anatomy of the teeth, and the 
phenomena of the first and second dentition. The work, however, 
which demonstrates at once the great merit and the unhappy 
fate of Eustachius is his Anatomical Engravings, which, though 
completed in 1552, nine years after the impression of the work 
of Vesalius, the author was unable to publish. First com- 
municated to the world in 1714 by G. M. Lancisi, afterwards 
in 1744 by Cajetan Petrioli, again in 1744 by B. S. Albinus, 
and subsequently at Bonn in 1790, the engravings show that 
Eustachius had dissected with the greatest care and diligence, 
and taken the utmost pains to give just views of the shape, size 
and relative position of the organs of the human body. 

The first seven plates illustrate the history of the kidneys and 
some of the facts relating to the structure of the ear. The eighth 
represents the heart, the ramifications of the vena azygos, and the 
valve of the vena cava, named from the author. In the seven 
subsequent plates is given a succession of different views of the 
viscera of the chest and abdomen. The seventeenth contains 
the brain and spinal cord; and the eighteenth more accurate 
views of the origin, course and distribution of the nerves than had 
been given before. Fourteen plates are devoted to the muscles. 

Eustachius did not confine his researches to the study of 
relative anatomy. He investigated the intimate structure of 
organs with assiduity and success. What was too minute for 
unassisted vision he inspected by means of glasses. Structure 
which could not be understood in the recent state, he unfolded 
by maceration in different fluids, or rendered more distinct by 
injection and exsiccation. The facts unfolded in these figures 
are so important that it is justly remarked by Lauth, that if the 
author himself had been fortunate enough to publish them, 
anatomy would have attained the perfection of the i8th century 
two centuries earlier at least. Their seclusion for that period in 
the papal library has given celebrity to many names which would 
have been known only in the verification of the discoveries of 
Eustachius. 



930 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



M. R. Columbus and G. Fallopius were pupils of Vesalius. 
Columbus, as his immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards 
Columbus. as P rofessor at Rome, distinguished himself by rectify- 
ing and improving the anatomy of the bones; by 
giving correct accounts of the shape and cavities of the heart, of 
the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the 
course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart; 
by a good description of the brain and its vessels, and by correct 
understanding of the internal ear, and the first good account of 
the ventricles of the larynx. 

Fallopius, who, after being professor at Pisa in 1548, and at 
Padua in 1551, died at the age of forty, studied the general 

, anatomy of the bones: described better than hereto- 
Fanoplus. J t . f . , 

fore the internal ear, especially the tympanum and 
its osseous ring, the two fenestrae and their communication with 
the vestibule and cochlea; and gave the first good account of 
the stylo-mastoid hole and canal, of the ethmoid bone and cells, 
and of the lacrymal passages. In myology he rectified several 
mistakes of Vesalius. He also devoted attention to the organs 
of generation in both sexes, and discovered the utero-peritoneal 
canal which still bears his name. 

Osteology nearly at the same time found an assiduous culti- 
vator in Giovanni Filippo Ingrassias (1545-1580)^ learned Sicilian 
/a assias physician, who, in a skilful commentary on the osteo- 
logy of Galen, corrected numerous mistakes. He gave 
the first distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid 
and ethmoid bones, and has the merit of first describing (1546) 
the third bone of the tympanum, called stapes, though this is 
also claimed by Eustachius and Fallopius. 

The anatomical descriptions of Vesalius underwent the 
scrutiny of various inquirers. Those most distinguished by the 
Araazl importance and accuracy of their researches, as well as 
the temperate tone of their observations, were Julius 
Caesar Aranzi (1530-1589), anatomical professor for thirty-two 
years in the university of Bologna, and Constantio Varoli, 
physician to Pope Gregory XIII. To the former we are indebted 
for the first correct account of the anatomical peculiarities of 
the foetus, and he was the first to show that the muscles of the 
eye do not, as was falsely imagined, arise from the dura mater 
but from the margin of the optic hole. He also, after considering 
the anatomical relations of the cavities of the heart, the valves 
and the great vessels, corroborates the views of Columbus 
regarding the course which the blood follows in passing from the 
right to the left side of the heart. Aranzi is the first anatomist 
who describes distinctly the inferior cornua of the ventricles of 
the cerebrum, who recognizes the objects by which they are 
distinguished, and who gives them the name by which they are 
still known (hippocampus) ; and his account is more minute and 
perspicuous than that of the authors of the subsequent century. 
He speaks at large of the choroid plexus, and gives a particular 
description of the fourth ventricle, under the name of cistern of 
the cerebellum, as a discovery of his own. 

Italy, though rich in anatomical talent, has probably few 
greater names than that of Constantio Varoli (b. 1 543) of Bologna. 
Varoiius. Though he died at the early age of thirty-two, he 
acquired a reputation not inferior to that of the most 
eminent of his contemporaries. He is now known chiefly as the 
author of an epistle, inscribed to Hieronymo Mercuriali, on the 
optic nerves, in which he describes a new method of dissect- 
ing the brain, and communicates many interesting particulars 
relating to the anatomy of the organ. He observes the threefold 
division of the inferior surface or base, defines the limits of the 
anterior, middle and posterior eminences, as marked by the com- 
partments of the skull, and justly remarks that the cerebral 
cavities are capacious, communicate with each other, extending 
first backward and then forward, near the angle of the pyramidal 
portion of the temporal bone, and that they are folded on them- 
selves, and finally lost above the middle and inferior eminence 
of the brain. He appears to have been aware that at this point 
they communicate with the exterior or convoluted surface. He 
recognized the impropriety of the term corpus callosum, seems 
to have known the communication called afterwards foramen 



Monroianum, and describes the hippocampus more minutely than 
had been previously done. 

Among the anatomists of the Italian school, as a pupil of 
Fallopius, Eustachius and U. Aldrovandus, is generally enumer- 
ated Volcher Goiter (b. 1 534) of Groningen. He distinguished 
himself by accurate researches on the cartilages, the bones and 
the nerves, recognized the value of morbid anatomy, and made 
experiments on living animals to ascertain the action of the heart 
and the influence of the brain. 

The Frutefutt and Necessary Briefe Worke of John Halle 1 
(1565) and The Englisheman's Treasure by Master Thomas 
Vicary (1586),* English works published at this time, are tolerable 
compilations from former authors, much tinged by Galenian and 
Arabian distinctions. A more valuable compendium than either 
is, however, that of John Banister (1578), entitled The Historie 
of Man, from the most approved Anathomistes in this Present Age. 

The celebrity of the anatomical school of Italy was worthily 
maintained by Hieronymo Fabricio of Acquapendente, who, in 
imitation of his master Fallopius, laboured to render p a i,Hciut 
anatomical knowledge more precise by repeated 
dissections, and to illustrate the obscure by researches on the 
structure of animals in general. In this manner he investigated 
the formation of the foetus, the structure of the oesophagus, 
stomach and bowels, and the peculiarities of the eye, the ear and 
the larynx. The discovery, however, on which his surest claims 
to eminence rest is that of the membranous folds, which he 
names valves, in the interior of veins. Several of these folds had 
been observed by Fernel, Sylvius and Vesalius; and in 1547 
G. B. Canani observed those of the vena azygos; but no one 
appears to have offered any rational conjecture on their use, 
or to have traced them through the venous system at large, 
until Fabricius in 1574, upon this hypothesis, demonstrated the 
presence of these valvular folds in all the veins of the extremities. 

Fabricius, though succeeded by his pupil Julius Casserius of 
Placenza, may be regarded as the last of that illustrious line of 
anatomical teachers by whom the science was so successfully 
studied and taught in the universities of Italy. The discoveries 
which each made, and the errors which their successive labours 
rectified, tended gradually to give anatomy the character of a 
useful as well as an accurate science, and to pave the way for a 
discovery which, though not anatomical but physiological, is so 
intimately connected with correct knowledge of the shape and 
situation of parts, that it exercised the most powerful influence 
on the future progress of anatomical inquiry. This was the 
knowledge of the circular motion of the blood a fact which 
though obscurely conjectured by Aristotle, Nemesius, Mondino 
and Berenger, and partially taught by Servetus, Columbus, 
Andreas Caesalpinus and Fabricius, it was nevertheless reserved 
to William Harvey fully and satisfactorily to demonstrate. 

Mondino believed that the blood proceeds from the heart to 
the lungs through the vena arterialis or pulmonary artery, and 
that the aorta conveys the spirit into the blood through all parts 
of the body. This doctrine was adopted with little modification 
by Berenger, who further demonstrated the existence and opera- 
tion of the tricuspid valves in the right ventricle, and of the 
sigmoid valves at the beginning of the pulmonary artery and 
aorta, and that there were only two ventricles separated by 
a solid impervious septum. These were afterwards described in 
greater detail by Vesalius, who nevertheless appears not to have 
been aware of the important use which might be made of this 
knowledge. It was the Spaniard Michael Servet or Servetus 
(born in 1509, burnt in 1553) who in his treatise De servetu*. 
Trinitatis Erroribus, published at Haguenau in 1531, 
first maintained the imperviousness of the septum, and the 

1 An interesting article on the character and work of the Maidstone 
surgeon, John Halle, by E. Barclay Smith, will be found in the 
/. Anat. and Phys. vol. xxxiv. p. 275. 

1 It has been pointed out by Dr J. F. Payne that Vicary's work 
is merely an abridged copy of an unpublished English anatomical 
treatise of the I4th century. The name of the author is unknown, 
but internal evidence shows that he was a London surgeon. The 
manuscript was written in English in 1392. See British Medical 
Journal, January 25, 1896. 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



Cacsal- 
plaus. 



transition of the blood by what he terms an unknown route, 
namely, from the right ventricle by the vena arteriosa (pulmonary 
artery) to the lungs, and thence into the arteria venosa or pul- 
monary vein and left auricle and ventricle, from which, he adds 
afterwards, it is conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the body. 1 

Though the leading outlines, not only of the pulmonary or 
small but even of the great circulation, were sketched thus early 
by one who, though a philosopher, was attached to the church, 
it was only in his work De Re Anatomica, published at Venice 
in 1559, that Columbus formally and distinctly announced the 
circular course of the blood as a discovery of his own; and main- 
tained, in addition to the imperviousness of the septum, the fact 
that the arteria venalis (pulmonary vein) contains, not air, but 
blood mixed with air brought from the lungs to the left ventricle 
of the heart, to be distributed through the body at large. 

Soon after, views still more complete of the small or pulmonary 
circulation were given by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603) of 
Arezzo, who not only maintained the analogy between 
the structure of the arterious vein or pulmonary artery 
and the aorta, and that between the venous artery or 
pulmonary veins and veins in general, but was the first to remark 
the swelling of veins below ligatures, and to infer from it a 
refluent motion of blood in these vessels. The discoveries of 
Aranzi and Eustachius in the vessels of the foetus tended at first 
to perplex and afterwards to elucidate some of these notions. 

At length it happened that, between the years 1598 and 1600, 
a young Englishman, William Harvey, pursuing his anatomical 
studies at Padua under Fabricius, learnt from that 
anatomist the existence of the valves in the veins of 
the extremities, and undertook to ascertain the use of these 
valves by experimental inquiry. It is uncertain whether he 
learnt from the writings of Caesalpinus the fact observed by 
that author of the tumescence of a vein below the ligature, but 
he could not fail to be aware, and indeed he shows that he 
was aware, of the small circulation as taught by Servetus and 
Columbus. Combining these facts already known, he, by a series 
of well-executed experiments, demonstrated clearly the existence, 
not only of the small, but of a general circulation from the left 
side of the heart by the aorta and its subdivisions, to the right 
side by the veins. This memorable truth was first announced 
in the year 1619. 

It is unnecessary here to consider the arguments and facts by 
which Harvey defended his theory, or to notice the numerous 
assaults to which he was exposed, and the controversies in which 
his opponents wished to involve him. It is sufficient to say 
that, after the temporary ebullitions of spleen and envy had 
1 The passage of Servetus is so interesting that our readers may 
feel some curiosity in perusing it in the language of the author; and 
it is not unimportant to remark that Servetus appears to have been 
led to think of the course of the blood by the desire of explaining the 
manner in which the animal spirits were supposed to be generated : 
" Vitalis spiritus in sinistro cordis ventriculo suam originem habet, 
juvantibus maxime pulmonibusad ipsius perfectionem. Est spiritus 
tenuis, caloris vi elaboratus, flavo colore, ignea potentia, ut sit quasi 
ex puriore sanguine lucens, vapor substantiam cpntinens aquae, aeris, 
et ignis. Generator ex facta in pulmone commixtioneinspirad aeris 
cum elaborate subtili sanguine, quem dexter ventriculus sinistro com- 
municat. Fit autem communicatio haec, non per parietem cordis 
medium, ut vulgo creditur, sed magno artificio a dextro cordis ventri- 
culo, longo per pulmones ductu agitatur sanguis subtilis; a pulmpni- 
bus praeparatur, flavus efficitur, et a vena arteriosa in arteriam 
venosam transfunditur. Deinde in ipsa arteria venosa, inspirato 
aeri miscetur et exspiratione a fuligine expurgatur; atque ita tandem 
a sinistro cordis ventriculo totum mixtum per diastolen attrahitur, 
apta supellex, ut fiat spiritus vitalis. Quod ita per pulmones fiat com- 
municatio et praeparatio, docet conjunctio varia, et communicatio 
venae arteriosae cum arteria venosa in pulmonibus. Confirmat hoc 
magnitude insignis venae arteriosae, quae nee talis nee tanta esset 
facta, nee tantam a corde ipso vim purissimi sanguinis in pulmones 
emitteret, ob solum eorum nutrimentum; nee cor pulmonibus hac 
ratione serviret, cumpraesertimanteainembryone solerent pulmones 
ipsi aliunde nutriri, ob membranulas illas seu valvulas cordis, usque 
ad horum nativitatem ; ut docet Galenus, &c. Itaque ille spiritus a 
sinistro cordis ventriculo arterias totiuscorporisdeinde transfunditur, 
ita ut qui tenuior est, superiora petit, ubi magis elaboratur, praecipue 
in plexu retiformi, sub basi cerebri sito, ubi ex vitali fieri incipit 
animalis, ad propriam rationalis animae rationem accedens. 
De Trinitate, lib. v. 



subsided, the doctrine of the circular motion of the blood was 
admitted by all enlightened and unprejudiced persons, and 
finally was universally adopted as affording the most satisfactory 
explanation of many facts in anatomical structure which were 
either misunderstood or entirely overlooked. The inquiries to 
which the investigation of the doctrine gave rise produced 
numerous researches on the shape and structure of the heart and 
its divisions, of the lungs, and of the blood-vessels and their 
distribution. Of this description were the researches of Nicolas 
Steno on the structure of the heart, the classical work of Richard 
Lower, the dissertation of J. N. Pechlin, the treatise of Raymond 
Vieussens, the work of Marcello Malpighi on the structure of the 
lungs, several sketches in the writings of John Mayow, and other 
treatises of less moment. Systematic treatises of anatomy 
began to assume a more instructive form, and to breathe a more 
philosophical spirit. The great work of Adrian Spigelius, which 
appeared in 1627, two years after the death of the author, 
contains indeed no proof that he was aware of the valuable 
generalization of Harvey; but in the institutions of Caspar 
Bartholinus, as republished and improved by his son Thomas 
in 1651, the anatomical descriptions and explanations are given 
with reference to the new doctrine. A still more unequivocal 
proof of the progress of correct anatomical knowledge was given 
in the lectures delivered by Peter Dionis, at the Jardin Royal of 
Paris, in 1673 and the seven following years, in which that 
intelligent surgeon gave most accurate demonstrations of all 
the parts composing the human frame, and especially of the 
heart, its auricles, ventricles and valves, and the large vessels 
connected with it and the lungs. These demonstrations, first 
published in 1690, were so much esteemed that they passed 
through seven editions in the space of thirty years, and were 
translated into English. 

The progress of anatomical discovery continued in the mean- 
time to advance. In the course of the i6th 'century Eustachius, 
in studying minutely the structure of the vena azygos, had 
recognized in the horse a white vessel full of watery fluid, 
connected with the internal jugular vein, on the left side of the 
vertebral column, corresponding accurately with the vessel since 
named thoracic duct. Fallopius also described vessels belonging 
to the liver distinct from arteries and veins; and similar vessels 
appear to have been noticed by Nicolaus Massa (1490-1569). 
The nature and properties of these vessels were, however, 
entirely unknown. On the 23rd of July 1622 Caspar Aselli, pro- 
fessor of anatomy at Pa via, while engaged in demons trat- AsgJI] 
ing the recurrent nerves in a living dog, first observed 
numerous white delicate filaments crossing the mesentery in all 
directions; and though he took them at first for nerves, the 
opaque white fluid which they shed quickly convinced him that 
they were a new order of vessels. The repetition of the experiment 
the following day showed that these vessels were best seen in 
animals recently fed; and as he traced them from the villous 
membrane of the intestines, and observed the valves with which 
they were liberally supplied, he inferred that they were genuine 
chyliferous vessels. By confounding them with the lymphatics, 
he made them proceed to the pancreas and liver a mistake 
which appears to have been first rectified by Francis de le Boe. 
The discovery of Aselli was announced in 1627; and the following 
year, by means of the zealous efforts of Nicolas Peiresc, a liberal 
senator of Aix, the vessels were seen in the person of a felon who had 
eaten copiously before execution, and whose body was inspected 
an hour and a half after. In 1 6 29 they were publicly demonstrated 
at Copenhagen by Simon Pauli, and the same year the thoracic 
duct was observed by Jacques Mentel (1599-1670) for the first 
time since it was described by Eustachius. Five years after 
(1634), John Wesling, professor of anatomy and surgery at Venice, 
gave the first delineation of the lacteals from the human subject, 
and evinced more accurate knowledge than his predecessors of 
the thoracic duct and the lymphatics. Nathaniel Highmore * in 
1637 demonstrated unequivocally the difference between the 
lacteals and the mesenteric veins; and though some perplexity 

1 Highmore was a physician practising at Sherborne all his life 
(1613-1685). 



932 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



was occasioned by the discovery of the pancreatic duct by 
Christopher Wirsung, this mistake was corrected by Thomas 
Bartholinus; and the discovery by Jean Pecquet in 1647 of the 
common trunk of the lacteals and lymphatics, and of the course 
which the chyle follows to reach the blood, may be regarded as 
the last of the series of isolated facts by the generalization of 
which the extent, distribution and uses of the most important 
organs of the animal body were at length developed. 

To complete the history of this part of anatomical science one 
step yet remained the distinction between the lacteals and 
Jo llffe lymphatics, and the discovery of the termination of the 
latter order of vessels. The honour of this discovery is 
divided between George Joyliffe (1621-1658), an English ana- 
tomist, and Olaus Rudbeck (1630-1702), a young Swede. The 
former, according to the testimony of Francis Glisson and Thomas 
Wharton, was aware of the distinct existence of the lymphatics 
in 1650, and demonstrated them as such in 1652. It is neverthe- 
less doubtful whether he knew them much before the latter period ; 
and it is certain that Rudbeck observed the lymphatics of the 
large intestines, and traced them to glands, on the 27th of January 
1651, after he had, in the course of 1650, made various erroneous 
conjectures regarding them, and, like others, attempted to trace 
them to the liver. The following year he demonstrated them in 
presence of Queen Christina, and traced them to the thoracic duct, 
and the latter to the subclavian vein. Their course and distribu- 
tion were still more fully investigated by Thomas Bartholinus, 
Wharton, J. Swammerdam and G. Blaes, the last two of whom 
recognized the existence of valves; while Antony Nuck of Leiden, 
by rectifying various errors of his predecessors, and adding 
several new and valuable observations, rendered this part of 
anatomy much more precise than formerly. 

After this period anatomists began to study more minutely the 
organs and textures. Francis Glisson 1 distinguished himself by a 
minute description of the liver (1654), and a clearer account of 
the stomach and intestines, than had yet been given. Thomas 
Wharton 2 investigated the structure of the glands with particular 
care; and though rather prone to indulge in fanciful generaliza- 
tion, he developed some interesting views of these organs; while 
Walter Charleton (1610-1707), who appears to have been a 
person of great genius, though addicted to hypothesis, made 
some good remarks on the communication of the arteries with 
the veins, the foetal circulation and the course of the lymphatics. 
But the circumstance which chiefly distinguished the history of 
anatomy at the beginning of the i7th century was the appear- 
wjait- ance of Thomas Willis 3 (1621-1675), w ho rendered 
himself eminent not only by good researches on the 
brain and nerves, but by many judicious observations on the 
structure of the lungs, the intestines, the blood-vessels and the 
glands. His anatomy of the brain and nerves is so minute and 
elaborate, and abounds so much in new information, that the 
reader is struck by the immense chasm between the vague and 
meagre notices of his predecessors and the ample and correct 
descriptions of Willis. This excellent work, however, is not the 
result of his own personal and unaided exertions; and the 
character of Willis derives additional lustre from the candid 
avowal of his obligations to Sir Christopher Wren and Thomas 
Millington, and, above all, to the diligent researches of his 
fellow-anatomist Richard Lower. 

Willis was the first who numbered the cranial nerves in the 
order in which they are now usually enumerated by anatomists. 
His observation of the connexion of the eighth pair with the 
slender nerve which issues from the beginning of the spinal cord 
is known to all. He remarked the parallel lines of the mesolobe, 
afterwards minutely described by Felix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794). 
He seems to have recognized the communication of the convoluted 
surface of the brain and that between the lateral cavities beneath 
the fornix. He described the corpora striala and optic thalami; 

1 Glisson was for forty years professor of physic at Cambridge. 

1 Wharton was a graduate both of Oxford and Cambridge, and 
physician to St Thomas's Hospital. 

'Willis was Sedleian professor of natural philosophy in Oxford 
in 1660. Later he practised in London. 



the four orbicular eminences, with the bridge, which he first 
named annular protuberance; and the white mammillary 
eminences, behind the infundibulum. In the cerebellum he 
remarks the arborescent arrangement of the white and grey 
matter, and gives a good account of the internal carotids, and the 
communications which they make with the branches of the 
basilar artery. 

About the middle of the I7th century R. Hooke and Nehemiah 
Grew employed the simple microscope in the minute examination 
of plants and animals; and the Dutch philosopher A. Leeuwen- 
hoek with great acuteness examined microscopically the solids 
and fluids of the body, recognized the presence of scales in the 
cuticle, and discovered the corpuscles in the blood and milk, and 
the spermatozoa in the seminal fluid. The researches of Malpighi 
also tended greatly to improve the knowledge of minute Malpighi 
structure. He gave the first distinct ideas on the 
organization of the lung, and the mode in which the bronchial 
tubes and vessels terminate in that organ. By the microscope 
he traced the transition of the arteries into the veins, and saw 
the movements of the blood corpuscles in the capillaries. He 
endeavoured to unfold,by dissection and microscopic observation, 
the minute structure of the brain. He studied the structure of 
bone, he traced the formation and explained the structure of the 
teeth; and his name is to this day associated with the discovery 
of the deeper layer of the cuticle and the Malpighian bodies in the 
spleen and kidney. In these difficult inquiries the observations 
of Malpighi are in general faithful, and he may be regarded as the 
founder of histological anatomy. 

Nicolas Steno, or Stensen, described with accuracy (1660) the 
lacrymal gland and passages, and rediscovered the parotid duct. 
L. Bellini studied the structure of the kidneys, and described the 
tongue and tonsils with some care; and Charles Drelincourt 
laboured to investigate the changes effected on the uterus by 
impregnation, and to elucidate the formation of the foetus. The 
science might have derived still greater advantages from the 
genius of Regnier de Graaf, who investigated with accuracy the 
structure of the pancreas and of the organs of generation in both 
sexes, had he not been cut off at the early age of thirty-two. 
Lastly, Wepfer, though more devoted to morbid anatomy, made, 
nevertheless, some just observations on the anatomical disposi- 
tion of the cerebral vessels, the glandular structure of the liver, 
and the termination of the common duct in the duodenum. 

The appearance of Frederic Ruysch, who was born in 1638, 
became professor of anatomy at Amsterdam in 1665 and died 
in that city in 1731, gave a new impulse to anatomi- R aysc h. 
cal research, and tended not only to give the science 
greater precision, but to extend its limits in every direction. 
The talents of Ruysch are said to have been developed by accident. 
To repel the audacious and calumnious aspersions with which 
Louis de Bils attacked de le Boe and van Home, Ruysch 
published his tract on the valves of the lymphatics, which 
completely established his character as an anatomist of originality 
and research. This, however, is the smallest of his services to 
the science. The art of injecting, which had been originally 
attempted by Eustachi and Varoli, and was afterwards rudely 
practised by Glisson, Bellini and Willis, was at length carried 
to greater perfection by de Graaf and Swammerdam, the former 
of whom injected the spermatic vessels with mercury and 
variously coloured liquors; while the latter, by employing 
melted wax with other ingredients, made the first approach 
to the refinements of modern anatomy. By improving this 
idea of using substances which, though solid, may be rendered 
fluid at the period of injecting, Ruysch carried this art to the 
highest perfection. 

By the application of this happy contrivance he was enabled 
to demonstrate the arrangement of minute vessels in the interior 
of organs which had escaped the scrutiny of previous anatomists. 
Scarcely a part of the human body eluded the penetration of 
his syringe; and his discoveries were proportionally great. 
His account of the valves of the lymphatics, of the vessels of the 
lungs, and their minute structure; his researches on the vascular 
structure of the skin, of the bones, and their epiphyses, and their 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



933 



mode of growth and union; his observations on the spleen, 
the glans penis, the clitoris, and the womb impregnated and 
unimpregnated, were but a limited part of his anatomical 
labours. He studied the minute structure of the brain; he 
demonstrated the organization of the choroid plexus; he de- 
scribed the state of the hair when affected with Polish plait; 
he proved the vascular structure of the teeth; he injected 
the dura mater, the pleura, the pericardium and peritoneum; 
he unfolded the minute structure of the conglomerate glands; 
he investigated that of the synovial apparatus placed in the 
interior of the joints; and he discovered several curious par- 
ticulars relating to the lacteals, the lymphatics and the lymphatic 
glands. 

Meanwhile, H. Meibomius rediscovered (1670) the palpebral 
glands, which were known to Casserius; Swammerdam studied 
the action of the lungs, described the structure of the human 
uterus, and made numerous valuable observations on the coeca 
and pancreatoid organs of fishes; and Th. Kerckring laid the 
foundation of a knowledge of the process of ossification. John 
Conrad Brunner, in the course of experiments on the pancreas, 
discovered (1687) the glands of the duodenum named after him, 
and J. Conrad Peyer (1677-1681) described the solitary and 
agminated glands of the intestinal canal. Leonard Tassin, 
distinguished for original observation, rendered the anatomical 
history of the brain more accurate than heretofore, and gave 
particular accounts of the intestinal tube, the pancreatic duct 
and the hepatic ligaments (1678). 

That France might not be without participation in the glory 
of advancing the progress of anatomical knowledge, the names 
Duverae of J ose P n Guichard Duverney and Vieussens are 
commemorated with distinction. Duverney, born 
in 1648, and first introduced into public life in 1676 in the Royal 
Academy of Sciences, decorated with the honorary title of 
professor of anatomy to the dauphin, and appointed in 1679 
professor at the Jardin Royal, distinguished himself by the first 
accurate account of the organ of hearing, and by his dissections 
of several animals at the academy supplied valuable materials 
for the anatomical details of the natural history of animals 
published by that learned body. He appears to have been the 
first who demonstrated the fact that the cerebral sinuses open 
into the jugular veins, and to have been aware that the former 
receives the veins of the brain and are the venous receptacles 
of the organ. He understood the cerebral cavities and their 
mode of communication; distinguishes the posterior pillars of 
the vault from the pedes hippocampi; recognizes the two plates 
of the septum lucidum; and, what is still more remarkable, 
he first indicates distinctly the discussation of the anterior 
pyramids of the medulla oblongata a fact afterwards verified 
by the researches of Mistichelli, F. P. du Petit and G.D. Santorini. 
He studied the ganglions attentively, and gives the first distinct 
account of the formation, connexions and distribution of the 
intercostal nerves. It is interesting to remark that his state- 
ment that the veins or sinuses of the spinal cord terminate in 
the vena azygos was verified by the subsequent researches of 
G. Dupuytren (1777-1835) and G. Breschet (1784-1845), which 
showed that the vertebral veins communicate by means of the 
intercostal and superior lumbar veins with the azygos and 
hemi-azygos. His account of the structure of bones and of 
the progress of ossification is valuable. He recognized the 
vascular structure of the spleen, and described the excretory 
ducts of the prostate gland, the verumontanum, and the ante- 
prostates. 

One of the circumstances which at this time tended consider- 
ably to the improvement of anatomical science was the attention 
with which Comparative Anatomy was beginning to be cultivated. 
In ancient times, and at the revival of letters, the dissection of 
the lower animals was substituted for that of the human body; 
and the descriptions of the organs of the latter were too often 
derived from the former. The obloquy and contempt in which 
this abuse involved the study of animal anatomy caused it to 
be neglected, or pursued with indifference, for more than two 
centuries, during which anatomists confined their descriptions, 



at least very much, to the parts of the human body. At this 
period, however, the prejudice against Comparative Anatomy 
began to subside; and animal dissection, though not substituted 
for that of the human body, was employed, as it ought always 
to have been, to illustrate obscurities, to determine doubts 
and to explain difficulties, and, in short, to enlarge and rectify 
the knowledge of the structure of animal bodies generally. 

For this revolution in its favour, Comparative Anatomy was 
in a great measure indebted to the learned societies which were 
established about this time in the different countries of Europe. 
Among these, the Royal Society of London, embodied by charter 
by Charles II. in 1662, and the Academy of Sciences of Paris, 
founded in 1666 by J. B. Colbert, are undoubtedly entitled to the 
first rank. Though later in establishment, the latter institution 
was distinguished by making the first great efforts in favour of 
Comparative Anatomy; and Claude Perrault, Pecquet, Duverney 
and Jean Mery, by the dissections of rare animals obtained from 
the royal menagerie, speedily supplied valuable materials for the 
anatomical naturalist. In England, Nehemiah Grew, Edward 
Tyson 1 and Samuel Collins 2 cultivated the same department 
with diligence and success. Grew has left an interesting account 
of the anatomical peculiarities of the intestinal canal in various 
animals; Tyson, in the dissection of a porpoise, an opossum 
and an orang outang, adduces some valuable illustrations 
of the comparative differences between the structure of the 
human body and that of the lower animals; Collins Collins 
has the merit of conceiving, and executing on an 
enlarged plan, a comprehensive system, embodying all the 
information then extant (1685). With the aid of Tyson and his 
own researches, which were both extensive and accurate, he 
composed a system of anatomical knowledge in which he not only 
gives ample and accurate descriptions of the structure of the 
human body, and the various morbid changes to which the organs 
are liable, but illustrates the whole by accurate and interesting 
sketches of the peculiarities of the lower animals. The matter of 
this work is so excellent that it can only be ascribed to ignorance 
that it has received so little attention. Though regarded as a 
compilation, and though indeed much of the human anatomy is 
derived from Vesalius, it has the advantage of the works pub- 
lished on the continent at that time, that it embodies most of 
the valuable facts derived from Malpighi, Willis and Vieussens. 
The Comparative Anatomy is almost all original, the result 
of personal research and dissection; and the pathological 
observations, though occasionally tinged with the spirit of the 
times, show the author to have been endowed with the powers 
of observation and judicious reflexion in no ordinary degree. 

About this time also we recognize the first attempts to study 
the minute constitution of the tissues, by the combination of the 
microscope and the effects of chemical agents. Bone furnished 
the first instance in which this method was put in use; and 
though Gagliardi, who undertook the inquiry, had fallen into 
some mistakes which it required the observation of Malpighi to 
rectify, this did not deter Clopton Havers 3 and Nesbitt, 4 in 
England, and Courtial, H. L. Duhamel-Dumonceau and Delasone, 
and afterwards Herissant, in France, from resuming the same 
train of investigation. The mistakes into which these ana- 
tomists fell belong to the imperfect method of inquiry. The 
facts which they ascertained have been verified by recent 
experiment, and constitute no unessential part of our knowledge 
of the structure of bone. 

Ten years after the publication of the work of Collins, Ridley, 6 
another English anatomist, distinguished himself by a monograph 
(1695) on the brain, which, though not free from errors, contains, 
nevertheless, some valuable observations. Ridley is the first 

1 Tyson was a graduate both of Oxford and Cambridge. He was 
reader of anatomy at Surgeons' Hall, London. 

1 Collins was an M. D. of Padua, Oxford and Cambridge. He was 
physician in ordinary to Charles II. 

8 Havers was a London physician, and died in 1702. 

4 Robert Nesbitt (d. 1761) studied at Leiden and practised as a 
physician in London. 

'Humphrey Ridley (1653-1708) was a London physician who 
studied at Leiden. 



934 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



who distinguishes by name the restiform processes, or the 
posterior pyramidal eminences. He recognized the figure of the 
four eminences in the human subject; he remarked the mam- 
millary bodies; and he discovered the sinus which passes under 
his name. 

Raymond Vieussens, by the publication of his great work on 
neurography in 1684, threw new light on the configuration and 
vieusseas structure of the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves; 

and gave a description of the arrangement and dis- 
tribution of the latter more precise than heretofore. Of the 
formation and connexions of the sympathetic nerve especially 
he gave views which have been generally adopted by subsequent 
anatomists. His new arrangement of the vessels, published in 
1705, contains several curious opinions. His observations on 
the structure of the heart, published in 1706, and enlarged in 
1715, exhibit the first correct views of the intimate structure of 
an organ which afterwards was most fully developed by the 
labours of G. M. Lancisi and J. B. Senac. 

To the same period (1685-1697) belong the rival publications 
of G. Bidloo 1 and William Cowper, the latter of whom, however, 
stained a reputation otherwise good by publishing as his own the 
engravings of the former. Cowper further distinguished himself 
by a minute account of the urethral glands, already known to 
Columbus and Mery; by a good description of the intestinal 
glands, discovered by Brunner and Peyer; and by demon- 
strating the communication of the arteries and veins of the 
mesentery. 

The anatomical genius of Italy, which had slumbered since the 
death of Malpighi, was destined once more to revive in Lancisi, 
A. M. Valsalva, and his illustrious pupils G. D. Santorini and 
J. B. Morgagni. Valsalva especially distinguished himself by 
his description of the structure of the ear, which, in possessing 
still greater precision and minuteness than that of Duverney, is 
valuable in setting the example of rendering anatomy altogether 

a sc i ence f description. Santorini, who was professor 

at Venice, was no unworthy friend of Valsalva and 
Morgagni. His anatomical observations, which relate to the 
muscles of the face, the brain and several of the nerves, the ducts 
of the lachrymal gland, the nose and its cavities, the larynx, the 
viscera of the chest and belly, and the organs of generation in the 
two sexes, furnish beautiful models of essays, distinguished for 
perspicuity, precision and novelty, above anything which had 
then appeared. These observations, indeed, which bear the 
impress of accurate observation and clear conception, may be 
safely compared with any anatomical writings which have 
appeared since. Those on the brain are particularly interesting. 
Morgagni. Morgagni, though chiefly known as a pathological 

anatomist, did not neglect the healthy structure. His 
Adversaria, which appeared between 1706 and 1719, and his 
Epistles, published in 1728, contain a series of observations to 
rectify the mistakes of previous anatomists, and to determine 
the characters of the healthy structure of many parts of the 
human body. Many parts he describes anew, and indicates facts 
not previously observed. All his remarks show how well he 
knew what true anatomical description ought to be. In this 
respect, indeed, the three anatomists now mentioned may be said 
to have anticipated their contemporaries nearly a century; for, 
while other authors were satisfied with giving loose and inaccurate 
or meagre notices of parts, with much fanciful supposition, 
Valsalva, Santorini and Morgagni laboured to determine with 
precision the anatomical characters of the parts which they 
describe. 

The same character is due to J. B. Winslow (1669-1760), a 
native of Denmark, but, as pupil and successor of Duverney, as 
wiasiow. wel1 as a convert to Catholicism, naturalized in France, 

and finally professor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens. 
His exposition of the structure of the human body is distinguished 
for being not only the first treatise of descriptive anatomy, 
divested of physiological details and hypothetical explanations 
foreign to the subject, but for being a close description derived 
from actual objects, without reference to the writings of previous 
'Bidloo was a Dutch anatomist and Cowper a London surgeon. 



anatomists. About the same time W. Cheselden in London, the 
first Alexander Monro in Edinburgh, and B. S. Albinus in Leiden, 
contributed by their several treatises to render anatomy still 
more precise as a descriptive science. The Osteographia of the 
first-mentioned was of much use in directing attention to the 
study of the skeleton and the morbid changes to which it is liable. 
This work, however, magnificent as it was, was excelled by that 
of Albinus, who in 1 747 published engravings, executed Mbiaus 
by Jan Wandelaar (1691-1759), of the bones and 
muscles, which had never been surpassed in accuracy of outline 
or beauty of execution. The several labours of Albinus, indeed, 
constitute an important era in the history of the science. He was 
the first who classified and exhibited the muscles in a proper 
arrangement, and applied to them a nomenclature which is still 
retained by the consent of the best anatomists. He gives a 
luminous account of the arteries and veins of the intestines, 
represents with singular fidelity and beauty the bones of the 
foetus, inquires into the structure of the skin and the cause of 
its colour in different races; represents the changes incident 
to the womb in different periods of pregnancy, and describes . 
the relations of the thoracic duct and the vena azygos with the 
contiguous parts. Besides these large and magnificent works, 
illustrated by the most beautiful engravings, six books of 
Academical Annotations were the fruits of his long and 
assiduous cultivation of anatomy. These contain valuable 
remarks on the second structure and morbid deviations of 
numerous parts of the human body. 

Albinus found a worthy successor in his pupil Albert von 
Haller (1708-1777), who, with a mind imbued with every depart- 
ment of literature and science, directed his chief atten- nailer 
tion, nevertheless, to the cultivation of anatomical and 
physiological knowledge. Having undertaken at an early age 
(twenty-one) to illustrate, with commentaries, the physiological 
prelections of his preceptor H. Boerhaave, he devoted himself 
assiduously to the perusal of every work which could tend to 
facilitate his purpose; and, as he found numerous erroneous or 
imperfect statements, and many deficiencies to supply, he under- 
took an extensive course of dissection of human and animal 
bodies to obtain the requisite information.. During the seven teen 
years he was professor at Gottingen, he dissected 400 bodies, 
and inspected their organs with the utmost care. The result of 
these assiduous labours appeared at intervals in the form of 
dissertations by himself, or under the name of some one of his 
pupils, finally published in a collected shape between 1746 and 
1751 (Disputationes Anatomicae Selectiores), and in eight numbers 
of most accurate and beautiful engravings, representing the 
most important parts of the human body, e.g. the diaphragm, 
the uterus, ovaries and vagina, the arteries of the different regions 
and organs, with learned and critical explanatory observations. 
He verified the observations that in the foetus the testicles lie in 
the abdomen, and showed that their descent into the scrotum may 
be complicated with the formation of congenital hernia. Some 
years after, when he had retired from his academical duties at 
Gottingen, he published between 1757 and 1765 the large and 
elaborate work which, with singular modesty, he styled Elements 
of Physiology. This work, though professedly devoted to physio- 
logy, rendered, nevertheless, the most essentially services to 
anatomy. Haller, drawing an accurate line of distinction 
between the two, gave the most clear, precise and complete 
descriptions of the situation, position, figure, component parts and 
minute structure of the different organs and their appendages. 
The results of previous and coeval inquiry, obtained by extensive 
reading, he sedulously verified by personal observation; and 
though he never rejected facts stated on credible authorities, he 
in all cases laboured to ascertain their real value by experiment. 
The anatomical descriptions are on this account not only the 
most valuable part of his work, but the most valuable that 
had then or for a long time after appeared. It is painful, 
nevertheless, to think that the very form in which this work is 
composed, with copious and scrupulous reference to authorities, 
made it be regarded as a compilation only; and that the author 
was compelled to show, by a list of his personal researches, 



HISTORY] 



ANATOMY 



935 



that the most learned work ever given to the physiologist was 
also the most abundant in original information. 

With the researches of Haller it is proper to notice those of 
his contemporaries, John Frederick Meckel, J. N. Lieberkuhn, 
and his pupil John Godfrey Zinn. The first, who was professor 
of anatomy at Berlin, described the Casserian ganglion, the first 
pair of nerves and its distribution and that of the facial nerves 
generally, and discovered the spheno-palatine ganglion (1748- 
1751). He made some original and judicious observations on the 
tissue of the skin and the mucous net (1753-1757); and above 
all, he recognized the connexion of the lymphatic vessels with the 
veins a doctrine which, after long neglect, was revived by 
Vincent Fohmann (1794-1837) and Lippi. He also collected 
several valuable observations on the morbid states of the heart 
and brain. Lieberkuhn published in 1745 a dissertation on the 
villi and glands of the small intestines. Zinn, who was professor 
of medicine at Gottingen, published a classical treatise on the 
eve ( I 75S)> which demonstrated at once the defects of previous 
inquiries, and how much it was possible to elucidate, by accurate 
research and precise description, the structure of one of the most 
important organs of the human frame. It was republished after 
his death by H. A. Wrisberg (1780). About the same time 
J. Weitbrecht gave a copious and minute account of the ligaments, 
and J. Lieutaud (1703-1780), who had already laboured to 
rectify many errors in anatomy, described with care the structure 
and relations of the heart and its cavities, and rendered the 
anatomy of the bladder very precise, by describing the triangular 
space and the mammillary eminence at its neck. 

The study of the minute anatomy of the tissues, which had 
originally been commenced by Leeuwenhoek, Malpighi and 
Ruysch, began at this period to attract more general attention. 
Karl August von Bergen had already demonstrated (1732) the 
general distribution of cellular membrane, and showed that it not 
only incloses every part of the animal frame, but forms the basis 
of every organ a doctrine which was adopted and still more 
fully expanded (1757) by his friend Haller, in opposition to what 
was asserted by Albinus, who maintains that each part has a 
proper tissue. William Hunter at the same time gave a clear and 
W Hunter i n g en i us statement of the difference between cellular 
membrane and adipose tissue (1757), in which he 
maintained the general distribution of the former, and represented 
it as forming the serous membranes, and regulating their physio- 
logical and pathological properties doctrines which were after- 
wards confirmed by his brother John Hunter. A few years after, 
the department of general anatomy first assumed a substantial 
form in the systematic view of the membranes and their mutual 
connexions traced by Andrew Bonn of Amsterdam. In his 
A Bono inaugural dissertation De Continuationibus Membra- 
narum, published at Leiden in 1763, this author, after 
some preliminary observations on membranes in general and 
their structure, and an exposition of that of the skin, traces its 
transition into the mucous membranes and their several divisions. 
He then explains the distribution of the cellular membrane, 
the aponeurotic expansions, and the periosteum and perichon- 
drium, by either of which, he shows, every bone of the skeleton 
is invested and connected. He finally gives a very distinct view 
of the arrangement of the internal membranes of cavities, those 
named serous and fibre-serous, and the manner of their dis- 
tribution over the contained organs. This essay, which is a happy 
example of generalization, is remarkable for the interesting general 
views of the structure of the animal body which it exhibits; 
and to Bonn belongs the merit of sketching the first outlines of 
that system which it was reserved for the genius of M. F. X. Bichat 
to complete and embellish. Lastly, T. de Bordeu, in an elaborate 
essay (1767) on the mucous tissue, or cellular organ, as he terms 
it, brought forward some interesting views of the constitution, 
nature and extent of the cellular membrane. 

Though anatomy was hitherto cultivated with much success 
as illustrating the natural history and morbid states of the human 
body, yet little had been done for the elucidation of local diseases, 
and the surgical means by which they may be successfully treated. 
The idea of applying anatomical knowledge directly to this 



purpose appears to have originated with Bernardin Genga, 
a Roman surgeon, who published in 1672, at Rome, a work 
entitled Surgical Anatomy, or the Anatomical History of the Bones 
and Muscles of the Human Body, with the Description of the Blood- 
vessels. This work, which reached a second edition in 1687, is 
highly creditable to the author, who appears to have studied 
intimately the mutual relations of different parts. It is not im- 
probable that the example of Genga led J. Palfyn, a surgeon at 
Ghent, to undertake a similar task about thirty years after (1718- 
1726). For this, however, he was by no means well qualified; 
and the work of Palfyn, though bearing the name of Surgical 
Anatomy, is a miserable compilation, meagre in details, inaccurate 
in description, and altogether unworthy of the honour of being 
republished, as it afterwards was by Antony Petit. 

While these two authors, however, were usefully employed 
in showing what was wanted for the surgeon, others v/ere occupied 
in the collection of new and more accurate facts. Albinus, 
indeed, ever assiduous, had, in his account of the operations 
of Rau, given some good sketches of the relative anatomy of 
the bladder and urethra; and Cheselden had already, in his mode 
of cutting into the urinary bladder, shown the necessity of an 
exact knowledge of the relations of contiguous parts. The first 
decided application, however, of this species of anatomical 
research it was reserved for a Dutch anatomist of the i8th 
century to make. Peter Camper, professor of anatomy at 
Amsterdam, published in 1 760 and 1762 his anatomico- camper. 
pathological demonstrations of the parts of the human 
arm and pelvis, of the diseases incident to them, and the mode 
of relieving them by operation, and explained with great clearness 
the situation of the blood-vessels, nerves and important muscles. 
His remarks on the lateral operation of lithotomy, which contain 
all that was then known on the subject, are exceedingly interest- 
ing and valuable to the surgeon. It appears, further, that he 
was the first who examined anatomically the mechanism of 
ruptures, his delineations of which were published in 1801 by 
S. T. Sommerring. Camper also wrote some important memoirs 
on Comparative Anatomy, and he was the author of a well-known 
work on the Relations of Anatomy to the Fine Arts. 

The attention of anatomists was now directed to the elucidation 
of the most obscure and least explored parts of the human frame 
the lymphatic vessels and the nerves. Although, since the 
first discovery of the former by Aselli, Rudbeck and Pecquet, 
much had been done, especially by Ruysch, Nuck, Meckel and 
Haller, many points, notwithstanding, relating to their origin 
and distribution in particular organs, and in the several classes 
of animals, were imperfectly ascertained or entirely unknown. 
William Hunter investigated their arrangement, and 
proposed the doctrine that they are absorbents; Hu'ter. 
and John Hunter, who undertook to demonstrate 
the truth of this hypothesis by experiment, discovered, in 
1758, lymphatics in the neck in birds. As the doctrine re- 
quired the existence of this order of vessels, not only in quad- 
rupeds and birds but in reptiles and fishes, the inquiry attracted 
attention among the pupils of Hunter; and William Hewson 1 
at length communicated, in December 1768, to the 
Royal Society of London an account of the lacteals 
and lymphatics in birds, fishes and reptiles, as he had discovered 
and demonstrated them. The subject was about the same time 
investigated by the second Alexander Monro, who indeed claimed 
the merit of discovering these vessels in the classes of animals 
now mentioned. But whatever researches this anatomist may 
have instituted, Hewson, by communicating his observations 
to the Royal Society, must be allowed to possess the strongest 
as well as the clearest claim to discovery. The same author, 
in 1774, gave the first complete account of the anatomical 
peculiarities of the lymphatic system in man and other animals, 
and thereby supplied an important gap in this department. 
Hewson is the first who distinguishes the lymphatics into two 
orders the superficial and the deep both in the extremities 
and in the internal organs. He also studied the structure of the 

1 Hewson was a partner with William Hunter in the Windmill 
Street School of Anatomy. 



936 



ANATOMY 



[HISTORY 



intestinal villi, in which he verified the observations of 
Lieberkuhn; and he made many important observations on the 
corpuscles of the lymph and blood. He finally applied his 
anatomical discoveries to explain many of the physiological 
and pathological phenomena of the animal body. Ten years after, 
John Sheldon, another pupil of Hunter, gave a second history 
and description of the lymphatics, which, though divested of 
the charm of novelty, contains many interesting anatomical 
facts. He also examined the structure of the villi. 

Lastly, Cruikshank, 1 in 1786, published a valuable history 
of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, in which he maintains 
the accuracy of the Hunterian doctrine, that the 
shank. lymphatics are the only absorbents; gave a more 
minute account than heretofore of these vessels, of 
their coats and valves; and explained the structure of the 
lymphatic glands. He also injected the villi, and examined them 
microscopically, verifying most of the observations of Lieberkuhn. 
The origin of the lymphatics he maintains rather by inference 
than direct demonstration. To these three works, though in 
other respects very excellent, it is a considerable objection that 
the anatomical descriptions are much mixed with hypothetical 
speculation and reasonings on properties, and that the facts are 
by no means'always distinguished from mere matters of opinion. 
At the same time J. G. Haase published an account of the 
lymphatics of the skin and intestines, and the plexiform nets 
of the pelvis. 

To complete this sketch of the history of the anatomy of 
the lymphatic system, it may be added that Paolo Mascagni, 

Mascagni w ^ ^ad been en g a g e( l Irom t^ 6 X ear J 777 to I ?8l 

in the same train of investigation, first demonstrated 
to his pupils several curious facts relating to the anatomy 
of the lymphatic system. When at Florence in 1782 he 
made several preparations, at the request of Peter Leopold, 
grand duke of Tuscany; and when the Royal Academy of 
Sciences at Paris announced the anatomy of this system for 
their prize essay appointed for March 1784, Mascagni resolved 
on communicating to the public the results of his researches 
the first part of his commentary, with four engravings. Anxiety, 
however, to complete his preparations detained him at Florence 
till the close of 1785; and from these causes his work did not 
appear till 1787. These delays, however, unfavourable as they 
were to his claims of priority to Sheldon and Cruikshank, were 
on the whole advantageous to the perfection of his work, which 
is not only the most magnificent, but also the most complete 
that ever was published on the lymphatics. In his account of 
the vessels and their valves he confirms some of Hewson's 
observations and rectifies others. Their origin he proves by 
inference much in the same manner as Cruikshank; but he 
anticipates this author in the account of the glands, and he 
gives the most minute description of the superficial and 
deep lymphatics, both in the members and in the internal 
organs. 

General accounts of the nerves had been given with various 
degrees of accuracy by Willis, Vieussens, Winslow, and the first 
Monro; and the subject had been much rectified and improved 
by the indefatigable Haller. The first example of minute de- 
scriptive neurography was given in 1748 by John Frederick 
Meckel, whose account of the fifth pair and of the nerves of the 
face will long remain a lasting proof of accuracy and research. 
The same subject was investigated in 1765 by Hirsch and in 
1777 by Wrisberg. In 1766 Metzger examined the origin, 
distribution and termination of the first pair a point which 
was afterwards very minutely treated by A. Scarpa 2 in his 
anatomical disquisitions, published in 1780; and the internal 
nerves of the nostrils were examined in 1791 by Haase. The 
optic nerve, which had been studied originally by Varoli, and 
afterwards by M6ry, Duverney, J. F. Henkel, Moeller, Hein 
and Kaldschmid, was examined with extreme accuracy, with 
the other nerves of the organ of vision, by Zinn in his elaborate 

1 W. Cruikshank followed W. Hunter as lecturer at the Windmill 
Street school. 

1 Scarpa was professor of anatomy at Modena and Pavia. 



treatise. The phrenic nerves and the oesophageal branches 
of the vagus were studied by Haase; the phrenic, the abdominal 
and the pharyngeal nerves, by Wrisberg; those of the heart 
most minutely by Andersch; and the origins, formation and 
distribution-of the intercostal nerves, by Iwanov, C. G. Ludwig, 
and Girardi. The labours of these anatomists, however, were 
eclipsed by the splendid works of Walter (1783) on the nerves 
of the chest and belly ; and those of Scarpa (1794) on the distribu- 
tion of the eighth pair and splanchnic nerves in general. In 
minuteness of description and in beauty of engraving these works 
have not yet been equalled, and will never perhaps be surpassed. 
About the same time, Scarpa, so distinguished in every branch 
of anatomical research, investigated the minute structure of 
the ganglions and plexuses. The anatomy of the brain itself 
was also studied (1780) with great attention by the second 
Monro, M. V. G. Malacarne and Vicq d'Azyr. 

Lastly, the anatomy of the gravid uterus, which had been 
originally studied by Albinus, Roederer and Smellie, was again 
illustrated (1774) most completely by William Hunter, whose 
engravings will remain a lasting memorial of scientific zeal and 
artistic talent. 

The perfection which anatomical science attained in the last 
ten years of the i8th and during the I9th century is evinced 
not only in the improved character of the systems 
published by anatomists, but in the enormous advance century. 
which has taken place in the knowledge of the minute 
structure of the animal tissues, of the development of the tissues 
and organs, and of the modifications in form and structure 
exhibited by various groups of animals. 

The first who gave a good modern system was R. B. Sabatier; 
but his work was speedily eclipsed by the superior merits of the 
treatises of Sommerring, Bichat and Portal. The excellent 
work by Samuel Thomas Sommerring, originally published in 
the German language, between the years 1791 and 
1796; then in the Latin language, between the years 
1794 and 1800; and in a second edition in the German 
language in 1800 and 1801, maintaining the high character 
which it first possessed for clear arrangement, accurate descrip- 
tion and general precision, was, between the years 1841 and 
1844, republished in eight volumes at Leipzig by Th. L. W. 
Bischoff, F. G. J. Henle, E. H. Huschke, Theile, G. G. Valentin, 
Vogel, and R. Wagner, with suitable additions, and a 
large amount of new and accurate information. In this edition 
Rudolph Wagner gives, in the first division of the first volume, 
the life, correspondence and literary writings of Sommerring; 
and in the second volume the anatomy of the bones and ligaments. 
The third volume contains the anatomy of the muscles and the 
vascular system by Theile. G. G. Valentin devotes one volume, 
the fourth, to the minute anatomy of the nervous system and its 
parts, as disclosed by careful examination by the microscope; 
and it must be allowed that the author has been at great pains 
to present just views of the true anatomy of the brain, the spinal 
cord, the nervous branches and the ganglia. In the fifth volume, 
E. H. Huschke of Jena gives the anatomical history of the 
viscera and the organs of the senses, a department which had 
been left in some degree incomplete in the original, but for one 
division of which the author had left useful materials in his 
large figures already mentioned. In the sixth volume, an entire 
and complete system of general anatomy, deduced from personal 
observation and that of other careful observers, the materials 
being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and rectified, 
is given by F. G. J. Henle. The seventh volume contains the 
history of the process of development in mammalia and man, 
by Th. L. W. Bischoff. The eighth volume treats of the patho- 
logical anatomy of the human body, by Julius Vogel, but contains 
only the first division, relating to the generalities of the subject. 
This, which is probably the most accurate as it is the most 
elaborate system of anatomical knowledge up to the date of 
its publication in 1844, was translated into the French language 
by Jourdan, and published in 1846 under the name of 
Encyclopidie anatomique. The eighth volume was translated 
into English in the year 1847. 



MODERN HUMAN] 



ANATOMY 



937 



The Anatomic generale of M. F. X. Bichat is a monument of his 
philosophical genius which will last as long as the structure 

and functions of the human body are objects of interest. 

His Anatomic descriptive is distinguished by clear 
and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description, 
and the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated. 
The physiological observations are in general correct, often 
novel, and always highly interesting. It is unfortunate, however, 
that the ingenious author was cut off prematurely during the 
preparation of the third volume. The later volumes are, however, 
pervaded with the general spirit by which the others are im- 
pressed, and are highly creditable to the learning, the judgment 
and the diligence of P. J. Roux and M. F. R. Buisson. The system 
of A. Portal is a valuable and correct digest of anatomical and 
Preach pathological knowledge, which, in exact literary 
systematic information, is worthy of the author of the Hisloire 
anato- fa l' an atomie et de la chirurgie, and, in accuracy of 

descriptive details, shows that Portal trusted not 
to the labours of his predecessors only. A. Boyer published in 
1803 a complete treatise on descriptive anatomy. H. Cloquet 
formed, on the model of the Anatomic descriptive of Bichat, 
a system in which he avails himself of the literature and precision 
of Sommerring and the details of Portal. An English translation 
of this work was prepared by Dr Robert Knox. Jean Cruveilhier 
published in 1834-1835 a good general treatise on descriptive 
anatomy, which was translated into English, and published as 
a part of The Library of Medicine. Cruveilhier's treatise has 
passed through several editions. The most elaborate work of the 
French school is the great treatise of M. J. Bourgery, consisting 
of four divisions,on descriptive, general, surgical and philosophical 
anatomy (1832-1854). These are beautifully illustrated. 

MODERN HUMAN ANATOMY (Anthropotomy) 

The history of modern human anatomy in Great Britain begins 
with the time at which the dissection of the human body became 
part of the training of students of medicine, and this is one of the 
greatest debts, though by no means the best recognized, of the 
many which medical science owes to that remarkable man 
William Hunter. Before his time the anatomy professors of the 
most celebrated schools both at home and abroad used one or at 
most two subjects to illustrate their courses of lectures, and were 
in the habit of demonstrating the performance of surgical 
operations not on human bodies but on those of lower animals. 
Few students dissected the human body, because for such 
dissection they had no opportunities. The English law, since 
the time of Henry VIII., allowed only the bodies of persons 
executed for murder to be dissected, and the supply seems to 
have been sufficient for the humble needs of the time. The 
reformation of this antiquated and imperfect system took place 
in 1747, when Hunter established complete courses of anatomical 
lectures and opened a school for dissection. The practice of 
dissection grew so rapidly that by about 1793 there were 
200 regular anatomy students in London, while in 1823 
their number was computed at about 1000. Of course the 
supply of murderers was not enough for all these students, 
and the very fact that only murderers were allowed for this 
purpose made people bitterly hostile to the bodies of their 
relations and friends being dissected. In accounting for the great 
aversion which there has always been from dissection in England, 
it should be remembered that, although capital punishment 
was the penalty for very many offences at the beginning of the 
igth century, only the bodies of murderers were handed over to 
the anatomists. 

When once the absolute necessity of a surgeon's having a good 
knowledge of anatomy was realized, bodies had to be procured 
at any hazard, and the chief method was to dig them up as soon 
as possible after their burial. This practice of exhumation or 
" body-snatching " on a large scale seems to have been peculiar 
to Great Britain and America, and not to have been needed on 
the continent of Europe. In France, Italy, Portugal and Austria 
no popular objection was raised to the bodies of friendless people, 
who died in hospitals, or of those whose burial was paid for by 



the state, being dissected, provided a proper religious service 
was held over them. In Germany it was obligatory that the 
bodies of all people unable to pay for their burials, all dying in 
prisons, all suicides and public women should be given up. In 
all these countries the supply was most ample, exhumation was 
unknown, and the cost of learning anatomy to the students 
was very moderate. In Great Britain the earlier exhumations 
seem to have caused very little popular concern; Hunter, it 
is said, could manage to get the body of any person he wanted, 
were it that of giant, dwarf, hunchback or lord, but later, when 
the number of students increased very rapidly, the trade of 
" resurrection man " became commoner, and attracted the 
lowest dregs of the vicious classes. It is computed that in 
1828 about 200 people were engaged in it in London alone, 
though only a few gained their entire livelihood by it. In the 
first half of the i8th century, and for some time afterwards, 
the few dissections which were undertaken were carried out 
in the private houses of medical men. In 1702 a rule was passed 
at St Thomas's Hospital preventing the surgeons or pupils from 
dissecting bodies there without the express permission of the 
treasurer, but by 1780 this rule seems to have lapsed, and a 
definite dissecting-room was established, an example which was 
soon followed by Guy's and St Bartholomew's. 

In the early years of the igth century the number of students 
increased so rapidly that a good many private anatomy schools 
grew up, and in 1828 we find that the total list of London dis- 
secting rooms comprised those of Guy's, London, St Bartholo- 
mew's and St Thomas's hospitals, the Webb Street school of 
Mr Grainger, the Aldersgate school of Mr Tyrrell, the Windmill 
Street school where Caesar Hawkins and Herbert Mayo lectured, 
and the schools of Messrs. Bennett, Carpue, Dermott and Sleigh. 
These schools needed and, it seems, obtained nearly 800 bodies 
a year in the years about 1823, when there were nearly 1000 
students in London, and it is recorded that bodies were even 
sent to Edinburgh and Oxford. 

When it is realized that the greater number of these were ex- 
humed, it is easy to understand how hostile the public feeling 
became to the body-snatchers or " resurrection men," and also 
in a modified form to the teachers of anatomy and medical 
students. This was increased by the fact that it soon became 
well known that many of the so-called resurrection men only 
used their calling as a cloak for robbery, because, if they were 
stopped with a horse and cart by the watch at night, the presence 
of a body on the top of stolen goods was sufficient to avert 
suspicion and search. It is in many places suggested, though 
not definitely stated, that the Home Office authorities under- 
stood how absolutely necessary it was that medical students 
should learn the details of the human body, on which they would 
be called to operate, and that the police had instructions not to 
interfere more than was necessary with the only method by 
which that education could be supplied, however unlawful it 
might be. So emboldened and careless did these body-snatchers 
become, and so great was the demand for bodies, that they no 
longer confined themselves to pauper graves, but took the 
remains of the wealthier classes, who were in a position to resent 
it more effectually; often they did not even take the trouble 
to fill in the graves after rifling their contents, and, in con- 
sequence, many sextons, who no doubt had been bribed, lost 
their posts, and men armed with firearms watched the London 
burial-places at night. The result of this was that the " resurrec- 
tion men " had to go farther afield, and their occupation was 
attended with considerable danger, so that the price of a body 
gradually rose from 2 to about 14, which seems the maximum 
ever paid. In addition to this heavy sum the anatomical 
teachers had to pay the fines of the exhumers when they were 
caught, or to support their families when they were imprisoned. 
By 1828 the annual supply of bodies had dropped to about 450, 
and about 200 English students were forced each year to go 
to Paris for their anatomical instruction. There they could get 
a body for about seven francs and could also be taught by 
English anatomists who settled in that city for the purpose. 

As early as about 1810 an anatomical society was formed, to 



938 



ANATOMY 



[MODERN HUMAN 



impress on the government the necessity for an alteration in the 
law, and among the members we find the names of John Aber- 
nethy, Charles Bell, Everard Home, Benjamin Brodie, Astley 
Cooper and Henry Cline. It was owing to the exertions of this 
body that in 1828 a select committee was appointed by the 
government to report on the whole question, and to the minutes 
of evidence taken before this body the reader is referred for 
further details. 

The report of this committee led to the Anatomy Act of 1832, 
but there can be little doubt that its passage through the House 
was expedited by the recent discovery and arrest of the infamous 
William Burke and William Hare, who, owing to the extreme 
difficulty of procuring subjects for dissection in Edinburgh and 
the high price paid for them, had made a practice of enticing men 
to their lodgings and then drugging and suffocating them in order 
to sell their bodies to Dr Knox. Hare turned king's evidence 
but Burke was executed. (See MacGregor's History of Burke 
and Hare, 1884, Lonsdale's Life and Writings of Robert Knox, 
1870. Many further details connected with the condition of 
anatomy, especially in Dublin, before the passing of the Anatomy 
Act, will be found in Memoirs of James Macartney by Professor A. 
Macalister, F.R.S.) The bill to legalize and regulate the supply 
of subjects for dissection did not pass without considerable 
opposition. In 1829 the College of Surgeons petitioned against 
it, and it was withdrawn in the House of Lords owing to the 
opposition of the archbishop of Canterbury, but in 1832 a new 
Anatomy Bill was introduced, which, though violently opposed 
by Messrs Hunt, Sadler and Vyvyan, was supported by Macaulay 
and O'Connell, and finally passed the House of Lords on the ipth 
of July 1832. 

This is the act which governs the practice of anatomy in the 
British Isles up to the present day, and which has only been 
slightly modified as to the time during which bodies may be 
kept unburied in the schools. It provides that any one intend- 
ing to practise anatomy must obtain a licence from the home 
secretary. As a matter of fact only one or two teachers in each 
institution take out this licence and are known as licensed 
teachers, but they accept the whole responsibility for the proper 
treatment of all bodies dissected in the building for which their 
licence is granted. Watching over these licensed teachers, 
and receiving constant reports from them, are four inspectors 
of anatomy, one each for England, Scotland, Ireland and London, 
who report to the home secretary and know the whereabouts 
of every body which is being dissected. The main clause of the 
act is the seventh, which says that a person having lawful 
possession of a body may permit it to undergo an<> omical 
examination provided no relative objects; the other clauses 
are subsidiary and detail the methods of carrying this into effect. 
In clause 16, however, the old act of Henry VIII. is repealed 
and the bodies of murderers are no longer to be given up for 
dissection after execution. 

There can be little doubt that this act has worked well and with 
a minimum of friction; it at once did away with body-snatching 
and crimes like those of Burke and Hare. No licensed teacher 
now could or would receive a body without a medical certificate 
and a warrant from the inspector of anatomy, and, when the 
bodies are buried, a proper religious service, according to the 
creed professed during life, is provided. The great majority 
of bodies are those of unclaimed poor in the workhouse in- 
firmaries, but a few are obtained each year from the general 
hospitals. Occasionally a well-to-do person, following the 
example of Jeremy Bentham, leaves his body for the advance- 
ment of science, but even then, if his relatives object, it is not 
received. 

The ample supply of subjects obtained by legitimate means 
which the anatomy act provided was followed by the opening 
of anatomical schools at all the great London hospitals and the 
universities, with the result that anatomical research was 
stimulated and text-books embodying the latest discoveries 
were brought out. It is wonderful, however, how much descrip- 
tive anatomy was taught in the days before text-books were 
common and how much of what is essential to the study of 



surgery and medicine the students knew. In looking through an 
old book of anatomical questions and answers dated 1812, one 
is struck by the fact that any one working through them with 
the body would probably pass an average modern anatomical 
examination to-day. 

The various phases which anatomy in the British Isles has 
passed through have also been experienced in America, though 
it is difficult to compare the two countries owing to the fact that 
each state in the Union makes its own laws as to dissection, and 
that these vary considerably. The first anatomy act worthy of 
the name was that of Massachusetts, and was passed in 1831, one 
year before the British act. There is reason to believe, however, 
that, in some states, all the evils of body-snatching existed up 
to the end of the igth century. In some more enlightened states, 
such as Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the modern acts are in 
advance of the British in that they are mandatory instead of 
permissive, and their compulsory nature is found rather to reduce 
than to increase public opposition to dissection. A study of the 
history of anatomy in the United States during the ipth century 
furnishes an instructive lesson on th'e futility of attempting to 
suppress dissection by legislation and on the serious and some- 
times terrible crimes to which any such attempt naturally leads. 
It also teaches that, when unclaimed bodies must be given up 
and must be treated reverently and buried decently, there is less 
friction than when public boards have the right of arbitrarily 
refusing to allow their unclaimed dead to be used for the service 
of the living. 

In all the important countries of Europe, with the exception 
of Russia and Turkey, anatomy acts exist. They almost all 
differ from the British act in being mandatory instead of per- 
missive; in other words, certain unclaimed bodies must be 
given up to the schools of anatomy. As a rule these come from 
the general hospitals, but sometimes, as in Germany, Austria 
and Sweden, suicides are received and form a considerable part of 
the whole number. Even where executed criminals are available 
they nowadays form a negligible contribution, but the unclaimed 
bodies of people dying in prison are provided for in the French, 
Belgian, Norwegian, Swedish, German and Italian regulations, 
and in Paris they form an important element of the supply. In 
Russia several attempts to gain an anatomy act have been made, 
but have always been opposed by those in authority, and there is 
good reason to believe that bodies are procured by bribing hospital 
and mortuary attendants. It is said that the army contributes a 
large percentage of the total number. In Turkey no facilities 
for dissecting the dead body exist, as the practice is against 
the Mahommedan religion; the German pathologists in Turkey, 
however, insist on making post mortem examinations. In the 
British colonies anatomical regulations vary a good deal; some- 
times, as in New South Wales, the act is founded on that of Great 
Britain and is permissive, but in Victoria the minister may 
authorize the medical officer of any public institution supported 
wholly or in part by funds from the general revenue to permit 
unclaimed bodies to be dissected, provided the persons, during 
life had not expressed a wish against it. This act in its working 
is equivalent to a mandatory one, since the power of refusing 
bodies is not left in the hands of, in this respect, uneducated poor 
law guardians. 

In the early years of the igth century Sir Charles Bell's work 
on human anatomy is by far the most important in the British 
Isles. He wrote the article on the nerves in his brother John 
Bell's work on the anatomy of the human body, as well as his 
own classical works on the anatomy of expression, the hand and 
the arteries; but his chief work was the discovery of the difference 
between motor and sensory nerves. Sir Astley Cooper brought 
out his beautifully illustrated monograph on hernia in 1807. 
Besides these, the Edinburgh school had contributed the system- 
atic treatises of Andrew Fyfe, John Bell, the third Monro and 
John Gordon. In 1828 appeared the first edition of Quain's 
Anatomy, written by Jones Quain. This monumental work, 
which is still among the very first of English text-books, has run 
through ten editions, and is of even greater value to the teacher 
and researcher than to the medical student, because of its 



SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC] 



ANATOMY 



939 



excellent bibliographies and the way in which it has been kept 
abreast of modern morphological knowledge by its various 
editors. Hardly any of the original work now remains. In 
1858 another famous text-book on systematic anatomy appeared, 
written by Henry Gray, and this has always been particularly 
popular with students both in Great Britain and in America; it 
pays more attention to the surgical applications of anatomy 
than to the scientific and morphological side, and has reached 
its sixteenth edition. 

The Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, edited by Dr 
Robert Todd from 1835 to 1859, which contained articles on 
both human and comparative anatomy, is now somewhat out of 
date, but did much for the advancement of the science when it 
appeared. 

In 1893 a text-book written by several authors and edited by 
Henry Morris appeared. It has run through three editions and 
is especially popular in America. The latest English system- 
atic work of first-rate importance is the splendid compilation 
edited by D. J. Cunningham (1902) and written, with one or two 
exceptions, by pupils of the veteran anatomist Sir William 
Turner. It is dedicated to him and will long serve as a memento 
of the work which he has done in training anatomists for the 
whole of the British empire. Besides these systematic treatises, 
many dissecting manuals have been published. The earliest 
were the Dublin Dissector and the London Dissector; others 
still in use are those of G. V. Ellis, C. Heath, D. J. Cunningham, 
and J. Cleland and J. Mackay. In 1889 Professor A. Macalister 
published a book on anatomy, which combined the advantages 
of a text-book with those of a dissecting guide. 

In America the English text-books are largely used in addition 
to that edited by F. H. Gerrish. There is a special American 
edition of Gray. 

Many systematic works on modern anatomy have come from 
Germany. J. F. Meckel, J. C. Rosenmiiller, C. F. Krause, G. F. 
Hildebrandt, J. Hyrtl, H. Luschka and A. Meyer have all pub- 
lished works which have made their mark, but by far the most 
important, and, as some consider, still the best of all anatomical 
text-books, is that of F. G. J. Henle, professor of anatomy in Got- 
tingen, which was completed in 1873. The beautiful illustrations of 
frozen specimens of the body brought out by W. Braune added a 
great deal to the student's opportunities of learning the relations 
of the various structures, and are largely used all over the world. 
Rudinger's Anatomy also contains many plates showing various 
sections, but the most complete text-book in the German language 
is that by Prof. Karl von Bardeleben of Jena; this is in eight 
volumes and contains notices of the latest literature on de- 
scriptive and morphological anatomy by the most prominent 
German anatomists. In addition to these W. Spalteholz and 
C. Toldt have brought out valuable atlases. In France J. Testut's 
and Poirier's anatomies, both of great excellence and beautifully 
illustrated, are the ones in common use. 

There are two epoch-making dates in the history of modern 
English anatomy besides that of the passing of the Anatomy Act 
in 1832. The first of these is 1867, when the first volume of the 
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology appeared. This afforded a 
medium for English anatomists to publish their original work, 
besides containing valuable reviews and notices of books and work 
published abroad; it has appeared quarterly without a break 
since that time, and was long under the immediate direction 
of Sir William Turner. 

The second date is 1887, when the Anatomical Society of 
Great Britain and Ireland was founded through the exertions of 
Mr C. B. Lockwood. It meets three times a year in London and 
once, in the summer, at some provincial school. It numbers 
some one hundred and fifty members, and enables anatomists 
from the whole British empire to meet one another and discuss 
subjects of common interest. Its first president was Prof. 
Murray Humphry of Cambridge, and its official organ is the 
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. 

No account of modern anatomical work would be complete 
without drawing attention to the great mass of special periodical 
literature containing the records of original work which are being 



published. It is said that some three or four thousand articles 
on anatomy appear in six hundred journals each year. To 
mention a few of these, in addition to the British Journal of 
Anatomy and Physiology there is an American Journal of Anatomy, 
the French Bulletin et memoires de la societt analomique, and La 
journal de I'anatomie et de la physiologic, and the German Inter- 
nationale Monatschrifl fur Anatomic und Physiologic, Anatom- 
ischer Anzeiger, Waldeyer's Archiv fiir Anatomic und Physiologic, 
Schwalbe's Zeitschrift fiir Morphologic und Anlhropologie, 
Gegenbaur's Morphologisches Jahrbuch, edited by Ruge, and 
Merkel's Anatomische Hefte. 

Unfortunately the outlook of anatomy in Great Britain is not 
altogether satisfactory. The number of subjects for dissection 
has since 1895 been steadily diminishing, especially in London. 
This is due partly to the modern system of insuring lives for 
small sums and so decreasing the number of unclaimed bodies, 
and partly to the fact that, owing to the permissive nature of the 
British Anatomy Act, several boards of guardians will not allow 
even unclaimed bodies to be used for dissection and for the teaching 
of operative surgery. It is not popularly understood that a 
dearth of bodies means not only a check to abstract science, 
but a serious handicap to medical education, which must react 
more upon the poor than upon the rich, since the latter can afford 
to pay for the services of medical men educated abroad, where 
no difficulties are placed in the way of their learning fully the 
structure of the body they have to treat in disease. (F. G. P.) 

ANATOMY SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC 

The objects of the study of superficial anatomy are to show, 
first, the form and proportions of the human body and, second, 
the surface landmarks which correspond to deeper structures 
hidden from view. This study blends imperceptibly with others, 
such as physical anthropology, physiognomy, phrenology and 
palmistry, but whereas these deal chiefly with variations, 
superficial anatomy is concerned with the type. 

With regard to the proportions of the body the artist and 
anatomist approach the subject from a slightly different point of 
view. The former, by a process of artistic selection, seeks the 
ideal and adopts the proportions which give the most pleasing 
effect, while the latter desires to know only the mean of a large 
series of measurements. 

The scheme which Dr Paul Richer sugges,ts(Anatomie artistique, 
Paris, i89o),and Professor Arthur Thomsonapproves(j4natow;y/0/- 
Art Students, 1896), is to divide the whole body into head-lengths, 
of which seven and a half make up the stature. Four of these 
are above the fork and three and a half below (see figs, i and 2). 
Of the four above, one forms the head and face, the second 
reaches from the chin to the level of the nipples, the third from 
the nipples to the navel, and the fourth from there to the fork. 
By dividing these into half -heads other points can be determined; 
for instance the middle of the first head-length corresponds to 
the eyes, the middle of the second to the shoulder, of the fourth 
to the top of the hip-joint, and of the fifth to the knee-joint. 

The elbow-joint, when the arms are by the side, is a little above 
the lower limit of the third head-length, whilst the wrist is 
opposite the very centre of the stature, three head-lengths and 
three-quarters from the crown or the soles. The tips of the fingers 
reach a little below the middle of the fifth head-length. (In fig. i 
the fingers are bent.) By making the stature eight head-lengths 
instead of seven and a half the artistic effect is increased, as it is 
also by slightly lengthening the legs in proportion to the body. 
Approximate average breadth measurements are two heads for 
the greatest width of the shoulders, one and a half for the greatest 
width of the hips, one for the narrowest part of the waist, and 
three-quarters for the breadth of the head on a level with the 
eyes. 

The relation of superficial landmarks to deep structures 
cannot be treated here in full detail, but the chief points may be 
indicated. Certain parts of the head may easily be felt through 
the skin. If the finger is run along the upper margin of the orbit, 
the notch for the supraorbital nerve may usually be felt at the 
junction of the inner and middle thirds. At the outer end of 



940 



ANATOMY 



[SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC 



the margin is its junction with the malar bone, and this easily 
felt point is known as the external angular process. The junction 
of the frontal and nasal bones at the root of the nose is the nasion, 
while at the back of the skull the external occipital protuberance 
or inion is felt and marks the position of the torcular Herophili, 
where the venous sinuses meet. The zygoma may be felt running 
back from the malar bone to just in front of the ear, and two 
fingers' breadth above the middle of it marks the pterion, a very 
important point in the localization of intracranial structures. 
It corresponds to the anterior branch of the middle meningeal 
artery, to the Sylvian point where the three limbs of the fissure 
of Sylvius diverge, to the middle cerebral artery, the central 
lobe of the brain or island of Reil. and the anterior part of the 
corpus striatum. The fissure of Sylvius can be marked out by 
drawing a line from the external angular process back through 
the Sylvian point to the lower part of the parietal eminence. 




FIG. i. 

a, Serratus magnus. 

0, Deltoid. 

y. Biceps. 

d, Poupart's ligament. 

, Patella. 

T.P. Transpyloric plane. 
S.C. Subcostal plane. 
I.T. Intertubercular plane. 



FIG. 2. 
ft. Dimple over posterior superior 

spine of ilium. 
y, Lower angle of scapula. 
S, External head of triceps. 
t, Depression over great tro- 

cnanter. 

f, Popliteal space. 
17, Gastrocnemius. 



The scale between the figures represents head-lengths. 

The position of the sulcus of Rolando is important because of the 
numerous cortical centres which lie close to it. For practical 
purposes it may be mapped out by taking the superior Rolandic 
point, 5 in. behind the bisection of a line drawn from the nasion 
to the inion over the vault of the skull, and joining that to the 
inferior Rolandic point, which is just above the line of the fissure 
of Sylvius and i in. behind the Sylvian point. The external 
parieto-occipital fissure, which forms the boundary between the 
parietal and occipital lobes of the brain, is situated practically 
at the lambda, which is a hand's breadth (2$ in.) above the inion. 
The lateral sinus can be mapped out by joining the inion to the 
asterion, a point two-thirds of the distance from the lambda 
to the tip of the mastoid process; thence the sinus curves down- 
ward and forward toward the tip of the mastoid process. A 
point i in. horizontally backward from the top of the external 
auditory meatus will always strike it. 

Cranio-cerebral topography has been dealt with by Broca, Bischoff, 
Turner, Fere, Pozzi, Giacomini, Ecker, Hefftler and Hare. Among 
the more recent papers are those of R. W. Reid (Lancet, 27th Sep- 
tember 1884), W. Anderson and G. Makins (Lancet, I3th July 1889), 



Prof. Chiene (detailed in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy) 
V. Horsley (Am. Journal Med. Sci., 1887), G. Thane and R. Godlee 
(Quain's A natomy appendix to loth edition). D. J. Cunningham 
discusses the whole question in his " Contribution to the Surface 
Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres " (Cunningham Memoirs, 
No. vii. R. Irish Academy, Dublin, 1892), and he has prepared a 
series of casts to illustrate it. 

The Face. On the front of the face a line drawn down from 
the supraorbital notch between the bicuspid teeth to the side 
of the chin will cut the exit of the second division of the fifth 
nerve from the infraorbital foramen, a quarter of an inch below 
the infraorbital margin, and also the exit of the third division of 
the fifth at the mental foramen, midway between the upper and 
lower margins of the body of the jaw. In practice it will be found 
that the angle of the mouth at rest usually corresponds to the 
interval between the bicuspid teeth. The skin of the eyelids is 
very thin, and is separated from the subjacent fibrous tarsal 
plates by the orbicularis palpebrarum muscle. On everting the 
lids the delicate conjunctival membrane is seen, and between this 
and the tarsal plates lie the meibomian glands, which can be 
faintly seen as yellowish streaks. From the free edges of the 
eyelids come the eyelashes, between which many large sweat- 
glands open, and when one of these is inflamed it causes a " stye." 
Internally the two eyelids form a little recess called the internal 
canthus, occupied by a small red eminence, the caruncula 
lachrymalis, just external to which a small vertical fold of 
conjunctiva may often be seen, called the plica semilunaris, 
representing the third eyelid of birds and many mammals. By 
gently drawing down the lower eyelid the lower punctum may 
be seen close to the caruncula; it is the pinhole opening into the 
lower of the two canaliculi which carry away the tears to the 
lachrymal sac and duct. On the side of the face the facial artery 
may be felt pulsating about an inch in front of the angle of the 
jaw; it runs a tortuous course to near the angle of the mouth, 
the angle of the nose and the inner angle of the eye; in the 
greater part of its course its vein lies some distance behind it. 
The parotid gland lies between the ramus of the jaw and the 
mastoid process; anteriorly it overlaps the masseter to form the 
socia parotidis, and just below this its duct, the duct of Stensen, 
runs forward to pierce the buccinator and open into the mouth 
opposite the second upper molar tooth. The line of this duct may 
be marked out by joining the lower margin of the tragus to a 
point midway between the lower limit of the nose and the mouth. 
The facial or seventh nerve emerges from the skull at the stylo- 
mastoid foramen just in front of the root of the mastoid process; 
in the parotid gland it forms a network called the pes anserinus, 
after which it divides into six branches which radiate over the 
face to supply the muscles of expression. 

The Neck. In the middle line below the chin can be felt the 
body of the hyoid bone, just below which is the prominence of 
the thyroid cartilage called " Adam's apple," better marked in 
men than in women. Still lower the cricoid cartilage is easily felt, 
while between this and the suprasternal notch the trachea and 
isthmus of the thyroid gland may be made out. At the side the 
outline of the sterno-mastoid muscle is the most striking mark; 
it divides the anterior triangle of the neck from the posterior. 
The upper part of the former contains the submaxillary gland, 
which lies just below the posterior half of the body of the jaw. 
The line of the common and the external carotid arteries may be 
marked by joining the sterno-clavicular articulation to the angle 
of the jaw. The eleventh or spinal accessory nerve corresponds 
to a line drawn from a point midway between the angle of the 
jaw and the mastoid process to the middle of the posterior border 
of the sterno-mastoid muscle and thence across the posterior 
triangle to the deep surface of the trapezius. The external 
jugular vein can usually be seen through the skin; it runs in a 
line drawn from the angle of the jaw to the middle of the clavicle, 
and close to it are some small lymphatic glands. The anterior 
jugular vein is smaller, and runs down about half an inch from 
the middle line of the neck. The clavicle or collar-bone forms 
the lower limit of the neck, and laterally the outward slope of 
the neck to the shoulder is caused by the trapezius muscle. 

The Chest. It is important to realize that the shape of the 



SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC] 



ANATOMY 



941 



chest does not correspond to that of the bony thorax which 
encloses the heart and lungs; all the breadth of the shoulders 
is due to the shoulder girdle, and contains the axilla and the head 
of the humerus. In the middle line the suprasternal notch is seen 
above, while about three fingers' breadth below it a transverse 
ridge can be felt, which is known as Ludovic's angle and marks 
the junction between the manubrium and gladiolus of the 
sternum. Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum, 
and when these are found the lower ribs may be easily counted 
in a moderately thin subject. At the lower part of the sternum, 
where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage 
begins, and over this there is often a depression popularly known 
as the pit of the stomach. The nipple in the male is situated in 
front of the fourth rib or a little below; vertically it lies a little 
external to a line drawn down from the middle of the clavicle; 
in the female it is not so constant. A little below it the lower 
limit of the great pectoral muscle is seen running upward and 
outward to the axilla; in the female this is obscured by the 
breast, which extends from the second to the sixth rib vertically 
and from the edge of the sternum to the mid-axillary line later- 
ally. The female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by a more 
or less pigmented disc, the areola. The apex of a normal heart 
is in the fifth left intercostal space, three and a half inches from 
the mid-line. 

The Abdomen. In the mid-line a slight furrow extends from 
the ensiform cartilage above to the symphysis pubis below; 
this marks the linea alba in the abdominal wall, and about its 
middle point is the umbilicus or navel. On each side of it the 
broad recti muscles can be seen in muscular people. The outline 
of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse 
depressions indicating the lineae transversae in the recti; there 
is usually one about the ensiform cartilage, one at the umbilicus, 
and one between; sometimes a fourth is present below the 
umbilicus. The upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the sub- 
costal margin formed by the cartilages of the false ribs (8, 9, 10) 
joining one another; the lower lateral limit is the anterior part 
of the crest of the ilium and Poupart's ligament running from the 
anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the pubis (see 
fig. i, S); these lower limits are marked by definite grooves. 
Just above the pubic spine is the external abdominal ring, an 
opening in the muscular wall of the abdomen for the spermatic 
cord to emerge in the male. The most modern method of mark- 
ing out the abdominal contents is to draw three horizontal and 
two vertical lines; the highest of the former is the transpyloric 
line of C. Addison (fig. i, T.P.), which is situated half-way between 
the suprasternal notch and the top of the symphysis pubis; it 
often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the 
right of the mid-line. The hilum of each kidney is a little below 
it, while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the 
spleen. It corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind. 
The second line is the subcostal (fig. i, S.C.), drawn from the 
lowest point of the subcostal arch (tenth rib) ; it corresponds to 
the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra, and is an inch or so 
above the umbilicus; it indicates roughly the transverse colon, 
the lower ends of the kidneys, and the upper limit of the trans- 
verse (3rd) part of the duodenum. The third line is called the 
intertubercular (fig. i, I.T.), and runs across between the two 
rough tubercles,which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the 
ilium about two and a half inches from the anterior superior spine. 
This line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra, 
and passes through or just above the ileo-caecal valve where the 
small intestine joins the large. The two vertical or mid-Poupart 
lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior 
superior spine and the pubic symphysis on each side vertically 
upward to the costal margin. The right one is the most valuable, 
as the ileo-caecal valve is situated where it cuts the intertuber- 
cular line, while the orifice of the vermiform appendix is an inch 
lower down. At its upper part it meets the transpyloric line at 
the lower margin of the ribs, usually the ninth, and here the gall- 
bladder is situated. The left mid-Poupart line corresponds in 
its upper three-quarters to the inner edge of the descending 
colon. The right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower 



limit of the liver, while the right nipple is about half an inch 
above the upper limit of this viscus. 

The Back. There is a well-marked furrow stretching all the 
way down the middle line of. the back from the external occipital 
protuberance to the cleft of the buttocks. In this the spinous 
processes of the vertebrae can be felt, especially if the model 
bend forward. The cervical spines are difficult to feel, except 
the seventh and sometimes the second, and although the former 
is called the vertebra prominens, its spine is less easily felt than 
is that of the first thoracic. In practice it is not very easy to 
identify any one spine with certainty: one method is to start 
from the prominent first thoracic and to count down ; another is to 
join the lower angles of the two scapulae (fig. 2, y) when the arms 
are hanging down, and to take the spine through which the line 
passes as the seventh. 

The spinal furrow is caused by the prominence of the erector 
spinae muscles on each side; these become less well marked as 
they run upward. The outlines of the scapulae can be well seen ; 
they cover the ribs from the second to the seventh inclusive. 
The scapular spine is quite subcutaneous, and can be followed 
upward and outward from the level of the third thoracic spine 
to the acromion, and so to the outer end of the clavicle. On the 
lower margin of the acromion is a little tubercle known as the 
metacromial process or acromial angle, which is very useful for 
taking measurements from. The tip of the twelfth rib may 
usually be felt about two inches above the middle of the iliac 
crest, but this rib is very variable in length. The highest point 
of the iliac crest corresponds to the fourth lumbar spine, while 
the posterior superior iliac spine is on a level with the second 
sacral vertebra. This posterior superior spine is not easily felt, 
owing to the ligaments attached to it, but there is usually a little 
dimple in the skin over it (fig. 2, j8). By drawing horizontal lines 
through the ist, 3rd and sth lumbar spines, the transpyloric, 
subcostal and intertubercular lines or planes may be reproduced 
behind and the same viscera localized. 

The Arm. Running downward and outward from the inner 
half of the clavicle, where that bone is convex forward, is the 
clavicular part of the pectoralis major, while from the outer third 
of the bone, where it is concave forward, is the clavicular part of 
the deltoid; between these two muscles is an elongated triangular 
gap with its base at the clavicle, and here the skin is somewhat 
depressed, while the cephalic vein sinks between the two muscles 
to join the axillary vein. The tip of the coracoid process is 
situated just under cover of the inner edge of the deltoid, one 
inch below the junction between the outer and middle thirds of 
the clavicle. The deltoid muscle (fig. i, /3) forms the prominence 
of the shoulder, and its convex outline is due to the presence of 
the head of the humerus deep to it; when this is dislocated the 
shoulder becomes flattened. The pectoralis major forms the 
anterior fold of the axilla or armpit, the posterior being formed by 
the latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles. The skin of the 
floor of this space is covered with hair in the adult, and contains 
many large sweat glands. The axillary vessels and brachial 
plexus of nerves lie in the outer wall, while on the inner wall are 
the serrations of the serratus magnus muscle, the outlines of some 
of which are seen on the side of the thorax, through the skin, 
when the arm is raised (fig. i , o). Below the edge of the pectoralis 
major, the swelling of the biceps (fig. i , 7) begins to be visible, and 
this can easily be traced into its tendon of insertion, which 
reaches below the level of the elbow joint. On each side of the 
biceps is the external and internal bicipital furrow, in the latter 
of which the brachial artery may be felt and compressed. The 
median nerve is here in close relation to the artery. At the bend 
of the elbow the two condyles of the humerus may be felt; the 
inner one projects beneath the skin, but the outer one is obscured 
by the rounded outline of the brachio-radialis muscle. The 
superficial veins at the bend of the elbow are very conspicuous; 
they vary a good deal, but the typical arrangement is an M, of 
which the radial and ulnar veins form the uprights, while the 
outer oblique bar is the median cephalic and the inner oblique 
the median basilic vein. At the divergence of these two the 
median vein comes up from the front of the forearm, while 



942 



ANATOMY 



[SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC 



the two vertical limbs are continued up the arm as the cephalic 
and basilic, the former on the outer side, the latter on the inner. 
On the back of the arm the three heads of the triceps are distin- 
guishable, the external forming a marked oblique swelling when 
the forearm is forcibly extended and internally rotated (fig. 2,5). 
In the upper part of the front of the forearm the antecubital fossa 
or triangle is seen; its outer boundary is the brachio-radialis, its 
inner the pronator radii teres, and where these two join below is 
the apex. In this space are three vertical structures externally 
the tendon of the biceps, just internal to this the brachial artery, 
and still more internally the median nerve. Coming from the 
inner side of the biceps tendon the semi -lunar fascia may be felt; 
it passes deep to the median basilic vein and superficial to the 
brachial artery, and in former days was a valuable protection to 
the artery when unskilful operators were bleeding from the 
median basilic vein. About the middle of the forearm the fleshy 
parts of the superficial flexor muscles cease, and only the tendons 
remain, so that the limb narrows rapidly. In front of the wrist 
there is a superficial plexus of veins, while deep to this two 
tendons can usually be made to start up if the wrist be forcibly 
flexed; the outer of these is the flexor carpi ladialis, which is the 
physician's guide to the radial artery where the pulse is felt. If 
the finger is slipped to the outer side of this tendon, the artery, 
which here is very superficial, can be felt beating. The inner of 
the two tendons is the palmaris longus, though it is not always 
present. On cutting down between these two the median nerve 
is reached. 

The wrist joint may be marked out by feeling the styloid 
process of the radius on the outer side, and the styloid process of 
the ulna on the inner side behind, and joining these two by a line 
convex upward. The superficial appearance of the palm of the 
hand is described in the article on PALMISTRY; with regard to 
anatomical landmarks the superficial palmar arterial arch is 
situated in the line of the abducted thumb, while the deep arch is 
an inch nearer the wrist. The digital nerves correspond to lines 
drawn from the clefts of the fingers toward the wrist. On the 
back of the forearm the olecranon process of the ulna is quite 
subcutaneous, and during extension of the elbow is in a line 
with the two condyles, while between it and the inner condyle 
lies the ulnar nerve, here known popularly as the " funny bone." 
From the olecranon process the finger may be run down the 
posterior border of the ulna, which is subcutaneous as far as the 
styloid process at the lower end. On the dorsum of the hand is a 
plexus of veins, deep to which the extensor tendons are seen on 
extending the fingers. When the thumb is extended, two tendons 
stand out very prominently, and enclose a triangular space 
between them which is sometimes known as the "anatomical 
snuffbox "; the outer of these is the tendon of the extensor brevis, 
the inner of the extensor longus pollicis. Situated deeply in the 
space is the radial artery, covered by the radial vein. On the 
dorsum of the hand there is a plexus of veins, and deep to these 
the tendons of the extensor longus digitorum stand out when the 
wrist and fingers are extended. 

The Leg. Just below Poupart's ligament (fig. i, 5), a tri- 
angular depression with its apex downward may be seen in 
muscular subjects; it corresponds to Scarpa's triangle, and its 
inner border is the tendon of the adductor longus, which is 
easily felt if the model forcibly adducts the thigh. In this triangle 
the superficial inguinal glands may be made out. The head of 
the femur lies just below the centre of Poupart's ligament. The 
sartorius muscle forms the outer boundary of the triangle, and 
may be traced from the anterior superior spine obliquely down- 
ward and inward, across the front of the thigh, to the inner side 
of the knee. The two vasti muscles are well marked, the internal 
being the lower and forming with the sartorius the rounded 
bulging above the inner side of the knee. The internal saphenous 
vein runs superficially up the inner side of the thigh from behind 
the internal condyle to the femur to the saphenous opening in the 
deep fascia, the top of which is an inch horizontally outward 
from the spine of the pubis. On the other side of the thigh 
a groove runs down which corresponds to the ilio-tibial band, 
a thickening of the fascia lata or deep fascia; the lower end of 



this leads to the head of the fibula. On the front of the thigh, 
below the sartorius, the rectus muscle makes a prominence which 
leads down to the patella, the outlines of which bone are very 
evident (fig. i, ). The only part of the femur besides the great 
trochanter which is superficial is the lower end, and this forms 
the two condyles for articulation with the tibia. If the posterior 
part of the inner condyle be joined to the mid-point between the 
anterior superior spine and the symphysis pubis, when the thigh 
is externally rotated, the line will correspond in its upper two- 
thirds to that of the common and superficial femoral arteries, 
the former occupying the upper inch and a half. The common 
femoral vein lies just internal to its artery, while the anterior 
crural nerve is a quarter of an inch external to the latter. The 
rounded mass of the buttock is formed by the gluteus maximus 
muscle covered by fat; the lower horizontal boundary is called 
the fold of the nates, and does not correspond exactly to the 
lower edge of the muscle. At the side of the buttock is a de- 
pression (fig. 2, e) where the great trochanter of the femur can 
be felt; a line, named after Nelaton, drawn from the anterior 
superior spine to the tuberosity of the ischium, passes through 
the top of this. On the back of the thigh the hamstrings form 
a distinct swelling; below the middle these separate to enclose 
the diamond-shaped popliteal space (fig. 2, f), the outer ham- 
strings or biceps being specially evident, while, on the inner side, 
the tendons of the semi-tendinosus and semi-membranosus can 
be distinguished. The external popliteal nerve may be felt 
just behind the biceps tendon above the head of the fibula. 

On the front of the leg, below the knee, the ligamentum patellae 
is evident, leading down from the patella (fig. i, ) to the tubercle 
of the tibia. From this point downward the anterior border of 
the tibia or shin is subcutaneous, as is also the internal surface 
of the tibia. Internal to the skin is the fleshy mass made by the 
tibialis anticus and extensor longus digitorum muscles. At the 
inner side of the ankle the internal malleolus is subcutaneous, 
while on the outer side the tip of the external malleolus is rather 
lower and farther back. Both this malleolus and the lower 
quarter of the shaft of the fibula are subcutaneous, and this 
area, if traced upward, is continuous with a furrow on the outer 
side of the leg which separates the anterior tibial from the 
peroneal groups of muscles, and eventually leads to the subcu- 
taneous head of the fibula. At the back of the leg the two heads 
of the gastrocnemius form the calf, the inner one (fig. 2, 77) being 
larger than the outer. Between the two, in the mid-line of the 
calf, the external saphenous vein and nerve lie, while lower down 
they pass behind the external malleolus to the outer side of the 
foot. The internal saphenous vein and nerve lie just behind the 
internal border of the tibia, and below pass in front of the 
internal malleolus. At the level of the ankle-joint the tibialis 
posticus and flexor longus digitorum tendons lie just behind the 
internal malleolus, while the peroneus longus and brevis are 
behind the external. Running down to the heel is the tendo 
Achillis with the plantaris on its inner side. On the dorsum of the 
foot the musculo-cutaneous nerve may be seen through the skin 
in thin people when the toes are depressed; it runs from the 
anterior peroneal furrow, already described, to all the toes, 
except the cleft between the two inner ones. There is also a 
venous arch to be seen, the two extremities of which pass respec- 
tively into the external and internal saphenous veins. The long 
axis of the great toe, even in races unaccustomed to boots, runs 
forward and outward, away from the mid-line between the 
two feet, so that perfectly straight inner sides to boots are not 
really anatomical. The second toe in classical statues is often 
longer than the first, but this is seldom seen in Englishmen. On 
the outer side of the sole the skin is often in contact with the 
ground all along, but on the inner side the arch is more marked, 
and, except in flat-footed people, there is an area in which the 
sole does not touch the ground at all. 

For further details of surface anatomy see Anatomy for Art 
Students, by A. Thomson (Oxford, 1896); Harold Stiles's article in 
Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy (Young J. Pentland, 1902); 
G. Thane and R. Godlee's Appendix to Quain's Anatomy (Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1896) ; Surface Anatomy, by B. Windle and Manners 
Smith (H. K. Lewis, 1896); Landmarks and Surface Markings of 



ANATTO ANAXARCHUS 



943 



the Human Body, by L. B. Rawling (H. K. Lewis, 1906) ; Surface 
Anatomy, by T. G. Moorhead (Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1905). No 
one interested in the subject should omit to read an article on " Art 
in its relation to Anatomy," by W. Anderson, British Medical 
Journal, loth August 1895. (F. G. P.) 

ANATTO (possibly a native American name, with many 
variants such as annatto, arnotto), a colouring matter produced 
from the seeds oiBixa orellana (natural order Flacourtiaceae) , a 
small tree which grows in Central and South America. The seeds 
are surrounded with a thin coating of a waxy pulp, which is 
separated from them by washing in water, passing the liquid 
through a sieve and allowing the suspended pulp to deposit. 
The water is then drained away and the paste dried, till it is a 
thick, stiff, unctuous mass. In this state it has a dark orange-red 
colour and is known as " roll " or " flag " arnotto, according to 
the form in which it is put up, but when further dried it is called 
" cake " arnotto. Arnotto is much used by South American 
Indians for painting their bodies; among civilized communities 
its principal use is for colouring butter, cheese and varnishes. It 
yields a fugitive bright orange colour, and is to some extent 
used alone, or in conjunction with other dyes, in the dyeing of 
silks and in calico printing. It contains a yellow colouring 
matter, bixin, CieHMC^. 

ANAXA60RAS, Greek philosopher, was born probably about 
the year 500 B.C. (Apollodorus ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 7.) At his 
native town of Clazomenae in Asia Minor, he had, it appears, 
some amount of property and prospects of political influence, 
both of which he surrendered, from a fear that they would hinder 
his search after knowledge. Nothing is known of his teachers; 
there is no reason for the theory that he studied under Her- 
motimus of Clazomenae, the ancient miracle-worker. In early 
manhood (c. 464-462 B.C.) he went to Athens, which was rapidly 
becoming the headquarters of Greek culture. There he is said 
to have remained for thirty years. Pericles learned to love and 
admire him and the poet Euripides derived from him an enthu- 
siasm for science and humanity. Some authorities assert that 
even Socrates was among his disciples. His influence was due 
partly to his astronomical and mathematical eminence, but still 
more to the ascetic dignity of his nature and his superiority to 
ordinary weaknesses traits which legend has embalmed. It 
was he who brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific 
inquiry from Ionia to Athens. His observations of the celestial 
bodies led him to form new theories of the universal order, 
and brought him into collision with the popular faith. He 
attempted, not without success, to give a scientific account of 
eclipses, meteors, rainbows and the sun, which he described as 
a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnesus; the 
heavenly bodies were masses of stone torn from the earth and 
ignited by rapid rotation. The ignorant polytheism of the 
time could not tolerate such explanation, and the enemies of 
Pericles used the superstitions of their countrymen as a means 
of attacking him in the person of his friend. 

Anaxagoras was arrested on a charge of contravening the 
established dogmas of religion (some say the charge was one of 
Medism), and it required all the eloquence of Pericles to secure 
his acquittal. Even so he was forced to retire from Athens to 
Lampsacus (434-433 B.C.), where he died about 428 B.C., honoured 
and respected by the whole city. 

It is difficult to present the cosmical theory of Anaxagoras 
in an intelligible scheme. All things have existed in a sort of 
way from the beginning. But originally they existed in infinitesi- 
mally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and in- 
extricably combined throughout the universe. All things existed 
in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. 
There were the seeds (o-irepno.Ta) or miniatures of com and flesh 
and gold in the primitive mixture; but these parts, of like 
nature with their wholes (the 6fj.OLOp.tpfi of Aristotle), had to 
be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive 
a definite name and character. The existing species of things 
having thus been transferred, with all their specialities, to the 
prehistoric stage, they were multiplied endlessly in number, 
by reducing their size through continued subdivision; at the 
same time each one thing is so indissolubly connected with every 



other that the keenest analysis can never completely sever 
them. The work of arrangement, the segregation of like from 
unlike and the summation of the dfjau>/j.fpTJ into totals of the 
same name, was the work of Mind or Reason; iravra. xp'hl* -'''' 1 
rjv oftov elra vovs eXd&v avra oituba infae. This peculiar 
thing, called Mind (vovs), was no less illimitable than the 
chaotic mass, but, unlike the Intelligence of Heraclitus (q.v.), 
it stood pure and independent (/ioOvos e<t>' eowroD), a thing 
of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and every- 
where the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge 
and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. Its 
first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which Anaxa- 
goras describes, is Motion. It originated a rotatory movement in 
the mass (a movement far exceeding the most rapid in the world 
as we know it), which, arising in one corner or point, gradually 
extended till it gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates 
of like parts. But even after it has done its best, the original 
intermixture of things is not wholly overcome. No one thing 
in the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the blow of an 
axe, from the rest of things. The name given to it signifies 
merely that in that congeries of fragments the particular " seed " 
is preponderant. Every a of this present universe is only a by 
a majority, and is also in lesser number 6, c, d. It is noteworthy 
that Aristotle accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate 
between vovs and i/'i'X'?, while Socrates (Plato, Phaedo, 98 B) 
objects that his vow is merely a deus ex machina to which he 
refuses to attribute design and knowledge. 

Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in 
the process from original chaos to present arrangements. The 
division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the spell of 
confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave rise to water, 
earth and stones. The seeds of life which continued floating 
in the air were carried down with the rains and produced vegeta- 
tion. Animals, including man, sprang from the warm and 
moist clay. If these things be so, then the evidence of the 
senses must be held in slight esteem. We seem to see things 
coming into being and passing from it; but reflection tells us 
that decease and growth only mean a new aggregation (aiiy- 
Kpuns) and disruption (StanpiaLs). Thus Anaxagoras distrusted 
the senses, and gave the preference to the conclusions of 
reflection. Thus he maintained that there must be blackness as 
well as whiteness in snow; how otherwise could it be turned 
into dark water? 

Anaxagoras marks a turning-point in the history of philosophy. 
With him speculation passed from the colonies of Greece to 
settle at Athens. By the theory of minute constituents of 
things, and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the formation 
of order, he paved the way for the atomic theory. By his 
enunciation of the order that comes from reason, on the other 
hand, he suggested, though he seems not to have stated ex- 
plicitly, the theory that nature is the work of design. The con- 
ception of reason in the world passed from him to Aristotle, 
to whom it seemed the dawn of sober thought after a night of 
disordered dreams. From Aristotle it descended to his com- 
mentators, and under the influence of Averroes became the 
engrossing topic of speculation. 

AUTHORITIES. The fragments of Anaxagoras have been collected 
by E. Schaubach (Leipzig, 1827), and W. Schorn (Bonn, 1829); see 
also F. W. A. Mullach, Fragmenta Philos. Craec. i. 243-252; A. Fair- 
banks, The First Philosophers of Greece (1898). For criticism see 
T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans., L. Magnus, 1901), bk. ii. 
chap. 4; E. Bersot, De controversis quibusdam Anaxagorae doctrinis 
(Paris, 1844) ; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen (Eng. trans., 
S. F. Alleyne, 2 vols., London, 1881) ; J. M. Robertson, Short History 
of Freethought (London, 1906) ; W. Windelband, History of Philo- 
sophy (Eng. trans., J. H. Tufts, 1893); J. I. Beare, Greek Theories 
of Elementary Cognition (1906); L. Parmentier, Euripide et Anaxa- 
gore (1892) ; F. Lortzing, " Bericht iiber die griechischen Philosophen 
vor Sokrates " (for the years 1876-1897) in Bursian's Jahresbericht 
iiber die Fortschritte der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, cxvi. 
(1904), with references to important articles in periodicals. 

(W. W.; J. M. M.) 

ANAXARCHUS (c. 340 B.C.), a Greek philosopher of the school 
of Democritus, was bom at Abdera. He was the companion 
and friend of Alexander in his Asiatic campaigns. He checked 



944 



ANAXILAUS ANBAR 



the vainglory of Alexander, when he aspired to the honours of 
divinity, by pointing to his wounded finger, saying, " See 
the blood of a mortal, not of a god." The story that at Bactra 
in 327 B.C. in a public speech he advised all to worship Alexander 
as a god even during his lifetime, is with greater probability 
attributed to the Sicilian Cleon. It is said that Nicocreon, 
tyrant of Cyprus, commanded him to be pounded to death in 
a mortar, and that he endured this torture with fortitude; but 
the story is doubtful, having no earlier authority than Cicero. 
His philosophical doctrines are not known, though some have 
inferred from the epithet (vdaipoviKos ("fortunate"), usually 
applied to him, that he held the end of life to be eWaijuowa. 

ANAXILAUS, of Larissa, a physician and Pythagorean philo- 
sopher, who was banished from Rome by Augustus, B.C. 28, on 
the charge of practising the magic ar\. This accusation appears 
to have originated in his superior skill in natural philosophy, by 
which he produced effects that the ignorant attributed to magic. 

Euseb., Chron. ad Olymp. clxxxviii. ; St Iren. i. 13; Pliny xix. 
4, xxv. 95, xxviii. 49, xxxii. 52, xxxv. 50. 

ANAXIMANDER, the second of the physical philosophers of 
Ionia, was a citizen of Miletus and a companion or pupil of Thales. 
Little is known of his life. Aelian makes him the leader of the 
Milesian colony to Amphipolis, and hence some have inferred 
that he was a prominent citizen. The computations of Apollo- 
dorus have fixed his birth in 611, and his death shortly after 
547 B.C. Tradition, probably correct in its general estimate, 
represents him as a successful student of astronomy and geo- 
graphy, and as one of the pioneers of exact science among the 
Greeks. He taught, if he did not discover, the obliquity of the 
ecliptic, is said to have introduced into Greece the gnomon (for 
determining the solstices) and the sundial, and to have invented 
some kind of geographical map. But his reputation is due mainly 
to his work on nature, few words of which remain. From these 
fragments we learn that the beginning or first principle (Apx 1 ?, 
a word which, it is said, he was the first to use) was an endless, 
unlimited mass (aweipov), subject to neither old age nor decay, 
and perpetually yielding fresh materials for the series of beings 
which issued from it. He never denned this principle precisely, 
and it has generally (e.g. by Aristotle and Augustine) been 
understood as a sort of primal chaos. It embraced everything, 
and directed the movement of things, by which there grew up a 
host of shapes and differences. Out of the vague and limitless 
body there sprung a central mass, this earth of ours, cylindrical 
in shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire, which 
had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree, until their 
continuity was severed, and they parted into several wheel- 
shaped and fire-filled bubbles of air. Man himself and the 
animals had come into being by like transmutations. Mankind 
was supposed by Anaximander to have sprung from some other 
species of animals, probably aquatic. But as the measureless 
and endless had been the prime cause of the motion into separate 
existences and individual forms, so also, according to the just 
award of destiny, these forms would at an appointed season 
suffer the vengeance due to their earlier act of separation, and 
return into the vague immensity whence they had issued. Thus 
the world, and all definite existences contained in it, would lose 
their independence and disappear in the " indeterminate." The 
blazing orbs, which have drawn off from the cold earth and 
water, are the temporary gods of the world, clustering round the 
earth, which, to the ancient thinker, is the central figure. 

See Histories of the Ionian School by Ritten, Mallet; Schleier- 
macher, " Dissert, sur la philosophic d'Anaximandre," in the 
Memoires de I'acad. des sciences de Berlin (1815); J. Burnet, Early 
Greek Philosophy (Lond. 1892); A. W. Benn, Greek Philosophers 
(Lond. 1883 foil.); A. Fairbanks, First Philosophers of Greece 
(Lond. 1898); Ritter and Preller, Historia Phil. 17-22; Mullach, 
Fragmenta Phil. Graec. i. 237-240, and IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILO- 
SOPHY. 

ANAXIMENES, of Lampsacus (fl. 380-320 B.C.), Greek rhetori- 
cian and historian, was a favourite of Alexander the Great, 
whom he accompanied hi his Persian campaigns. He wrote 
histories of Greece and of Philip, and an epic on Alexander 
(fragments in MUller, Scriptores Rerum Alexandri Magni). As 



a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of Isocrates and his 
school. The Rhetorica ad Alexandrum, usually included among 
the works of Aristotle, is now generally admitted to be by 
Anaximenes, although some consider it a much later production 
(edition by Spengel, 1847). 

See P. Wendland, Anax. von Lampsakos (1905) ; also RHETORIC. 

ANAXIMENES, of Miletus, Greek philosopher in the latter half 
of the 6th century, was probably a younger contemporary of 
Anaximander, whose pupil or friend he is said to have been. He 
held that the air, with its variety of contents, its universal 
presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the 
phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists. 
Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the 
influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts 
its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence. The 
process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as heat or 
cold predominates. In this way was formed a broad disk of 
earth, floating on the circumambient air. Similar condensations 
produced the sun and stars; and the flaming state of these 
bodies is due to the velocity of their motions. 

See Schmidt, Dissertatio de Anaximensis psychologia (Jena, 1869) ; 
Ritter and Preller, Historia Phil. 23-27; A. Fairbanks, First 
Philosophers of Greece (1898); Mullach, Fragmenta Phil. Graec. i. 
241-243; also IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY; EVOLUTION. 

ANAZARBUS (med. Ain Zarba; mod. Navarza), an ancient 
Cilician city, situated Jn the Aleian plain about 10 m. W. of the 
main stream of the Pyramus (Jihun) and near its tributary the 
Sempas Su. A lofty isolated ridge formed its acropolis. Though 
some of the masonry in the ruins is certainly pre-Roman, Suidas's 
identification of it with Cyinda, famous as a treasure city in the 
wars of Eumenes of Cardia, cannot be accepted in the face of 
Strabo's express location of Cyinda in -western Cilicia. Under the 
early Roman empire the place was known as Caesarea, and was 
the metropolis of Cilicia Secunda. Rebuilt by the emperor 
Justin after an earthquake, it became Justinopolis (A.D. 525); 
but the old native name persisted, and when Thoros I., king of 
Lesser Armenia, made it his capital early in the I2th century, 
it was known as Anazarva. Its great natural strength and 
situation, not far from the mouth of the Sis pass, and near the 
great road which debouched from the Cilician gates, made 
Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the 
Byzantine empire and the early Moslem invaders. It had been 
rebuilt by Harun al-Rashid in 796 A.D., refortified at great 
expense by Saif addaula, the Hamdanid (loth century) and 
Saiked, and ruined by the crusaders. 

The present wall of the lower city is of late construction, 
probably Armenian. It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in 
which are a fine triumphal arch, the colonnades of two streets, 
a gymnasium, &c. A stadium and a theatre lie outside on the 
south. The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very 
interesting, including roads and ditches hewn in the rock; but 
beyond ruins of two churches and a fine tower built by Thoros I. 
there are no notable structures in the upper town. For pictur- 
esqueness the site is not equalled in Cilicia, and it is worth while 
to trace the three fine aqueducts to their sources. (D. G. H.) 

ANBAR, originally called FIRUZ SHAPUR, or PERISAPORA, a town 
founded about A.D. 350 by Shapur (Sapor) II. Sassanid, king of 
Persia, on the east bank of the Euphrates, just south of the Nahr 
Isa, or Sakhlawieh canal, the northernmost of the canals connect- 
ing that river with the Tigris, in lat. 33 22' N., long. 43 49' E. 
It was captured and destroyed by the emperor Julian in A.D. 363, 
but speedily rebuilt. It became a refuge for the Christian and 
Jewish colonies of that region, and there are said to have been 
90,000 Jews in the place at the time of its capture by Ali in 657. 
The Arabs changed the name of the town to Anbar(" granaries "). 
Abu 'l-'Abbas as-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid caliphate, 
made it his capital, and such it remained until the founding 
of Bagdad in 762. It continued to be a place of much im- 
portance throughout the Abbasid period. It is now entirely 
deserted. The site is occupied only by ruin mounds, as yet 
unexplored. Their great extent indicates the former importance 
of the city. (J. P. PE.) 



ANCACHS ANCESTOR- WORSHIP 



945 



ANCACHS, a coast province of central Peru, lying between the 
departments of Lima and Libertad, and W. of the Marafion 
river. Area, 16,562 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 428,703. The depart- 
ment was created in 1835, and received its present name in 1839, 
and its last accession of territory in 1861. Lying partly on the 
arid coast, partly in the high Cordilleras and partly in the valley 
of the Marafion, it has every variety of climate and productions. 
Rice, cotton, sugar-cane, yucas (Manihot aipi) and tropical 
fruits are produced in the irrigated valleys of the coast, and 
wheat, Indian corn, barley, potatoes, coffee, coca, &c., in the 
upland regions. Cattle and sheep are also raised for the coast 
markets. Mining is likewise an important industry. The capital, 
Huaraz (est. pop. 8000 in 1896), on the Rio Santa or Huaraz, 
is a large mining centre in the sierras, 9931 ft. above sea-level, 
from which a railway runs to the small seaports of Santa and 
Chimbote, 172 m. distant. Other noteworthy towns are Caraz 
(6000) and Carhuaz (5000) in the sierra region, and Huarmey 
(1500) on the coast. 

ANCAEUS, in Greek legend, son of Zeus or Poseidon, king of 
the Leleges of Samos. In the Argonautic expedition, after the 
death of Tiphys, helmsman of the' " Argo," he took his place. 
It is said that, while planting a vineyard, he was told by a sooth- 
sayer that he would never drink of its wine. As soon as the 
grapes were ripe, he squeezed the juice into a cup, and, raising 
it to his lips, mocked the seer, who retorted with the words, 
IloXXa. juerai> xeXet /cuXi/cos Kal ytiKeos d.Kpov (" there is 
many a slip between the cup and the lip "). At that moment 
it was announced that a wild boar was ravaging the land. 
Ancaeus set down the cup, leaving the wine untasted, hurried 
out, and was killed by the boar. 

Apollonius Rhodius, i. 1 88 (and Scholiast), ii. 867-900. 

ANCASTER AND KESTEVEN, DUKE OF, an English title 
borne by the well-known Lincolnshire family of Bertie from 
1715 to 1809. ROBERT BERTIE (1660-1723), son and heir of 
Robert, third earl of Lindsey (d. 1701), who succeeded his father 
as lord great chamberlain of England, was created marquess of 
Lindsey in 1706, being made duke of Ancaster and Kesteven in 
July 1715. His eldest surviving son, PEREGRINE (1686-1742), 
who had been a member of parliament for Lincolnshire from 
1708 to 1714, succeeded to the dukedom and also to the lord- 
lieutenancy of Lincolnshire, which had been held by his father. 
His son and successor, PEREGRINE (1714-1778), who was also 
lord great chamberlain and lord-lieutenant of Lincolnshire, 
attained the rank of general in the British army. The fourth duke 
was ROBERT (1756-1779), son of the third duke, who died in July 
1779, when his barony of Willoughby de Eresby and the hereditary 
office of lord great chamberlain fell into abeyance until 1780. 
The dukedom, however, and other honours came to his uncle 
BROWNLOW (1720-1809), on whose death in February 1809 the 
dukedom of Ancaster and Kesteven became extinct; but the 
earldom of Lindsey descended to a distant kinsman, Albemarle 
Bertie (1744-1818). After a second period of abeyance the 
barony of Willoughby de Eresby was revived in 1871 in favour 
of Clementina Elizabeth (d. 1888), a descendant of the Berties, 
who was the widow of Gilbert John Heathcote, ist Baron 
Aveland (d. 1867). Her son and successor, GILBERT HENRY 
HEATHCOTE-DRUMMOND-WILLOUGHBY (b. 1830), 23rd Baron 
Willoughby de Eresby, and joint hereditary lord great chamber- 
lain, was created earl of Ancaster in 1898. 

ANCELOT, JACQUES ARSENE FRANCOIS POLYCARPE 
(1794-1854), French dramatist and litterateur, was born at 
Havre, on the gth of February 1794. He became a clerk in the 
admiralty, and retained his position until the revolution of 
1830. In 1816 his play Warwick was accepted by the Theatre 
Francais, but never produced, and three years later a five-act 
tragedy, Louis IX., was staged. Three editions of the play 
were speedily exhausted; it had a run of fifty representations, 
and brought him a pension of 2000 francs from Louis XVIII. 
His next work, Le Maire du palais, was played in 1825 with less 
success; but for it he received the cross of the legion of honour. 
In 1824 he produced Fiesque, a clever adaptation of Schiller's 
Fiesco. In 1828 appeared Olga, ou I'orpheline russe, the plot of 



which had been inspired by a voyage he made to Russia in 1826. 
About the same period he produced in succession Marie de 
Brabant (1825), a poem in six cantos; L'Homme du monde (1827), 
a novel in four volumes, afterwards dramatized with success; 
and in 1829 a play, Elisabeth d' Angleterre. By the revolution of 
July 1830 he lost at once his royal pension and his office as 
librarian at Meudon; and he was chiefly employed during the 
next ten years in writing vaudevilles and light dramas and 
comedies. A tragedy, Maria Padilla (1838), gained him 
admission to the French Academy in 1841. Ancelot was sent 
by the French government in 1849 to Turin, Florence, Brussels 
and other capitals, to negotiate on the subject of international 
copyright; and the treaties which were concluded soon after 
were the result, in a great measure, of his tact and intelligence. 

ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, a general name for the cult of deceased 
parents and forefathers. Aristotle in his Ethics stigmatizes as 
" extremely unloving " (\iav a<t>i.\ov) the denial that ancestors 
are interested in or affected by the fortunes of their descendants; 
and in effect ancestor-worship is the staple of most religions, 
ancient or modern, civilized or savage. The ancient Jews were 
a striking exception ; for though the frequent mention of ancestral 
graves on hilltops or in caves, and in connexion with sacred 
trees and pillars, and the resemblance of the " elohim " in 
Exod. xxi. 4-6 to household gods, may suggest that cults of the 
dead preceded that of Yahweh, nevertheless in the classical age 
of their religion (see HEBREW RELIGION) as reflected in the 
Old Testament, ancestor-worship has already vanished. " The 
Semitic nomads," remarks Renan in his History of Israel (tome i, 
p. 50), " were the religious race par excellence, because in fact 
they were the least superstitious of the families of mankind, the 
least duped by the dream of a beyond, by the phantasmagory 
of a double or a shadow surviving in the nether regions. . . . 
They suppressed the chimeras which went with belief in a 
complete survival after death, chimeras which were homicidal 
at the time, in so far as they robbed man of tho true notion of 
death and led him to multiply murders." 

Renan here refers to the burial rite of an ancient Scythian 
king (as described by Herodotus, iv. 71), at whose tomb were 
strangled his concubine, cup-bearer, cook, groom, lackey, envoy, 
and several of his horses. Such cruel customs were, of course, 
and still are associated in many lands with the cult of the dead; 
but, on the other hand, there are gentler and more beneficial 
aspects observable to-day in China and Japan. There the 
mighty dead are present with the living, protect them and their 
houses and crops, are their strength in battle, and teach their 
hands to war and their fingers to fight. In the Russo-Japanese 
War in 1904-5 the greatest incentive to deeds of patriotic valour 
was for Japanese soldiers the belief that the spirits of their 
ancestors were watching them; and in China it is not the man 
himself that is ennobled for his philanthropic virtues or learning, 
but his ancestor. No more solemn duty weighs upon the China- 
man than that of tending the spirits of his dead forefathers. 
Confucius, it is recorded, sacrificed to the dead, as if they 
were present, and to the spirits, as if they were there. In 
view of such Chinese sacrifices the names of the dead are in- 
scribed on wooden plaques called spirit-tablets, into which the 
spirits are during the ceremony supposed to enter, having 
quitted the very heaven and presence of God in order to 
commune with posterity. Twice a year, in spring and autumn, 1 
a Chinese ruler goes in state to the imperial college in Pekin, 
and presents the appointed offerings before, the spirit-tablets 
of Confucius and of the worthies who have been associated with 
him in his temples. He greets the sage's spirit with this prayer : 
" This year, in this month, on this day, I, the emperor, offer 
sacrifice to the philosopher K'ung, the ancient teacher, the perfect 
sage, and say, O teacher, in virtue equal to heaven and earth. . . 
Now in this second month of spring, in reverent observance of the 
old statutes, with victims, silks, spirits, and fruits, I offer sacrifice 
to thee." 
In ancient Rome painted wax images of ancestors who had 

1 Prof. J. Legge, in Religious Systems of the World, London, 1802. 
p. 72. 



946 



ANCESTOR- WORSHIP 



served the state in its highest offices were preserved in the atria 
or halls of their descendants, inscribed, like the Chinese tablets, 
with titles recording their dignity and exploits. Whether the 
departed spirits tenanted them according to the Chinese belief 
is not recorded; though it probably was so, for at funerals they 
might be carried, like the images of the gods in Lectisternia 
(see IMAGE WORSHIP), on couches before the corpse. Oftener, 
however, they were mere masques worn at funerals by men who 
personated the ancestors and wore their robes of office. Perhaps 
the vulgar regarded these men as temporary reincarnations of 
those whom they thus represented. 

The word Manes signified the friendly ancestral ghosts of a 
Roman household. To them, under the name of Lares, it was 
the solemn preoccupation of male descendants to offer food and 
sacrifice and to keep alight the hearth fire which cooked the 
offerings. Small waxen images of the Manes called Lares, 
clothed in dogskin, and on feast days crowned with garlands, 
stood round the family hearth of which they were the unseen 
guardians (but see LARES). To lack such care and tendance was 
along with want of regular burial the most dreadful fate 
that could overtake an ancient; and a Roman, like a Hindu, 
in case he was childless, adopted a male child whose duty it 
would be, as if his own son, to continue after his death the family 
rites or sacra. On this side the ancestor-worship of the Aryans 
has been productive of the most important institutions of adop- 
tion and will or testament. Sir Henry Maine (Ancient Law, ch. 
v.) has justly observed that " the history of political ideas begins 
with the assumption that kinship in blood is the sole possible 
ground of community in political functions," and that in early 
commonwealths " citizens considered all the groups in which 
they claimed membership to be founded on common lineage." 
A man only shared in house, tribe and state, so far as he was 
descended from particular ancestors and eponymous heroes, and 
due cult of these illustrious dead was the condition of his enjoying 
any rights or inheriting any property. Yet if society was to 
grow, men of alien descent had to be admitted into the original 
brotherhood and amalgamated therewith. " Adverting to Rome 
singly," adds the same author, " we perceive that the primary 
group, the family, was being constantly adulterated by the 
practice of adoption." Thus transition was made possible from 
an agnatic society based on blood ties to one based on contiguity. 

In the worship of the Lares the head of a Roman household 
commemorated and reinforced the blood tie which made one 
flesh of all its members living and dead. The gens in turn was 
regarded as an expansion of the family, as was the state of the 
gens; and members of these larger units by worship of common 
ancestors usually mythical kept alive the feeling that they 
were a single organic whole animated by a common soul and 
joined in consanguinity. Outcasts alone, the offspring of irregular 
unions, could be ignorant of the blood which ran in their veins, 
of the unseen ancestors to be fed and tended in family and 
gentile rites. 1 Such considerations help us to understand the 
enormous importance attached in ancient societies to the right 
of intermarriage, as also to grasp the origin of wills and testa- 
ments. For a will was to begin with but a mode of indicating 
(not necessarily in writing) on whom devolved the duty of con- 
ducting a parent's funeral, and together with that duty the right 
of inheriting his property. The due performance of funeral 
rites re-created the blood tie and renewed the kinship of living 
and dead at the moment when death seemed specially to en- 
danger it by removal of that representative of the household 
whose special duty it had been to keep up the family sacra. In 
Hindostan, as Maine remarks (op. cit. ch. vi.), we have a parallel 
to the Roman system; for there " the right to inherit a dead 
man's property is exactly co-extensive with the duty of performing 
his obsequies. If the rites are not properly performed or not 
performed by the proper person, no relation is considered as 
established between the deceased and anybody surviving 

. ' Livy iv. 2 : " Quam enim aliam vim connubia promiscua 
habere, nisi ut ferarum prope ritu vulgentur concubitus plebU 
Patrumque? ut qui natus sit, ignoret, cujus sanguinis, quorum 
sacrorum sit." 



him; the law of succession does not apply, and nobody can in- 
herit the property. Every great event in the life of a Hindu 
seems to be regarded as leading up to and bearing on these 
solemnities. If he marries, it is to have children who may 
celebrate them after his death; if he has no children, he lies under 
the strongest obligation to adopt them from another family, 
' with a view,' writes the Hindu doctor, ' to the funeral cake, 
the water and the solemn sacrifice.' " " May there be born in 
our lineage," so the Indian Manes are supposed to say, " a man 
to offer to us, on the thirteenth day of the moon, rice boiled 
in milk, honey and ghee." 2 

It is then in connexion with the history of inheritance and 
adoption, and of the gradual evolution from societies held 
together only by blood-kinship to societies consolidated on other 
bases, especially on that of local contiguity, that ancestor-worship 
chiefly calls for investigation. 

We must now pass on to other aspects of it less important for 
the student of ancient law, but interesting to the folklorist. 

In ancient Rome the Di manes, or as we should say the blessed 
dead, who reposed in their necropolis outside the walls, were 
specially commemorated on the dies parentales or days of placat- 
ing them (placandis Manibus). These began on the i3th of 
February and ended on the 22nd with the Caristia or feast of 
Cara Cognatio. The family have on the preceding days solemnly 
visited the grave, and offered to the shades gifts of water, wine, 
milk, honey, oil, and the blood of black victims; they have 
decked the tomb with flowers, have renewed the feast and fare- 
well of the funeral, and have prayed to the ancestors to watch 
over their welfare. Now the survivors return home and hold 
a love-feast, in which all quarrels are healed, all trespasses 
forgiven. The Lares are brought out to preside over this solemn 
feast, and for the occasion are incincti or clothed in tunics girt 
at the loins. 

It is doubtful whether we should dignify by the name of 
ancestor-worship the older Roman festival of the Lemuria, 
which was held on the gth, nth and I3th of May. For the 
lemures were, like our unlaid ghosts, unburied, mischievous or 
inimical spirits, and these three days were nefasti or unlucky, 
because their malign influence was abroad. The ghosts had to 
be driven out of the house, and Ovid (Fasti, v. 432) relates how 
the head of the family arose at midnight, and with feet unfettered 
by shoon or sandals, and with washen hands traversed his house 
beckoning against the ghosts with fingers joined to thumb. 
Nine times with averted glance he spat a black bean out of his 
mouth and cried: " With these I redeem me and mine." The 
ghosts followed and picked up, or perhaps entered into the beans. 
Then he washed afresh, and rattled his brass vessels, and nine 
times over bade them begone with the polite formula, Manes exile 
paterni, " Go forth, O paternal manes." 

The gesture described was probably the same as that with 
which a Christian priest averts demonic influences from the 
heads of his congregation in the act of blessing them. The 
many hands of Zeus Sabazios turned up in ancient excavations 
observe a similar gesture. All over the earth we meet with such 
periodically recurrent ceremonies of expelling demons and ghosts, 
who usually are given a meal before being hunted back into their 
graves. But an account of such ceremonies belongs rather to 
demonology than to the history of the worship of Manes, which 
are peaceful, well-conducted and beneficent beings, endowed 
and, so to speak on the foundation, like the Christian souls 
for whose masses money has been left. Ancestor-worship has 
its parallels in Christian cults of the dead and of the saints; it 
must be remembered, however, that a saint is not as a rule an 
ancestor, and that his cult is not based upon family feeling and 
love of kinsmen, nor tends to stimulate and encourage the same. 
Such cults have never prevented those who participated in them 
from fighting one another. Ancestor- worship on this side is also 
in strong contrast with the teaching of the Gospel, for it is an 
apotheosis of family affections and supplies a real cement where- 
with to bind society together; whereas the Christian Messiah 
taught that, " If any cometh to me, and hateth not his father 
* E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. p. 1 19. 



ANCHISES ANCHOR 



947 



and his mother, and his wife and his children, and his brethren 
and his sister, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple." 
To the ordinary good citizen of antiquity, whose religion was the 
consecration of family ties, such a precept was no less scandalous 
than it is to a Chinaman or Hindu of to-day. Was not the duty 
of following the Messiah to supersede even that of burying one's 
parents, the most sacred of all ancient obligations? The Church 
when it had once conquered the world allowed such precepts 
to lapse and fall into the background, and no one save monks or 
Manichaean heretics remembered them any more; indeed 
modern divines affect to believe that marriage rites and family 
ties were the peculiar concern of the Church from the very first; 
and few moderns will fail to sympathize with the misgivings of 
the barbarian chief who, having been converted and being about 
to receive Christian baptism, paused as he stepped down into 
the font, and asked the priests if in the heaven to which their 
rites admitted him he would meet and converse with his pagan 
ancestors. On being assured that he would not, he stepped 
out again and declined their methods of salvation. 

In the above paragraphs we have drawn examples only from 
races organized on a patriarchal basis among whom the headship 
passes from father to son. But many primitive societies do not 
trace descent through males and yet may be said to worship 
ancestors. The aborigines of Australia furnish an example. 
The Aruntas among them are said to have no idea of paternity, 
but believe that local spirits of tree, rock or stream enter women 
as they pass by their haunts. In doing so they drop a wooden 
soul-token called a Churinga. This the elders of the tribe pick 
up or pretend to find, and carefully store up in a cleft of the hills 
or in a cave which no woman may approach. The souls of 
members of the tribe who have died survive in these slips of wood, 
which are treasured up for long generations and repaired if they 
decay. They are carried into battle to assist the tribe, are 
regularly anointed, fondled and invoked; for it is believed that 
the souls present in them are powerful to work weal and woe to 
friend and enemy respectively. They thus resemble the Chinese 
spirit tablet. 

Reference has been made above to the possibility that the 
Roman imago of an ancestor actually embodied his ghost, at 
least on solemn occasions. The custom of providing a material 
abode or nidus for the ghost is found all over the earth; e.g. in 
New Ireland a carved chalk figure of the deceased, indicating 
the sex, is procured, and entrusted to the chief of a village, who 
sets it up in a funeral hut in the middle of a large taboo house 
adorned with plants. The survivors believe that the ghostly 
ogre, being so well provided for, will abstain from haunting them. 

The Romans, as we remarked above, distinguished between 
the Lemures or .wandering mischievous ghosts and the Manes 
snugly interred and tended in the cemetery which was part of 
every Italian settlement. The distinction, however, is one for 
which survivors alone are responsible and not one inherent in 
the nature of ghosts. No race at all, it would seem, except the 
Jews, has ever been able to regard a man's death as the end of 
him; and except in the higher forms of Christianity the dead 
are everywhere supposed to need the same sort of food, equip- 
ment, tenement and gear which they enjoyed hi life, and to 
molest the living unless they obtain it. It may be affection, or 
it may be fear, which prompts the survivor to feed and tend his 
dead ; in general no doubt it is a mixture of both feelings. 

In Africa and other savage countries a third motive sometimes 
operates, namely the desire to consult the dead as Odysseus, 
anxious about his return home, was constrained to do or to 
use them against the living; for negro magicians are reputed 
even to murder remarkable individuals in order to possess them- 
selves of their power and to be able to use them as familiar 
spirits. 

The question has often been raised, what is the relation of 
private cults of ancestors to public religion? Do men after 
death become gods? Euhemerus of Messenia tried of old to 
rationalize the Greek myths by supposing that the Olympian 
gods were deified men. Such a theory, like its modern rival of 
the sun-myth, may of course be pushed till it becomes absurd; 



yet in India critical observers, like Sir Alfred C. Lyall, attest 
innumerable examples of the gradual elevation into gods of 
human beings, the process even beginning in their lifetime. 
There a man wins local fame as an ascetic with abnormal powers, 
or a wife, because Alcestis-like she sacrificed herself for her 
husband and immolated herself on his pyre. Miracles occur at 
their shrines, and the surviving relatives who guard them wax 
rich off the offerings brought. ' ' In the course of a very few years, 
as the recollection of the man's personality becomes misty, his 
origin grows mysterious, his career takes a legendary hue, his 
birth and death were both supernatural; in the next generation 
the names of the elder gods get introduced into the story, and so 
the marvellous tradition works itself into a myth, until nothing 
but a personal incarnation can account for such a series of 
prodigies. The man was an Avatar of Vishnu or Siva; his 
supreme apotheosis is now complete, and the Brahmins feel 
warranted in providing for him a niche in the orthodox 
pantheon." 1 

AUTHORITIES. H. S. Maine, Ancient Lain (London, 1906); 
E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (London, 1903); and article on the 
" Matriarchal Family System," in the Nineteenth Century, xl. 81 
(1896); W. W. Fowler, The Roman Calendar (London, 1906); 
Fustel de Coulanges, La Cite antique (l7th ed., 1900); L. Andre, Le 
Cidte des marts chez les Hebreux (1895) ; C. Gruneisen, Der Ahnen- 
kultus und die Urreligion Israels (Halle, 1900) ; Grant Allen, The 
Evolution of the Idea of God (London, 1897) ; F. B. Jevons, Intro- 
duction to the History of Religion (London, 1896) ; Sir A. C. Lyall, 
Asiatic Studies (London, 1899 and 1907); D. G. Brinton, Religions 
of Primitive Peoples (New York, 1897) ; H. Oldenberg, Die Religion 
des Veda (Berlin, 1894). (F. C. C.) 

ANCHISES, in Greek legend, Trojan hero, son of Capys and 
Themis, grandson (according to Hyginus, son) of Assaracus, 
connected on both sides with the royal family of Troy, was 
king of Dardanus on Mt. Ida. Here Aphrodite met him and, 
enamoured of his beauty, bore him Aeneas. For revealing the 
name of the child's mother, in spite of the warnings of the goddess, 
he was killed or struck blind by lightning (Hyginus, Fab. 94). 
In the more recent legend, adopted by Virgil in the Aeneid, he 
was conveyed out of Troy on the shoulders of his son Aeneas, 
whose wanderings he followed as far as Sicily, where he died 
and was buried on Mt. Eryx. On the other hand, there was a 
grave on Mt. Ida at Troy pointed out as his. From the name 
Assaracus, from the intercourse between the Phoenicians and the 
early inhabitants of the Troad, and from the connexion of 
Aphrodite, the protecting goddess of the Phoenicians, with 
Anchises, it has been inferred that his family was originally of 
Assyrian origin. His flight on the shoulders of Aeneas is fre- 
quently represented on engraved gems of the Roman period; 
and his visit from Aphrodite is rendered in a beautiful bronze 
relief, engraved in Millingen's Unedited Gems. 

ANCHOR (from the Greek ayKvpa, which Vossius considers is 
from fryicri, a crook or hook), an instrument of iron or other heavy 
material used for holding ships or boats in any locality required, 
and preventing them from drifting by winds, tides, currents or 
other causes. This is done by the anchor, after it is let go from 
the ship by means of the cable, fixing itself in the ground and 
there holding the vessel fast. 

The word " anchor " is also used figuratively for anything 
which gives security, or for any ornament or appendage which 
takes the same form. Owing to a vessel's safety depending upon 
the anchor, it is obviously an appliance of great importance, and 
too much care cannot be expended on its manufacture and proper 
construction. The most ancient anchors consisted of large 
stones, baskets full of stones, sacks filled with sand, or logs of 
wood loaded with lead. Of this kind were the anchors of the 
ancient Greeks, which, according to Apollonius Rhodius and 
Stephen of Byzantium, were formed of stone; and Athenaeus 
states that they were sometimes made of wood. Such anchors held 
the vessel merely by their weight and by the friction along the 
bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction 
of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them 
with teeth or " flukes " to fasten themselves into the bottom; 

1 A. C. Lyall, Asiatic Studies (reprinted by Watts and Co., London, 
1907), p. 19. 



ANCHOR 



whence the words b&bvTts and denies are frequently taken for 
anchors in the Greek and Latin poets. The invention of the 
teeth is ascribed by Pliny to the Tuscans; but Pausanias gives 
the credit to Midas, king of Phrygia. Originally there was only 
one fluke or tooth, whence anchors were called repo<rrojuoi; but 
a second was added, according to Pliny, by Eupalainus, or, 
according to Strabo, by Anacharsis, the Scythian philosopher. 
The anchors with two teeth were called d;u<(/3oXot or dju$to"ro;uoi, 
and from ancient monuments appear to have resembled generally 
those used in modern days, except that the stock is absent from 
them all. Every ship had several anchors; the largest, cor- 





FIG. I. Rodger's Anchor. FIG. 2. Improved Martin Anchor. 

responding to our sheet anchor, was only used in extreme danger, 
and was hence peculiarly termed lepi or sacra, whence the 
proverb sacram anchoram solvere, as flying to the last refuge. 

Until the beginning of the ipth century anchors were of 
imperfect manufacture, the means of effecting good and efficient 
welding being absent and the iron poor, whilst the arms, being 
straight, generally parted at the crown, when weighing from 
good holding-ground. A clerk in Plymouth Yard, named 
Pering, in the early part of that century (1813) introduced curved 
arms; and after 1852 the Admiralty anchor, under the direction 
of the Board, was supplied to H.M. ships, followed by Lieutenant 
(afterwards Captain) Rodger's anchor (fig. i). This marked 
a great departure from the form of previous anchors. The arms, 
de, df were formed in one piece, and were pivoted at the crown 
d on a bolt passing through the forked shank ab. The points or 
pees e,f, to the palms g were blunt. This anchor had an excellent 
reputation amongst nautical men of that period, and by the 
committee on anchors, appointed by the admiralty in 1852, 

it was placed second only 
to the anchor of Trotman. 
Later came the self-canting 
and close-stowing Martin 
anchor, which, passing 
through successive im- 
provements, became the 
improved Martin anchor 
(fig. 2) made of forged iron. 
A projection in the centre 
of the arms works in a 
recess at the hub of the 
shank; the vacancies out- 
side the shank are filled by 
blocks bolted through on 
each side, and are flush 
with the side plates, which 
keep the flukes in position. 
The introduction of cast 
steel in 1894 led to the improved Martin-Adelphi pattern (fig. 3) , in 
which the crown and arms are cast in one, and, with the stock, 
are made of cast steel, the shank remaining of forged iron. A 
projection in the crown works in a recess (right, fig. 3), and is 
secured in its place by a forged steel pin, fitted with a nut and 
washer, which passes through the crown and the heel of the 
shank. All the above anchors were provided with a stock 




FIG. 3. Improved Martin-Adelphi 
Anchor. 



(fig. i, hk), the use of which is to " cant " the anchor. If it 
falls' on the ground, resting on one arm and one stock, when a 
strain is brought on the cable, the stock cants the anchor, 
causing the arms to lie at a downward angle to the holding 
ground; and the pees enter and bury themselves below the 
surface of the soil. 

To stow a stocked anchor on the forecastle, it is hove up close 
to the forefoot, and by means of a ground chain (secured to a 
balancing or gravity band on the anchor), which is joined to 
a catting chain rove through a cat davit, the anchor is hove up 




FIG. 4. Anchor Crane. 

horizontally and placed on its bed, where it is secured by chains 
passing over a rod fitted with a lever for " letting go." The cat 
davit is hinged at its base, and can be laid flat on the deck for 
right ahead fire or when at sea. Ground and catting chains 
have been superseded in some ships by a wire pendant and cat 
hook; the anchor is then hove close up to the hawse-pipe. To 
avoid cutting away a portion of the forecastle, in the " Cressy," 
" Terrible " and " Diadem " classes of the British navy, the 
anchors, secured by chains, are stowed a-cock-bill, outside 
the ship, with their crowns resting on iron shoes secured to the 
ship's side and the flukes fore and aft. A difficulty is experienced 
in stowing the anchors when the ship is pitching or rolling 
heavily. Fig. 4 illustrates an anchor with cat davit or anchor crane 
used in the P. and O. Company's steamers (" India " class, 
8000 tons) ; for sea the anchor is stowed on board by the anchor 
crane. 

Stockless anchors have been extensively used in the British 
mercantile marine and in some foreign navies. In 1903 they 





FIG. 5. Hall's Improved 
Stockless Anchor. 



FIG. 6. W. L. Byer's 
Stockless Anchor. 



were adopted generally for the British navy, after extensive 
anchor trials, begun in 1885. Their advantages are: handiness 
combined with a saving of time and labour; absence of davits, 
anchor-beds and other gear, with a resulting reduction in weight; 
and a clear forecastle for " right ahead " gun fire or for working 
ship. On the other hand a larger hawse-pipe is required, and 
there appears to be a consensus of opinion that a stockless anchor 



ANCHOVY 



949 



when " let go " does not hold so quickly as a stocked one, is'more 
uncertain in its action over uneven ground, and is more liable 
to " come home " (drag) . The stockless anchors principally in use 
in the British navy are Hall's improved, Byer's, and Wasteneys 
Smith's. In Hall's improved (fig. 5) the arms and crown of 
cast steel are in one piece, and the shank of forged steel passes 
up through an aperture in the crown to which it is secured by 
two cross bolts. Two trunnions or lugs are forged to the lower 
end of the shank. In Byer's plan (fig. 6) the flukes and crown 

consist of a steel-casting secured 
to a forged shank by a through 
bolt of mild steel, the axis of 
which is parallel to the points 
of the flukes; one end of the 
bolt has a head, but the other is 
screwed and fitted with a phos- 
phor bronze nut to allow the 
bolt to be withdrawn for ex- 
amination. A palm is cast on 
each side of the crown to trip 
the flukes when the anchor is on 
the ground, and for bringing them 
i snug against the ship's side when 
weighing. Wasteneys Smith's 
anchor (fig. 7) is composed of 
three main parts, the shank and 
crown which form one forging, 
and the two flukes or arms which are separate castings. A 
bolt passes through the crown of the anchor, connecting the 
flukes to it; to prevent the flukes working off the connecting 
through bolt, two smaller bolts pass through the flukes at right 
angles to the through b'olt and are recessed half their diameter 
into it. 
Fig. 8 represents the starboard bow of H.M.S. " New Zealand " 




FIG. 7. Wasteneys Smith's 
Stockless Anchor. 




FIG. 8. Starboard Bow of H.M.S. " New Zealand." 



(16,350 tons) with lower and sheet (spare) anchors stowed. To 
let go a stockless anchor (fig. 9) the cable or capstan holder C 
is unscrewed, and in practice it is found desirable to knock 
off the bottle screw-slip A, allowing the weight of the anchor 
to be taken by the inner slip A' (Blake's stopper). Stern, stream 
and kedge anchors are usually stowed with special davits. A 
portable anchor suitable for small yachts is the invention of 
Mr Louis Moore; the shank passes through the crown of the 
anchor like the handle of a pickaxe and the stock over the head 
of the shank. At the end of the stock are loose pawls. There 
are no keys or bolts, and the only fastening is for the cable. 
The anchor takes to pieces readily and stows snugly. In 1890 
Colonel Bucknill also invented a portable anchor for small 
yachts. 

Iron buoy-sinkers (fig. 10), as used by the London Trinity 
House Corporation, weigh from 8 to 40 cwt; the specified 
weight is cast on them in large raised figures, and the cast and 



wrought irons used are of special quality, of which samples are 
previously submitted to the engineer-in-chief. 

The anchors supplied to ships of the British navy are required 




A. 
A'. 
D. 
C. 
C'. 



FIG. 9. Forecastle of H.M.S. " New Zealand." 
Bottle or screw-slip. B. Deck or navel pipes. 

Slip or Blake's stopper. F. --- 
Bitts. H. 

Cable or Capstan-holders. S. 
Centre line capstan. R. 



Fairleads for wire hawsers. 

Hawse-pipes. 

Stopper-bolts. 

Rollers. 




FIG. 10. Iron Buoy- 
Sinker. 



to withstand a certain tensile strain, expressed in tons, propor- 
tionate to their weights in cwts. New anchors are supplied 
by contractors, but repairs are made in H.M. dockyards, a record 
of its repairs being stamped on each 
anchor. In the Anchors and Cables 
Act 1899 a list is given of authorized 
testing-establishments, with their dis- 
tinctive marks and charges, and testing- 
houses for foreign-owned vessels are 
enumerated in Table 22 of Lloyd's 
Register of British and Foreign Shipping. 

Cast-steel anchors, in addition to the statutory tests, are sub- 
jected to percussive, hammering and bending tests, and are 
stamped " annealed steel." (J. W. D.) 

ANCHOVY (Engraidis encrasicholus) , a fish of the herring 
family, easily distinguished by its deeply-cleft mouth, the angle 
of the gape being behind the eyes. The pointed snout extends 
beyond the lower jaw. The fish resembles a sprat in having a 
forked tail and a single dorsal fin, but the body is round and 
slender. The maximum length is 8| in. Anchovies are abundant 
in the Mediterranean, and are regularly caught on the coasts of 
Sicily, Italy, France and Spain. The range of the species also 
extends along the Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of 
Norway. In winter it is common off Devon and Cornwall, but 
has not hitherto been caught in such numbers as to be of com- 
mercial importance. Off the coast of Holland in summer it is 
more plentiful, entering the Zuider Zee in such numbers as to 
give rise to a regular and valuable fishery. It is also taken in the 
estuary of the Scheldt. There is reason to believe that the 
anchovies found at the western end of the English Channel in 
November and December are those which annually migrate 
from the Zuider Zee and Scheldt in autumn, returning thither 
in the following spring; they must be held to form an isolated 
stock, for none come up from the south in summer to occupy the 
English Channel, though the species is resident on the coast of 
Portugal. The explanation appears to be that the shallow and 
landlocked waters of the Zuider Zee, as well as the sea on the 
Dutch coast, become raised to a higher temperature in summer 
than any part of the sea about the British coasts, and that there- 
fore anchovies are able to spawn and maintain their numbers in 
these waters. Their reproduction and development were first 
described by a Dutch naturalist from observations made on the 
shores of the Zuider Zee. Spawning takes place in June and 
July, and the eggs, like those of the majority of marine fishes, 
are buoyant and transparent, but they are peculiar in having an 
elongated, sausage-like shape, instead of being globular. They 
resemble those of the sprat and pilchard in having a segmented 
yolk and there is no oil globule. The larva isjiatched two or 



950 



ANCIEN REGIME ANCILLON 



three days after the fertilization of the egg, and is very minute 
and transparent. In August young specimens 15 to 3^ in. in 
length have been taken in the Zuider Zee, and these must be 
held to have been derived from the spawning of the previous 
summer. There is no evidence to decide the question whether 
all the young anchovies as well as the adults leave the Zuider 
Zee in autumn, but, considering the winter temperature there, 
it is probable that they do. The eggs have also been obtained 
from the Bay of Naples, and near Marseilles, also off the coast 
of Holland, and once at least off the coast of Lancashire. The 
occurrence of anchovies in the English Channel has been carefully 
studied at the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at 
Plymouth. They were most abundant in 1889 and 1890. In the 
former year considerable numbers were taken off Dover in drift 
nets of small mesh used for the capture of sprats. In the follow- 
ing December large numbers were taken together with sprats at 
Torquay. In November 1890 a thousand of the fish were 
obtained in two days from the pilchard boats fishing near Ply- 
mouth; these were caught near the Eddystone. When taken in 
British waters anchovies are either thrown away or sent to the 
market fresh with the sprats. If salted in the proper way, they 
would doubtless be in all respects equal to Dutch anchovies, if 
not to those imported from Italy. The supply, however, is small 
and inconstant, and for this reason English fish-curers have not 
learnt the proper way of preparing them. The so-called " Nor- 
wegian anchovies " imported into England in little wooden kegs 
are nothing but sprats pickled in brine with bay-leaves and 
whole pepper. (J- T. C.) 

ANCIEN REGIME, THE, a French phrase commonly used, even 
by English writers, to denote the social and political system 
established in France under the old monarchy, which was swept 
away by the Revolution of 1789. The phrase is generally appli- 
cable only to France, for in no other country, with perhaps the 
exception of Japan, has there been in modern times so clearly 
marked a division between " the old order " and the new. 

ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. 
ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before), old 
or in olden times. " Ancient history " is distinguished from 
medieval and modern, generally as meaning before the fall of 
the western Roman empire. In English legal history, " ancient " 
tenure or demesne refers to what was crown property in the time 
of Edward the Confessor or William the Conqueror. "The 
Ancient of days " is a Biblical phrase for God. In the London 
Inns of Court the senior barristers used to be called "ancients." 
From the i6th to the i8th century the word was also used, by 
confusion with "ensign," i.e. flag or standard-bearer, for that 
military title, as in the case of Shakespeare's "ancient Pistol"; 
but this use has nothing to do with "ancient" meaning 
"old." 

ANCIENT LIGHTS, a phrase in English law for a negative 
easement (q.is.) consisting in the right to prevent the owner or 
occupier of an adjoining tenement from building or placing on 
his own land anything which has the effect of illegally obstructing 
or obscuring the light of the dominant tenement. At common 
law a person, who opens a window in his house, has a natural 
right to receive the flow of light that passes through it. But his 
neighbour is not debarred thereby from building on his own 
land even though the effect of his action is to obstruct the flow 
of light thus obtained. Where, however, a window had been 
opened for so long a time as to constitute immemorial usage 
in law, the light became an "ancient light" which the law 
protected from disturbance. The Prescription Act 1832 created 
a statutory prescription for light. It provided (s. 3) that " when 
the access and use of light to and for " (any building) " shall have 
been actually enjoyed therewith for the full period of 20 years with- 
out interruption, the right theretO'shall be deemed absolute and 
indefeasible, any local usage or custom to the contrary notwith- 
standing, unless it shall appear that the same was enjoyed by some 
consent or agreement, expressly made or given for that purpose 
by deed or writing." The statute does not create an absolute 
or indefeasible right immediately on the expiration of twenty 
years. Unless and until the dominant owner's claim is brought 



into question (5.4) no absolute or indefeasible title can arise 
under the act. The dominant owner has only an inchoate right 
to avail himself under the act of the twenty years' uninterrupted 
enjoyment, if his claim is brought into question. But in the 
meantime, however long the enjoyment may have been, his 
right is just the same, and the origin of his right is just the same 
as if the act had never been passed. These principles were laid 
down in 1904 by the House of Lords in the leading case of Colls v. 
Home 6* Colonial Stores Ltd. (1904 A.C. 179). They overrule 
an earlier view propounded by Lord Westbury in 1865 {Tapling 
v. Jones, ii H.L.C. 290) that the Prescription Act 1832 had 
abrogated the common law prescription as to light, that the 
right to " ancient lights" now depends upon positive enactment 
alone, and does not require, and ought not to be rested on, any 
fiction of a "lost grant" (see EASEMENT). There has been 
much difference of judicial opinion as to what constitutes an 
actionable interference with " ancient lights." On the one hand, 
the test has been prescribed that if an angle of 45 uninterrupted 
sky light was left, the easement was not interfered with, and, 
while this is not a rule of law, it is a good rough working criterion. 
On the other hand, it was held in effect by the Court of Appeal 
in the case of Colls v. Home & Colonial Stores Ltd. (1902; i Ch. 
302) that to constitute an actionable obstruction of ancient lights 
it was sufficient if the light was sensibly less than it was before. 
The House of Lords, however, in the same case (1904 A. C. 179) 
overruled this view, and held that there must be a substantial 
privation of light enough to render the occupation of the house 
or building uncomfortable according to the ordinary notions of 
mankind and (in the case of business premises) to prevent the 
plaintiff from carrying on his business as beneficially as before. 
See also Kine v. Jolly (1905; i Ch. 480). 

There is, in Scots law, no special doctrine as to "ancient 
lights." The servitude of light in Scotland is simply the Roman 
servitude non officiendi luminibus vel prospectui (see EASEMENT 
and ROMAN LAW). The same observation applies to the Code 
Civil and other European Codes based on it. The doctrine 
as to ancient lights does not prevail generally in the United 
States (consult Ruling Cases, under "Air"). 

ANCILLARY (from the Lat. ancilla, a handmaid), an adjective 
meaning "subordinate to" or "merely helping," as opposed to 
"essential." By Thackeray and some other writers it is also 
employed rather affectedly in its primary meaning of " pertaining 
to a maid-servant." 

ANCILLON, CHARLES (1659-1715), one of a distinguished 
family of French Protestants, was born on the 28th of July 
1659, at Metz. His father, David Ancillon (1617-1692), was 
obliged to leave France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
and became pastor of the French Protestant community in Berlin. 
Charles Ancillon studied law at Marburg, Geneva, and Paris, 
where he was called to the bar. At the request of the Huguenots 
at Metz, he pleaded its cause at the court of Louis XIV., urging 
that it should be excepted in the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 
but his efforts were unsuccessful, and he joined his father in 
Berlin. He was at once appointed by the elector Frederick 
"juge et directeur de colonie de Berlin." He had before this 
published several works on the revocation of the edict of Nantes 
and its consequences, but his literary capacity was mediocre, his 
style stiff and cold, and it was his personal character rather than 
his reputation as a writer that earned him the confidence of the 
elector. In 1687 he was appointed head of the so-called Academic 
des nobles, the principal educational establishment of the state; 
later on, as councillor of embassy, he took part in the 
negotiations which led to the assumption of the title of king by 
the elector. In 1699 he succeeded Pufendorf as historiographer 
to the elector, and the same year replaced his uncle Joseph 
Ancillon as judge of all the French refugees in Brandenburg. He 
died on the 5th of July 1715. Ancillon's chief claim to remem- 
brance is the work that he did for education in Prussia, and the 
share he took, in co-operation with Leibnitz, in founding the 
Academy of Berlin. Of his fairly numerous works the only one 
still of value is the Histoire de I'etablissement des Francois rejugies 
dans les Hats de Brandebourg (Berlin, 1690). 



ANCILLON ANCONA 



ANCILLON, JOHANN PETER FRIEDRICH (1766-1837), 
Prussian historian and statesman, great-grandson of Charles 
Ancillon, was born at Berlin on the 3oth of April 1766. He 
studied theology at Geneva, and after finishing his course was 
appointed minister to the French community at Berlin. At the 
same time his reputation as a historical scholar secured him 
the post of professor of history at the military academy. In 
1793 he visited Switzerland, and in 1796 France, and published 
the impressions gathered during his travels in a series of articles 
which he afterwards collected under the title of Melanges de 
litterature et de philosophic (1801). Ancillon took rank among 
the most famous historians of his day by his next work, Tableau 
des revolutions du systeme politique de I' Europe depuis le X V" siecle 
(1803, 4 vols.; new ed., 1824), which gained him the eulogium 
of the Institute of France, and admission to the Academy of 
Berlin. It was the first attempt to recognize psychological 
factors in historical movements, but otherwise its importance 
was exaggerated. Its " sugary optimism, unctuous phraseology 
and pulpit logic " appealed, however, to the reviving pietism of 
the age succeeding the Revolution, and these qualities, as well 
as his eloquence as a preacher, early brought Ancillon into notice 
at court. In 1808 he was appointed tutor to the royal princes, 
in 1809 councillor of state in the department of religion, and in 
iSiotutorof the crown prince (afterwards Frederick William I V. ) , 
on whose sensitive and dreamy nature he was to exercise a power- 
ful but far from wholesome influence. In October 1814, when 
his pupil came of age, Ancillon was included by Prince Harden- 
berg in the ministry, as privy councillor of legation in the 
department of foreign affairs, with a view to utilizing his supposed 
gifts as a philosophical historian in the preparation of the pro- 
jected Prussian constitution. But Ancillon's reputed liberalism 
was of too invertebrate a type to survive the trial of actual 
contact with affairs. The practical difficulty of the constitutional 
problem gave the " court parson " as Gneisenau had con- 
temptuously called him excuse enough for a change of front 
which, incidentally, would please his exalted patrons. He 
covered his defection from Hardenberg's liberal constitu- 
tionalism by a series of " philosophical " treatises on the 
nature of the state and of man, and became the soul of the 
reactionary movement at the Berlin court, and the faithful 
henchman of Metternich in the general politics of Germany and 
of Europe. 

In 1817 Ancillon became a councillor of state, and in 1818 
director of the political section of the ministry for foreign affairs 
under Count Bernstorff. In his chief's most important work, 
the establishment of the Prussian Zolherein, Ancillon had no 
share, while the entirely subordinate role played by Prussia 
in Europe during this period, together with the personal part 
taken by the sovereign in the various congresses, gave him little 
scope for the display of any diplomatic talents he may have 
possessed. During this time he found plentiful leisure to write 
a series of works on political philosophy, such as the Nouveaux 
essais de politique et de philosophic (Paris, 1824). In May 1831 
he was made an active privy councillor, was appointed chief 
of the department for the principality of Neuchatel, in July 
became secretary of state for foreign affairs, and in the spring 
of 1832, on Bernstorff 's retirement, succeeded him as head of 
the ministry. 

By the German public, to whom Ancillon was known only 
through his earlier writings and some isolated protests against 
the " demagogue-hunting " in fashion at Berlin, his advent 
to power was hailed as a triumph of liberalism. They were 
soon undeceived. Ancillon had convinced himself that the rigid 
class distinctions of the Prussian system were the philosophically 
ideal basis of the state, and that representation " by estates " 
was the only sound constitutional principle; his last and indeed 
only act of importance as minister was his collaboration with 
Metternich in the Vienna Final Act of the I2th of June 1834, 
the object of which was to rivet this system upon Germany 
for ever. He died on the igth of April 1837, the last of his family. 
His historical importance lies neither in his writings nor in his 
political activity, but in his personal influence at the Prussian 



court, and especially in its lasting effect on the character of 
Frederick William IV. 

See C. A. L. P. Varnhagen von Ense, Blatter aus der preussischen 
Gesc'iiichte, 5 vols. (Leipzig, 1868-1869); ib. Tagebucher, vol. i. 
(Leipzig, 1861); H. O. Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte (Leipzig, 
1879-1894), and essay on Ancillon in Preussische Jahrbiicher for April 
1872; Attgemeine Deutsche Biographic, s.v. (Leipzig, 1875). 

ANC6N, a small village and bathing-place on the coast of 
Peru, 22 m. N. of Lima by rail. The bay is formed by two 
projecting headlands and is one of the best on the coast. It has 
a gently sloping beach of fine sand and has been a popular 
bathing-place since the time of President Balta, although the 
country behind it is arid and absolutely barren. At some time 
previous to the discovery of America, Ancon had a large ab- 
original population. Traces of terraces on the southern headland 
can still be seen, and the sand-covered hills and slopes overlooking 
the bay contain extensive burial-grounds which were systematic- 
ally explored in 1875 by Messrs W. Reiss and A. Stiibel (see 
Reiss and Stiibel's The Necropolis of Ancdn in Peru, translated 
by A. H. Keane, 3 vols., Berlin, 1880-1887). In modern times 
Ancon has been the scene of several important historical events. 
Its anchorage was used by Lord Cochrane in 1820 during his 
attacks on Callao; it was the landing-place of an -invading 
Chilean army in 1838; it was bombarded by the Chileans in 
1880; and in 1883 it was the meeting-place of the Chilean and 
Peruvian commissioners who drew up the treaty of Ancon, which 
ended the war between Chile and Peru. 

ANCON (from the Gr. by/cuv), the anatomical name for 
" elbow "; " ancones " in architecture are the projecting bosses 
left on stone blocks or on drums of columns, to allow of their 
being either hoisted aloft or rubbed backwards and forwards 
to obtain a fine joint; the term is also given by Vitruvius to the 
trusses or console brackets on each side of the doorway of a 
Greek or Roman building which support the cornice over the 
same. A particular sort of sheep, with short crooked forelegs, 
is called " ancon " sheep. 

ANCONA, ALESSANDRO (1835- ), Italian critic and 
man of letters, was born at Pisa on the 2oth of February 1835, 
of a wealthy Jewish family, and educated in Florence; at the 
age of eighteen he published his essay on the life and work of 
the philosopher Tommaso Campanella. In 1855 Ancona went 
to Turin, nominally to study law, but in reality to act as inter- 
mediary between the Tuscan Liberals and Cavour; he was an 
intimate friend of Luigi Carlo Farini (q.v.) and represented 
Tuscany in the Societa Nazionale. On the fall of the Austrian 
dynasty in Tuscany (April 27, 1859) he returned to Florence, 
where he edited the newly founded newspaper La Nazione. 
In 1 86 1 he was appointed professor of Italian literature at the 
university of Pisa. Among his works the following may be 
mentioned: Opera di Tommaso Campanella, 2 vols. (Turin, 1854); 
Sacre Rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV., e XVI. (3 vols., 
Florence, 1872); Origini del Teatro in Italia (2 vols., Florence, 
1877); La Poesia popolare italiana (Livorno, 1878), besides 
several volumes of literary essays, editions of the works of Dante 
and other early Italian writers, &c. 

ANCONA, a seaport and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, 
capital of the province of Ancona, situated on the N.E. coast 
of Italy, 185 m. N.E. of Rome by rail and 132 m. direct, and 
127 m. S.E. of Bologna. Pop. (1901) 56,835. The town is finely 
situated on and between the slopes of the two extremities of the 
promontory of Monte Conero, Monte Astagno to the S., occupied 
by the citadel, and Monte Guasco to the N., on which the 
cathedral stands (300 ft.). The latter, dedicated to S. Ciriaco, 
is said to occupy the site of a temple of Venus, who is mentioned 
by Catullus and Juvenal as the tutelary deity of the place. It 
was consecrated in 1128 and completed in 1189. Some writers 
suppose that the original church was in the form of a Latin cross 
and belonged to the 8th century. An early restoration was 
completed in 1234. It is a fine Romanesque building in grey 
stone, built in the form of a Greek cross, with a dodecagonal 
dome over the centre slightly altered by Maigaritone d' Arezzo 
in 1270. The facade has a Gothic portal, ascribed to Giorgio da 
Como (1228), which was intended to have a lateral arch on each 



952 



ANCREN RIWLE ANCRUM 



side. The interior, which has a crypt in each transept, in the 
main preserves its original character. It has ten columns which 
are attributed to the temple of Venus, and there are good screens 
of the 1 2th century, and other sculptures. In the dilapidated 
episcopal palace Pope Pius II. died in 1464. An interesting 
church is S. Maria della Piazza, with an elaborate arcaded facade 
(1210). The Palazzo del Comune, with its lofty arched sub- 
structures at the back, was the work of Margaritone d' Arezzo, 
but has been since twice restored. There are also several fine 
late Gothic buildings, among them the churches of S. Francesco 
and S. Agostino, the Palazzo Benincasa, and the Loggia dei 
Mercanti, all by Giorgio Orsini, usually called da Sebenico (who 
worked much at Sebenico, though he was not a native of it), and 
the prefecture, which has Renaissance additions. The portal of 
S. Maria della Misericordia is an ornate example of early Renais- 
sance work. The archaeological museum contains interesting 
pre-Roman objects from tombs in the district, and two Roman 
beds with fine decorations in ivory (E. Brizio, hi Notizk degli 
scavi, 1902, 437, 478). 

To the east of the town is the harbour, now an oval basin of 
990 by 880 yards, the finest harbour on the S. W. coast of 
the Adriatic, and one of the best in Italy. It was originally 
protected only by the promontory on the N., from the elbow-like 
shape of which (Gk. a-y/ccoc) the ancient town, founded by 
Syracusan refugees about 390 B.C., took the name which it still 
holds. Greek merchants established a purple factory here (Sil. 
Ital. viii. 438). Even in Roman times it kept its own coinage 
with the punning device of the bent arm holding a palm branch, 
and the head of Aphrodite on the reverse, and continued the use 
of the Greek language. When it became a Roman colony is 
doubtful. 1 It was occupied as a naval station in the Illyrian 
war of 178 B.C. (Liv. xli. i). Caesar took possession of it 
immediately after crossing the Rubicon. Its harbour was of 
considerable importance in imperial times, as the nearest to 
Dalmatia, 2 and was enlarged by Trajan, who constructed the 
north quay, his architect being Apollodorus of Damascus. At 
the beginning of it stands the marble triumphal arch with a 
single opening, and without bas-reliefs, erected in his honour in 
A.D. 115 by the senate and people. Pope Clement II. prolonged 
the quay, and an inferior imitation of Trajan's arch was set 
up; he also erected a lazaretto at the south end of the harbour, 
now a sugar refinery, Vanvitelli being the architect-in-chief . The 
Southern quay was built in 1880, and the harbour is now pro- 
tected by forts on the heights, while the place is the seat of the 
7th army corps. 

The port of Ancona was entered in 1904 by 869 steamships and 
600 sailing vessels, with a total tonnage of 961,612 tons. The 
main imports were coal, timber, metals, jute. The main exports 
were asphalt and calcium carbide. Sugar refining and ship- 
building are carried on. 

Ancona is situated on the railway between Bologna and 
Brindisi, and is also connected by rail with Rome, via Foligno 
and Orte. 

After the fall of the Roman empire Ancona was successively 
attacked by the Goths, Lombards and Saracens, but recovered 
its strength and importance. It was one of the cities of the 
Pentapolis under the exarchate of Ravenna, the other four being 
Fano, Pesaro, Senigallia and Rimini, and eventually became a 
semi-independent republic under the protection of the popes, 
until Gonzaga took possession of it for Clement VII. in 1532. 
From 1797 onwards, when the French took it, it frequently 
appears in history as an important fortress, until Lamoriciere 
capitulated . here on the 29th of September' 1860, eleven days 
after his defeat at Castelfidardo. (T. As.) 

ANCREN RIWLE, a Middle English prose treatise written for 
a small community of three religious women and their servants 
at Tarent Raines (Tarrant Crawford), at the junction of the 
Stour and the Tarrant, Dorset. It was generally supposed to 

1 Scanty remains of the ancient town walls, of a gymnasium near 
the harbour and of the amphitheatre are still extant. 

1 It was connected by a road with the Via Flaminia at Nuceria 
(Norcera), a distance of 70 m. 



date from the first quarter of the i3th century, but Pro- 
fessor E. Kolbing is inclined to place the Corpus Christi MS. 
about the middle of the I2th century. The house of Tarrant 
was founded by Ralph de Kahaines, and greatly enriched about 
1230 by Richard Poor, bishop successively of Chichester, Salis- 
bury and Durham, who was born at Tarrant and died there in 
1237. At the time when the Ancren Riwle was addressed to 
them the anchoresses did not belong to any of the monastic orders, 
but the monastery was under the Cistercian rule before 1266.' 
There are extant seven English MSS. of the work, and one Latin, 
the Latin version being generally supposed to be a translation. 
The Latin MS., Regula Anachoritarum sive de vita solitaria 
(Magdalen College, Oxford, No. 67, fol. 50) has a prefatory note: 
Hie incipit prohemium venerabilis patris magistri Simonis de 
Gandavo, episcopi Sarum, in librum de vita solitaria, quern scripsU 
sororibus suis anachoritis apud Tarente. But Bishop Simon of 
Ghent, who died in 1315, could not have written the book, if it 
dates, at latest, from the early i3th century. It has been 
tentatively attributed to Richard Poor, who was connected with 
Tarrant, and was actually a benefactor of the monastery. But 
the adoption of Prof. Kolbing's early date would almost destroy 
Poor's claim. 

The Ancren Riwle is written in a simple, non-rhetorical style. 
The severity of the doctrine of self-renunciation is softened by 
the affectionate tone in which it is inculcated. The book contains 
rules for the conduct of the anchoresses, and gives liturgical 
directions for divine service; but the greater part of it is taken 
up with the purely spiritual side of religion. The rules for the 
restraint of the senses, for confession and penance, are sub- 
ordinated to the central idea of the supreme importance of purity 
of heart and the love of Christ. The last chapter deals with the 
domestic affairs and administration of the monastery. Incident- 
ally the writer gives a picture of the manners and ideas of the 
time, and provides an account of the doctrine then generally 
accepted in the English church. 

A ncren Riwle was edited for the Camden Society by the Rev. James 
Morton in 1843 from the Cotton MS. (Nero A xiy.). A collation of 
this text with the MS. by E. Kolbing is printed in the Jahrbuch fiir 
romanische u. engl. Spr. und Lit. xv. 180 seq. (1876). The Ancren 
Riwle (ed. Abbot F. A. Gasquet, 1905) is available for the 
ordinary reader in The King's Classics. There are three English 
MSS. of Ancren Riwle in the Cottonian collection in the British 
Museum, numbered Nero A xiv., Titus D xviii., and Cleopatra C vi. 
Nero A xiv. is written in pure south-western dialect. Portions of 
this text are printed in Henry Sweet's First Middle English Primer 
(Oxford, 2nd ed., 1895), which contains a grammatical introduction. 
MS. 402 in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, contains 
the earliest version of Ancren Riwle, entitled Ancren Wisse, and 
dating (according to E. Kolbing in Englische Studien, 1886, vol. ix. 
116) from about 1150. The language shows considerable traces of 
the Midland dialect. MS. 234 in Caius College, Cambridge, contains 
a considerable portion of the Ancren Riwle, but does not follow the 
order of the other MSS. For its exact contents see Kolbing, in 
Englische Studien, iii. 535 (1880). A more recently discovered 
version in Magdalene College, Cambridge, in MS. Pepys 2408, is 
entitled The Recluse, and is abridged and differently arranged. It 
is written in English of the latter half of the I4th century (see 
A. C. Paues in Englische Studien, xxx. 344-346, 1902). A Latin 
version (Cotton MS. Vitellius E vii.), and a French copy (ibid. F vii.) 
were seriously damaged in the fire at Ashburnham House, but both 
MSS. have been recently restored. The Latin MS. (Codex Ixvii.) 
at Magdalen College, Oxford, is probably a copy of another Latin 
text, for it contains obvious slips. 

See also R. Wiilker, " Ueber die Sprache der Ancren Riwle und 
die der Homilie: Halt Meidenhad," in Beitrdge zur Geschichte der 
deutschen Sprache und Literatur (Halle, 1874, i. 209), giving an 
analysis of the differences in dialect between the two works; and 
Edgar Elliott Bramlette, " The Original Language of the Ancren 
Riwle," in Anglia, xv. 478-498, arguing in favour of a Latin 
original. 

ANCRUM, a village on Ale or Alne Water (a tributary of the 
Teviot), Roxburghshire, Scotland, 2 m. W. of Jedfoot Bridge 
station on the Roxburgh- Jedburgh branch of the North British 
railway. Pop. (1901) 973. The earlier forms of the name, 

Alnecrumba," " Ankrom "and" Alnecrom," indicate its Gaelic 
derivation from crom, " crooked " " the crook or bend of the 

3 For information on the subject of Tarent Kaines see Sir W. 
Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum (new ed., 1846), vol. v. 619 
et seq. 



ANGUS MARCIUS ANCYRA 



953 



Alne." The village is of considerable antiquity, and was formerly 
held by the see of Glasgow. Its cross, said to date from the 
time of David I., is one of the best preserved crosses in the Border 
counties. Ancrum Moor, 2 m. N.W., was the scene of the battle 
in which, on the zyth of February 1545, the Scots under the earl 
of Angus, Sir Walter Scott of Buccleuch, and Norman Leslie, 
defeated 5000 English, whose leaders, Sir Ralph Evers or Eure and 
Sir Brian Latoun or Layton, were slain. A Roman road, 24 ft. 
broad, forms the N.E. boundary of the parish of Ancrum. 

ANGUS MARCIUS (640-616 B.C.), fourth legendary king of 
Rome. Like Numa, his reputed grandfather, he was a friend 
of peace and religion, but was obliged to make war to defend his 
territories. He conquered the Latins, and a number of them he 
settled on the Aventine formed the origin of the Plebeians. 
He fortified the Janiculum, threw a wooden bridge across the 
Tiber, founded the port of Ostia, established salt-works and 
built a prison. 

Ancus Marcius is merely a duplicate of Numa, as is shown by 
his second name, Numa Marcius, the confidant and pontifex of 
Numa, being no other than Numa Pompilius himself, represented 
as priest. The identification with Ancus is shown by the legend 
which makes the latter a bridge-builder (pontifex), the constructor 
of the first wooden bridge over the Tiber. It is in the exercise 
of his priestly functions that the resemblance is most clearly 
shown. Like Numa, Ancus died a natural death. 

See Livy i. 32, 33; Dion Halic. iii. 36-45; Cicero, De Republica, 
\i. 1 8. For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, 
Romische Geschichte, bk. xiii.; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility 
of Early Roman History, ch. xi. ; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i. ; 
R. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. (1898), who considers that the name 
points to the personification of the cult of Mars, and that the military 
achievements of Ancus are anticipations of later events. 

ANCYLOPODA, or ANCYLODACTYLA, an apparently primitive 
extinct subordinal group of Ungulata showing certain resem- 
blances to the Perissodactyla, both as regards the cheek-teeth 
and the skeleton, but broadly distinguished by the feet being of 
an edentate type, carrying long curved and cleft terminal claws. 
From this peculiar structure of the feet it would seem that the 
weight of the body was mainly carried on their outer sides, as in 
Edentates. The group is typified by Chalicotherium, of which 
the original species was discovered in the Lower Pliocene strata 
of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1825, and named on the 
evidence of the teeth, the limbs being subsequently described 
as Macrotherium. The skull is short, with a dental formula of 
f.f , c. 5 '-, />.f . m.f, but in fully adult animals most of the front teeth 
were shed. The molar teeth recall those of Palaeosyops (see 
TITANOTHERIIDAE). Remains referred to Chalicotherium have 
been also obtained from the Lower Pliocene and Upper Miocene 
strata of Greece, Hungary, India, China and North America. 
A skull from Pikermi, near Mt. Pentelikon, Attica, shows the 
absence in the adult state of upper and lower incisors and upper 
canines, much the same condition being indicated in an Indian 
skull. There were three toes to each foot, and the femur lacked 
a third trochanter. 

Macrotherium, which is typically from the Middle Miocene 
of Sansan, in Gers, France, may indicate a distinct genus. Limb- 
bones nearly resembling those of Macrotherium, but relatively 
stouter, have been described from the Pliocene beds of Attica 
and Samos as Ancylotherium. In America the names Moro- 
therium and Moropus have been applied to similar bones, on the 
belief that they indicated edentates. Macrotherium magnum 
must have been an animal of about 9 ft. in length. 

The South American genus Homalodontotherium is often placed 
in the Ancylopoda, but reasons against this view are given in 
the article LITOPTERNA. Professor H. F. Osborn considers that 
the Ancylopoda are directly descended from the Condylarthra. 

See also H. F. Osborn, " The Ancylopoda Chalicotherium and 
Artionyx," Amer. Nat. (1893), p. 118, and Artionyx, a NewGenusof 
Ancylopoda," Bull. Amer. Mas. vol. v. p. i (1893). [N.B. Artionyx 
was subsequently found to be an Artiodactyle.] (R. L.*) 

ANCYRA (mod. Angdra, q.v.), an ancient city of Galatia in 
Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of the Sangarius. Originally 
a large and prosperous Phrygian city on the Persian Royal Road, 
Ancyra became the centre of the Tectosages, one of the three 



Gaulish tribes that settled permanently in Galatia about 232 B.C. 
The barbarian occupation dislocated civilization, and the town 
sank to a mere village inhabited chiefly by the old native popula- 
tion who carried on the arts and crafts of peaceful life, while the 
Gauls devoted themselves to war and pastoral life (see GALATIA). 
In 189 B.C. Ancyra was occupied by Cn. Manlius Vulso, who 
made it his headquarters in his operations against the tribe. In 
63 B.C. Pompey placed it (together with the Tectosagan territory) 
under one chief, and it continued under native rule till it became 
the capital of the Roman province of Galatia in 25 B.C. By 
this time the population included Greeks, Jews, Romans and 
Romanized Gauls, but the town was not yet Hellenized, though 
Greek was spoken. Strabo (c. A.D. 19) calls it not a city, but a 
fortress, implying that it had none of the institutions of the 
Graeco-Roman city. Inscriptions and coins show that its civil- 
ization consisted of a layer of Roman ideas and customs super- 
imposed on Celtic tribal characteristics, and that it is not until 
c. A.D. 150 that the true Hellenic spirit begins to appear. 
Christianity was introduced (from the N. or N.W.) perhaps as 
early as the ist century, but there is no shred of evidence that 
the Ancyran Church (first mentioned A.D. 192) was founded by 
St Paul or that he ever visited northern Galatia. The real great- 
ness of the town dates from the time when Constantinople became 
the metropolis of the Roman world: then its geographical 
situation raised it to a position of importance which it retained 
throughout the middle ages. See further ANGORA (i). 

The modern town contains many remains of the Roman and 
Byzantine periods. The most important monument is the 
Augusleum, a temple of white marble erected to " Rome and 
Augustus " during the lifetime of that emperor by the common 
council or die) 'of the three Galatian tribes. The temple was 
afterwards converted into a church, and in the i6th century a 
fine mosque was built against its S. face. On the walls of the 
temple is engraved the famous Monumentum Ancyranum, a long 
inscription in Latin and Greek describing the Res gestae divi 
Augusti; the Latin portion being inscribed on the inner left-hand 
wall of the pronaos, the Greek on the outside wall of the naos 
(cella). The inscription is a grave and majestic narrative of the 
public life and work of Augustus. The original was written 
by the emperor in his 76th year (A.D. 13-14) to be engraved 
on two bronze tablets placed in front of his mausoleum 
in Rome, and as a mark of respect to his memory a 
copy was inscribed on the temple walls by the council of the 
Galatians. Thus has been preserved an absolutely unique 
historical document of great importance, recounting (i) the 
numerous public offices and honours conferred on him, (2) his 
various benefactions to the state, to the plebs and to his soldiers, 
and (3) his military and administrative services to the empire. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, vol. xviii.(i837- 
1859); Hamilton, Researches in A. M. (1842); Texier, Descrip. de 
I'Asie Min. (1839-1849); Perrot, Explor. de la Galatie (1862); 
Humann and Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien (1890). For Mon. 
Ancyr., Mommsen, Res gestae divi Augusti (1883) ; and Inscr. graecae 
ad res Romanas pertinentes, iii. (1902). For coins, Brit. Museum 
Catal., Galatia (1899); Babelon-Reinach, Recueil general d' A. M. 
See also under GALATIA. (J. G. C. A.) 

SYNOD or ANCYRA. An important ecclesiastical synod was 
held at Ancyra, the seat of the Roman administration for the 
provinceof Galatia, in A.D. 314. Theseasonwas soon after Easter; 
the year may be safely deduced from the fact that the first nine 
canons are intended to repair havoc, wrought in the church by 
persecution, which ceased after the overthrow of Maximinus in 
313. The tenth canon tolerates the marriages of deacons who 
previous to ordination had reserved the right to take a wife; 
the thirteenth forbids chorepiscopi to ordain presbyters or 
deacons; the eighteenth safeguards the right of the people in 
objecting to the appointment of a bishop whom they do not wish. 

See Mansi, ii. 514 ff. The critical text of R. B. Rackham (Oxford, 
1891), Studia biblica et ecclesiastica, iii. 139 ff., is conveniently re- 
printed in Lauchert 29 ff. H. R. Percival translates and comments 
on an old text in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd series), 
xiv. 6 1 ff. An elaborate discussion is found in Hefele, Concilien- 
geschichte (2nd ed.), i. 219 ff. (English translation, i. 199 ff.); 
more briefly in Herzog-Hauck (3rd ed.), i. 497. For full titles 



see COUNCIL. 



(W. W. R.*) 



954 



ANDALUSIA ANDALUSITE 



ANDALUSIA, or ANDALUCIA, a captaincy-general, and 
formerly a province, of southern Spain; bounded on the N. 
by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia and the 
Mediterranean Sea, S. by the Mediterranean and Atlantic, 
and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 3,563,606; area, 33,777 
sq. m. Andalusia was divided in 1833 into the eight provinces 
of Almeria, Cadiz, Cordova, Granada, Jan, Huelva, Malaga and 
Seville, which are described in separate articles. Its ancient 
name, though no longer used officially, except to designate a 
military district, has not been superseded in popular speech by 
the names of the eight modern divisions. 

Andalusia consists of a great plain, the valley of the Guadal- 
quivir, shut in by mountain ranges on every side except the 
S.W., where it descends to the Atlantic. This lowland, which 
is known as Andalucia Baja, or Lower Andalusia, resembles 
the valley of the Ebro in its slight elevation above sea-level 
(300-400 ft.), and in the number of brackish lakes or fens, and 
wast* lands (despoblados) impregnated with salt, which seem 
to indicate that the whole surface was covered by the sea at 
no distant geological date. The barren tracts are, however, 
exceptional and a far larger area is richly fertile. Some districts, 
indeed, such as the Vega of Granada, are famous for the luxuri- 
ance of their vegetation. The Guadalquivir (q.v.) rises among 
the mountains of Jaen and flows in a south-westerly direction 
to the Gulf of Cadiz, receiving many considerable tributaries on 
its way. On the north, its valley is bounded by the wild Sierra 
Morena; on the south, by the mountains of the Mediterranean 
littoral, among which the Sierra Nevada (?..), with its peaks of 
Mulhacen(n,42i ft.)andVeleta( 11,148 ft.), is the most conspicu- 
ous. These highlands, with the mountains of Jaen and Almeria 
on the east, constitute Andalucia Alia or Upper Andalusia. 

No part of Spain has greater natural riches. The sherry 
produced near Jerez de la Frontera, the copper of the Rio Tinto 
mines and the lead of Almeria are famous. But the most note- 
worthy characteristics of the province are, perhaps, the brilliancy 
of its climate, the beauty of its scenery (which ranges in character 
from the alpine to the tropical), and the interest of its art and 
antiquities. The climate necessarily varies widely with the 
altitude. Some of the higher mountains are covered with 
perpetual snow, a luxury which is highly prized by the inhabit- 
ants of the valleys, where the summer is usually extremely hot, 
and in winter the snow falls only to melt when it reaches the 
ground. Here the more common European plants and trees 
give place to the wild olive, the caper bush, the aloe, the cactus, 
the evergreen oak, the orange, the lemon, the palm and other 
productions of a tropical climate. On the coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean about Marbella and Malaga, the sugar-cane is successfully 
cultivated. Silk is produced in the same region. Agriculture 
is in a very backward state and the implements used are most 
primitive. The chief townsare Seville (pop. 1900, 148,315), which 
may be regarded as the capital, Malaga (130,109), Granada 
(75,900), Cadiz (69,382), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Cordova 
(58,275) and Almeria (47,326). 

Andalusia has never been, like Castile or Aragon, a separate 
kingdom. Its history is largely a record of commercial and 
artistic development. The Guadalquivir valley is often, in part 
at least, identified with the biblical Tarshish and the classical 
Tartessus, a famous Phoenician mart. The port of Agadir or 
Gaddir, now Cadiz, was founded as early as noo B.C. Later 
Carthaginian invaders came from their advanced settlements 
in the Balearic Islands, about 516 B.C. Greek merchants also 
visited the coasts. The products of the interior were conveyed 
by the native Iberians to the maritime colonies, such as Abdera 
(Adra), Calpe (Gibraltar) or Malaca (Malaga), founded by the 
foreign merchants. The Punic wars transferred the supreme 
power from Carthage to Rome, and Latin civilization was 
established firmly when, in 27 B.C., Andalusia became the Roman 
province of Baetica so called after its great waterway, the 
Baetis (Guadalquivir). In the 5th century the province was 
overrun by successive invaders Vandals, Suevi and Visigoths 
from the first of whom it may possibly derive its name. The 
forms Vandalusia and Vandalitia are undoubtedly ancient; 



many authorities, however, maintain that the name is derived 
from the Moorish Andalus or Andalosh, " Land of the West." 
The Moors first entered the province in 711, and only in 1492 was 
their power finally broken by the capture of Granada. Their 
four Andalusian kingdoms, Seville, Jaen, Cordova and Granada, 
developed a civilization unsurpassed at the time in Europe. An 
extensive literature, scientific, philosophical and historical, with 
four world-famous buildings the Giralda and Alcazar of Seville, 
the Mezquita or cathedral of Cordova and the Alhambra at 
Granada are its chief monuments. In the i6th and i7th 
centuries, painting replaced architecture as the distinctive art 
of Andalusia; and many of the foremost Spanish painters, 
including Velazquez and Murillo, were natives of this province. 

Centuries of alien domination have left their mark upon the 
character and appearance of the Andalusians, a mixed race, who 
contrast strongly with the true Spaniards and possess many 
oriental traits. It is impossible to estimate the influence of the 
elder conquerors, Greek, Carthaginian and Roman; but there 
are clear traces of Moorish blood, with a less well-defined Jewish 
and gipsy strain. The men are tall, handsome and well-made, 
and the women are among the most beautiful in Spain; while 
the dark complexion and hair of both sexes, and their peculiar 
dialect of Spanish, so distasteful to pure Castilians, are indisput- 
able evidence of Moorish descent. Their music, dances and 
many customs, come from the East. In general, the people are 
lively, good-humoured and ready-witted, fond of pleasure, lazy 
and extremely superstitious. In the literature and drama of his 
country, the Andalusian is traditionally represented as the 
Gascon of Spain, ever boastful and mercurial; or else as a 
picaresque hero, bull-fighter, brigand or smuggler. Andalusia 
is still famous for its bull-fighters; and every outlying hamlet 
has its legends of highwaymen and contraband. 

In addition to the numerous works cited under the heading 
SPAIN, see Curiosidades historicas de Andalucia, by N. Di4z de 
Escovar (Malaga, 1900); Histoire de la conquete de I' Andalousie, by 
O. Houdas (Paris, 1889); Andalousie et Portugal (Paris, 1886); El. 
Folk-Lore Andaluz (Seville, 1883); and Nobleza de Andalucia, by 
G. Argote de Molina (Seville, 1588). 

ANDALUSITE, a mineral with the same chemical composition 
as cyanite and sillimanite, being a basic aluminium silicate, 
Al 2 SiOs. As in sillimanite, its crystalline form 
is referable to the orthorhombic system. 
Crystals of andalusite have the form of almost 
square prisms, the prism-angle being 89 12'; 
they are terminated by a basal plane and some- 
times by small dome-faces. As a rule the 
crystals are roughly developed and rude colum- 
nar masses are common, these being frequently 
altered partially to kaolin or mica. Such 
crystals, opaque, and of a greyish or brownish 
colour, occur abundantly in the mica-schist of the Lisens Alp 
near Innsbruck in Tirol, while the first noted _ 

of the many localities of the mineral is in /9k 

Andalusia, from which place the mineral (Ji 

derives its name. The unaltered mineral is M| 

found as transparent pebbles with topaz ^S 

in the gem-gravels of the Minas Novas <BK 

district, in Minas Geraes, Brazil. These VEsJ 

pebbles are usually green but sometimes ^K 

reddish-brown in colour, and are remarkable ^E3 

for their very strong dichroism, the same fS\ 

pebble appearing green or reddish-brown 
according to the direction in which it is RS& 

viewed. Such specimens make very effective 
gem-stones, the degree of hardness of the fSi 

mineral (H. = 7$) being quite sufficient for \p 

this purpose. Its specific gravity is 3-18; 
it is unattacked by acids and is infusible 
before the blowpipe. 

Andalusite is typically a mineral of 
metamorphic origin, occurring most fre- 
quently in altered clay-slates and crystalline schists, near the 
junction of these with masses of intrusive igneous rocks such as 



til 



FIG. i. 



FIG. 2. Trans- 
verse sections of a 
crystal of Chiasto- 



ANDAMAN ISLANDS 



955 



granite. It has been recognized also, however, as a primary 
constituent of granite itself. 

A curious variety of andalusite known as chiastolite is specially 
characteristic of clay-slates near a contact with granite. The 
elongated prismatic crystals enclose symmetrically arranged 
wedges of carbonaceous material, and in cross-section show a 
black cross on a greyish ground. Cross-sections of such crystals 
are polished and worn as amulets or charms. Crystals of a size 
suitable for this purpose are found in Brittany and the Pyrenees, 
while still larger specimens have been found recently in South 
Australia. The name chiastolite is derived from the Greek 
Xiao-res, crossed or marked with the letter x : cross-stone 
and made are earlier names, the latter having been given on 
account of the resemblance the cross-section of the stone bears 
to the heraldic macula or mascle. (L. J. S.) 

ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal. 
Large and small, they number 204, and lie 590 m. from the mouth 
of the Hugli, 120 m. from Cape Negrais in Burma, the nearest 
point of the mainland, and 340 m. from the northern extremity of 
Sumatra. Between the Andamans and Cape Negrais intervene 
two small groups, Preparis and Cocos; between the Andamans 
and Sumatra lie the Nicobar Islands, the whole group stretching 
in a curve, to which the meridian forms a tangent between 
Cape Negrais and Sumatra; and though this curved line measures 
700 m., the widest sea space is about 91 m. The extreme length 
of the Andaman group is 219 m. with an extreme width of 32 m. 
The main part of it consists of a band of five chief islands, so 
closely adjoining and overlapping each other that they have 
long been known collectively as " the great Andaman." The 
axis of this band, almost a meridian line, is 156 statute miles 
long. The five islands are in order from north to south: North 
Andaman (51 m. long); Middle Andaman (59 m.); South 
Andaman (49 m.); Baratang, running parallel to the east 
of the South Andaman for 17 m. from the Middle Andaman; 
and Rutland Island (n m.). Four narrow straits part these 
islands: Austin Strait, between North and Middle Andaman; 
Homfray's Strait between Middle Andaman and Baratang, 
and the north extremity of South Andaman; Middle (or Anda- 
man) Strait between Baratang and South Andaman; and 
Macpherson Strait between South Andaman and Rutland 
Island. Of these only the last is navigable by ocean-going 
vessels. Attached to the chief islands are, on the extreme N., 
Landfall Islands, separated by the navigable Cleugh Passage; 
Interview Island, separated by the very narrow but navigable 
Interview Passage, off the W. coast of the Middle Andaman; 
the Labyrinth Island off the S.W. coast of the South Andaman, 
through which is the safe navigable Elphinstone Passage; 
Ritchie's (or the Andaman) Archipelago off the E. coast of the 
South Andaman and Baratang, separated by the wide and safe 
Diligent Strait and intersected by Kwangtung Strait and the 
Tadma Juru (Strait). Little Andaman, roughly 26 m. by 16, 
forms the southern extremity of the whole group and lies 31 m. 
S. of Rutland Island across Duncan Passage, in which lie the 
Cinque and other islands, forming Manners Strait, the main 
commercial highway between the Andamans and the Madras 
coast. Besides these are a great number of islets lying off 
the shores of the main islands. The principal outlying islands 
are the North Sentinel, a dangerous island of about 28 sq. m., 
lying about 18 m. off the W. coast of the South Andaman; 
the remarkable marine volcano, Barren Island (1150 ft.), 
quiescent for more than a century, 71 m. N.E. of Port Blair; and 
the equally curious isolated mountain, the extinct volcano of 
Narcondam, rising 2330 ft. out of the sea, 71 m. E. of the North 
Andaman. The land area of the Andaman Islands is 2508 sq. m. 
About 18 m. to the W. of the Andamans are the dangerous 
Western Banks and Dalrymple Bank, rising to within a few 
fathoms of the surface of the sea and forming, with the two 
Sentinel Islands, the tops of a line of submarine hills parallel 
to the Andamans. Some 40 m. distant to the E. is the Invisible 
Bank, with one rock just awash; and 34 m. S.E. of Narcondam 
is a submarine hill rising to 377 fathoms below the surface of the 
sea. Narcondam, Barren Island and the Invisible Bank, a 



great danger of these seas, are in a line almost parallel to the 
Andamans inclining towards them from north to south. 

Topography. The islands forming Great Andaman consist 
of a mass of hills enclosing very narrow valleys, the whole covered 
by an exceedingly dense tropical jungle. The hills rise, especially 
on the east coast, to a considerable elevation: the chief heights 
being in the North Andaman, Saddle Peak (2400 ft.); in the 
Middle Andaman,Mount Diavolo behind Cuthbert Bay (1678 ft.) ; 
in the South Andaman, Koiob (1505 ft.), Mount Harriet (i 193 ft.) 
and the Cholunga range (1063 ft); and in Rutland Island, 
Ford's Peak (1422 ft.). Little Andaman, with the exception 
of the extreme north, is practically flat. There are no rivers 
and few perennial streams in the islands. The scenery is every- 
where strikingly beautiful and varied, and the coral beds of the 
more secluded bays in its harbours are conspicuous for their 
exquisite colouring. 

Harbours. The coasts of the Andamans are deeply indented, 
giving existence to a number of safe harbours and tidal creeks, 
which are often surrounded by mangrove swamps. The chief 
harbours, some of which are very capacious, are (starting north- 
wards from Port Blair, the great harbour of South Andaman) 
on the E. coast: Port Meadows, Colebrooke Passage, Elphin- 
stone Harbour (Homfray's Strait), Stewart Sound and Port 
Cornwallis. The last three are very large. On the W. coast: 
Temple Sound, Interview Passage, Port Anson or Kwangtung 
Harbour (large), Port Campbell (large), Port Mouat and Mac- 
pherson Strait. There are besides many other safe anchorages 
about the coast, notably Shoal Bay and Kotara Anchorage in the 
South Andaman; Cadell Bay and the Turtle Islands in the 
North Andaman; and Outram Harbour and Kwangtung Strait 
in the archipelago. The whole of the Andamans and the out- 
lying islands were completely surveyed topographically by the 
Indian Survey Department under Colonel Hobday in 1883-1886, 
and the surrounding seas were charted by Commander Carpenter 
in 1888-1889. 

Geology. The Andaman Islands, in conjunction with the other 
groups mentioned above, form part of a lofty range of submarine 
mountains, 700 m. long, running from Cape Negrais in the 
Arakan Yoma range of Burma, to Achin Head in Sumatra. 
This range separates the Bay of Bengal from the Andaman Sea; 
and it contains much that is geologically characteristic of the 
Arakan Yoma, and formations common also to the Nicobars and 
to Sumatra and the adjacent islands. The older rocks are early 
Tertiary or late Cretaceous but there are no fossils to indicate age. 
The newer rocks, common also to the Nicobars and Sumatra, 
are in Ritchie's Archipelago chiefly and contain radiolarians and 
foraminifera. There is coral along the coasts everywhere, and the 
Sentinel Islands are composed of the newer rocks with a super- 
structure of coral. A theory of a still continuing subsidence of 
the islands was formed by Kurz in 1866 and confirmed by Oldham 
in 1884. Signs of its continuance are found on the east coast in 
several places. Barren Island is a volcano of the general Sunda 
group which includes also the Pegu group to which Narcondam 
belongs. Barren Island was last in eruption in 1803, but there 
is still a thin column of steam from a sulphur bed at the top and 
a variable hot spring at the point where the last outburst of lava 
flowed into the sea. 

Climate. Rarely affected by a cyclone, though within the 
influence of practically every one that blows in the Bay of Bengal, 
the Audamans are of the greatest importance because of the 
accurate information relating to the direction and intensity of 
storms which can be communicated from them better than from 
any other point in the bay, to the vast amount of shipping in this 
part of the Indian Ocean. Trustworthy information also 
regarding the weather which may be expected in the north and 
east of India, is obtained at the islands, and this proves of the 
utmost value to the controllers of the great trades dependent 
upon the rainfall. A well-appointed meteorological station has 
been established at Port Blair since 1868. Speaking generally, 
the climate of the Andamans themselves may be described as 
normal for tropical islands of similar latitude. It is warm 
always, but tempered by pleasant sea-breezes; very hot when 



956 



ANDAMAN ISLANDS 



the sun is northing; irregular rainfall, but usually dry during 
the north-east, and very wet during the south-west monsoon. 
Not only does the rainfall at one place vary from year to year, 
but there is an extraordinary difference in the returns for places 
quite close to one another. The official figures in inches for the 
station at Port Blair, which is situated in by far the driest part 
of the settlement, were: 



1895. 


1896. 


1897. 


1898. 


1899. 


1900. 


1901. 


125-64 


107-28 


136-41 


127-22 


87-01 


83-28 


132-50 



A tidal observatory has also been maintained at Port Blair since 
1880. 

Flora. A section of the Forest Department of India has been 
established in the Andamans since 1883, and in the neighbour- 
hood of Port Blair 156 sq. m. have been set apart for regular 
forest operations which are carried on by convict labour. The 
chief timber of indigenous growth is padouk (Pterocarpus dalber- 
gioides) used for buildings, boats, furniture, fine joinery and all 
purposes to which teak, mahogany, hickory, oak and ash are 
applied. This tree is widely spread and forms a valuable export 
to European markets. Other first-class timbers are koko 
(Albizzia lebbek), white chuglam (Terminalia bialata), black 
chuglam (Myristica irya) , marble or zebra wood ( Diospyros kurzii) 
and satin-wood (Murray a exotica), which differs from the satin- 
wood of Ceylon (Chloroxylon swietenia). All of these timbers are 
used for furniture and similar purposes. In addition there are a 
number of second-and third-class timbers, which are used locally 
and for export to Calcutta. Gangaw (Messua ferrea) the Assam 
iron- wood, is suitable for sleepers; and didu (Bombax insigne) is 
used for tea-boxes and packing-cases. Among the imported 
flora are tea, Siberian coffee, cocoa, Ceara rubber (which has not 
done well), Manila hemp, teak, cocoanut and a number of 
ornamental trees, fruit-trees, vegetables and garden plants. 
Tea is grown in considerable quantities and the cultivation is 
under a department of the penal settlement. The general 
character of the forests is Burmese with an admixture of Malay 
types. Great mangrove swamps supply unlimited fire-wood of 
the best quality. The great peculiarity of Andaman flora is 
that, with the exception of the Cocos islands, no cocoanut palms 
are found in the archipelago. 

Fauna. Animal life is generally deficient throughout the 
Andamans, especially as regards mammalia, of which there are 
only nineteen separate species in all, twelve of these being peculiar 
to the islands. There is a small pig (Sus andamanensis) , important 
to the food of the people, and a wild cat (Paradoxurus tytleri); 
but the bats(sixteen species) and rats(thirteen species) constitute 
nearly three-fourths of the known mammals. This paucity of 
animal life seems inconsistent with the theory that the islands 
were once connected with the mainland. Most of the birds also 
are derived from the distant Indian region, while the Indo- 
Burmese and Indo-Malayan regions are represented to a far less 
degree. Rasorial birds, such as peafowl, junglefowl, pheasants 
and partridges, though well represented in the Arakan hills, are 
rare in the islands; while a third of the different species found 
are peculiar to the Andamans. Moreover, the Andaman species 
differ from those of the adjacent Nicobar Islands. Each group 
has its distinct harrier-eagle, red-cheeked paroquet, oriole, sun- 
bird and bulbul. Fish are very numerous and many species are 
peculiar to the Andaman seas. Turtles are abundant and supply 
the Calcutta market. Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses 
and dogs thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep 
badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them. 

Population. The Andaman Islands, so near countries that 
have for ages attained considerable civilization and have been the 
seat of great empires, and close to the track of a great commerce 
which has gone on at least 2000 years, are the abode of savages 
as low in civilization as almost any known on earth. Our earliest 
notice of them is in a remarkable collection of early Arab notes 
on India and China (A.D. 851) which accurately represents the 
view entertained of this people by mariners down to modern 
times. " The inhabitants of these islands eat men alive. They 



are black, with woolly hair, and in their eyes and countenances 
there is something quite frightful .... They go naked and have 
no boats. If they had, they would devour all who passed near 
them. Sometimes ships that are windbound and have ex- 
hausted their provision of water, touch here and apply to the 
natives for it; in such cases the crews sometimes fall into the 
hands of the latter and most of them are massacred." The 
traditional charge of cannibalism has been very persistent; but 
it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is now and 
probably always has been untrue. Of their massacres of ship- 
wrecked crews, even in quite modern times, there is no doubt, 
but the policy of conciliation unremittingly pursued for the last 
forty years has now secured a friendly reception for shipwrecked 
crews at any port of the islands except the south and west of 
Little Andaman and North Sentinel Island. The Andamanese are 
probably the relics of a negro race that once inhabited the S.E. 
portion of Asia and its outlying islands, representatives of which 
are also still to be found in the Malay Peninsula and the Philip- 
pines. Their antiquity and their stagnation are attested by the 
remains found in their kitchen-middens. These are of great age, 
and rise sometimes to a height exceeding 1 5 ft. The fossil shells, 
pottery and rude stone implements, found alike at the base and 
at the surface of these middens, prove that the habits of the 
islanders have not varied since a remote past, and lead to the 
belief that the Andamans were settled by their present inhabi- 
tants some time during the Pleistocene period, and certainly no 
later than the Neolithic age. The population is not susceptible 
of accurate computation, but probably it has always been small. 
The estimated total at a census taken in 1901 was only 2000. 
Though all descended from one stock, there are twelve distinct 
tribes of the Andamanese, each with its own clearly-defined 
locality, its own distinct variety of the one fundamental language 
and to a certain extent its own separate habits. Every tribe is 
divided into septs fairly well defined. The tribal feeling may be 
expressed as friendly within the tribe, courteous to other Anda- 
manese if known, hostile to every stranger, Andamanese or other. 
Another division of the natives is into Aryauto or long-shore-men, 
and the Eremtaga or jungle-dwellers. The habits and capacities 
of these two differ, owing to surroundings, irrespectively of tribe. 
Yet again the Andamanese can be grouped according to certain 
salient characteristics: the forms of the bows and arrows, of the 
canoes, of ornaments and utensils, of tattooing and of language. 
The average height of males is 4 ft. ic4 in. ; of females, 4 ft. 6 in. 
Being accustomed to gratify every sensation as it arises, they 
endure thirst, hunger, want of food and bodily discomfort badly. 
The skin varies in colour from an intense sheeny black to a 
reddish-brown on the collar-bones, cheeks and other parts of the 
body. The hair varies from a sooty black to dark and light 
brown and red. It grows in small rings, which give it the appear- 
ance of growing in tufts, though it is really closely and evenly 
distributed over the whole scalp. The figures of the men are 
muscular and well-formed and generally pleasing; a straight, 
well-formed nose and jaw are by no means rare, and the young 
men are often distinctly good-looking. The only artificial 
deformity is a depression of the skull, chiefly among one of the 
southern tribes, caused by the pressure of a strap used for carrying 
loads. The pleasing appearance natural to the men is not a 
characteristic of the women, who early have a tendency to 
stoutness and ungainliness of figure, and sometimes to pronounced 
prognathism. They are, however, always bright and merry, are 
under no special social restrictions and have considerable 
influence. The women's heads are shaved entirely and the men's 
into fantastic patterns. Yellow and red ochre mixed with grease 
are coarsely smeared over the bodies, grey in coarse patterns 
and white in fine patterns resembling tattoo marks. Tattoo- 
ing is of two distinct varieties. In the south the body is 
slightly cut by women with small flakes of glass or quartz in 
zigzag or lineal patterns downwards. In the north it is deeply 
cut by men with pig-arrows in lines across the body. The 
male matures when about fifteen years of age, marries 
when about twenty-six, begins to age when about forty, 
and lives on to sixty or sixty-five if he reaches old age. Except 



ANDAMAN ISLANDS 



957 



as to the marrying age, these figures fairly apply to women. 
Before marriage free intercourse between the sexes is the rule, 
though certain conventional precautions are taken to prevent it. 
Marriages rarely produce more than three children and often 
none at all. Divorce is rare, unfaithfulness after marriage not 
common and incest unknown. By preference the Andamanese 
are exogamous as regards sept and endogamous as regards tribe. 
The children are possessed of a bright intelligence, which, how- 
ever, soon reaches its climax, and the adult may be compared, 
in this respect with the civilized child of ten or twelve. The 
Andamanese are, indeed, bright and merry companions, busy in 
their own pursuits, keen sportsmen, naturally independent and 
not lustful, but when angered, cruel, jealous, treacherous and 
vindictive, and always unstable in fact, a people to like but not 
to trust. There is no idea of government, but in each sept there 
is a head, who has attained that position by degrees on account 
of some tacitly admitted superiority and commands a limited 
respect and some obedience. The young are deferential to their 
elders. Offences are punished by the aggrieved party. Property 
is communal and theft is only recognized as to things of absolute 
necessity, such as arrows, pigs' flesh and fire. Fire is the one 
thing they are really careful about, not knowing how to renew 
it. A very rude barter exists between tribes of the same group 
in regard to articles not locally obtainable. The religion consists 
of fear of the spirits of the wood, the sea, disease and ancestors, 
and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them. There 
is neither worship nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity, 
Puluga, is the cause of all things, but it is not necessary to pro- 
pitiate him. There is a vague idea that the " soul " will go some- 
where after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of a 
corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams, and in 
the utterances of certain " wise men," who practise an embryonic 
magic and witchcraft. The great amusement of the Andamanese 
is a formal night dance, but they are also fond of simple games. 
The bows differ altogether with each group, but the same two 
kinds of arrows are in general use: (i) long and ordinary for 
fishing and other purposes; (2) short with a detachable head 
fastened to the shaft by a thong, which quickly brings pigs up 
short when shot in the thick jungle. Bark provides material for 
string, while baskets and mats are neatly and stoutly made from 
canes and buckets out of bamboo and wood. None of the tribes 
ever ventures out of sight of land, and they have no idea of 
steering by sun or stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of 
trunks with the adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller 
ones which are outrigged; they do not last long and are not good 
sea-boats, and the story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight 
across a stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited. 
Honour is shown to an adult when he dies, by wrapping him in 
a cloth and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying 
him. At such a time the encampment is deserted for three 
months. The Andaman languages are extremely interesting 
from the philological standpoint. They are agglutinative in 
nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though 
every indication of long etymological growth, give expression to 
only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely 
colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary for 
communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by 
manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke's 
vocabulary for " Andaman Island, or native country," and the 
term though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke's part for 
Mongebe (" I am an Onge," i.e. a member of the Onge tribe) 
has thus become a persistent book-name for the people. At- 
tempts to civilize the Andamanese have met with little success 
either among adults or children. The home established near 
Port Blair is used as a sort of free asylum which the native visits 
according to his pleasure. The policy of the government is to 
leave the Andamanese alone, while doing what is possible to 
ameliorate their condition. 

Penal Settlement. The point of enduring interest as regards 
the Andamans is the penal system, the object of which is to turn 
the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are 
sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and 



women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice in 
self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every inducement 
to take advantage of that practice. After ten years' graduated 
labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and becomes self- 
supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry or send for his 
family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be idle. With 
approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely released after 
twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement; and throughout 
that time, though possessing no civil rights, a quasi-judicial 
procedure controls all punishments inflicted upon him, and he 
is as secure of obtaining justice as if free. There is an unlimited 
variety of work for the labouring convicts, and some of the 
establishments are on a large scale. Very few experts are 
employed in supervision; practically everything is directed by 
the officials, who themselves have first to learn each trade. 
Under the chief commissioner, who is the supreme head of the 
settlement, are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents 
and overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are 
natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments are 
composed of convicts. The garrison consists of 140 British and 
300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The 
police are organized as a military battalion 643 strong. The 
number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and 
in 1901 stood at 11,947. The total population of the settlement, 
consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and 
departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain 
number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, 
numbered 1 6, 1 06. The labouring convicts are distributed among 
four jails and nineteen stations; the self -supporters in thirty- 
eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts' 
children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a 
resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior 
officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free 
to the whole population. The net annual cost of the settlement 
to the government is about 6 per convict. The harbour of Port 
Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is 
crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several 
launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a light- 
house visible for 19 m. A complete system of signalling by night 
and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts 
are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular. 
History. It is uncertain whether any of the names of the 
islands given by Ptolemy ought to be attached to the Andamans; 
yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the Alexan- 
drian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly in the Arab 
notices of the gth century, already quoted. But it seems possible 
that the tradition of marine nomenclature had never perished; 
that the 'A-yaOov daifiovos vijaos was really a misunderstanding 
of some form like Agdamdn, while NTJITOI Bapoi)<7<rai survived as 
Lanka Bolus, the name applied by the Arabs to the Nicobars. 
The islands are briefly noticed by Marco Polo, who probably saw 
without visiting them, under the name Angamanain, seemingly 
an Arabic dual, " The two Angamans," with the exaggerated but 
not unnatural picture of the natives, long current, as dog-faced 
Anthropophagi. Another notice occurs in the story of Nicolo 
Conti (c. 1440), who explains the name to mean " Island of 
Gold," and speaks of a lake with peculiar virtues as existing in it. 
The name is probably derived from the Malay Handuman, coming 
from the ancient Hanuman (monkey). Later travellers repeat 
the stories, too well founded, of the ferocious hostility of the 
people; of whom we may instance Cesare Federici (1569), whose 
narrative is given in Ramusio, vol. iii. (only in the later editions), 
and in Purchas. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar 
and gossiping but useful work of Captain A. Hamilton (1727). 
Ini788-i789thegovernmentofBengalsoughttoestablish in the 
Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of refuge. 
Two able officers, Co'lebrooke of the Bengal Engineers, and Blair 
of the sea. service, were sent to survey and report. In the sequel 
the settlement was established by Captain Blair, in September 
1789, on Chatham Island, in the S.E. bay of the Great Andaman, 
now called Port Blair, 'but then Port Cornwallis. There was 
much sickness, and after two years, urged by Admiral Cornwallis, 



ANDANTE ANDERSEN 



the government transferred the colony to the N.E. part of Great 
Andaman, where 'a naval arsenal was to be established. With 
the colony the name also of Port Cornwallis was transferred to 
this new locality. The scheme did ill; and in 1796 the govern- 
ment put an end to it, owing to the great mortality and the 
embarrassments of maintenance. The settlers were finally 
removed in May 1796. In 1824 Port Cornwallis was the rendez- 
vous of the fleet carrying the army to the first Burmese war. In 
1839, Dr Heifer, a German savant employed by the Indian 
government, having landed in the islands, was attacked and 
killed. In 1844 the troop-ships " Briton " and " Runnymede " 
were driven ashore here, almost close together. The natives 
showed their usual hostility, killing all stragglers. Outrages on 
shipwrecked crews continued so rife that the question of occupa- 
tion had to be taken up again; and in 1855 a project was formed 
for such a settlement, embracing a convict establishment. This 
was interrupted by the Indian Mutiny of 1857, but as soon as the 
neck of that revolt was broken, it became more urgent than ever 
to provide such a resource, on account of the great number of 
prisoners falling into British hands. Lord Canning, therefore, 
in November 1857, sent a commission, headed by Dr F. Mouat, 
to examine and report. The commission reported favourably, 
selecting as a site Blair's original Port Cornwallis, but pointing 
out and avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to 
have been pernicious to the old colony. To avoid confusion, the 
name of Port Blair was given to the new settlement, which was 
established in the beginning of 1 858. For some time sickness and 
mortality were excessively large, but the reclamation of swamp 
and clearance of jungle on an extensive scale by Colonel Henry 
Man when in charge (1868-1870), had a most beneficial effect, and 
the health of the settlement has since been notable. The Anda- 
man colony obtained a tragical notoriety from the murder of the 
viceroy, the earl of Mayo, by a Mahommedan convict, when on a 
visit to the settlement on the 8th of February 1872. In the same 
year the two groups, Andaman and Nicobar, the occupation of 
the latter also having been forced on the British government (in 
1869) by the continuance of outrage upon vessels, were united 
under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair. 

See Sir Richard Temple, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands 
(Indian Census, 1901); C. B. Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars 
(1903); E. H. Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands 
(1883); M. V. Portman, Record of the Andamanese (n volumes MS. 
in India Office, London, and Home Department, Calcutta), 1893- 
1898, Andamanese Manual (1887), Notes on the Languages of the 
South Andaman Group of Tribes (1898), and History of our Relations 
with the Andamanese (1899); S. Kurz, Vegetation of the Andamans 
(1867) ; G. S. Miller, Mammals of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands 
(vol. xxiv. of the Proceedings of the National Museum, U.S.A.) ; 
A. L. Butler, " Birds of the Andamans and Nicobars " (Proc. 
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vols. xii. and xiii.) ; and A. Alcock, A 
Naturalist in Indian Seas (1902). 

ANDANTE (Ital. for "moving slowly," from andare, to go), 
a musical term to indicate pace, coming between adagio and 
allegro; it is also used of an independent piece of music or of 
the slow movement in a sonata, symphony, &c. 

ANDERIDA, an ancient Roman fort at Pevensey, near East- 
bourne in Sussex (England), built about A.D. 300 as part of a 
scheme of land-defence against the Saxon pirates; repaired, 
probably by the great Stilicho, about A.D. 400; and after the 
Norman Conquest utilized by William the Conqueror for a 
Norman castle. Its massive Roman enceinte still stands but 
little damaged. 

ANDERNACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine 
province, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 m. N.W. of Coblenz by 
the main line to Cologne. Pop. (1900) 7889. Viewed from the 
river it makes a somewhat gloomy, though picturesque, im- 
pression, with its parish church (a basilica dating from the 1 2th 
century, with four towers) , the round watch-tower on the Rhine, 
old walls in places 15 ft. thick, and a famous' crane (erected 1554) 
for lading merchandise. Among other buildings are a Gothic 
Minorite church (now Protestant), a town hall, and a prison, 
formerly the castle of the archbishops of Cologne. Andernach has 
considerable industries, brewing and manufactures of chemicals 
and perfumes, and has also a trade in corn and wine. But its 



most notable article of commerce is that of mill-stones, made 
of lava and tufa-stone, a product much used by the Dutch in the 
construction of their dykes. 

Andernach (Antunnacum) is the old Roman Castellum ante 
Nacum, founded by Drusus and fortified in the 3rd century A.D. 
In 1109 Andernach received civic rights, passed in 1167 to the 
electors of Cologne, in 1253 joined the confederation of the 
Rhine cities and was the most southern member of the Hanseatic 
Jeague. Here in 1474 a treaty was signed between the emperor 
Frederick III., the four electors of the Rhine and France. In 
1 794 Andernach passed to France, but in 181 5 was ceded, together 
with the left bank of the Rhine, to Prussia. 

ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN (1805-1875), Danish poet 
and fabulist, was born at Odense, in Fiinen, on the 2nd of 
April 1805. He was the son of a sickly young shoemaker of 
twenty- two, and his still younger wife: the whole family lived 
and slept in one little room. Andersen very early showed signs 
of imaginative temperament, which was fostered by the 
indulgence and superstition of his parents. In 1816 the shoe- 
maker died and the child was left entirely to his own devices. 
He ceased to go to school; he built himself a little toy- theatre 
and sat at home making clothes for his puppets, and reading all 
the plays that he could borrow; among them were those of 
Holberg and Shakespeare. At Easter 1819 he was confirmed 
at the church of St Kund, Odense, and began to turn his thoughts 
to the future. It was thought that he was best fitted to be a 
tailor; but as nothing was settled, and as Andersen wished to 
be an opera-singer, he took matters into his own hand and 
started for Copenhagen in September 1819. There he was taken 
for a lunatic, snubbed at the theatres, and nearly reduced to 
starvation, but he was befriended by the musicians Christoph 
Weyse and Siboni, and afterwards by the poet Frederik Hoegh 
Guldberg (1771-1852). His voice failed, but he was admitted 
as a dancing pupil at the Royal Theatre. He grew idle, and 
lost the favour of Guldberg, but a new patron appeared in the 
person of Jonas Collin, the director of the Royal Theatre, who 
became Andersen's life-long friend. King Frederick VI. was 
interested in the strange boy and sent him for some years, free 
of charge, to the great grammar-school at Slagelse. Before he 
started for school he published his first volume, The Ghost at 
Palnatoke's Grave (1822). Andersen, a very backward and un- 
willing pupil, actually remained at Slagelse and at another school 
in Elsinore until 1827; these years, he says, were the darkest 
and bitterest in his life. Collin at length consented to consider 
him educated, and Andersen came to Copenhagen. In 1829 he 
made a considerable success with a fantastic volume entitled 
A Journey on Foot from Holman's Canal to the East Point of 
Amager, and he published in the same season a farce and a book 
of poems. He thus suddenly came into request at the moment 
when his friends had decided that no good thing would ever come 
out of his early eccentricity and vivacity. He made little further 
progress, however, until 1833, when he received a small travel- 
ling stipend from the king, and made the first of his long European 
journeys. At Le Locle, in the Jura, he wrote Agnate and the Mer- 
man; and in October 1834 he arrived in Rome. Early in 1835 
Andersen's novel, The Improvisatore, appeared, and achieved 
a real success; the poet's troubles were at an end at last. In the 
same year, 1835, the earliest instalment of Andersen's immortal 
Fairy Tales (Eventyr) was published in Copenhagen. Other parts, 
completing the first volume, appeared in 1836 and 1837. The 
value of these stories was not at first perceived, and they sold 
slowly. Andersen was more successful for the time being with 
a novel, O.T., and a volume of sketches, In Sweden; in 1837 he 
produced the best of his romances, Only a Fiddler. He now 
turned his attention, with but ephemeral success, to the theatre, 
but was recalled to his true genius in the charming miscellanies 
of 1840 and 1842, the Picture-Book without Pictures, and A Poet's 
Bazaar. Meanwhile the fame of his Fairy Tales had been 
steadily rising; a second series began in 1838, a third in 1845. 
Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe, although in 
Denmark itself there was still some resistance to his pretensions. 
In June 1847 he paid his first visit to England, and enjoyed a 



ANDERSON 



959 



triumphal social success; when he left, Charles Dickens saw him 
off from Ramsgate pier. After this Andersen continued to publish 
much; he still desired to excel as a novelist and a dramatist, 
which he could not do, and he still disdained the enchanting 
Fairy Tales, in the composition of which his unique genius lay. 
Nevertheless he continued to write them, and in 1847 and 1848 
two fresh volumes appeared. After a long silence Andersen 
published in 1857 another romance, To be or not to be. In 1863, 
after a very interesting journey, he issued one of the best of his 
travel-books, In Spain. His Fairy Tales continued to appear, in 
instalments, until 1872, when, at Christmas, the last stories were 
published. In the spring of that year Andersen had an awkward 
accident, falling out of bed and severely hurting himself. He was 
never again quite well, but he lived till the 4th of August 1875, 
when he died very peacefully in the house called Rolighed, near 
Copenhagen. (E. G.) 

ANDERSON, ADAM (1692-1765), Scottish economist, was 
born in 1692, and died in London on the loth of January 1765. 
He was a clerk for forty years in the South Sea House, where he 
published a work entitled Historical and Chronological Deduction 
of the Origin of Commerce from the Earliest Accounts to the Present 
Time, containing a History of the Great Commercial Interests of the 
British Empire (1762, 2 vols. fol.). 

ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (c. 1582-1620?), Scottish mathe- 
matician, was born at Aberdeen. In his youth he went to the 
continent and taught mathematics at Paris, where he published 
or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometrical 
and algebraical tracts, which are conspicuous for their ingenuity 
and elegance. He was selected by the executors of Franciscus 
Vieta to revise and edit his manuscript works, a task which 
he discharged with great ability. The works of Anderson 
amount to six thin 4to volumes, and as the last of them was 
published in 1619, it is probable that the author died soon after 
that year, but the precise date is unknown. 

ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND (1530-1605), English lawyer, 
descended from a Scottish family settled in Lincolnshire, was 
born in 1530 at Flixborough or B rough ton in that county. 
After studying for a short time at Lincoln College, Oxford, he 
became in 1550 a student of the Inner Temple. In 1579 he was 
appointed serjeant-at-law to Queen Elizabeth, and also an 
assistant judge on circuit. As a reward for his services in the trial 
of Edmund Campian and his followers (1581), he was, on the 
death of Sir James Dyer, appointed lord chief justice of the 
Common Pleas (1582), and was knighted. He took part in all 
the leading state trials which agitated England during the latter 
years of Elizabeth's reign. Though a great lawyer and thoroughly 
impartial in civil cases, he became notorious by his excessive 
severity and harshness when presiding over the trials of catholics 
and nonconformists; more markedly so in those of Sir John 
Perrot, Sir Walter Raleigh, and John Udall the puritan minister. 
Anderson was also one of the commissioners appointed to try 
Mary queen of Scots in 1586. He died on the ist of August 
1605 at Eyworth in Bedfordshire. In addition to Reports 
of Many Principal Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Time of 
Queen Elizabeth in the Common Bench, published after his 
death, he drew up several expositions of statutes enacted in 
Elizabeth's reign which remain in manuscript in the British 
Museum. 

ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836- ), English 
medical practitioner, daughter of Newson Garrett, of Aldeburgh, 
Suffolk, was born in 1836, and educated at home and at a private 
school. In 1860 she resolved to study medicine, an unheard- 
of thing for a woman in those days, and one which was regarded 
by old-fashioned people as almost indecent. Miss Garrett 
managed to obtain some more or less irregular instruction at 
the Middlesex hospital, London, but was refused admission 
as a full student both there and at many other schools to which 
she applied. Finally she studied anatomy privately at the 
London hospital, and with some of the professors at St Andrews 
University, and at the Edinburgh Extra-Mural school. She had 
no less difficulty in gaining a qualifying diploma to practise 
medicine. London University, the Royal Colleges of Physicians 



and Surgeons, and many other examining bodies refused to 
admit her to their examinations; but in the end the Society 
of Apothecaries, London, allowed her to enter for the License 
of Apothecaries' Hall, which she obtained in 1865. In 1866 
she was appointed general medical attendant to St Mary's 
dispensary, a London institution started to enable poor women 
to obtain medical help from qualified practitioners of their own 
sex. The dispensary soon developed into the New hospital for 
women, and there she worked for over twenty years. In 1870 
she obtained the Paris degree of M.D. The same year she was 
elected to the first London School Board, at the head of the 
poll for Marylebone, and was also made one of the visiting 
physicians of the East London hospital for children; but the 
duties of these two positions she found to be incompatible with 
her principal work, and she soon resigned them. In 1871 she 
married Mr J. G. S. Anderson (d. 1907), a London shipowner, 
but did not give up practice. She worked steadily at the develop- 
ment of the New hospital, and (from 1874) at the creation of a 
complete school of medicine in London for women. Both 
institutions have since been handsomely and suitably housed 
and equipped, the New hospital (in the Euston Road) being 
worked entirely by medical women, and the schools (in Hunter 
Street, W.C.) having over 200 students, most of them preparing 
for the medical degree of London University, which was opened 
to women in 1877. In 1897 Mrs Garrett Anderson was elected 
president of the East Anglian branch of the British Medical 
Association. In 1908 she was elected (the first lady) mayor of 
Aldeburgh. The movement for the admission of women to 
the medical profession, of which she was the indefatigable 
pioneer in England, has extended to every civilized country 
except Spain and Turkey. 

ANDERSON, JAMES (1662-1728), Scottish genealogist, anti- 
quary and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the sth of 
August 1662. He was educated for the law, and became 
a writer to the signet in 1691. His profession gave him the 
opportunity of gratifying his taste for the study of ancient 
documents; and just before the union the Scottish parliament 
commissioned him to prepare for publication what remained 
of the public records of the kingdom, and in their last session 
voted a sum of 1940 sterling to defray his expenses. At this 
work he laboured for several years with great judgment and 
perseverance; but it was not completed at his death in 1728. 
The book was published posthumously in 1739, edited by 
Thomas Ruddiman, under the title Selectus Diplomatum et 
Numismatum Scotiae Thesaurus. The preparation of this great 
national work involved the author in considerable pecuniary 
loss; and soon after his death, the numerous plates, engraved 
by Sturt, were sold for 530. These plates are now lost, and the 
book has become exceedingly scarce. After the union of the 
crowns, Anderson was appointed in 1715 postmaster-general 
for Scotland, as some compensation for his labours; but in the 
political struggles of 1717 he was deprived of this office, and 
never again obtained any reward for his services. He died on the 
3rd of April 1728. He published, during the controversy about 
the union, An Historical Essay showing that the Crown and King- 
dom of Scotland is Imperial and Independent (Edin., 1705,), and 
later Collections relating to the History of Mary Queen of Scotland 
(in 4 vols., Edin., 1727-1728). 

ANDERSON, JAMES (1739-1808), Scottish agriculturist and 
economist, was born at Hermiston, near Edinburgh, in 1739. 
While still a boy he undertook the working of a farm in Mid- 
Lothian which his family had occupied for several generations, 
and later he rented in Aberdeenshire a farm of 1300 acres of 
unimproved land. In 1783 he settled in Edinburgh, where 
in 1791 he projected a weekly publication called The Bee, which 
was largely written by himself, and of which eighteen volumes 
were published. In 1797 he began to reside at Isleworth, and 
from 1 799 to 1802 he produced a monthly publication, Recreations 
in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts and Miscellaneous Litera- 
ture. He was also the author of many pamphlets on agri- 
cultural and economical topics. He died on the isth of 
October 1 808. 






960 



ANDERSON ANDES 



ANDERSON, JOHN (1726-1796), Scottish natural philosopher, 
was born at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, in 1726. In 1756 he 
became professor of oriental languages in the university of 
Glasgow, where he had finished his education; and in 1760 he 
was appointed to the more congenial post of professor of natural 
philosophy. He devoted himself particularly to the application 
of science to industry, instituting courses of lectures intended 
especially for artisans, and he bequeathed his property for the 
foundation of an institution for the furtherance of technical and 
scientific education in Glasgow, Anderson's College, now merged 
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. He 
died in Glasgow on the I3th of January 1796. His Institutes of 
Physics, published in 1786, went through five editions in ten 
years. 

ANDERSON, MARY (1859- ), American actress, was born 
at Sacramento, California, on the z8th of July 1859. Her father, 
an officer in the Confederate service in the Civil War, died in 1 863 . 
She was educated in various Roman Catholic institutions, and 
at the age of thirteen, with the advice of Charlotte Cushman, 
began to study for the stage, making her first appearance at 
Louisville, Kentucky, as Juliet in 1875. Her remarkable beauty 
created an immediate success, and she played in all the large 
cities of the United States with increasing popularity. Between 
1883 and 1889 she had several seasons in London, and was the 
Rosalind in the performance of As You Like It which opened the 
Shakespeare Memorial theatre at Stratford-on-Avon. Among 
her chief parts were Galatea (in W. S. Gilbert's Pygmalion and 
Galatea), Clarice (in his Comedy and Tragedy, written for her), 
Hermione, Perdita, and Julia (in The Hunchback). In 1889 she 
retired from the stage and in 1890 married Antonio de Navarro, 
and settled in England. 

See William Winter's Stage Life of Mary Anderson (New York, 
1886), and her own A Few Memories (New York, 1896). 

ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (1821-1879), American 
soldier, was born in South Carolina on the 7th of October 1821. 
Graduating at West Point in 1842, he served in the Mexican War 
(in which he won the brevet of first lieutenant) and in the Kansas 
troublesof i856-i8s7,becomingfirstlieutenantini848andcaptain 
in 1855. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he resigned 
his commission in the U.S. army, and entered the Confederate 
service as a brigadier-general, being promoted major-general in 
August 1862 and lieutenant-general in May 1864. With the 
exception of a few months spent with the army under Bragg in 
1862, Anderson's service was wholly in the Army of Northern 
Virginia. Under Lee and Longstreet he served as a divisional 
commander in nearly every battle from 1862 to 1864, winning 
especial distinction at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. When 
Longstreet was wounded at the battle of the Wilderness, Ander- 
son succeeded him in command of the ist corps, which he led 
in the subsequent battles. His services at the battle of Spott- 
sylvania (q.v.) were most important. He remained with the 
army, as a corps commander, to the close of the war, after which 
he retired into private life. He died at Beaufort S.C. on the 
26th of June 1879. 

ANDERSON, ROBERT (1750-1830), Scottish author and 
critic, was born at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the 7th of January 
1750. He studied first divinity and then medicine at the uni- 
versity of Edinburgh, and subsequently, after some experience 
as a surgeon, took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1778. 
He began to practise as a physician at Alnwick, but he became 
financially independent by his marriage with the daughter of 
Mr John Gray, and abandoned his profession for a literary life 
in Edinburgh. For several years his attention was occupied 
with his edition of The Works of the British Poets, with Prefaces 
Biographical and Critical (14 vols. 8vo, Edin., 1792-1807). His 
other publications were, The Miscellaneous Works of Tobias 
Smollett, M.D., with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin., 
1796); Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., with Critical Observations 
on his Works (Edin., 1815); The Works of John Moore, M.D., 
with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin., 7 vols., 1820); and 
The Grave and other Poems, by Robert Blair; to which are pre- 
fixed some Account of his Life and Observations on his Writings 



(Edin., 1826). Dr Anderson died at Edinburgh on the aoth of 
February 1830. 

ANDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, 
Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the west fork of the White river, 
about 35 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880) 4126; (1890) 
10,741; (1900) 20,178, of whom 1081 were foreign-born; 
(IQIO, census) 22,476. It is served by the Central Indiana, the 
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Pittsburg, 
Chicago & St Louis railways, and also by the Indiana Union 
Traction System (electric), the general offices and central power 
plant of which are situated there. Its importance as a manu- 
facturing centre is due to its location in the natural gas region. 
In 1905 Anderson ranked first among the cities of the state in the 
manufacture of carriage and wagon material, and iron and 
steel. Among its many other manufactures are glass and glass- 
ware, paper, strawboards, crockery and tiles. In 1905 the total 
factory product was valued at $8,314,760. There is a good 
public library; much attention has been devoted to public 
improvements; and the water works and the electric lighting 
plants are owned and operated by the city. In connexion with 
the water works there is a good filtration plant. First settled 
about 1822, Anderson was incorporated in 1865. 

ANDERSONVILLE, a village of Sumter county, Georgia, 
U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, about 60 m. S. W . of Macon, 
on the Central of Georgia railway. Pop. (1910) 174. From 
November 1863 until the close of the Civil War it was the seat of 
a Confederate military prison. A tract of 165 acres of land near 
the village was cleared of trees and enclosed with a stockade. 
Prisoners began to arrive in February 1864, before the prison 
was completed and before adequate supplies had been received, 
and in May their number amounted to about 12,000. In June 
the stockade was enlarged so as to include 265 acres, but the 
congestion was only temporarily relieved, and in August the 
number of prisoners exceeded 32,000. No shelter had been 
provided for the inmates: the first arrivals made rude sheds 
from the debris of the stockade; the others made tents of 
blankets and other available pieces of cloth, or dug pits in the 
ground. Owing to the slender resources of the Confederacy, the 
prison was frequently short of food, and even when this was 
sufficient in quantity it was of a poor quality and poorly prepared 
on account of the lack of cooking utensils. The water supply, 
deemed ample when the prison was planned, became polluted 
under the congested conditions. During the summer of 1864 the 
prisoners suffered greatly from hunger, exposure and disease, 
and in seven months about a third of them died. In the autumn, 
after the capture of Atlanta, all the prisoners who could be 
moved were sent to Millen, Georgia and Florence, South Carolina. 
At Millen better arrangements prevailed, and when, after 
Sherman began his march to the sea, the prisoners were returned 
to Andersonville, the conditions there were somewhat improved. 
During the war 49,485 prisoners were received at the Anderson- 
ville prison, and of these about 13,000 died. The terrible con- 
ditions obtaining there were due to the lack of food supplies in 
the Confederate States, the incompetence of the prison officials, 
and the refusal of the Federal authorities in 1864 to make 
exchanges of prisoners, thus filling the stockade with unlooked-for 
numbers. After the war Henry Wirz, the superintendent, was 
tried by a court-martial, and on the loth of November 1865 was 
hanged, and the revelation of the sufferings of the prisoners was 
one of the factors that shaped public opinion regarding the South 
in the Northern states, after the close of the Civil War. The 
prisoners' burial ground at Andersonville has been made a 
national cemetery, and contains 13,714 graves of which 921 are 
marked " unknown." 

There is an impartial account of the Andersonville prison in 
James F. Rhodes, History of the United States (vol. v., New York, 
1904). The partisan accounts are numerous; see, for instance, 
A. C. Hamlin, Martyria; or, Andersonville Prison (Boston, 1866); 
and R. R. Stevenson, The Southern Side; or, Andersonville Prison 
(Baltimore, 1876). 

ANDES, a vast mountain system forming a continuous chain 
of highland along the western coast of South America. It is 
roughly 4400 m. long, 100 m. wide in some parts, and of an 



ANDES 



961 



Tlerra del 
Fuego. 



average height of 13,000 ft. 1 The connexion of this system with 
that of the Rocky Mountains, which has been pointed out by 
many writers, has received much support from the discovery of 
the extensive eruptions of granite during Tertiary times, extend- 
ing from the southern extremity of South America to Alaska. The 
Andean range is composed of two great principal chains with a 
deep intermediate depression, in which, and at the sides of the 
great chains, arise other chains of minor importance, the chief 
of which is that called the Cordillera de la Costa of Chile. This 
starts from the southern extremity of the continent, and runs 
in a northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken 
up at its beginning into a number of islands, and afterwards 
forming the western boundary of the great central valley of 
Chile. To the north this coastal chain continues in small ridges 
or isolated hills along the Pacific as far as Colombia, always 
leaving the same valley more or less visible to the west of the 
western great chain. 

Of the two principal chains the eastern is generally called 
Los Andes, and the western La Cordillera, in Colombia, Peru 
and Bolivia, where the eastern is likewise known as 
Cordillera Real de los Andes, while to the south of 
parallel 23 S. lat. in Chile and Argentina, the western 
is called Cordillera de los Andes. The eastern disappears in the 
centre of Argentina, and it is therefore only the Cordillera de los 
Andes that is prolonged as far as the south-eastern extremity of 
the continent. The Cordillera de la Costa begins near Cape Horn, 
which is composed principally of crystalline rocks, and its heights 
are inconsiderable when compared with those of the trueCordillera 
of the Andes. The latter, as regards its main chain, is on the 
northern coast of the Beagle Channel, in Tierra del Fuego, bounded 
on the north by the deep depression of Lake Fagnano and of 
Admiralty Sound. Staten Island appears to be the termination 
to the east. The Cordillera of the Andes in Tierra del Fuego 
is formed of crystalline schists, and culminates in the snow- 
capped peaks of Mount Darwin and Mount Sarmiento (7200 ft.), 
which contains glaciers of greater extent than those of Mont 
Blanc. The extent of the glaciers is considerable in this region, 
which, geographically, is more complex than was formerly 
supposed. Although, in the explored portion of the Fuegian 
chain, the volcanoes which have been mentioned from time to 
time have not been met with, there seem to have existed to the 
south, on the islands, many neo- volcanic rocks, some of which 
appear to be contemporaneous with the basaltic sheet that 
covers a part of eastern Patagonia. The insular region between 
Mount Sarmiento and the Cordillera de los Andes, properly so 
called, i.e. that which extends from Magellan Strait northwards, 
is not fully explored, and all that is known of it is that it is 
principally composed of the same rocks as the Fuegian section, 
and that the greater part of its upper valleys is occupied by 
glaciers that reach down to the sea amid dense forest. 

As Admiralty Sound and Lake Fagnano bound the Cordillera 
to the north in Tierra del Fuego, so at the eastern side of the 
Cordillera in the southernmost part oi the continent there is a 
longitudinal depression which separates the Andes from some 
independent ridges pertaining to a secondary parallel broken 
chain called the pre-Cordillera. This depression is occupied in 
great part by a series of lakes, some of these filling transversal 
breaches in the range, whilst others are remains of glacial re- 
servoirs, bordered by morainic dams, extending as far as the 
eastern tableland and corresponding in these cases with trans- 
versal depressions which reach the Atlantic Ocean. Between the 
larger lakes, fed by the Andine glaciers of the eastern 
Argentina, sl P e of the Southern Andes, are Lakes MaraviUa, 
52-38 s! ioo sq. m., and Sarmiento, 26 sq. m., 51 S. lat., which 
overflow into Last Hope Inlet; Argentine, 570 sq. m., 
50 S. lat.; and Viedma, 450 sq. m., 49 30' S. lat., which empty 
into the river Santa Cruz; the fjordian Lake San Martin, 49 
S. lat, and Lakes Nansen, 18 sq. m.; Azara, 8 sq. m.; and 
Belgrano, 18 sq. m., which are dependents of Lake San Martin 

1 As to the specific elevations of many of the peaks mentioned in 
this article, various authorities differ, and it is impossible in many 
cases to rate one estimate as of greater value than another. 



- o 



(380 sq. m.), and Lakes Pueyrredon (98 sq. m.) and Buenos Aires 
(700 sq. m.), which now overflow irito the Pacific, through one 
of the remarkable inlets that are found throughout the Cordillera, 
the Calen Inlet, which is the largest western fjord of Patagonia. 
To the north of Lake Buenos Aires there is Lake Elizalde, which, 
while situated on the eastern slope, sends its waters to the Pacific 
Ocean, and Lakes 
Fontana (30 sq. m.) 
and La Plata (34 sq. 
m.), 45 S. lat, 
which feed the river 
Senguerr, which 
flows to the Atlantic. 
Lake General Paz 
(66 sq. m.) on the 
eastern slope of the 
Andes, at 44 S. lat., 
is the principal 
source of the Palena 
river, which cuts all 
the Cordillera, while 
Lakes Fetalauquen 
(2osq.m.) Menendez 
(28 sq. m.), Riva- 
davia (10 sq. m.), 
and other smaller 
lakes, also situated 
between 43 30', 
and 42 30' S. lat. 
on the eastern slope 
send their waters to 
the Pacific by the 
river Fetaleufu 
which cuts through 
the Andes by a 
narrow gorge. The 
waters of Lake Puelo 
(18 sq. m.) likewise 
flow into the same 
ocean through the 
river of that name, 
which also cuts the 
Cordillera, and of 
which the principal 
affluent likewise 
drains the waters of 
a system of small 
lakes, the largest of 
which, Lake Mas- 
cardi, measures 17 
sq. m., which in 
comparatively re- 
cent times formed 
part of the basin 
of Lake Nahuel- 
Huapi (207 sq. m.), 
41 S. lat. An ex- 
tensive area of 
glacial deposits 
shows that a sheet 
of ice formerly 
covered the whole 
eastern slope to a 
great distance from 
the mountains. To the west another sheet reached at the 
same time the Pacific Ocean. 

From the Strait of Magellan up to 52 S. lat., the western 
slope of the Cordillera does not, properly speaking, exist. Abrupt 
walls overlook the Pacific, and great longitudinal and transversal 
channels and fjords run right through the heart of the range, 
cutting it generally in a direction more or less oblique to its axis, 
the result of movements of the earth's crust. 



Ouer lOOOfi 
English Miles 




962 



ANDES 



The mountains forming the Cordillera between Magellan Strait 
and 41 S. lat. are higher than those previously mentioned 
in Tierra del Fuego. Generally composed of granite, gneiss and 
Palaeozoic rocks, covered in many parts by rugged masses of 
volcanic origin, their general height is not less than 6500 ft., while 
Mount Geikie is 7500 ft. and Mount Stokes 7100 ft. To the north 
are Mounts Mayo (7600 ft.), Agassiz (10,600 ft.), and Fitzroy, 
in 49 S. lat. (11,120 ft.). The section from 52 to 48 S. lat. is a 
continuous ice-capped mountain range, and some of the glaciers 
extend from the eastern lakes to the western channels, where 
they reach the sea-level. The level of the lakes begins at 130 ft. 
at Lake Mara villa and gradually ascends to nearly 700 ft. at Lake 
San Martin. Passing the breach through which Lake San Martin 
empties itself into Calen Inlet, in 48 S. lat., is found a wide 
oblique opening in the range, through which flows the river Las 
Heras, fed by Lake Pueyrredon, which is only 410 ft. above the 
sea-level to the east of the Andes, while Lake Buenos Aires, 
immediately to the north, is 710 ft. The Andes continue to be to 
the west an enormous rugged mass of ice and snow of an average 
height of 9000 ft., sending glaciers to all the eastern fjords. 

Mount San Lorenzo, detached from the main chain in the 
pre- Cordillera, is n, 800 ft. high. Mount San Valentin (12, 700 ft.) 
is the culminating point of the Andes in the region extending 
from 49 to 46 S. lat., a little north of which is the river Huemules 
which is followed by the breach of the river Aisen. These two 
rivers have emptied a large system of lakes, which in pre-Glacial 
times occupied the eastern zone, thus forming a region suitable 
for colonization in the broad valleys and hollows, where the 
rivers, as in the case with those in the north, cut through the 
Andes by narrow gaps, forming cataracts and rapids between the 
snowy peaks. Volcanic action is still going on in these latitudes, 
as the glaciers are at times covered by ashes, but the predominant 
rocks to the east are the Tertiary granite, while to the west gneiss, 
older granite and Palaeozoic rocks prevail. The highest peaks, 
however, seem to be of volcanic origin. Farther north, up to 
41 S. lat., the water gaps are situated at a lesser distance one 
from the other, owing mainly to more continuous erosion, this 
section of the continent being the region of the maximum rainfall 
on the western coast to the south of the equator. Between the 
gaps of the river Aisen and river Cisnes or Frias, which also 
pierce* the chain, is found a huge mountain mass, in which is 
situated Mount la Torre (71 50 ft.). These form the continental 
watershed, but in this region erosion is taking place so rapidly 
that the day is not far distant when Lakes La Plata and Fontana, 
situated to the east at a height of 3000 ft. and now tributaries 
of the Atlantic, may become tributaries of the Pacific. 
Already filtrations from the former go to feed western 
affluents through the granitic masses. To the north of 
Mount la Torre flows in the river Cisnes, 44 48' S. lat., across 
another water gap, continuing the range to the north with high 
peaks, as Alto Nevado (7350 ft.) and Cacique (7000 ft.). The 
glaciers reach almost the western channels, as is the case at the 
river Quelal. The northern glaciers, descending nearly to sea- 
level, are situated at 43 40' S. lat. To the north 45 S. lat. a 
well-defined western longitudinal valley, at some recent time 
occupied by lakes and rivers, divides the Cordillera into two 
chains, the eastern being the main chain, to which belong Mounts 
Alto Nevado, Cacique, Dentista, Maldonado, Serrano, each over 
7000 ft. high; and Torrecillas (7400 ft.), Ventisquero (7500 ft.), 
and Tronador (11,180 ft.); while the western chain, broken into 
imposing blocks, contains several high volcanic peaks such as 
Mounts Tanteles, Corcovado, Minchimahuida, Hornopiren and 
Yates. The rivers Palena, with its two branches, Pico and 
Carrenleufu, Fetaleufu, Puelo and Manso cut the two chains, 
while the rivers Renihue, Bodadahue and Cochamo have their 
sources in the main eastern ridge. Mention has been made of 
active volcanoes in 51, 49 and 47 S. lat., but these have not 
been properly located. The active volcanoes south of 41, con- 
cerning which no doubt exists, are the Huequen, in 43 lat., and 
the Calbuco, both of which have been in eruption in modern times. 

The surroundings of Mount Tronador, consisting of Tertiary 
granite and basalt, form one of the most interesting regions in 



the Patagonian Andes for the mountaineers of the future. To 
the east extends the large and picturesque lake of Nahuel-Huapi, 
to the west is Lake Todos Los Santos (50 sq. m.), to which the 
access is easy and of which the scenery is of surpassing beauty. 
Between 41 and 38 S. lat., among other smaller lakes, are 
Lakes Traful (45 sq. m.), Lacar (32 sq. m.), which, properly 
belonging to the system of Atlantic lakes, empties itself by the 
only water gap that occurs in this zone of the Cordillera into 
the river Valdivia, a tributary of the Pacific, Lake Lolog (15 sq. 
m.), Huechu-lafquen (45 sq. m.), and Lake Alumine (21 sq. m.). 
The volcanoes of Lanin (12,140 ft.), Quetropillan (9180 ft.), 
Villarica (10,400 ft.), Yaimas and Tolhuaca are all more or less 
active; the first is in the main chain, while the others are on 
the western slope. The scenery in the neighbourhood is magni- 
ficent, the snowy cones rising from amidst woods of araucaria, 
and being surrounded by blue lakes. While the scenery of the 
western slope of the Andes is exceedingly grand, with its deep 
fjords, glaciers and woods, yet the severity of its climate detracts 
considerably from its charm. The climate of the eastern slope, 
however, is milder, the landscapes are magnificent, with wooded 
valleys and beautiful lakes. The valleys are already partly 
settled by colonists. Between 52 and 40 S. lat. erosion has 
carried the watershed of the continent from the summit of the 
Cordillera to the eastern plains of Patagonia. 

From 40 S. southward the Chile-Argentine Boundary Com- 
mission under Sir T. H. Holdich carried out important investiga- 
tions in 1902; and between 38 and 33 S. lat. the Andes were 
somewhat extensively explored about the close of the igth 
century by Argentine and Chilean Commissions. The highest 
peaks in the latter section are vo'.canic and their eruptions have 
sensibly modified the charactei of the primitive ridges. Out- 
flows of lava and tufa cover the mountain sides and fill up the 
valleys. The Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, which in 
the Southern Cordillera are situated outside of the range to 
the east, form to a considerable extent the mass of the great 
range, together with quartz porphyry, the Tertiary, granite 
and other eruptive rocks, which have been observed along all 
the chain in South America up to Alaska in the north. Gneiss 
is seldom met with, but there are crystalline rocks, belonging 
chiefly to the pre-Cordillera of the eastern and to the Cordillera 
de la Costa on the western side. 

About 38 S. the Andes take a great transversal extension; 
there are no wide intermediate valleys between the different 
ridges but the main ridge is perfectly defined. Volcanic Chlle , 
cones continue to predominate, the old crystalline rocks Argentina 
almost disappear, while the Mesozoic rocks are most fromjs. 
common. The higher peaks are in the main chain, while aori *\~ 
the Domuyo (15,317 ft.) belongs to a lateral eastern 
ridge. The principal peaks between this and Mount Tupungato at 
33 S. lat. are: Mount Cochico (8255 ft.), Campanario, (13,140 
ft.), Peteroa (13,297 ft.), Tinguiririca, Castillo (16,535 ft.), 
Volcano Maipu (17,576 ft.), Alvarado (14,600 ft.), Amarillo 
(15,321 ft.), Volcano San Jose (19, 849 ft.), Piuquenes (17,815 ft.), 
and Volcano Bravard (19,619 ft.). 

North of Maipu volcano, ascended by R. P. Giissfeldt in 1883, 
the Cordillera is composed of two huge principal ridges which 
unite and terminate in the neighbourhood of Mount Tupungato. 
The valley between them is 9000 ft. high; and in that part of 
the Cordillera are situated the highest passes south of 33 S. lat., 
one of which, the Piuquenes Pass, reaches 13,333 ft-, whilst the 
easiest of transit and almost the lowest is that of Pichachen 
(6505 ft.), which is the most frequented during winter. Mount 
Tupungato reaches 22,329 ft., according to Argentine measure- 
ment. To the north of this mountain, situated at the watershed 
of the Andes, extends a lofty region comprising peaks such as 
Chimbote ( 1 8,645 ft.) and Mount Polleras ( 20, 266 ft.) . The Pircas 
Pass is situated at a height of 16,962 ft. The gaps of Bermejo 
and Iglesia, in the Uspallata road, the best known of all the passes 
between Argentina and Chile, are at 13,025 ft. and 13,412 ft. 
altitude respectively, while the nearest peaks, those of Juncal 
and Tolorsa, are 19,358 and 20,140 ft. high. 

Mounts Tupungato, Aconcagua (23,393 ft.) and Mercedario 



ANDES 



9 6 3 



w. 




Sea Level 




after C. Burctchardt 



A. Alluvium 

C. Cretaceous (including upper & lower I 

M. Upper Jurassic (Malm) \ 

rv tf-jj, , , ,rL \ mostly porphurite and 

D. Middle Jurassic (Dogger) }. _ 

L. Liassic 



[ porphyritic conglomerate 



(21,982 ft.) are the highest peaks of the central Argentine-Chilean 
Andes. These three peaks are formed of eruptive rocks, sur- 
rounded by Jurassic beds which have undergone a thorough 
metamorphosis. While in the west of the Andes, from the latitude 
of Aconcagua, the central valley of Chile runs without any notable 
interruption to the south end of the continent, a valley which 
almost disappears to the north, leaving only some rare inflexions 
which are considered by Chilean geographers and geologists 
to be a continuation of the same valley; to the east in Argentina 
a longitudinal valley, perfectly characterized, runs along the 
eastern'foot of the Cordillera, separating this from the pre- 
Cordillera, which is parallel to the Cordillera de la Costa of Chile. 
Between Aconcagua and Mercedario are the passes of Espinacito 
(14,803 ft.) and Los Patos or Valle Hermoso (11,736 ft.), chosen 
by the Argentine General San Martin, when he made his memor- 
able passage across the chain during the War of Independence. 
North of Valle Hermoso the Andean ridges, while very high, 
are not abrupt, and the passes are more numerous than in the 
south; some of them descending 10,000 ft., but most of them 
between 13,000 and 14,000 ft. The pass of Quebrada Grande 
is 12,468 ft. in altitude; Cencerro, 12,944 ft-; Mercedario, 
13,206 ft.; Ojota, 14,304 ft.; Pachon, 14,485 ft. ; while Gordito 
is 10,318 ft. Farther north the passes are higher. Barahona 
Pass is 15,092 ft.; Ternera, 15,912 ft.; San Lorenzo, 16,420 ft., 
while the peak of the volcano reaches 18,143 ft- ; Mount Olivares, 
20,472 ft.; Porongos, 19,488 ft.; Tortolas, 20,121 ft.; and 
Potro, 19,357 ft- 

As far as 28 S. lat. the Cordillera de los Andes has been prin- 
cipally formed by two well-defined ridges, but to the north, 
recent volcanic action has greatly modified its orography. Only 
a single line of passes characterizes the main ridge, and amongst 
them are the passes of Ollita (15,026 ft.), Penas Negras (14,435 
ft.), Pircas Negras (13,615 ft.), La Gallina (16,240 ft.), Tres 
Quebradas (15,535 ft.), and Aguita (15,485 ft.). To the north 
of Mount Potro the peaks in the Cordillera are not very prominent 
as far as the great mass of Tres Quebradas, but here are to be 
met with some that may be considered as amongst the highest of 
the whole range. Mount Aguita is 20,600 ft., and the 
culminating peak of those of Tres Cruces reaches 
22,658 ft. To the east of the eastern longitudinal valley, at 27 
S. lat., begins a high volcanic plateau between the Cordillera 
and the southern prolongation of the Bolivian Cordillera Real, 
which contains lofty summits, such as Mount Veladero (20,998 ft.) , 
Mount Bonete (21,980), Mount Reclus (20,670), Mount Pissis 
(22,146), Mount Ojo del Salado (21,653), and Incahuasi (21,719). 
To the north of Tres Cruces is a transversal depression in the 
Cordillera, which is considered to be the southern termination 
of the high plateau of the Puna de Atacama. The Cordillera of 
the Andes borders the Puna to the west, while the Bolivian 
Cordillera Real bounds it to the east. In that region the Cordillera 



Bolivia. 



G. Upper Jurassic Gypsum 

YV. Younger Volcanic ttochs 

OV. Older Volcanic Hacks 

Oi. Dior/tic Rochs 

X. Change of bearing in the Sections 

of the Andes is of comparatively recent origin, being principally 
constituted by a line of high volcanoes, the chief summits being 
those of Juncal, Panteon de Aliste, Azufre or Listarria(i8,636 ft.), 
Llullaillaco (21,720), Miniques (19,357), Socompa (10^048), 
Licancaur (19,685), Viscachuelas (20,605), Tapaquilcha (19,520), 
Oyahua (19,242), Ancaquilcha (20,275), Oka (19,159), Mino 
(20,112), Sillilica (21,100). Perinacota (20,918), Sagama (22,339), 
Tacona (19,740), Misti (19,029); to the east closes in the inter- 
mediary high plateau which begins at 28 S. lat. in Argentina. 
The principal peaks of the Bolivian Andes and its prolongation 
from south to north, are Famatina, in the centre of Argentina, 
(20,340 ft.), Languna Blanca (18,307), Diamante (18,045), Cachi 
(20,000), Granadas,Lipez(i9,68o),Guadalupe (18,910), Chorolque 
(18,480), Cuzco (17,930), Enriaca (18,716), Junari (16,200), 
Michiga (17,410), Quimza-Cruz (18,280), Illimani (21,190) and 
Sorata (21,490). 

While the western range of the Cordillera is principally formed 
by volcanic rocks, the eastern (to the east of the range is' Cerro 
Potosi, 15,400 ft.) Andes of Bolivia are chiefly composed of old 
crystalline rocks. Between the ranges in the high plateau north 
to 27 are numerous isolated volcanoes which have been in 
activity in recent times, such as Peinado (18,898 ft.), San Pedro 
(18,701), Antuco (19,029), Antofalla (20,014), Rincon (17,881), 
Pastes Grandes (17, 553), Zapalegui (17,553), Suniguira (19,258), 
Tahue (17,458); volcanoes which have been elevated from a 
lacustrine basin, which very recently occupied the whole ex- 
tension, and the remains of which are, in the south, the Laguna 
Verde, at 28, and in the north Lake Titicaca. The discovery of 
great Pampean mammals in the Pleistocene beds of that region 
shows that this upheaval of the latter is very recent, for in the 
heart of the Cordillera, as well as on the west coast of Bolivia 
and Peru, there have been discovered, in very recent deposits, 
the remains of some mammals which cannot have crossed the 
high range as it now exists. 

The two Cordilleras that formed the Andes to the north of 28S. 
lat. are continued in Peru. The western, which reaches an 
altitude of about 10,000 ft., then ceases to exist as a con- 
tinuous chain, there remaining only a short, high ridge, 
called by Edward Whymper the " Pacific range of the 
equator," and between this ridge and the crystalline Andean axis, 
the " avenue of volcanoes," to use his words, arises amidst 
majestic scenery. Chimborazo, which is not in the main chain, 
reaches 20,517 ft.; Cotopaxi (19,580), Antisana (19,260), 
Coyambo (19,200) are in the eastern range, with many other 
peaks over 1 6 ,000 ft. which still contain glaciers. Sangay ( 1 7 ,3 80 
ft.), under the equator, according to Wolff, appears to be the most 
active volcano in the world. Pichincha (i 5,804 ft.) and Cotocachi 
(16,297 ft-) are the loftiest volcanoes of the western range. In 
Colombia the three principal chains are continuations of those 
under the equator, and show very slight traces of volcanic action, 



Peru- 
Ecuador. 



9 6 4 



ANDESINE ANDESITE 



In the western chain, which is remarkable for its regularity, the 
highest peak is 11,150 ft., and the lowest pass 6725 ft. The 
Colombia. central chain, separated from the western chain by the 
valley of the Cauca and from the eastern by the valley 
of the Magdalena, is unbroken ; it is the more important owing to 
its greater altitudes and is of volcanic character. To the south, 
near the equator, are Mounts Arapul (13,360 ft.) and Chumbul 
(15,720 ft.). The volcanoes Campainero (12, 470 ft.) and Pasto 
(14,000 ft.) are also in that zone. Farther north is the volcano 
Purace, which presents a height of 16,000 ft.; then come Huila 
(18,000), Santa Catalina (16,170), and Tolima (18,400), Santa 
Isabel (16,760), Ruiz (17,390) and Hervas (18,340). The eastern 
chain begins- north of the equator at 6000 ft., gradually rises to 
the height of Nevado (14,146 ft.), Pan de Azucar (12,140 ft.), and 
in the Sierra Nevada de Cochi attains to peaks of 16,700 ft. 

The snow-line of the Andes is highest in parts of Peru where it 
lies at about 16,500 ft. Its general range from the extreme north 
to Patagonia is 14,000 to 15,500 ft., but along the Patagonian 
frontier it sinks rapidly, until in Tierra del Fuego it lies at about 
4900 ft. 

Structure. -The structure of the Andes is least complex in the 
southern portion of the range. Between 33 and 36 S. the chain 
consists broadly of a series of simple folds of Jurassic and 
Cretaceous beds. It is probably separated on the east from the 
recent deposits of the pampas by a great fault, which, however, 
is always concealed by an enormous mass of scree material. The 
Cretaceous beds lie in a broad synclinal upon the eastern flank, 
but the greater part of the chain is formed of Jurassic beds, 
through which, on the western margin, rise the numerous 
andesitic volcanic centres. There is no continuous band of 
ancient gneiss, nor indeed of any beds older than the Jurassic. 
There is very little over-folding or faulting, and the structure is 
that of the Jura mountains rather than of the Alps. The inner 
or eastern ridge farther north of Argentina consists of crystalline 
rocks with infolded Ordovician and Cambrian beds, often overlaid 
unconformably by a sandstone with plant-remains (chiefly 
Rhaetic). In Bolivia this eastern ridge, separated from the 
western Cordillera by the longitudinal valley in which Lake 
Titicaca lies, is formed chiefly of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks. 
All the geological systems,f rom the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, 
are represented and they are all strongly folded, the folds leaning 
over towards the west. West of the great valley the range is 
composed of Mesozoic beds, together with Tertiary volcanic rocks. 
(The Cordillera of Argentina and Chile is clearly the continuation 
of the western chain alone.) In Ecuador there is still an inner 
chain of ancient gneisses and schists and an outer chain composed 
of Mesozoic beds. The longitudinal valley which separates them 
is occupied mainly by volcanic deposits. North of Ecuador the 
structure becomes more complex. Of the three main chains into 
which the mountains are now divided, the western branch is 
formed mostly of Cretaceous beds; but the inner chains no 
longer consist exclusively of the older rocks, and Cretaceous beds 
take a considerable share in their formation. 

The great volcanoes, active and extinct, are not confined to any 
one zone. Sometimes they rise from the Mesozoic zone of the 
western Cordillera, sometimes from the ancient rocks of the 
eastern zone. But they all lie within the range itself and do not, 
as in the Carpathians and the Apennines, form a fringe upon the 
inner border of the chain. 

The curvature of the range around the Brazilian massif, and 
the position of the zone of older rocks upon the eastern flank, led 
Suess to the conclusion that the Andes owe their origin to an 
overthrust from east to west, and that the Vorland lies beneath 
the Pacific. In the south Wehrli and Burckhardt maintain that 
the thrust came from the west, and they look upon the ancient 
rocks of Argentina as the Vorland. In this part of the chain, 
however, there is but little evidence of overthrusting of any kind. 

AUTHORITIES. John B. Minchin, " Journey in the Andean 
Tableland of Bolivia," Proceedings of Geographical Society (1882); 
Paul GOssfeldt, Reise in den centralen chileno-argentinischen Andes 
(Berlin, 1884); John Ball, Notes of a Naturalist in South America 
(London, 1887); Alfred Hettner, Reisen in den colombianischen 
Andeen (Leipzig, 1888); "Die Kordillere von Bogoti," Peterm. 



Mitteilungen, civ. (1892) ; Edward Whymper, Travels amongst the Great 
Andes of the Equator (London, 1892); Teodoro Wolff, Geografia y 
Geologic del Ecuador (Leipzig, 1892) ; E. A. Fitzgerald, The Highest 
Andes (London, 1899); Sir Martin Conway, " Explorations in the 
Bolivian Andes," Geogr. Journ. xiv. (London, 1899); The Bolivian 
Andes (London and New York, 1901); Carl Burckhardt, Expedition 
geologique^ dans la region Andine, 38 jp 5. lat.\ Leo VVehrli, 
' Cordillere argentino-chilienne, 40 et 41 S. lat.," Reoista del 
Museo de La Plata (1899) ; F. P. Moreno, " Explorations in Pata- 
gonia," Geogr. Journ. xvi. (1900) ; Hans Steffen, " The Patagonian 
Cordillera and its Main Rivers, between 41 "and 4.8S. lat.," Geogr. 
Journ. (London, 1900) ; Paul Kruger, Die chilenische Renihue 
Expedition (Berlin, 1900); Carl Burckhardt, "Profits geologiques 
transversaux de la Cordillera argentino-chilienne," Anates del Museo 
de La Plata (1900) ; Argentine-Chilian Boundaries in the Cordillera de 
los Andes, Argentine Evidence (London, 1900); "South America; 
Outline of its Physical Geography," Geogr. Journ. xvii. (1901); 
Maps of Cordillera de los Andes, Surveys of Argentine Boundary 
Commission; L. R. Patron, Cordillera de los Andes (Repiiblica de 
Chile, Oficina des Limites) Santiago (Chile), 1903 et seq.) ; Sir T. H. 
Holdich, " The Patagonian Andes," Geogr. Journ. xxiii. (1904). 

ANDESINE, a member of the group of minerals known as 
plagioclase felspars, occupying a position in the isomorphous 
series about midway between albite (NaAlSisOs) and anorthite 
(CaAlaSi2Os); its chemical composition and physical char- 
acters are therefore intermediate between those of the two- 
extremes of the series. Distinctly developed crystals or crystal- 
lized specimens are rarely met with, the mineral usually occurring 
as embedded crystals and grains in the igneous and gneissic rocks, 
of which it forms a component part. It occurs, for example, in 
the andesite of the Andes, from whence it derives its name. 

ANDESITE, a name first applied by C. L. von Buch to a series 
of lavas investigated by him from the Andes, which has passed 
into general acceptance as the designation of a great family of 
rocks playing an important part in the geology of most of the 
volcanic areas of the globe. Not only the Andes but most of the 
Cordillera of Central and North America consist very largely of 
andesites; they occur also in great numbers in Japan, the 
Philippines, Java and New Zealand. They belong to all geo- 
logical epochs, and are frequent among the Silurian and Devonian 
rocks of Britain, forming the ranges of the Cheviots, Ochils, 
Breidden Hills, and part of the Lake district. The well-known 
volcanoes, Montagne Pel6e, the Soufriere of St Vincent, Krakatoa, 
Tarawera and Bandaisan have within recent years emitted great 
quantities of andesitic rocks with disastrous violence. No group- 
of lavas is more widespread and more important from a geo- 
graphical standpoint than the andesites. 

They are typical intermediate rocks, containing on an average 
about 60 % of silica, but showing a considerable range of com- 
position. Most of them correspond to the plutonic diorites, but 
others more nearly represent the gabbros. Their essential 
distinguishing features are mineralogical and consist in the 
presence of much soda-lime felspar (ranging from oligoclase to- 
by townite and even anorthite), along with one or more of the 
ferro-magnesian minerals, biotite, hornblende, augite and hypers- 
thene. Both olivine and quartz are typically absent, though in 
some varieties they occur in small quantity. Orthoclase is more 
common than these two, but is never very abundant. The 
andesites have mostly a porphyritic structure, and the larger 
felspars and ferro-magnesian minerals are often visible to the 
naked eye, lying in a finer groundmass, usually crystalline, but 
sometimes to a large extent vitreous. When very fresh they are 
dark-coloured if they contain much glass, but paler in colour, red, 
grey or pinkish when more thoroughly crystallized. They 
weather to various shades of dark brown, reddish-brown, green, 
grey and yellow. Many of them are highly vesicular or amygda- 
loidal. 

The older (pre-Tertiary) andesites are grouped together by 
many German, and formerly by British petrologists, under the 
term porphyrites, but are distinguished only by being, as a rule, 
in a less fresh condition. Apart from this there are three great 
subdivisions of this family of rocks, the quartz-andesites or 
dacites, the hornblende-and biotite-andesites, and the augite and 
hypersthene-andesites (or pyroxene-andesites). The dacites, a 
term first applied by Karl Heinrich Hektor Guido Stache (b. 1833) 
to quartz-bearing andesite of Transylvania or Dacia, contain 



ANDIJAN ANDORRA 



9 6 5 



orimary quartz, and are the most siliceous members of the 
family; their quartz may appear in small blebs (or phenocrysts) , 
or may occur only as minute interstitial grains in the ground- 
mass; other dacites are very vitreous (dacitic-pitchstones). In 
many of their structural peculiarities they closely simulate the 
rhyolites, from which they differ in containing less potash and 
more soda, and in consequence less orthoclase felspar and more 
plagioclase. The hornblende- and biotite-andesites, like the 
dacites, have in most cases a pale colour (pink, yellow or grey), 
being comparatively rich in felspar. They resemble the trachytes 
both in appearance and in structure, but their felspar is mostly 
plagioclase, not sanidine. The biotite and hornblende have 
much the same characters in both of these groups of rocks, and 
are often surrounded by black borders produced by corrosion 
and partial resorption by the magma. A pale green augite is 
common in these andesites, but bronzite or hypersthene is 
comparatively rare. The pyroxene-andesites are darker, more 
basic rocks, with a higher specific gravity, and approach closely 
to the basalts and dolerites, especially when they contain a 
small amount of olivine. They are probably the commonest 
types of andesite, both at the present time and in former geo- 
logical periods. Often their groundmass consists of brownish 
glass, filled with small microliths of augite and felspar, and 
having a velvety, glistening lustre when observed in a good light 
(hyalopilitic structure). 

In addition to the accessory minerals, zircon, apatite and iron 
oxides, which are practically never absent, certain others occur 
which, on account of their rarity and importance, are of special 
interest. Sharply-formed little crystals of cordierite are occasion- 
ally found in andesites (Japan, Spain, St Vincent, Cumberland) ; 
they seem to depend on more or less complete digestion of 
fragments of gneiss and other rocks in the molten lava. Garnet 
and sapphire have also been found in andesites, and perhaps have 
the same signification; a rose-red variety of epidote (withamite) 
is known as a secondary product in certain andesites (Glencoe, 
Scotland), and the famous red porphyry (porfido rosso) of the 
ancients is a rock of this type. Ore deposits very frequently 
occur in connexion with andesitic rocks (Nevada, California, 
Hungary, Borneo, &c.) , especially those of gold and silver. They 
have been laid down in fissures as veins of quartz, and the sur- 
rounding igneous rocks are frequently altered and decomposed 
in a peculiar way by the hot ascending metalliferous solutions. 
Andesites affected in this manner are known as propylites. 
The alteration is one of those post-volcanic, pneumatolytic 
processes, so frequent in volcanic districts. Propylitization 
consists in the replacement of the original minerals of the andesite 
by secondary products such as kaolin, epidote, mica, chlorite, 
quartz and chalcedony, often with the retention of the igneous 
structures of the rocks. 

In microscopic characters the andesites present considerable 
variety; their porphyritic felspars are usually of tabular shape 
with good crystalline outlines, but often filled with glass 
enclosures. Zonal structure is exceedingly common, and the 
central parts of the crystals are more basic (bytownite, &c.) than 
the edges (oligoclase). Sanidine occurs with considerable fre- 
quency, but not in notable amount. The biotite and hornblende 
are yellow or brown and richly pleochroic. The hypersthene is 
nearly always idiomorphic, with a distinct pleochroism ranging 
from salmon-pink to green. Augite may be green in the more 
acid andesites, but is pale brown in the pyroxene-andesites. The 
apatite is often filled with minute dust-like enclosures. In the 
dacites felsitic groundmasses are by no means rare, but micro- 
crystalline types consisting of plagioclase and sanidine with 
quartz are more prevalent. The hornblende- and mica-andesites 
have groundmasses composed mainly of acid plagioclase with 
little orthoclase or glassy base (pilo taxi tic groundmass). Clear 
brown glass with many small crystals of plagioclase and pale 
brown augite (hyalopilitic groundmass) is very frequent in 
pyroxene-andesites. Vitreous rocks belonging to all of the above 
groups are well known though not very common, and exhibit the 
perlitic, pumiceous, spherulitic and other structures, character- 
istic to volcanic obsidians and pitchstones. (J. S. F.) 



ANDIJAN, a town of Russian Turkestan, Province of Ferghana, 
eastern terminus of the Transcaspian railway, 84 m. by rail 
E.N.E. of Khokand, on the left bank of the upper Syr-darya. 
Altitude 1630 ft. Pop. (1900) 49,682. It was formerly the 
residence of the khans of Khokand, and has beautiful gardens 
and a large park in the middle of the town. Andijan is a centre 
for the trade in raw cotton and has cotton factories. All over 
Central Asia, West Turkestan merchants are known generally 
as Andijani. The town was destroyed by an earthquake on the 
i6th-i7th of December 1902, when 5000 persons perished and 
16,000 houses were demolished. It has since been rebuilt. 

ANDIRON (older form anderne; med. Lat. andena, anderia), a 
horizontal iron bar, or bars, upon which logs are laid for burning 
in an open fireplace. Andirons stand upon short legs and are 
usually connected with an upright guard. This guard, which 
may be of iron, steel, copper, bronze, or even silver, is often 
elaborately ornamented with conventional patterns or heraldic 
ornaments, such as the fleur-de-lys, with sphinxes, grotesque 
animals, mythological statuettes or caryatides supporting heroic 
figures or emblems. Previously to the Italian Renaissance, 
andirons were almost invariably made entirely of iron and 
comparatively plain, but when the ordinary objects of the house- 
hold became the care of the artist, the metal-worker lavished 
skill and taste upon them, and even such a man as Jean Berain, 
whose fancy was most especially applied to the ornamentation 
of Boulle furniture, sometimes designed them. Indeed the 
fire-dog or chenet reached its most artistic development under 
Louis XIV. of France, and the first extant examples often of 
cast-iron are to be found in French museums and royal palaces. 
Fire-dogs, with little or no ornament, were also used in kitchens, 
with ratcheted uprights for the spits. Very often these uprights 
branched out into arms or hobs for stewing or keeping the viands 
hot. 

ANDKHUI, a town and khanate in Afghan Turkestan. The 
town (said to have been founded by Alexander the Great) stands 
between the northern spurs of the Paropamisus and the Oxus; it 
is 100 m. due west of Balkh on the edge of the Turkman desert. 
The khanate is of importance as being one of the most northern 
in Afghanistan, on the Russian border. Until 1820 it was sub- 
ject to Bokhara, but in that year Mahmud Khan besieged it for 
four months, took it by storm and left it a heap of ruins. To 
preserve himself from utter destruction the khan threw himself 
into the arms of the Afghans. The tract in which Andkhui stands 
is fertile, but proverbially unhealthy; the Persians account it " a 
hell upon earth " by reason of its scorching sands, brackish water, 
flies and scorpions. The population, estimated at 1 5,000, consists 
principally of Turkmans with a mixture of Uzbegs and a few 
Tajiks. The district was allotted to Afghanistan by the Russo- 
Afghan boundary commission of 1885. 

ANDOCIDES, one of the " ten " Attic orators, was born about 
440 B.C. Implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae (415), 
although he saved his life by turning informer, he was condemned 
to partial loss of civil rights and went into exile. He engaged in 
commercial pursuits, and after two unsuccessful attempts 
returned to Athens under the general amnesty that followed the 
restoration of the democracy (403), and filled some important 
offices. In 391 he was one of the ambassadors sent to Sparta to 
discuss peace terms, but the negotiations failed, and after this 
time we hear no more of him. Oligarchical in his sympathies, he 
offended his own party and was distrusted by the democrats. 
Andocides was no professional orator; his style is simple and 
lively, natural but inartistic. 

Speeches extant : De Reditu, plea for his return and removal of 
civil disabilities; De Mysteriis, defence against the charge of impiety 
in attending the Eleusinian mysteries; De Pace, advocating peace 
with Sparta; Contra Alcibiadem, generally considered spurious. 
Text: Blass, 1880, Lipsius, 1888; De Myst., with notes by Hickie, 
1885; De Red. and De Myst., with notes by Marchant, 1889; see 
Jebb, Attic Orators; L. L. Forman, Index Andocideus, 1897. 

ANDORRA, or ANDOERE, a small, neutral, autonomous, and 
semi-independent state, on the Franco-Spanish frontier, and 
chiefly on the peninsular side of the eastern Pyrenees. Pop. 
(1900) about 5500; area about 175 sq. m. Andorra is surrounded 



9 66 



ANDOVER 



by mountains, and comprises one main valley, watered by the 
Gran Balira, Valira or Balire, a tributary of the Segre, which 
itself flows into the Ebro; with several smaller valleys, the most 
important being that of the Balira del Orien, which joins the Gran 
Balira on the left. The territory was once densely wooded, and 
is said to derive its name from the Moorish Aldarra, " the place 
thick with trees "; but almost all the forests have been destroyed 
for fuel. The climate is generally cold, with very severe winters. 
The land is chiefly devoted to pasture for the numerous flocks and 
herds; but on the more sheltered southern slopes it is carefully 
cultivated, and produces grain, potatoes, fruit and tobacco. Game 
and trout are plentiful; milk, butter, hams, hides and wool are 
exported, principally to France. The local industries are of the 
most primitive kind, merely domestic, as in the middle ages. 
Lack of capital, of coal, and of good means of communication 
prevents the inhabitants from making use of the iron and lead in 
their mountains. During the coldest winter months their com- 
munications are much easier with Spain than through the snow- 
clad passes leading into Ariege. The only roads are bridle-paths, 
and one municipal road by the Balira valley, connecting Andorra 
with the high road to Seo de Urgel and Manresa; but in 1904 
France and Spain agreed to build a railway from Ax to Ripoll, 
which would greatly facilitate traffic. 

The Andorrans are a robust and well-proportioned race, of an 
independent spirit, simple and severe in their manners. They 
are all Roman Catholics. Apart from the wealthier landowners, 
who speak French fluently, and send their children to be educated 
in France, they use the Catalan dialect of Spanish. Andorra 
comprises the six parishes or communes of Andorra Vicilla, 
Canillo, Encamp, La Massana, Ordino and San Julian de Loria, 
which are subdivided into fifty-two hamlets or pueblos. 

Preserved from innovations by the mutual jealousy of rival 
potentates, as well as by the conservative temper of a pastoral 
population, Andorra has kept its medieval usages and institutions 
almost unchanged. In each parish two consuls, assisted by a 
local council, decide matters relating to roads, police, taxes, the 
division of pastures, the right to collect wood, &c. Such matters, 
as well as the general internal administration of the territory, are 
finally regulated by a Council General of 24 members (4 to each 
parish), elected since i8"66by the suffrages of all heads of families, 
but previously confined to an aristocracy composed of the richest 
and oldest families, whose supremacy had been preserved by the 
principle of primogeniture. A general syndic, with two inferior 
syndics, chosen by the Council General, constitutes the supreme 
executive of the state. Two viguiers one nominated by France, 
and the other by the bishop of Urgel command the militia, which 
consists of about 600 men, although all capable of bearing arms 
are liable to be called out. This force is exempt from all foreign 
service, and the chief office of the viguiers is the administration 
of criminal justice, in which their decisions, given simply accord- 
ing to their judgment and conscience, there being no written 
laws, are final. Civil cases, on the other hand, are tried in the 
first instance before one of the two aldermen, who act as deputies 
of the viguiers; the judgment of this court may be set aside by 
the civil judge of appeal, an officer nominated by France and the 
bishop of Urgel alternately; the final appeal is either to the Court 
of Cassation at Paris or to the Episcopal College at Urgel. The 
French viguier is taken from the French department of Ariege and 
appointed for life, but the viguier of the bishop must be an 
Andorran, holding office for three years and re-eligible. There are 
notaries and clerks, auditors for each parish elected by the heads 
of families, police agents and bailiffs, chosen and sworn in, like all 
the above officers, by the Council General. The archives are 
mostly kept in the " house of the valley " in the capital, Andorra 
Vicilla, a struggling village of 600 inhabitants. In this government 
house the Council General meets and has a chapel. Here also the 
aldermen, viguiers and judge of appeal administer justice and 
assemble for all purposes of administration. Two magistrates, 
styled rahanadores, are appointed by the Council General to see 
that viguiers and judges preserve the customs and privileges of 
Andorra. The parishes have a permanent patrol of six armed 
men besides the militia. Spain and the bishop of Urgel are very 



jealous of French encroachments, and claim to have a better 
right ultimately to annex the little state. In the meanwhile it 
continues to pay each of the suzerain powers 40 a year, levied 
by a tax on pastures. 

Andorra is the sole surviving specimen of the independence 
possessed in medieval times by the warlike inhabitants of many 
Pyrenean valleys. Its privileges have remained intact, because 
the suzerainty of the district became equally and indivisibly 
shared in 1278 between the bishops of Urgel and the counts of 
Foix, the divided suzerainty being now inherited by the French 
crown and the present bishop of Urgel; and the two powers 
have mutually checked innovations, while the insignificant 
territory has not been worth a dispute. Thus Andorra is not a 
republic, but is designated in official documents as the V allies el 
Suzerainetes. Before 1278 it was under the suzerainty of the 
neighbouring counts of Castelbo, to whom it had been ceded in 
1170 by the counts of Urgel. A marriage between the heiress of 
Castelbo and Roger Bernard, count of Foix, carried the rights of 
the above-named Spanish counts into the house of Foix, and 
hence subsequently to the crown of France, when the heritage of 
the feudal system was absorbed by the sovereign ; but the bishops 
of Urgel claimed certain rights, which after long disputes were 
satisfied by the " Act of Division " executed in 1278. The claims 
of the bishopric dated from Carolingian times, and the independ- 
ence of Andorra, like most other Pyrenean anomalies, has been 
traditionally ascribed to Charlemagne (742-814). 

AUTHORITIES. With the exception of Eludes geographiques sur la 
vallee d'Andorre, by J. Blade (Paris, 1875), the standard books on 
Andorra deal mainly with its history and institutions. They com- 
prise the following: The Valley of Andorra, translated from the 
French of E. B. Serthet by F. H. Deverell (Bristol, 1886); I. Aviles 
Arnau, El Pallds y Andorra (Barcelona, 1893); L. Dalmau de 
Baquer, Historia de la Republica de Andorra (Barcelona, 1849); 
C. Baudon de Mony, Origines historiques de la question d'Andorre 
(in the Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Charles, vol. 46, Paris, 1885). See 
also C. Baudot! de Mony, Relations politiques des comles de Foix avec 
la Catalogne, jusqu'au commencement du XIV' siecle (Paris, 1896). 
A fair map was published by A. Hartleben, of Vienna, in 1898. 

ANDOVER, a market-town and municipal borough in the 
Andover parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 67 m. 
W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway, 
served also by the Midland & South Western Junction railway. 
Area 8663 acres. Pop. (1901) 6509. It is pleasantly situated 
on the river Anton, a tributary of the Test, in a hilly district. 
The church of St Mary replaced an ancient one in 1848; a 
Norman doorway is preserved from the original structure. 
The site of a Norman priory can be traced. Several early 
earthworks are seen in the vicinity, among which the circular 
camp on Bury Hill, S.W. of the town, is a very fine example. It 
is probably of British origin. Andover is the centre of a large 
agricultural district. Malting is carried on and there is a large 
iron-foundry; but the silk manufactures, once prosperous, 
are now extinct. The corporation consists of a mayor, 4 aldermen 
and 12 councillors. 

There are numerous Roman villas in the district, but Andover 
itself is not a Roman site. The town, the name of which appears 
in the forms Andefeian, Andieura and Andever, probably owes 
much of its importance to the neighbourhood of the Roman 
road from Silchester to Old Sarum. It is mentioned in King 
Edred's will, a document of doubtful authenticity, dated c. 955. 
Later the Witenagemot met here, and it is the traditional scene 
of the meeting of jEthelred and Olaf the Dane. Andover existed 
as a borough before 1176, and Henry II. exempted its inhabitants 
from toll and passage. In 1201 King John increased the farm 
paid by the burgesses, while Henry III. granted them return 
of writs, probate of wills and other privileges. The corporation 
was reconstituted in 1599 and again in 1682. From 1295 till 
1303 the burgesses returned two members to parliament but 
then ceased to do so till 1586. After the reform of 1867 they 
returned only one member and in 1885 the borough was dis- 
franchised. A gild merchant is mentioned as early as 1175. 
The cattle-market was granted in 1682, and there is an ancient 
corn-market, probably held by prescription. The November 
sheep-fair dates from 1205, and the neighbouring fair at Weyhill 



ANDOVER ANDRASSY 



967 



(since 1 599 a part of the borough) was formerly among the most 
important in England. The town possessed an iron-market early 
in the i4th century. At that date the wool-trade also was very 
prosperous, and the manufactures of silk and parchment are 
among the extinct industries of the town. 

ANDOVER, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, 
U.S.A., pleasantly situated on the S. side of the Merrimac Valley. 
Pop. (1890) 6142; (1900) 6813; (1910, U. S. census) 7301. 
The Shawsheen river supplies power for a considerable manu- 
facturing industry (twine, woollens and rubber goods being 
manufactured) in the villages of Andover, Ballardville and 
Frye. Andover, the principal village, is about 23 m. N. of Boston 
and is served by the western division of the Boston & Maine 
railway and by interurban electric railways. The township 
is noteworthy for its educational institutions. Abbot Academy, 
opened in 1829, is said to be the oldest existing academy in the 
United States incorporated for the education of girls alone; 
an art gallery, given to the academy by Mrs John Byers, was 
opened in 1907. Phillips Academy, opened in 1778 (incorporated 
in 1780), was the first incorporated academy of the state; it 
was founded through the efforts of Samuel Phillips (1752-1802, 
president of the Massachusetts senate in 1785-1787 and in 1788- 
1801, and lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1801-1802), 
by his father, Samuel Phillips (1715-1790), and his uncle, John 
Phillips (1719-1795), " for the purpose of instructing youth, not 
only in English and Latin grammar, writing, arithmetic and 
those sciences wherein they are commonly taught, but more 
especially to learn them the great end and real business of living." 
It is one of the largest secondary schools in New England and 
enjoys a wide and high reputation. An archaeological department, 
with an important collection in American archaeology, was 
founded by Robert S. Peabody and his wife in 1901. The 
Academy grounds include those occupied in 1808-1909 by the 
Andover Theological Seminary before its removal to Cam- 
bridge (9.0.). Andover was settled about 1643 and was 
incorporated in 1646, being named from the English town of 
Andover, Hampshire, whence some of the chief settlers had 
migrated; the first settlement was made in what is now the 
township of North Andover (pop. 5529 in 1910), which was 
separated from Andover in 1855. Simon Bradstreet (1603-1697), 
important among the early men of Massachusetts, was one of 
the founders; and his wife, Anne Dudley Bradstreet (1612-1672), 
was the first woman versifier of America; the Bradstreet house 
in North Andover, said to have been built about 1667, is still 
standing. Andover was a prominent centre in the witchcraft 
trials of 1692. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward was born and 
lived for many years in Andover, and Harriet Beecher Stowe 
lived here from 1852 to 1864 and is buried here. 

See S. L. Bailey, Historical Sketches of Andover (Boston, 1880); 
John L. Taylor, Memoir of Samuel Phillips (Boston, 1856) ; and 
Philena and Phebe F. M'Keen, History of Abbot Academy (Andover, 
1880). 

ANDRADA, DIEGO DE PAIVA DE (1528-1575), Portuguese 
theologian, was born at Coimbra, son of the grand treasurer 
of John III. His original bent was towards foreign mission. 
He earned distinction in 1562 at the council of Trent as envoy 
of King Sebastian. Between 1562 and 1567 he published many 
controversial tracts, especially against the Lutheran, Martin 
Chemnitz (q.v.). His first tract, De Societatis Jesu Origine, led 
to his being erroneously presumed a Jesuit (P. Alegambe, 
Biblioth. Scriptorum S. J., 1676, p. 177). His De Conciliorum 
Auctoritate was welcomed at Rome as exalting the papal authority. 
Posthumous were his Defensio Tridentinae Fidei, 1578 (remark- 
able for its learned statement of various opinions regarding the 
Immaculate Conception), and three sets of his sermons in 
Portuguese. 

His nephew, DIEGO, the younger (1586-1660), produced 
Chauleidos (1628) and other Latin poems, including sacred 
dramas; a novel, Casamento Perfeito (1630); and shone as a 
historical critic. 

See Bibliographic Universelle (1811); N. Antonio, Biblioth. Hisp. 
Nova (1783), i. 304; and for the nephew, life by A. Dos Revs in 
Corp. Illust. Poet. tat. (1745) iii. 



ANDRADA E SYLVA, BONIFACIO JOZE D' (1765-1838), 
Brazilian statesman and naturalist, was born at Villa de Santos, 
near Rio Janeiro. In 1800 he was appointed professor of geology 
at Coimbra, and soon after inspector-general of the Portuguese 
mines; and in 1812 he was made perpetual secretary of the 
Academy of Lisbon. Returning to Brazil in 1819, he urged 
Dom Pedro to resist the recall of the Lisbon court, and was 
appointed one of his ministers in 1821. When the independence 
of Brazil was declared, Andrada was made minister of the interior 
and of foreign affairs; and when it was established, he was 
again elected by the Constituent Assembly, but his democratic 
principles resulted in his dismissal from office, July 1823. On 
the dissolution of the Assembly in November, he was arrested 
and banished to France, where he lived in exile near Bordeaux till, 
in 1829, he was permitted to return to Brazil. But being again 
arrested in 1833, and tried for intriguing on behalf of Dom 
Pedro I., he passed the rest of his days in retirement till he died 
at Nictheroy in 1838. 

ANDRASSY, JULIUS (GYULA), COUNT (1823-1890), Hungarian 
statesman, the son of Count Kiroly Andrassy and Etelka 
Szapary, was born at Kassa in Hungary on the 8th of March 
1823. The son of a Liberal father, who belonged to the Opposition 
at a time when to be in opposition was to be in danger, Andrassy 
at a very early age threw himself into the political struggles of 
the day, adopting at the outset the patriotic side. Count 
Istvan Szdchenyi was the first adequately to appreciate his 
capacity, when in 1845 the young man first began his public 
career as president of the society for the regulation of the waters 
of the Upper Theiss. In 1846 he attracted attention by his 
bitter articles against the government in Kossuth's paper, the 
Pesti Hirlap, and was returned as one of the Radical candidates 
to the diet of 1848, where his generous, impulsive nature made him 
one of the most thorough-going of the patriots. When the 
Croats under Jellachich invaded Hungary, Andrassy placed 
himself at the head of the gentry of his county, and served with 
distinction at the battles of Pakozd and Schwechat, as Gorgei's 
adjutant (Sept. 1848). Towards the end of the war Andrassy 
was sent to Constantinople by the revolutionary government to 
obtain at least the neutrality of Turkey during the struggle. 
After the catastrophe of Vilag6s he migrated first to London 
and then to Paris. On the 2ist of September 1851 he was 
hanged in effigy by the Austrian government for his share in the 
Hungarian revolt. He employed his ten years of exile in studying 
politics in what was then the centre of European diplomacy, and 
it is memorable that his keen eye detected the inherent weakness 
of the second French empire beneath its imposing exterior. 
Andrassy returned home from exile in 1858, but his position was 
very difficult. He had never petitioned for an amnesty, steadily 
rejected all the overtures both of the Austrian government and 
of the Magyar Conservatives (who would have accepted something 
short of full autonomy), and clung enthusiastically to the Deak 
party. On the aist of December 1865 he was chosen vice- 
president of the diet, and in March 1866 became president of the 
sub-committee appointed by the parliamentary commission to 
draw up the Composition (commonly known as the Ausgleich) 
between Austria and Hungary, of which the central idea, that of 
the " Delegations," originated with him. It was said at that 
time that he was the only member of the commission who could 
persuade the court of the justice of the national claims. After 
Koniggratz he was formally consulted by the emperor for the 
first time. He advised the re-establishment of the constitution 
and the appointment of a responsible ministry. 

On the 1 7th of February 1867 the king appointed him the first 
constitutional Hungarian premier. It was on this occasion that 
Deak called him " the providential statesman given to Hungary 
by the grace of God." As premier, Andrassy by his firmness, 
amiability and dexterity as a debater, soon won for himself a 
commanding position. Yet his position continued to be difficult, 
inasmuch as the authority of Deak dwarfed that of all the party 
leaders, however eminent. Andrassy chose for himself the 
departments of war and foreign affairs. It was he who reorganized 
the Honved system, and he used often to say that the regulation 



968 



ANDRE 



of the military border districts was the most difficult labour of 
his Hfe. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870, 
Andrassy resolutely defended the neutrality of the Austrian 
monarchy, and in his speech on the 28th of July 1870 warmly 
protested against the assumption that it was in the interests of 
Austria to seek to recover the position she had held in Germany 
before 1863. On the fall of Beust (6th of November 1871), 
Andrassy stepped into his place. His tenure of the chancellorship 
was epoch-making. Hitherto the empire of the Habsburgs 
had never been able to dissociate itself from its Holy Roman 
traditions. But its loss of influence in Italy and Germany, and 
the consequent formation of the Dual State, had at length 
indicated the proper, and, indeed, the only field for its diplomacy 
in the future the near East, where the process of the crystalliza- 
tion of the Balkan peoples into nationalities was still incomplete. 
The question was whether these nationalities were to be allowed to 
become independent or were only to exchange the tyranny of the 
sultan for the tyranny of the tsar. Hitherto Austria had been 
content either to keep out the Russians or share the booty with 
them. She was now, moreover, in consequence of her misfortunes 
deprived of most of her influence in the councils of Europe. It 
was Andrassy who recovered for her her proper place in the 
European concert. First he approached the German emperor; 
then more friendly relations were established with the courts of 
Italy and Russia by means of conferences at Berlin, Vienna, 
St Petersburg and Venice. 

The recovered influence of Austria was evident in the negotia- 
tions which followed the outbreak of serious disturbances in 
Bosnia in 1875. The three courts of Vienna, Berlin 
The "An- an( j gj Petersburg had come to an understanding 
as to their attitude in the Eastern question, and 
their views were embodied in the despatch, known 
as the " Andrassy Note," addressed on the 3oth of December 
1875 by Count Andrassy to Count Beust, now Austrian 
ambassador to the court of St James's. In it he pointed out 
that the efforts of the powers to localize the revolt seemed in 
danger of failure, that the rebels were still holding their 
own, and that the Ottoman promises of reform, em- 
bodied in various firmans, were no more than vague statements 
of principle which had never had, and were probably not intended 
to have, any local application. In order to avert the risk of a 
general conflagration, therefore, he urged that the time had come 
for concerted action of the powers for the purpose of pressing 
the Porte to fulfil its promises. A sketch of the more essential 
reforms followed: the recognition rather than the toleration of 
the Christian religion; the abolition of the system of farming 
the taxes; and, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the religious 
was complicated by an agrarian question, the conversion of 
the Christian peasants into free proprietors, to rescue them from 
their double subjection to the great Mussulman landowners. In 
Bosnia and Herzegovina also elected provincial councils were to 
be established, irremovable judges appointed and individual 
liberty guaranteed. Finally, a mixed commission of Mussulmans 
and Christians was to be empowered to watch over the carrying 
out of these reforms. The fact that the sultan would be responsible 
to Europe for the realization of his promises would serve to 
allay the natural suspicions of the insurgents. 1 

To this plan both Great Britain and France gave a general 
assent, and the Andrassy Note was adopted as the basis of negotia- 
tions. When war became inevitable between Russia and the Porte, 
Andrassy arranged with the Russian court that, in case Russia 
prevailed, the status quo should not be changed to the detriment 
of the Austrian monarchy. When, however, the treaty of San 
Stefano threatened a Russian hegemony in the near East, 
Andrassy concurred with the German and British courts that the 
final adjustment of matters must be submitted to a European 
congress. At the Berlin Congress in 1878 he was the principal 
Austrian plenipotentiary, and directed his efforts to diminish the 
gains of Russia and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy. The latter 
object was gained by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovinaundera 
mandate from the congress. This occupation was most unpopular 
1 Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, No. 456, vol. iv. p. 2418. 



in Hungary, both for financial reasons and because of the strong 
philo-Turk sentiments of the Magyars, but the result brilliantly 
justified Andrassy's policy. Nevertheless he felt constrained to 
bow before the storm, and placed his resignation in the emperor's 
hands (8th of October 1879). The day before his retirement 
he signed the offensive-defensive alliance with Germany, which 
placed the foreign relations of Austria-Hungary once more on a 
stable footing. 

After his retirement, Andrassy continued to take an active 
part in public affairs both in the Delegations and in the Upper 
House. In 1885 he warmly supported the project for the reform 
of the House of Magnates, but on the other hand he jealously 
defended the inviolability of the Composition of 1867, and on the 
5th of March 1889 in his place in the Upper House spoke 
against any particularist tampering with the common army. 
In the last years of his life he regained his popularity, and his 
death on the i8th of February 1890 was universally mourned 
as a national calamity. He was the first Magyar statesman who, 
for centuries, had occupied a European position. Breadth of 
view, swift resourcefulness, and an intimate knowledge of men 
and things were his distinguishing qualities as a statesman. 
Personally he was the most amiable of men; it has been well 
said that he united in himself the Magyar magnate with the 
modern gentleman. His motto was: " It is hard to promise, 
but it is easy to perform." If Deak was the architect, Andrassy 
certainly was the master-builder of the modern Hungarian state. 

By his wife, the countess Katinka Kendeffy, whom he married 
in Paris in 1856, Count Andrassy left two sons, and one daughter, 
Ilona (b. 1859), who married Count Lajos Batthyany. Both 
the sons gained distinction in Hungarian politics. The eldest, 
Tivador (Theodore) Andreas (b. loth of July 1857), was elected 
vice-president of the Lower House of the Hungarian parliament 
in 1890. The younger, Gyula (Julius, b. 3oth of June 1860), 
became under-secretary in the Wekerle ministry in 1892; in 
1893 he became minister of education, and in June 1894 was 
appointed minister in attendance on the king, retiring in 1895 
with Wekerle; in 1898, with his elder brother, he left the Liberal 
party, but returned to it again after the fall of the Banffy 
ministry; he is the author of Ungarns Ausgleich mil Osterreich 
uom Jahre 1867 (Ger. ed., Leipzig, 1897), and a work in Hungarian 
on the origins of the Hungarian state and constitution (Budapest, 
1901). 

See Andrassy's Speeches (Hung.) edited by Bela Lederer (Buda- 
pest, 1891); Memoir (Hung.) by Benjamin Killay (Budapest, 
1891); Necrology (Hung.) in the Akad. Ertesito, Evf. 14 (Budapest, 
1891); Recollections of Count Andrdssy (Hung.), by Mano Konyi 
(Budapest, 1891). (R. N. B.) 

ANDR, JOHN (1751-1780), British soldier, was born in 
London in 1751 of Genevese parents. Accident brought him in 
1769 to Lichfield, where, in the house of the Rev. Thomas Seward, 
whose daughter Anna was the centre of a literary circle, he met 
the beautiful Miss Honora Sneyd. A strong attachment sprang 
up between the two, but their marriage was disapproved of by 
Miss Sneyd's family, and Andre was sent to cool his love in his 
father's counting-house in London and on a business tour to the 
continent. Commerce was, however, too tame an occupation 
for his ambitious spirit, and in March 1771 he obtained a com- 
mission in the Seventh (Royal Fusiliers), which, after travel in 
Germany, he joined in Canada in 1774. Here his character, con- 
duct and accomplishments gained him rapid promotion. Miss 
Sneyd in i773married R.L. Edgeworth, the father of the novelist, 
Maria Edgeworth, having previously refused Thomas Day, the 
author of Sandford and Merlon; but Andre remained faithful 
to his love for her. In a letter to Anna Seward, written shortly 
after being taken prisoner by the Americans at the capitulation 
of St John's on the 3rd of November 1775, he states that he has 
been " stripped of everything except the picture of Honora, 
which I concealed in my mouth. Preserving this I yet think 
myself fortunate." Exchanged towards the close of 1776, Andr6 
became in succession aide-de-camp to General Grey and to the 
commander-in-chief of the British forces, Sir Henry Clinton, 
who raised him to the rank of major and appointed him adjutant- 
general of the forces in 1778. Early in 1780 the American 



ANDREA ANDREA DEL SARTO 



969 



general, Benedict Arnold (q.v.), thinking himself injuriously treated 
by his colleagues, made overtures to the British to betray to 
them the important fortress of West Point on the Hudson river, 
the key of the American position, of which he was commandant. 
This seemed to Sir Henry Clinton a favourable opportunity for 
concluding the war, and Major Andre was appointed to negotiate 
with Arnold. For this purpose he landed from a vessel bearing a 
flag of truce and had an interview with Arnold, who delivered 
to him full particulars and plans of the fortress of West Point, 
and arranged with him to co-operate with the British during an 
attack which was to be made in a few days. Unfortunately for 
Andr6, the British vessel was fired on before the negotiations 
were finished and obliged to drop down the river. Andre, there- 
fore, could not return by the way he came and was compelled 
to pass the night within the American lines. After making the 
fatal mistake of exchanging his uniform for a civilian disguise, he 
set out next day by land for New York, provided by Arnold with 
a passport, and succeeded in passing the regular American outposts 
undetected. Next day, however, just when all danger seemed to 
be over, Andre 1 was stopped by three American militiamen, to 
whom hegave such contradictory answers that, in spite of Arnold's 
pass, they searched him and discovered in his boots the fatal 
proofs of his negotiations for the betrayal of West Point. Not- 
withstanding his offer of a large sum for his release, his captors 
delivered him up to the nearest American officer. Washington, 
although admitting that Andre was " more unfortunate than 
criminal," sent him before a court-martial, by which, notwith- 
standing a spirited defence, he was, in consequence of his own 
admissions, condemned to death as a spy. In spite of the 
protests and entreaties of Sir Henry Clinton and the threats of 
Arnold he was hanged at Tappan on the 2nd of October 1780. 
Arnold, warned by the unfortunate Andre, escaped by flight the 
punishment he so richly merited. The justice of Andre's execu- 
tion has been a fruitful theme for discussion, but both British and 
American military writers are agreed that he undoubtedly acted 
in the character of a spy, although under orders and entirely 
contrary to his own feelings. Washington's apparent harshness 
in refusing the condemned man a soldier's death by shooting 
has also been censured, but it is evident that no other course was 
open to the American commander, since a mitigation of the 
sentence would have implied a doubt as to its justice. Besides 
courage and distinguished, military talents, Major Andre was a 
proficient in drawing and in music, and showed considerable 
poetic talent in his humorous Cow-chase, a kind of parody on 
Chevy-chase, which appeared in three successive parts at New 
York, the last on the very day of his capture. His fate excited 
universal sympathy both in America and Europe, and the whole 
British army went into mourning for him. A mural sculptured 
monument to his memory was erected in Westminster Abbey by 
the British government when his remains were brought over 
and interred there in 1821; and a memorial has been erected 
to him by Americans on the spot where he was taken. Andre's 
military journal, giving an interesting account of the British 
movements in America from June 1777 to the close of 1778, 
was taken to England in 1 782 by General Grey, whose descendant, 
Earl Grey, discovered it in 1902 and disposed of it to an American 
gentleman. 

See The Life and Career of Major John Andre, &fc., by Winthrop 
Sargent (new ed., New York, 1902); Andre's Journal (Boston, 
Mass., The Bibliophile Society, 1904). 

ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348), Italian canonist, was born 
at Mugello, near Florence, about 1275. He studied canon law at 
Bologna, where he distinguished himself in this subject so much 
that he was made professor at Padua, and later at Pisa and 
Bologna, rapidly acquiring a high reputation for his learning 
and his moral character. Curious stories are told of him; for 
instance, that by way of self-mortification he lay every night for 
twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear's skin for a 
covering; that in an audience he had with Pope Boniface VIII. 
his extraordinary shortness of stature led the pope to believe he 
was kneeling, and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense 
merriment of the cardinals; and that he had a daughter, Novella, 

1-31 a 



so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father's lectures 
in his absence, and so beautiful, that she had to read behind a 
curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students. 
He is said to have died at Bologna of the plague in 1348, and an 
epitaph in the church of the Dominicans in which he was buried, 
calling him Rabbi Doctorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque Morum, 
testifies to the public estimation of his character. Andrea wrote 
a Gloss on the Sixth Book of the Decretals, Glosses on the Clemen- 
tines and a Commentary on the Rules of Sexlus. His additions to 
the Speculum of Durando are a mere adaptation from the 
Consilia of Oldradus, as is also the book De Sponsalibus et 
Matrimonio, from J. Anguisciola. 

ANDREA DEL SARTO (1487-1531). This celebrated painter of 
the Florentine school was born in Gualfonda, Florence, in 1487, 
or perhaps 1486, his father Agnolo being a tailor (sarto): hence 
the nickname by which the son is constantly designated. There 
were four other children. The family, though of no distinction, 
can be traced back into the i4th century. Vannucchi has since 
1677 been constantly given as the surname according to some 
modern writers, without any authority. It has recently been 
said that the true name is Andrea d' Agnolo di Francesco di Luca 
di Paolo del Migliore. But this only gives, along with our 
painter's Christian name, the Christian names of his antecessors 
for five generations, and is in no way his own surname. In 1494 
Andrea was put to work under a goldsmith. This occupation 
he disliked. He took to drawing from his master's models, and 
was soon transferred to a skilful woodcarver and inferior painter 
named Gian Barile, with whom he remained until 1498. Barile, 
though a coarse-grained man enough, would not stand in the 
way of the advancement of his promising pupil, so he recom- 
mended him to Piero di Cosimo as draughtsman and colourist. 
Piero retained Andrea for some years, allowing him to study from 
the famous cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. 
Finally Andrea agreed with his friend Franciabigio, who was 
somewhat his senior, that they would open a joint shop; at a 
date not precisely defined they took a lodging together in the 
Piazza del Grano. Their first work in partnership may probably 
have been the " Baptism of Christ," for the Florentine Com- 
pagnia dello Scalzo, a performance 'of no great merit, the begin- 
ning of a series, all the extant items of which are in monochrome 
chiaroscuro. Soon afterwards the partnership was dissolved. 
From 1509 to 1514 the brotherhood of the Servites employed 
Andrea, as well as Franciabigio and Andrea Feltrini, the first- 
named undertaking in the portico of the Annunziata three 
frescoes illustrating the life of the Servile saint Filippo Benizzi 
(d. 1285). He executed them in a few months, being endowed 
by nature with remarkable readiness and certainty of hand 
and unhesitating firmness in his work, although in the general 
mould of his mind he was timid and diffident. The subjects are 
the saint sharing his cloak with a leper, cursing some gamblers, 
and restoring a girl possessed with a devil. The second and third 
works excel the first, and are impulsive and able performances. 
These paintings met with merited applause, and gained for their 
author the pre-eminent title " Andrea senza errori " (Andrew the 
unerring) the correctness of the contours being particularly 
admired. After these subjects the painter proceeded with two 
others the death of S. Filippo and the children cured by touching 
his garment, all the five works being completed before the 
close of 1510. The youth of twenty- three was already in 
technique about the best fresco-painter of central Italy, barely 
rivalled by Raphael, who was the elder by four years. Michel- 
angelo's Sixtine frescoes were then only in a preliminary stage. 
Andrea always worked in the simplest, most typical and most 
trying method of fresco that of painting the thing once and for 
all, without any subsequent dry-touching. He now received 
many commissions. The brotherhood of the Servites engaged 
him to do two more frescoes in the Annunziata at a higher price; 
he also painted, towards 1512, an Annunciation in the monastery 
of S. Gallo. 

The " Tailor's Andrew " appears to have been an easy-going 
plebeian, to whom a modest position in life and scanty gains 
were no grievances. As an artist he must have known his own 



970 



ANDREA DEL SARTO 



value; but he probably rested content in the sense of his super- 
lative powers as an executant, and did not aspire to the rank of 
a great inventor or leader, for which, indeed, he had no vocation. 
He led a social sort of life among his compeers of the art, was 
intimate with the sculptor Rustici, and joined a jolly dining-club 
at his house named the Company of the Kettle, also a second 
club named the Trowel. At one time, Franciabigio being then 
the chairman of the Kettle-men, Andrea recited, and is by some 
regarded as having composed, a comic epic, " The Battle of the 
Frogs and Mice " a rechauffe, as one may surmise, of the Greek 
Batrachomyomachia, popularly ascribed to Homer. He fell in 
love with Lucrezia (del Fede), wife of a hatter named Carlo 
Recanati; the hatter dying opportunely, the tailor's son married 
her on the 26th of December 1512. She was a very handsome 
woman and has come down to us treated with great suavity in 
many a picture of her lover-husband, who constantly painted her 
as a Madonna and otherwise; and even in painting other women 
he made them resemble Lucrezia in general type. She has been 
much less gently handled by Vasari and other biographers. 
Vasari, who was at one time a pupil of Andrea, describes her as 
faithless, jealous, overbearing and vixenish with the apprentices. 
She lived to a great age, surviving her husband forty years. 

By 1514 Andrea had finished his last two frescoes in the court 
of the Servites, than which none of his works was more admired 
the " Nativity of the Virgin," which shows the influence of 
Leonardo, Domenico Ghirlandajo and Fra Bartolommeo, in 
effective fusion, and the " Procession of the Magi," intended as 
an amplification of a work by Baldovinetti; in this fresco is a 
portrait of Andrea himself. He also executed at some date a 
much-praised head of Christ over the high altar. By November 
1515 he had finished at the Scalzo the allegory of Justice, and 
the " Baptist preaching in the desert," followed in 1517 by 
" John baptizing," and other subjects. Before the end of 1516 
a " Pieta " of his composition, and afterwards a Madonna, were 
sent to the French court. These were received with applause; 
and the art-loving monarch Francis I. suggested in 1518 that 
Andrea should come to Paris. He journeyed thither towards 
June of that year, along with his pupil Andrea Sguazzella, leaving 
his wife in Florence, and was very cordially received, and for the 
first and only time in his life was handsomely remunerated. 
Lucrezia, however, wrote urging his return to Italy. The king 
assented, but only on the understanding that his absence from 
France was to be short; and he entrusted Andrea with a sum of 
money to be expended in purchasing works of art for his royal 
patron. The temptation of having a goodly amount of pelf in 
hand proved too much for Andrea's virtue. He spent the king's 
money and some of his own in building a house for himself in 
Florence. This necessarily brought him into bad odour with 
Francis, who refused to be appeased by some endeavours which 
the painter afterwards made to reingratiate himself. No serious 
punishment, however, and apparently no grave loss of pro- 
fessional reputation befell the defaulter. 

In 1520 he resumed work in Florence, and executed the 
" Faith " and " Charity " in the cloister of the Scalzo. These 
were succeeded by the " Dance of the Daughter of Herodias," 
the " Beheading of the Baptist," the " Presentation of his head 
to Herod," an allegory of Hope, the " Apparition of the Angel 
to Zacharias " (1523), and the monochrome of the Visitation. 
This last was painted in the autumn of 1524, after Andrea had 
returned from Luco in Mugello, to which place an outbreak 
of plague in Florence had driven him, his wife, his step-daughter 
and other relatives. In 1525 he painted the very famous fresco 
named the " Madonna del Sacco, " a lunette in the cloisters of 
the Servites; this picture (named after a sack against which 
Joseph is represented propped) is generally accounted his master- 
piece. His final work at the Scalzo was the " Birth of the 
Baptist " (1526), executed with some enhanced elevation of 
style after Andrea had been diligently studying Michelangelo's 
figures in the sacristy of S. Lorenzo. In the following year 
he completed at S. Salvi, near Florence, a celebrated " Last 
Supper," in which all the personages seem to be portraits. This 
also is a very fine example of his style, though the conception 



of the subject is not exalted. It is the last monumental work of 
importance which Andrea del Sarto lived to execute. He dwelt 
in Florence throughout the memorable siege, which was soon 
.followed by an infectious pestilence. He caught the malady, 
struggled against it with little or no tending from his wife, who 
held aloof, and he died, no one knowing much about it at the 
moment, on the 2 2nd of January 1 53 1 , at the comparatively early 
age of forty-three. He was buried unceremoniously in the church 
of the Servites. 

Various portraits painted by Andrea are regarded as likenesses of 
himself, but this is not free from some doubt. One is in London, 
in the National Gallery, an admirable half-figure, purchased in 
1862. Another is at Alnwick Castle, a young man about twenty 
years of age, with his elbow on a table. Another at Panshanger 
may perhaps represent in reality his pupil Domenico Conti. 
Another youthful portrait is in the Uffizi Gallery, and the Pitti 
Gallery contains more than one. Among his more renowned 
works not already specified are the following. The Virgin and 
Child, with St Francis and St John the Evangelist and two 
angels, now in the Uffizi, painted for the church of S. Francesco 
in Florence; this is termed the " Madonna di S. Francesco," 
or " Madonna delle Arpie," from certain figures of harpies which 
are decoratively introduced, and is rated as Andrea's masterpiece 
in oil-painting. The altar-piece in the Uffizi, painted for the 
monastery of S. Gallo, the " Fathers disputing on the doctrine 
of the Trinity " SS. Augustine, Dominic, Francis, Lawrence, 
Sebastian and Mary Magdalene a very energetic work. Both 
these pictures are comparatively early towards 1517. The 
" Charity " now in the Louvre (perhaps the only painting which 
Andrea executed while in France). The " Pieta," in the Belvedere 
of Vienna; this work, as well as the " Charity," shows a strong 
Michelangelesque influence. At Poggio a Caiano a celebrated 
fresco (1521) representing Julius Caesar receiving tribute, various 
figures bringing animals from foreign lands a striking per- 
spective arrangement; it was left unfinished by Andrea and 
was completed by Alessandro Allori. Two very remarkable 
paintings (1523) containing various incidents in the life of the 
patriarch Joseph, executed for the Borgherini family. In the 
Pitti Gallery two separate compositions of the " Assumption of 
the Virgin," also a fine " Pieta." In the Madrid museum the 
" Virgin and Child," with Joseph, Elizabeth, the infant Baptist 
and an Archangel. In the Louvre the " Holy Family," the 
Baptist pointing upwards. In Berlin a portrait of his wife. 
In Panshanger a fine portrait named " Laura." The second 
picture in the National Gallery ascribed to Andrea, a " Holy 
Family," is by some critics regarded as the work rather of one 
of his scholars we hardly know why. A very noticeable incident 
in the life of Andrea del Sarto relates to the copy, which he 
produced in 1523, of the portrait group of Leo X. by Raphael; 
it is noSv in the Naples Museum, the original being in the Pitti 
Gallery. Ottaviano de' Medici, the owner of the original, was 
solicited by Frederick II., duke of Mantua, to present it to him. 
Unwilling to part with so great a pictorial prize and unwilling 
also to disoblige the duke, Ottaviano got Andrea to make the 
copy, which was consigned to the duke as being the original. 
So deceptive was the imitation that even Giulio Romano, who 
had himself manipulated the original to some extent, was com- 
pletely taken in; and, on showing the supposed Raphael years 
afterwards to Vasari, who knew the facts, he could only be un- 
deceived when a private mark on the canvas was named to him 
by Vasari and brought under his eye. It was Michelangelo who 
had introduced Vasari in 1524 to Andrea's studio. He is said 
to have thought very highly of Andrea's powers, saying on one 
occasion to Raphael, " There is a little fellow in Florence who will 
bring sweat to your brow if ever he is engaged in great works." 

Andrea had true pictorial style, a very high standard of correct- 
ness and an enviable balance of executive endowments. The 
point of technique in which he excelled least was perhaps that 
of discriminating the varying textures of different objects and 
surfaces. There is not much elevation or ideality in his works 
much more of reality. His chiaroscuro is not carried out accord- 
ing to strict rule, but is adjusted to his liking for harmony of 



ANDREANI ANDREOSSY 



971 



colour and fused tone and transparence; in fresco more especially 
his predilection for varied tints appears excessive. It may be 
broadly said that his taste in colouring was derived mainly from 
Fra Bartolommeo, and in form from Michelangelo; and his 
style partakes of the Venetian and Lombard, as well as the 
Florentine and Roman some of his figures are even adapted 
from Albert Diirer. In one way or other he continued improving 
to the last. In drawing from nature, his habit was to sketch 
very slightly, making only such a memorandum as sufficed to 
work from. The scholars of Andrea were very numerous; but, 
according to Vasari, they were not wont to stay long, being 
domineered over by his wife; Pontormo and Domenico Puligo 
may be mentioned. 

In this account of Andrea del Sarto we have followed the 
main lines of the narrative of Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supple- 
mented by Vasari, Lanzi and others. 

There are biographies by Biadi (1829), by von Reumont (1831), 
by Baumann (1878), and by Guinness (1899). (W. M. R.) 

ANDREANI, ANDREA, Italian engraver on wood, in chiaro- 
scuro, was born at Mantua about 1540 (Brulliot says 1560) and 
died at Rome in 1623. His engravings are scarce and valuable, 
and are chiefly copies of Mantegna, Diirer and Titian. The 
most remarkable of his works are " Mercury and Ignorance," 
the " Deluge," " Pharaoh's host drowned in the Red Sea " 
(after Titian), the " Triumph of Caesar " (after Mantegna), 
and " Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate." 

ANDREE, KARL (1808-1875), German geographer, was born 
at Brunswick on the zoth of October 1808. He was educated at 
Jena, Gottingen and Berlin. After having been implicated in a 
students' political agitation he became a journalist, and in 1851 
founded the Bremer Handelsblatt. From 1855, however, he 
devoted himself entirely to geography and ethnography, working 
successively at Leipzig and at Dresden. In 1862 he founded the 
important geographical periodical Globus. His works include 
N ordamerika in geographischen und geschichtlichen Umrissen 
(Brunswick, 1854), Geographischf Wanderungen (Dresden, 1859), 
and Geographic des Welthandels (Stuttgart, 1867-1872). He died 
at Wildungen on the zoth of August 1875. 

His son RICHARD, born on the 26th of February 1835, followed 
his father's career, devoting himself especially to ethnography. 
He wrote numerous books on this subject, dealing notably with 
the races of his own country, while an important general work 
was Ethnographische Parallelen und Vorgleiche (Stuttgart, 
1878). He also took up cartography, having a chief share 
in the production of the Physikalisch-statistische Atlas des 
deutschen Reiches (Leipzig, 1877), Allgemeine Handatlas (first 
ed., 1881), and other atlases; and he continued the editorship 
of the Globus. 

ANDREA, SALOMON AUGUST (1854-1897?), Swedish 
engineer, was born at Grenna, on Lake Vetter, on the i8th of 
October 1854. After education at the Stockholm technical 
college, he studied aeronautics, and in 1895 elaborated a plan for 
crossing the north polar region by a balloon which should be in 
some degree dirigible by sails and trailing ropes. After an 
Abortive effort in 1896, the winds being contrary, he started with 
two companions from Danes Island, Spitsbergen, on the nth of 
July 1897. The party was never seen again, nor is the manner 
of its fate known. Of several expeditions sent in search of it, the 
first started in November 1897, on the strength of a report of cries 
of distress heard by shipwrecked sailors at Spitsbergen; in 1898 
and 1899 parties searched the north Asiatic coast and the New 
Siberia Islands; and in May 1899 Dr Nathorst headed an expedi- 
tion to eastern Greenland. None was successful, and only scanty 
information was obtained or inferred from the discovery of a few 
buoys (on the west of Spitsbergen, northern Norway, Iceland, 
&c.) which the balloonists had arranged to drop, and a message 
taken from a carrier pigeon despatched from the balloon two days 
after its ascent. There were also messages in two of the buoys, 
but they dated only from the day of the ascent. The others were 
empty. 

ANDREINI, FRANCESCO, Italian actor, was born at Pistoia 
in the last half of the i6th century. He was a member of the 



company of the Gelosi which Henry IV. summoned to Paris to 
please his bride, the young queen Marie de' Medici. His wife 
ISABELLA ANDREINI (1562-1604) was a member of her husband's 
company, distinguished alike for her acting and her character, 
commemorated in the medal struck at Lyons in the year of her 
death, with her portrait on one side, and the figure of Fame on 
the reverse with the words aeterna fatna. She was also known in 
literature, her books including a pastoral, Mirtilla (Verona, 1 588) , 
a volume of songs, sonnets and other poems (Milan, 1601), and a 
collection of letters, published after her death. She inspired many 
of the French poets, notably Isaac du Ryer (d. c. 1631). Her son 
GIAMBATTISTA ANDREINI (1578-1650) was born in Florence, and 
had a great success as a comedian in Paris under the name of 
Leylio. He was a favourite with Louis XIII., and also with the 
public, especially as the young lover. He left a number of plays 
full of extravagant imagination. The best known are L'Adamo 
(Milan, 1613), The Penitent Magdalene (Mantua, 1617), and 
The Centaur (Paris, 1622). From the first of these three volumes, 
which are extremely rare, Italians have often asserted that Milton, 
travelling at that time in their country, took the idea of Paradise 
Lost. 

ANDRtOSSY, ANTOINE-FRANCOIS, COUNT (1761-1828), 
French soldier and diplomatist, was born at Castelnaudary, in 
Languedoc, on the 6th of March 1761. He was of Italian extrac- 
tion, and his ancestor Francois Andreossy (1633-1688) had been 
concerned with Riquet in the construction of the Languedoc 
Canal in 1669. He had a brilliant career at the school of artillery 
at Metz, obtained his commission in 1781, and became captain 
in 1788. On the outbreak of the Revolution he adopted its 
principles. He saw active service on the Rhine in 1794 and in 
Italy in 1795, and in the campaign of 1796-97 was employed in 
engineer duties with the Army of Italy. He became chef de 
brigade in December 1796 and general of brigade in 1798, in 
which year he accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. He served 
in the Egyptian campaign with distinction, and was selected as 
one of Napoleon's companions on his return to Europe. 
Andreossy took part in the coup d'etat of the i8th of Brumaire, 
and on the 6th of January 1800 was made general of division. Of 
particular importance was his term of office as ambassador to 
England during the short peace which followed the treaties of 
Amiens and Luneville. It had been shown (Coquille, Napoleon 
and England, 1904) that Andreossy repeatedly warned Napoleon 
that the British government desired to maintain peace but must 
be treated with consideration. His advice, however, was dis- 
regarded. When Napoleon became emperor he made Andreossy 
inspector-general of artillery and a count of the empire. In the 
war of 1805 Andreossy was employed on the headquarters staff 
of Napoleon. From 1808 to 1809 he was French ambassador at 
Vienna, where he displayed a hostility to Austria which was in 
marked contrast to his friendliness to England in 1802-1803. I R 
the war of 1809, Andreossy was military governor of Vienna 
during the French occupation. In 1812 he was sent by Napoleon 
as ambassador to Constantinople, where he carried on the policy 
initiated by Sebastiani. In 1814 he was recalled by Louis XVIII. 
Andreossy now retired into private life, till the escape of his former 
master from Elba once again called him forth. In 1826 he was 
elected to the Academie des Sciences, and in the following year was 
deputy for the department of the Aude. His numerous works 
included the following: on artillery (with which arm he was 
most intimately connected throughout his military career),. 
Quelques idees relatives a I'usage de I'arlillerie dans I'attaque et 
. . . la defense des places (Metz) ; Essai sur le tir des projectiles 
creux (Paris, 1826); and on military history, Campagne sur le 
Main et la Rednitz de Varmie gallo-batave (Paris, 1802); Opera- 
tions des pontonniers en Italie . . . 1795-1796 (Paris, 1843). He 
also wrote scientific memoirs on the mouth of the Black Sea 
(1818-1819); on certain Egyptian lakes (during his stay in 
Egypt); and in particular the history of the Languedoc Canal 
(Histoire du canal du Midi, 2nd ed., Paris, 1804), the chief 
credit of which he claimed for his ancestor. Andreossy died at 
Montauban in 1828. 

See Marion, Notice ntcrologique sur le Lt.-General Comte Andreossy. 



ANDRES ANDREW OF LONGJUMEAU 



972 

ANDRES, JUAN (1740-1817), Spanish Jesuit, was born at 
Planes in the province of Valencia, and became professor of 
literature at Gandia and finally royal librarian at Naples. He 
died at Rome on the 1 2th of January 1817. He is the author of 
many miscellaneous treatises on science, music, the art of teach- 
ing the deaf and dumb, &c. But his chief work, the labour of 
fully twenty years, is entitled Dell' origine, progressi, e stato 
attualed' ogni Letter atur a (7 vols., Parma, 1782-1799). A Spanish 
translation by his brother Carlos appeared at Madrid between 
1784 and 1806, and an abridgment in French (1838-1846) was 
compiled by the Jesuit Alexis Nerbonne. The original was 
frequently reprinted during the first half of the igth century. 

See C. Sommervogel, Bibliotheqw de la compagnie de Jesus, 
premiere partie (Brussels and Paris), vol. i. col. 342-350. 

ANDREW (Gr. 'Ai/Sp&is, manly), the Christian Apostle, 
brother of Simon Peter, was born at Bethsaida on the Lake of 
Galilee. He had been a disciple of John the Baptist (John i. 
37-40) and was one of the first to follow Jesus. He lived at 
Capernaum (Mark i. 29). In the gospel story he is referred to as 
being present on some important occasions as one of the disciples 
more closely attached to Jesus (Mark xiii. 3; John vi. 8, xii. 22); 
in Acts there is only a bare mention of him (i. 13). Tradition 
relates that he preached in Asia Minor and in Scythia, along the 
Black Sea as far as the Volga. Hence he became a patron saint 
of Russia. He is said to have suffered crucifixion at Patras 
(Patrae) in Achaea, on a cross of the form called Crux decttssata 
(X) and commonly known as " St Andrew's cross." According 
to tradition his relics were removed from Patras to Constantinople, 
and thence to St Andrews (see below). The apocryphal book, 
The Acts of Andrew, mentioned by Eusebius, Epiphanius and 
others, is generally attributed to Leucius the Gnostic. It was 
edited and published by C. Tischendorf in the Ada Apostolonim 
apocrypha (Leipzig, 1821). This book, as well as a Gospel of 
Si Andrew, was declared apocryphal by a decree of Pope Gelasius. 
Another version of the Andrew legend is found in the Passio 
Andreae, published by Max Bonnet (Supplementum II Codicis 
apocryphi, Paris, 1895). On this was founded an Anglo-Saxon 
poem (" Andreas und Elene," first published by J. Grimm, 1841; 
cf. C. W. Goodwin, The Anglo-Saxon Legends of S. Andreas and 
S. Veronica, 1851). The festival of St Andrew is held on the 
30th of November. 

See APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE; also Lipsius, DieapokryphenApos- 
telgeschichten und Apostellegenden, vol. i. (1883), and Hastings' Dic- 
tionary of the Bible, s.v. 

Scottish Legends. About the middle of the 8th century 
Andrew became the patron saint of Scotland. Concerning this 
there are several legends which state that the relics of Andrew 
were brought under supernatural guidance from Constantinople 
to the place where the modern St Andrews stands (Pictish, 
Muckross; Gaelic, Kilrymont). The oldest stories (preserved 
in the Colbertine MSS., Paris, and the Harleian MSS. in the 
British Museum) state that the relics were brought by one 
Regulus to the Pictish king Angus (or Ungus) Macfergus (c. 731- 
761). The only historical Regulus (Riagail or Rule, whose name 
is preserved by the tower of St Rule) was an Irish monk expelled 
from Ireland with St Columba; his date, however, is c. 573-600. 
There are good reasons for supposing that the relics were origin- 
ally in the collection of Acca, bishop of Hexham, who took them 
into Pictland when he was driven from Hexham (c. 732), and 
founded a see, not, according to tradition, in Galloway, but on 
the site of St Andrews. The connexion with Regulus is, therefore, 
due in all probability to the desire to date the foundation of the 
church at St Andrews as early as possible. 

See A. Lang, St Andrews (London, 1893), PP- 4 ff. ; W. F. Skene, 
Celtic Scotland; also the article ST ANDREWS. 

ANDREW II. (1175-1235), king of Hungary, son of Bela III., 
king of Hungary, succeeded his nephew, the infant Ladislaus III., 
in 1205. No other Magyar king, perhaps, was so mischievous 
to his country. Valiant, enterprising, pious as he was, all these 
fine qualities were ruined by a reckless good nature which never 
thought of the morrow. He declares in one of his decrees that 
the generosity of a king should be limitless, and he acted up to 



this principle throughout his reign. He gave away everything, 
money, villages, domains, whole counties, to the utter impoverish- 
ment of the treasury, thereby rendering the crown, for the first 
time in Hungarian history, dependent upon the great feudatories, 
who, in Hungary as elsewhere, took all they could get and gave 
as little as possible in return. In all matters of government, 
Andrew was equally reckless and haphazard. He is directly 
responsible for the beginnings of the feudal anarchy which well- 
nigh led to the extinction of the monarchy at the end of the I3th 
century. The great feudatories did not even respect the lives 
of the royal family, for Andrew was recalled from a futile attempt 
to reconquer Galicia (which really lay beyond the Hungarian sphere 
of influence), through the murder of his first wife Gertrude of 
Meran (September 24, 1213), by rebellious nobles jealous of the 
influence of her relatives. Ini2i5he married lolanthe of France, 
but in 1217 was compelled by the pope to lead a crusade to the 
Holy Land, which he undertook in hopes of being elected Latin 
emperor of Constantinople. The crusade excited no enthusiasm 
in Hungary, but Andrew contrived to collect 15,000 men together, 
whom he led to Venice; whence, not without much haggling 
and the surrender of all the Hungarian claims upon Zara, about 
two-thirds of them were conveyed to Acre. But the whole 
expedition was a forlorn hope. The Christian kingdom of 
Palestine was by this time reduced to a strip of coast about 
440 sq. m. in extent, and after a drawn battle with the Turks on 
the Jordan (November 10), and fruitless assaults on the fort- 
resses of the Lebanon and on Mount Tabor, Andrew started home 
(January 18, 1218) through Antioch, Iconium, Constantinople 
and Bulgaria. On his return he found the feudal barons in the 
ascendant, and they extorted from him the Golden Bull (see 
HUNGARY, History}. Andrew's last exploit was to defeat an 
invasion of Frederick of Austria in 1234. The same year he 
married his third wife, Beatrice of Este. Besides his three sons, 
Bela, Coloman and Andrew, Andrew had a daughter lolanthe, 
who married the king of Aragon. He was also the father of St 
Elizabeth of Hungary. 

No special monograph for the whole reign exists, but there is a good 
description of Andrew's crusade in Reinhold Roehricht, Geschichte 
des Konigreiches Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898) . The best account of 
Andrew's government is in Laszl6Szalay'sHtoryo///ttngary (Hung.), 
vol. i. (Leipzig and Pest, 1851-1862). (R. N. B.) 

ANDREW OF LONGJUMEAU (Longumeau, Lonjumel, &c.), 
a French Dominican, explorer and diplomatist. He accom- 
panied the mission under Friar Ascelin, sent by Pope Innocent IV. 
to the Mongols in 1247; at the Tatar camp near Kars he met a 
certain David, who next year (1248) appeared at the court of 
King Louis IX. of France in Cyprus. Andrew, who was now 
with St Louis, interpreted to the king David's message, a real 
or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general Ilchikdai 
(Ilchikadai), and a proposal of a joint attack upon the Islamic 
powers for the conquest of Syria. In reply to this the French 
sovereign despatched Andrew as his ambassador to the great 
Khan Kuyuk; with Longjumeau went his brother (a monk) and 
several others John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert 
" le sommelier," Gerbert of Sens, Robert a clerk, a certain 
William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy. The party set out 
about the i6th of February 1249, with letters from King Louis 
and the papal legate, and rich presents, including a chapel-tent, 
lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. 
From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and 
thence travelled for a year to the khan's court, going ten leagues 
a day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern 
and eastern shores of the Caspian (whose inland character, un- 
connected with the outer ocean, their journey helped to demon- 
strate), and probably through Talas, north-east of Tashkent. 
On arrival at the supreme Mongol court either that on the 
Imyl river (near Lake Ala-kul and the present Russo-Chinese 
frontier in the Altai), or more probably at or near Karakorum 
itself, south-west of Lake Baikal Andrew found Kuyuk Khan 
dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu's agents. The 
regent-mother Ogul Gaimish (the " Camus " of Rubruquis) 
seems to have received and dismissed him with presents and a 



ANDREW ANDREWES 



973 



letter for Louis IX., the latter a fine specimen of Mongol insolence. 
But it is certain that before the friar had quitted " Tartary," 
Mangu Khan, Kuyuk's successor, had been elected. Andrew's 
report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1251 at Caesarea in 
Palestine, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; 
the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness, 
and the struggles of their leader, evidently Jenghiz Khan, with 
Prester John; it is still more evident in the position assigned 
to the Tatar homeland, close to the prison of Gog and Magog. 
On the other hand, the envoy's account of Tatar manners is 
fairly accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity 
and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 
800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact. 
Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations 
which other historians record in detail; Christian prisoners, 
from Germany, he found in the heart of " Tartary " (at Talas) ; 
the ceremony of passing between two fires he was compelled to 
observe, as a bringer of gifts to a dead khan, gifts which were of 
course treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This 
insulting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which 
Andrew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, 
says Joinville, " se repenti fort." 

We only know of Andrew through references in other writers: 
see especially William of Rubruquis in Recueil de voyages, iv. (Paris, 
1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. 
Francisque Michel (1858, &c.), pp. 142, &c. ; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, 
in same vol., pp. 254-255 ; William of Nangis in Recueil des historiens 
des Gaules, xx. 359-367; Remusat, Memoires sur les relations 
tiolitiques des princes Chretiens . . . avec les . . . Mongols (1822, 
&c.), p. 52- (C. R. B.) 

ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867), American political 
leader, " war governor " of Massachusetts, was born at Wind- 
ham, Maine, on the 3 ist of May 1818. He graduated at Bowdoin 
College in 1837, studied law in Boston, was admitted to the 
Suffolk bar in 1840, and practised his profession in Boston. He 
also took a deep interest in religious matters, was a prominent 
member of the Church of the Disciples (Unitarian; founded in 
Boston by the Rev. James Freeman Clarke), and was assistant 
editor for some time of The Christian World, a weekly religious 
paper. With ardent anti-slavery principles, he entered political 
life as a " Young Whig " opposed to the Mexican War; he 
became an active Free-Soiler in 1848, and in 1854 took part 
in the organization in Massachusetts of the new Republican party. 
He served one term, in 1858, in the state House of Representa- 
tives, and in 1859 declined an appointment to a seat on the 
bench of the state supreme court. In this year he took such 
an active part in raising funds to defend John Brown, then on 
trial in Virginia, that he aroused the suspicions of a senatorial 
committee investigating Brown's raid, and was summoned to 
Washington to tell what he knew of the affair. In 1860 he 
was chairman of the Massachusetts delegation to the Republican 
national convention at Chicago, which nominated Lincoln for the 
presidency; and from 1861 to January 1866, throughout the 
trying period of the Civil War, he was governor of Massachusetts, 
becoming known as one of the ablest, most patriotic and most 
energetic of the remarkable group of " war governors " in the 
North. Immediately after his inauguration he began filling the 
militia regiments with young men ready for active service, saw 
that they were well drilled and supplied them with good modern 
rifles. As a result, Massachusetts was the only northern state in 
any way prepared for war when the Confederates fired on Fort 
Sumter; and her troops began to muster in Boston on the i6th 
of April, the very day after President Lincoln's call for volunteers. 
On the next day the Sixth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry 
started south for the defence of Washington, and was the first 
fully armed and equipped volunteer regiment to reach the 
capital. Within six days after the call, nearly four thousand 
Massachusetts volunteers had departed for Washington. In 1 863 , 
at Governor Andrew's own request, the secretary of war author- 
ized him to raise several regiments of negro troops, with white 
commissioned officers, and the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts 
Infantry was the first regiment of free negroes raised in the 
North. Governor Andrew's example was quickly followed in 



other states, and before the end of the year 36,000 negroes had 
been enrolled in the Union armies. When the war department 
ruled that the negro troops were en titled topayonlyas "labourers" 
and not as soldiers, Governor Andrew used all his influence with 
the president and the secretary of war to secure for them the same 
pay as white troops, and was finally successful. Notwithstanding 
his loyal support of the administration during the struggle, he 
did not fully approve of its conduct of the war, which he deemed 
shifting and timid; and it was with great reluctance that he sup- 
ported Lincoln in 1864 for a second term. In 1865 he rejected 
the more radical views of his party as to the treatment to be 
accorded to the late Confederate states, opposed the immediate 
and unconditional enfranchisement of freedmen, and, though 
not accepting President Johnson's views in their entirety, he 
urged the people of Massachusetts to give the new president 
their support. On retiring from the governor's office he declined 
the presidency of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio, and 
various positions in the service of the Federal government, 
and resumed the practice of law, at once achieving great success. 
In 1865 he presided at the first national convention of the 
Unitarian Church. He died suddenly of apoplexy, at Boston, 
on the 3Oth of October 1867. 

See Henry G. Pearson's Life of John A. Andrew (2 vols., Boston 
and New York, 1904). 

ANDREWES, LANCELOT (1555-1626), English divine, was 
born in 1555 in London. His family was an ancient Suffolk one; 
his father, Thomas, became master of Trinity House. Lancelot 
was sent to the Cooper's free school, Ratcliff, in the parish of 
Stepney, and then to the Merchant Taylors' school under Richard 
Mulcaster. In 1571 he was entered as a Watts scholar at Pem- 
broke Hall, Cambridge, where in 1574-1575 he graduated B.A., 
proceeding M.A. in 1578. In 1576 he had been elected fellow 
of Pembroke. In 1580 he took orders; in 1581 he was in- 
corporated M.A. at Oxford. As catechist at his college he 
read lectures on the Decalogue, which, both on their delivery 
and on their publication (in 1630), created much interest. He 
also gained much reputation as a casuist. After a residence 
in the north as chaplain to Henry Hastings, earl of Huntingdon, 
President of the North, he was made vicar of St Giles's, Cripple- 
gate, in 1588, and there delivered his striking sermons on the 
temptation in the wilderness and the Lord's prayer. In a 
great sermon on the loth of April (Easter week) 1588, he stoutly 
vindicated the Protestantism of the Church of England against 
the Romanists, and, oddly enough, adduced " Mr Calvin " 
as a new writer, with lavish praise and affection. Andrewes was 
preferred to the prebendal stall of St Pancras in St Paul's, 
London, in 1589, and on the 6th of September of the same year 
became master of his own college of Pembroke, being at the time 
one of the chaplains of Archbishop Whitgift. From 1589 to 
1609 he was also prebendary of Southwell. On the 4th of March 
1590, as one of the chaplains of Queen Elizabeth, he preached 
before her a singularly outspoken sermon, and in October gave 
his introductory lecture at St Paul's, undertaking to comment 
on the first four chapters of Genesis. These seem to have been 
worked up later into a compilation called The Orphan Lectures 
(1657). Andrewes was an incessant worker as well as preacher, 
and often laboured beyond his strength. He delighted to move 
among the people, and yet found time to meet with a society 
of antiquaries, of which Raleigh, Sidney, Burleigh, Arundel, the 
Herberts, Saville, Stow and Camden were members. In 1598 
he declined the two bishoprics of Ely and Salisbury, as the offers 
were coupled with a proposal to alienate part of the revenues 
of those sees. On the 23rd of November 1600 he preached at 
Whitehall a remarkable sermon on justification, which gave rise 
to a memorable controversy. On the 4th of July 1601 he was 
appointed dean of Westminster and gave much attention to the 
school there. He assisted at the coronation of James I. and in 
1604 took part in the Hampton Court conference. His name is 
the first on the list of divines appointed to make the authorized 
version of the Bible. In 1605 he was consecrated bishop of 
Chichester and made lord almoner. In 1609 he published 
Tortura Torli, a learned work which grew out of the Gunpowder 



974 



ANDREWS ANDRIEUX 



Plot controversy and was written in answer to Bellarmine's 
Matthaeus Tortus, which attacked James I.'s book on the oath 
of allegiance. After his translation to Ely (1609), he again 
controverted Bellarmine in the Responsio ad Apologiam, a 
treatise never answered. In 1617 he accompanied James I. to 
Scotland with a view to persuading the Scots that Episcopacy 
was preferable to Presbyterianism. In 1618 he attended the 
synod of Dort, and was soon after made dean of the Chapel 
Royal and translated to Winchester, a diocese which he ad- 
ministered with loving prudence and the highest success. He died 
on the 26th of September 1626, mourned alike by leaders in 
church and state. 

Two generations later, Richard Crashaw caught up the universal 
sentiment, when, in his lines " Upon Bishop Andrewes' Picture 
before his Sermons," he exclaims: 

" This reverend shadow cast that setting sun, 
Whose glorious course through our horizon run, 
Left the dim face of this dull hemisphere, 
All one great eye, all drown'd in one great teare." 
Andrewes was distinguished in many fields. At court, though no 
trifler or flatterer, he was a favourite counsellor in three successive 
reigns, but he never meddled much in civil or temporal affairs. His 
learning made him the equal and the friend of Grotius, and of the 
foremost contemporary scholars. His preaching was a unique 
combination of rhetorical splendour and scholarly richness; his 
piety that of an ancient saint, semi-ascetic and unearthly in its self- 
denial. As a churchman he is typically Anglican, equally removed 
from the Puritan and the Roman positions. He stands in true 
succession to Richard Hooker in working out the principles of the 
English Reformation, though while Hooker argued mainly against 
Puritanism, Andrewes chiefly combated Romanism. A good sum- 
mary of his position is found in his First Answer to Cardinal Perron, 
who had challenged James I.'s use of the title " Catholic." His 
position in regard to the Eucharist is naturally more mature than 
that of the first reformers. " As to the Real Presence we are agreed ; 
our controversy is as to the mode of it. As to the mode we define 
nothing rashly, nor anxiously investigate, any more than in the 
Incarnation of Christ we ask now the human is united to the divine 
nature in One Person. There is a real change in the elements we 
allow ut panis iam consecratus non sit panis quern natura formavit; 
sed, quern benedictio consecravit, et consecrando etiam immutavit " 
(Responsio, p. 263). Adoration is permitted, and the use of the terms 
" sacrifice " and " altar " maintained as being consonant with 
scripture and antiquity. Christ is " a sacrifice so, to be slain; a 
propitiatory sacrifice so, to be eaten " (Sermons, vol. ii. p. 296). 
" By the same rules that the Passover was, by the same may ours 
be termed a sacrifice. In rigour of speech, neither of them; for to 
speak after the exact manner of divinity, there is but one only 
sacrifice, iieri nominis, that is Christ's death. And that sacrifice but 
once actually performed at His death, but ever before represented 
in figure, from the beginning; and ever since repeated in memory 
to the world's end. That only absolute, all else relative to it, repre- 
sentative of it, operative by it. ... Hence it is that what names 
theirs carried, ours do the like, and the Fathers make no scruple at 
it no more need we " (Sermons, vol. ii. p. 300). As to reservation, 
" it needeth not : the intent is had without it," since an invalid may 
always have his private communion. Andrewes declares against 
the invocation of saints, the apparent examples in patristic literature 
are " rhetorical outbursts, not theological definitions." His services 
to his church have been summed up thus: (i) he has a keen sense 
of the proportion of the faith and maintains a clear distinction 
between what is fundamental, needing ecclesiastical commands, 
and subsidiary, needing only ecclesiastical guidance and suggestion ; 
(2) as distinguished from the earlier protesting standpoint, e.g. of the 
Thirty-nine Articles, he emphasized a positive and constructive 
statement of the Anglican position. 

LITERATURE. OF his works the Manual of Private Devotions is 
the best known, for it appeals to Christians of every church. One 
of the many good modern editions is that by Alex. Whyte (1900). 
Andrewes's other works occupy eight volumes in the Library of 
Anglo-Catholic Theology (1841-1854). Of biographies we have 
those by H. Isaacson (1650), A. T. Russell (1863), R. L. Ottley (1894), 
and Dean Church's essay in Masters in English Theology. See also 
W. H. Frcre, Lancelot Andrewes as a Representative of Anglican 
Principles (1898; Church Hist. Soc. Publications, No. 44). 

ANDREWS, JAMES PETTIT (c. 1737-1797), English historian 
and antiquary, was the younger son of Joseph Andrews, of 
Shaw House, Newbury, Berkshire, where he was born. He 
was educated privately, and having taken to the law was one 
of the magistrates at the police court in Queen Square, West- 
minster, from 1792 to his death. He developed a taste for 
literature, and his miscellaneous works include The Savages of 
Europe (London, 1764), a satire on the English which he trans- 
lated from the French, and Anecdotes Ancient and Modern (London, 



1789), an amusing collection of gossip. His chief work was a 
History of Great Britain connected with the Chronology of Europe 
from Caesar's Invasion to Accession of Edward VI., in 2 vols. 
(London, 1794-1795). Its plan is somewhat singular, as a portion 
of the history of England is given on one page, and a general 
sketch of the contemporaneous history of Europe on the opposite 
page. He also wrote a History of Great Britain from Death of 
Henry VIII. to Accession of James VI. of Scotland, a continuation 
of Robert Henry's History of Great Britain, published in 1796 
and again in 1806. Andrews died at Brompton on the 6th of 
August 1 797, and was buried in Hampstead Church. He married 
Anne Penrose, daughter of a rector of Newbury. 

ANDREWS, THOMAS (1813-1885), Irish chemist and physicist, 
was born on the igth of December 1813 at Belfast, where his 
father was a linen merchant. After attending the Belfast 
Academy and also the Academical Institution, he went to 
Glasgow in 1828 to study chemistry under Professor Thomas 
Thomson, and thence migrated to Trinity College, Dublin, where 
he gained distinction in classics as well as in science. Finally, 
he graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh in 1835, and settled down 
to a successful medical practice in his native place, also giving 
instruction in chemistry at the Academical Institution. Ten 
years later he was appointed vice-president of the newly estab- 
lished Queen's College, Belfast, and professor of chemistry, 
and these two offices he held till 1879, when failing health com- 
pelled his retirement. He died on the 26th of November 1885. 
Andrews first became known as a scientific investigator by his 
work on the heat developed in chemical actions, for which the 
Royal Society awarded him a Royal medal in 1844. Another 
important research, undertaken with P. G. Tait, was devoted 
to ozone. But the work on which his reputation mainly rests, 
and which best displayed his skill and resourcefulness in experi- 
ment, was concerned with the liquefaction of gases. He carried out 
a very complete inquiry into the laws expressing the relations 
of pressure, temperature and volume in carbonic dioxide, in 
particular establishing the conceptions of critical temperature 
and critical pressure, and showing that the gas passes from the 
gaseous to the liquid state without any breach of continuity. 

His scientific papers were published in a collected form in 1889, 
with a memoir by Professors Tait and Crum Brown. 

ANDRIA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the 
province of Bari; 35m. W. of the town of Bari by steam tramway, 
and 6 m. S.S.E. of Barletta. Pop. (1901) 49,569. It was 
founded probably about 1046 by Peter, the first Norman count 
of Andria. It was a favourite residence of the emperor Frederick 
II., whose second and third wives, lolanthe and Isabella of 
England, were buried in the cathedral dedicated to St Richard, 
who is believed to have come from England in 492; their tombs, 
however, no longer exist. There are several other fine churches 
of the I3th century. The Castel del Monte, gj m. S. of Andria, 
was constructed by Frederick II., who frequently resided here; 
it is an octagonal building in two storeys with octagonal towers 
at each angle, and was further surrounded by three outer walls. 
Despite its massive and imposing exterior, its details are fine. 

See E. Rocchi in L'Arte, i. (1898) 121. 

ANDRIEU, BERTRAND (1761-1822), French engraver of 
medals, was born at Bordeaux. He is considered as the restorer 
of the art in France, which had declined after the time of 
Louis XIV.; and during the last twenty years of his life he was 
entrusted by the French government with the execution of 
every work of importance. Many of his medals are figured in 
the Medallic History of Napoleon. 

ANDRIEUX, FRANCOIS GUILLAUME JEAN STANISLAS 
(1759-1833), French man of letters, was born at Strassburg on 
the 6th of May 1759. He was educated at Strassburg and pro- 
ceeded to Paris to study law. There he became a close friend 
of Collin d'Harleville. He became secretary to the duke of 
Uzes, and practised at the bar, but his attention was divided 
between his profession and literature. His plays are of the 
1 8th century style, comedies of intrigue, but they rank with 
those of Collin d'Harleville among the best of the period next 
to those of Beaumarchais. Les Etourdis, his best comedy, 



ANDRISCUS ANDRONICUS I. 



975 



was represented in 1788 and won for the author the praise of 
La Harpe. Andrieux hailed the beginning of the Revolution 
with delight and received a place under the new government, 
but at the beginning of the Terror he retreated to Mevoisins, 
the patrimony of his friend Collin d'Harleville. Under the 
Convention he was made civil judge in the Court of Cassation, 
and was one of the original members of the Institute. A moderate 
statesman, he was elected secretary and finally president of the 
Tribunal, but with other of his colleagues he was expelled for his 
irreconcilable attitude towards the establishment of the civil 
code. On his retirement he again turned to write for the stage, 
producing Le Tr&sor and Holier e avec ses amis in 1804. He 
became librarian to Joseph Bonaparte and to the Senate, was 
professor of grammar and literature at the ficole Polytechnique 
and eventually at the College de France. As a professor he was 
extraordinarily successful, and his lectures, which have un- 
happily not been preserved, attracted mature men as well as 
the ordinary students. He was rigidly classical in his tastes, 
and an ardent opponent of romanticism, which tended in his 
opinion to the subversion of morals. Among his other plays 
are La Comedienne (1816) , one of his best comedies, and a tragedy, 
Lucius Junius Brutus (1830). Andrieux was the author of some 
excellent stories and fables: La Promenade deF melon, Le Bulle 
d'Alexandre VI. and the Meunier de Saint-Souci. In 1829 he 
became perpetual secretary to the Academy, and in fulfilment 
of his functions he worked hard at the completion of the 
Dictionary. He died on the 9th of May 1833 in Paris. 

See also A. H . Taillandier, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages d'A ndrieux 
(1850); Sainte-Beuve, Portraits litteraires, vol. i. 

ANDRISCUS, often called the "pseudo-Philip," a fuller of 
Adramyttium, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, last king of 
Macedonia. He occupied the throne for a year (140-148 B.C.). 
Unable to obtain a following in Macedonia, he applied to Deme- 
trius Soter of Syria, who handed him over to the Romans. He 
contrived, however, to escape; reappeared in Macedonia with a 
large body of Thracians; and, having completely defeated the 
praetor Publius Juventius (149), he assumed the title of king. 
His conquest of Thessaly and alliance with Carthage made the 
situation dangerous. Eventually he was defeated by Q. Caecilius 
Metellus (148), and fled to Thrace, whose prince gave him up to 
Rome. He figured in the triumph of Metellus (146); who received 
the title of "Macedonicus" for his victory. Andriscus's brief reign 
was marked by cruelty and extortion. After this Macedonia was 
formally reduced to a province. 

Velleius Paterculus i. 11; Florus ii. 14; Livy, Epit. 49, 50, 52; 
Diod. Sic. xxxii. 9. 

ANDROCLUS, a Roman slave who lived about the time of 
Tiberius. He is the hero of a story told by Aulus Gellius (v. 14), 
which states that Androclus had taken refuge from the cruelties 
of his master in a cave in Africa, when a lion entered the cave and 
showed him his swollen paw, from which Androclus extracted a 
large thorn. The grateful animal subsequently recognized him 
when he had been captured and thrown to the wild beasts in the 
circus, and, instead of attacking him, began to caress him ( Aelian, 
De Nat. An. vii. 48). 

ANDROMACHE, in Greek legend, the daughter of Eetion, 
prince of Thebe in Mysia, and wife of Hector. Her father and 
seven brothers fell by the hands of Achilles when their town was 
taken by him; her mother, ransomed at a high price, was slain 
by Artemis (Iliad, vi. 414). During the Trojan War her husband 
was slain by Achilles, and after the capture of the city her son 
Astyanax (or Scamandrius) was hurled from the battlements 
(Eurip. Troades, 720). When the captives were allotted, Andro- 
mache fell to Neoptplemus (Pyrrhus), the son of Achilles, whom 
she accompanied to Epirus, and to whom she bore three sons. 
When Neoptolemus was slain at Delphi, he left his wife and 
kingdom to Helenus, the brother of Hector (Virgil, Aen. iii. 294). 
After the death of her third husband, Andromache returned to 
Asia Minor with her youngest son Pergamus, who there founded 
a town named after himself. Andromache is one of the finest 
characters in Homer, distinguished by her affection for her 
husband and child, her misfortunes and the resignation with 



which she endures them. The death of Astyanax, and the 
farewell scene between Andromache and Hector (Iliad, vi. 323), 
were represented in ancient works of art, while Andromache 
herself is the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Racine. 

ANDROMEDA, in Greek legend, the daughter of Cepheus and 
Cassiopeia (Cassiope, Cassiepeia), king and queen of the Ethio- 
pians. Cassiopeia, having boasted herself equal in beauty to the 
Nereids, drew down the vengeance of Poseidon, who sent an 
inundation on the land and a sea-monster which destroyed man 
and beast. The oracle of Ammon having announced that no 
relief would be found until the king exposed his daughter Andro- 
meda to the monster, she was fastened to a rock on the shore. 
Here Perseus, returning from having slain the Gorgon, found her, 
slew the monster, set her free, and married her in spite of Phineus, 
to whom she had before been promised. At the wedding a quarrel 
took place between the rivals, and Phineus was turned to stone 
by the sight of the Gorgon's head (Ovid, Metam. v. i). Andro- 
meda followed her husband to Tiryns in Argos, and became the 
ancestress of the family of the Perseidae. After her death she 
was placed by Athena amongst the constellations in the northern 
sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia. Sophocles and Euripides (and 
in modern times Corneille) made the story the subject of tragedies, 
and its incidents were represented in numerous ancient works of 
art. 

Apollodorus ii. 4; Hyginus, Fab. 64; Ovid, Metam. iv. 662; 
Fedde, De Perseo et Andromeda (1860). 

The Greeks personified the constellation Andromeda as a woman 
with her arms extended and chained. Its Latin names are Persea, 
Mulier catenata (" chained woman "), Virgo devola, &c.; the 
Arabians replaced the woman by a seal; Wilhelm Schickard 
(1592-1635) named the constellation " Abigail "; Julius Schiller 
assigned to it the figure of a sepulchre, naming it the " Holy 
Sepulchre." In 1786 Johann Elert Bode formed a new constella- 
tion, named the " Honours of Frederick," after his patron 
Frederick II., out of certain stars situated in the arm of Ptolemy's 
Andromeda; this innovation found little favour and is now 
discarded. 

Twenty-three stars are catalogued by Ptolemy and Tycho 
Brahe; Hevelius increased this number to forty-seven, while 
Flamsteed gave sixty-six. The most brilliant stars are a 
Andromedae or " Andromeda's head," and ft Andromedae in the 
girdle (Arabic mirach or mizar}, both of the second magnitude; 
y Andromedae in the foot (alamak or alhames), of the third 
magnitude. Scientific interest centres mainly on the following: 
the nebula in Andromeda, one of the finest in the sky (see 
NEBULA); y Andromedae, the finest binary in the heavens, made 
up of a yellow star of magnitude 25, and a blue-green of magnitude 
55, the latter being itself binary; Nova Andromedae, a "new" 
star, discovered in the nebula by C. E. A. Hartwig in 1885, and 
subsequently spectroscopically examined by many observers; 
R Andromedae, a regularly variable star; and the Andromedids, 
a meteoric swarm, associated with Biela's comet, and having their 
radiant in this constellation (see METEOR). 

ANDRON (Gr. avdpwv), that part of a Greek house which was 
reserved for men, as distinguished from the gynaeceum (yvvai- 
Ktiov), the women's quarters. 

ANDRONICUS I. (COMNENUS), emperor of the East, son of 
Isaac, and grandson of Alexius I. Comnenus, was born about 
the beginning of the i2th century. He was endowed by nature 
with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body. He was 
handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and at the same time 
active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician. 
His early years werespent in alternate pleasure andmilitary service. 
In 1 141 he was taken captive by the Turks (Seljuks) and remained 
in their hands for a year. On being ransomed he went to Constan- 
tinople,where was held the court of his cousin, the emperor Manuel, 
with whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, 
the princess Eudoxia. attracted him. She became his mistress, 
while her sister Theodora stood in a similar relation to the 
emperor Manuel. In 1152, accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out 
for an important command in Cilicia. Failing in his principal 
enterprise, an attack upon Mopsuestia, he returned, but was 



976 



ANDRONICUS II. ANDROPHAGI 



again appointed to the command of a province. This second post 
he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared 
again in Constantinople, and narrowly escaped death at the 
hands of the brothers of Eudoxia. About this time (1153) a 
conspiracy against the emperor, in which Andronicus participated, 
was discovered and he was thrown into prison. There he re- 
mained for about twelve years, during which time he made 
repeated but unsuccessful attempts to escape. At last, in 1165, 
he was successful; and, after passing through many dangers, 
reached the court of Yaroslav, grand prince of Russia, at Kiev. 
While under the protection of the grand prince, Andronicus 
brought about an alliance between him and the emperor Manuel, 
and so restored himself to the emperor's favour. With a Russian 
army he joined Manuel in the invasion of Hungary and assisted 
at the siege of Semlin. After a successful campaign they re- 
turned together to Constantinople (1168); but a year after, 
Andronicus refused to take the oath of allegiance to the prince 
of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. 
He was removed from court, but received the province of 
Cilicia. Being still under the displeasure of the emperor, 
Andronicus fled to the court of Raymund, prince of Antioch. 
While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful 
daughter of the prince, Philippa, sister of the empress Maria. 
The anger of the emperor was again roused by this dishonour, and 
Andronicus was compelled to fly. He took refuge with Amalric, 
king of Jerusalem, whose favour he gained, and who invested 
him with the town of Berytus, now Beirut. In Jerusalem he saw 
Theodora, the beautiful widow of the late king Baldwin and 
niece of the emperor Manuel. Although Andronicus was at that 
time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and 
Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To 
avoid the vengeance of the emperor, she fled with him to the 
court of the sultan of Damascus; but not deeming themselves 
safe there, they continued their perilous journey through Persia 
and Turkestan,round the Caspian Sea and across Mount Caucasus, 
until at length they settled among the Turks on the borders of 
Trebizond. Into that province Andronicus, with a body of 
adventurers, made frequent and successful incursions. While 
he was absent upon one of them, his castle was surprised by the 
governor of Trebizond, and Theodora with her two children were 
captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release 
Andronicus made abject submission to the emperor; and, 
appearing in chains before him, implored pardon. This he ob- 
tained, and was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment 
in the little town of Oenoe, on the shores of the Black Sea. In 
1180 the emperor Manuel died, and was succeeded by his son 
Alexius II., who was under the guardianship of the empress 
Maria. Her conduct excited popular indignation; and the 
consequent disorders, amounting almost to civil war, gave an 
opportunity to the ambition of Andronicus. He left his retire- 
ment, secured the support of the army and marched upon 
Constantinople, where his advent was stained by a cruel massacre 
of the Latin inhabitants. Alexius was compelled to acknowledge 
him as colleague in the empire, but was soon put to death. 
Andronicus, now (1183) sole emperor, married Agnes, widow of 
Alexius II., a child eleven years of age. His short reign was 
characterized by strong and wise measures. He resolved to 
suppress many abuses, but, above all things, to check feudalism 
and limit the power of the nobles. The people, who felt the 
severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice, 
and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their 
superiors. The aristocrats, however, were infuriated against 
him, and summoned to their aid William of Sicily. This prince 
landed in Epirus with a strong force, and marched as far as 
Thessalonica, which he took and destroyed; but he was shortly 
afterwards defeated, and compelled to return to Sicily. An- 
dronicus seems then to have resolved to exterminate the 



aristocracy, and his plans were nearly crowned with success. 
But in 1185, during his absence from the capital, his lieutenant 
ordered the arrest and execution of Isaac Angelus, a descendant 
of the first Alexius. Isaac escaped and took refuge in the church 
of St Sophia. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult 
arose which spread rapidly over the whole city. When An- 
dronicus arrived he found that his power was. overthrown, 
and that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor. Isaac delivered 
him over to his enemies, and for three days he was exposed 
to their fury and resentment. At last they hung him up by the 
feet between two pillars. His dying agonies were shortened 
by an Italian soldier, who mercifully plunged a sword into his 
body. He died on the 1 2th of September 1185. 

ANDRONICUS II. (PALAEOLOGUS) (1260-1332), eastern Roman 
emperor, was the elder son of Michael Palaeologus, whom he 
succeeded *n 1282. He allowed the fleet, which his father had 
organized, to fall into decay; and the empire was thus less able 
than ever to resist the exacting demands of the rival powers of 
Venice and Genoa. During his reign the Turks under Osman 
conquered nearly the whole of Bithynia; and to resist them the 
emperor called in the aid of Roger di Flor, who commanded a 
body of Spanish adventurers. The Turks were defeated, but 
Roger was found to be nearly as formidable an enemy to the 
imperial power. He was assassinated by Andronicus's son and 
colleague, the emperor Michael IX., in 1305. His adventurers 
(known as the Catalan Grand Company) declared war upon 
Andronicus, and, after devastating Thrace and Macedonia, 
conquered the duchy of Athens and Thebes. From 13 20 onwards 
the emperor was engaged in war with his grandson Andronicus 
(see below). He abdicated in 1328 and died in 1332. 

ANDRONICUS III. (c. 1296-1341), eastern Roman emperor, 
was the son of Michael, son of Andronicus II. His conduct 
during youth was so violent that, after the death of his father 
Michael in 1320, his grandfather resolved to deprive him of his 
right to the crown. Andronicus rebelled; he had a powerful 
party, and the first period of civil war ended in his being crowned 
and accepted as colleague by his grandfather, 1325. The quarrel 
broke out again and, notwithstanding the help of the Bulgarians, 
the older emperor was compelled to abdicate, 1328. During his 
reign Andronicus III. was engaged in constant war, chiefly with 
the Turks, who greatly extended their conquests. He annexed 
large regions in Thessaly and Epirus, but they were lost before 
his death to the rising power of Servia under Stephen Dusan. 
He did something for the reorganization of the navy, and re- 
covered Lesbos and Chios from the Genoese. He died in 1341. 

ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS, Greek astronomer, flourished 
about 100 B.C. He built a horologium at Athens, the so-called 
" tower of the winds," a considerable portion of which still 
exists. It is octagonal, with figures carved on each side, repre- 
senting the eight principal winds. A brazen Triton on the 
summit, with a rod in his hand, turned round by the wind, pointed 
to the quarter from which it blew. From this model is derived 
the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples. 

ANDRONICUS OF RHODES (c. 70 B.C.), the eleventh scholarch 
of the Peripatetics. His chief work was the arrangement of the 
writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus with materials supplied 
to him by Tyrannion. Besides arranging the works, he seems 
to have written paraphrases and commentaries, none of which 
is extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed 
to him, one on the Emotions, the other a commentary on 
Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocappa in the 
i6th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica). 

ANDROPHAGI (Gr. for " man-eaters "), an ancient nation of 
cannibals north of Scythia (Herodotus iv. i, 106), probably in 
the forests between the upper waters of the Dnieper and Don. 
They were'most likely Finns (Samoyed has the same meaning) 
and perhaps the ancestors of the Mordvinians (?..). 



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